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IV 


DEP ;  5  1993 
FEB    12001 


The  Catholic  Encyclopedia 


VOLUME    THIRTEEN 
Revelation— Simon   Stock 


THE  CATHOLIC 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AN    INTERNATIONAL    WORK    OF    REFERENCE 

ON     THE     CONSTITUTION,     DOCTRINE, 

DISCIPLINE,  AND   HISTORY  OF  THE 

CATHOLIC    CHURCH 


EDITED  BY 

CHARLES   G.  HERBERMANN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

EDWARD   A.  PACE,  Ph.D.,  D.D.         CONDE   B.  PALLEN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

THOMAS  J.  SHAHAN,  D.D.  JOHN    J.  WYNNE,  S.J. 

ASSISTED   BY   NUMEROUS  COLLABORATORS 


FIFTEEN  VOLUMES  AND  INDEX 
VOLUME  XIII 


SPECIAL    EDITION 

UNDER    THE    AUSPICES    OP 

THE  KNIGHTS  OF  COLUMBUS  CATHOLIC  TRUTH  COMMITTEE 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  PRESS,  INC. 


Nihil  Obstat,  February  1,  1912 
REMY  LAFORT,  S.T.D. 


Imprimatur 

+JOHN  CARDINAL  FARLEY 

AKCHBISHOP   OF   NEW    YORK 


Copyright,  1912 
By  Robert  Applkton  Company 

Copyright,  1913 
By  the  encyclopedia  PRESS,  INC. 

The  articles  in  this  work  have  been  wTitten  specially  for  The  CathoU< 
Encyclopedia  and  are  protected  by  copyright.     All  rights,  includ- 
ing the  right  of  translation  and  reproduction,  arc  reserved. 


Contributors  to  the  Thirteenth  Volume 


ALBERS,  P.,  S.J.,  Maastricht,  Holland:  Schaep- 
man,  Herman  J.A.M. 

AlDASY,  ANTAL,  Ph.D.,  Archivist  of  the  Li- 
brary OF  the  National  Museum,  Budapest: 
Rosenau,  Diocese  of;  Roskovd,nyi,  August. 

ALLARIA,  ANTHONY,  C.R.L.,  S.T.D.,  Abbot  of 
S.  Theodoro,  Lector  of  Philosophy  and  The- 
ology, Genoa:  Saint  Andrews,  Priory  of;  Sainte- 
Genevieve,  Abbey  of;  Saint- Victor,  Abbey  of. 

ALSTON,  G.  CYPRIAN,  O.S.B.,  London:  Rood; 
Saint  Augustine,  Abbey  of ;  Saint-Denis,  Abbey  of; 
Sanctuary;  Schola  Cantorum;  Sedilia;  Sherborne 
Abbey. 

ALVAREZ,  JOSE  MARIA,  O.P.,  Prefect  Apos- 
tolic of  Shikoku,  Japan:  Shikoku. 

ALVES  MARTINS,  JOSE,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  the 
Cape  Verde  Islands:  Sao  Thiago  de  Cabo 
Verde,  Diocese  of. 

AMADO,  RAM6n  RUIZ,  S.J.,  LL.D.,  Ph.L.,  Col- 
lege OF  St.  Ignatius,  Sarria,  Barcelona  :  Sala- 
manca, Diocese  and  University  of;  Santander, 
Diocese  of;  Saragossa,  Diocese  of;  Segorbe,  Dio- 
cese of;  Segovia,  Diocese  of;  Seville,  Archdio- 
cese of;  Sigiienza,  Diocese  of. 

AYME,  EDWARD  L.,  M.D.,  New  York:  Rose  of 

Lima,  Saint. 

BACCHUS,  FRANCIS  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  The  Ora- 
tory, Birmingham,  England:  Rhodo;  Rufinus 
Tyrannius;  Ryder,  Henry  Ignatius  Dudley. 

BARNES,  MGR.  ARTHUR  STAPYLTON,  M.A. 
(OxoN.  and  Cantab.),  Cambridge,  England: 
Saint  Peter,  Tomb  of;  Sexburga,  Saint. 

BAUMGARTEN,  MGR.  PAUL  MARIA,  J.U.D., 
S.T.D.,  Rome:  Saint  Peter,  Basihca  of. 

BAUR,  CHRYSOSTOM,  O.S.B.,  Ph.D.  (Louvain), 
Collegio  di  San  Anselmo,  Rome:  Severian. 

BECHTEL,  FLORENTINE,  S.J.,  Professor  op 
Hebrew  and  Sacied  Scripture,  St.  Louis 
University,  St.  Louis,  Missouri:  Sabbath; 
Sabbatical  Year. 

BEISSEL,  JAMES  *"  C.SS.CC,  Honolulu,  Ha- 
waiian IsL/-  Sandwich  Islands,  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  tiiu. 

BENIGNI,  MGR.  UMBERTO,  Prothonotary 
Apostolic  Partecipante,  Professor  of  Ec- 
clesiastical History,  Pontificia  Accademia 
DEI  NoBiLi  Ecclesiastici,  Rome:  Rienzi,  Cola 
di;  Rieti,  Diocese  of;  Rimini,  Council  and  Dio- 
cese of;  Ripatransone,  Diocese  of;  Roman  Col- 
leges; Rome;  Rome,  University  of;  Rossano, 
Archdiocese  of;  Rossi,  Pellegrino;  Rota,  Sacra 
Romana;  Ruvo  and  Bitonto,  Diocese  of;  Sabina, 
Diocese  of;  Saint  Paul-without-the- walls;  Sa- 
lerno, Diocese  and  University  of;  Saluzzo,  Dio- 
cese of;  San  Marco  and  Bisignano,  Diocese  of; 
San  Marino;  San  Martino  al  Cimino;  San  Mi- 
niato;  Sardinia;  San  Severino;  Sanseverino,  Gae- 
tano ;  San  Severe,  Diocese  of ;  Santa  Agata  dei  Goti, 
Diocese  of;  Santa  Lucia  del  Mela,  Prefecture 


NuUius  of;  Sant'  Angelo  de'  Lombardi,  Diocese 
of;  Sant'  Angelo  in  Vado  and  Urbania,  Diocese 
of;  Santa  Severina,  Archdiocese  of;  Sardinia; 
Sarsina,  Diocese  of;  Sassari,  Archdiocese  of; 
Savona  and  Noli,  Diocese  of;  Segni,  Diocese  of; 
Sessa-Aurunca,  Diocese  of;  Sicily;  Siena,  Arch- 
diocese and  University  of. 

BERGH,  FREDERICK  THOMAS,  O.S.B.,  Abbot 

OF  St.  Augustine's,  Carshalton,  Surrey, 
England:  Sarum  Rite. 

BERTRIN,  GEORGES,  Litt.D.,  Fellow  of  the 
University,  Professor  of  French  Litera- 
ture, Institut  Catholique,  Paris:  RoUin, 
Charles;  Sevigne,  Marie  de  Rabutin-Chantal, 
Madame  de. 

BLAKELY,  PAUL  LENDRUN,  S.J.,  St.  Louis 
University,  St.  Louis,  Missouri:  Saint  Louis, 
University  of. 

BLUME,  CLEMENS,  S.J.,  Munich:  Rhythmical 
Office. 

BOUDINHON,  AUGUST-MARIE,  S.T.D.,  D.C.L., 
Director,  "Canoniste  Contemporain",  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law,  Institut  Catholique, 
Paris:  Sanction;  Secular  Clergy;  Secularization. 

BOYLE,  PATRICK,  CM.,  Superior  of  the  Irish 
College,  Paris:  Schools,  Apostolic. 

BRAUN,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  St.  Ignatius  College, 
V/lkenburg,  Holland:  Rochet;  Sandals,  Epis- 
copal. 

BRENNAN,  ANDREW  J.,  S.T.D.,  Chancellor  op 
THE  Diocese  of  Scranton,  Pennsylvania: 
Scranton,  Diocese  of. 

BROCK,  HENRY  M.,  S.J.,  Ore  Place,  Hastings, 
England:  Riccioli,  Giovanni  Battista;  Ruysch, 
John;  Scheiner,  Christopher;  Schott,  Caspar; 
Schwarz,  Berthold. 

BROWN,  CHARLES  FRANCIS  WEMYSS,  Loch- 
ton  Castle,  Perthshire,  Scotland:  Samar  and 
Leyte. 

BRUCKER,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Editor  of  "Etudes", 
Paris:  Ricci,  Matteo;  Schall  von  Bell,  Johann 
Adam. 

BUCHI,  albert,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  History, 
University  of  Fribourg:  Schinner,  Matthajus. 

BURNS,  JAMES  A.,  C.S.C,  Ph.D.,  President  op 
Holy  Cross  College,  Washington:  Schools: 
In  the  United  States. 

BURTON,  EDWIN,  S.T.D.,  F.  R.  Hist.  Soc,  Vice- 
President  of  St.  Edmund's  College,  Ware, 
Engl.\nd:  Revolution,  English,  of  16S8;  Rey- 
nolds, William;  Ricardus  Anglicus;  Richard  of 
Cirencester;  Richard  of  Cornwall;  Richard  of 
Middletown;  Ripon,  George  Frederick  Samuel 
Robinson,  Marquess  of;  Rishnager,  William; 
Rishton,  Edward;  Rivington,  Luke;  Robert  of 
Jumieges;  Robertson,  James  Burton;  Rochester, 
Ancient  See  of;  Rock,  Daniel;  Roger,  Bishop  of 
Worcester;  Rokewode,  John  Gage;  Rolle  Rich- 
ard; Rolph,  Thomas;  Russell,  Charles  William: 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  THIRTEENTH  VOLUME 


Russell,  Richard;  Sadler,  Thomas  Vincent 
Faustus;  Saint  Asaph,  Ancient  See  of ;  Saint-John, 
Ambrose;  Sala,  George  Augustus  Henry;  Salis- 
bury, Ancient  See  of;  Sampson,  Richard;  Sande- 
manians;  Seekers;  Sergeant,  John;  Sheldon,  Ed- 
ward; Sherwood,  William;  Shirwood,  William; 
Simeon  of  Durham. 

BYRNE,  JOSEPH,  C.S.SP.,  Darien.  Connecticut: 
Sierra  Leone,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

CABROL,  FERNAND,  O.S.B.,  Abbot  of  St.  Mi- 
ch.4.el's,  F.utNBORorGH,  England:  Rubrics; 
Sext. 

CAHILL,  JAMES  A.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Schoenberg,  Matthias  von;  Schra- 
dcr,  Clement. 

CALLAN,  CHARLES  J.,  O.P.,  S.T.  L.,  Professor 
OF  Philiosophy,  Domi.vican  House  of  Studies, 
Washington:  Sacchoni,  Rainerio;  Silvester, 
Francis. 

CAMPBELL,  WILLIAM,  Editor  of  "The  South- 
ern Messenger",  San  Antonio,  Texas:  San 
Antonio,  Diocese  of. 

C.\THREIN,  VICTOR,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Moral 
Philosophy,  St.  Ignatius  College,  Valken- 
burg,  Holland:  Right. 

CHABOT,  JEAN-BAPTISTE,  S.T.D.,  Director 
OF  THE  "Corpus  Scriptorum  Christianorum 
Orientalium",  Paris:  Semitic  Epigraphy. 

CHANDLERY,  PETER  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Manresa 
House,  Roehampton,  London:  Shrines  of  Our 
Lady  and  the  Saints  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

CHAPMAN,  JOHN,  O.S.B.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  Prior  of 
St.  Thomas's  Abbey,  Erdington,  Birmingham, 
England:  Semi-Arians  and  Semi-Arianism. 

CHARLES,  BROTHER,  Principal,  Cathedral 
School,  Natchez,  Mississippi:  Sacred  Heart, 
Brothers  of  the. 

CHOCjUETTE,  MGR.  CHARLES  PHILIPPE 
CANON,  M.A.,  L.Sc.,  President  of  the  Sem- 
inary, St.  Hyacinthe,  Province  of  Quebec, 
Canada:  Saint  Hyacinthe,  Diocese  of. 

CLAYTON,  JOSEPH,  Hampstead,  London:  Sam- 
son. Abbot  of  St.  Edmunds;  Savaric;  Simon  of 
Suabury. 

CLEARY,  GREGORY,  O.F.M.,  J.C.D.,  J.Civ.D. 
S.T.L.,  Sometime  Professor  of  Canon  Law 
AND  Moral  THEOixKiY,  St.  Isidore's  College, 
Rome:  Koch,  Saint;  Rose  of  Viterbo,  Saint; 
Scarampi,  I^ierfrancosco. 

CLUGNET,  JOSEPH-LfiON-TIBURCE,  Lirr.L., 
Paris:  I{x>cama<lour. 

CORMACK,  GE0IU;E,  i.e.,  hector,  St.  Joseph's 
Monahteky,  Clonmel,  Ireland:  HoKmini  and 
RoHminianiHm  (AnU^nio  RoHmini-Scrbati). 

CRIVELLI,  CAMILLUS,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Phi- 

LCiHOPHY    A.ND    HlHTORY,     I.NHTITUTO    CiENtIfICO 

DE  San  Josfe,  Guadalajara,  Mexico:  Saltillo, 
Dioww  of. 

CUTHBEHT,  FATHER,  O.S.F.C^  St.  Anbelm'h 
HouKK,  Oxford:  }i\Uw.  Friar  Minor  Capuchin. 

D'ALTON,  E.  A.,  Canon,  LL.D  M.H.I. A.,  Bai^ 
link^jbe,  Ireland:  Kinuccini,  Giovanni  Battista; 
lioman  Catholic  liclicf  Bill:  In  Ireland;  Saru- 
ficld,  Patrick. 


DE  BROECK,  WILLIAM,  C.SS.CC,  Braine-le- 
Coaite,  Belgium:  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and 
Mary,  Congregation  of  the. 

DEDIEU,  JOSEPH,  Litt.D.,  Institut  Catholique, 
Toulouse:  Rusticus  of  Narboime,  Saint. 

DEGERT,  ANTOINE,  Lirr.D.,  Editor  of  "La 
Revue  de  la  Gascoigne",  Profe.ssor  of  Latin 
Literature,  Institut  Catholique,  Toulouse: 
Sainctes,  Claude  de;  Saturninus,  Saint;  S6gur, 
Louis-Gaston  de. 

DELAI\L\RRE,  LOUIS  N.,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in 
French,  Colle(;e  of  the  City  of  New  York: 
Rocliette,  Desirc-Raoul;  Ronsard,  Pierre  de; 
Rousseau,  Jean-Baptiste;  Scarron,  Paul. 

DELANY,  FRANCIS  X.,  S. J.,  Woodstock  Col- 
lege, Maryland:  Scheffmacher.  John  James; 
Schneemann,  Gerard. 

DELANY,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  New  York:  Sacrilege; 
Scruple;  Secret;  Seduction. 

DERACHES,  JULES,  Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico: 
Santa  Fe,  Archdiocese  of. 

DEVITT,  E.  J.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Psychology, 
Georgetown,  Washington:  Sestini,  Benedict. 

DE  WULF,  MAURICE,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  J.U.D., 
Profe.ssor  of  the  University  of  Louvain, 
Member  of  Royal  Belgian  Academy,  Editor 
OF  the  "Revue  Neo-Schola.stique  de  Philoso- 
phie",  Brussels:  Rocelin;  Siger  de  Brabant. 

DONOVAN,  STEPHEN  M.,  O.F.M.,  St.  Bonaven- 
ture's  Seminary,  St.  Bon.wenture,  New 
York  :  Saint  Bonaventure,  CoUege  of. 

DOYLE,  JAMES,  Editor  of  "The  Catholic  Reg- 
ister", San  Thome,  Madras,  India:  Saint 
Thomas  of  Mylapur,  Diocese  of. 

DRISCOLL,  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  New  Rochelle, 
New  York:  Sabaoth;  Sadducces;  Salome;  Sam- 
son; Sara;  Saul;  Scribes:  Simeon;  Simeon,  Holy; 
Simon  of  Cremona. 

DRISCOLL,  JOHN  THOMAS,  M.A.,  S.T.L., 
Fonda,  New  York:  Shamanism. 

DRUM,  WALTER,  S.J.,  Professor  op  Hebrew 
AND  Sacred  Scripture,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Rhymed  Bibles;  Salmeron,  Al- 
phonsus;  Seven-Branch  Candlestick;  Shammai 
the  Elder. 

DUBRAY,  C.A.,  S.M.,  S.T.B.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  Marist  College,  Washington: 
Scalimoli;  Secularism. 

DUBRUEL,  MARC,  S.J.,  Bordeaux,  France: 
Sacred  Ileart  of  Jesus,  Society  of  the. 

DUHEM,  PIERRE,  Professor  of  Theoretical 
Physics,  University  of  Bordeaux:  Saxc,  Jean 
de;  Saxony,  Albert  of. 

DUIIIG,  JAMES,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Rockhampton, 
Australia:  Rockhampton,  Diocese  of . 

ELDER,  SUSAN  B.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana: 
Rou(ju('tte,  Adrian. 

ELLIS,  JOHN  HENRY,  Sacramento,  California: 

Sacramcntf),  Diocesf?  of. 

ENGELHARDT,  ZEPIIYHIN,  O.F.M.,  Santa 
Barbara,  California:  Sdnchez,  Joh6  Bernardo; 
Sefian,  Job6  Francisco  de  Paula;  Serra,  Junipcro. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  THIRTEENTH  VOLUME 


FANNING,  WILLIAM  H.  W.,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Church  History  and  Canon  Law,  St.  Louis 
University,  St.  Louis,  Missouri:  Scrutiny; 
Sexton, 

FERN^CnDEZ,  ISIDOR,  Canon,  Vicar-General 
OF  THE  Diocese  of  San  Juan,  Argentina:  San 
Juan,  Diocese  of. 

FINEGAN,  PHILIP  M.,  S.J.,  College  of  the 
Ateneo,  Manila,  Philippine  Islands:  Rizal, 
Jose  Mercado;  Salazar,  Domingo  de;  Sdnchez, 
Alonso. 

FLAHERTY,  MATTHEW  J.,  M.A.  (Harvard), 
Concord,  Massachusetts:  Sheil,  Richard  La- 
lor. 


FLANAGAN,  JOHN  J.,    Ph.D. 
NOis:  Rockford,  Diocese  of. 


Rockford,    Illi- 


FORD,  JEREMIAH,  D.M.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  the  French  and  Spanish  Lan- 
guages, Harvard  University,  Cambridge, 
Massachu.setts:  Rodrigues  Ferreira,  Alexandre; 
Selgas  y  Carrasco,  Jos6. 

FORGET,  JACQUES,  Professor  of  Dogmatic 
Theology  and  the  Syriac  and  Arabic  Lan- 
guages, University  of  Louvain:  Schism. 

FORTESCUE,  ADRIAN,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Letch- 
worth,  Hertfordshire,  England:  Rites;  Rit- 
ual; Roman  Rite,  The;  Sanctus;  Schism,Eastern; 
Secret. 

FOURNET,  PIERRE  AUGUSTE,  S.S.,  M.A.,  Mon- 
treal: Robert,  Saint;  Saint-Sulpice,  Society  of. 

FOX,  JAMES  J.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Philosophy, 
St.  Thomas's  College,  Washington:  Self- 
Defence. 

FOX,  WILLIAM,  B.Sc,  M.E.,  Associate  Pro- 
fessor OF  Physics,  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York:  Senef elder,  Aloys. 

ERASER,  MGR.  ROBERT,  S.T.D.,  LL.D.,  Pro- 
thonotary  Apostolic,  Scots  College,  Rome: 
Scots  College,  The. 

FRAN^ON,  A.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana:  Sieni, 
Cyril. 

FUENTES,  VENTURA,  B.A.,  M.D.,  Instructor, 
Colle(;e  of  the  City  of  New  York:  Kojays 
Zorrilla,  Francisco  de;  Ruiz  do  Alarc6n  y  Men- 
dozix,  Juan  do;  Saavedra  Remirez  de  Baque- 
dano.  Angel  de;  San  Salvador. 

GANCEVIC,  ANTHONY  LAWRENCE,  O.F.M., 
Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Franciscan  College,  Sinj, 
Dalmatia,  Austria:  Sappa,  Diocese  of;  Scopia, 
Archdiocese  of;    Scutari,  Archdiocese  of. 

GERARD,  JOHN,  S.J.,  F.L.S.,  London:  Roman 
Catholic  Relief  Bill:  In  England. 

GIETMANN,  GERHARD,  S.J.,  Teacher  of  Clas- 
sical Languages  .'\nd  Esthetics,  St.  Ignatius 
College,  Valkenburg,  Holland:  Riemen- 
schneider,  Tillman;  Robert  of  Luzarches;  Rococo 
Style;  Rumohr,  Karl  Friedrich;  Ransovino,  An- 
drea Contucoi  del;  Schadow,  Friedrich  Wilhclm; 
Schmidt,  Friedrich  von;  Schraudolph,  Johann; 
Schwan thaler,  Ludwig  von;  Schwind,  Moritz 
von;  Seitz,  Alexander  Maximilian. 


GIGOT,  FRANCIS  E.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Sa- 
cred Scripture,  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Dun- 
wooDiE,  New  York:  Ruben;  Ruth,  Book  of;  Sa, 
Manoel  de;  Scholz,  John  Martin  Augustine;  Sera- 
phim; Seripando,  Girolamo. 

GILDAS,  M.,  O.C.R.,  La  Trappe,  Quebec,  Canada: 
Robert  of  Molesme,  Saint. 

GILLET,  LOUIS,  Paris:  Ribera,  Jusepe  de. 

GOGGIN,  J.  F.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  St.  Bernard's  Sem- 
inary, Rochester,  New  York:  Sacristan. 

GOYAU,  GEORGES,  Associate  Editor,  "Revue 
DES  Deux  Mondes",  Paris: Revolution,  French; 
Richard  de  la  Vergne,  Fran^ois-Marie-Benjamin; 
Richelieu,  Armand-Jean  du  Plessis,  Cardinal, 
Duke  de;  Rodez,  Diocese  of;  Rouen,  Archdiocese 
of;  Royer-CoUard,  Pierre-Paul;  Sahara,  Vicari- 
ate Apostolic  of;  Saint  Bartholomew's  Day; 
Saint-Brieuc,  Diocese  of;  Saint-Claude,  Diocese 
of;  Saint-Denis,  Diocese  of;  Saint-Di<5,  Diocese 
of;  Saint-Flour,  Diocese  of;  Saint-Jean-de-Mau- 
rienne.  Diocese  of;  Saint-Simon,  Louis  de  Rou- 
vToy,  Due  de;  Saint-Simon  and  Saint-Simonism; 
Savary;  Seez,  Diocese  of;  Sens,  Archdiocese  and 
Councils  of. 

GRANJON,  HENRY  R.  M.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  J.C.D., 

Bishop  of  Tucson,  Arizona:  San  Xavier  del 
Bac,  Mission  of. 

GRATTAN-FLOOD,  W.  H.,  M.R.I.A.,  Mus.D., 
RosEMouNT,  Exniscorthy,  Ireland:  Konan, 
Saint;  Ross,  Diocese  of;  Rothe,  David;  Ruadhan, 
Saint;  Schubert,  Franz;  Sechnall,  Saint;  Senan, 
Saint;  Shepherd,  John. 

GRIFFIN,  PATRICK  JOSEPH,  O.S.M.,  Chicago, 
Illinois:  Rites:  Servite;  Servites,  Order  of. 

GRUBER,  HERMANN,  S.J.,  Stella  Matutina 
College,  Feldkirch,  Austria:  Rosicrucians. 

GULDNER,  BENEDICT,  S.J.,  St.  Joseph's  Col- 
lege, Philadelphia:  Schmid,  Christoph  von. 

IIAGEN,  JOHN  G.,  S.J.,  Vatican  Observatory, 
Rome:  Science  and  the  Church. 

HANDLEY,  MARIE  LOUISE,  New  York:  Robbia, 
Andrea  della;  Robbia,  Luca  di  Simone  della; 
Rovczzano,  Benedetto  da;  Settignano,  Desiderio 
da;  Simone  da  Orsenigo. 

HANRAHAN,  JOHN  C,  O.F.M..  Rector,  St.  Isi- 
dore's College,  Rome  :  Saint  Isidore,  College  of. 

HARRIS,  WILLIAM  RICHARD,  S.T.D.,  LL.D., 
Editor  of  "The  Intermountain  Catholic", 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah:  Salt  Lake,  Diocese  of. 

HARTIGAN,  J.  A.,  S.J.,  Litt.D.,  Ore  Place, 
Hastings,  England:  Saba  and  Sabeans. 

HASSETT,  MGR.  MAURICE  M.,  S.T.D.,  Harris- 
burg,  Pennsylvania:  Rings:  II.  The  Ring  of 
the  Fisherman;  Scillium,  Martyrs  of. 

HEALY,  JOHN,  S.T.D.,  LL.D,  M.R.I.A.,  Arch- 
bishop OF  TuAM,  Senator  of  the  Royal  Uni- 
versity of  Ireland:  Ross,  School  of. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  THIRTEENTH  VOLTTME 


HEALY,  PATRICK  J.,  S.T.D.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor OF  Church  History,  Catholic  Univer- 
sity OF  America,  Washington:  Sardica,  Coun- 
cils of;  Seleucians;  Serapion,  Bishop  of  Antioch; 
Sibylline  Oracles;  Sicard,  Bishop  of  Cremona. 

HECKMANX,  FERDINAND,  O.F.M.,  St.  Jo- 
seph's College,  Callicoon,  New  York:  Rites: 
Franciscan;  Seraphim  of  Montegranaro:  Sera- 
phina  Sforza,  Blessed. 

HENNESSY,  BROTHER  PATRICK  JEROME, 
St.  Mary's,  Marino,  Dublin:  Rice,  Edmund 
Ignatius. 

HENRY,  H.T.,  Lrrr.D.,  LL.D.,  Rector  of  Rom.'vn 
Catholic  High  School,  Philadelphia;  Pro- 
fessor of  English  Literature  and  Gregorian 
Chant.  St.  Charles's  Seminary,  Overbrook, 
Pennsylvania:  Rex  Glorioso  MartjTum:  Rex 
Sempiterne  Ca'Utum;  Rorate  Ccrli;  Rosarj-,  Bre- 
viary Hymns  of  the;  Sacra  Jam  Splendent;  Sacris 
Solemniis;  Salve  Mundi  Salutare;  Salve  Regina; 
Salvete  Christi  Vulnera;  Sanctorum  Meritis. 

HERBERT,  JOHN  ALEXANDER,  Assistant  in 
the  Department  of  Manuscripts,  British 
Museum,  London:  RufTord  Abbey. 

HICKEY,  DANIEL,  I.  C,  B.A.  (London),  New- 
port, England:  Rosmini  and  Rosminianism 
(The  Rosminian  Sj'stem). 

HILGERS,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Rome:  Sabbatine  Privi- 
lege; Scapular;  Simon  Stock,  Saint. 

HOEBER,  KARL,  Ph.D.,  Editor,  "Volkszei- 
tung"  and  "Akademische  Monatsblatter", 
Cologne:  Romulus  Augustulus;  Rostock,  Uni- 
versity of;  Septimius  Severus. 

HOWLEY,  MICHAEL  FRANCIS,  Archbishop  of 
St.  John's,  Newfoundland:  Saint  John's,  Arch- 
diocf^se  of. 

HUDLESTON,  GILBERT  ROGER,  O.S.B.,  Down- 
side Abbey,  Bath,  England:  Richard  de 
Wyche,  Saint;  Richard  Fetherston,  Bles.sed; 
Richard  Whiting,  Bles.sed;  Roberts,  John,  Ven- 
erable; Saint  Albans,  Abbey  of;  Saint  Ouen,  Ab- 
bey of;  SanLson,  Saint;  Scriptorium;  Sigebert, 
Saint. 


KAMPERS,  FRANZ,  Ph.D..  Professor  of  Me- 
dieval and  Modern  Church  History,  Uni- 
versity of  Breslau:  Richer;  Rudolph  of  Habs- 
burg;  Sigismund,  King  of  Germany. 

KEILEY,  JARVIS,  M.A  ,  Grantwood,  New  Jer- 
sey:  Rochambeau,    Jean-Baptiste-Donation  de 


Vimeur,    Comte 
Shields,  James. 


de;    Savannah,    Diocese    of; 


KELLY,  BLANCHE  M.,  New  York:  Sacristan,  sub- 
title Altar  Societies;  Sale,  Diocese  of;  Schools, 
Clerks  Regular  of  the  Pious;  Senegambia,  Vicari- 
ate ApostoUc  of;  Simon  of  Cascia,  Blessed. 

KELLY,  JOSEPH,  Oxton,  Birkenhead,  England: 
Shrewsbury,  Diocese  of. 

KENDAL,  JAMES,  S.J.,  Bulawayo,  Rhodesia, 
South  Africa-  Rhodesia"  Silveira,  Gon^alo  da. 
Venerable. 

KENNEDY,  DANIEL  J.,  O.P.,  S.T.M.,  Professor 
of  Sacramental  Theology,  Catholic  Uni- 
versity of  America,  Washington  :  Sacraments. 

KENNY,  MICHAEL,  S.J.,  Associate  Editor  of 
"America",  New  York:  Russell,  Charles. 

KENT,  W.  H.,  O.S.C,  B.^YSWATER,  London:  Sab- 
batarians; Sabbatarianism. 

KIRSCH,  MGR.  JOHANN  P.,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
of  Patrology  and  Christian  Archeology, 
University  of  Fribourg:  Romanus,  Saints; 
Rosate,  Alberico  de;  Rufina,  Saints;  Rufinus, 
Saint;  Rufus,  Saints;  Ruinart,  Thierry;  Savona- 
rola, Girolamo;  Seven  Deacons;  Silverius,  Saint, 
Pope;  Simonians;  Simon  Magus. 

KLEINSCHMIDT,  BEDA,  O.F.M.,  Bonn,  Ger- 
many: Rio,  Alexis  Francois;  Sanctuary;  San 
Gallo;  Sculpture. 

KRIEHN,  GEORGE,  B.A.,  Ph.D.,  New  York:  San 
Sepolcro,  Piero  da;  Sculpture:  In  England. 

LAUCHERT,  FRIEDRICH,  Ph.D.,  Aachen:  Rol- 
fus,  Hermann;  Sambuga,  Joseph  Anton;  Schazler, 
Constantine,  Baron  von;  Scherer-Boccard,  Theo- 
dore, Count  von;  Seckau,  Diocese  of. 


HULL,  ERNEST  R.,  S.J.,  Editor  of  "The  Ex- 
aminee", Bombay,  India:  Sikhism;  Simla,  Arch- 
diocese of. 

HUNTER-BLAIR,  sir  D.O.,  BART.,O.S.B.,M.A., 
Fort  Augustus  Abbey,  Scotland:  Saint 
Andrews  and  Ii>iinburi:h.  Archdiocese  of;  Scot- 
Land;  Scotland,  P>fitablishefi  Church  of;  Scoto- 
Hibemian  Monasteries. 

HUONDER,  ANTHONY,  S.J.,  St  Ignatius  Col- 
lege, Valkenburg,  Holland:  Roth,  Heinrich; 
Ruiz  i\i'  Montoya,  Antonio. 

ISIDORE,  BROTHER,  Provincial  of  the  Xaver- 

lAN  BRr/FHERH,   MoUNT  SaINT  JoREPH  CoLLEGE, 

Baltimore,  Maryland:  Ryken, Theodore  James. 

JONFii,  W.  A.,  O.S.A.,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Porto 
l{ico:  Sant/<  Domingo,  Archdiocese  of. 

JOYCE,  GEORGE  H.AYWARD,  S.J.,  MA.  (Oxon.), 
St.  Beuno'h  College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales;  Reve- 
lation; Sanctity,  Mark  of  the  Church. 


LECLERCQ, 

mentals. 


HENRI,    O.S.B.,    London:    Sacra- 


LEDUC,  HIPPOLYTE,  O.M.I.,  Vicar-General  of 
the  Diocese  of  St.  Albert,  Alberta,  Canada: 
Saint  Albert,  Diocese  of. 

LEHMKUHL,  AUGUSTINUS,  S.J.,  St.  Ignatius 
College,  Valkenburg,  Holland:  Sdnchez, 
Thomas. 

LEJAY,  PAUL,  Fellow  of  the  University  of 
France;  Professor,  In.stitut  Catholique, 
Paris:  Salutati,  Coluccio  di  Pierio  di;  Salvianus; 
Sannazaro,  Jacopo;  Scaliger,  Julius  Caisar;  Sc- 
dulius;  Severus  Sanctus  Endelechius;  Sidonius 
Apollinaris. 

LENNOX,  PATRICK  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  Professor 
OK  THE  English  Language  and  Literature, 
Catholic  University  of  America,  Washing- 
ton: I{i<rh;ird  fie  Bury;  Scotland,  subtitle  Scot- 
tish Literature. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  THIRTEENTH  VOLUME 


LETELLIER,  A.,  S.S.S.,  Superior,  Fathers  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  New  York:  Servants  of 
the  Most  Blessed  Sacrament,  Congregation  of 
the 

LINDSAY,  LIONEL  ST.  GEORGE,  B.Sc,  Ph.D., 
Editor-in-Chief,  "La  Nouvelle  France", 
Quebec:  Rimouski,  Diocese  of;  Sagard,  Theodat- 
Gabriel;  Saint-Pierre  and  Miquelon,  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of;  Saint- Vallier,  Jean-Baptiste  de. 

LINNENKAMP,  MGR.  CHRISTOPHER,  Vicar- 
General  OF  THE  Diocese  of  St.  Joseph  Mis- 
souri: Saint  Joseph,  Diocese  of. 

LINS,  JOSEPH,  Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  Germany: 
Rhajtia,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of;  Roermond,  Dio- 
cese of;  Rottenburg,  Diocese  of;  Rumania;  Saint 
Gall,  Diocese  of;  Saint  Petersburg;  Savoy; 
Schleswig-Holstein;  Servia;  Siberia. 

LOFFLER,  KLEMENS,  Ph.D.,  Librarian,  Uni- 
versity of  monster:  Rimbcrt,  Saint;  Sabina, 
Saint;  Samogitia,  Diocese  of;  Schiiftlan;  Schan- 
nat,  Johann  Friedrich;  Schedel,  Hartmann; 
Schonborn  Family;  Schorlemer-ALst,  Burghard, 
Freiherr  von;  Sebastian,  Saint;  Sergius  and  Bac- 
chus; Sigebert  of  Gembloux;  Silesia;  Silvia,  Saint; 
Simon,  Saint  and  Apostle. 

MAAS,  A.  J.,  S.J.,  Rector,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Salvation;  Scripture. 

MacAULEY,  PATRICK  J.,  Belfast,  Ireland: 
Serena,  La,  Diocese  of. 

MacERLEAN,  ANDREW  A.,  New  York:  Rio- 
bamba.  Diocese  of;  Rio  Negro,  Prefecture  Apos- 
tolic of;  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  Missionary  Sis- 
ters of  the;  Saint  Thomas,  Diocese  of;  Saint 
Thomas  of  Guiana,  Dioce-se  of;  San  Le6n  del 
Amazonas,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of:  San  Salva- 
dor, Diocese  of;  Santa  Fe,  Diocese  of;  Santa 
Maria,  Diocese  of;  Santa  Maria  de  Monscrrato, 
Abbey  Nullius  of;  Santa  Marta,  Diocese  of;  Sao 
Luiz  de  Caceres,  Diocese  of;  Sao  Luiz  do  Mar- 
anhdo,  Diocese  of;  Sao  Salvador  de  Bahia  de 
Todos  OS  Santos,  Archdiocese  of. 

McGEE,  JOSEPH  CHARLES,  Ph.D.,  Albert 
Mines,  Province  of  Quebec,  Canada:  Sher- 
brooke.  Diocese  of. 

McHUGH,  JOHN  AMBROSE,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  Lector 
of  Philosophy,  Dominican  House  of  Studies, 
Washington:  Ricoldo  da  Monte  di  Croce;  Rossi, 
Berbardo  de. 

McNeill,  CHARLES,  Dublin:  Roscommon. 

MACPHERSON,  EWAN,  New  York:  Santiago  del 
Estero,  Diocese  of. 

MAERE,  R.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Christian 
Archaeology,  University  of  Louvain:  Schel- 
strate,  Emmanuel;  Selvaggio,  Giulio  Lorenzo; 
Seroux  d'Agincourt,  Jean-Baptiste. 

MAGNIER,  JOHN,  C.SS.R.,  St.  Mary's,  Clapham, 
London:  Sarnelli,  Januarius  Maria. 

MAORI,  F.  JOSEPH,  M.A.,  S.T.D.,  Richmond, 
Virginia:  Richmond,  Diocese  of. 

MAHER,  MICHAEL,  S.J.,  Litt.D.,  M.A.  (Lond.), 
Director  of  Studies  and  Professor  of  Peda- 
gogics, Stonyhurst  College,  Blackburn, 
England:  Schools:  In  England:  In  Scotland. 


MANN,  HORACE  K.,  Headmaster,  St.  Cuth- 
bert's  Grammar  School,  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne,  England:  Romanus,  Pope;  Sabinianus, 
Pope;  Sergius  I,  Saint,  Pope;  Sergius  II,  III,  IV, 
Popes;  Severinus,  Pope. 

MARIQUE,  PIERRE  JOSEPH,  In.structor  in 
French,  College  of  the  City  of  New  York: 
Segur,  Sophie  Rostopchine,  Comtesse  de. 

ARSH,  ERNEST,  S.C,  New  York:  Salesian  So- 
ciety, The. 

MAYER,  JOHANN  GEORGE  CANON,  D.C.L., 
Regent  and  Professor  of  the  Seminary, 
Chur,  Switzerland:  Saint  Lucius,  Monastery 
of. 

MEEHAN,  ANDREW  B.,  S.T.D.,  J.U.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law  and  Liturgy,  St.  Ber- 
nard's Seminary,  Rochester,  New  York: 
Revocation;  Romanos  Pontifices;  Sacristy; 
Schmalzgrueber,  Francis  Xavier;  Sentence; 
Servus  servorum  Dei. 

MEEHAN,  THOMAS  F.,  Member  of  the  Board  op 
Directors,  Brooklyn  Public  Library,  Brook- 
lyn, New  York:  Rosecrans,  WiUiam  Stark; 
Sadher,  Mary  Anne  Madden;  Sands,  Benjamin 
and  James;  San  Francisco,  Archdiocese  of; 
Scammon,  Ellakim  Parker;  Semmes,  Raphael; 
Sheridan,  Philip  Henry. 

MELANgON,  ARTHUR,  S.J.,  Archivist,  St. 
Mary's  College,  Montreal:  Sault  Sainte 
Marie,  Diocese  of. 

MERK,  august,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Apolo- 
getics, St.  Ignatius  College,  Valkenburg, 
Holland:  Romans,  Epistle  to  the. 

MERSHMAN,  FRANCIS,  O.S.B.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Moral  Theology,  Canon  Law,  and 
Liturgy,  St.  John's  College,  Collegeville, 
Minnesota:  Rita  of  Cascia,  Saint;  Rogation 
Days;  Rosalia,  Saint;  Salt;  Schlor,  Aloysius; 
Septuagesima;  Sexagesima. 

METZ,  WILLIAM  J.,  LL.B.,  Uniontown,  Wash- 
ington: Seattle,  Diocese  of. 

MINGES,  PARTHENIUS,  O.F.M.,  S.T.L.,  Ph.D., 
Prefect,  College  of  St.  Bonaventure| 
Quaracchi,  Florence,  Italy:  Scotism  and 
Scotists. 

MOELLER,  CH.,  Professor  of  General  History, 
University  of  Louvain:  Saint  George,  Orders 
of;  Saint  James  of  Compostela,  Order  of;  Saint 
Sylvester,  Order  of. 

MONTANAR,  VALENTINE  HILARY,  Mission- 
ary APO.STOLIC,  New  York:  Shan-si,  Vicariates 
Apostolic  of  Northern  and  Southern ;  Shan-tung, 
Vicariates  Apostolic  of  Northern,  Eastern,  and 
Southern;  Shen-si,  Vicariates  Apostolic  of  North- 
ern and  Southern. 

MONTES  DE  OCA  Y  OBREGON,  JOSE  MARfA 
IGNACIO,  S.T.D.,  LL.D.,  Bishop  of  San  Luis 
PoTosI,  Administrator  Apostolic  of  Tam- 
AULiPAS,  Domestic  Prelate  to  His  Holiness 
and  Assistant  at  the  Pontifical  Throne, 
Knight  Grand  Cross  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre, Knight  of  Isabella  the  Catholic,  K.C. 
ofCharlks  the  Third,  Memberokthe  Madrid 
Academy  of  Languages  and  History,  San 
Luis  PoTosi,  M  exico  :  San  Luis  Potosi,  Diocese  of. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  THIRTEENTH  VOLUME 


MOONEY,  JAMES,  United  States  Ethnologist, 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Washing- 
ton: Ribas,  Andres  Perez  de;  Romero,  Juan; 
Sahagun,  Bernardino  de;  Sahaptin  Indians; 
Saint-Oisme,  Jean  Francois  Buisson  de;  Saint 
Francis  Mission;  Saliva  Indians;  Salvatierra 
Juan  Maria;  Sainuco  Indians;  Sanetch  Indians; 
Sarayacii  Mission;  Sechelt  Indians;  Sena,  Bal- 
thasar;  Seneca  Indians;  Setebo  Indians;  Shus- 
wap  Indians;  Siletz  Indians. 

MORENO-LACALLE,  JULIAN,  B.A.,  Editor, 
"Pan-American  Union",  Washington:  Ribei- 
rao  Preto.  Diocese  of;  Saint  Mark,  University  of; 
San  Jose  de  Costa  Rica,  Diocese  of;  Santa  Catha- 
rina,  Diocese  of;  Santarem,  Prelature  Nullius 
of;  Sao  Carlos  do  Pinhal,  Diocese  of;  Sao  Paulo, 
Archdiocese  of;  Sao  Sebastiao  do  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Archdiocese  of. 

MORICE,  A.  G.,  B.A.,  O.M.I.,  Lecturer  in  An- 
thropology, University  of  Saskatchewan, 
Winnipeg,  Manitoba,  Canada:  Saint  Boniface, 
Archdiocese  of;  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta;  Se- 
ghers,  Charles  John;  Sekanais. 

MORIS,  JAMES,  C.SS.R.,  Vicar-General  of  the 
Diocese  of  Roseau,  British  West  Indies: 
Roseau,  Diocese  of. 

Mt)LLER,  HERMANN,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology,  University  of  Paderborn: 
Schoningh. 

MULRY,  THOMAS  M.,  K.S.G.,  New  York:  Saint 
Vincent  de  Paul,  Society  of. 

MURPHY,  ANDREW,  Senator  of  the  National 
University  of  Ireland,  Editor,  "Irish  Edu- 
cational Review",  Limerick,  Ireland: 
Schools:  In  Ireland. 

NOLAN,  RICHARD  S.,  B.A.  (Trinity  College, 
Dublin),  London:  Seal  of  Confession. 


OTT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the 
History  of  Philosophy,  St.  John's  College, 
Collegeville,  Minnesota:  Rites:  Benedictine; 
Rouen,  Synods  of;  Sabbas,  Saint;  Saint  Bene- 
dict, Medal  of;  Sarpi,  Paolo;  Schenkl,  Maurus 
von;  Schenute;  Scholliner,  Hermann;  Schotten- 
kloster;  Schram,  Dominic;  Schwane,  Joseph; 
Seven  Robbers;  Sfondrati,  Celestino. 

OTTEN,  JOSEPH,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania: 
Rheinberger,  Joseph  Gabriel;  Rueckers,  Family 
of. 

PACE,  EDWARD  A.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  Catholic  University  of  America, 
Washington:  Robinson,  William  Callyhan;  Sa- 
tolli,  Francesco. 


S.T.D.,    Rome: 


PALMIERI,    AURELIO,    O.S.A., 
Russia;  Sandomir,  Diocese  of. 


PELOQUIN,  ZEPHYRIN,  M.S.C.,  Watertown, 
New  York:  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  Missionaries 
of  the. 

PEREZ,  GOYENA  ANTONIO,  S.J.,  Editor  of 
"Raz6n  y  Fe",  Madrid:  Ripalda,  Juan  Mar- 
tinez de;  Ruiz  de  Montoya,  Diego. 

PERRIER,  PHILIPPE,  S.T.D.,  J.U.D.,  Montreal: 
Schools:  In  Canada. 

*PfiTRIDES,  SOPHRONE,  A.A.,  Professor, 
Greek  Catholic  Seminary  of  Kadi-Keui, 
Constantinople:  Rhaphana?na;  Rhesaena,  Rhi- 
nocolura;  Rhithymna;  Rhizus;  Rhodiopolis;  Rho- 
sus;  Rosea;  Rusaddir;  Rusicade;  Ruspe;  Sabrata; 
Sagalassus;  Salamis;  Sasima;  Satala;  Sauatra; 
Scillium;  Sebaste;  Sebastopolis;  Selge;  Sclinus; 
Selymbria;  Serrae;  Sicca  Veneria;  Si  don;  Sidy  ma; 
Silandus. 

PHILLIMORE,  JOHN  SWINNERTON,  M.A. 
(OxoN.),  Profes.sor  of  Humanities,  Univer- 
sity of  Glasgow:  Romanos,  Saint;  Saint  An- 
drews, University  of. 


OBRECHT,  EDMOND  M.,  O.C.R.,  Abbot  of 
Gethsemani,  Kentucky:  Rievaulx,  Abbey  of; 
Rit«s:  Ci-stercian;  Saints  Vincent  and  Anastasius, 
Abbey  of;  Salem;  Savigny,  Abbey  of;  Senanque; 
Sept-Fons,  Notre  Dame  de  Saint-Lieu;  Silence. 

O'CONNOR,  JOHN  B.,  O.P.,  St.  Louis  Bertrand's 
Conve.n't,  Louisville,  Kentucky:  Riccardi, 
Nicholas. 

O'DEA,  WILLIAM,  Manchester,  England:  Sal- 
ford,  Diocese  of. 

OJETTI,  BENEDF:TT0,  S.J.,  CoNSULTOR,  S.C.P.F., 
Constltok,  S.C.C,  Consultor  of  the  Commis- 
sion ON  the  Codification  of  Canon  Law, 
Gregorian  Umversity,  Rome:  Roman  Congre- 
gations, The;  Roman  Curia. 

OLIGER,  LIVARIUS,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Church 
HrKTORY,  CoLLEGio  S.  Antonio,  Rome:  Richard; 
iScala  Sancta;  Sedia  GeHtaU)ria. 


PLASSMAN,  THOMAS,  O.F.M.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  St. 
Bonaventure's  Seminary,  St.  Bonaventurb, 
New  York:  Sem. 

POHLE,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  J.C.L.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Dogmatic  Theology,  University  of 
Breslau:  Ritschlianism;  Sacrifice;  Secchi,  An- 
gelo;  Semipelagianism. 

POLLARD,  WILLIAM  HENRY,  B.A.  (Univ.  op 
Lond.);  Vice-Rector,  Ratcliffe  College, 
Leicester,  England:  Rosminians. 

POLLEN,  JOHN  HUNGERFORD,  S.J.,  London: 
Sabran,  Louis  de;  Sander,  Nicholas;  Sharpe, 
James. 


POULAIN,   AUGUSTIN, 
Private. 


S.J.,  Paris:  Revelations, 


QUIRK,  JOHN  F.,  S.J.,  Georgetown  University, 
WAKHiNtiTON:  Sarbiewski,  Mathias  Casimir. 


OLT>ION,  HENRY,  Lirr.D.,  Professor,  Faculty 
Libre  dek  Lettkek,  University  of  Lyons: 
Scaramelli,  Giovanni  Battista. 

O'NEILL,  ANDREW  J.,  M.A.,  Silver  Falia  New 
Brunswick,  Canada:  Saint  John,  Diocc«c  of. 


RAINER,  MGR.  JOSEPH,  V.G.,  Prothonotary 
AposTf)Lic,  Rector,  St.  Francis  Provincial 
Seminary,  Professor,  Sacred  Scripture  and 
Hebrew,  St.  Francis,  Wisconsin:  Salzmann, 
Joseph. 

*  Deceaecd. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  THIRTEENTH  VOLUME 


RANDOLPH,  BARTHOLOMEW,  C.IVI.,  M.A., 
Teacher  OF  Philosophy  and  Church  History, 
St.  John's  College,  Brooklyn,  New  York: 
Seton,  Elizabeth  Ann;  Seton,  William. 

REAGAN,  NICHOLAS,  O.F.M.,  Collegio  S.  An- 
tonio, Rome  :  Siloe. 

REMY,  ARTHUR  F.  J.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Adjunct  Pro- 
fessor OF  Germanic  Philology,  Columbia 
University,  New  York:  Rudolf  von  Ems;  Saxo 
Grammaticu.s. 

REVILLE,  JOHN  CLEMENT,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Rhetoric  and  Sacred  Eloquence,  St.  Stanis- 
laus College,  Macon,  Georgia:  Scherer, 
Georg;  Segneri,  Paolo. 

REVILLE,  STEPHEN,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Sand- 
hurst, Australia:  Sandhurst,  Diocese  of. 

RODRfGUEZ  Y  FERNANDEZ,  TEODORO, 
O.S.A.,  S.T.M.,  L.Sc,  Rector,  University  of 
THE  EscoRiAL,  Spain:  Santiago,  University  of; 
Saragossa,  University  of;  Seville,  University  of; 
Sigiienza,  University  of. 

RYAN,  PATRICK,  S.J.,  London:  Rigby,  Nicholas; 
Ritter,  Henry. 

RYAN,  WILFRID,  S.J.,  Milltown  Park,  Dublin: 
Schools:  In  Austraha. 

RYBROOK,  G.,  Ord.  Pr.em.,  Professor  of  Moral 
Theology  and  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Nor- 
bert's   Priory,    West   de   Pere,    Wisconsin: 

Rites:    Premonstratensian. 

RYO,  JEAN  MARIE,  Nguludi  Mission,  Nyassa- 
land,  Africa:  Shire,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

SACHER,  HERMANN,  Ph.D.,  Editor  of  the 
"Konvers.\tionslexikon",  Assistant  Editor 
of  the  "Staatslexikon"  of  the  Gorresge- 
SELLscHAFT,  Freiburg-im-Breisgau,  Germany: 
Saxe-Altenburg;  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha;  Saxe- 
Meiningen;  Saxe- Weimar -P^iscnach;  Saxony; 
Schaumburg-Lippe;  Schwarzburg. 

SALEMBIER,  LOUIS  CANON,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
of  Church  History,  University  of  Lille: 
Schism,  Western. 

SALTET,  LOUIS,  S.T.D.,  Litt.  Lie,  Professor  of 
Church  History,  Institut  Catholique,  Tou- 
louse :  Salamis,  Epiphanius  of. 

SANDS,  WILLIAM  FRANKLIN,  Chevalier  of 
the  Legion  of  Honour;  IOx-Envoy  Extr.\or- 
dinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  of 
the  United  States  to  Guatemala;  Member  of 
the  Am.  Soc.  Int.  L.\w;  Am.  Academy  of  Polit- 
ical and  Social  Science;  Mexican  Soc.  of 
Geography  and  Statistics,  Nev/  York:  Samoa. 

SCANNELL,  THOMAS  B.,  Canon,  S.T.D.,  Wey- 
BRiDGE,  England:  Sadoleto,  Jacopo;  Salamon, 
Louis-Siffrcn-Joseph. 

SCHAEFER,  FRANCIS  J.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Church  History,  St.  Paul  Semi- 
nary, St.  Paul,  Minnesota:  Saint  Paul,  Arch- 
diocese of. 

SCHEID,  N.,  S.J.,  Stella  Matutina  College, 
Feldkirch,  Austria:  Roh,  Peter;  Roothaan, 
Johann  Philipp;  Schlegel,  Friedrich  von;  Seidl, 
Johann  Gabriel. 

SCHLAGER,  HEINRICH  PATRICIUS,  O.F.M., 
St.  Ludwig's  College,  Dalheim,  Germany: 
Rubruck,  William;  Rudolf  of  Fulda;  Sahmbene 
dogli  Adami;  Sander,  Anton;  Schlosser,  John 
Frederick  Henry. 


SCHMID,  ULRICH,  Ph.D.,  Editor,  ''Walhalla", 
Munich:  Rupert,  Saint. 

SCHREINER,  CHRYSOSTOM,  O.S.B.,  Nassau, 
Bahama  Islands:  Shea,  Sir  Ambrose. 

SCHROEDER,  H.  J.,  O.P.,  St.  Dominic's  Priory, 
Benicia,  C.\lifornia:  Richard,  Charles- Louis; 
Rocaberti,  Juan  Tomds  de. 

SCHULEIN,  FRANZ  X.,  Professor  in  the  Gym- 
nasium OF  Freising,  Bavaria,  Germany: 
Samaritan  Language  and  Literature;  Seleucids; 
Semites. 

SCULLY,  VINCENT  JOSEPH,  C.R.L.,  St.  Ives, 
Cornwall,  England:  Ruysbroeck,  John, 
Blessed;  Saint  Victor,  Achard  de. 

SEARS,  MARTIN  G.,  St.  George's,  Newfound- 
land: Saint  George's,  Diocese  of. 

SENFELDER,  LEOPOLD,  M.D.,  Teacher  of  the 
History  of  Medicine,  University  op  Vienna: 
Schwann,  Theodor;  Semmelweis,  Ignaz  PhiUpp. 

SHAHAN,  MGR.  THOMAS  J.,  S.T.D.,  J.U.D., 
Rector  of  the  Catholic  University  op 
America,  Washington:  Severus  Alexander. 

SHARPE,  ALFRED  BOWYER,  M.A.  (Oxon.), 
London:  Richard  of  St.  Victor. 

SHIPMAN,  ANDREW  J.,  M.A.,  LL.M.,  New 
York:  Rites  in  the  United  States:  Rosary,  II.; 
In  the  Greek  Church,  Uniat  and  Schismatic; 
Ruthenian  Rite;  Ruthenians;  Sejny,  Diocese  of. 

SIBBEL,  ARMIN  JOSEPH,  M.D.,  Brooklyn,  New 
York:  Sibbel,  Joseph. 

SILVA  COTAPOS,  CARLOS,  Canon  of  the  Cath- 
edral OF  Santiago,  Chile:  San  Carlos  de  An- 
cud,  Diocese  of;  Santiago  de  Chile,  Archdiocese 
and  University  of. 

SLATER,  T.,  S.J.,  St.  Francis  Xavier's  College, 
Liverpool,  England:  Rodriguez,  Alonso. 

SLOANE,  THOMAS  O'CONOR,  M.A.,  E.M.,  Ph.D., 
New  York:  Sainte-Claire  Deville,  Charles; 
Sainte-Claire  Deville,  Henri-Etienne. 

SMITH,  IGNATIUS,  O.P.,  Dominican  House  of 
Studies,  Washington:  Rites:  Dominican. 

SORTAIS,  GASTON,  S.J.,  Associate  Editor, 
"Etudes",  Paris:  Sarto,  Andrea  del;  Sassofer- 
rato,  Giovanni  Battista  Salvi  da. 

SOUVAY,  CHARLES  L.,  CM.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor, Sacred  Scripture,  Hebrew,  and 
Liturgy,  Kenrick  Seminary,  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri: Sanhedrin;  Sichem. 

SPILLANE,  EDWARD  P.,  S.J.,  Associate  Editor, 
"America",  New  York:  Shea,  John  Dawson 
Gilmary. 

SPITZ,  MATERNUS,  O.S.B.,  St.  Thomas's  Abbey, 
Erdington,  Birmingham,  England:  Siam,  Vi- 
cariate Apostolic  of. 

STEIN,  JOHN,  S.J.,  Doctor  in  Mathematics  and 
Astronomy  (Leiden),  Amsterdam:  Ruffin, 
Paolo;  Santini,  Giovanni  Sante  Gaspero;  Schols, 
Charles  Mathieu;  Schrank,  Franz  de  Paula  von; 
Serpieri,  Alessandro. 

STENMANS,  THEOPHILE,  Gretna,  Louisiana: 
Rolduc. 

STOLZLE,  REMIGIUS,  Ph.D.,  Editor  of  "Stu- 
dien  zur  Ph.  u.  Rel.  ",  Professor  of  the  Uni- 
versity OP  Wurzburg:  Sailer,  Johann  Michael. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  THIRTEENTH  VOLUME 


TANNRATH,  JOHN  J.,  Chancellor  of  the  Arch- 
diocese OF  St.  Louis,  Missouri:  Saint  Louis, 
Archdiocese  of. 

TAYLOR,  HANNIS,  LL.D.,  Late  Minister  Pleni- 
potentiary OF  THE  United  States  to  Spain, 
Professor  of  International  and  Constitu- 
tional Law,  Georgetown  University,  Wash- 
ington:  Ryan,  Abram  J. 

THOMPKINS,  JOHN  J.,  S.J.,  Seminary  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  Vigan,  Philippine 
Islands:  Saint  Thomas,  University  of. 

THURSTON,  HERBERT,  S.J.,  London:  Richard  I, 
King  of  England;  Rings;  Ritualists;  Roger  of 
Hoveden;  Roger  of  Wendover;  Rolls  Series;  Ro- 
man CathoHc;  Rosary,  The;  Rosary,  Confrater- 
nity of  the  Holy;  Rosary,  Feast  of  the  Holy; 
Rotuli;  Royal  Declaration,  The;  Santa  Casa  di 
Loreto;  Seal;  Shakespeare,  The  Religion  of; 
Slu-oud,  The  Holy;  Shrov-etide;  Sign  of  the 
Cross;  Simeon  Stylites,  the  Elder;  Simeon  Sty- 
lites,  the  Younger;  Saints. 

TOKE,  LESLIE  ALEXANDER  ST.  LAWRENCE, 
B.A.,  Stratton-on-the-Fosse,  Bath,  England: 
Romuald,  Saint. 

TOSCANO,  JULIAN,  Vicar-General  of  the  Dio- 
cese OF  Salta,  Argentina:  Salta,  Diocese  of. 

TROBEC,  JAMES,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  St.  Cloud, 
Minnesota:  Saint  Cloud,  Diocese  of. 

TURNER,  MGR.  JAMES  P.,  S.T.D.,  Philadel- 
phia, Pennsylvania:  Ryan,  Patrick  John. 

TURNER,  WILLIAM,  B.A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Logic  and  the  History  of  Philosophy,  Cath- 
olic University  of  America,  W^ashington: 
Robert  of  Cour(,-on;  Robert  of  Melun;  Robert 
Pullus;  Scholasticism;  Schools;  Sedulius  Scotus. 

URQUHART,  FRANCIS  FORTESCUE,  Fellow 
AND  Lecturer  in  Modern  History,  Balliol 
College,  Oxford:  Roper,  Wilham. 

VAILHfi,  SIMfiON,  A.A.,  Member  of  the  Rus- 
sian Arch-eological  Institute  of  Constan- 
tinople, Rome:  Rhodes;  Salmas;  Samaria; 
Samos;  Samosata;  Sardes;  Sardica;  Sarepta; 
Scythopolis;  Sebastia;  Seerth;  Sehna,  Diocese  of; 
Seleucia  Pieria;  Seleucia  Trachaea;  Sergiopolis; 
Sidon,  Melchite  and  Maronite  See. 

VANDER  HEEREN,  ACHILLE,  S.T.L.  (Louvain), 
Professor  of  Moral  Theology  and  Libra- 
rian, Grande  S£;.minaire,  Bruges,  Belgium: 
Scandal;  Septuagint  Version. 

VAN  HOVE,  A.,  D.C.L.,  Professor  of  Church 
History  and  Canon  Law,  University  of  Lou- 
vain: SandcK,  Felino  Maria. 

VAN  ORTROY,  FRANCIS,  S.J.,  Brussels:  Ribadc- 
neira,  Pcniro  de;  Ricci,  lyjrenzo. 

VASCHALDE,  A.A.,  C.S.B.,  Catholic  University 
OF  America,  Washington:  Serajiion  of  Thmuis, 
Saint. 

VIEBAN,  ANTHONY,  S.S.,  S.T.D.,  D.C.L.,  Cath- 
olic University  of  America;  Washington: 
S<!minar>',  EccJcHJaHtical. 

WAINEWniGHT,  JOHN  BANNERMAN,  B.A. 
(Oxon.),  London:  Hichardwjn,  William,  Vener- 
able; I{irl,ard  Thirkeld,  Blesnefj;  l{igby,  John, 
Venerable;   Hisby.   Hicharrl;  Iiobinw>n,  Chrisl/)- 

{»her.  Venerable;  Roe,  BaHhf)lomew,  Venerable; 
logcr   Cadwallador,    Venerable;   Sandy,   John, 


Venerable;  Scott,  WiUiam  Maurus;  Sebastian 
Newdigate,  Blessed;  Sedgwick,  Thomas;  Ser- 
geant, Richard,  Venerable;  Shellej',  Richard; 
Sherson,  Martin. 

W^ALKER,  LESLIE  J.,  S.J.,  M.A.  (Lond.);  St. 
Beuno's  College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales:  Scepti- 
cism. 

WALLAU,  HEINRICH  WILHELM,  Mainz,  Ger- 
many: Schoflfer,  Peter. 

WALTER,  ALOYSIUS,  C.SS.R.,  Rome:  Rossini, 
Gioacchino  Antonio;  Scarlatti,  Alessandro;  Schel- 
ble,  Johann  Nepomuk. 

WARD,  MGR.  BERNARD,  Canon  of  Westmin- 
ster, F.R.  Hist.  Soc,  President  of  St.  Ed- 
mund's College,  Ware,  England:  Saint  Omer, 
College  of. 

WARREN,  CORNELIUS  J.,  C.SS.R.,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Scripture,  Redemptorist  House  of 
Studies,  Esopus,  New  York:  Seelos,  Francis  X. 

WEBER,  N.  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.D.,  Propessorof  Church 
History,  Marist  College,  Washington:  Rey, 
Anthony;  Rho,  Giacomo;  Rhodes,  Alexandre  de; 
Riff  el,  Caspar;  Hitter,  Joseph  Ignatius;  Robert 
of  Geneva;  Rocca,  Angelo;  Rodriguez,  Joao; 
Rohault  de  Fleury;  Rohrbacher,  Rene  Francois; 
Rostock,  Sebastian  von;  Rudolf  of  Riideshcim; 
Sarabaites;  Schvvenckfcldians;  Sect  and  Sects; 
Sibour,  Marie-Dominique-Auguste;  Simon  of 
Cramaud. 

WEBSTER,  D.  RAYMUND,  O.S.B.,  M.A.  (Oxon.), 
Downside  Abbey,  Bath,  England:  Robert  of 
Arbissel;  Robert  of  Newminster,  Saint;  Rose- 
Une,  Saint. 

WELCH,   SIDNEY   READ,   S.T.D.,   Ph.D.,   J.P., 

Editor  of  "The  Catholic  Magazine  for 
South  Africa",  Cape  Town:  Santos,  Joao  dos. 

WEST,  ALBERT  BENJAMIN,  M.A.,  LL.B.,  Prov- 
idence, Rhode  Island:  Rhode  Island. 

WHITFIELD,  JOSEPH  LOUIS,  M.A.  (Cantab.), 
OscoTT  College,  Birmingham,  Encu-and:  Row- 
sham,  Stephen;  Scott,  Montford,  Blessed. 

WILHELM,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Aachen,  Ger- 
many: Roman  Catechism;  Scheeben,  Matthias 
Joseph. 

WILLIAMSON,  GEORGE  CHARLES,  Litt.D., 
London;  Rosa,  Salvatore;  Rosselli,  Cosimo;  Ru- 
bens, Peter  Paul;  Sdnchez,  Alonzo  Coello;  Scan- 
nabecchi,  Filippo;  Schaiifelin,  Hans  Leonhard; 
Schongauer,  Martin;  Signorelli,  Luca. 

WITZEL,  THEOPHILUS,  O.F.M.,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Scripture,  Collegio  S.  Antonio, 
Rome:  Roger  Bacon. 

WOLFSGRUBER,  COELESTINE,  O.S.B.,  Vienna: 
Salzburg,  Archdiocese  of;  Sankt  Polten,  Diocese 
of;  Schwarzenburg,  Freidricli,  Prince  of;  Sebc- 
nico,  Diocese  of;  Serajevo,  Archdiocese  of. 

ZIMMERMAN,  BENEDICT,  O.D.C.,  St.  Luke's 
Priory,  Wincanton,  Somersetshire,  Eng- 
land: Rites:  Carmelite;  Salmanticenses  and 
Compluten.ses. 

ZWIERLEIN,  FREDERICK  J.,  S.T.L.,  Docteur 
fes  Sciences  Mf)RALEs  et  Historiques  (Lou- 
vain), Professor  of  Church  History,  St. 
Bernard's  Seminary,  Rochester,  New  York: 
Rochester,  Diocese  of. 


Tables   of  Abbreviations 


The  follo^ang  tables  and  notes  are  intended  to  guide  readers  of  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  in 
interpreting  those  abbreviations,  signs,  or  technical  phrases  which,  for  economy  of  space,  will  be  most  fre- 
quently used  in  the  work.     For  more  general  information  see  the  article  Abbreviations,  Ecclesiastical. 


I. — General  Abbreviations. 

a article. 

ad  an at  the  year  (Lat.  ad  annum). 

an.,  arm the  year,  the  years  (Lat.  annxis, 

anni). 

ap in  (Lat.  apiid). 

art article. 

Assyr Assyrian. 

A.  S Anglo-Saxon. 

A.  V Authorized  Version  (i.e.  tr.  of  the 

Bible  authorized  for  use  in  the 
Anglican  Church — the  so-called 
"King  James",  or  "Protestant 
Bible"). 

b born. 

Bk Book. 

Bl.  .  . Blessed. 

C,  c about  (Lat.  circa);  canon;  chap- 

ter; compagnie, 

can canon. 

cap chapter  (Lat.  caput — used  only 

in  Latin  context). 

cf. compare  (Lat.  confer), 

cod codex. 

col column. 

concl coHclusion. 

const.,  constit.  .  .  .Lat.  constitutio. 

cura by  the  industry  of. 

d died. 

diet dictionary  (Fr.  dictionnaire). 

disp Lat.  dispuiatio. 

diss Lat.  dissertatio. 

dist Lat.  distinctio. 

D.  V Douay  Version. 

ed.,  edit edited,  edition,  editor. 

Ep.,  Epp letter,  letters  (Lat.  epistola). 

Fr French. 

gen genus. 

Gr Greek. 

H.  E.,  Hist.  Eccl.  .Ecclesiastical  History. 

Heb.,  Hebr Hebrew. 

ib.,  ibid in  the  same  place  (Lat.  ibidem). 

Id the  same  person,  or  author  (Lat. 

idem). 


inf .below  (Lat.  infra). 

It Italian. 

1.  c,  loc.  cit at   the  place  quoted   (Lat.   loco 

citato). 

Lat Latin. 

lat latitude. 

lib book  (Lat.  liber). 

long longitude. 

Mon Lat.  Monumenta. 

MS.,  MSS manuscript,  manuscripts. 

n.,  no number. 

N.  T New  Testament. 

Nat National. 

Old  Fr.,  O.  Fr.  .  .  .Old  French. 

op.  cit in  the  work  quoted  (Lat.  opere 

citato). 

Ord Order. 

O.  T Old  Testament. 

p.,  pp page,  pages,  or  (in  Latin  ref- 
erences) ])ars  (part). 

par paragraph. 

passim in  various  places. 

pt part. 

Q Quarterly     (a    periodical),     e.g. 

"Church  Quarterly". 

Q->  QQ->  qusest.  . .  .question,  questions  (Lat.  qucestio). 

q.  v which  [title]  see  (Lat.  quod  vide). 

Rev Review  (a  periodical). 

R.  S Rolls  Series 

R.  V Revised  Version 

S., SS Lat.    Sanctus,    Sancti,    "Saint", 

"Saints" — used  in  this  Ency- 
clopedia only  in  Latin  context. 

Sept Septuagint. 

Sess Session. 

Skt Sanskrit. 

Sp Spanish 

sq.,  sqq following   page,    or   pages    (Lat. 

sequens). 

St.,  Sts Saint,  Saints. 

sup Above  (Lat.  supra). 

s.  V Under    the    corresponding    title 

(Lat.  sub  voce). 

tom volume  (Lat.  tomus). 


xiii 


TABLES  OF  ABBREVIATIONS. 


tr, translation  or  translated.  By  it- 
self it  means  "English  transla- 
tion", or  "  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by".  Where  a  translation 
is  into  any  other  language,  the 
language  is  stated. 

tr.,  tract tractate. 

V see  (Lat.  vide). 

Ven Venerable. 

Vol Volume. 

II. — Abbreviations  of  Titles. 

Acta  SS Ada  Sanctorum  (Bollandists). 

Ann.  pont.  cath Battandier.AnuuaiVe  pontifical 

catholiquc. 

Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.GilIo\v,  Bibliographical  Diction- 
2iry  of  the  English  Catholics. 

Diet.  Christ.  Antiq..  .Smith  and  Cheetliam  (ed.), 
Dictionary  of  Cliristian  An- 
tiquities. 


Diet.  Clirist.  Biog.  . .  Smith  and  Wace  (ed.),  Diction- 
ary of  Cliristian  Biography. 

Diet,  d'arch.  chr6t..  .Cabrol  (ed.),  Dictionnaire  d'ar- 
cheologie  chretienne  et  de  litur- 
gie. 

Diet,  de  th^ol.  cath. .  Vacant  and  Mangenot  (ed.), 
Dictionnaire  de  thtologie 
catholique. 

Diet.  Nat.  Biog Stephen  and  Lee  (ed.),  Diction- 
ary of  National  Biography. 

Hast.,  Diet,   of  tlie 

Bible Hastings  (ed.),  A  Dictionary  of 

the  Bible. 

Kirchenlex Wetzer  and  Welte,  Kirchenlexi- 

con. 

P.  G Migne  (ed.),  Patrcs  Groeci. 

P.  L Migne  (ed.),  Patres  Latini. 

Vig.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  Vigouroux  (ed.),  Dictionnaire  de 
la  Bible. 


Note  T. — Large  Roman  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  volumes.  Small  Roman  numerals  standing  alone  indicate 
chapters.  Arabic  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  pages.  In  other  cases  the  divisions  are  explicitly  stated.  Thus  "  Rashdall, 
Universities  of  Euroi>e,  I,  ix"  refers  the  reader  to  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  first  volume  of  that  work;  "I,  p.  be"  would  indicate  the 
ninth  page  of  the  preface  of  the  same  volimie. 

Note  II. — Where  St.  Thomas  (Aquinas)  is  cited  without  the  name  of  any  particular  work  the  reference  is  always  to 
"Summa  Theologica"  (not  to  "Summa  Philosophise").  The  divisions  of  the  "Summa  Theol."  are  indicated  by  a  system  which 
may  best  be  understood  by  the  following  example:  "  I-II,  Q.  vi,  a.  7,  ad  2  um  "  refers  the  reader  to  the  seventh  article  of  the 
tizth  question  in  the  first  i)art  of  the  second  part,  in  the  response  to  the  second  objection. 

Note  III. — The  abbreviations  employed  for  the  various  books  of  the  Bible  are  obvious.  Kcclesiasticus  is  indicated  by 
Ecdus.,  to  distinguish  it  from  Ecclesiastes  (Eccles.).  It  should  al.so  be  noted  that  I  and  II  Kings  in  D.  V.  correspond  to  I  and  II 
Samuel  in  A.  V.;  and  I  and  II  Par.  to  I  and  II  Chronicles.  Where,  in  the  spelling  of  a  proper  name,  there  is  a  marked  difference 
between  the  D.  V.  and  the  A.  V.,  the  form  found  in  the  latter  is  added,  in  parentheses. 


Full  Page  Illustrations  in  Volume  XIII 

Frontispiece  in  Colour  p^(.j. 

The  Rapture  of  the  Magdalen,  etc. — Jusepe  de  Ril^era 32 

Equestrian  Statue  of  Richard  I,  Palace  Yard,  Westminster 42 

Triple  Portrait  of  Cardinal  Richelieu — Philippe  de  Champaigne 48 

Ruins  of  the  Nave  and  Transept  of  Rievaulx  Abbey 54 

Rome — Gate  of  S.  Paolo  with  Pyramid  of  Caius  Sestius,  etc 166 

Rome — Basilica  of  St.  Sebastian,  etc 170 

Rome — Piazza  and  Basilica  of  St.  Mary  Major,  etc 176 

Rood  Loft  with  Organ,  in  the  Hofkirche,  Innsbruck 182 

Distant  View  of  the  Cathedral,  Rouen 210 

The  Doctors  of  the  Church,  etc. — Peter  Paul  Rubens 216 

Piazza  and  Fagade  of  St.  Peter's  Carlo  Maderna  and  Bernini 374 

Fagade  of  the  New  Cathedral,  Salamanca 390 

Salisbury  Cathedral,  West  Front 400 

San  Marino — The  Castle,  View  from  the  North,  etc 448 

The  Nativity,  Piero  da  San  Sepolcro 452 

Loreto — Bas-relief  showing  the  translation  of  the  Holy  House,  etc 456 

Back  of  the  Choir,  The  Cathedral,  Saragossa 470 

Girolamo  Savonarola — ^Fra  Bartolommeo 492 

Scotland— Battlefield  of  Killiecrankie,  etc 612 

Sculpture 646 

The  Cathedral,  Seville 744 

Sicily — Corso  Vittorio  Emanuele,  with  the  Neptune,  IMessina,  etc 774 

Siena — Church  of  St.  Francis,  etc 780 

The  Cathedral,  Sigiienza 788 


Maps 

Russia 264 

Scotland 620 


THE 
CATHOLIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


R 


Revelation. — I.  Meaning  of  Revelation. — 
Revelation  may  be  defined  as  the  communication 
of  some  truth  by  God  to  a  rational  creature  through 
means  which  are  beyond  the  ordinary  course  of  nature. 
The  truths  revealefl  may  be  such  as  are  otherwise  in- 
accessible to  the  human  mind — mysteries,  which  even 
when  revealed,  the  intelknit  of  man  is  incapable  of 
fully  penetrating.  But  Revelation  is  not  restricted 
to  these.  God  may  see  fit  to  employ  supernatural 
means  to  affirm  truths,  the  discovery  of  which  is  not 
per  se  beyond  the  powers  of  reason.  The  essence 
of  Revelation  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  direct 
speech  of  God  to  man.  The  mode  of  communication, 
however,  may  be  mediate.  Revelation  does  not 
cease  to  be  such  if  God's  message  is  delivered  to  us 
by  a  prophet,  who  alone  is  the  recipient  of  the  im- 
mediate communication.  Such  in  brief  is  the  account 
of  Revelation  given  in  the  Constitution  "De  Fide 
Catholica"  of  the  Vatican  Council.  The  Decree 
"  Lamentabili "  (3  July,  1907),  by  its  condemnation 
of  a  contrary  proposition,  declares  that  the  dogmas 
which  the  Church  proposes  as  revealed  are  "truths 
which  have  come  down  to  us  from  heaven"  (veri- 
tates  e  coelo  ddaps(v)  and  not  "an  interpretation  of 
religious  facts  which  the  human  mind  has  acquired 
by  its  own  strenuous  efforts"  (prop.,  22).  It  will  be 
seen  that  Revelation  as  thus  explained  differs  clearh' 
from:  (1)  inspiration  such  as  is  bestowed  by  God 
on  the  author  of  a  sacred  book;  for  this,  while  in- 
volving a  special  illumination  of  the  mind  in  virtue 
of  which  the  recipient  conceives  such  thoughts  as 
God  desires  him  to  commit  to  writing,  docs  not 
necessarily  suppose  a  supernatural  communication 
of  these  truths;  (2)  from  the  illustrations  wliich  God 
may  bestow  from  time  to  time  upon  any  of  the  faith- 
ful to  bring  home  to  the  mind  the  import  of  some 
truth  of  religion  hitherto  obscurely  grasped;  and 
(3)  from  the  Divine  assistance  by  which  the  pope 
when  acting  as  the  supreme  teacher  of  the  Church,  is 
preserved  from  all  error  as  to  faith  or  morals.  The 
function  of  this  assistance  is  purely  negative:  it  need 
not  carry  with  it  any  positive  gift  of  light  to  the  mind. 
Much  of  the  confusion  in  wliich  the  discussion  of  Reve- 
lation in  non-Catholic  works  is  involved  arises  from 
the  neglect  to  distinguish  it  from  one  or  other  of 
these. 

During  the  past  century  the  Church  has  been  called 
on  to  reject  as  erroneous  several  views  of  Revelation 
irreconcilable  with  Catholic  belief.  Three  of  these 
may  here  be  noted.  (1)  The  view  of  Anton  Guenther 
(1783-1863).  This  writer  denied  that  Revelation 
could  include  mysteries  strictly  so-called,  inasmuch  as 
the  human  intellect  is  capable  of  penetrating  to  the 
full  all  revealed  truth.  He  taught,  further,  that  the 
meaning  to  be  attached  to  revealed  doctrines  is  under- 
going constant  change  as  human  knowledge  grows  and 
man's  mind  develops;  so  that  the  dogmatic  formulae 
which  are  now  true  will  gradually  cease  to  be  so.  His 
writings  were  put  on  the  Index  in  1857,  and  his 
XIII.— 1 


erroneous  propositions  definitively  condemned  in  the 
decrees  of  the  Vatican  Council.  (2)  the  Modernist 
view  (Loisy,  Tyrrell).  According  to  this  school,  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  Revelation  in  the  sense  of  a  direct 
communication  from  God  to  man.  The  human  soul 
reaching  up  towards  the  unknowable  God  is  ever 
endeavouring  to  interpret  its  sentiments  in  intellec- 
tual fornmla;.  The  formula)  it  thus  frames  are  our 
ecclesiastical  dogmas.  These  can  but  symbofize  the 
Unknowable;  they  can  give  us  no  real  knowledge 
regarding  it.  Such  an  error  is  manifestly  subversive 
of  all  behef,  and  was  explicitly  condemned  by  the 
Decree  "LamentabiU"  and  the  Encyclical  "Pascendi" 
(8  Sept.,  1907).  (3)  With  the  view  just  mentioned  is 
closely  connected  the  Pragmatist  view  of  M.  Lcroy 
("Dogme  et  Critique",  Paris,  2nd  ed.  1907).  Like 
the  Modernists,  he  sees  in  revealed  dogmas  simply  the 
results  of  spiritual  experience,  but  holds  their  value 
to  fie  not  in  the  fact  that  they  symbolize  the  Unknow- 
able, but  that  the}''  have  practical  value  in  pointing 
the  way  by  which  we  may  best  enjoy  experience  of  the 
Divine.  This  view  was  condemned  in  the  same  docu- 
ments as  the  last  mentioned. 

II.  Possibility  of  Revelation. — The  possibility 
of  Revelation  as  above  explained  has  been  strenuously 
denied  from  various  points  of  view  during  the  last 
ccnturj'.  For  this  reason  the  Church  held  it  necessary 
to  issue  special  decrees  on  the  subject  in  the  Vatican 
Council.  Its  antagonists  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes  according  to  the  different  standpoints  from 
which  they  direct  their  attack,  viz:  (1)  Rationalists 
(under  this  class  we  include  both  Deist  and  Agnostic 
WTiters).  Those  who  adopt  this  standpoint  rely  in  the 
main  on  two  fundamental  objections:  they  either 
urge  that  the  miraculous  is  impossible,  and  that  Rev- 
elation involves  miraculous  interposition  on  the  part 
of  the  Deity;  or  they  appeal  to  the  autonomy  of 
reason,  which  it  is  maintained  can  only  accept  as 
truths  the  results  of  its  own  activities.  (2)  Immanent- 
ists.  To  this  class  may  be  assigned  all  those  whose 
objections  are  based  on  Kantian  and  Hegelian  doc- 
trines as  to  the  subjective  character  of  all  our  knowl- 
edge. The  views  of  these  writers  frequently  involve  a 
purely  pantheistic  doctrine.  But  even  those  who 
repudiate  pantheism,  in  place  of  the  personal  God, 
Ruler,  and  Judge  of  the  world,  whom  Christianity 
teaches,  substitute  the  vague  notion  of  the  "Spirit" 
immanent  in  all  men,  and  regard  all  religious  creeds 
as  the  attempts  of  the  human  soul  to  find  expression 
for  its  inward  experience.  Hence  no  religion,  whether 
pagan  or  Christian,  is  wholly  false;  but  none  can 
claim  to  be  a  message  from  God  free  from  any  admix- 
ture of  error.  (Cf.  Sabatier,  "Esquisse",  etc.,  Bk.  I, 
cap.  ii.)  Here  too  the  autonomy  of  reason  is  invoked 
as  fatal  to  the  doctrine  of  Revelation  properly  so 
called.  In  the  face  of  these  objections,  it  is  evident 
that  the  question  of  the  possibility  of  Revelation  is  at 
present  one  of  the  most  vital  portions  of  Christian 
apologetic. 


REVELATION 


REVELATION 


If  the  existence  of  a  personal  God  be  once  estab- 
lished, the  physical  possibiUty  at  least  of  Revelation 
is  undeniable.  God,  who  has  endowed  man  with 
means  to  communicate  his  thoughts  to  his  fellows, 
cannot  be  destitute  of  the  power  to  communicate  His 
own  thoughts  to  us.  [Martineau,  it  is  true,  denies  that 
we  possess  faculties  either  to  receive  or  to  authen- 
ticate a  divine  revelation  concerning  the  past  or  the 
future  (Seat  of  Authority  in  Religion,  p.  311);  but 
such  an  assertion  is  arbitrary  and  extravagant  in  the 
extreme.]  However,  numerous  difficulties  have  been 
urged  on  grounds  other  than  that  of  physical  possibil- 
ity. In  estimating  their  value  it  seems  desirable  to 
distinguish  three  aspects  of  Revelation,  viz:  as  it 
makes  known  to  us  (1)  truths  of  the  natural  law,  (2) 
mysteries  of  the  faith,  (3)  positive  precepts,  e.  g. 
regarding  Di%-ine  worship. 

(1)  The  revelation  of  truths  of  the  natural  law  is 
certainh'  not  inconsistent  with  God's  wisdom.  God 
BO  created  man  as  to  bestow  on  him  endowments 
amply  sufficient  for  him  to  attain  his  last  end.  Had 
it  been  otherwise,  the  creation  would  have  been  im- 
perfect. If  over  and  above  this  He  decreed  to  make 
the  attainment  of  beatitude  yet  easier  for  man  by 
placing  within  his  reach  a  far  simpler  and  far  more 
certain  way  of  knowing  the  law  on  the  observance  of 
which  his  fate  depended,  this  is  an  argument  for  the 
Di\-ine  generosity;  it  does  not  disprove  the  Divine 
wisdom.  To  assume,  with  certain  Rationalists,  that 
exceptional  intervention  can  only  be  explained  on  the 
ground  that  God  was  unable  to  embrace  His  ultimate 
design  in  His  original  scheme  is  a  mere  petilio  prin- 
cipii.  Further,  the  doctrine  of  original  sin  supphes 
an  additional  reason  for  such  a  revelation  of  the 
natural  law.  That  doctrine  teaches  us  that  rnan  by 
the  abuse  of  his  free  will  has  rendered  his  attainment 
of  salvation  difficult.  Though  his  intellectual  facul- 
ties are  not  radically  vitiated,  yet  his  grasp  of  truth 
IB  weakened;  his  recognition  of  the  moral  law  is  con- 
stantly clouded  by  doubts  and  questionings.  Revela- 
tion gives  to  his  mind  the  certainty  he  had  lost,  and 
so  far  repairs  the  evils  consequent  on  the  catastrophe 
which  had  befallen  him. 

(2)  Still  more  difficulty  has  been  felt  regarding 
mysteries.  It  is  freely  as.serted  that  a  myster>'  is 
something  repugnant  to  reason,  and  therefore  some- 
thing intrinsically  impossible.  This  objection  rests 
on  a  mere  misunderstanding  of  what  is  signified  by  a 
mystery.  In  theological  terminology  a  conception 
involves  a  mysterj'  when  it  is  such  that  the  natural 
faculties  of  the  mind  are  unable  to  see  how  its  elements 
can  coalesce.  This  does  not  imply  anything  contrary 
to  reason.  A  conception  is  only  contrary  to  reason 
when  the  mind  can  recognize  that  its  elements  are 
mutually  exclusive,  and  therefore  involve  a  contradic- 
tion in  terms.  A  more  subtle  objection  is  that  urged 
by  Dr.  J.  Caird,  to  the  effect  that  every  truth  that 
can  be  partially  communicated  to  the  mind  by  anal- 
ogies is  ultimately  capable  of  being  fully  grasped  by 
the  understanding.  "Of  all  such  representations,  un- 
less they  are  purely  illusfjrj',  it  must  hold  good  that 
implicitly  and  in  unrlevelftped  form  they  contain 
rational  thought  and  thr;refore  thought  which  human 
intelligence  may  ultimately  fre<-  from  its  sensuous  veil. 
.  .  .  Nothing  that  is  absf)!i]t^ly  inscrutable  to  reason 
can  be  ma/ie  known  U)  faith"  (Philosrjphy  of  Religion, 
p.  71).  The  objection  rests  on  a  wholly  exaggerated 
view  regarfiing  the  powers  of  the  human  intellect. 
The  a>gnitive  faculty  of  any  nature  is  proportionate 
to  its  gra/le  in  the  scale  of  being.  The  mtelligenre  oi 
a  finite  intellect  can  only  penetrate;  a  finite  ohjr'ft; 
it  is  incapable  of  comprehending  the  Infinite.  The 
finite  t>TX«  through  which  the  Infinite  is  made  known 
to  it  can  never  under  any  circumstances  lead  to  more 
than  analogous  knowledge.  It  is  further  frequently 
urgf^d  that  the  revelation  of  what  the  mind  cannot 
underBtand  would  be  an  act  of  violence  to  the  intel- 


lect; and  that  tliis  faculty  can  only  accept  those  truths 
whose  intrinsic  reasonableness  it  recognizes.  This 
assertion,  based  on  the  alk^ged  autonomy  of  reason, 
can  only  be  met  with  denial.  The  function  of  the  in- 
tellect is  to  recognize  and  admit  any  truth  which  is 
adequately  presented  to  it,  whether  that  truth  be 
guaranteed  bj^  internal  or  by  external  criteria.  The 
reason  is  not  deprived  of  its  legitimate  activity  be- 
cause the  criteria  are  external.  It  finds  ample  scope 
in  weighing  the  arguments  for  the  credibility  of  the 
fact  asserted.  The  existence  of  mysteries  in  the 
Christian  religion  was  expressly  taught  by  the  Vatican 
Council  (De  Fide  Cath.,  cap.  ii,  can.  ii).  "If  anj^one 
shall  say  that  no  mysteries  properly  so  called  are  con- 
tained in  the  Divine  revelation,  but  that  all  the 
dogmas  of  the  faith  can  be  understood  and  proved 
from  natural  principles  by  human  reason  duly  culti- 
vated— let  him  be  anathema." 

(3)  The  older  (Deist)  School  of  Rationalists  denied 
the  possibility  of  a  Divine  revelation  imposing  any 
laws  other  than  those  which  natural  religion  enjoins 
on  man.  These  writers  regarded  natural  religion  as, 
so  to  speak,  a  political  constitution  determinmg  the 
Divine  government  of  the  universe,  and  held  that 
God  could  only  act  as  its  terms  prescribed.  This 
error  like\\ase  was  proscribed  at  the  same  time  (De 
Fide  Cath.,  cap.  ii,  can.  ii).  "  If  any  one  shall  say  that 
it  is  impossible  or  that  it  is  inexpedient  that  man 
should  be  instructed  regarding  God  and  the  worship 
to  be  paid  to  Him  by  Di\ine  revelation — let  him  be 
anathema." 

It  can  hardly  be  questioned  that  the  "autonomy  of 
reason"  furnishes  the  main  source  of  the  difficulties 
at  present  felt  against  Revelation  in  the  Christian 
sense.  It  seems  desirable  to  indicate  very  briefly  the 
various  ways  in  which  that  principle  is  understood. 
It  is  explained  by  M.  Blondel,  an  eminent  member  of 
the  Immanentist  School,  as  signifying  that  "nothing 
can  enter  into  a  man  which  does  not  proceed  from 
him,  and  which  does  not  correspond  in  some  manner 
to  an  interior  need  of  expansion ;  and  that  neither  in 
the  sphere  of  historic  facts  nor  of  traditional  doctrine, 
nor  of  commands  imposed  bj^  authority,  can  any  truth 
rank  as  valid  for  a  man  or  any  precept  as  obhgatory, 
unless  it  be  in  some  way  autonomous  and  autochtho- 
nous" (Lettre  sur  les  exigences,  etc.,  p.  601).  Although 
M.  Blondel  has  in  his  own  case  reconciled  this  prin- 
ciple -wath  the  acceptance  of  Catholic  belief,  yet  it 
may  readily  be  seen  that  it  affords  an  easy  ground  for 
the  denial  not  merely  of  the  possibilitj^  of  external 
Revelation,  but  of  the  whole  historic  basis  of  Chris- 
tianity. The  origin  of  this  erroneous  doctrine  is  to 
be  found  in  the  fact  that  within  the  sphere  of  the 
natural  speculative  reason,  truths  which  are  received 
purely  on  external  authority,  and  which  are  in  no  way 
connected  with  principles  already  admitted,  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  form  part  of  our  knowledge. 
Science  asks  for  the  inner  reason  of  things  and  can 
make  no  use  of  truths  save  in  so  far  as  it  can  reach  the 
principles  from  which  they  flow.  The  extension  of 
this  to  religious  truths  is  an  error  directly  traceable  to 
the  assumption  of  the  eiglilceiilli-cenlury  j)liiloso- 
phers  that  there  are  no  religious  t  rut  lis  save  t  lio.'^e  which 
the  human  intellect  can  attain  unaided.  The  prin- 
ciple is,  however,  sometimes  applied  with  a  less  ex- 
tensive signification.  It  may  be  understood  to  involve 
no  more  than  that  reason  cannot  be  compelled  to  ad- 
mit any  religious  doctrine  or  any  moral  obligation 
merely  because  they  possess  extrinsic  guarantees  of 
truth;  they  must  in  every  case  be  able  to  justify  their 
validity  on  intrinsic  grounds.  Thus  Prof.  J.  Caird 
writes:  "Neither  moral  nor  religious  ideas  can  be 
simply  transferred  to  the  human  spirit  in  the  form  of 
fact,  nor  can  they  be  verified  by  any  evidence  outside 
of  or  lower  than  themselves"  (Fundamental  Ideas  of 
Christianity,  p.  31).  A  somewhat  different  meaning 
again  is  impUed  in  the  canon  of  the  Vatican  Council 


REVELATION 


3 


REVELATION 


in  which  the  right  of  the  intellect  to  claim  absolute 
independence  (autonomy)  is  denied.  "If  anyone 
shall  say  that  human  reason  is  independent  in  such 
wise  that  faith  cannot  be  commanded  it  by  God — 
let  him  be  anathema"  (De  Fide  Cath.,  cap.  iii,  can.  i). 
This  canon  is  directed  against  the  position  maintained 
as  already  noted  by  the  older  Rationalists  and  the 
Deists,  that  human  reason  is  amply  sufficient  with- 
out exterior  assistance  to  attain  to  absolute  truth  in 
all  matters  of  religion  (of.  Vacant,  "Etudes  Theo- 
logiques",  I,  572;  II,  387). 

III.  Necessity  op  Revelation. — Can  it  be  said 
that  Revelation  is  necessary  to  man?  There  can 
be  no  question  as  to  its  necessity,  if  it  be  admitted 
that  God  destines  man  to  attain  a  supernatural 
beatitude  which  surpasses  the  exigencies  of  his  nat- 
ural endowments.  In  that  case  God  must  needs 
reveal  alike  the  existence  of  that  supernatural  end 
and  the  means  by  which  we  are  to  attain  it.  But 
is  Revelation  necessary  even  in  order  that  man 
should  observe  the  precepts  of  the  natural  law?  If 
our  race  be  viewed  in  its  present  condition  as  his- 
tory displays  it,  the  answer  can  only  be  that  it  is, 
morally  speaking,  impossible  for  men  unassisted  by 
Revelation,  to  attain  by  their  natural  powers  such  a 
knowledge  of  that  law  as  is  sufficient  to  the  right  or- 
dering of  life.  In  other  words,  Revelation  is  morally 
necessary.  Absolute  necessity  we  do  not  assert. 
Man,  Catholic  theology  teaches,  possesses  the  req- 
uisite faculties  to  discover  the  natural  law.  Luther 
indeed  asserted  that  man's  intellect  had  become  hope- 
lessly obscured  by  original  sin,  so  that  even  natural 
truth  was  beyond  his  reach.  And  the  Traditionalists 
of  the  nineteenth  century  (Bautain,  Bonnetty,  etc.) 
also  fell  into  error,  teaching  that  man  was  incapable 
of  arriving  at  moral  and  religious  truth  apart  from 
Revelation.  The  Church,  on  the  contrary,  recognizes 
the  capacity  of  human  reason,  and  grants  that  here 
and  there  pagans  may  have  existed,  who  had  freed 
themselves  from  prevalent  errors,  and  who  had  at- 
tained to  such  a  knowledge  of  the  natural  law  as 
would  suffice  to  guide  them  to  the  attainment  of 
beatitude.  But  she  teaches  nevertheless  that  this 
can  only  be  the  case  as  regards  a  few,  and  that  for 
the  bulk  of  mankind  Revelation  is  necessary.  That 
this  is  so  may  be  shown  both  from  the  facts  of  history 
and  from  the  nature  of  the  case.  As  regards  the 
testimony  of  history,  it  is  notorious  that  even  the 
most  civilized  of  pagan  races  have  fallen  into  the 
grossest  errors  regarding  the  natural  law;  and  from 
these  it  may  safely  be  asserted  they  would  never  have 
emerged.  Certainly  the  schools  of  philosophy  would 
not  have  enabled  them  to  do  so;  for  many  of  these 
denied  even  such  fundamental  principles  of  the  nat- 
ural law  as  the  personality  of  God  and  the  freedom 
of  the  will.  Again,  by  the  very  nature  of  the  ca.se, 
the  difficulties  involved  in  the  attainment  of  the  req- 
uisite knowledge  are  insuperable.  For  men  to  be 
able  to  attain  such  a  knowledge  of  the  natural  law  as 
will  enable  them  to  order  their  lives  rightly,  the 
truths  of  that  law  must  be  so  plain  that  the  mass  of 
men  can  discover  them  without  long  delay,  and  pos- 
sess a  knowledge  of  them  which  will  be  alike  free 
from  uncertainty  and  secure  from  serious  error. 
No  reasonable  man  will  maintain  that  in  the  case  of 
the  greater  part  of  mankind  this  is  possible.  Even 
the  most  vital  truths  are  called  in  question  and  are 
met  by  serious  objections.  The  separation  of  truth 
from  error  is  a  work  involving  time  and  labour. 
For  this  the  majority  of  men  have  neither  inclination 
nor  opportunity.  Apart  from  the  security  which 
Revelation  gives  they  would  reject  an  obligation 
both  irksome  and  uncertain.  It  results  that  a  rev- 
elation even  of  the  natural  law  is  for  man  in  his 
present  state  a  moral  necessity. 

IV.  Criteria    op    Revelation. — The    fact    that 
Revelation  is  not  merely  possible  but  morally  neces- 


sary is  in  itself  a  strong  argument  for  the  existence  of 
a  revelation,  and  imposes  on  all  men  the  strict  obliga- 
tion of  examining  the  credentials  of  a  religion  which 
presents  itself  with  prima  Jade  marks  of  truth. 
On  the  other  hand  if  God  has  conferred  a  revelation 
on  men,  it  stands  to  reason  that  He  must  have  at- 
tached to  it  plain  and  evident  criteria  enabling  even 
the  unlettered  to  recognize  His  message  for  what  it 
is,  and  to  distinguish  it  from  all  false  claimants. 

The  criteria  of  Revelation  are  either  external  or 
internal:  (1)  External  criteria  consist  in  certain 
signs  attached  to  the  revelation  as  a  divine  testimony 
to  its  truth,  e.  g.,  miracles.  (2)  Internal  criteria  are 
tho-se  which  are  found  in  the  nature  of  the  doctrine 
itself,  in  the  manner  in  which  it  was  presented  to  the 
world,  and  in  the  effects  which  it  produces  on  the  soul. 
These  are  distinguished  into  negative  and  positive 
criteria,  (a)  The  immunity  of  the  alleged  revela- 
tion from  any  teaching,  speculative  or  moral,  which  ia 
manifestly  erroneous  or  self-contradictory,  the  ab- 
sence of  all  fraud  on  the  part  of  those  who  deliver  it 
to  the  world,  provide  negative  internal  criteria, 
(b)  Positive  internal  criteria  are  of  various  kinds. 
One  such  is  found  in  the  beneficent  effects  of  the 
doctrine  and  in  its  power  to  meet  even  the  highest 
aspirations  which  man  can  frame.  Another  consists 
in  the  internal  conviction  felt  by  the  soul  as  to  the 
truth  of  the  doctrine  (Suarez,  "De  Fide",  IV,  sect. 
5,  n.  9.)  In  the  last  century  there  was  in  certain 
schools  of  thought  a  manifest  tendency  to  deny  the 
value  of  all  external  criteria.  This  was  largely  due 
to  the  Rationalist  polemic  against  miracles.  Not 
a  few  non-Catholic  divines  anxious  to  make  terras 
with  the  enemy  adopted  this  attitude.  They  allowed 
that  miracles  are  useless  as  a  foundation  for  faith, 
and  that  they  form  on  the  contrary  one  of  the  chief 
difficulties  which  lie  in  faith's  path.  Faith,  they 
admitted,  must  be  presupposed  before  the  miracle 
can  be  accepted.  Hence  these  writers  held  the  sole 
criterion  of  faith  to  lie  in  inward  experience — in  the 
testimony  of  the  Spirit.  Thus  Schleiermacher  says: 
"We  renounce  altogether  any  attempt  to  demon- 
strate the  truth  and  the  necessity  of  the  Christian 
religion.  On  the  contrary  we  assume  that  every 
Christian  before  he  commences  inquiries  of  this  kind 
is  already  convinced  that  no  other  form  of  religion 
but  the  Christian  can  harmonize  with  his  piety" 
(Glaubenslehre,  n.  11).  The  Traditionalists  by  deny- 
ing the  power  of  human  reason  to  test  the  grounds 
of  faith  were  driven  to  fall  back  on  the  same  cri- 
terion (cf.  Lamennais,  "Pensees  Diverses",  p.  488). 
This  position  is  altogether  untenable.  The  tes- 
timony afforded  by  inward  experience  is  undoubtedly 
not  to  be  neglected.  Catholic  doctors  have  always 
recognized  its  value.  But  its  force  is  limited  to  the 
individual  who  is  the  subject  of  it.  It  cannot  be 
employed  as  a  criterion  valid  for  all;  for  its  absence 
is  no  proof  that  the  doctrine  is  not  true.  Moreover, 
of  all  the  criteria  it  is  the  one  with  regard  to  which 
there  is  most  possibility  of  deception.  When  truth 
mingled  with  error  is  presented  to  the  mind,  it  often 
happens  that  the  whole  teaching,  false  and  true  alike, 
is  believed  to  have  a  Divine  guarantee,  because  the 
soul  has  recognized  and  welcomed  the  truth  of  some 
one  doctrine,  e.  g.,  the  Atonement.  Taken  alone  and 
apart  from  objective  proof  it  conveys  but  a  prob- 
ability that  the  revelation  is  true.  Hence  the 
Vatican  Council  expressly  condemns  the  error  of 
those  who  teach  it  to  be  the  only  criterion  (De 
Fide  Cath.,  cap.  iii,  can.  iii). 

The  perfect  agreement  of  a  religious  doctrine  with 
the  teachings  of  reason  and  natural  law,  its  power  to 
satisfy,  and  more  than  satisfy,  the  highest  aspirations 
of  man,  its  beneficent  influence  both  as  regards  public 
and  private  life,  provide  us  with  a  more  trustworthy 
test.  This  is  a  criterion  which  has  often  been  applied 
with  great  force  on  behalf  of  the  claims  of  the  Catholic 


REVELATION 


REVELATION 


Church  to  be  the  sole  guardian  of  God's  Revelation. 
These  quahties  indeed  appertain  in  so  transcendent 
a  degree  to  the  teaching  of  the  Church,  that  the  argu- 
ment must  needs  carr>-  conviction  to  an  earnest  and 
truth-seeking  mind.  Another  criterion  which  at 
first  sight  bears  some  resemblance  to  this  claims  a 
mention  here.  It  is  based  upon  the  theory  of  Im- 
manence and  has  of  recent  years  been  strenuously 
advocated  by  certain  of  the  less  extreme  members  of 
the  Modernist  School.  These  wTiters  urge  that  the 
vital  needs  of  the  soul  imperatively  demand,  as  their 
necessary  complement,  Divine  co-operation,  super- 
natural grace,  and  even  the  supreme  magisterium 
of  the  Church.  To  these  needs  the  Catholic  religion 
alone  corresponds.  And  this  correspondence  with 
our  vital  needs  is,  they  hold,  the  one  sure  criterion 
of  truth.  The  theory  is  altogether  inconsistent  with 
Catholic  dogma.  It  supposes  that  the  Christian 
Revelation  and  the  gift  of  grace  are  not  free  gifts  from 
God,  but  something  of  which  the  nature  of  man  is 
absolutely  exigent,  and  without  which  it  would  be 
incomplete.  It  is  a  return  to  the  errors  of  Baius. 
(Denz.   1021,  etc.) 

VThile  the  Church,  as  we  have  said,  is  far  from 
under\-aluing  internal  criteria,  she  has  alwaj's  re- 
garded external  criteria  as  the  most  easily  recognizable 
and  the  most  decisive.  Hence  the  Vatican  Council 
teaches:  "In  order  that  the  obedience  of  our  faith 
might  be  agreeable  to  reason,  God  has  willed  that  to 
the  internal  aids  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  there  should  be 
joined  external  proofs  of  His  Revelation,  viz:  Divine 
works  (Jacla  divina),  especially  miracles  and  prophecy, 
which  inasmuch  as  they  manifestlj'  display  the 
omnipotence  and  the  omniscience  of  God  are  most 
certain  signs  of  a  Divine  revelation  and  are  suited 
to  the  understanding  of  all"  (De  Fide  Cath.,  cap. 
iii).  As  an  instance  of  a  work  evidently  Divine, 
and  yet  other  than  miracle  or  prophecy,  the  council 
instances  the  Catholic  Church,  which,  "by  reason 
of  the  marvellous  manner  of  its  propagation,  its  sur- 
prising sanctity,  its  inexhaustible  fruitfulness  in  all 
good  works,  its  catholic  unity  and  its  invincible 
stability,  is  a  mighty  and  perpetual  motive  of  credi- 
bihty  and  an  irrefragable  testimony  to  its  own 
divine  legation"  (1.  c).  The  truth  of  the  teaching 
of  the  council  regarding  external  criteria  is  plain  to 
any  unprejudiced  mind.  Granted  the  presence  of 
the  negative  criteria,  external  guarantees  establish 
the  Divine  origin  of  a  revelation  as  nothing  else  can 
do.  They  are,  m  to  say,  a  seal  affixed  by  the  hand 
of  God  Himself,  and  authenticating  the  work  as  His. 
(For  a  fuller  treatment  of  their  apologetic  value, 
and  for  a  discussion  of  objections,  see  Miracles; 
Apologetics.) 

V.  The  Christian-  Revelation. — It  remains  here 
to  distinguish  the  Christian  Revelation  or  "deposit 
of  faith"  from  what  are  termed  private  revelations. 
This  distinction  is  of  importance:  for  while  the  Church 
recognizes  that  Gfxi  has  spoken  to  His  servants  in 
every  age,  and  still  continues  thus  to  favour  chosen 
Bouls,  she  is  careful  to  distinguish  fhese  revelations 
from  the  Revelation  which  haw  been  conmiittcd  fo 
her  charge,  and  which  she  proposes  t<^j  all  her  members 
for  their  acceptance.  That  Revelation  was  given 
in  its  entirety  to  Our  Ujrd  and  His  Apostles.  After 
the  death  of  the  last  of  the  twelve  it  could  receive  no 
increment.  It  wa.s,  hh  the  Church  calls  it,  a  deposit 
—"the  faith  once  delivered  to  the  saints"  fjude, 
3)-;-for  which  the  Church  was  to  "contend"  but  to 
which  she  rxmUl  arid  nothing.  Thus,  whenever  there 
has  bef-n  question  of  defining  a  doctrine,  whether  at 
Nicsa,  at  Trent,  or  at  the  Vatican,  the  sole  point 
of  debate  has  been  as  to  whether  the  dortrine  is  found 
in  Scripture  or  in  Apostf)lic;  trafhtion.  The  gift  of 
Divine  assistance  <ivi-  I),  Hoinf'tim«;s  ronfoundefl  with 
Revelation  by  the  Ifss  iristru(;ted  of  anti-Catholic 
writers,  merely  preserves  the  supreme  [wntiff  from 


error  in  defining  the  faith;  it  does  not  enable  him 
to  add  jot  or  tittle  to  it.  All  subsequent  revelations 
conferred  by  God  are  known  as  private  revelations, 
for  the  reason  that  they  arc  not  directed  to  the  whole 
Church  but  are  for  the  good  of  individual  members 
alone.  They  may  indeed  be  a  legitimate  object  for 
our  faith;  but  that  will  depend  on  the  evidence  in 
each  particular  case.  The  Church  does  not  propose 
them  to  us  as  part  of  her  message.  It  is  true  that  in 
certain  cases  she  has  given  her  approbation  to  cer- 
tain private  revelations.  This,  however,  only  signi- 
fies (1)  that  there  is  nothing  in  them  contrary  to  the 
Catholic  Faith  or  to  the  moral  law,  and  (2)  that  there 
are  sufficient  indications  of  their  truth  to  justify 
the  faithful  in  attaching  credence  to  them  without 
being  guilty  of  superstition  or  of  imprudence. 

It  may  however  be  further  asked,  whether  the 
Christian  Revelation  does  not  receive  increment 
through  the  development  of  doctrine.  During  the 
last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  question  of 
doctrinal  development  was  widely  debated.  Owing 
to  Guenther's  erroneous  teaching  that  the  doctrines 
of  the  faith  assume  a  new  sense  as  human  science  pro- 
gresses, the  Vatican  Courfcil  declared  once  for  all 
that  the  meaning  of  the  Church's  dogmas  is  im- 
mutable (De  Fide  Cath.,  cap.  iv,  can.  iii).  On  the 
other  hand  it  exjilicitly  recognizes  that  there  is  a 
legitimate  mode  of  development,  and  cites  to  that 
effect  (op.  cit.,  cap.  iv)  the  words  of  Vincent  of  Lirins: 
"Let  understanding  science  and  wisdom  [regarding 
the  Church's  doctrine]  progress  and  make  large  in- 
crease in  each  and  in  all,  in  the  individual  and  in  the 
whole  Church,  as  ages  and  centuries  advance:  but 
let  it  be  solely  in  its  own  order,  retaining,  that  is,  the 
same  dogma,  the  same  sense,  the  same  import" 
(Commonit.  28).  Two  of  the  most  eminent  theolog- 
ical writers  of  the  period.  Cardinal  Franzelin  and 
Cardinal  Newman,  have  on  very  different  lines  dealt 
with  the  progress  and  nature  of  this  development. 
Cardinal  Franzelin  in  his  "De  Divina  Traditione  et 
Scriptura"  (pt.  XXII-VI)  has  principally  in  view 
the  Hegelian  theories  of  Gucnther.  He  consequently 
laj's  the  chief  stress  on  the  identity  at  all  points  of 
the  intellectual  datum,  and  explains  development 
almost  exclusively  as  a  process  of  logical  deduction. 
Cardinal  Newman  wrote  his  "Essay  on  the  l)e\cl()p- 
ment  of  Christian  Doctrine"  in  the  course  of  the 
two  years  (1S43-45)  iniin(>(liately  preceding  his  re- 
ception into  the  Catholic  Church.  He  was  called 
on  to  deal  with  different  adversaries,  viz.,  the  I'rot- 
estants  who  justified  their  separation  from  th(>  main 
body  of  Christians  on  the  ground  that  Rome  had  cor- 
rupted i^rimitivc  teaching  by  a  series  of  additions. 
In  that  work  he  examines  in  detail  the  difference  be- 
tween a  corruption  and  a  development.  He  shows 
how  a  true  and  fertile  idea  is  endowed  with  a  vital 
and  assimilative  energy  of  its  own,  in  virtue  of  which, 
without  undergoing  the  least  substantive  change, 
it  attains  to  an  ever  completer  expression,  as  the  course 
of  time  brings  it  into  contact  with  new  aspects  of 
truth  or  forces  it  into  collision  with  new  errors:  the 
life  of  the  idea  is  shown  to  be  analogous  to  an  organic 
development.  He  provides  a  series  of  tests  dis- 
tinguishing a  true  development  from  a  corruption, 
chief  among  them  being  the  preservation  of  type, 
and  the  continuity  of  princnjjles;  and  then,  applymg 
the  tests  to  the  case  of  the  additions  of  Roman  teach- 
ing, shows  that  these  have  the  marks  not  of  corrup- 
tions but  of  true  and  legitimate  developments.  The* 
th(M)ry,  though  less  scholastic  in  its  form  than  that  of 
Franzelin,  is  in  perfect  conformity  with  orthodox 
belief.  Newman  no  less  than  his  .Jesuit  (iontemporary 
teaches  that  the  whole  doctrine,  alike  in  its  later 
jis  in  its  earlier  forms,  Wius  contained  in  the  original 
revelation  given  to  th(^  Church  by  Our  Lord  and  His 
Apostles^  and  that,  its  identity  is  guaranteed  to  us 
by  the  infallible  magisterium  of  the  Church.     The 


REVELATION 


REVELATIONS 


claim  of  certain  Modernist  writers  that  their  views 
on  the  evolution  of  dogma  were  connected  with  New- 
man's theory  of  development  is  the  merest  figment. 

Ottiger,  Theologia  fundamentalis  (FreihuTg,  1897) ;  Vacant, 
Eludes  Theologiques  sur  le  Concile  du  Vatican  (Paris,  1895) ; 
Lebachelet,  De  I'apologetique  traditionelle  et  I' apologelique  mo- 
derne  (Paris,  1897) ;  Db  Brogue,  Religion  et  Critique  (Paris,  1906) ; 
Blondel,  Lettre  sur  les  Exigences  de  la  Pensee  moderne  en  matiire 
apologetique  in  Annales  de  la  Philos:  Chretienne  (Paris,  1896). 
On  private  revelations:  Suarez,  De  Fide,  disp.  Ill,  sect.  10; 
Franzelin,  De  Scriptura  et  Traditione,  Th.  xxii  (Rome,  1870); 
PouLAiN,  Graces  of  Interior  Prayer,  pt.  IV,  tr.  (London,  1910). 
On  development  of  doctrine:  Bainvel,  De  magislerio  vivo  et 
traditione  (Paris,  1905) ;  Vacant,  op.  cit.,  II,  p.  281  seq.;  Pinard, 
art.  Dogme  in  Diet.  Apologetique  de  la  Foi  Catholique,  ed.  d'Al^s 
(Paris,  1910);  O'Dwyer,  Cardinal  Newman  and  the  Encyclical 
Pascendi  (London,  1908). 

Among  those  who  from  one  point  of  view  or  another  have  con- 
troverted the  Christian  doctrine  of  Revelation  the  following  may 
be  mentioned:  Paine,  Age  of  Reason  (ed.  1910),  1-30;  F.  W. 
Newman,  Phases  of  Faith  (4th  ed.,  London,  1854);  Sabatier, 
Esquisse  d'une  philosophic  de  la  religion,  I,  ii  (Paris,  1902); 
Pfleiderer,  Religionsphilosophie  auf  geschichtlicher  Grundlage 
(Berlin,  1896),  493  seq.;  Loisy,  Autour  d'un  petit  livre  (Paris, 
1903),  192  sqq.;  Wilson,  art.  Revelation  and  Modern  Thought  in 
Cambridge  Theol.  Essays  (London,  1905);  Tyrrell,  Through 
Scylla  and  Charybdis  (London,  1907),  ii;  Martineau,  Seat  of 
Authority  in  Religion,  III,  ii  (London,  1890). 

G.  H.  Joyce. 
Revelation,  Book  of.    See  Apocalypse. 

Revelations,  Private. — There  are  two  kinds  of 
revelations:  (1)  universal  revelations,  which  are  con- 
tained in  the  Bible  or  in  the  depositum  of  Apostolic 
tradition  transmitted  by  the  Church.  These  ended 
with  the  preaching  of  the  Apostles  and  must  be  be- 
lieved by  all;  (2)  particular  or  private  revelations 
which  are  constantly  occurring  among  Christians  (see 
Contemplation).  When  the  Church  approves  pri- 
vate revelations,  she  declares  only  that  there  is 
nothing  in  them  contrary  to  faith  or  good  morals,  and 
that  they  may  be  read  without  danger  or  even  with 
profit;  no  obligation  is  thereby  imposed  on  the  faith- 
ful to  believe  them.  Speaking  of  such  revelations  as 
(e.  g.)  those  of  St.  HiMcgard  (;ii)pr()ved  in  part  by 
Eugcnius  III),  St.  Bridget  (by  Boniface  IX),  and  St. 
Catherine  of  Siena  (by  (Iregory  XI)  Benedict  XIV 
says:  "It  is  not  ol)ligatory,  nor  even  possil)le  to  give 
them  the  assent  of  Catholic  faith,  but  only  of  human 
faith,  in  conformity  with  the  dictates  of  prudence, 
which  presents  them  to  us  as  probable  and  worthy  of 
pious  belief"  (De  canon.,  Ill,  liii,  15;    II,  x.xii,  II). 

Illusions  connected  with  private  revelations  have 
been  explained  in  the  article  Contemplation.  Some 
of  them  are  at  first  thought  suri)rising.  Thus  a  vision 
of  an  historical  scene  (e.  g.,  of  the  life  or  death  of 
Christ)  is  often  only  approximately  accurate,  although 
the  visionary  may  be  unaware  of  this  fact,  and  he  may 
be  misled,  if  he  believes  in  its  absolute  historical  fidel- 
ity. This  error  is  quite  natural,  being  bused  on  the 
assumption  that,  if  the  vision  comes  from  (lod,  all  its 
details  (the  landscape,  dress,  words,  a(;tions,  etc.) 
should  be  a  faithful  reproduction  of  the  historic  past. 
This  assumption  is  not  justified,  for  accuracy  in 
secondary  details  is  not  necessary;  the  main  point  is 
that  the  fact,  event,  or  communication  revealed  be 
strictly  true.  It  may  be  objected  that  the  Bible  con- 
tains historical  books,  and  that  thus  God  may  some- 
times wish  to  reveal  certain  facts  in  religious  history 
to  us  exactly.  That  doubtless  is  true,  when  there  is 
question  of  facts  which  are  necessary  or  useful  as  a 
basis  for  religion,  in  which  case  the  revelation  is 
accompanied  by  proofs  that  guarantee  its  accuracy. 
A  vision  need  not  guarantee  its  accuracy  in  every 
detail.  One  should  thus  beware  of  concluding  without 
examination  that  revelations  are  to  be  rejected;  the 
prudent  course  is  neither  to  believe  nor  to  deny  them 
unless  there  is  sufficient  reason  for  so  doing.  Much 
less  should  one  suspect,  that  the  saints  have  been  al- 
ways or  very  often  deceived  in  their  vision.  On  the 
contrary,  such  deception  is  rare,  and  as  a  rule  in  un- 
important matters  only. 

There  are  cases  in  which  we  can  be  certain  that  a 


revelation  is  Divine.  (1)  God  can  give  this  certainty 
to  the  person  who  receives  the  revelation  (at  least 
during  it),  by  granting  an  insight  and  an  evidence  so 
compelling  as  to  exclude  all  possibility  of  doubt.  We 
can  find  an  analogy  in  the  natural  order:  our  senses 
are  subject  to  many  illusions,  and  yet  we  frequently 
perceive  clearly  that  we  have  not  been  deceived.  (2) 
At  times  others  can  be  equally  certain  of  the  revela- 
tion thus  vouchsafed.  For  instance,  the  Prophets  of 
the  Old  Testament  gave  indubitable  signs  of  their 
mission;  otherwise  they  would  not  have  been  believed. 
There  were  always  false  prophets,  who  deceived  some 
of  the  people,  but,  inasmuch  as  the  faithful  were 
counselled  by  Holy  Writ  to  distinguish  the  false  from 
the  true,  it  was  possible  so  to  distinguish.  One  incon- 
trovertible proof  is  the  working  of  a  miracle,  if  it  be 
wrought  for  this  purpose  and  circumstances  show  this 
to  be  so.  A  prophecy  reaHzed  is  equally  convincing, 
when  it  is  precise  and  cannot  be  the  result  of  chance 
or  of  a  conjecture  of  the  evil  spirit. 

Besides  these  rather  rare  means  of  forming  an 
opinion,  there  is  another,  but  longer  and  more  intricate 
method:  to  discuss  the  reasons  for  and  against. 
Practically,  this  examination  will  often  give  only  a 
probability  more  or  less  great.  It  may  be  also  that  the 
revelation  can  be  regarded  as  Divine  in  its  broad  out- 
lines, but  doubtful  in  minor  details.  Concerning  the 
revelations  of  Marie  de  Agreda  and  Anne  Catherine 
Emmerich,  for  example,  contradictory  opinions  have 
been  expressed:  some  believe  unhesitatingly  every- 
thing they  contain,  and  are  annoyed  when  anyone 
docs  not  share  their  confidence;  others  give  the 
revelations  no  credence  whatsoever  (generally  on  a 
priori  grounds) ;  finally  there  are  many  who  are  sym- 
pathetic, but  do  not  know  what  to  reply  when  askc^d 
what  degree  of  credibility  is  to  be  attributed  to  the 
writings  of  these  two  ecstatics.  The  truth  seems  to  be 
between  the  two  extreme  opinions  indicated  first.  If 
there  is  question  of  a  particular  fact  related  in  these 
books  and  not  mentioned  elsewhere,  we  cannot  be 
certain  that  it  is  true,  expecially  in  minor  details.  In 
part  icular  instances,  these  visionaries  have  been  mis- 
taken: thus  Marie  de  Agreda  tcac^hes,  like  her  con- 
temi)oraries,  the  existence  of  cry.slal  lieavens,  and  de- 
clares that  one  must  believe  every) liing  slie  says,  al- 
though such  an  obligation  exists  only  in  tlie  case  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures.  In  1771  Clement  XIV  forbade 
the  continuation  of  her  process  of  l)eaf ilicalion  "on 
account  of  the  book".  Catherine  Emmerich  has  like- 
wise given  expression  to  false  or  unlikely  oj)inions: 
she  regards  the  writings  of  the  pseudo-Dionysius  as 
due  to  the  Areopagite,  and  says  strange  things  about 
the  terrestrial  Paradise,  which,  according  to  her, 
exists  on  an  inaccessible  mountain  towards  Tibet. 
If  there  be  question  of  the  general  statement  of  facts 
given  in  these  works,  we  can  admit  with  probability 
that  many  of  them  are  true.  For  these  two  vision- 
aries led  liv(>s  that  wcsre  rcigarded  as  very  holy.  Com- 
petent authorities  liave  judged  their  ecsta.sies  divine. 
It  is  therefore  prudent  to  aclmit  that  they  received  a 
special  aissistance  from  God,  preserving  them  not 
absolutely,  but  in  the  main,  from  error. 

In  judging  of  revelations  or  visions  we  may  proceed 
in  this  manner:  (a)  get  detailed  information  about  the 
person  who  believes  himself  thus  favoured;  (b)  also 
about  the  fact  of  the  revelation  and  the  circumstances 
attending  it.  To  prove  that  a  revelation  is  Divine 
(at  least  in  its  general  outlines),  the  method  of  exclu- 
sion is  sometimes  employed.  It  consists  in  proving 
that  neither  the  demon  nor  the  ecstatic's  own  ideas 
have  interfered  (at,  least  on  important  points)  with 
God's  action,  and  that  no  one  has  retouched  the  revela- 
tion after  its  occurrence.  This  method  differs  from 
the  preceding  one  only  in  the  manner  of  arranging  the 
information  obtained,  but  it  is  not  so  convenient. 
To  judg(^  revelations  or  vision.s,  we  must  be  acqviainted 
with  the  character  of  the  person  favoured  with  them 


REVELATIONS 

from  a  triple  point  of  view:  natural,  ascetical,  and 
mystical.  (For  those  who  have  been  beatified  or 
canonized,  this  inquiry  has  been  already  made  by 
the  Church.)  Our  inquiry  into  the  visionary's  char- 
acter might  be  pursued  as  follows:  (1)  NMiat  are  his 
natural  qualities  or  defects,  from  a  physical,  intellec- 
tual, and  especially  moral  standpoint?  If  the  informa- 
tion is  favourable  "(if  the  person  is  of  sound  judgment, 
calm  imagination;  if  his  acts  are  dictated  by  reason 
and  not  bv  enthusiasm,  etc.),  many  causes  of  illusion 
are  thereby  excluded.  However,  a  momentary  aber- 
ration is  still  possible.  (2)  How  has  the  person  been 
educated?  Can  the  knowledge  of  the  visionary  have 
been  derived  from  books  or  from  conversations  with 
theologians?  (3)  What  are  the  virtues  exhibited  be- 
fore and  after  the  revelation?  Has  he  made  progress 
in  holiness  and  especially  in  humility?  The  tree  can 
be  judged  bv  its  fruits.  (4)  \Miat  extraordinary 
graces  of  union  with  God  have  been  received?  The 
greater  they  are  the  greater  the  probability  in  favour 
of  the  revelation,  at  least  in  the  main.  (5)  Has  the 
person  had  other  revelations  that  have  been  judged 
Divine?  Has  he  made  any  predictions  that  have 
been  clearly  rcaUzed?  (6)  Has  he  been  subjected  to 
heaA-j'  trials?  It  is  almost  impossible  for  extraordinary 
favours  to  be  conferred  wnthout  hea\'y  crosses;  for 
both  are  marks  of  God's  friendship,  and  each  is  a  prep- 
aration for  the  other.  (7)  Does  he  practice  the  fol- 
lowing rules:  fear  deception;  be  open  with  your 
director;  do  not  desire  to  have  revelations? 

Our  information  concerning  a  revelation  considered 
in  itself  or  concerning  the  circumstances  that  accom- 
panied it  might  be  secured  as  follows: 

(1)  Is  there  an  authentic  account,  in  which  nothing 
has  been  added,  suppressed,  or  corrected?  (2)  Does 
the  revelation  agree  with  the  teaching  of  the  Church 
or  with  the  recognized  facts  of  history  or  natural 
Bcience?  (3)  Does  it  teach  nothing  contrary  to  good 
morals,  and  is  it  unaccompanied  by  any  indecent 
action?  The  commandments  of  God  are  addressed  to 
everj'one  without  exception.  More  than  once  the 
demon  has  persuaded  false  visionaries  that  they  were 
chosen  souls,  and  that  God  loved  them  so  much  as  to 
dispense  them  from  the  burdensome  restrictions  im- 
posed on  ordinary  mortals.  On  the  contrary,  the 
efifect  of  Divine  visitations  is  to  remove  us  more  and 
more  from  the  life  of  sense,  and  make  us  more  rigorous 
towards  ourselves.  (4)  Is  the  teaching  helpful  towards 
the  obtaining  of  eternal  salvation?  In  Spiritism 
we  find  the  spirits  evoked  treat  only  of  trifles.  They 
reply  to  idle  questions,  or  descend  to  providing  amuse- 
ment for  an  assembly  (e.  g.,  by  moving  furniture 
about);  deceased  relatives  or  the  great  jjliilosophcrs 
are  interrogated  and  their  replies  are  woefully  com- 
monplace. A  revelation  is  also  suspect  if  its  aim  is  to 
decide  a  disputed  question  in  theology,  history,  astron- 
omy, etc.  Eternal  salvation  is  the  only  thing  of  im- 
portance in  the  eyes  of  God.  "  In  all  other  matters", 
says  St.  John  of  the  Cross,  "He  wishes  men  to  have 
recourse  to  human  means  "  (Montde,  II,xxii).  Finally, 
a  revelation  is  suspect  if  it  is  commonplace,  telling 
only  what  is  to  be  found  in  every  book.  It  is  then 
probable  that  the  visionary  is  unconsciously  repeating 
what  he  haa  learnt  by  reading.  (5)  After  examining 
all  the  circumstances  accompanying  the  vision  (the 
attitudfy?,  acts,  words,  etc.),  do  we  find  that  dignity 
and  seriousness  which  become  the  Divine  Majesty? 
The  spirits  evokcni  by  Spiritists  often  speak  in  a  trivial 
manner.  Spiritists  try  to  explain  this  by  pretending 
that  the  spirits  are  not  demons,  but  the  souls  of  the 
departwl  who  have  retained  all  their  vices  ;  absurd  or 
unbc;(f)rning  rci)lifH  arf;  given  by  deceased  persons  who 
are  still  liars,  or  lib'-rtinf-s,  frivolous  or  myslifiers,  etc. 
But  if  that  be  t¥>,  communications  with  these  degrarled 
beings  is  evidently  rL-mgcrouH.  In  Protestant  "re- 
vivals" aswrnbled  crowds  bewail  their  nins,  but  in  a 
BtrangCj  exaggerated  way,  as  if  frenzied  or  intoxicated. 


6  REVELATIONS 

It  must  be  admitted  that  they  are  inspired  by  a  good 
principle:  a  very  ardent  sentiment  of  the  love  of  God 
and  of  repentance.  But  to  this  is  added  another  ele- 
ment that  cannot  be  regarded  as  Divine:  a  neuro- 
pathic enthusiasm,  which  is  contagious  and  sometimes 
develops  so  far  as  to  produce  convulsions  or  repugnant 
contortions.  Sometimes  a  kind  of  unknown  language 
is  spoken,  but  it  consists  in  reality  of  a  succession  of 
meaningless  sounds.  (6)  What  sentiments  of  peace, 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  of  disturbance,  are  experienced 
during  or  after  the  revelation?  Here  is  the  rule  as 
formulated  by  St.  Catherine  of  Siena  and  St.  Ignatius: 
"With  persons  of  good  will  [it  is  only  of  such  that  we 
are  here  treating]  the  action  of  the  good  spirit  [God 
or  His  Angels]  is  characterized  by  the  production  of 
peace,  joy,  security,  courage;  except  perhaps  at  the 
first  moment."  Note  the  restriction.  The  Bible 
often  mentions  this  disturbance  at  the  first  moment 
of  the  revelation;  the  Blessed  Virgin  experienced  it 
w'hen  the  Angel  Gabriel  appeared  to  her.  The  action 
of  the  demon  produces  quite  the  contrary  effect; 
"With  persons  of  good  wnll  he  produces,  except  per- 
haps at  the  first  moment,  disturbance,  sorrow,  dis- 
couragement, perturbation,  gloom."  In  a  word  the 
action  of  Satan  encounters  a  mysterious  resistance  of 
the  soul.  (7)  It  often  happens  that  the  revelation 
inspires  an  exterior  work — for  instance,  the  establish- 
ment of  a  new  devotion,  the  foundation  of  a  new  reli- 
gious congregation  or  association,  the  revision  of  the 
constitutions  of  a  congregation,  etc.,  the  building  of  a 
church  or  the  creation  of  a  pilgrimage,  the  reformation 
of  the  lax  spirit  in  a  certain  body,  the  preaching  of  a 
new  spirituality,  etc.  In  these  cases  the  value  of  the 
proposed  work  must  be  carefully  examined :  is  it  good 
in  itself,  useful,  filling  a  need,  not  injurious  to  other 
works,  etc.?  (8)  Have  the  revelations  been  subjected 
to  the  tests  of  time  and  discussion?  (9)  If  any  work 
has  been  begun  as  a  result  of  the  revelation,  has 
it  produced  great  si)iritual  fruit?  Have  the  sovereign 
pontiffs  and  the  bishops  believed  this  to  be  so,  and 
have  they  assisted  the  progress  of  the  work?  This  is 
very  well  illustrated  in  the  cases  of  the  Scapular  of 
Mount  Carmel,  the  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart,  the 
miraculous  medal.  These  are  the  signs  that  enable  us 
to  judge  with  probability  if  a  revelation  is  Divine. 
In  the  case  of  certain  persons  very  closely  united  to 
God,  the  slow  study  of  these  signs  has  been  sometimes 
aided  or  replaced  by  a  supernatural  intuition;  this  is 
what  is  known  as  the  infused  gift  of  the  discernment 
of  spirits. 

As  regards  the  rules  of  conduct,  the  two  principal 
have  been  explained  in  the  article  on  Contemplation, 
namely  (1)  if  the  revelation  leads  solely  to  the  love  of 
God  and  the  saints,  the  director  may  provisionally 
regard  it  as  Divine;  (2)  at  the  beginning,  the  visionary 
should  do  his  best  to  repulse  the  revelation  quietly. 
He  should  not  desire  to  receive  it,  otherwise  he  will  be 
exposing  himself  to  the  risk  of  being  deceived.  Here 
are  some  further  rules:  (a)  the  director  nuist  be  con- 
tent to  proceed  slowly,  not  to  express  astonishment, 
to  treat  the  person  gently.  If  he  were  to  be  luirsh  or 
distrustful,  he  would  intimidate  the  soul  he  is  direct- 
ing, and  incline  it  to  conceal  important  details  from 
him;  (b)  he  must  be  very  careful  to  urge  the  soul  to 
make  progress  in  the  way  of  sanctity.  He  will  point 
out  that  the  only  value  of  the  visions  is  in  the  spiritual 
fruit  that  they  produce;  (c)  he  will  pray  fervently, 
and  have  the  subject  he  is  directing  pray,  that  the 
necessary  light  may  be  granted.  God  cannot  fail  to 
make  known  the  true  path  to  those  who  ask  Him 
humbly.  If  on  the  contrary  a  per.son  confided  solely 
in  his  natural  prudence,  he  would  expose  himself  to 
punishment  for  his  self-sufficiency;  (d)  the  visionary 
should  be  perfectly  calm  and  patient  if  his  superiors 
do  not  allow  him  to  carry  out  the  enterprises  that  he 
deems  inspired  by  Heaven  or  r(!vealed.  One  who, 
when  confronted  with  this  opposition,  becomes  im- 


REVILLE 


REVOLUTION 


patient  or  discouraged,  shows  that  he  has  very  little 
confidence  in  the  power  of  God  and  is  but  little  con- 
formed to  His  will.  If  God  wishes  the  project  to 
succeed,  He  can  make  the  obstacles  suddenly  dis- 
appear at  the  time  appointed  by  Him.  A  very  striking 
example  of  this  Divine  delay  is  to  be  found  in  the  life 
of  St.  Juliana,  the  Cistercian  prioress  of  Mont-Cor- 
nillon,  near  Liege  (1192-1258).  It  is  to  her  that  the 
institution  of  the  feast  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is 
due.  All  her  life  was  passed  in  awaiting  the  hour  of 
God,  which  she  was  .lever  to  see,  for  it  came  only 
more  than  the  cemury  after  the  beginning  of  the 
revelations. 

As  regards  inspirations  ordinarily,  those  who  have 
not  passed  the  period  of  tranquillity  or  a  complete 
union,  must  beware  of  the  idea  that  they  hear  su- 
pernatural words;  unless  the  evidence  is  irresistible, 
they  should  attribute  them  to  the  activity  of  their  own 
imaginations.  But  they  may  at  least  experience  in- 
spirations or  impulses  more  or  less  strong,  which  seem 
to  point  out  to  them  how  to  act  in  difficult  circum- 
stances. This  is  a  minor  form  of  revelation.  The 
same  line  of  conduct  should  be  followed  as  in  the 
latter  case.  We  must  not  accept  them  blindly  and 
against  the  dictates  of  reason,  but  weigh  the  reasons 
for  and  against,  consult  a  prudent  director,  and  decide 
only  after  applying  the  rules  for  the  discernment  of 
spirits.  The  attitude  of  reserve  that  has  just  been 
laid  down  does  not  apply  to  simple  sudden  and  illu- 
minating views  of  faith,  which  enable  one  to  understand 
in  a  higher  manner  not  novelties,  but  the  truths 
admitted  by  the  Church.  Such  enlightenment  can- 
not have  any  evil  result.  It  is  on  the  contrary  a  very 
precious  grace,  which  should  be  carefully  welcomed 
and  utilized. 

Consult  the  writings  of  St.  Teresa  and  St.  John  of  the  Cross, 
passim;  Philip  of  the  Blessed  Trinity,  Summa  theologiw 
mysticm  (Lyons,  1656),  pt.  II,  tr.  iii;  de  V.\llgornera,  Mystica 
theologia  (Barcelona,  1662),  Q.  ii,  disp.  5;  Lopez  de  Ezquerra, 
Lucerna  mystica  (Venice,  1692),  tr.  v;  Amort,  De  revelationibus 
(Augsburg,  1744) ;  Benedict  XIV,  De  servorum  Dei  canonizatione 
(Rome,  1767),  1.  Ill,  c.  liii;  Scaramelli,  Dire«oriomiis<ico  (Venice, 
1754),  tr.  iv;  Schram,  Insiitutiones  theologiw  mysticcE  (Ausgburg, 
1777),  pt.  II,  c.  iv;  St.  Liguori,  Homo  aposlolicus  (Venice,  1782), 
append,  i,  n.  19;  Ribet,  La  mystique  divine,  II  (Paris,  1879); 
Poulain,  Des  graces  d'oraison  (5th  ed.,  Paris,  1909),  tr.  The 
Graces  of  Interior  Prayer  (London,  1910). 

Aug.  Poulain. 

Reville,  Stephen.     See  Sandhurst,  Diocese  of. 

Revocation,  the  act  of  recalling  or  annulling, 
the  reversal  of  an  act,  the  recalling  of  a  grant,  or  the 
making  void  of  some  deed  previously  existing.  This 
term  is  of  wide  application  in  canon  law.  Grants, 
laws,  contracts,  sentences,  jurisdiction,  appointments 
are  at  times  revoked  by  the  grantor,  his  successor, 
or  superior  according  to  the  prescriptions  of  law. 
Revocation  without  just  cause  is  illicit,  though  often 
valid.  Laws  and  customs  are  revoked  when,  owing 
to  change  of  circumstances,  they  cease  to  be  just  and 
reasonable.  Concordats  (q.  v.)  are  revocable  when 
they  redound  to  the  serious  injury  of  the  Church. 
Minors  and  ecclesiastical  institutions  may  have 
sentences  in  certain  civil  trials  set  aside  {Restitutio 
in  integrum).  Contracts  by  which  ecclesiastical  prop- 
erty is  alienated  are  sometimes  rescindable.  A 
judge  may  revoke  his  own  interlocutory  sentence  but 
not  a  definitive  judicial  sentence.  Many  appoint- 
ments are  revocable  at  will;  others  require  a  judicial 
trial  or  other  formalities.  (See  Benefice;  Facul- 
ties, Canonical;  Indults,  Pontifical;  Jurisdic- 
tion, Ecclesiastical.) 

Andrew  B.   Meehan. 

Revolution,  English,  of  1688.— James  II,  hav- 
ing reached  the  climax  of  his  power  after  the  suc- 
cessful suppression  of  Monmouth's  rebellion  in  1685, 
then  had  the  Tory  reaction  in  his  favour,  complete 
control  over  Parliament  and  the  town  corporations, 
a  regular  army  in  England,  a  thoroughly  Catholic 
army  in  process  of  formation  in  Ireland,  and  a  large 


revenue  granted  by  Parliament  for  life.  His  policy 
was  to  govern  England  as  absolute  monarch  and  to 
restore  Catholics  to  their  full  civil  and  rehgious  rights. 
Unfortunately,  both  prudence  and  statesmanship 
were  lacking,  with  the  result  that  in  three  years  the 
king  lost  his  throne.  The  history  of  the  Revolution 
resolves  itself  into  a  catalogue  of  various  ill-judged 
measures  which  alienated  the  support  of  the  Es- 
tablished Church,  the  Tory  party,  and  the  nation  as 
a  whole.  The  execution  of  Monmouth  (July,  1685) 
made  the  Revolution  possible,  for  it  led  to  the  Whig 
party  accepting  William  of  Orange  as  the  natural 
champion  of  Protestantism  against  the  attempts  of 
James.  Thus  the  opposition  gained  a  centre  round 
which  it  consolidated  with  ever-increasing  force. 

What  the  Catholics  as  a  body  desired  was  freedom 
of  worship  and  the  repeal  of  the  penal  laws;  but  a 
small  section  of  them,  desirous  of  political  power, 
aimed  chiefly  at  the  repeal  of  the  Test  Act  of  1673 
and  the  Act  of  1678  which  excluded  Catholics  from 
both  houses  of  Parliament.  Unfortunately  James  fell 
under  the  influence  of  this  section,  which  was  directed 
by  the  unprincipled  Earl  of  Sunderland,  and  he  de- 
cided on  a  policy  of  repeal  of  the  Test  Act.  Circum- 
stances had  caused  this  question  to  be  closely  bound 
up  with  that  of  the  army.  For  James,  who  placed 
his  chief  reliance  on  his  soldiers,  had  increased  the 
standing  army  to  .30,000,  13,000  of  whom,  partly 
officered  by  Catholics,  were  encamped  on  Hounslow 
Heath  to  the  great  indignation  of  London  which  re- 
garded the  camp  as  a  menace  to  its  liberties  and  a 
centre  of  disorder.  ParUament  demanded  that  the 
army  should  be  reduced  to  normal  dimensions  and 
the  Catholic  officers  dismissed;  but  James,  realizing 
that  the  test  would  not  be  repealed,  prorogued  Parlia- 
ment and  proceeded  to  exercise  the  "dispensing  and 
suspending  power".  By  this  he  claimed  that  it  was 
the  prerogative  of  the  crown  to  dispense  with  the 
execution  of  the  penal  laws  in  individual  cases  and  to 
suspend  the  operation  of  any  law  altogether.  To 
obtain  the  sanction  of  the  Law  Courts  for  this  doc- 
trine a  test  case,  known  as  Hales's  case,  was  brought 
to  decide  whether  the  king  could  allow  a  Catholic 
to  hold  office  in  the  army  without  complying  with  the 
Test  Act.  After  James  had  replaced  some  of  the 
judges  by  more  complaisant  lawyers,  he  obtained  a 
decision  that  "it  was  of  the  king's  prerogative  to 
dispense  with  penal  laws  in  particular  instances". 
He  acted  on  the  decision  by  appointing  Catholics 
to  various  positions.  Lord  Tyrconnel  becoming  Lord 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  Lord  Arundel  Lord  Privy 
Seal,  and  Lord  Bellasyse  Lord  Treasurer  in  place  of 
the  Tory  minister  Lord  Rochester,  who  was  regarded 
as  the  chief  mainstay  of  the  Established  Church. 
The  Church  of  England,  which  was  rendered  uneasy 
by  the  dismissal  of  Rochester,  was  further  alienated 
by  the  king's  action  in  appointing  a  Court  of  High 
Commis.sion,  which  suspended  the  Bishop  of  London 
for  refusing  to  inhibit  one  of  his  clergy  from  preach- 
ing anti-Catholic  sermons.  The  feehng  was  in- 
tensified by  the  liberty  which  Catholics  enjoyed  in 
London  during  1686.  Public  chapels  were  opened, 
including  one  in  the  Royal  Palace,  the  Jesuits  founded 
a  large  school  in  the  Savoy,  and  Catholic  ecclesiastics 
appeared  openly  at  Court. 

At  this  juncture  James,  desiring  to  counterbalance 
the  loss  of  Anglican  support,  offered  toleration  to  the 
dissenters,  who  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign  had  been 
severely  persecuted.  The  influence  of  William  Penn 
induced  the  king  to  issue  on  4  April,  1687,  the  Dec- 
laration of  Indulgence,  by  which  liberty  of  worship 
was  granted  to  all.  Catholic  and  Protestant  alike. 
He  also  replaced  Tory  churchmen  by  Whig  dissenters 
on  the  municipal  corporations  and  the  commission 
of  the  peace,  and,  having  dissolved  ParHament, 
hoped  to  secure  a  new  House  of  Commons  which 
would  repeal  both  the  penal  laws  and  the  Test.    But 


REVOLUTION 


8 


REVOLUTION 


he  underestimated  two  difficulties,  the  hatred  of  the 
dissenters  for  "poper>-"  and  their  distrust  of  royal 
absolutism.  His  action  in  promoting  Catholics  to 
the  Privy  Council,  the  judicial  bench,  and  the  otiices 
of  Lord  "lieutenant.  sherifT,  and  magistrate,  wounded 
these  susceptibilities,  while  he  further  oflfended  the 
Anglicans  by  attempting  to  restore  to  Catholics  some 
of  their  ancient  foundations  in  the  universities. 
Catholics  obtained  some  footing  both  at  Christ 
Church  and  I'niversitv  College,  Oxford,  and  in  March 
1688,  James  gave  the  presidency  of  Magdalen  Col- 
lege to  Honaventure  (Jiffard,  the  Catholic  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  the  Midland  District.  This  restoration 
of  Magdalen  as  a  Catholic  college  created  the  great- 
est alarm,  not  only  among  the  holders  of  benefices 
throughout  the  country,  but  also  among  the  owners 
of  ancient  abbey  lands.  The  presence  of  the  papal 
nuncio,  Mgr  d'Adda,  at  Court  and  the  public  position 
granted  to  the  four  Catholic  bishops,  who  had  re- 
cently been  appointed  as  vicars  ApostoUc,  served  to 
increase  both  the  di.slike  of  the  dissenters  to  support 
a  king  whose  acts,  while  of  doubtful  legality,  were 
also  subversive  of  Protestant  interests,  and  likewise 
the  difficulty  of  the  Anglicans  in  jjractising  passive 
obedience  in  face  of  such  provocation.  Surrounded 
by  the.se  comphcations,  James  issued  his  second 
Declaration  of  Indulgence  in  April,  1G88,  and  ordered 
that  it  should  be  read  in  all  the  churches.  This 
strained  Anglican  obedience  to  the  breaking  point. 
The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  six  of  his  suf- 
fragans presented  a  petition  questioning  the  dispens- 
ing power.  The  seven  bishops  were  sent  to  the  Tower 
prosecuted,  tried,  and  acquitted.  This  trial  proved 
to  be  the  immediate  occasion  of  the  Revolution,  for, 
as  Halifax  said,  "it  hath  brought  all  Protestants  to- 
gether and  bound  them  up  into  a  knot  that  cannot 
easily  be  untied".  While  the  bishops  were  in  the 
Tower,  another  epoch-marking  event  occurred — the 
birth  of  an  heir  to  the  crown  (10  June,  1688).  Hither- 
to the  hopes  of  the  king's  opponents  had  been  fixed 
on  the  succession  of  his  Protestant  daughter  Mary, 
wife  of  William  of  Orange,  the  Protestant  leader. 
The  birth  of  Prince  James  now  opened  up  the  pro.s- 
pect  of  a  Catholic;  dynasty  just  at  a  moment  when  the 
ancient  anti-Catholic  bigotry  had  been  aroused  by 
events  both  in  England  and  France.  For  besides  the 
ill-a<i vised  acts  of  James,  the  persecution  of  the 
Huguenots  by  I^uis  XIV,  consequent  on  the  Revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  in  1685,  revived  old  re- 
ligious animosities.  England  was  flooded  with 
French  Protestant  refugcies  bearing  everywhere  the 
tale  of  a  Catholic  king's  cruelty. 

Unfortunately  for  James  his  whole  foreign  policy 
ha<l  been  one  of  subsc^rvience  to  France,  and  at  this 
moment  of  crisis  the  power  of  F'rance  was  a  menace 
U)  all  Europ«!.  Even  Cathcilic  Austria  and  Spain 
HUpp<jrted  the  threatened  Protestant  states,  and 
the  p<jp<'  himself,  outrag<;d  by  Louis  XIV  in  a  suc- 
c^rssion  of  wrongs,  joincul  the  universal  resistance; 
to  France  and  was  alli(!d  with  William  of  Orange 
and  other  Protestant  sovereigns  against  Louis  and  his 
single  supporter,  James.  William  had  long  watched 
the  situation  in  England,  and  during  1687  had  re- 
c<'ived  communications  from  the.  op[)osifion  in  which 
it  was  agrwjd  that,  whenev(!r  revolutionary  action 
Bhf)uld  bf'cf)me  iwlvisable,  it  should  be  carried  out 
under  William's  guiriance.  As  early  as  th(!  autumn 
of  1687  the  papal  secretary  of  state  was  aware;  of  the 
pK»t  to  dfrllirone  James  and  make  Mary  qu(!en,  and 
a  P'rench  agent  dispatched  the  news  to  Plngland 
through  France.  The  Duke  of  Norfolk  then  in 
R/)me  aWj  learned  it,  and  sent  intelligence  to  the 
king  before  18  Df!C..  1687  rietter  of  d'Estrc'-es  to 
Jjouvoifl,  cited  by  Ranke,  II,  424).  liut  James, 
though  early  informed,  was  reluctant  to  believe 
that  his  (v>n-in-law  would  hejul  an  insurrection  against 
him.     On  the  day  the  seven  bishops  were  acquitted 


seven  English  statesmen  sent  a  letter  to  William  in- 
viting him  to  rescue  the  religion  and  liberties  of  Eng- 
land. But  William  was  threatened  by  a  French  army 
on  the  Belgian  frontier,  and  could  not  take  action. 
Louis  XIV  made  a  last  etTort  to  save  James,  and 
warned  the  Dutch  States  General  that  he  would  re- 
gard any  attack  on  England  as  a  declaration  of  war 
against  France.  This  was  keenly  resented  by  James, 
who  regarded  it  as  a  .slight  upon  English  indepen- 
dence, and  he  repudiated  t lie  charge  that  he  hail  made 
a  secret  treaty  with  France.  Thereupon  J.,ouis  left 
him  to  his  fate,  removed  the  Fren(;h  troops  from 
Flanders  to  begin  a  campaign  against  the  empire, 
and  thus  William  was  free  to  move.  When  it  was 
too  late  James  realized  his  danger.  By  hasty  con- 
cessions granted  one  after  another  he  tried  to  undo 
his  work  and  win  back  the  Tory  churchmen  to  his 
cause.  But  he  did  not  remove  the  Catholic  officers 
or  suggest  the  restriction  of  the  dispensing  power. 
In  October  Sunderland  was  dismissed  from  office, 
but  William  was  already  on  the  seas,  and,  though 
driven  back  by  a  storm,  he  re-embarked  and  landed 
at  Torbay  on  /j  Nov.,  1688.  James  at  first  prepareil 
to  resist.  The  army  was  sent  to  intercept  William, 
but  by  the  characteristic  treachery  of  Churchill, 
disafTection  was  spread,  and  the  king,  not  knowing 
in  whom  he  could  place  confidence,  attempted  to 
escape.  At  Sheerne.ss  he  was  stopped  and  sent  back 
to  London,  where  he  might  have  proved  an  embarras- 
sing prisoner  had  not  his  escape  been  connived  at. 
On  23  Dec,  1688,  he  left  England  to  take  refuge  with 
Louis  XIV;  the  latter  received  him  generously  and 
granted  him  both  palace  and  pension.  On  his  first 
departure  the  mob  had  risen  in  London  against  the 
Catholics,  and  attacked  chapels  and  houses,  plunder- 
ing and  carrying  off  the  contents.  Even  the  am- 
bassadors' houses  were  not  spared,  and  the  Spanish 
and  Sardinian  embassy  chapels  were  destroyed. 
Bishops  Giffard  and  Leyburn  were  arrested  and  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower.  Father  Petre  had  escai)ed, 
and  the  Nuncio  disguised  himself  as  a  servant  at 
the  house  of  the  envoy  from  Savoy,  till  he  was  en- 
abled to  obtain  from  William  a  passport.  So  far  as 
the  English  Catholics  were  concerned,  the  result  of 
the  Revolution  was  that  their  restoration  to  freedom 
of  worship  and  liberation  from  the  penal  laws  was 
delayed  for  a  century  and  more. 

So  completfily  had  James  lost  the  confidence  of  the 
nation  that  William  experienced  no  opposition  and 
the  Revolution  ran  its  course  in  an  almost  regular 
way.  A  Convention  Parliament  met  on  22  .Jan., 
1689,  declared  that  James  "having  withdrawn  him- 
self out  of  the  kingdom,  had  abdicated  the  govern- 
ment, and  that  the  throne  was  thereby  vacant",  and 
"that  experience  had  shown  it  to  be  inconsistent 
with  the  safety  and  welfare  of  this  Protestant  king- 
dom to  be  governed  by  a  Popish  Prince".  The 
crown  was  offercid  to  William  and  Mary,  who  ac- 
cepted the  Declaration  of  Right,  which  laid  dinvn  the 
principles  of  the  constitution  with  r(;gard  to  the  flis- 
pensiiig  power,  th(;  liberties  of  Parliament,  and  other 
matters.  After  their  i)roclaination  as  king  and  (lueen, 
the  Declaration  was  ratified  by  the  Bill  of  Rights, 
and  the  work  of  tlu;  Revolution  was  c()nii)lete. 
English  Catholics  have  indeed  had  good  cause  to 
lament  the  failure  of  th(!  king's  well-meant,  if  unwise, 
attempts  to  restore  their  liberty,  and  to  regret  that 
he  did  not  act  on  the  wise  advice;  of  Pope  Innocent 
XI  and  Cardinal  Howard  to  proc(;ed  by  slow  degrees 
and  obtain  first  the  repeal  of  the  penal  laws  b(;fore 
going  on  to  restore  their  full  civil  rights.  But  on  the 
other  hand  we  can  now  realize  that  the  Revolution 
had  the  advantage  of  finally  closing  the  long  struggle 
between  king  and  Parliament  that  had  lasted  for 
nearly  a  century,  and  of  establishing  general  prin- 
ciples of  religious  toleration  in  which  Catholics  were 
bound  sooner  or  later  to  be  included. 


REVOLUTION 


REVOLUTION 


LiNGARD,  Hist,  of  England,  X  (London,  1849),  the  standard 
Catholic  account;  Lodge  in  Hunt  and  Poole,  Political  Hist,  of 
England,  VIII  (London,  1910);  Temperley  in  Cambridge  Modern 
Hist.,  V  (London,  1908);  Trevelyan,  England  under  the  Stuarts 
(London,  1904);  Wtatt-Davies,  Hist,  of  England  for  Catholic 
Schools  (London,  1903);  Green,  Hist,  of  the  English  People 
(London,  1877-80);  Macaulay,  Hist,  of  England  (London,  1849); 
Taswell-Langmead,  English  Constitutional  Hist.  (London, 
1875);  Bright,  Hist,  of  England,  2nd  period  (London,  1880); 
GuizOT,  Pourquoi  la  Revolution  a-t-elle  reussif  {1640-1688) 
(Paris,  1850) ;  Mazure,  Hist,  de  la  revol.  de  1688  (3  vols.,  Paris, 
1825).  For  earlier  accounts  consult  Defoe,  Revol.  of  1688  re- 
printed in  Arber,  English  Garner,  XII  (London,  1903) ;  Eachard, 
Hist,  of  the  Revol.  in  1688  (London,  1725);  Burnet,  Hist,  of  my 
Own  Times  (last  edition,  Oxford,  1897-1900);  Dodd,  Church 
Hist.  (Wolverhampton  vere  Brussels,  1737-42);  Speke,  Secret 
Hist,  of  the  happy  Revol.,  1688  (London,  1715). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Revolution,  French. — The  last  thirty  years 
have  given  us  a  new  version  of  the  history  of  the 
French  Revolution,  the  most  diverse  and  hostile 
schools  having  contributed  to  it.  The  philosopher, 
Taine,  drew  attention  to  the  affinity  between  the 
revolutionary  and  what  he  calls  the  classic  spirit,  that 
is,  the  spirit  of  abstraction  which  gave  rise  to  Car- 
tesianism  and  produced  certain  masterpieces  of  French 
literature.  Moreover  he  admirably  demonstrated  the 
mechanism  of  the  local  revolutionary  committees  and 
showed  how  a  daring  Jacobin  minority  was  able  to 
enforce  its  will  as  that  of  "the  people ".  Following  up 
this  line  of  research  M.  Augustin  Cochin  has  quite 
recently  studied  the  mechanism  of  the  socieles  de 
pensee  in  which  the  revolutionary  doctrine  was  devel- 
oped and  in  which  were  formed  men  quite  prepared 
to  put  this  doctrine  into  execution.  The  influence  of 
freemasonry  in  the  P>ench  Revolution  proclaimed  by 
Louis  Blanc  and  by  freemasonry  itself  is  proved  by 
the  researches  of  M.  Cochin.  Sorel  has  brought  out 
the  connexion  between  the  diplomacy  of  the  Revolu- 
tion and  that  of  the  old  regime.  His  works  prove 
that  the  Revolution  did  not  mark  a  break  in  the 
continuity  of  the  foreign  policy  of  France.  The 
radically  inclined  historical  school,  founded  and  led  by 
M.  Aulard,  has  published  numerous  useful  documents 
as  well  as  the  review,  "La  Revolution  Frangaise". 
Two  years  since,  a  schism  occurred  in  this  school,  M. 
Mathiez  undertaking  in  opposition  to  I\L  Aulard  the 
defence  of  Robespierre,  in  consequence  of  which  he 
founded  a  new  review,  "LesAnnales  Revolution- 
naires".  The  "Societe  d'histoire  contemporaine", 
founded  under  Catholic  auspices,  has  published  a 
series  of  texts  bearing  on  revolutionary  history. 
Lastly  the  works  of  Abbe  Sicard  have  revealed  in  the 
clergy  who  remained  faithful  to  Rome  various  ten- 
dencies, some  legitimist,  others  more  favourable  to 
the  new  political  forms,  a  new  side  of  the  history  of 
the  French  clergy  being  thus  developed.  Such  are 
the  most  recent  additions  to  the  history  of  the  French 
Revolution.  This  article,  however,  will  emphasize 
more  especially  the  relations  between  the  Revolution 
and  the  Church  (see  France). 

Meeting  of  the  Estates. — The  starting  point  of 
the  French  Revolution  was  the  convocation  of  the 
States  General  by  Louis  XVL  They  comprised  three 
orders,  nobility,  clergy,  and  the  third  estate,  the 
last  named  being  permitted  to  have  as  many  members 
as  the  two  other  orders  together.  The  electoral 
regulation  of  24  January.  1789,  assured  the  parochial 
clergy  a  large  majority  in  the  meetings  of  the  bailliages 
which  were  to  elect  clerical  representatives  to  the 
States  General.  While  chapters  were  to  send  to 
these  meetings  only  a  single  delegate  for  ten  canons, 
and^  each  convent  only  one  of  its  members,  all  the 
cures  were  permitted  to  vote.  The  number  of  the 
"order"  of  clergy  at  the  States  General  exceeded 
300,  among  whom  were  44  prelates,  208  cures,  50 
canons  and  commendatory  abbots,  and  some  monks. 
The  clergy  advocated  almost  as  forcibly  as  did  the 
Third  Estate  the  establishment  of  a  constitutional 
government  based  on  the  separation  of  the  powers, 


the  periodical  convocation  of  the  States  General,  their 
supremacy  in  financial  matters,  the  responsibility  of 
ministers,  and  the  regular  guarantee  of  individual 
liberty.  Thus  the  true  and  great  reforms  tending  to 
the  establishment  of  liberty  were  advocated  by  the 
clergy  on  the  eve  of  tlie  Revolution.  When  the 
Estates  assembled  5  May,  1789,  the  Third  Estate 
demanded  that  the  verification  of  powers  should  be 
made  in  common  by  the  three  orders,  the  object  being 
that  the  Estates  should  form  but  one  assembly  in 
which  the  distinction  between  the  "orders"  should 
disappear  and  where  every  member  was  to  have  a 
vote.  Scarcely  a  fourth  of  the  clergy  had  formally 
advocated  this  reform,  but  from  the  opening  of  the 
Estates  it  was  evident  that  the  parochial  clergy 
desired  individual  voting  which  would  give  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Third  Estate,  the  advocates  of  reform, 
an  effectual  preponderance. 

As  early  as  23  May,  1789,  the  cur^s  at  the  house 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux  were  of  the  opinion 
that  the  power  of  the  deputies  should  be  verified 
in  the  general  assembly  of  the  Estates,  and  when 
on  17  June  the  members  of  the  Third  Estate  pro- 
claimed themselves  the  "National  Assembly",  the 
majority  of  the  clergy  decided  (19  June)  to  join  them. 
As  the  higher  clergy  and  the  nobility  still  held  out, 
the  king  caused  the  hall  where  the  meetings  of  the 
Third  Estate  were  held  to  be  closed  (20  June),  where- 
upon the  deputies,  with  their  president,  Bailly,  re- 
paired to  the  Jeu  de  Paume  and  an  oath  was  taken 
not  to  disband  till  they  had  provided  France  with  a 
constitution.  After  ^lirabeau's  thundering  speech 
(23  June)  addressed  to  the  Marquis  de  Dreux-Brcze, 
master-of-ceremonies  to  Louis  X\T,  the  king  himself 
(27  June)  invited  the  nobility  to  join  the  Third 
Estate.  Louis  XVFs  dismissal  of  the  reforming 
minister,  Necker,  and  the  concentration  of  the  royal 
army  about  Paris,  brought  about  the  insurrection 
of  14  July,  and  the  capture  of  the  Bastille.  M.  Funck- 
Brentano  has  destroyed  the  legends  which  rapidly 
arose  in  connexion  with  the  celebrated  fortress. 
There  was  no  rising  en  masse  of  the  people  of  Paris, 
and  the  number  of  the  besiegers  was  but  a  thousand 
at  most;  only  seven  prisoners  were  found  at  the 
Bastille,  four  of  whom  were  forgers,  one  a  young 
man  guilty  of  monstrous  crimes  and  who  for  the  sake 
of  his  family  was  kept  at  the  Bastille  that  he  might 
escape  the  death-penalty,  and  two  insane  prisoners. 
But  in  the  public  opinion  the  Bastille  symbolized 
royal  absolutism  and  the  capture  of  this  fortress  was 
regarded  as  the  overthrow  of  the  whole  regime,  and 
foreign  nations  attached  great  importance  to  the 
event.  Louis  XVI  yielded  before  this  agitation; 
Necker  was  recalled;  Bailly  became  Mayor  of  Paris; 
Lafayette,  commander  of  the  national  "militia;  the 
tri-colour  was  adopted,  and  Louis  X\T  consented  to 
recognize  the  title  of  "National  Constituent  Assem- 
bly". Te  Deums  and  processions  celebrated  the 
taking  of  the  Bastille;  in  the  pulpits  the  Abbe 
Fauchet  preached  the  harmony  of  religion  and 
liberty.  As  a  result  of  the  establishment  of  the  "vote 
by  order"  the  political  privileges  of  the  clergy  may 
be  considered  to  have  ceased  to  exist. 

During  the  night  of  4  August,  1789,  at  the  instance 
of  the  Vicomte  de  Noailles,  the  Assembly  voted  with 
extraordinary  enthusiasm  the  abolition  of  all  priv- 
ileges and  feudal  rights  and  the  equality  of  all  French- 
men. A  blow  was  thereby  struck  at  the  wealth  of  the 
clergy,  but  the  churchmen  were  the  first  to  give  an 
example  of  sacrifice.  Plurality  of  benefices  and 
annates  was  abolished  and  the  redemption  of  tithes 
was  agreed  upon,  but  two  days  later,  the  higher 
clergy  becoming  uneasy,  demanded  another  discus- 
sion of  the  vote  which  had  carried  the  redemption. 
The  result  was  the  abolition,  pure  and  simple,  of 
tithes  without  redemption.  In  the  course  of  the  dis- 
cussion Buzot  declared  that  the  property  of  the  clergy 


REVOLUTION 


10 


REVOLUTION 


belonged  to  the  nation.  Louis  X\'rs  conscience  began 
to  be  alarmed.  He  temporized  for  five  weeks,  then 
merely  published  the  decrees  as  general  principles, 
reserving  the  right  to  approve  or  reject  later  the 
measures  which  the  Assemblj'  would  take  to  enforce 
them. 

Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man.  Cathol- 
icism Ce.^ses  to  be  the  Religion  of  the  State. — 
Before  giving  P>ance  a  constitution  the  Assembly 
judged  it  necessarj'  to  draw  up  a  "Declaration  of  the 
Rights  of  Man  and  of  the  Citizen",  which  should  form 
a  preamble  to  the  Constitution.  Camus's  suggestion 
that  to  the  declaration  of  the  rights  of  man  should  be 
added  a  declaration  of  his  duties,  was  rejected.  The 
Declaration  of  Rights  mentions  in  its  preamble  that 
it  is  made  in  the  presence  and  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Supreme  Being,  but  out  of  three  of  the  articles 
proposed  by  the  clergy,  guaranteeing  the  respect  due 
to  religion  and  public  worship,  two  were  rejected  after 
speeches  by  the  Protestant,  Rabaut  Saint-Etienne, 
and  ^lirabeau,  and  the  only  article  relating  to  religion 
was  worded  as  follows:  "No  one  shall  be  disturbed 
for  his  opinions,  even  religious,  provided  their  mani- 
festation does  not  disturb  the  puljlic  order  established 
by  law."  In  fact  it  was  the  wish  of  the  Assembly 
that  Catholicism  should  cease  to  be  the  religion  of  the 
State  and  that  liberty  of  worship  should  be  estab- 
lished. It  subsequently  declared  Protestants  eligible 
to  all  offices  (24  Dec,  1789),  restored  to  their  posses- 
sions and  status  as  Frenchmen  the  heirs  of  Protestant 
refugees  (10  July  and  9  Dec,  1790),  and  uook  measures 
in  favour  of  the  Jews  (28  January,  2C  July,  16  Aug., 
1790).  But  it  soon  became  evident  in  the  discussions 
relating  to  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  clergy  that 
the  A.ssembly  desired  that  the  Catholic  Church,  to 
which  the  majority  of  the  French  people  belonged, 
should  be  subject  to  the  State  and  really  organized 
by  the  State. 

The  rumours  that  Louis  XVI  sought  to  fly  to  Metz 
and  place  himself  under  the  protection  of  the  army 
of  Bouill6  in  order  to  organize  a  counter-revolu- 
tionarj'  movement  and  his  refusal  to  promulgate  the 
Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man,  brought  about  an 
uprising  in  Paris.  The  mob  set  out  to  Versailles, 
and  amid  insults  brought  back  the  king  and  queen 
to  Paris  (6  Oct.,  1789).  Thenceforth  the  Assembly 
sat  at  Paris,  first  at  the  archiepiscopal  residence,  then 
at  the  Tuileries.  At  this  moment  the  idea  of  taking 
possession  of  the  goods  of  the  clergy  in  order  to  meet 
financial  exigencies  began  to  appear  in  a  number  of 
journals  and  pamphlets.  The  plan  of  confiscating 
this  property,  which  had  been  suggested  as  early 
as  8  August  by  the  Marquis  de  Lacostc,  -wuh  resumed 
(24  Sept.)  by  the  economist,  Dupont  de  Nemours, 
and  on  10  October  was  supported  in  the  name  of  the 
Committee  of  Finances  in  a  report  which  caused 
scandal  by  Talleyrand,  Bishop  of  Autun,  who  under 
the  old  regime  had  been  one  of  the  two  "general 
agents"  charged  with  defending  the  financial  in- 
terests of  the  French  clergv.  On  12  October 
Mirabeau  requ(iKt<^5d  the  Assernbly  to  decree  (1)  that 
the  ownership  of  the  church  i)roperty  belonged  to 
the  nation  that  it  might  provide  for  the  support  of 
the  Drif«t«;  (2)  that  the  salary  of  each  curt'-  should 
not  be  less  than  12CJ0  livres.  The  plan  was  discussed 
from  13  OctoV>er  to  2  November.  It  was  opposed 
by  lioisgelin,  la  Luzerne,  Bonal,  Dillon,  the  Abb*';  de 
Montf«fjuieu,  and  tlic  Abb(';  Maury,  who  contended 
that  the  clergy  being  a  moral  person  could  be  an 
owner,  disput^^l  the  ffstimaffs  placed  upon  the 
wealth  of  the  clergy,  and  suggested  that  fhcir  nos- 
BfHKion)"  should  simfily  hctvc  as  a  guarantee  for  a  loan 
of  4(KJ.fKK),fKK)  livres  to  the  nation.  The  a^lvocates 
of  confisfatiori  maintained  that  the  clergy  no  longer 
existwl  as  an  order,  that  the;  property  wan  like  an 
escheatefl  Huccfrssion,  and  that  thr-  State  had  th«'  right 
to  claim  it,  that  moreover  the  Royal  Government  had 


never  expressly  recognized  the  clergj'  as  a  proprietor, 
that  in  1749  Louis  XV  had  forbidden  the  clergy  to 
receive  anything  without  the  authoritj'  of  the  State, 
and  that  he  had  confiscated  the  property  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  Malouet  took  an  intermediate 
stand  and  demanded  that  the  State  should  confiscate 
only  superfluous  ecclesiastical  possessions,  but  that 
the  parochial  clergy  should  be  endowed  with  land. 
Finally,  on  2  November,  1789,  the  Assembly  decided 
that  the  possessions  of  the  clergy  be  "placed  at  the 
disposal"  of  the  nation.  The  results  of  this  vote 
were  not  long  in  following.  The  first  was  Treilhard's 
motion  (17  December),  demanding  in  the  name  of  the 
ecclesiastical  committee  of  the  Assembly,  the  closing 
of  useless  convents,  and  decreeing  that  the  State 
should  permit  the  religious  to  release  themselves 
from  their  monastic  vows. 

The  discussion  of  this  project  began  in  February, 
1790,  after  the  Assembly  by  the  creation  of  assemblies 
of  departments,  districts,  and  commons,  had  pro- 
ceeded to  the  administrative  reorganization  of  France. 
The  discussion  was  again  very  violent.  On  13 
February,  1790,  the  Assembly,  swayed  by  the  more 
radical  suggestions  of  Barnave  and  Thouret,  decreed 
as  a  "constitutional  article"  that  not  only  should  the 
law  no  longer  recognize  monastic  vows,  but  that  re- 
ligious orders  and  congregations  were  and  should 
remain  suppressed  in  France,  and  that  no  others 
should  be  established  in  the  future.  After  having 
planned  a  partial  suppression  of  monastic  orders  the 
Assembly  voted  for  their  total  suppression.  The 
proposal  of  Cazalcs  (17  P^ebruary)  calling  for  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  the  right- 
ful efforts  made  by  the  higher  clergy  to  prevent 
Catholics  from  purchasing  the  confiscated  goods  of 
the  Church  provoked  rejirisals.  On  17  March,  1790, 
the  Assembly  decided  that  the  400,000,000  livres^ 
worth  of  alienated  ecclesiastical  properties  should 
be  sold  to  municipalities  which  in  turn  should  sell 
them  to  private  buyers.  On  14  April  it  decided  that 
the  maintenance  of  Catholic  worship  should  be 
provided  for  without  recourse  to  the  revenues  of 
former  ecclesiastical  property  and  that  a  suflficient 
sum,  fixed  at  more  than  133,000,000  livres  for  the 
first  year,  should  be  entered  in  the  budget  for  the 
allowances  to  be  made  to  the  clergy;  on  17  April 
the  decree  was  passed  dealing  with  the  assignats, 
papers  issued  by  the  Government  paying  interest 
at  5  per  cent,  and  which  were  to  be  accepted  as 
money  in  payment  for  the  ecclesiastical  jjrojierty, 
thenceforth  called  national  property;  finally,  on  9 
July,  it  was  decreed  that  all  this  property  should 
be  put  up  for  sale. 

Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy. — On  6 
February,  1790,  the  Assembly  charged  its  ecclesias- 
tical committee,  appointed  20  Aug.,  1789,  and  com- 
posed of  fifteen  members  to  prepare  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  clergy.  Fifteen  new  members  were  added 
to  the  committee  on  7  February.  The  "constitu- 
ents" were  disciples  of  the  eighteenth-century 
philosophes  who  subordinated  religion  to  the  State; 
moreover,  to  understand  their  standpoint  it  is  well 
to  bear  in  mind  that  many  of  them  were  jurists  im- 
bued with  Gallican  and  Josephist  ideas.  Finally 
Taine  has  proved  that  in  many  respects  their  re- 
ligious policy  merely  followed  in  the  footstei)s  of  the 
old  regime,  but  while  the  old  regime  protected  the 
Catholic  Church  and  made  it  llie  church  exclusively 
recognizcfl,  the  constituents  planned  to  enslave  it 
after  h.-iving  stripyx'd  it  of  its  privileges.  Further- 
more they  did  not  take  into  account  that  there  are 
mixed  matters  that  can  only  be  regulated  after  an 
agreement  with  ecclesiastical  authority.  They  were 
especially  incensed  against  the  clergy  after  the 
consistorial  address  in  which  Pius  VI  (22  March, 
1790)  reproved  some  of  the  measures  already  taken 
by  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  by  the  news  re- 


REVOLUTION 


11 


REVOLUTION 


ceived  from  the  West  and  kSouth  where  the  just 
dissatisfaction  of  Cathohc  consciences  had  provoked 
disturbances;  in  particular  the  election  of  the  Prot- 
estant Rabaut  Saint-Etienne  to  the  presidency  of 
the  National  Assembly  brought  about  commotions 
at  Toulouse  and  Nimes.  Under  the  influence  of  these 
disturbances  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy 
was  developed.  On  29  May,  1790,  it  was  laid  before 
the  Assembly.  Bonal,  Bishop  of  Clermont,  and 
some  members  of  the  Right  requested  that  the  proj- 
ect should  be  submitted  to  a  national  council  or  to 
the  pope.  But  the  Assembly  proceeded ;  it  discussed 
the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy  from  1  June  to 
12  July,  1790,  on  which  date  it  was  passed. 

This  Constitution  compri.sed  four  titles.  Title 
I,  Ecclesiastical  Offices:  Diocesan  boundaries  were 
to  agree  with  those  of  departments,  57  episcopal 
sees  being  thus  suppressed.  The  title  of  archbishop 
was  abolished;  out  of  S3  remaining  bishoprics  10 
were  called  metropolitan  bishoprics  and  given  juris- 
diction over  the  neighbouring  dioceses.  No  section 
of  French  territory  should  recognize  the  authority 
of  a  bishop  living  abroad,  or  of  his  delegates,  and  this, 
adds  the  Constitution,  "without  prejudice  to  the 
unity  of  faith  and  the  communion  which  shall  be 
maintained  with  the  head  of  the  Universal  Church". 
Canonries,  prebends,  and  priories  were  aboli-shed. 
There  should  no  longer  be  any  sacerdotal  posts  es- 
pecially devoted  to  fulfilling  the  conditions  of  Mass 
foundations.  All  appeals  to  Rome  were  forbidden. 
Title  II,  Appointment  to  Benefices:  Bishops  should 
be  appointed  by  the  Electoral  Assembly  of  the  de- 
partment; they  should  be  invested  and  consecrated 
by  the  metropolitan  and  take  an  oath  of  fidelity 
to  the  nation,  the  King,  the  Law.  and  the  Constitu- 
tion; they  should  not  seek  any  confirmation  from  the 
pope.  Pari.sh  priests  should  be  elected  by  the  elec- 
toral as.semblies  of  the  districts.  Thus  all  citizens, 
even  Protestants,  Jews,  and  nominal  Catholics,  might 
name  titulars  to  ecclesiastical  offices,  and  the  first 
obligation  of  priests  and  bishops  was  to  take  an  oath 
of  fidelity  to  the  Constitution  which  denied  to  the 
Holy  See  any  effective  power  over  the  Church. 
Title  III,  Salary  of  ministers  of  Religion:  The  Con- 
stitution fixed  the  salary  of  the  Bishop  of  Paris  at 
51,000  livres  (about  $10,200),  that  of  bishops  of 
towns  whose  population  exceeded  50,000  souls  at 
20,000  livres  (about  $4000),  that  of  other  bishops  at 
12,000  livres  (about  $2400),  that  of  curfe  at  a  sum 
ranging  from  6000  (about  $1200)  to  1200  livres 
(about  $240).  For  the  lower  clergy  this  was  a  bet- 
terment of  their  material  condition,  especially  as  the 
real  value  of  these  sums  was  two  and  one-half  times 
the  present  amount.  Title  IV,  dealing  with  resi- 
dence, made  very  severe  conditions  regarding  the  ab- 
sences of  bishops  and  priests. 

At  the  festival  of  the  Federation  (14  July,  1790) 
Talleyrand  and  three  hundred  priests  ofliciating  at  the 
altar  of  the  nation  erected  on  the  Champs-de-Mars 
wore  the  tri-coloured  girdle  above  their  priestly 
vestments  and  besought  the  ble.ssing  of  God  on  the 
Revolution.  Deputations  were  present  from  the 
towns  of  France,  and  there  was  inaugurated  a  sort 
of  cult  of  the  Fatherland,  the  remote  origin  of  all 
the  "Revolutionary  cults".  On  10  July,  1790,  in  a 
confidential  Brief  to  Louis  XVI,  Pius  VI  expressed  the 
alarm  with  which  the  project  under  discussion  filled 
him.  He  commissioned  two  ecclesiastics  who  were 
ministers  of  Louis  XVI,  Champion  de  Cice  and 
Lefranc  de  Pompignan,  to  urge  the  king  not  to  sign 
the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy.  On  28  July, 
in  a  letter  to  the  pope,  Louis  XVI  replied  that  he 
would  be  compelled,  "with  death  in  his  soul",  to 
promulgate  the  Constitution,  that  he  would  reserve 
the  right  to  broach  as  soon  as  possible  the  matter 
of  some  concession,  but  that  if  he  refused,  his  life 
and  the  lives  of  his  family  would  be  endangered. 


The  pope  replied  (17  August)  that  he  still  held  the 
same  opinion  of  the  Constitution,  but  that  he  would 
make  no  public  declaration  on  the  subject  until 
he  consulted  with  the  Sacred  College.  On  24  August 
the  king  promulgated  the  Constitution,  for  which 
he  was  blamed  by  the  pope  in  a  confidential  Brief 
on  22  September.  M.  Mathiez  claims  to  have 
proved  that  the  hesitancy  of  Pius  VI  was  due  to 
temporal  rather  than  to  spiritual  considerations, 
to  his  serious  fears  about  the  affairs  of  Avignon  and  the 
Comtat  Venaissin,  where  certain  popular  parties  were 
clamouring  for  French  troops,  but  the  truth  is  that 
Pius  VI,  who  had  made  known  his  opinion  of  the 
Constitution  to  two  French  prelates,  was  awaiting 
some  manifestation  on  the  part  of  the  French  epis- 
copate. Indeed  the  bishops  spoke  before  the  pope 
had  spoken  publicly.  At  the  end  of  October,  1790, 
they  published  an  "Exposition  des  principes  sur  la 
constitution  civile  du  clerge",  compiled  by  Boisgelin, 
Archbishop  of  Aix,  in  which  they  rejected  the  Con- 
stitution and  called  upon  the  faithful  to  do  the  same. 
This  publication  marks  the  beginning  of  a  violent 
conflict  between  the  episcopate  and  the  Constitution. 
On  27  November,  1790,  after  a  speech  bj'  Mirabeau, 
a  decree  stipulated  that  all  bishops  and  priests  should 
within  a  week,  under  penalty  of  losing  their  offices, 
take  the  oath  to  the  Constitution,  that  all  who  re- 
fused and  who  nevertheless  continued  to  discharge 
their  priestly  functions  should  be  prosecuted  as 
disturbers  of  the  public  peace.  The  king,  who  was 
much  disturbed  by  this  decree,  eventually  sanctioned 
it  (2(i  December,  1790)  in  order  to  avoid  a  rising. 

Hitherto  a  large  section  of  the  lesser  clergy  had 
shown  a  certain  amount  of  sympathy  for  the  Revolu- 
tion, but  when  it  was  seen  that  the  episcopal  members 
of  the  As.sembly  refused  to  take  the  oath,  thus  sac- 
rificing their  sees,  a  number  of  the  priests  followed 
this  disinterested  example.  It  may  be  said  that  from 
the  end  of  1790  the  higher  clergy  and  the  truly  or- 
thodox elements  of  the  lower  clergy  were  united 
against  the  revolutionary  measures.  Thenceforth 
there  were  two  classes,  the  non-juring  or  refractory 
priests,  who  were  faithful  to  Rome  and  refused  the 
oath,  and  the  jurors,  sworn,  or  Constitutional  priests, 
who  had  consented  to  take  the  oath.  M.  de  la  Gorce 
has  recently  sought  to  estimate  the  exact  proportion 
of  the  priests  who  took  the  oath.  Out  of  125  bishops 
there  were  only  four,  Talleyrand  of  Autun,  Brienne  of 
Sens,  Jarente  of  Orleans,  and  Lafond  de  Savine,  of 
Viviers;  three  coadjutors  or  bishops  in  partibus, 
Gobel,  Coadjutor  Bishop  of  Bale;  Martial  de 
Brienne,  Coadjutor  of  Sens;  and  Dubourg-Miraudet, 
Bishop  of  Babylon.  In  the  important  towns  most  of 
the  priests  refused  to  take  the  oath.  Statistics  for 
the  small  boroughs  and  the  country  are  more  difficult 
to  obtain.  The  national  archives  preserve  the  com- 
plete dockets  of  42  departments  which  were  sent  to 
the  Constituent  Assembly  by  the  civil  authorities. 
This  shows  that  in  these  42  departments,  of  23,093 
priests  called  upon  to  swear,  13,118  took  the  oath. 
There  would  be  therefore  out  of  100  priests,  56  to 
57  jurors  against  43  to  44  non-jurors.  M.  de  la  Gorce 
gives  serious  reasons  for  contesting  these  statistics, 
which  were  compiled  by  zealous  bureaucrats  anxious 
to  please  the  central  administrators.  He  asserts  on 
the  other  hand  that  the  schism  had  little  hold  in 
fifteen  departments  and  concludes  that  in  1791  the 
number  of  priests  faithful  to  Rome  was  52  to  55  out 
of  100;  this  is  a  small  enough  majority,  but  one 
which  M.  de  la  Gorce  considers  authentic. 

On  5  February,  1791,  the  Constituent  Assembly 
forbade  every  non-juring  priest  to  preach  in  pubhc. 
In  March  the  elections  to  provide  for  the  vacant 
episcopal  sees  and  parishes  took  place.  Disorder 
grew  in  the  Church  of  France;  young  and  ambitious 
priests,  better  known  for  their  political  than  for  their 
religious  zeal,  were  candidates,  and  in  many  places 


REVOLUTION 


12 


REVOLUTION 


owinp  to  the  opposition  of  good  Catholics  those  elected 
had  much  difficulty  in  taking  possession  of  their 
churches.  At  this  juncture,  seeing  1h«' Constitutional 
Church  thus  set  uj)  in  France  ;igainst  the  legitimate 
Church,  Pius  \l  wrote  two  letters,  one  to  the  bishops 
and  one  to  lx)uis  X\'I,  to  inquire  if  there  remained 
anv  means  to  prevent  schism;  and  finally,  on  13 
April,  1791,  he  issued  a  solemn  condenmation  of  the 
Civil  Constitution  in  a  solemn  Brief  to  the  clergy 
and  the  pooplo.  On  2  May,  1791,  the  annexation  of 
the  Comtat  \enaissin  and  the  city  of  Avignon  by  the 
P>ench  troops  marked  the  rupture  of  diplomatic 
n-lations  between  France  and  tlie  Holy  See.  From 
May,  1791.  there  was  no  longer  an  ambassador  from 
France  at  Rome  or  a  nuncio  at  Paris.  The  Brief  of 
Pius  ^'I  encouraged  the  resistance  of  the  Catholics. 
The  Masses  celebrated  by  non-juring  priests  attracted 
crowds  of  the  faithful.  Then  mobs  gathered  and 
beat  and  outraged  nims  and  other  pious  women. 
On  7  May,  1791,  the  Assembly  decided  that  the  non- 
juring  priests  a,s  pretres  habitues  might  continue  to  say 
Ma.ss  in  parochial  churches  or  conduct  their  services 
in  other  churches  on  condition  that  they  would 
respect  the  laws  and  not  stir  up  revolt  against  the 
Civil  Constitution.  The  Constitutional  priests  became 
more  and  more  unpopular  with  good  Catholics; 
Sciout's  works  go  to  show  that  the  "departmental 
dirfH-tories"  hsA  to  spend  their  time  in  organizing 
regular  police  expeditions  to  protect  the  Constitu- 
tional priests  in  their  parishes  against  the  opposition 
of  good  Catholics,  or  to  prosecute  the  non-juring 
priests  who  heroically  persisted  in  remaining  at  their 
posts.  Finally  on  9  June,  1791,  the  Assembly  forbade 
the  publication  of  all  Bulls  or  Decrees  of  the  Court  of 
Rome,  at  least  until  they  had  been  submitted  to  the 
legislative  body  and  their  pubUcation  authorized. 
Thus  Revolutionary  France  not  only  broke  with 
Rome,  but  wished  to  place  a  barrier  between  Rome 
and  the  Catholics  of  France. 

The  king's  tormenting  conscience  was  the  chief 
reason  for  his  attempted  fhght  (20-21  June,  1791). 
Before  fleeing  he  had  addressed  to  the  Assembly  a 
declaration  of  his  di.ssati.sfaction  with  the  Civil  Con- 
stitution of  the  Clerg>%  and  once  more  protested 
against  the  moral  violence  which  had  compelled  him 
tfj  accept  such  a  document.  Halted  at  Varennes, 
Louis  X\T  was  brought  back  on  2.5  June,  and  was 
suspended  from  his  functions  till  the  completion  of  the 
Constitution,  to  which  he  took  the  oath  13  Sept., 
1791.  On  30  Sept.,  1791,  the  Constituent  Assembly 
diswjlved,  to  make  way  for  the  Legislative  Assembly, 
in  which  none  of  the  members  of  the  Constituent 
A8K<Tribly  could  sit.  The  Constituent  As.sembly  had 
pa«w*d  2.5(X)  laws  and  reorganized  the  whole  P>ench 
a/lministration.  Its  chief  error  from  a  social  stand- 
fXiint,  which  Anatole  I^eroy-Beaulieu  calls  a  capital 
one,  was  U)  paws  the  Chapelier  Decree  (15  June,  1791), 
which  forbiide  working  pwple  to  band  tcjgether  and 
form  associations  "for  their  so-called  common  in- 
UTfwt".  L<*d  astray  by  their  spirit  of  individualism 
and  their  hatred  for  certain  abuses  of  the  old  cor- 
pfjrations,  the  Omstituents  did  not  understand  that 
the  world  of  labour  should  be  organized.  They  were 
n^pfjrihible  for  the  economic  anarchy  which  reigned 
during  the  nineUicnth  century,  and  the  present  syndi- 
cate- movement  as  well  a«  the  efforts  of  the  social 
Catholics  in  cfjnforrnity  with  the  Encyclical  "Rcrum 
novarum"  marks  a  de«'p  and  decisive  reaction  against 
the  work  f)f  the  Omstitufnt  A8s<!mbly. 

The  L?:f;iKLATivK  Askk.mhly. — When  the  Constit- 
uent Asw-mbly  flisbandffl  (.30  Sept.,  1791),  France 
was  aflame  cx>ncfming  the  religious  rjuestion.  More 
than  half  the  French  pf-oph-  did  not  want  tlie  new 
Church,  the  fae-titious  creation  of  the-  law;  the  old 
Church  W!iH  njine<l,  demolished,  hunted  down,  and 
the  general  amnesty  decreed  by  the  C>)nHtituent 
Aaeembly  before  disbanding  could  do  nothing  towards 


restoring  peace  in  the  country,  where  that  Assembly's 
bungling  work  had  unsettled  the  consciences  of  indi- 
viduals. The  parti(>s  in  the  Legislative  Assembly 
were  soon  irreconcilable.  The  Feuillants,  on  the 
Right,  saw  no  salvation  save  in  the  Constitution; 
the  Girondins  on  the  Left,  and  the  Montagnards 
on  the  Extreme  Left,  made  ready  for  the  Republic. 
There  were  men  who,  like  the  poet  Andre  Chenier, 
dreamed  of  a  complete  separation  of  Church  and 
State.  "The  priests",  he  wrote  in  a  letter  to  the 
"Moniteur"  (22  October,  1791),  "will  not  trouble  the 
Estates  when  no  one  is  concerned  about  them,  and 
they  will  always  trouble  them  while  anyone  is  con- 
cerned about  them  as  at  present."  But  the  majority 
of  the  members  of  the  Legislati\e  Assembly  had  sat 
in  the  departmental  or  district  assemblies;  they  had 
fought  against  the  non-juring  priests  and  brought 
violent  passions  and  a  hostile  spirit  to  the  Legislative 
Assembly.  A  report  from  (Jensonne  and  Gallois  to 
the  Legislative  Assemblj'  (9  October,  1791)  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  provinces  of  the  West  denounced  the 
non-juring  ])riests  as  exciting  the  populace  to  rebellion 
and  called  for  measures  against  them.  It  accused 
them  of  complicity  with  the  emigres  bishops.  At 
Avignon  the  Revolutionary  L^cuyer,  having  been 
slain  in  a  church,  some  citizens  reputed  to  be  partizans 
of  the  pope  were  thrown  into  the  ancient  papal  castle 
and  strangled  (16-17  Oct.,  1791).  Calvados  was  also 
the  scene  of  serious  disturbances. 

The  Legislative  Assembly,  instead  of  repairing  the 
tremendous  errors  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  took 
up  the  question  of  the  non-juring  priests.  On  29 
November,  on  the  proposal  of  PYan^oisdeNeuf chateau, 
it  decided  that  if  within  eight  days  they  did  not  take 
the  civil  oath  they  should  be  deprived  of  all  salary, 
that  they  should  be  placed  under  the  surveillance  of 
the  authorities,  that  if  troubles  arose  w'here  they 
resided  they  should  be  sent  away,  that  they  should 
be  imprisoned  for  a  year  if  they  persisted  in  remain- 
ing and  for  two  years  if  they  were  convicted  of  having 
provoked  disobedience  to  the  king.  Finally  it  forbade 
non-juring  priests  the  legal  exercise  of  worship.  It 
also  requested  from  the  departmental  directories  lists 
of  the  jurors  and  non-jurors,  that  it  might,  as  it  said, 
"stamp  out  the  rebellion  which  disguises  itself  under 
a  pretended  dissidence  in  the  exercise  of  the  Catholic 
religion".  Thus  its  decree  ended  in  a  threat.  But 
this  decree  was  the  object  of  a  sharp  conflict  between 
Louis  XVI  and  the  Assembly.  On  9  Dec,  1791,  the 
king  made  his  veto  known  officially.  Parties  began 
to  form.  On  one  side  were  the  king  and  the  Catholics 
faithful  to  Rome,  on  the  other  the  Assembly  and  the 
priests  who  had  taken  the  oath.  The  legislative  power 
was  on  one  side,  the  executive  on  the  other.  In 
March,  1792,  the  Assembly  accused  the  ministers  of 
Louis  XVI;  the  king  replaced  them  by  a  Girondin 
ministry  headed  by  Dumouriez,  with  Roland,  Servan, 
and  Claviere  among  its  members.  They  had  a  double 
policy:  abroad,  war  with  Austria,  and  at  home, 
measures  against  the  non-juring  priests.  Louis  XVI, 
surrounded  by  dangers,  was  also  accused  of  duplicity; 
his  .secret  negotiations  with  foreign  courts  made  it 
possible  for  his  enemies  to  say  that  he  had  already 
conspired  against  France. 

A  pai)al  Brief  of  19  March,  1792,  renewed  the  con- 
demnation of  the  Civil  Constitution  and  visited  with 
major  excommunication  all  juriiig  i)riests  who  after 
sixty  days  should  not  have  retracted,  and  all  Catholics 
who  remained  faithful  to  t hes(>  priest s.  The  Assembly 
replied  by  the  Decree  of  27  May,  1792,  declaring  that 
all  non-juring  priests  might  be  deported  by  the  direc- 
tory of  their  department  at  the  request  of  twenty 
citizens,  and  if  they  should  return  after  expulsion 
they  would  be  liable  to  ten  years'  imprisonment, 
lyouis  vetoed  this  decree.  Thus  arose  a  struggle  not 
only  between  Ix)tiis  XVI  and  the  Assembly,  but 
between  the  king  and  his  ministry.    On  3  June,  1792, 


REVOLUTION 


13 


REVOLUTION 


the  Assembly  decreed  tlic  formation  of  a  camp  near 
Paris  of  20,000  volunteers  to  guard  the  king.  At  the 
ministerial  council  Roland  read  an  insulting  letter 
to  Louis,  in  which  he  called  upon  him  to  sanction  the 
decrees  of  November  and  May  against  the  non-juring 
priests.  He  was  dismissed,  whereupon  the  populace 
of  Paris  arose  and  invaded  the  Tuileries  (20  June, 
1792),  and  for  several  hours  the  king  and  his  family 
were  the  objects  of  all  manner  of  outrages.  After  the 
public  manifesto  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  in  the 
name  of  the  powers  in  coalition  against  France  (25 
July,  1792)  and  the  Assembly's  declaration  of  the 
"Fatherland  in  danger"  there  came  petitions  for 
the  deposition  of  the  king,  who  was  accused  of  be- 
ing in  communication  with  foreign  rulers.  On  10 
August,  Santerre,  Westermann,  and  Fournier  I'Am^ri- 
cain  at  the  head  of  the  national  guard  attacked  the 
Tuileries  defended  by  800  Swiss.  Louis  refused  to 
defend  himself,  and  with  his  family  sought  refuge 
in  the  Legislative  Assembly.  The  Assembly  passed  a 
decree  which  suspended  the  king's  powers,  drew  up 
a  plan  of  education  for  the  dauphin,  and  convoked  a 
national  convention.  Louis  XVI  was  imprisoned 
in  the  Temjile  l)y  order  of  the  insurrectionary  Com- 
mune of  Paris. 

Madness  spread  through  France  caused  by  the 
threatened  danger  from  without;  arrests  of  non- 
juring  priests  nuiltiiilicd.  In  an  effort  to  make  them 
give  way.  The  Assembly  decided  (15  August)  that 
the  oath  should  consist  only  in  the  promise  "to  up- 
hold with  all  one's  might  liberty,  equality,  and  the 
execution  of  the  law,  or  to  die  at  one's  post".  But 
the  non-juring  priests  remained  firm  and  refused 
even  this  second  oath.  On  26  August  the  Assembly 
decreed  that  within  fifteen  days  they  should  be  ex- 
pelled from  the  kingdom,  that  those  who  remained 
or  returned  to  France  should  be  deported  to  Guiana, 
or  .should  be  liable  to  ten  years'  imprisonment.  It 
then  extended  this  threat  to  the  priests,  who,  having 
no  publicly  recognized  priestly  duties,  had  hitherto 
been  dispemsed  from  the  oath,  declaring  that  they  also 
might  be  expelled  if  they  were  convicted  of  having 
provoked  disturbances.  This  was  the  signal  for  a 
real  civil  war.  The  peasants  armed  in  La  Vendee, 
Deux  Hevnjs,  Loire  Inferieure,  Maine  and  Loire,  He 
and  Vilaine.  This  news  and  that  of  the  invasion 
of  Champagne  bj'  the  Prussian  army  caused  hidden 
influences  to  arouse  the  Parisian  populace;  hence  the 
September  ma.ssacres.  In  the  prisons  of  La  Force, 
the  Conciergerie,  and  the  Abbaye  Saint  Germain,  at 
least  1500  women,  priests  and  soldiers  fell  under  the 
axe  or  the  club.  The  celebrated  tribune,  Danton, 
cannot  be  entirely  acquitted  of  complicity  in  these 
massacres.  The  Legislative  Assembly  terminated  its 
career  by  two  new  measures  against  the  Church:  it 
deprived  priests  of  the  right  to  register  births,  etc., 
and  authorized  divorce.  Laicizing  the  civil  state  waa 
not  in  the  minds  of  the  Constituents,  but  was  the 
result  of  the  blocking  of  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the 
Clergy.  The  Legislative  Assembly  was  induced  to 
enact  it  because  the  Catholics  faithful  to  Rome 
would  not  have  recour.se  to  Constitutional  priests  for 
the  registering  of  births,  baptisms,  and  deaths. 

The  Convention;  the  Repuhlic;  the  Reign  of 
Terror. — The  oi)ening  of  the  National  Convention 
(21  Sept.,  1792)  took  place  the  day  following  Dumou- 
riez's  victory  at  Valmy  over  the  Prussian  troops. 
The  constitutional  bishop,  Gregoire,  proclaimed  the 
republic  at  the  first  session;  he  was  surrounded  in 
the  assembly  by  fifteen  constitutional  bishops  and 
twenty-eight  constitutional  priests.  But  the  time 
was  at  hand  when  the  constitutional  clergy  in  turn 
was  to  be  under  suspicion,  the  majority  of  the  Con- 
vention being  hostile  to  Christianity  itself.  As  early 
as  16  November,  1792,  Cambon  demanded  that  the 
salaries  of  the  priests  be  suppressed  and  that  hence- 
forth no  religion  should  be  subsidized  by  the  State, 


but  the  motion  was  rejected  for  the  time  being. 
Henceforth  the  Convention  enacted  all  manner  of 
arbitrary  political  measures:  it  undertook  the  trial 
of  Louis  XVI,  and  on  2  January,  1793,  "hurled  a 
king's  head  at  Europe".  But  from  a  religious  stand- 
point it  w;;as  more  timid;  it  feared  to  disturb  the 
people  of  Savoy  and  Belgium,  which  its  armies  were 
annexing  to  France.  From  10  to  15  March,  1793, 
formidable  insurrections  broke  out  in  La  Vendee, 
Anjou,  and  a  part  of  Brittany.  At  the  same  time 
Dumouriez,  having  been  defeated  at  Neerwinden. 
sought  to  turn  his  army  against  the  Convention,  and 
he  himself  went  over  to  the  Austrians.  The  Con- 
vention took  fright;  it  instituted  a  Revolutionary 
Tribunal  on  9  March,  and  on  6  April  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety,  with  formidable  powers,  was  estab- 
lished. 

Increasingly  severe  mea.sures  were  taken  chiefly 
against  the  non-juring  clergy.  On  18  Feb.,  1793,  the 
Convention  voted  a  prize  of  one  hundred  livres  to 
w;homsoever  should  denounce  a  priest  liable  to  deporta- 
tion and  who  remained  in  France  despite  the  law. 
On  1  March  the  emigres  were  sentenced  to  perpetual 
banishment  and  their  property  confiscated.  On  18 
March  it  was  decreed  that  any  emigre  or  deported 
priest  arrested  on  French  soil  should  be  executed 
within  twenty-four  hours.  On  23  April  it  was  enacted 
that  all  ecclesiastics,  priests  or  monks,  who  had  not 
taken  the  oath  prescribed  by  the  Decree  of  15  August, 
1792,  should  be  transported  to  Guiana;  even  the 
priests  who  had  taken  the  oath  should  be  treated 
likewise  if  six  citizens  should  denounce  them  for  lack 
of  citizenship.  But  despite  all  these  measures  the 
non-juring  priests  remained  faithful  to  Rome.  The 
pope  had  maintained  in  France  an  official  internuncio, 
the  Abb6  de  Salamon,  who  kept  himself  in  hiding 
and  performed  his  duties  at  the  risk  of  his  life,  gave 
information  concerning  current  events,  and  trans- 
mitted orders.  The  proconsuls  of  the  Convention, 
Freron  and  Barras  at  Marseilles  and  Toulon,  Tallien 
at  Bordeaux,  Carrier  at  Nantes,  perpetrated  abomin- 
able ma.ssacres.  In  Paris  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal, 
carrying  out  the  proposals  of  the  public  accu.ser, 
Foucjuier-Tinville,  inaugurated  the  Reign  of  Terror. 
The  proscription  of  the  Girondins  by  the  Montagn- 
ards  (2  June,  1793),  marked  a  progress  in  demagogy. 
The  assassination  of  the  bloodthirsty  demagogue, 
Marat,  by  Charlotte  Corday  (13  July,  1793)  gave  rise 
to  extravagant  manifestations  in  honour  of  Marat. 
But  the  provinces  did  not  follow  this  policy.  News 
came  of  insurrections  in  Caen,  Marseilles,  Lyons,  and 
Toulon;  at  the  same  time  the  Spaniards  were  in 
Roussillon,  the  Piedmontese  in  Savoy,  the  Austriana 
in  Valenciennes,  and  the  Vendeans  defeated  Kleber 
at  Torfou  (Sept.,  1793).  The  crazed  Convention 
decreed  a  rising  en  masse;  the  heroic  resistance  of 
Valenciennes  and  Mainz  gave  Carnot  time  to  organ- 
ize new  armies.  At  the  same  time  the  Convention 
passed  the  Law  of  Suspects  (17  Sept.,  1793),  which 
authorized  the  imprisonment  of  almost  anyone  and 
as  a  consequence  of  which  30,000  were  imprisoned. 
Informing  became  a  trade  in  France.  Queen  Marie 
Antoinette  was  beheaded  16  October,  1793.  Fourteen 
Carmelites  who  were  executed  17  July,  1794,  were 
declared  Venerable  by  Leo  XIII  in  1902. 

From  a  religious  point  of  view  a  new  feature  arose 
at  this  period — the  constitutional  clergy,  accused  of 
sympathy  with  the  Girondins,  came  to  be  suspected 
almost  as  much  as  the  non-juring  priests.  Numerous 
conflicts  arose  between  the  constitutional  priests  and 
the  civil  authorities  with  regard  to  the  decree  of  the 
Convention  which  did  not  permit  priests  to  ask  those 
intending  to  marry  if  they  were  baptized,  had  been 
to  confession,  or  were  divorced.  The  constitutional 
bi.shops  would  not  .submit  to  the  Convention  when  it 
required  them  to  give  apostate  priests  the  nuptial 
bles.sing.    Despite  the  example  of  the  constitutional 


REVOLUTION 


14 


REVOLUTION 


bishop,  Thomas  Lindet,  a  member  of  the  Convention, 
who  won  the  applause  of  the  .\ssembly  by  announcing 
his  marriage,  despite  the  scandal  given  by  Gobel, 
Bishop  of  Paris,  in  appointing  2,  married  priest  to  a 
post  in  Paris,  the  majority  of  constitutional  bishops 
remained  hostile  to  the  marriage  of  priests.  The 
conflict  between  them  and  the  Convention  became 
notorious  when,  on  19  July,  1793,  a  decree  of  the  Con- 
vention decided  that  the  bishops  who  directly  or 
indirectlv  offered  any  obstacle  to  the  marriage  of 
priests  should  be  deported  and  replaced.  In  October 
the  Convention  declared  that  the  constitutional 
priests  themselves  should  be  deported  if  they  were 
found  wanting  in  citizenship.  The  measures  taken 
by  the  Convention  to  substitute  the  Revolutionary 
calendar  for  the  old  Christian  calendar,  and  the 
decrees  ordering  the  municipalities  to  seize  and  melt 
down  the  bells  and  treasures  of  the  churches,  proved 
that  certain  currents  prevailed  tending  to  the  de- 
christianization  of  France.  On  the  one  hand  the  rest 
of  dccadi,  every  tenth  day,  replaced  the  Sunday  rest; 
on  the  other  the  Convention  commissioned  Leonard 
Bourdon  (19  Sept.,  1793)  to  compile  a  collection  of 
the  heroic  actions  of  Republicans  to  replace  the  lives 
of  the  saints  in  the  schools.  The  "missionary  repre- 
sentatives", sent  to  the  provinces,  closed  churches, 
hunted  down  citizens  suspected  of  religious  practices, 
endeavoured  to  constrain  priests  to  marry,  and 
threatened  with  deportation  for  lack  of  citizenship 
priests  who  refused  to  abandon  their  posts.  Persecu- 
tion of  all  religious  ideas  began.  At  the  request  of 
the  Paris  Commune,  Gobel,  Bishop  of  Paris,  and 
thirteen  of  his  vicars  resigned  at  the  bar  of  the  Con- 
vention (7  November)  and  their  example  was  followed 
by  several  constitutional  bishops. 

The  Montagnards  who  considered  worship  neces- 
sary replaced  the  Catholic  Sunday  Mass  by  the  civil 
mass  of  decadi.  Having  failed  to  reform  and  na- 
tionalize Catholicism  they  endeavoured  to  form  a 
sort  of  civil  cult,  a  development  of  the  worship  of  the 
fatherland  which  had  been  inaugurated  at  the  feast 
of  the  Federation.  The  Church  of  Notre-Dame-de- 
Paris  became  a  temple  of  Reason,  and  the  feast  of 
Reason  was  celebrated  on  10  November.  The 
Goddesses  of  Reason  and  Liberty  were  not  always  the 
daughters  of  low  people;  they  frequently  came  of 
the  middle  classes.  Recent  research  has  thrown 
new  light  on  the  history  of  these  cults.  M.  Aulard 
was  the  first  to  recognize  that  the  idea  of  honouring 
the  fatherland,  which  had  its  origin  in  the  festival 
of  the  Federation  in  1790,  gave  rise  to  successive 
cults.  Going  deeper  M.  Mathicz  developed  the 
theory,  that  confronted  by  the  blocking  of  the  Civil 
Constitution,  the  Conventionals,  who  had  witnessed 
in  the  successive  feasts  of  the  Federation  the  power 
of  formulas  on  the  minds  of  the  ma.sses,  wanted  to 
create  a  real  culle  de  la  palrie,  a  sanction  of  faith  in 
the  fatherland.  On  23  November,  1793,  Chaumette 
pasftfKl  a  law  alienating  all  churches  in  the  capital. 
This  example  was  followed  in  the  provinces,  where  all 
city  churches  and  a  number  of  tnose  in  the  country 
were  closed  to  Catholic  worship.  The  Convention 
offered  a  prize  for  the  abjuration  of  priests  by  passing 
a  decree  which  assured  a  pension  to  priests  who 
abjurwl,  and  the  most  painful  day  of  that  sad  periorl 
was  20  Novr-mber,  1793,  when  men,  women,  and 
childrf-n  drfssfd  in  priostly  garments  taken  from  the 
Church  of  St.  Gfrmain  df-s  Pr<'-H  marched  through  the 
hall  of  the  Convention.  Laloi,  who  presiflorl,  con- 
(5ratulaf/'d  them,  sayint?  thcv  ha/1  " wiper]  out  eigh- 
teen centiirifrs  of  frror".  Despite  the  part  played 
bv  Chaumftt/^-  and  thf  Commune  of  Paris  in  the  work 
of  violont  dechriptianization,  M.  Mathiez  h.'is  proved 
that  it  is  not  correct  fo  lav  on  the  0^)mmune  and  the 
Exagf'Tf'H  fui  fhf-y  were  called .  the  entire  responnibility, 
and  that  a  Moflerate,  an  Indulgent,  namely  Tlmriot, 
\h{t  friend  of  Danton,  was  one  of  the  most  violent 


instigators.  It  is  thus  clear  why  Robespierre  who 
desired  a  reaction  against  these  excesses,  should  at- 
tack both  Exageres  and  Indulgents. 

Indeed  a  reactionary  movement  was  soon  evident. 
As  early  as  21  November,  1793,  Robespierre  com- 
plained of  the  "madmen  who  could  only  revive 
fanaticism".  On  5  December,  he  caused  the  Con- 
vention to  adopt  the  text  of  a  manifesto  to  the  na- 
tions of  Europe  in  which  the  members  declared  that 
they  sought  to  protect  the  liberty  of  all  creeds;  on 
7  December,  he  supported  the  motion  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Safety  which  reported  the  bad  effect 
in  the  provinces  of  the  intolerant  violence  of  the 
missionary  representatives,  and  which  forbade  in 
future  all  threats  or  violence  contrary  to  liberty  of 
worship.  These  decrees  were  the  cause  of  warfare 
between  Robespierre  and  enthusiasts  such  as  Hubert 
and  Clootz.  At  first  Robespierre  sent  his  enemies 
to  the  scaffold;  Hcbert  and  Clootz  were  beheaded 
in  March,  1794,  Chaumette  and  Bishop  Gobel  in 
April.  But  in  this  same  month  of  April  Robes- 
pierre sent  to  the  scaffold  the  Moderates,  Des- 
moulins  and  Danton,  who  wanted  to  stop  the 
Terror,  and  became  the  master  of  France  with  his 
lieutenants  Couthon  and  Saint-Just.  M.  Aulard 
regards  Robespierre  as  having  been  hostile  to  the 
dechristianization  for  religious  and  political  motives; 
he  explains  that  Robespierre  shared  the  admiration 
for  Christ  felt  by  Rousseau's  Vicar  Savoyard,  and 
that  he  feared  the  evil  effect  on  the  powers  of  Eu- 
rope of  the  Convention's  anti-religious  policy.  M. 
Mathiez  on  the  other  hand  considers  that  Robespierre 
did  not  condemn  the  dechristianization  in  principle; 
that  he  knew  the  common  hostility  to  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety  of  Moderates  such  as  Thuriot 
and  enthusiasts  like  Hcbert;  and  that  on  the  in- 
formation of  Basire  and  Chabot  he  suspected  both 
parties  of  having  furthered  the  fanatical  measures 
of  dechristianization  only  to  discredit  the  Conven- 
tion abroad  and  thus  more  easily  to  plot  with  the 
powers  hostile  to  France.  Robespierre's  true  in- 
tentions are  still  an  historical  problem.  On  6  April, 
1794,  he  commissioned  Couthon  to  propose  in  the 
name  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  that  a  feast 
be  instituted  in  honour  of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  on 
7  May  Robespierre  himself  outlined  in  a  long  speech 
the  plan  of  the  new  religion.  He  explained  that  from 
the  religious  and  Republican  standpoint  the  idea  of  a 
Supreme  Being  was  advantageous  to  the  State,  that 
religion  should  dispense  with  a  priesthood,  and  that 
priests  were  to  religion  what  charlatans  were  to 
medicine,  and  that  the  true  priest  of  the  Supreme 
Being  was  Nature.  The  Convention  desired  to 
have  this  speech  translated  into  all  languages  and 
adopted  a  decree  of  which  the  first  article  was: 
"The  French  people  recognize  the  existence  of  a 
Supreme  Being  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul". 
The  same  decree  stat(>s  that  freedom  of  worship  is 
maintained  but  adds  that  in  the  case  of  disturbances 
caused  by  the  exerci.se  of  a  religion  tho.s(>  who  "ex- 
cite them  by  fanatical  preaching  or  by  counter- 
Revolutionary  innovations",  shall  be  puni.shed  ac- 
cording to  the  rigour  of  the  law.  Thus  the  condition 
of  the  Catholic  Church  remained  equally  precarious 
and  the  first  festival  of  the  Supreme  Being  was  cele- 
brated throughout  France  on  8  June,  1794,  with 
aggressive  splendour.  Whereas  the  Exagir^s  wished 
simply  to  destroy  Catholicism,  and  in  the  temples 
of  Reason  political  rather  than  moral  doctrines  were 
taught,  RobeHi)ierre  desired  that  the  civic  religion 
should  have  a  moral  code  which  he  based  on  the  two 
dogm.'is  of  God  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
He  w;is  of  the  opinion  that  the  idea  of  God  had  a 
social  value,  that  public  morality  depended  on  it, 
and  that  Catholics  would  more  readily  support  the 
republic  under  the  auspices  of  a  Supreme  Being. 

The  victories  of  the  Republican  armies,  especially 


REVOLUTION 


15 


REVOLUTION 


that  of  Fleurus  (July,  1794),  reassured  the  patriots 
of  the  Convention;  those  of  Cholet,  Mans,  and 
Savenay  marked  the  checking  of  the  Vendean  in- 
surrection. Lyons  and  Toulon  were  recaptured, 
Alsace  was  delivered,  and  the  victory  of  Fleurus 
(26  June,  1794)  gave  Belgium  to  France.  'Wliile 
danger  from  abroad  was  decreasing,  Robespierre  made 
the  mistake  of  putting  to  vote  in  June  the  terrible 
law  of  22  Prairial,  which  still  further  shortened  the 
summary  procedure  of  the  Revolutionary  tribunal 
and  allowed  sentence  to  be  passed  almost  without 
trial  even  on  the  members  of  the  Convention.  The 
Convention  took  fright  and  the  next  day  struck  out 
this  last  clause.  INIontagnards  like  Tallien,  Billaud- 
Varenne,  and  Collot  d'Herbois,  threatened  by  Robes- 
pierre, joined  with  such  Moderates  as  Boissy 
d'  Anglas  and  Durand  Maillane  to  bring  about  the 
coup  d'etat  of  9  Thermidor  (27  July,  1794).  Robes- 
pierre and  his  partisans  were  executed,  and  the 
Thermidorian  reaction  began.  The  Commune  of 
Paris  was  suppressed,  the  Jacobin  Club  closed,  the 
Revolutionary  tribunal  disappeared  after  having  sent 
to  the  scaffold  the  public  accuser  Fouquicr-Tinville 
and  the  Terrorist,  Carrier,  the  author  of  the  noyades 
(drownings)  of  Nantes.  The  death  of  Robespierre 
was  the  signal  for  a  change  of  policy  which  proved 
of  advantage  to  the  Church;  many  imprisoned 
priests  were  released  and  many  emigre  priests  re- 
turned. Not  a  single  law  hostile  to  Catholicism  was 
repealed,  but  the  application  of  them  was  greatly 
relaxed.  The  religious  policy  of  the  Convention 
became  indecisive  and  changeable.  On  21  December, 
1794,  a  .speech  of  the  constitutional  bi.shop,  Grcgoire, 
claiming  effective  liberty  of  worship,  aroused  violent 
murmurings  in  the  Convention,  but  was  applauded 
by  the  people;  and  when  in  Feb.,  179o,  the  generals 
and  commissaries  of  the  Convention  in  their  negotia- 
tions with  the  Vendeans  promised  them  the  restora- 
tion of  their  religious  liberties,  the  Convention  re- 
turned to  the  idea  supported  by  Gregoire,  and  at 
the  suggestion  of  the  Protestant,  Boissy  d' Anglas, 
it  passed  the  Law  of  3  Venldse  (21  Feb.,  1795),  which 
marked  the  enfranchisement  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
This  law  enacted  that  the  republic  should  pay  salaries 
to  the  ministers  of  no  religion,  and  that-no  churches 
should  be  reopened,  but  it  declared  that  the  ex- 
ercise of  religion  should  not  be  disturbed,  and  pre- 
scribed penalties  for  disturbers.  Immediately  the 
constitutional  bishops  issued  an  Encyclical  for  the 
re-establishment  of  Catholic  worship,  but  their 
credit  was  shaken.  The  confidence  of  the  faithful 
was  given  instead  to  the  non-juring  priests  who  were 
returning  by  degrees.  These  priests  were  soon  so 
numerous  that  in  April,  1795,  the  Convention  or- 
dered them  to  depart  within  a  month  under  pain  of 
death.  This  was  a  fresh  outbreak  of  anti-Catholi- 
cism. With  the  fluctuation  which  thenceforth  charac- 
terized it  the  Convention  soon  made  a  counter-move- 
ment. On  20  May,  1795,  the  assembly  hall  was  in- 
vaded by  the  mob  and  the  deputy  Feraud  assassinated. 
These  violences  of  the  Extremists  gave  some  in- 
fluence to  the  Moderates,  and  on  30  May,  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  the  Catholic,  Lanjuinais,  the  Convention 
decreed  that  (Law  of  11  Prairial)  the  churches  not 
confiscated  should  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  citi- 
zens for  the  exercise  of  their  religion,  but  that  every 
priest  who  wished  to  officiate  in  these  churches  should 
previously  take  an  oath  of  submission  to  the  laws; 
those  who  refused  might  legally  hold  services  in 
private  houses.  This  oath  of  submission  to  the  laws 
was  much  less  serious  than  the  oaths  formerly  pre- 
scribed by  the  Revolutionary  authorities,  and  the 
Abbe  Sicard  has  shown  how  Emery,  Superior  General 
of  St.  Sulpice,  Baus.set,  Bishop  of  Alais  and  other 
ecclesiastics  were  inclined  to  a  policy  of  pacification 
and  to  think  that  such  an  oath  might  be  taken. 
While  it  seemed  to  be  favouring  a  more  tolerant 


policy  the  Convention  met  with  diplomatic  successes, 
the  reward  of  the  military  victories:  the  treaties 
of  Paris  with  Tuscany,  of  the  Hague  with  the  Bata- 
vian  Republic,  of  Basle  with  Spain,  gave  to  France 
as  boundaries  the  Alps,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Meuse. 
But  the  policy  of  religious  pacification  was  not 
lasting.  Certain  periods  of  the  history  of  the 
Convention  justify  M.  Champion's  theory  that 
certain  religious  measures  taken  by  the  Revolution- 
ists were  forced  upon  them  by  circumstances.  The 
descent  of  the  emigres  on  the  Breton  coasts,  to  be 
checked  by  Hoche  at  Quiberon,  aroused  fresh  at- 
tacks on  the  priests.  On  6  Sept.,  1795  (Law  of  20 
Frudidor),  the  Convention  exacted  the  oath  of  sub- 
mission to  the  laws  even  of  priests  who  officiated  in 
private  houses.  The  Royalist  insurrection  of  13 
Vendemiaire,  put  down  by  Bonaparte,  provoked  a 
very  severe  decree  against  deported  priests  who  should 
be  found  on  French  territory;  they  were  to  be  sen- 
tenced to  perpetual  banishment.  Thus  at  the  time 
when  the  Convention  was  disbanding,  churches  were 
separated  from  the  State.  In  theory  worship  was 
free;  the  Law  of  29  Sept.,  1795  (7  Vendemiaire),  on 
the  religious  policy,  though  still  far  from  satisfactory 
to  the  clergy,  was  nevertheless  an  improvement  on 
the  laws  of  the  Terror,  but  anarchy  and  the  spirit 
of  persecution  still  disturbed  the  whole  country. 
Nevertheless  France  owes  to  the  Convention  a  num- 
ber of  lasting  creations:  the  Ledger  of  the  Public 
Debt,  the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  the  Conservatory 
of  Arts  and  Crafts,  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes,  the 
Institute  of  France,  and  the  adoption  of  the  decimal 
system  of  weights  and  measures.  The  vast  projects 
drawn  up  with  regard  to  primary,  secondary,  and 
higher  education  had  almost  no  results. 

The  Directory. — In  virtue  of  the  so-called  "Con- 
stitution of  the  year  III",  promulgated  by  the  Con- 
vention 23  Sept.,  1795,  a  Directory  of  five  members 
(27  Oct.,  1795)  became  the  executive,  and  the  Coun- 
cils of  Five  Hundred  and  of  the  Ancients,  the  legis- 
lative power.  At  this  time  the  pubUc  treasuries  were 
empty,  which  was  one  reason  why  the  people  came 
by  degrees  to  feel  the  necessity  of  a  strong  restorative 
power.  The  Directors  Carnot,  Barras,  Letourneur, 
Rewbell,  La  Reveilliere-Lcpeaux  were  averse  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  in  the  separation  of  Church  and  State 
saw  only  a  means  of  annihilating  the  Church.  They 
wi.shed  that  even  the  Constitutional  episcopate, 
though  they  could  not  deny  its  attachment  to  the 
new  regime,  should  become  extinct  by  degrees,  and 
when  the  constitutional  bishops  died  they  sought  to 
prevent  the  election  of  successors,  and  multiplied 
measures  against  the  non-juring  priests.  The  Decree 
of  16  April,  1796,  which  made  death  the  penalty  for 
provoking  any  attempt  to  overthrow  the  Republican 
government  was  a  threat  held  perpetually  over  the 
heads  of  the  non-juring  priests.  That  the  Directors 
really  wished  to  throw  difficulties  in  the  way  of  all 
kinds  of  religion,  despite  theoretical  declarations 
affirming  liberty  of  worship  is  proved  by  the  Law  of 
11  April,  1796,  which  forbade  the  use  of  bells  and  all 
sorts  of  pubhc  convocation  for  the  exerci.se  of  religion, 
under  penalty  of  a  year  in  prison,  and,  in  case  of  a 
second  offence,  of  deportation.  The  Directory  having 
ascertained  that  despite  police  interference  some  non- 
juring  bishops  were  officiating  publicly  in  Paris,  and 
that  before  the  end  of  1796  more  than  thirty  churches 
or  oratories  had  been  opened  to  non-juring  priests  in 
Paris,  laid  before  the  Five  Hundred  a  plan  which, 
after  twenty  days,  allowed  the  expulsion  from  French 
soil,  without  admission  to  the  oath  prescribed  by  the 
Law  of  Vendemiaire,  all  priests  who  had  not  taken 
the  Constitutional  Oath  prescribed  in  1790,  or 
the  Oath  of  Liberty  and  Equality  prescribed  in  1792; 
those  who  after  such  time  should  be  found  in  France 
would  be  put  to  death.  But  amid  the  discussions  to 
which  this  prpject  gave  rise,  the  revolutionary  Social- 


REVOLUTION 


16 


REVOLUTION 


ist  conspiracy  of  Babeuf  was  discovered,  which 
showed  that  danger  lav  on  the  Left;  and  on  25  Aug., 
1796.  the  dreadful  project  which  had  only  been  passed 
with  much  difficulty  by  the  Five  Hundred  was  re- 
jected bv  the  Ancients. 

The  Directory  began  to  feel  that  its  pohcy  of  reli- 
gious persecution  was  no  longer  followed  by  the 
Councils.  It  learned  also  that  Bonaparte,  who  in 
Italv  led  the  armies  of  the  Directory  from  victorj^  to 
victory,  displaved  consideration  for  the  pope.  P'ur- 
thermore,  in  France  the  electors  themselves  showed 
that  they  desired  a  change  of  policy.  The  elections 
of  20  Mav,  1797,  caused  the  majority  of  Councils  to 
pass  from"  the  Left  to  the  Right.  Pichegru  became 
President  of  the  Five  Hundred,  a  Royalist,  Barthe- 
lemv,  became  one  of  the  Five  Directors.  Violent  dis- 
cussions which  took  place  from  26  June  to  18  July, 
in  which  Rover-Collard  distinguished  himself,  brought 
to  the  vot«"the  proposal  of  the  deputy  Dubruel  for 
the  abohtion  of  all  laws  against  non-juring  priests 
passed  since  1791.  The  Directors,  alarmed  by  what 
they  considered  a  reactionary  movement,  com- 
missioned General  Augereau  to  effect  the  coup  d'etat 
of  18  Fructidor  (4  Sept.,  1797);  the  elections  of  49 
departments  were  quashed,  two  Directors,  Carnot 
and  Barthclomy,  proscribed,  53  deputies  deported, 
and  laws  against  the  emigres  and  non-juring  priests 
restored  to  their  \-igour.  Organized  hunting  for  these 
priests  took  place  throughout  France;  the  Directory 
cast  hundreds  of  them  on  the  unhealthy  shore  of 
Sinnamar>',  Guiana,  where  they  died.  At  the  same 
time  the  Directory  commissioned  Berthier  to  make 
the  attack  on  the  Papal  States  and  the  pope,  from 
which  Bonaparte  had  refrained.  The  Roman  Re- 
pubhc  was  proclaimed  in  1798  and  Pius  VI  was  taken 
prisoner  to  Valence  (see  Pius  VI).  An  especially 
odious  persecution  was  renewed  in  France  against 
the  ancient  Christian  customs;  it  was  known  as  the 
decadaire  persecution.  Officials  and  municipalities 
were  called  upon  to  overwhelm  with  vexations  the 
partisans  of  Sundaj^  and  to  restore  the  observance 
of  decadi.  The  rest  of  that  day  became  compulsory 
not  only  for  administrations  and  schools,  but  also 
for  business  and  industry.  Marriages  could  only  be 
celebrated  on  decadi  at  the  chief  town  of  each  canton. 

Another  religious  venture  of  this  period  was  that  of 
the  Theophilanthropists,  who  wished  to  create  a  spirit- 
ualist church  without  dogmas,  miracles,  priesthood  or 
sacraments,  a  sort  of  vague  religiosity,  similar  to 
the  "  ethical  societies  of  the  United  States".  Contrary 
to  what  has  been  asserted  for  one  hundred  years, 
M.  Mathiez  has  proved  that  Theophilanthropism  was 
not  founded  by  the  director,  La  Reveilliere-Lepeaux. 
It  was  the  private  initiative  of  a  former  Girondin,  the 
hbrarian  Chemin  Dupontfes,  which  gave  rise  to  this 
cult;  Valentine  Hauy,  iiLstructor  of  the  blind  and 
former  Terrorist,  and  the  physiocrat,  Dupont  de 
Nemours,  collaboraU'd  with  him.  During  its  early 
existence,  the  new  Church  was  pcrs(!cuted  by  the 
agents  of  Qjchon,  Minister  of  Police,  who  was  the 
Ux)\  of  Camot,  and  it  was  only  for  a  short  time, 
aft^T  the  coup  d'etat  of  IS  Fructiilor,  that  the  Theo- 

fihilanthropists  benefited  by  the  protection  of 
>a  R(5veilli^ire.  In  propf)rtion  to  the  efforts  of  the 
Directory  for  the  c^dle  decadaire,  the  Theophilan- 
thropists Buflfered  and  were  persecuted;  in  Paris,  they 
were  Bometimes  treated  even  worse  than  the  Cath- 
olics, Catholic  priests  being  at  times  permitted  to 
occupy  the  builaings  connected  with  certain  churches 
while  the  Theophilanthropists  were  driven  out.  On 
a  curious  memoir  written  aftxT  IS  Fructidor  entitled 
"Dr«  circrmstances  Hjc\np\\i'»  qui  peuvent  U^ininer 
la  R/;volution  et  d'-s  prinripes  qui  doivent  fonder  la 
R/'publique  en  France",  the  famous  Ma^lame  de 
Sta/'l,  who  was  a  Protentanf,  declared  herself  against 
Thefjphilanfhropy;  like  many  Prot^'stants,  she  hoped 
that  Protastantism  would  becx)me  the  State  religion 


of  the  RepubUc.  Through  its  clumsy  and  odious 
reUgious  policy  the  Directory  exposed  itself  to  serious 
difficulties.  Disturbed  by  the  anti-religious  innova- 
tions, the  Belgian  provinces  revolted;  6000  Belgian 
priests  were  proscribed.  Brittany,  Anjou,  and  Maine 
again  revolted,  winning  over  Normandy.  Abroad 
the  prestige  of  the  French  armies  was  upheld  by 
Bonaparte  in  Egypt,  but  they  were  hated  on  the 
Continent,  and  in  1799  were  compelled  to  evacuate 
most  of  Ital}'.  Bonaparte's  return  and  the  coup 
d'etat  of  18  Bruniairc  (10  November,  1799)  were 
necessary  to  strengthen  the  glory  of  the  French  armies 
and  to  restore  peace  to  the  country  and  to  consciences 
(see  Napoleon). 

Bibliographical. — Tourxeux,  Bihl.  de  I'hisl.  de  Paris  pendant 
la  RevohUion  (Paris,  1896-1906);  Tuetey,  Repertoire  des  sources 
manuscriles  de  I'hist.  de  Paris  sous  la  Revolution,  7  vols,  already- 
published  (Paris,  1896-1906);  Fortescue,  List  of  the  three  col- 
lections of  books,  pamphlets,  and  journals  in  the  British  Museum 
relating  to  the  French  Revolution  (London,  1899). 

Sources. — Reprint  of  the  Moniteur  Universel  (1789-99);  the 
two  collections  in  course  of  publication  of  Documents  inidits 
sur  I'hist.  economique  de  la  Rivolution  franQaise,  and  Documents 
sur  I'hist.  de  Paris  pendant  la  Revolution  fran^aise;  the  works  of 
Barruel  (q.  v.);  Bourgin,  La  France  et  Rome  de  1788  a  1797, 
regeste  des  depiches  du  cardinal  secretaire  d'etat,  tirees  du  fond  des 
"  Vescovi  "  des  archives  secretes  du  Vatican  (Paris,  1909),  fasc.  102 
of  the  Library  of  French  Schools  of  Athens  and  Rome;  among 
numerous  memoirs  on  France  on  the  eve  of  the  Revolution  may 
be  mentioned:  Young,  Travels  in  France,  ed.  Betham-Edwards 
(London,  1889);  and  on  the  Revolution  itself:  Memoires  de  I'in- 
ternonce  Salamon,  ed.  Bridier  (Paris,  1890) ;  Gottverneur 
Morris,  Diary  and  Letters  (New  York,  1&S2);  Un  sijour  en 
France  1 792  a  1 7.95,  lettres  d'un  temoin  de  la  Revolution  fran^aise,  tr. 
Taine  (Paris,  1883) ;  the  work  of  the  famous  Burke,  Reflections 
on  the  Revolution  in  France,  ed.  Selby  (London,  1890),  remains  an 
important  criticism  of  Revolutionary  ideas. 

General  Works. — Thiers,  Hist,  de  la  Revolution  franQaise  (tr. 
Paris.  1823-27) ;  Mignet,  Hist,  de  la  Revolution  franqaise  (Paris, 
1824);  Carlyle,  The  French  Revolution  (London,  1837);  Miche- 
LET,  Hist,  de  la  Revolution  franqaise  (Paris,  1847-1853) ;  Louis 
Blanc,  Hist,  de  la  Revolution  franqaise  (Paris,  1847-63);  Tocque- 
viLLE,  L'ancien  regime  et  la  Revolution  (Paris,  1856);  Taine, 
Les  origines  de  la  France  contemporaine:  la  Revolution  (tr.  Paris, 
1878-84) ;  Sorel,  L' Europe  et  la  Revolution  franQaise  (Paris, 
1885-1904) ;  Sybel,  Gesch.  der  Revolutionszeit  (Dusseldorf,  1853- 
57);  Chuquet,  Les  guerres  de  la  Revolution  (Paris,  1889-1902); 
AuLARD,  Hist,  politique  de  la  Revolution  franQaise  (Paris,  1901) ; 
Idem,  Etudes  et  IcQons  sur  la  Revolution  franQaise  (Paris,  1893- 
1910) ;  Gautherot,  Cours  professes  a  V Institut  Catholique  de  Paris 
sur  la  Revolution  franQaise,  a  periodical  begun  at  the  end  of  1910 
and  promising  to  be  very  important;  Madelin,  La  Revolution 
(Paris,  1911),  a  summary  commendable  for  the  exactness  of  its 
information  and  its  effort  at  justice  in  the  most  delicate  questions; 
The  Cambridge  Modern  History,  planned  by  the  late  Lord  Acton, 
n.  The  French  Revolution  (Cambridge,  1904);  MacCarthy,  The 
French  Revolution  (London,  1890-97);  Ross,  The  Revolutionary 
and  Napoleonic  Era  (Cambridge,  1907) ;  Lego,  Select  Documents 
Illustrative  of  the  History  of  the  French  Revolution  (Oxford,  1905); 
Gibes,  Men  and  Women  of  the  French  Revolution  (London,  1905). 

Monographs  and  Special  Works. — Aulard,  Taine,  historien  de 
la  Revolution  franQaise  (Paris,  1907);  Cochin,  La  crise  de  I'hist. 
rivolutionaire:  Taine  et  M.  Aulard  (Paris,  1909);  Bord,  La 
francnuiQonnerie  en  France  des  origines  d  1815,  bk.  I,  Les  ouvriers 
de  Videerivolutionnaire  (Paris,  1909) ;  Idem,  La  conspiration  revolu- 
tionnaire  de  1789,  les  complices,  les  victimes  (Paris,  1909);  Funck- 
Brentano,  Ligendes  et  archives  de  la  Bastille  (Paris,  1898) ;  Mal- 
let, Mallei  du  Pan  and  the  French  Revolution  (London,  1902); 
Fling,  Mirabeau  and  the  French  Revolution  (London,  1906); 
Lenotrb,  Mimoires  et  souvenirs  sur  la  Rivolution  et  I'Empire 
(Paris,  1907-9);  Idem,  Paris  rivolutionnaire,  vieilles  maisons,  vieux 
papiers  (Paris,  1900-10) ;  Warwick,  Robespierre  and  the  French 
Revolution  (Philadelphia,  1909);  Bliard,  Fraternity  rivolution- 
naire,  Hudes  el  ridls  d'aprks  des  documents  inidits  (Paris,  1909); 
Mortimer  Ternaux,  Hist,  de  la  Terreur  (Paris,  1862-81); 
Wali-on,  Hist,  du  tribunal  rSvolutionnaire  (Paris,  1880-2);  Idem, 
La  journie  du  31  mai  et  le  fidiralisme  en  1793  (Paris,  1886) ;  Idem, 
Les  representanls  en  mission  (Paris,  1888-90);  Daudet,  Hist,  de 
I'imigration  pendant  la  Rivolution  franqaise  (Paris,  1904-7);  LaI/- 
lemand.  La  Rivolution  et  les  pauvres  (Paris,  189H);  Aloeb,  Eng- 
lishmen in  the  French  Revolution  (London.  1889);  Dowden,  The 
French  Revolution  and  English  Literature  (London,  1897) ;  Cestre, 
La  Rivolution  franQaise  et  les  poHes  anglais  (Paris,  1906). 

Religious  History. — Sicard,  L'ancien  clergi  de  France,  II,  III 
(Paris,  1902-3);  Idem,  L'iducation  morale  et  civique  avant  et  pen- 
dant la  RivobUion  (Paris,  1884);  Pierre  de  la  Gorge,  Hist, 
religieuse  de  la  Rivolution  franQaise,  I  (Paris,  1909);  Mathiez, 
Rome  et  le  clergi  franQais  sous  la  Constituante  (Paris,  1911);  Idem, 
lyi  thiophilanlhropie  et  le  culte  dicadaire  (Paris,  1903);  Idem,  Lea 
origines  des  r.nltes  rivolulionnnires  (Paris,  1904);  Idem.  Conlrtbu- 
linn  A  I'histoire  religieuse  de  la  Rivolution  FranQaise  (Paris,  1907); 
Idbm,  La  Rivolution  et  I'Eglise  (Paris,  1910);  Aulard,  La  Rivolu- 
tion franQaise  et  les  congrigations  (Paris,  1911);  Idem,  Le  culte  de  la 
raison  et  le  culte  de  I'Etre  suprime  (Paris,  1892);  Champion,  La 
Kiparalion  de  I'Eglise  et  de  I'Elat  en  17.94  (Paris,  1903);  Pierre, 
La  diportation  eccUsiastique  sous  le  Dircctoire  (Paris,  19()('i). 

Georges  Goyak. 


REX 


17 


REYNOLDS 


Rex  Gloriose  Martyrum,  the  hymn  at  Lauds  in 
the  Common  of  Martyrs  (Commune  plurimorum 
Martyrum)  in  the  Roman  Breviary.  It  comprises 
three  strophes  of  four  verses  in  Classical  iambic 
dimeter,  the  verses  rhyming  in  couplets,  together  with 
a  fourth  concluding  strophe  (or  doxology)  in  unrhymed 
verses  varying  for  the  season.  The  first  stanza  will 
serve  to  illustrate  the  metric  and  rhymic  scheme: 

Rex  gloriose  martyrum, 

Corona  confitentiimi, 

Qui  respuentes  terrea 

Perducis  ad  coelestia. 
The  hymn  is  of  uncertain  date  and  unknown 
authorship,  Mone  (Lateinische  Hymnen  des  Mittel- 
alters.  III,  143,  no.  732)  ascribing  it  to  the  sixth 
century  and  Daniel  (Thesaurus  Hymnologicus,  IV, 
139)  to  the  ninth  or  tenth  century.  The  Roman 
Breviary  text  is  a  revision,  in  the  interest  of  Classical 
prosody,  of  an  older  form  (given  by  Daniel,  I,  248). 
The  corrections  are:  terrea  instead  of  terrena  in  the 
line  "Qui  respuentes  terrena";  parcisque  for  parcendo 
in  the  line  "Parcendo  conf  essoribus  " ;  inter  Mar  tyres 
for  in  Martyrihus  in  the  line  "Tu  vincis  in  Marty- 
ribus";  "Lnrgilor  indulgentioe"  for  the  line  "Do- 
nando  indulgcntiam".  A  non-prosodic  correction  is 
intende  for  appone  in  the  line  "Appone  nostris 
vocibus".  Daniel  (IV,  139)  gives  the  Roman  Bre- 
viary text,  but  mistakenly  includes  the  uncorrected 
Hne  "Parcendo  conf e.s.soribus " .  He  places  after  the 
hymn  an  elaboration  of  it  in  thirty-two  lines,  found 
written  on  leaves  added  to  a  Nuremberg  book  and 
intended  to  accommodate  the  hymn  to  Protestant 
doctrine.     This    elaborated    form    uses    only    lines 

I,  2,  4,  5,  6,  8,  9  of  the  original.  Two  of  the  added 
strophes  may  be  quoted  here  to  illustrate  the  possible 
reason  (but  also  a  curious  misconception  of  Catholic 
doctrine  in  the  apparent  assumption  of  the  Unes) 
for  the  modification  of  the  original  hymn: 

Velut  infirma  vascula 
Ictus  inter  lapideos 
Videntur  sancti  martyres, 
Sed  fide  durant  fortiter. 

Non  fidunt  suis  meritis, 

Sed  sola  tua  gratia 

Agnoscunt  se  persistere 

In  tantis  cruciatibus. 
Of  the  thirteen  translations  of  the  original  hymn  into  English, 
nine  are  by  Catholics.  To  the  list  given  in  Julian,  Dictionary  of 
Hymnologij,  958,  should  be  added  the  versions  of  Bagshawb, 
Breviary  Hymns  and  A/j.s.sai  Sequences  (London,  1900),  166,  and 
DoNAHOE,  Early  Christian  Hymns  (New  York,  1908),  50.  For 
many  MS.  references  and  readings,  see  Blume,  Analecta  Hymnica, 
LI  (Leipzig,  1909),  128-29;  Idem,  Der  Cursus  s.  BenedicH  Nursini 
(Leipzig,  1909).  67. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Rex  Sempiteme  Caelitum,  the  Roman  Breviary 
hymn  for  Matins  of  .Sundays  and  weekdays  during 
the  Paschal  Time  (from  Low  Sunday  to  Ascension 
Thursday).     Cardinal  Thomasius   ("Opera  omnia", 

II,  Rome,  1747,  370)  gives  its  primitive  form  in  eight 
strophes,  and  Vezzosi  conjectures,  with  perfect 
justice,  that  this  is  the  hymn  mentioned  both  by 
Ca;sarius  (d.  542)  and  Aurelianus  (d.  c.  550)  of  Aries, 
in  their  "Rules  for  Virgins",  under  the  title  "Rex 
aeterne  domine".  Pimont  (op.  cit.  infra.  III,  95) 
agrees  with  the  conjecture,  and  present-day  hymnolo- 
gists  confirm  it  without  hesitation.  The  hymn  is 
especially  interesting  for  several  reasons.  In  his 
"De  arte  metrica"  (xxiv)  the  Ven.  Bede  selects  it 
from  amongst  "Alii  Ambrosiani  non  pauci"  to  illus- 
trate the  difference  between  the  metre  of  Classical 
iambics  and  the  accentual  rhythms  imitating  them. 
Ordinarily  brief  in  his  comment,  he  nevertheless  re- 
fers to  it  (P.  L.,  XC,  174)  as  "that  admirable  hymn 
.  .  .  fashioned  exquisitely  after  the  model  of  iambic 
metre"  and  quotes  the  first  strophe: 

XIII.— 2 


Rex  EDternc  Domine, 

Rerum  Creator  omnium, 

Qui  eras  ante  sajcula 

Semper  cum  patre  filius. 
Pimont  (op.  cit..  Ill,  97)  points  out  that,  in  its  orig- 
inal text,  it  is  amongst  all  the  hymns,  the  one  a.s- 
suredly  which  best  evidences  the  substitution  of 
accent  forprosodical  quantity,  and  that  the  (unknown) 
author  gives  no  greater  heed  to  the  laws  of  elision  than 
to  quantity  "qui  eras",  "mundi  in  primordio", 
"plasmasti  hominem",  "tuse  imagini",  etc.  The 
second  strophe  illustrates  this  well: 

Qui  mundi  in  primordio 

Adam  plasmasti  hominem, 

Qui  tua3  imagini 

Vultum  dedisti  similem. 
Following  the  law  of  binary  movement  (the  alter- 
nation of  arsis  and  thesis),  the  accent  is  made  to 
shorten  long  syllables  and  to  lengthen  short  ones,  in 
such  wise  that  the  verses,  while  using  the  external 
form  of  iambic  dimeters,  are  purely  rhythmic. 
Under  LTrban  VIII,  the  correctors  of  the  hymns 
omitted  the  fourth  stanza  and,  in  their  zeal  to  turn 
the  rhythm  into  Classical  iambic  dimeter,  altered 
every  line  except  one.  Hymnologists,  Catholic  and 
non-Catholic  alike,  are  usually  severe  in  their  judg- 
ment of  the  work  of  the  correctors;  but  in  this  in- 
stance, Pimont,  who  thinks  the  hymn  needed  no 
alteration  at  their  hands,  nevertheless  hastens  to 
add  that  "never,  perhaps,  were  they  better  in- 
spired". And  it  is  only  just  to  say  that,  as  found 
now  in  the  Roman  Breviary,  the  hymn  is  no  lesa 
vigorous  than  elegant. 

Pimont,  Les  hymncs  du  hriviaire  romain,  III  (Paris,  1884), 
9:{-100,  gives  the  old  and  the  revised  text,  supplementary 
stanzas,  and  much  comment.  Complete  old  text  with  various 
MS.  readings  in  Hymnarium  Sarisburiense  (London,  1851),  95, 
and  in  Daniel,  Thesaurus  hymnoL,  I  (Halle,  1841),  85  (to- 
gother  with  Rom.  Brev.  text  and  notes).  Text  (8  strophes)  with 
English  version,  notes,  plainsong  and  other  settings  in  Hymns, 
Ancient  and  Modern,  Historical  Edition  (London,  1909),  205-7. 
Old  text,  with  many  MS.  references  and  readings,  and  notes,  in 
Blume,  Der  Cursus  s.  Benedicii  Nursini  (Leipzig,  1909),  111-13 
(of.  also  the  alphabetical  index).  For  first  lines  of  translations 
etc.,  Julian,  Diet,  of  Hymnology  (London,  1907),  a.  vv.  Rex 
aeterne  Domine  and  Rex  sempiteme  ccelilum.  To  his  list  should 
be  added  Bagshawe,  Breviary  Hymns  and  Missal  Sequences 
(London,  1900),  78,  and  Donahoe,  Early  Christian  Hymns  (New 
York,  1908),  22.  The  translation  in  Bute,  The  Roman  Breviary 
(Edinburgh,  1879),  is  by  Moultrie,  an  Anglican  clergvman. 
H.  T.  Henry. 

Rey,  Anthony,  educator  and  Mexican  War  chap- 
lain, b.  at  Lyons,  19  March,  1807;  d.  near  Ce- 
ralvo,  Mexico,  19  Jan.,  1847.  He  studied  at  the 
Jesuit  college  of  Fribourg,  entered  the  novitiate  of 
that  Society,  12  Nov.,  1827,  and  subsequently  taught 
at  Fribourg  and  Sion  in  Valais.  In  1840  he  was  sent 
to  the  United  States,  appointed  professor  of  philos- 
ophy in  Georgetown  College,  and  in  1843  trans- 
ferred to  St.  Joseph's  Church  in  Philadelphia.  He 
became  assistant  to  the  Jesuit  provincial  of  Mary- 
land, pastor  of  Trinity  Church,  Georgetown,  and 
vice-president  of  the  college  (1845).  Appointed  chap- 
lain in  the  U.  S.  Army  in  1846,  he  ministered  to 
the  wounded  and  dying  at  the  siege  of  Monterey  amid 
the  greatest  dangers;  after  the  capture  of  the  city,  he 
remained  with  the  army  at  Monterey  and  preached 
to  the  rancheros  of  the  neighbourhood.  Against  the 
advice  of  the  U.  S.  officers,  he  set  out  for  Matamoras, 
preaching  to  a  congregation  of  Americans  and  Mexi- 
cans at  Ceralvo.  It  is  conjectured  that  he  was  killed 
by  a  band  under  the  leader  Canales,  as  his  body  was 
discovered,  pierced  with  lances,  a  few  days  later.  He 
left  letters  dating  from  November,  1846,  which  were 
printed  in  the  "Woodstock  Letters"  (XVII,  149-50, 
152-55,  157-59). 

Dk  Backer-Som?«ervogel,  Bibliothique,  VI,  1689:  .\ppleton8' 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Biography  (New  York,  1888),  s.  v. 

N.  A.  Weber. 
Reynolds  (Greene),  Thomas,  Venerable.    See 
Roe,  Bartholomew,  Venerable. 


REYNOLDS 


18 


RHESANA 


Reynolds  (Raixolds,  Rayxolds,  Reginaldus), 
William,  b.  at  Pinliorn  near  Exeter,  about  1544;  d. 
at  Antwerp,  24  August,  1594,  the  second  son  of  Rich- 
ard Rainolds,  and  elder  brother  of  John  Rainolds,  one 
of  the  chief  AngUcan  scholars  engaged  on  the  "Au- 
thorized Version"  of  the  Bible.  Educated  at  Win- 
chester School,  he  became  fellow  of  New  College, 
Oxford  (1560-1572).  He  was  converted  partly  by 
the  controversy  between  Jewel  and  Harding,  and 
partly  by  the  personal  influence  of  Dr.  Allen.  In  1575 
he  made"  a  public  recantation  in  Rome,  and  two  years 
later  went  to  Douai  to  study  for  the  priesthood.  He 
removed  with  the  other  collegians  from  Douai  to 
Reims  in  157S  and  was  ordained  priest  at  Chalons  in 
April,  1580.  He  then  remained  at  the  college,  lec- 
turing on  Scripture  and  Hebrew,  and  helping  Gregory 
Martin  in  translating  the  Reims  Testament.  Some 
years  before  his  death  he  had  left  the  college  to  become 
chaplain  to  the  Beguines  at  Antwerp.  He  translated 
several  of  the  wTitings  of  Allen  and  Harding  into  Latin 
and  wrote  a  "Refutation"  of  Whitaker's  attack  on 
the  Reims  version  (Paris,  1583);  "De  justa  reipu- 
blicae  christianse  in  reges  impios  et  hsereticos  autho- 
ritate"  (Paris,  1590),  under  the  name  of  Rossseus; 
a  treatise  on  the  Blessed  Sacrament  (Antwerp,  1593); 
"Calvino-Turcismus"  (Antwerp,  1597). 

KiBBT,  Annals  of  WincheMer  College  (London,  1892);  Foster, 
Alumni  Oxonienses  (Oxford,  1891);  Douay  Diaries  (London, 
1878);  Wood,  Athentr  Oxonienses  (London,  1813);  Pitts,  De 
illustribus  AnnHce  scriptoribus  (Paris,  1619);  Dodd,  Church 
History,  II  (Brussels  tere  Wolverhampton,  1737-42);  Gillow  in 
Biog,  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,  b.  v.;  Rigq  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v. 
Rainolds. 

Edwin  Burton. 

RhsBtia,  Prefecttjre  Apostolic  of  (Rh.etorum), 
in  Switzerland,  includes  in  general  the  district  oc- 
cupied by  the  CathoUcs  belonging  to  the  Rhaeto- 
Romanic  race  in  the  canton  of  the  Orisons  (Grau- 
biinden).  The  prefecture  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Prattigau,  on  the  south  by  Lombardy,  on  the 
east  by  the  Tyrol,  on  the  west  by  the  cantons  of 
Tessin  (Ticino),  Uri,  and  Glarus.  During  the  six- 
teenth centurj'  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Grisons  became  Calvinists.  In  1621  Paul  V, 
at  the  entreaty  of  Bishop  John  Flugi  of  Coire  (Chur) 
and  Archduke  Leopold  of  Austria,  sent  thither 
Capuchin  missionaries  from  Brixen  in  the  Tyrol; 
the  first  superior  was  P.  Ignatius  of  Cosnigo,  who  re- 
sided in  the  mission  (1621^5)  and  conducted  it  under 
the  title  of  prefect  Apostohc.  The  best  known  of 
the  missionaries  is  St.  Fidelis  of  Sigmaringen,  who  was 
martyred.  After  the  death  of  P.  Ignatius  the  mission 
was  cared  for  by  the  Capuchin  province  of  Brixen, 
represented  in  the  mi.ssion  by  a  sub-prefect.  For  a 
long  time  after  the  suppression  of  the  religious  orders 
by  Napoleon,  the  mission  was  without  an  adminis- 
trator; upon  the  restoration  of  the  order,  Capuchins 
from  vanous  provinces  were  sent  into  the  mission. 
At  present  it  is  under  the  care  of  Capuchins  of  the 
Roman  province.  It  has  22  parishes,  in  three  of 
which  the  majority  of  inhabitants  speak  Italian; 
52  churchfis  and  chapels;  40  schools  for  boys  and 
girls;  7200  Catholics;  25  Capuchins.  The  prefect 
Arxistolic  lives  at  Sagens. 

BCrifi,  Die  kalh.  KircKe  in  der  Schweiz  (Munich,  1902),  89; 
Min'ione*  Calholir/t  (Ilome,  1907).  103;  Mateb,  Gesdi.  des  Bi$- 
tunu  Chur  (Stans,  1907),  not  yet  completed. 

Joseph  Lins. 

Rtxaphansea,  a  titular  see  in  Syria  Secunda,  suffra- 
gan of  Apam<a.  Hhaphana;a  is  mentioned  in  ancient 
timfifionly  by  Josejjlius  (Bel.  Jud.,  VII,  5,  1),  who  says 
that  in  that  vicinity  there  was  a  river  which  flowed  six 
days  and  cesiw^l  on  the  seventh,  probably  an  inter- 
mittent spring  now  called  Fououar  ed-Deir,  near 
Rafanieh,  a  village  of  the  vilayet  of  Alep  in  the  valley 
of  the  <^)ronte.  The  ancient  name  was  preserved  At 
the  time  of  Ptolemy  (V,  14,  12),  the  Third  Legion 
(Gallics)  was  stationed  there.  Ilierocles  (Synecdemus, 


712,8)  and  Georgius  Cyprius,  870  (Gelzer,  "Georgu 
Cyprii  descriptio  orbis  romani",  44)  mention  it  among 
the  towms  of  Syria  Secunda.  The  crusaders  passed 
through  it  at  the  end  of  1099;  it  was  taken  by 
Baldwin  and  was  given  to  the  Count  of  Tripoli 
("Historiens  des  croisades",  passim;  Rej^  in  "Bul- 
letin de  la  Socidte  des  antiquaires  de  France",  Paris, 
1885,  266).  The  only  bishops  of  Rhaphansea  known 
are  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christianus",  II,  921):  Bas- 
sianus,  present  at  the  Council  of  Nica^a,  325;  Geron- 
tius  at  Philippopolis,  344;  Basil  at  Constantinople, 
381;  Lampadius  at  Chalcedon,  451;  Zoilus  about 
518;  Nonnus,  536.  The  see  is  mentioned  as  late  as 
the  tenth  century  in  the  "Notitia  episcopatuum"  of 
Antioch  (Vailh^,  "Echos  d'Orient",  X,  94). 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  geogr.,a.v.;  Muller,  notes  on 
Ptolemy,  ed.  Didot,  I,  973. 

S.    P^TRIDfes. 

Rheims.    See  Reims. 

Rheinberger,  Joseph  Gabriel,  composer  and 
organist,  b.  at  Vaduz,  in  the  Principality  of  Lich- 
tenstein,  Bavaria,  17  March,  1839;  d.  at  Munich, 
25  Nov.,  1901.  When  seven  years  old,  he  already 
served  as  organist  in  his  parish  church,  and  at  the 
age  of  eight  composed  a  mass  for  three  voices.  After 
enjoying  for  a  short  time  the  instruction  of  Choir- 
master Schmutzer  in  Feldkirch,  he  attended  the  con- 
servatory at  Munich  from  1851  to  1854,  and  finished 
his  musical  education  with  a  course  under  Franz 
Lachner.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
the  theory  of  music  and  organ  at  the  conservatory, 
a  position  which  he  held  until  a  few  months  before 
his  death.  Besides  his  duties  as  teacher  he  acted 
successively  as  organist  at  the  court  Church  of  St. 
Michael,  conductor  of  the  Munich  Oratorio  Society, 
and  instructor  of  the  solo  artists  at  the  royal  opera. 
In  1867  he  received  the  title  of  royal  professor,  and  be- 
came inspector  of  the  newly  established  royal  school 
for  music,  now  called  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music. 
In  1877  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  royal  court 
conductor,  which  position  carried  with  it  the  direction 
of  the  music  in  the  royal  chapel.  Honoured  by  his 
prince  with  the  title  of  nobility  and  accorded  the 
honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  by  the 
Munich  University,  Rheinberger  for  more  than 
forty  years  wielded,  as  teacher  of  many  of  the  most 
gifted  young  musicians  of  Europe  and  America,  per- 
haps more  influence  than  any  of  his  contemporaries. 
As  a  composer  he  was  remarkable  for  his  power  of 
invention,  masterful  technique,  and  a  noble,  solid 
style.  Among  his  two  hundred  compositions  are 
oratorios  (notably  " Christoforus "  and  "Monfort"); 
two  operas;  cantatas  for  soli,  chorus,  and  orches- 
tra ("The  Star  of  Bethlehem",  " Toggenburg ", 
"Klarchen  auf  Eberstein"  etc.);  smaller  works  for 
chorus  and  orchestra;  symphonies  ("Wallenstein"), 
overtures,  and  chamber  music  for  various  combina- 
tions of  instruments.  Most  important  of  all  his 
instrumental  works  are  his  twenty  sonatas  for  organ, 
the  most  notable  productions  in  this  form  since 
Mendelssohn.  Rheinberger  wrote  many  works  to 
liturgical  texts,  namely,  twelve  masses  (one  for 
double  chorus,  three  for  four  voices  a  cappella,  three 
for  women's  voices  and  organ,  two  for  men's  voices, 
and  one  with  orchestra),  a  requiem,  Slabat  Mater,  and 
a  large  number  of  motets,  and  smaller  pieces. 
Rheinberger's  masses  rank  high  as  works  of  art, 
but  some  of  them  are  defective  in  the  treatment  of 
the  text.  Joseph  Renner,  Jr.,  has  recently  remedied 
most  of  these  defects,  and  made  the  masses  available 
for  liturgical  purposes. 

Krayer.  Joseph  Rheinberger  (Ratisbon,  1911);  Renner, 
Rheinberger's  Messen  in  Kirchen-musikaliachea  Jahrbuch  (Ratis- 
bon, 1909). 

Joseph  Ottbn. 

RhessBna,  titular  see  in  Osrhoene,  suffragan  of 
Edessa.    Rhesaena  (numerous  variations  of  the  name 


RHINOCOLURA 


19 


BHO 


appear  in  ancient  authors)  was  an  important  town 
at  the  northern  extremity  of  Mesopotamia  near  the 
sources  of  the  Chaboras  (now  Khabour),  on  the  way 
from  Carrhai  to  Nicephorium  about  eighty  miles 
from  Nisibis  and  forty  from  Dara.  Near  by  Gordian 
III  fought  the  Persians  in  243.  Its  coins  show  that 
it  was  a  Roman  colony  from  the  time  of  Septimus 
Severus.  The  "Notitia  dignitatum"  (ed.  Boecking, 
I,  400)  represents  it  as  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
governor  or  Dux  of  Osrhoene.  Hierocles  (Synec- 
demus,  714,  3)  also  locates  it  in  this  province  but 
under  the  name  of  Theodosiopolis;  it  had  in  fact 
obtained  the  favour  of  Theodosius  the  Great  and  taken 
his  name.  It  was  fortified  by  Justinian.  In  1393  it 
was  nearly  destroyed  by  Tamerlane's  troops.  To-day 
under  the  name  of  Rds-el-'Ain,  it  is  the  capital  of  a 
caza  in  the  vilayet  of  Diarbekir  and  has  only  1500 
inhabitants.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christianus,  II,  979) 
mentions  nine  bishops  of  Rhesajna:  Antiochus,  pres- 
ent at  the  Council  of  Nica;a  (325);  Eunomius,  who 
(about  420)  forced  the  Persians  to  raise  the  siege  of  the 
town;  John,  at  the  Council  of  Antioch  (444);  Olym- 
pius  at  Chalcedon  (451);  Andrew  (about  490); 
Peter,  exiled  with  Severian  (518) ;  Ascholius,  his  suc- 
cessor, a  Monophysite;  Daniel  (550);  Sebastianus 
(about  600),  a  correspondent  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great. 
The  see  is  again  mentioned  in  the  tenth  century  in  a 
Greek  "Notitiae  episcopatuum"  of  the  Patriarchate 
of  Antioch  (Vailh6,  in  "Echos  d'Orient",  X,  94). 
Le  Quien  (ibid.,  1329  and  1513)  mentions  two  Jacobite 
bishops:  Scalita,  author  of  a  hymn  and  of  homilies, 
and  Theodosius  (1035).  About  a  dozen  others  are 
known. 

Revue  de  V Orient  chrit.  VI  (1901),  203;  D'Herbelot,  Bibl. 
orientate,  I,  140;  III,  112;  Ritter,  Erdkunde,  XI,  375;  Smith, 
Diet.  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  8.  v.,  with  bibliography  of  ancient 
authors;  MOller,  notes  on  Ptolemy,  ed.  Didot,  I,  1008;  Chapot, 
La  frontihre  de  I'Euphrate  de  Pompie  d  la  conqukte  arabe  (Paris, 
1907),  302. 

S.    P^TRIDfcs. 

Rhinocolura,  titular  see  in  Augustamnica  Prima, 
suffragan  of  Pelusium.  Rhinocolura  or  Rhinocorura 
was  a  maritime  town  so  situated  on  the  boundary  of 
Egypt  and  Palestine  that  ancient  geographers  attrib- 
uted it  sometimes  to  one  country  and  sometimes  to 
the  other.  Its  history  is  unknown.  Diodorus  Siculus 
(I,  60,  5)  relates  that  it  must  have  been  founded  by 
Actisanes,  King  of  Ethiopia,  who  established  there 
convicts  whose  noses  had  been  cut  off;  this  novel 
legend  was  invented  to  give  a  Greek  meaning  to  the 
name  of  the  town.  Strabo  (XVI,  781)  says  that  it 
was  formerly  the  great  emporium  of  the  merchandise 
of  India  and  Arabia,  which  was  unloaded  at  Leuce 
Come,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  whence  it 
was  transported  via  Petra  to  Rhinocolura.  It  is 
identified  usually  with  the  present  fortified  village  El 
Arish,  which  has  400  inhabitants,  excluding  the  gar- 
rison, situated  half  a  mile  from  the  sea,  and  has  some 
ruins  of  the  Roman  period.  It  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1799,  who  signed  there  in  1800  the  treaty 
by  which  they  evacuated  Egypt.  To-day  it  and  its 
vicinity  are  occupied  by  Egypt,  after  having  been  for 
a  long  period  claimed  by  Turkey.  The  village  is 
near  a  stream  which  bears  its  name  (Wadi  el-Arish), 
and  receives  its  waters  from  central  Sinai;  it  does  not 
flow  in  winter,  but  is  torrential  after  heavy  rain.  It 
is  the  "nahal  Misraim",  or  stream  of  Egypt,  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  Bible  (Gen.,  xv,  18,  etc.), 
as  marking  on  the  south-west  the  frontier  of  the 
Promised  Land.  Instead  of  the  ordinary  translation 
of  the  Hebrew  name,  the  Septuagint  in  Is.,  xxvii,  12, 
render  it  by  'FivoKdpovpa;  see  St.  Jerome  (In  Isaiam, 
XXVII,  12  in  P.  L.,  XXIV,  313). 

Le  Quien  (Oriens  Christianus,  II,  541)  gives  a 
list  of  thirteen  bishops  of  Rhinocolura:  the  first  does 
not  belong  to  it.  A  Coptic  manuscript  also  wrongly 
names  a  bishop  said  to  have  assisted  in  325  at  the 


Council  of  Nice.  The  first  authentic  titular  known  is 
St.  Melas,  who  suffered  exile  under  Valens  and  is  men- 
tioned on  16  January  in  the  Roman  Martyrology. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Solon.  Polybius 
was  the  disciple  of  St.  Epiphanius  of  Cyprus,  whose 
life  he  wrote.  Hermogenes  assisted  at  the  Council  of 
Ephesus  (431),  was  sent  to  Rome  by  St.  Cyril,  and 
received  many  letters  from  his  suffragan  St.  Isidore. 
His  successor  Zeno  defended  Eutyches  at  the  Second 
Council  of  Ephesus  (451).  Other  bishops  were: 
Alphius,  the  Massalian  heretic;  Ptolemy,  about  460, 
Gregory,  610.  Of  the  other  bishops  on  the  list  one 
did  not  belong  to  Rhinocolura;  the  other  three  are 
Coptic  heretics. 

Reland,  PalfBstina,  285,  969  sq.;  Smith,  Diet.  Greek  and  Roman 
Geogr.,  s.  v.;  MtJLLER,  notes  on  Ptolemy,  ed.  Didot,  1,  683; 
ViGOUROux,  Did.  de  la  Bible,  a.  v.  Egypte  (torrent  ou  ruisseau 
d');  AmiSlineau,  Geographie  de  I'Egypte  d  Vepoque  copte,  404: 
Ritter,  Erdkunde,  XVI,  143;  XVI,  39,  41. 

S.    PflTRID^S. 

Rhithymna  (Rhethymna),  a  titular  see  of  Crete, 
suffragan  of  Gortyna,  mentioned  by  Ptolemy,  III, 
15,  PHny,  IV,  59,  and  Stephen  of  Byzantium.  Noth- 
ing is  known  of  its  ancient  history  but  some  of  its 
coins  are  extant.  It  still  exists  under  the  Greek  name 
of  Rhethymnon  (Turkish,  Resmo,  It.  and  Fr.  Retimo). 
It  is  a  small  port  on  the  north  side  of  the  island  thirty- 
seven  miles  south-west  of  Candia;  it  has  about 
10,000  inhabitants  (half  Greeks,  half  Mussulmans), 
and  some  Catholics  who  have  a  church  and  school. 
Rhithymna  exports  oil  and  soap.  During  the  occupa- 
tion of  Crete  by  the  Venetians  it  became  a  Latin  see. 
According  to  Corner  (Creta  sacra,  II,  138  sq.),  this 
see  is  identical  with  Calamona.  P'or  a  list  of  twenty- 
four  bishops  (1287  to  1592)  see  Eubel  (Hier.  cath. 
med.  a;vi,  I,  161;  II,  128;  III,  161).  Three  other 
names  are  mentioned  by  Corner  from  1611  to  1641. 
The  Turks  who  had  already  ravaged  the  city  in  1572, 
captured  it  again  in  1646.  At  present  the  Greeks  have 
a  bishop  there  who  bears  the  combined  titles  of 
Rhethymnon  and  Aulopotamos.  The  date  of  the 
foundation  of  the  see  is  unknown.  It  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  Middle  Ages  in  any  of  the  Greek 
"Notitiai  episcopatuum". 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  a.  v. 

S.    P^TRIofes. 

Rhizus,  'PtfoOj,  a  titular  see  of  Pontus  Pole- 
moniacus  suffragan  of  Neocaesarea,  mentioned  by 
Ptolemy  (V,  6)  as  a  port  on  the  Black  Sea  (Euxine) ; 
it  is  referred  to  also  in  other  ancient  geographical 
documents,  but  its  history  is  unknown.  Procopius 
("  De  bello  gothico",  IV,  2),  tells  us  that  the  town  was 
of  some  importance  and  that  it  was  fortified  by 
Justinian.  He  calls  it  Rhizaion,  and  it  is  so  styled 
in  the  "Notitia;  Episcopatuum".  It  was  originally 
a  suffragan  of  Neocaesarea,  then  an  "  autocephalous  " 
archdiocese,  finally  a  metropolitan  sec;  the  dates  of 
these  changes  are  uncertain.  With  the  decrease  of 
the  Christian  element  the  suffragan  has  become  a 
simple  exarchate.  To-day  there  are  no  more  than 
400  Greeks  among  the  2000  inhabitants  of  Rizeh,  as 
the  Turks  call  the  town.  It  is  the  capital  of  the 
Sanjak  of  Lazistan  in  the  Vilayet  of  Trebizond,  and 
exports  oranges  and  lemons.  Le  Quien  (Oriens 
christianus,  I,  517),  mentions  three  bishops;  Necta- 
rius,  present  at  the  Council  of  Nice,  787;  John,  at  the 
Council  of  Constantinople,  879,  and  Joachim  (met- 
ropolitan) in  1565. 

Smith,  Diet.  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  a.  v.;  Mulleb,  Notes 
on  Ptolemy,  ed.  Didot,  I,  868. 

S.   P^TRIDfcs. 

Rho,  GiACOMO,  missionary,  b.  at  Milan,  1593;  d. 
at  Peking  27  April,  1638.  He  was  the  son  of  a  noble 
and  learned  jurist,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus.  While  poor  success  attended 
his  early  studies,   he  was  later  very  proficient  in 


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20 


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mathematics.  After  his  ordination  at  Rome  by- 
Cardinal  BeUarniine,  he  sailed  in  1617  for  the  Far 
Eaiit  with  forty-four  eoniixinions.  After  a  brief 
stay  at  Goa  he  proceeded  to  Mae;io  where,  during  the 
siege  of  that  city  by  the  Dutch,  lie  taught  the  in- 
habitants the  use  of  artillery  antl  thus  brought  about 
its  deliverance.  This  service  opened  China  to  him. 
He  rapidly  acquired  the  knowledge  of  the  native 
language  and  was  summoned  in  1031  by  the  emperor 
to  Peking  for  the  reform  of  the  Chinese  calendar. 
With  Father  Schall  he  worked  to  the  end  of  his  life 
at  this  difficult  ttijsk.  When  he  died,  amidst  cir- 
cumstances exceptionally  favourable  to  the  Catholic 
mission,  numerous  Chinese  officials  attended  his 
funeral.  He  left  works  relative  to  the  correction  of 
the  Chinese  calendar,  to  astronomical  and  theological 
questions. 

De  B^cker-Sommebvogel,  Biblioth.  de  la  Comp.  de  Jesus,  VI 
(9  vols.,  Brussels  and  Paris.  1890-1900),  1709-11;  Hue,  Chris- 
iinnitu  in  China,   Tarlary  and  Thibet,  II  (tr.  New  York,  1884), 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Rhode  Island.— The  State  of  Rhode  Island  and 
Providence  Plantations,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
colonics,  is  in  extent  of  territory  (land  area,  10.54 
square  miles'),  the  smallest  state  in  the  American 
union.  It  includes  the  Island  of  Rhode  Island,  Block 
Island,  and  the 
lands  adjacent  to 
Narragansett 
Bay,  bounded  on 
the  north  and  east 
by  Massachu- 
setts, on  the  south 
bj^  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  and  on  the 
west  by  Connec- 
ticut. The  popu- 
xtion,  according 
to  the  United 
States  Census  of 
1910,  numbers 
542,674.      Provi- 

„  ^  dence,    the   capi- 

Seal  of  Rhode  Isl.nd  ^^j^     ^-^^^^^^    ^^ 

the  head  of  Narragansett  Bay,  and  having  a  population 
of  224, .326,  is  the  industrial  centre  of  an  extremely 
woidthy  andden.sely  populateddistrict.  Rhode  Island 
has  long  since  ranked  as  chiefly  a  manufacturing  state, 
although  the  agricultural  interests  in  certain  sections 
are  still  considerable.  That  agriculture  in  Rhode 
Island  has  not  kept  pace  with  manufactures  is  illus- 
trated by  instances  of  rural  population.  Two  country 
t<jwn8  have  fewer  inhabitants  than  in  1748;  two 
others,  but  a  few  more  than  at  that  date;  one  town, 
h!KH  than  in  1782;  two,  less  than  in  1790,  and  another, 
le«H  than  in  18.'i0.  Coal  exists  and  has  been  mined, 
but  it  in  of  graphitic  nature,  (iranite  of  high  grade 
ifl  extf^riBively  quarried.  The  value  of  stone  quarried 
in  1902  was  $734,62."};  the  value  of  all  other  minerals 
profluced,  $.39,998.  The  power  supplied  by  the  rivers 
gave  early  impetus  to  manufacturing.  Rhode  Island- 
ers were  the  first  in  this  country  to  apply  the  factory 
gystem  to  cotton  manufacturing.  At  present  the 
prrxJucts  of  manufar-turing  are  general,  including  cot- 
ton, woolfn,  and  rubb(;r  goods,  jewelry,  silverware, 
ma<'hinery  and  tools.  In  190.5  there  were  1617  manu- 
facturing frstablishrnentH  with  a  total  capitalization  of 
$21.5,901, .37.5;  employing  97,.'il8  workers  with  a  pay- 
roll of  .?4.3, 112,637,  and  an  output  of  the  value  of 
t202,HX<,.583.  The  total  -jmivXh  of  banks  and  trust 
comnanies  in  June,  HK)9,  were  $2.52,612,122.  The 
bond(5fi  State  debt,  1  Jan.,  1910,  w:ih  $4,8fK),fKKJwith  a 
sinking  fund  of  $f)54,999.  TIk;  flirc;f;t  foreign  com- 
merce is  small,  imports  in  1908  being  $1,499,116  and 
expfjrts  $21,281.  The  i>opulation  of  Rhode  Islanrl  in 
1708  was  7181.     In  1774  it  ha<i  increawed  to  .59,707, 


subsequently  decreasing  until  in  1782  it  was  52,391. 
Thereafter  until  1S40  the  average  annual  increase  was 
973;  and  from  1S40  to  1S60,  3289.  During  the  latter 
period  and  for  several  3'ears  afterward  came  a  heavy 
immigration  from  Ireland,  followed  by  a  large  influx 
from  Canada.  For  the  last  twenty-five  years,  the 
increase  from  European  countries,  especially  Italy, 
has  been  great.  According  to  the  State  census  of 
1905,  the  number  of  foreign-born  in  Rhode  Island  is 
as  follows:  born  in  Canada,  38,,500;  in  Ireland,  32,- 
629;  In  England,  24,431;  In  Italy,  18,014;  In 
Sweden,  7201;  In  Scotland,  .5649;  in  Portugal,  5293; 
In  Russia,  4505;  in  Germany,  4463;  in  Poland,  4104. 
This  classification  does  not  distinguish  the  Jews,  who 
are  rapidly  increasing,  and  who  in  1905  numbered 
14,570. 

History. — A.  Political. — It  is  probable  that  Verra- 
zano,  sailing  under  the  French  flag,  visited  Rhode 
Island  waters  in  1.524.  A  Dutch  navigator,  Adrian 
Block,  in  1614  explored  Narragansett  Bay  and  gave 
to  Block  Island  the  name  it  bears.  The  sentence  of 
banishment  of  Roger  Williams  from  Plymouth  Colony 
was  passed  in  1635,  and  in  the  following  year  he 
settled  on  the  site  of  Providence,  acquiring  land  by 
purchase  from  the  Indians.  One  cause  of  Williams's 
banishment  was  his  protest  against  the  interference 
of  civil  authorities  in  religious  matters.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1637,  William  Coddington  was  notified  to  leave 
Massachusetts.  With  the  help  of  Williams,  he  settled 
on  the  site  of  Portsmouth,  in  the  northerly  part  of  the 
island  of  Rhode  Island,  which  was  then  called  Aquid- 
neck.  Disagreements  arising  at  Portsmouth,  Cod- 
dington, with  a  minority  of  his  townsmen,  in  1639 
moved  southward  on  the  island  and  began  the  settle- 
ment of  Newport.  Samuel  Gorton,  another  refugee 
from  Massachusetts,  in  1638  came  first  to  Portsmouth, 
and  later  to  Providence,  creating  discord  at  both 
places  by  denying  all  power  in  the  magistrates. 
Gorton  finally,  in  1643,  purchased  from  the  Indiana 
a  tract  of  land  in  what  is  now  the  town  of  Warwick, 
and  settled  there.  The  four  towns.  Providence,  War- 
wick, Portsmouth,  and  Newport,  lying  in  a  broken 
line  about  thirty  miles  in  length,  for  many  years  con- 
stituted the  municipal  divisions  of  the  colony.  In 
1644  Roger  Williams  secured  from  the  English  Parlia- 
ment the  first  charter,  which  was  accepted  by  an 
assembly  of  delegates  from  the  four  towns;  and  a 
bill  of  rights,  and  a  brief  code  of  laws,  declaring  the 
government  to  be  "held  by  the  common  consent  of 
all  the  free  inhabitants",  were  enacted  thereunder. 
In  1663  was  granted  the  charter  of  Charles  II,  the 
most  liberal  of  all  the  colonial  charters.  It  ordained 
that  no  person  should  be  in  any  way  molested  on 
account  of  religion;  and  created  the  General  Assem- 
bly, with  power  to  enact  all  laws  necessary  for  the 
government  of  the  colony,  such  laws  being  not  re- 
pugnant to  but  agreeabh;  as  near  as  might  be  to  the 
laws  of  England,  "considering  the  nature  and  con- 
stitution of  the  place  and  people  there". 

The  separate  existence;  of  the  little  colony  was  long 
precarious.  Coddington  in  1651  secured  for  him- 
.self  a  commission  as  gov(!morof  the  islands  of  Rhode 
Island  and  Conanicut,  but  his  authority  was  vigor- 
ously a.ssailed,  and  his  commission  finally  revoked. 
The  Puritans  in  Massachu.setts  were  no  friends  of  the 
people  of  Rhod(!  Island,  and  ])ortions  of  the  meagre 
t(;rritory  wcn^  claimed  by  Massachusc^tts  and  Con- 
necticut. Rhode  Island,  like  llu-  otluir  colonies  was 
threatened  both  in  England  and  in  America  by  those 
who  favoured  direct  control  by  the;  English  Govern- 
mcmt.  Und(!r  the  regime  of  Andros,  Colonial  Gov- 
ernor at  Boston,  the  charter  government  was  sus- 
pended for  two  years;  and  had  the  recommendations 
of  the  English  commissioner.  Lord  Bellemont,  been 
adopt(;d,  th(!  (ihartcsr  government  would  have;  been 
abolished.  In  1710  the  colony  first  issued  "bills 
of  credit",  pajier  mon(!y,  which  continued  increasing 


RHODE 


21 


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in  volume  and  with  great  depreciation  in  value,  until 
after  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  causing  and  in- 
citing bitter  partisan  and  sectional  strife,  and  at 
times  leading  to  the  verge  of  civil  war.  The  ad- 
vocates of  this  currency  defended  it  on  the  ground 
of  necessity,  lack  of  specie,  and  the  demand  for  some 
medium  to  pay  the  expenses  of  successive  wars.  In 
1787  the  State  owed  £150,047,  English  money,  on 
interest-bearing  notes,  which  in  1789  the  Assembly 
voted  to  retire  by  paying  them  in  paper  money  then 
passing  at  the  ratio  of  twelve  to  one.  By  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  people?  were  ex- 
tensively engaged  in  shii)-building,  and  it  is  said  that 
in  the  wars  in  America  between  Great  Britain  and 
France,  Rhode  Island  fitted  out  more  ships  for  service 
than  any  other  colony. 

The  extraordinary  measure  of  self-government 
granted  to  the  colonists  by  the  charter  fostered  in 
them  a  spirit  of  loyalty  toward  the  mother  country, 
substantially  and  energetically  manifested  on  every 
occasion;  but  which,  nevertheless,  when  the  danger 
from  the  foreign  foe  was  no  longer  imminent,  was  su])- 
planted  by  a  feeling  of  jealous  apprehension  of  the 
encroachments  on  what  the  colonists  had  now  learned 
to  regard  as  their  natural  rights.  Rhode  Island 
heartily  joined  the  other  colonies  in  making  the 
Revolution  her  cause.  In  1768  the  Assembly  rati- 
fied the  Massachusetts  remonstrance  against  the 
British  principle  of  taxation,  in  spite  of  Lord  Hills- 
borough's advice  to  treat  it  with  "the  contempt  it 
deserves".  The  first  overt  act  of  the  Revolution, 
the  scuttling  of  the  revenue  sloop  "Liberty",  took 
place  in  Newport  harbour,  19  July,  1769;  followed 
three  years  later  by  the  burning  of  the  British  ship 
of  war  "Gaspee"  at  Providence.  A  strong  loyahst 
party  in  the  colony  for  social  and  commercial  reasons 
was  anxious  to  avoid  an  open  breach  with  the  mother 
country,  but  the  enthusiasm  with  which  the  news 
of  Lexington  was  received  showed  that  the  majority 
of  the  people  welcomed  the  impending  struggle. 
On  4  May,  1776,  the  Rhode  Island  Assembly  by 
formal  act  renounced  its  allegiance  to  Great  Britain, 
and  in  the  following  July  voted  its  approval  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  The  colony  bore  its 
burden,  too,  of  the  actual  conflict.  From  1776  until 
1779,  the  British  occupied  Newport  as  their  head- 
quarters, ruining  the  commerce  of  the  town  and  wast- 
ing the  neighbouring  country.  The  evident  strategic 
importance  of  the  possession  of  Newport  by  the 
British,  and  the  possibility  of  the  place's  becoming 
the  centre  of  a  protracted  and  disastrous  war,  created 
great  alarm  not  only  in  the  colony  but  throughout 
New  England.  Two  attempts  were  made  to  dis- 
lodge the  enemy,  the  second  with  the  co-operation 
of  the  French  fleet,  but  both  failed.  The  levies  of 
men  and  money  were  promptly  met  by  the  people 
of  the  colony  in  spite  of  the  widespread  privation 
and  actual  suffering.  At  last  the  British  headquar- 
ters were  shifted  to  the  south,  and  the  French  allies 
occupied  Newport  until  the  end  of  the  war. 

The  same  consideration,  the  instinct  for  local  self- 
government,  which  prompted  Rhode  Island  to  resist 
the  mother  country,  made  her  slow  to  join  with  the 
other  colonies  in  establishing  a  strong  centralized 
government.  "We  have  not  seen  our  way  clear  to 
do  it  consistent  with  our  idea  of  the  principles  upon 
which  we  are  all  embarked  together",  wrote  the  As- 
sembly to  the  President  of  Congress.  The  proposed 
federal  organization  seemed  scarcely  less  objectionable 
than  the  former  British  rule.  Rhode  Island  took  no 
part  in  the  Convention  of  1787,  and  long  refused  even 
to  submit  the  question  of  the  adoption  of  the  Con- 
stitution to  a  state  convention.  Eight  times  the 
motion  to  submit  was  lost  in  the  Assembly,  and  it 
was  only  when  it  became  evident  that  the  other 
states  did  not  regard  Rhode  Island's  condition  of 
single  independence  as  an  "eligible"  one,  and  were 


quite  ready  to  act  in  support  of  their  opinion  even 
to  the  extent  of  parcelling  her  territory  among  them- 
selves, that  the  Constitution  was  submitted  to  a 
convention  and  adopted  by  a  majority  of  two  votes, 
29  May,  1790.  Admitted  to  the  Union,  Rhode  Is- 
land did  not  follow  the  example  of  most  of  the  other 
states  in  framing  a  constitution  adapted  to  the  new 
national  life,  but  continued  under  the  old  charter. 
This  fact  underlies  her  political  history  for  the  next 
fifty  years.  The  charter  of  Charles  II,  though  suit- 
able to  its  time,  was  bound  to  become  oppressive. 
First,  it  fixed  the  representation  of  the  several  towns 
without  providing  for  a  readjustment  to  accord  with 
the  relative  changes  therein.  Hence,  the  natural 
and  social  forces,  necessarily  operating  in  the  course 
of  two  hundred  years  to  enlarge  some  communities 
and  to  reduce  others,  failed  to  find  a  corresponding 
political  expression.  Again,  the  charter  had  con- 
ferred the  franchise  upon  the  "freemen"  of  the  towns, 
leaving  to  the  Assembly  the  task  of  defining  the  term. 
From  early  colonial  days  the  qualification  had 
fluctuated  until  in  1798  it  was  fixed  at  the  ownership 
of  real  estate  to  the  value  of  .$134,  or  of  $7  annual 
rental  (the  eldest  sons  of  freeholders  being  also  eli- 
gible). Agitation  for  a  constitution  began  as  soon 
as  Rhode  Island  had  entered  the  Union,  and  con- 
tinued for  many  years  with  little  result.  It  came 
to  a  head  ultimately  in  1841  in  the  Dorr  Rebellion, 
the  name  given  to  that  movement  whereby  a  large 
party  in  the  state,  under  the  leadership  of  Thomas 
W.  Dorr  of  Providence,  proceeded  to  frame  a  con- 
stitution, independently  of  the  existing  government 
and  to  elect  officers  thereunder.  The  movement  was 
readily  put  down  by  the  authorities  after  some  dis- 
play of  force,  and  Dorr  was  obliged  to  flee  the  state. 
Returning  later,  he  was  indicted  for  treason,  convicted 
and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life.  He  was  par- 
doned and  set  at  liberty  within  a  year.  His  work  was 
not  a  failure,  however,  for  in  1842  a  constitution  was 
adopted  incorporating  his  proposed  reforms.  A  per- 
sonal property  qualification  was  instituted,  prac- 
tically equivalent  to  the  real  estate  qualification; 
and  neither  was  required,  except  in  voting  upon  any 
proposition  to  impose  a  tax  or  to  expend  money,  or  for 
the  election  of  the  City  Council  of  Providence.  The 
personal  property  qualification  was  not  available, 
however,  to  foreign-born  citizens,  and  this  discrimina- 
tion persisted  until  1888,  when  it  was  abolished  by 
constitutional  amendment.  Each  town  and  city 
was  entitled  to  one  member  in  the  Senate;  and  the 
membership  of  the  Lower  House,  limited  to  seventy- 
two,  was  apportioned  among  the  towns  and  cities  on 
the  basis  of  population,  with  the  proviso  that  no  town 
or  city  should  have  more  than  one-sixth  of  the  total 
membership.  In  1909,  an  amendment  was  adopted 
increasing  the  membership  of  the  Lower  House  to 
one  hundred,  apportioned  as  before  among  the  towns 
and  cities  on  the  basis  of  population,  with  the  proviso 
that  no  town  or  city  should  have  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  total  membership.  It  is  significant  that 
under  this  amendment  the  City  of  Providence  has 
twenty-five  representatives  whereas  its  population 
warrants  forty-one.  In  the  same  year,  the  veto 
power  was  for  the  first  time  bestowed  upon  the  gov- 
ernor. Notwithstanding  these  approaches  toward  a 
republican  form  of  government,  there  is  a  strong  de- 
mand for  a  thorough  revision  of  the  Constitution. 
According  to  an  opinion  of  the  Supreme  Court  a 
constitutional  convention  is  out  of  the  question, 
inasmuch  as  the  Constitution  itself  contains  no  pro- 
vision therefor  (In  re  The  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion, XIV  R.  I.,  469),  and  the  only  hope  of  reform 
seems  to  be  in  the  slow  and  difficult  process  of  amend- 
ment. 

B.  Religious. — The  earliest  settlers  in  this  state 
were  criticized  by  their  enemies  for  lack  of  religion. 
Cotton  Mather  described  them  as  a  "colluvies"  of 


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22 


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ever>'thing  but  Roman  Catholics  and  real  Christians. 
In  Providence  Roger  Wilhams  was  made  pastor  of 
the  first  church,  the  beginning  of  the  i^reseut  First 
Baptist  Church.  In  1739  theie  were  thu-t3^-tliree 
churches  in  the  colony;  twelve  Baptist,  ten  Quaker, 
six  Congregational  or  Presbj-terian,  and  five  Epis- 
copahan.  It  is  said  that  in  IGSO  there  was  not  one 
Catholic  in  the  colony,  and  for  a  long  period  their 
number  must  have  been  small.  In  1S2S  there  were 
probably  less  than  1000  Catholics  in  the  state.  In 
that  year  Bishop  Fenwick  of  Boston  assigned  Rev. 
Robert  Woodlej-  to  a  "parish"  which  included  all 
of  Rhode  Island  and  territory  to  the  east  in  Mas- 
sachusetts. A  church  was  built  in  Pa^\lucket  in 
1829.  Father  Woodley  in  1828  acquired  in  Newport 
a  lot  and  building  which  was  used  for  a  church  and 
school.  In  1830  Rev.  John  Corry  was  assigned  to 
Taunton  and  Pro\ndence,  and  built  a  church  in  Taun- 
ton in  that  year.  The  first  Catholic  church  in  Provi- 
dence was  built  in  1837  on  the  site  of  the  present 
cathedral.  At  that  time  Father  Corry  was  placed 
in  charge  of  Providence  alone.  From  1844  to  1846, 
the  mission  of  Rev.  James  Fitton  included  Woon- 
socket,  Pawtucket,  Crompton,  and  Newport,  a 
series  of  districts  extending  the  length  of  the  state. 
In  1846,  Ne^vport  was  made  a  parish  by  itself. 
Woonsocket  received  a  pastor  at  about  the  same  time; 
Pawtucket  in  1847;  Warren  in  1851;  Pascoag  in 
1851;  East  Greenwich  in  1853;  Georgiaville  in  1855. 
These  parishes  were  not  confined  to  the  limits  of  the 
towns  or  villages  named,  but  included  the  surround- 
ing territory.  In  1844  the  Diocese  of  Hartford  was 
created,  including  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut, 
with  the  episcopal  residence  at  Providence.  At  this 
time  there  were  only  six  priests  in  the  two  states. 
In  1872  the  Diocese  of  Hartford  was  divided  and  the 
Diocese  of  Providence  created,  including  all  Rhode 
Island,  and  in  Massachusetts,  the  counties  of  Bristol, 
Barnstable,  Dukes  and  Nantucket,  also  the  towns  of 
Mat  tape  i.s.set,  Marion,  and  Wareham  in  the  County 
of  Plymouth.  In  1904  the  Diocese  of  Fall  River  was 
created,  leaving  the  Diocese  of  Providence  coexten- 
sive with  the  state.  After  1840,  and  especially 
following  the  famine  in  Ireland,  the  Irish  increased 
with  great  rapidity  and  long  formed  the  bulk  of  the 
Catholic  population.  The  growth  of  cotton  manu- 
factures after  the  Civil  War  drew  great  numbers  of 
Canadian  Catholics.  In  more  recent  years  Itahans 
have  settled  in  Rhode  Island  in  great  numbers,  and 
many  Polish  Catholics.  Included  in  the  Catholic 
population  are  approximately  65,000  Canadians  and 
French,  40,000  Italiaas,  10,000  Portuguese,  8000 
Poles,  and  1000  Armenians  and  Syrians.  According 
to  a  special  government  report  on  the  census  of  re- 
ligious bodies  of  the  United  States,  76.5  per  cent,  of 
the  ptjpulation  of  the  City  of  Providence  are  Catho- 
lics. There  are  199  priests  in  the  diocese,  including 
about  47  Cana^lian  and  French  priest  s,  8  Italian,  and 
5  Polish  priests.  Thirty  parishes  support  parocliial 
Bchfxjls.  Under  Catholic  auspices  are  two  orphan 
asylums,  one  infant  asylum,  two  hospitals,  one  home 
for  the  Jiged  p<K>r,  one  industrial  school,  one  house 
for  working  bovs,  and  two  hou.ses  for  working  girls. 

The  first  Catliolic  governor  of  the  State  was  James 
H.  Higginw,  a  Democrat,  who  was  elected  for  two 
terms,  1907,  1908.  He  was  succeeded  by  Aram  J. 
Pothier,  a  Catholic,  and  a  liepublican. 

The    Stat«    census   of    1905    giv(»    the    following 
statistica  of  religious  denominations: 
^    ,    ..  Mkmberb       Chuiicheh 

Catholic 200,000  76 

Protestant  Episcopal 15,441  68 

Baptist 14,761  75 

Methodiflt  Episcopal 5,725  45 

Ojngregationalist 9,738  42 

Lutheran 2,21 7  12 

Free  Baptiat 3,300  30 


Members         Churches 

Presbj^erian 993  4 

Universalist 1,166  9 

Unitarian 1,000  4 

Seventh  Day  Baptist 1,040  5 

Friends 915  7 

Value  of  property  owned  b.y  certain  denomina- 
tions is  stated  as  follows:  Protestant  Episcopal, 
$1,957,518;  Congregational,  $1,417,089;  Baptist, 
$1,124,348;  Methodist  Episcopal,  $624,900;  Uni- 
tarian, $280,000;  Universalist,  $259,000;  Free 
Baptist,    $242,000. 

Education. — Provision  was  made  for  a  public 
school  in  Ne^-port  in  1640.  State  supervision  of 
public  schools  was  not  inaugurated  until  1828.  The 
number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  public  schools  in  1907 
was  74,065,  and  the  number  of  teachers  employed, 
2198.  The  State  maintains  an  agricultural  college, 
a  normal  school,  a  school  for  the  deaf,  a  home  and 
school  for  dependent  children  not  criminal  or  vicious, 
and  makes  provision  for  teaching  the  blind.  Schools 
are  supported  mainly  by  the  towns  wherein  they  are 
located.  The  State  appropriates  annually  $120,000, 
to  be  used  only  for  teachers'  salaries,  and  to  be  divided 
among  the  towns  and  cities  in  proportion  to  school 
population,  but  no  town  may  receive  its  allotment 
without  appropriating  at  least  an  equal  amount  for 
the  same  purpose.  Another  appropriation  is  paid 
to  towns  maintaining  graded  high  schools.  This 
appropriation  in  1910  was  $26,500.  The  total  amount 
expended  on  public  schools  in  1907,  exclusive  of  per- 
manent improvements,  was  $1,800,325,  the  number 
of  school  buildings  was  528;  and  the  valuation  of 
school  property,  $6,550,172.  The  number  of  paro- 
chial school  pupils  in  1907  was  16,254;  the  total 
attendance  of  Catholic  parochial  schools  and  acade- 
mies in  1910  was  17,440.  These  schools  cost  about 
$1,500,000,  and  their  annual  maintenance  about 
$150,000.  The  average  monthly  expense  per  pupil 
in  the  public  schools  in  1907  was  stated  as  $3.14. 
Allowing  ten  months  for  the  school  year,  on  the  basis 
of  that  cost,  the  10,254  parochial  school  pupils,  if 
attending  the  public  schools,  would  have  cost  the 
State  and  towns  $510,375.  Providence  is  the  seat 
of  Brown  University,  a  Baptist  institution  founded  in 
1764.  The  corporation  consists  of  a  Board  of  Trus- 
tees and  a  Board  of  Fellows.  A  majority  of  the 
trustees  must  be  Baptists  and  the  rest  of  the  trustees 
must  be  chosen  from  three  other  prescribed  Prot- 
estant denominations.  A  majority  of  the  fellows, 
including  the  president,  must  be  Baptists;  "the  rest 
indifferently  of  any  or  all  denominations".  It  is 
provided  that  the  places  of  professons,  tutors  and  all 
officers,  the  president  alone  excepted,  shall  be  free 
and  open  to  all  denominations  of  Protestants.  The 
total  enrollment  of  the  university  for  the  academic 
year  1909-10  was  967,  including  the  graduate  depart- 
ment and  the  W^omen's  College. 

Legislation  Affecting  Religion. — In  1657  the 
Assembly  denied  the  demand  of  the  commissioners  of 
the  United  Colonies  that  Quakers  should  be  banished 
from  Rhode  Island,  and  later  passed  a  law  that  mili- 
tary service  should  not  be  exacted  from  those  whose 
niligious  belief  forbade  the  bearing  of  arms.  The 
Charter  of  1663  guaranteed  freedom  of  conscience, 
and  the  colonial  laws  prohibited  compulsory  support 
of  any  form  of  worship.  In  1663,  Charles  II  wrote  to 
the  Assembly  declaring  that  all  men  of  civil  conversa- 
tion, obedient  to  magistrates  though  of  differing 
judgments,  might  be  admitted  as  freemen,  with 
liberty  to  choose  and  be  chosen  to  offic(>,  civil  and 
military.  On  this  communication  it  was  voted  that 
all  those  who  should  take  an  oath  of  allegiance  to 
Charles  II  and  were  of  competent  estate,  should  be 
admitted  as  freemen;  but  none  should  vote  or 
hold  office  until  admitt(;d  by  vote  of  the  assembly. 
In  the  volume  of  laws  printed  in  1719,  appeared  a 


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23 


RHODE 


provision  that  all  men  professing  Christianity,  obedi- 
ent to  magistrates,  and  of  civil  conversation,  though 
of  differing  judgments  in  religious  matters,  Roman 
Catholics  alone  excepted,  should  have  hberty  to  choose 
and  be  chosen  to  offices  both  civil  and  miUtary.  The 
date  of  the  original  enactment  of  this  exception  is  not 
known.  It  was  repealed  in  1783.  The  State  Constitu- 
tion of  1842  guarantees  freedom  of  conscience,  and 
provides  that  no  man's  civil  capacity  shall  be  in- 
creased or  diminished  on  account  of  his  religious 
belief. 

The  Sunday  law  of  Rhode  Island,  following  the 
original  English  statute  (Charles  II,  c.  VII,  §  1) 
differs  from  the  law  of  most  other  states  in  that  it 
forbids  simply  the  exercise  of  one's  ordinary  calling 
upon  the  Lord's  day;  excepting  of  course  works  of 
charity  and  necessity.  Hence  a  release  given  on 
Sunday  has  been  held  good  (Allen  v.  Gardiner,  VII, 
R.  I.  22) ;  and  probably  many  contracts  not  in  pursu- 
ance of  one's  ordinary  calling  would  be  sustained 
though  made  on  Sunday.  A  characteristic  exception 
exists  in  favour  of  Jews  and  Sabbatarians,  who  are 
permitted  with  certain  restrictions,  to  pursue  their 
ordinary  calling  on  the  first  day  of  the  week.  Fishing 
and  fowling,  except  on  one's  own  property,  and  all 
games,  sports,  plays,  and  recreations  on  Sunday  arc 
forbidden.  The  penalty  for  the  first  violation  of  the 
statute  is  $5,  and  $10  for  subsequent  violations. 
Service  of  civil  process  on  Sunday  is  void. 

Witnesses  are  sworn  with  the  simple  formality  of 
raising  the  right  hand;  or  they  make  affirmation 
upon  peril  of  the  penalty  for  perjury.  Judges,  assem- 
blymen, and  all  State  officers,  civil  and  military, 
must  take  an  oath  of  office.  The  substance  of  the 
oath  is  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  Constitution  and  laws  of  this  State, 
and  faithfully  and  impartially  to  discharge  the  duties 
of  the  office.  The  judges  of  the  Supreme  and  Superior 
Courts  also  swear  to  administer  justice  without 
respect  of  persons,  and  to  do  equal  right  to  the  poor 
and  to  the  rich.  Lawyers,  auditors,  and  almost  every 
city  and  town  official  take  an  oath  of  office.  Blas- 
phemy is  punished  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding 
two  months  or  fine  not  exceeding  S200;  profane 
cursing  and  swearing  by  fine  not  exceeding  $5.  New 
State  and  municipal  governments  are  generally  in- 
augurated with  prayer. 

Legal  holidays  include  New  Year's  Day,  Columbus 
Day,  and  Christmas.  Good  Friday  is  a  Court  holi- 
day by  rule  of  Court  and  a  school  holiday  in  Provi- 
dence by  vote  of  the  school  committee. 

There  is  no  statute  or  reported  decision  regarding 
e\ndence  of  statements  made  under  the  seal  of  con- 
fession. Should  a  question  arise  concerning  this,  it 
would  have  to  be  decided  on  precedent  and  on 
grounds  of  public  policy.  The  sole  statutory  privilege 
is  that  accorded  to  communications  between  husband 
and  wife;  although  the  common  law  privilege  of 
offers  of  compromise  and  settlement  and  of  com- 
munications between  attorney  and  client  are  recog- 
nized. Physicians  may  be  compelled  to  disclose 
statements  made  to  them  by  patients  regarding 
physical  condition. 

Incorporation-  and  Taxation. — In  1869  an  act  was 
passed  enabling  the  bishop  of  the  Diocese  of  Hartford, 
with  the  vicar-general,  the  pastor,  and  two  lay  mem- 
bers of  any  Cathohc  congregation  in  this  State,  to 
incorporate,  and  to  hold  the  Church  property  of  such 
congregation,  by  fiUng  with  the  secretary  of  State  an 
agreement  to  incorporate.  This  act  was  amended 
upon  the  creation  of  the  Diocese  of  Providence.  The 
property  of  all  the  organized  and  self-sustaining  Cath- 
olic parishes  is  held  by  corporations  so  formed.  The 
system  furnishes  a  convenient  means  of  continuing 
the  ownership  of  the  property  of  the  respective  par- 
ishes. In  1900  the  bishop  of  the  Diocese  of  Provi- 
dence and  his  successors  were  created  a  corporation 


sole  with  power  to  hold  property  for  the  religious  and 
charitable  purposes  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Since  1883  there  has  existed  an  act  enabhng  Episco- 
palian parishes  to  incorporate.  Special  charters  are 
freely  granted  when  desired.  There  is  a  general  law 
allowing  libraries,  lyceums  and  societies  for  religious, 
charitable,  literary,  scientific,  artistic,  musical  or  social 
purposes  to  incorporate  by  filing  an  agreement  stating 
the  names  of  the  promoters  and  the  object  of  the  cor- 
poration, and  by  paying  a  nominal  charge.  Such  cor- 
porations may  hold  property  up  to  $100,000  in  value. 

By  general  law,  buildings  for  religious  worship,  and 
the  land  on  which  they  stand,  not  exceeding  one  acre, 
so  far  as  such  land  and  buikUngs  are  occupied  and 
used  exclusively  for  refigious  or  educational  purposes, 
are  exempt  from  taxation.  The  exemption  does  not 
apply  to  pastors'  houses.  The  buildings  and  personal 
property  of  any  corporation  used  for  schools,  acad- 
emies, or  seminaries  of  learning,  and  of  any  incor- 
porated public  charity,  and  the  land,  not  exceeding 
one  acre,  on  which  such  buildings  stand,  are  exempt. 
School  property  is  exempt  only  so  far  as  it  is  used 
exclusively  for  educational  purposes.  Property  used 
exclusively  for  burial  purposes,  hospitals,  public 
fibraries,  and  property  used  for  the  aid  of  the  poor, 
are  exempt.  Any  church  property  other  than  that 
specified  is  taxed,  unless  it  is  in  a  form  exempted  by 
national  law.  Clergymen  are  exempt  from  jury  and 
military  duty. 

Marriage  and  Divorce. —  Marriage  between 
grandparent  and  grandchild,  or  uncle  and  niece,  and 
between  persons  more  closely  related  by  blood,  is  void; 
as  is  marriage  with  a  step-parent,  with  the  child  or 
grandchild  of  one's  husband  or  wife,  with  the  husband 
or  wife  of  one's  child  or  grandchild,  and  with  the  parent 
or  grandparent  of  one's  wife  or  husband.  The  statute 
contains  no  express  requirement  regarding  the  age  of 
the  parties  contracting  marriage,  but  it  is  a  defence 
to  an  indictment  for  bigamy  that  the  prior  marriage 
was  contracted  when  the  man  was  under  fourteen 
years  of  age,  and  the  woman  under  twelve.  Marriages 
among  Jews  are  valid  in  law  if  they  are  valitl  under 
the  Jewish  religion.  Marriages  may  be  performed  by 
licensed  clergymen  and  by  the  judges  of  the  Supreme 
and  Superior  Courts.  Before  marriage,  parties  must 
obtain  a  licence  by  personal  application  from  the 
town  clerk,  or  city  clerk,  or  registrar;  and  a  non- 
resident woman  must  obtain  such  licence  at  least  five 
days  previous  to  the  marriage.  The  licence  must  be 
presented  to  the  clergyman  or  judge  officiating,  who 
must  make  return  of  the  marriage.  Two  witnesses 
are  required  to  the  marriage  ceremony.  P'ailure  to 
ob.serve  the  licence  regulations  will  not  invalidate  the 
marriage  provided  either  of  the  contracting  parties 
supposes  they  have  been  complied  with ;  but  the  non- 
compliance is  punished  by  fine  or  imprisonment. 
Causes  for  divorce  include  adultery,  extreme  cruelty, 
wilful  desertion  for  five  years,  or  for  a  shorter  time 
in  the  discretion  of  the  Court,  continued  drunkenness, 
excessive  use  of  opium,  morphine,  or  chloral,  neglect 
of  husband  to  provide  necessaries  for  his  wife,  and 
any  other  gross  misbehaviour  and  wickedness  repug- 
nant to  the  marriage  covenant.  If  the  parties  have 
been  separated  for  ten  years,  the  Court  may  in  its 
discretion  decree  a  divorce.  Under  the  law  of  Rhode 
Island  marriage  is  regarded  as  a  status,  pertaining  to 
the  citizen,  which  the  State  may  regulate  or  alter. 
Hence  a  Court  having  jurisdiction  over  one  of  the 
parties  to  a  marriage  as  a  bona  fide  domiciled  citizen 
of  the  State,  may  dissolve  the  marriage  although  the 
other  party  is  beyond  the  judisdiction;  and  such  dis- 
solution will  be  recognized  by  other  states  by  virtue 
of  the  comity  provision  of  the  Federal  Constitution 
(Ditson  vs.  Ditson,  IV  R.  I.  87). 

Liquor  Laws,  Corrections,  etc. — A  Constitu- 
tional amendment  prohibiting  the  manufacture  and 
sale  of  intoxicating  liquor  was  adopted  in  1886,  and  re- 


RHODES 


24 


RHODES 


poalcd  in  1SS9.  At  prosont  Rhode  Island  is  a  local  op- 
tion state,  the  question  of  licenee  or  no-licence  being 
euhniitted  annually  to  the  voters  of  the  several  cities 
and  towns.  The  licensing  boards  may  in  their  discretion 
refuse  any  application.  The  number  of  licences  in  any 
town  may  not  exceed  the  proportion  of  one  licence  to 
each  500 "inhabitants.  The  owners  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  land  within  two  hundred  feet  of  any  location 
may  bar  its  licence.  No  licence  can  be  granted  for  a 
location  within  two  hundred  feet,  measured  on  the 
street,  of  any  public  or  parochial  school.  Maximum 
and  minimum  licence  fees  are  fixed  by  statute,  and  the 
exact  sum  is  determined  by  the  hcensing  boards.  For 
retail  licences  the  minimum  fee  is  $300,  and  the 
maximum,  $1000. 

In  the  City  of  Cranston  are  located  the  '  State 
institutions","  so-called,  including  the  State  prison, 
the  county  jail,  the  State  workhouse,  a  reform  school 
for  girls,  "and  another  for  boys.  The  probation  sys- 
tem is  extensively  employed,  and  in  the  case  of  juven- 
ile offenders  especially,  the  State  makes  every  effort 
to  prevent  their  becoming  hardened  criminals.  Pro- 
bation officers  have  the  power  of  bail  over  persons 
committed  to  them.  In  proper  cases,  probation  offi- 
cers may  provide  for  the  maintenance  of  girls  and 
women  apart  from  their  families.  Capital  punish- 
ment does  not  exist  in  the  State  except  in  cases  where 
a  life  convict  commits  murder. 

Wills  disposing  of  personal  property  may  be  made 
by  persons  eighteen  years  of  age  or  over;  wills  dis- 
posing of  real  estate,  by  persons  twenty-one  years  of 
age  or  over.  Probate  clerks  are  required  to  notify 
corporations  and  voluntary  associations  of  all  gifts 
made  to  them  by  will.  If  a  gift  for  charity  is  made  by 
will  to  a  corporation  and  the  acceptance  thereof  would 
be  ultra  vires,  the  corporation  may  at  once  receive  the 
gift,  and  may  retain  it  on  condition  of  securing  the 
con.sent  of  the  legislature  within  one  year.  It  has 
been  held  that  a  legacj'  for  Ma.sses  should  be  paid  in 
full  even  if  the  estate  were  insufficient  to  pay  general 
pecuniarj'^  legacies  in  full,  on  the  ground  that  the  gift 
for  Ma.s.ses  is  for  services  to  be  rendered  and  is  not 
gratuitous,  furthermore  that  a  gift  for  Masses  is  legal 
and  is  not  void  as  being  a  superstitious  use  (Sherman 
V.  Baker,  XX  R.  I.,  446,  613). 

Cemeteries  are  regulated  to  the  extent  that  town 
councils  may  prevent  their  location  in  thickly  popu- 
lated di.'^tricte,  and  for  the  protection  of  health  may 
pass  ordinances  regarding  burials  and  the  use  of  the 
grounds.  Desecration  of  graves  is  punished.  Towns 
may  receive  land  for  burial  purpo.ses,  and  town  coun- 
cils may  hold  funds  for  the  perpetual  care  of  burial  lots. 
Ceineterics  are  generally  owned  by  corporations  spe- 
ciall}'  chartered,  by  churches  and  families. 

Field,  St/Ue  of  li.  I.  and  Proritlence  Plantations  (Boston,  1902); 
Ar.nold,  Hiyt.  of  R.  I.  (New  York,  1860);  Staples,  Annals  of 
Pror\dence  f Providence,  1843);  DowuNG,  Hist,  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  New  Enijland  (Boston,  1899) ;  R.  I.  Colonial  Records. 

Albert  B.  West. 

Rhodes,  Alexandre  de,  missionary  and  author, 
b.  at  Avignon,  15  March,  1.591;  d.  at  Ispahan, 
Persia,  5  Nov.,  IftW.  He  entered  the  novitiate  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Rome,  24  April,  1612,  with  the 
intention  of  devoting  his  life  to  the  conversion  of  the 
infidels.  He  waw  assigned  to  the  missions  of  the  East 
Indies,  and  inaugurat^rd  his  missionary  labours  in 
1624  with  great  success  in  Cochin  China.  In  1627 
he  proceeded  to  Tongking  where,  within  the  space  of 
three  years,  he  converted  6fKK)  pf-rsons,  inclutling 
several  bonzes.  When  in  1630  p(rsecntif)n  forced 
him  to  leave  the  country,  the  nrwly-mjule  conv<Ttfl 
continued  the  work  of  evangelization.  Rhodes  was 
lat-er  recalled  to  Rome  where  he  obtaineri  permission 
from  his  Kuperiors  to  undertake  missionary  work  in 
Persia.  Amifist  the  numerous  a^itivities  of  a  mis- 
sionary career,  he  found  time  for  literary  productions: 
"Tunchineneie  hist^^^ria;   libri   duo"    (Lyons,    1652); 


"La  glorieuse  mort  d' Andre,  Catechistc  .  .  ." 
(Paris,  1653);  "Catechismus",  published  in  Latin 
and  in  Tongkingcse  at  Rome  in   1658. 

De  Backer-Sommervogel,  Bibliolh.  de  la  Comp.  de  Jesus,  VI 
(9  vols.,  Brussels  and  Paris,  1890-1900),  1718-21;  Carayon, 
Voyages  el  Missions  du  P.  Rhodes  (Paris  and  Lc  Mans,  IS.'il). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Rhodes,  Knights  of.  See  Hospitallers  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem. 

Rhodes  (Rhodus),  titular  metropolitan  of  the 
Cyclades  (q.  v.).  It  is  an  island  opposite  to  Lycia 
and  Caria,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  narrow 
arm  of  the  sea.  It  has  an  area  of  about  564  sq. 
miles,  is  well  watered  by  many  streams  and  th*^ 
river  Candura,  and  is  very  rich  in  fruits  of  all  kinds. 
The  climate  is  so  genial  that  the  sun  shines  ever  there, 
as  recorded  in  a  proverb  already  known  to  Pliny 
(Hist,  natur.,  II,  62).  The  island,  inhabited  first 
b}^  the  Carians  and  then  by  the  Phoenicians  (about 
1300  B.C.)  who  settled  several  colonies  there,  was 
occupied  about  800  b.c.  by  the  Dorian  Greeks.  In 
408  B.C.  the  inhabitants  of  the  three  chief  towns, 
Lindus,  lalysus,  and  Camirus  founded  the  city  of 
Rhodes,  from  which  the  island  took  its  name.  This 
town,  built  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  had  a  very  fine  port. 
On  the  breakwater,  which  separated  the  interior 
from  the  exterior  port,  was  the  famous  bronze  statue, 
the  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  105  feet  high,  which  cost  300 
talents.  Constructed  (280)  from  the  machines  of 
war  which  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  had  to  abandon 
after  his  defeat  before  the  town,  it  was  thrown  down 
by  an  earthquake  in  203  B.C.;  its  ruins  were  sold 
in  the  seventh  century  by  Caliph  Moaviah  to  a  Jew 
from  Emesus,  who  loaded  them  on  900  camels. 
After  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  ex- 
j)ulsion  of  the  Macedonian  garrison  (323  B.C.)  the 
island,  owing  to  its  navy  manned  by  the  best  mariners 
in  the  world,  became  the  rival  of  Carthage  and 
Alexandria.  Allied  with  the  Romans,  and  more  or 
less  under  their  protectorate,  Rhodes  became  a 
centre  of  art  and  science;  its  school  of  rhetoric  was 
frequented  by  many  Romans,  including  Cato, 
Cicero,  Caesar,  and  Pompey.  Ravaged  by  Cassius 
in  43  B.C.,  it  remained  nominally  independent  till 
A.D.  44,  when  it  was  incorporated  with  the  Roman 
Empire  by  Claudius,  becoming  under  Diocletian  the 
capital  of  the  Isles  or  of  the  Cyclades,  which  it  long 
remained. 

The  First  Book  of  Machabees  (xv,  23)  records 
that  Rome  sent  the  Rhodians  a  decree  in  favour 
of  the  Jews.  St.  Paul  stopped  there  on  his  way  from 
Miletus  to  Jerusalem  (Acts,  xxi,  1) ;  he  may  even  have 
made  converts  there.  In  three  other  passages  of 
Holy  Writ  (Gen.,  x,  4;  I  Par.,  i,  7;  Ezech.,  xxvii, 
15)  the  Septuagint  renders  by  Rhodians  what  the 
Hebrew  and  the  Vulgate  rightly  call  Dodanim  and 
Dedan.  If  we  except  some  ancient  inscriptions 
supposed  to  be  Christian,  there  is  no  trace  of  Chris- 
tianity until  the  third  century,  when  Bishop  Euphra- 
non  is  said  to  have  opposed  the  Encratites.  Euphro- 
synus  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Nica^a  (325).  As 
the  religious  metropolitan  of  the  Cyclades,  Rhodes 
had  eleven  sufTragan  sees  towards  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  century  (Gelzer,  "  Ungedruckte.  .  .  .  Texte 
(ler  Notitia?  episcopal  uum",  542);  at  the  beginning 
of  the  tenth  century,  it  had  only  ten  (op.  cit.,  558); 
at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth,  only  one,  Lerne  (op.  cit., 
(J35),  which  has  since  disappeared.  Rhodes  is  still 
a  Greek  metropolitan  depending  on  the  Patriarchate 
of  Constantinople.  On  15  Atigust,  1310,  under  the 
leadership  of  Grand  Master  Foulques  de  Villaret, 
the  Knights  of  St.  John  captured  the  i.sland  in  spite 
of  the  Greek  emperor,  Andronicus  II,  and  for  more 
than  two  centuries,  thanks  to  their  fleet,  were  a  solid 
bulwark  between  Christendom  and  Islam.  In  1480 
Rhodes,  under  the  orders  of  Pierre  d'Aubusson,  un- 
derwent a  memorable  siege  by  the  lieutenants  of 


RHODESIA 


25 


RHODESIA 


Mahomet  II;  on  24  October,  1522,  Villiers  de  I'lsle 
Adam  had  to  make  an  honorable  capituhition  to 
Solyman  II  and  deUver  the  island  dcfinitivelv  to  the 
Turks.  From  1328  to  1546  Rhodes  was  a  Latin 
metropolitan,  having  for  suffragans  the  sees  of  Melos, 
Nicaria,  Carpathos,  Chios,  Tinos,  and  Mycone; 
the  list  of  its  bishops  is  to  be  found  in  Le  Quien 
(Oriens  christ.,  Ill,  1049)  and  Eubel  (Hierarehia 
eatholica  medii  a!vi,  I,  205;  II,  148;  III,  188).  The 
most  distinguished  bishop  is  Andreas  Colossensis 
(the  archdiocese  was  called  Rhodes  or  Colossi)  who, 
in  1416  at  Constance  and  1439  at  Florence,  defended 
the  rights  of  the  Roman  Church  against  the  Greeks, 
and  especially  against  Marcus  Eugenicus.  After  the 
death  of  Marco  Cattaneo,  the  last  residential  arch- 
bishop, Rhodes  became  a  mere  titular  bishopric,  while 
Naxos  inherited  its  metropolitan  rights.  On  3 
March,  1797  it  became  again  a  titular  archbishopric 
but  the  title  was  thenceforth  attached  to  the  See  of 
Malta.  Its  suffragans  are  Carpathos,  Leros,  Melos, 
Samos,  and  Tenedos.  By  a  decree  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Propaganda,  14  August,  1897,  a  prefecture 
Apostolic,  entrusted  to  the  Franciscans,  was  es- 
tablished in  the  Island  of  Rhodes;  it  has  in  addition 
jurisdiction  over  a  score  of  neighbouring  islands,  of 
which  the  principal  are  Carj)athos,  Leros,  and 
Calymnos.  There  are  in  all  320  Catholics,  while 
the  island,  the  capital  of  the  vilayet  of  the  archipelago, 
contains  30,000  inhabitants.  The  Franciscans  have 
three  priests;  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools 
have  established  there  a  scholasticate  for  the  Orient 
as  well  as  a  school;  the  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Gcmona 
have  a  girls'  school.  The  most  striking  feature  of 
the  city,  in  addition  to  a  series  of  medieval  towers 
and  fortifications,  is  the  Street  of  the  Knights,  which 
still  preserves  their  blason  (Order  of  St.  John)  and 
the  date  of  the  erection  of  each  house  or  palace; 
several  of  the  mosques  are  former  churches. 

MEUR8IUS,  Creta,  Cyprus,  Rhodus  (Amsterdam,  167.5) ;  Coro- 
NELLi,  Isola  di  Rodi  geographica,  storica  (Venice,  1702) ;  Le 
Quien,  Oriens  christ.,  I,  923-30;  Paulsen,  CommerUatio  exhibens 
Rhodi  descriptionem  macedonica  cetate  (Gottingen,  1818) ;  Menge, 
Ueber  die  Vorgesch.  der  Insel  Rhodus  (Cologne,  1827) ;  Rottiers, 
Description  des  monuments  de  Rhodes  (Brussels,  1828);  Ross, 
Reisen  auf  den  griech.  Inseln,  III,  70-113;  Idem,  Reisen  nach  Kos, 
Halikarnassos,  Rhodos  (Stuttgart,  1840);  Berg,  Die  Insel  Rhodos 
(Brunswick,  1860);  Schneiderwirth,  Gesch.  der  Insel  Rhodos 
(Heiligenstadt,  1868);  Gu^rin,  L'ile  de  Rhodes  (Paris,  1880); 
BiLLiOTi  AND  Cotteret,  L'tle  de  Rhodes  (Paris,  1891);  Becker, 
De  Rhodiorum  primordiis  (Leipzig,  1882) ;  Torr,  Rhodes  in  Ancient 
Times  (Cambridge,  1885) ;  Idem,  Rhodes  in  Modern  Times  (Cam- 
bridge, 1887);  Schumacher,  De  Republica  Rhodiorum  commentatio 
(Heidelberg,  1886);  Von  Gelder,  Gesch.  der  alien  Rhodier  (La 
Haye,  1900);  Smith,  Did.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  s.  v.; 
FiLLiON  in  VioouRoux,  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  a.  v.;  Missiones  catholicce 
(Rome,  1907). 

S.  Vailh6. 

Rhodesia,  a  British  possession  in  South  Africa, 
bounded  on  the  north  and  north-west  by  the  Congo 
Free  State  and  German  East  Africa;  on  the  east  by 
German  East  Africa,  Nyassaland,  and  Portuguese 
East  Africa;  on  the  south  by  the  Transvaal  and 
Bechuanaland ;  on  the  west  by  Bechuanaland  and 
Portuguese  West  Africa.  Cecil  John  Rhodes,  to 
whom  the  colony  owes  its  name,  desired  to  promote 
the  expansion  of  the  British  Empire  in  South  Africa. 
The  Dutch  South  African  Republic  and  Germany 
were  contemplating  annexations  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Zambesi  River.  To  thwart  these  enemies 
of  unity  without  delay  and  without  the  aid  of  the 
British  Parliament  was  the  task  to  which  Mr.  Rhodes 
and  his  colleagues  set  themselves.  Early  in  1S88 
Lobengula,  King  of  Matabeleland,  entered  into  a 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  and  on  30  October  of  the 
same  year  he  granted  to  Rhodes's  agents  "the 
complete  and  exclusive  charge  over  all  metals  and 
minerals"  in  his  dominions.  On  28  October,  1889, 
the  British  South  Africa  Company  was  formed  under 
a  royal  charter.  The  company,  on  Lobengula's 
advice,  first  decided  to  open  up  Mashonaland,  which 


lies  north  and  west  of  Matabeleland  and  south  of  the 
Zambesi.  In  Sejitember,  1890,  an  expeditionary 
column  occupied  that  country  and,  in  the  next  four 
years,  much  was  done  to  develop  its  resources.  In 
1893  the  company,  who  questioned  the  right  of  the 
Matabele  to  make  annual  raids  among  their  neigh- 
bours the  Mashonas,  came  to  blows  with  King 
Lobengula.  Five  weeks  of  active  operations  and  the 
death  of  the  king,  i)robably  by  self-administered 
poi.son,  brought  the  whole  of  Southern  Rhodesia 
under  the  absolute  control  of  the  company. 

After  the  war,  the  settlement  and  opening  up  of 
the  country  was  carried  on  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  Rhodes  who,  on  the  ruins  of  Lobengula's  royal 
kraal  at  Bulawayo,  built  Government  House,  and  in 
the  vicinity,  laid  out  the  streets  and  avenues  of  what 
was  intended  soon  to  become  a  great  city.  At  one 
time  Bulawayo  had  a  population  of  some  7000  white 
inhabitants  and  seemed  to  be  fulfilling  the  dreams  of 
its  founder  when  its  progress  and  that  of  the  whole 
country  was  cut  short  by  the  cattle  pest,  the  native 
rebellion  of  1896,  and  by  years  of  stagnation  and 
inactivity  consequent  upon  the  Boer  War.  Its  white 
population  (1911)  is  5200.  Besides  Southern  Rho- 
desia the  chartered  company  own  the  extensive  ter- 
ritories of  North-western  and  North-eastern  Rhodesia 
which  lie  north  of  the  Zambesi  and  which,  with  the 
more  populous  southern  province,  cover  an  area  of 
some  450,000  square  miles  and  form  a  country  larger 
than  France,  Germany,  and  the  Low  Countries 
combined.  The  black  population  is  less  than  1,500,- 
000,  while  the  whites  hardly  exceed  16,000.  All 
the  native  tribes  of  Rhodesia  belong  to  the  great 
Bantu  family  of  the  negro  race.  Before  the  arrival 
of  the  pioneer  columns  the  dominant  race  south  of 
the  Zambesi  were  the  Matabele,  an  off-shoot  of 
the  Zulus,  who  conquered  the  country  north  of  the 
Limpopo  River  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 
They  formed  a  military  caste  which  lived  by 
war  and  periodical  raids  upon  their  weaker  neigh- 
bours. The  destruction  of  this  military  despotism 
was  a  necessary  step  to  the  evangelizing  of  the  coun- 
try. Before  the  arrival  of  the  Matabele  warriors  the 
principal  inhabitants  of  Southern  Rhodesia  were  the 
Makaranga  whose  ancestors  had  formed  the  once 
powerful  emjiire  of  Monomotapa.  North-western 
Rhodesia  or  Barotseland  is  ruled  partly  by  an  ad- 
ministrator residing  at  Livingstone,  near  the  Vic- 
toria Falls  of  the  Zambesi  an(l  partly  by  its  native 
King  Lewanika,  the  chief  of  the  Barotse,  who  has 
been  heavily  subsidised  by  the  company.  The  pre- 
dominant people  in  North-eastern  Rhodesia  are  the 
Awemba  and  the  Angoni  whose  raiding  propensities 
and  cooperation  with  the  Arab  slave  drivers  caused 
much  trouble  and  expense  until  their  definitive  an- 
nexation by  the  company  in  1894. 

The  earliest  attempt  to  evangelize  Matabeleland 
was  made  in  1879  when  three  Jesuit  Fathers,  travel- 
ling by  ox-wagon,  accomplished  the  journey  of  some 
twelve  hundred  miles  between  Grahamstown  and 
Bulawayo.  They  were  hospitably  received  by  King 
Lobengula  who  had  been  assured  by  some  resident 
traders  that  the  missionaries  had  come  for  his  people's 
good.  He  granted  them  a  free  passage  through  his 
dominions  and  allowed  them  to  train  his  subjects  in 
habits  of  industry  but  not  to  preach  the  Gospel 
of  Christ  which,  as  he  well  knew,  would  lead  to 
drastic  changes,  not  only  in  the  domestic  life  of  his 
people,  but  in  his  whole  system  of  government. 
For  some  fourteen  years  the  missionaries  held  their 
ground  awaiting  events  and  it  was  only  through  the 
conquest  of  the  country  by  the  company  that  free 
missionary  work  was  rendered  possible.  It  was  dur- 
ing this  period  that  Baron  von  Hubner,  who  was  not 
without  personal  experience  of  South  Africa,  declared 
that  he  would  never  contribute  a  penny  to  the 
Zambesi  Mission,  since  he  thought  it  contrary  to  his 


RHODIOPOLIS 


26 


RHYMED 


duty  to  foster  an  enterprise  doomed  to  failure  and 
disaster.  Events  seemed  to  justify  his  prognostica- 
tions, for  the  mission,  owing  to  fever  and  the  hard- 
ships of  travel,  seemed  to  be  losing  more  workers  than 
it  made  converts.  In  1S93,  however,  the  power  of 
Lobengula  was  broken  and  mission  stations  began 
to  grow  up  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Salisbury,  the 
capital,  and  of  Bulawayo.  In  Matabeleland  there 
are  two  mission  stations,  one  at  Bulawayo  and  the 
second  at  Empandeni,  some  sixty  miles  away.  This 
last  station  owns  a  property  of  about  one  hundred 
square  miles  most  of  which  formed  the  original  grant 
of  Lobengula  and  the  title  to  which  was  confirmed 
by  the  company.  The  principal  station  among  the 
^iashonas  or  Makaranga  is  Chishawasha,  fourteen 
miles  from  Salisbury-  (founded  in  1892).  There  are 
other  stations  of  more  recent  date  at  Salisbury'", 
Driefontein,  Hama's  Ivraal,  and  IMzondo,  near 
Victoria,  all  under  the  charge  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers. 
The  Missionaries  of  IMarianhill,  recently  separated 
from  the  Trappists,  have  two  missions  in  Mashona- 
land  at  Macheke  and  St.  Trias  Hill.  The  Makaranga 
who  are  thus  being  evangelized  from  seven  mission 
stations  are  the  descendants  of  the  predominant  tribe 
who  received  the  faith  from  the  Ven.  Father  Gon^alo 
de  Silveira  in  1561.  Among  the  Batongas,  who  owe 
a  somewhat  doubtful  allegiance  to  King  Lewanika 
in  North-western  Rhodesia,  there  are  two  Jesuit 
mission  stations  on  the  Chikuni  and  Nguerere  Rivers. 
These  missions  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Jesuit  Prefect  Apostolic  of  the  Zambesi,  resident  in 
Bulawayo.  There  are  35  priests,  30  lay  brothers, 
and  83  nuns  in  charge  of  the  missions.  The  Catholic 
native  population  is  about  3000.  For  the  missions 
of  North-eastern  Rhodesia  see  Nyassa,  Vicariate, 
Apcstolic  of.  The  land  of  the  mission  stations  in 
Rhodesia  is  usually  a  grant  from  the  Government 
made  on  condition  of  doing  missionary  work  and  is 
therefore  inalienable  without  a  special  order  in 
Council.  Native  schools,  in  some  cases,  are  in 
receipt  of  a  small  grant  from  the  Government.  The 
Jesuit  Fathers  have  one  school  for  white  boys  (120) 
at  Bulawayo,  while  the  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of 
St.  Dominic  have  three:  at  Bulawayo  (210),  Salis- 
bury (130),  and  Gwelo  (40).  These  schools  are  un- 
denominational and  receive  grants  from  the  Govern- 
ment. Hence  Catholics,  who  were  first  in  the  field, 
have  a  very  considerable  share  in  the  education  of 
the  countr>'.  New  Government  schools  have  been 
built  recently  in  Salisbury,  Bulawayo,  and  Gwelo 
and  other  places  in  order  to  meet  the  growing  de- 
mand for  education  and  they  have,  so  far,  succeeded 
in  filling  their  school-rooms  without  taking  many 
piipils  from  the  schools  managed  by  Catholics. 

The  chief  sfjurre  of  information  about  the  Zambesi  Mission  is 
the  Zamheni  Mixnon  Record,  issued  quarterly  (Roehampton, 
Englandj;  Hensman,  A  Hixtm-y  of  Rhodesia  (London,  1900); 
Hone,  Soulfiern  Rhodenia  (London.  1909);  Hall,  Prehistoric 
RhodeHa  (lyfjndon,  1909);  Michell,  Life  of  C.  J.  Rhodes  (2  vols 
London,  1910). 

James  EjE>fDAL. 

Rhodiopolis,  titular  see  of  Lycia,  suffragan  of 
Myra,  fulled  Rhodia  by  Ptolemy  (V,  3)  and  Stcphanus 
Byzantiufj;  Rhodiapolis  on  its  coins  and  inscriptions; 
Rhodioprjlis  by  Pliny  (V,  28),  who  locates  it  in  the 
mountains  to  the  north  of  Corydalla.  Its  history  is 
unknown.  Its  ruins  may  be  seen  on  a  hill  in  the  heart 
of  a  forest  at  F^ski  Hissar,  vilayet  of  Koniah.  They 
consist  of  the  remains  of  an  aqueduct,  a  small  theatre, 
a  temple  of  Escalapius,  sarcophagi,  and  churches. 
Only  one  bishop  is  known,  Nicholas,  present  in  518 
at  a  Qjuncil  of  Cfjnstantinople.  The  "Notitiaj 
episcopatuum "  continue  to  m«!ntion  the  see  as  late 
as  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century. 

Le  Qpiev,  Orient  rhriniinnuK,  I.  991;  Spratt  and  Forbes, 
TrateU  »n  Lycia.  I,  166,  181;  Hmitu,  Did.  of  Greek  nnd  Roman 
gtoffr-.  B.  V. 

S.    P^TKIDfcs. 


Rhode,  a  Christian  writer  who  flourished  in  the 
time  of  Commodus  (180-92);  he  was  a  native  of 
Asia  who  camo  to  Rome  where  he  was  a  pupil  of 
Tatian's.  He  wrote  several  books,  two  of  which  are 
mentioned  by  Eusobius  (Hist,  eccl.,  V,  xiii),  viz., 
a  treatise  on  "The  Six  Days  of  Creation"  and  a  work 
against  the  Marcionitcs  in  which  he  dwelled  upon  the 
various  opinions  which  divided  them.  Eusebius, 
upon  whom  we  depend  exchisivclj'-  for  our  knowledge 
of  Rhodo,  quotes  some  passages  from  the  latter  work, 
in  one  of  which  an  account  is  given  of  the  Marcionite 
Apelles.  St.  Jerome  (De  vir.  ill.)  amplifies  Euse- 
bius's  account  somewhat  by  making  Rhodo  the  author 
of  a  work  against  the  Cataphrygians — probably  he 
had  in  mind  an  anonymous  work  quoted  by  Eusebius 
a  httle  later  (op.  cit.,  V,  xvi). 

Harnack,  Altchrist  Lit.,  p.  H^Q;  Bardenhewer,  Patrology 
(tr.  Shahan,  St.  Louis,  1908),  117. 

F.  J.  Bacchus. 

Rhosus,  a  titular  see  in  Cilicia  Secunda,  suffragan 
to  Anazarba.  Rhosus  or  Rhossus  was  a  seaport 
situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Issus,  nowAlexandretta,  south- 
west of  Alexandria  (Iskenderoun  or  Alexandretta). 
It  is  mentioned  by  Strabo  (XIV,  5;  XVI,  2),  Ptolemy 
(V,  14),  Pliny  (V,  xviii,  2),  who  place  it  in  Syria,  and 
by  Stephanus  Byzantius;  later  by  Hierocles  (Synecd. 
705,  7),  and  George  of  Cyprus  (Descriptio  orbis 
romani,  827),  who  locate  it  in  Cilicia  Secunda.  To- 
wards 200,  Serapion  of  Antioch  composed  a  treatise  on 
the  Gospel  of  Peter  for  the  faithful  of  Rhosus  who  had 
become  heterodox  on  account  of  that  book  (Eusebius, 
"Hist,  eccl.",  VI,  xii,  2).  Theodoret  (Philoth.  Hist., 
X,  XI),  who  places  it  in  Cilicia,  relates  the  history  of 
the  hermit  Theodosius  of  Antioch,  founder  of  a 
monastery  in  the  mountain  near  Rhosus,  who  was 
forced  by  the  inroads  of  barbarians  to  retire  to 
Antioch,  where  he  died  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
disciple  Romanus,  a  native  of  Rhosus;  these  two 
religious  are  honoured  by  the  Greek  Church  on  5  and 
9  February.  Six  bishops  of  Rhosus  are  known  (Le 
Quien,  "Or.  Christ.",  II,  905):  Antipatros,  at  the 
Council  of  Antioch,  363;  Porphyrins,  a  correspondent 
of  St.  John  Chrj'sostom;  Julian,  at  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon,  451;  a  little  later  a  bishop  (name  un- 
known), who  separated  from  his  metropolitan  to 
approve  of  the  reconciliation  effected  between  John 
of  Antioch  and  St.  Cyril;  Antoninus,  at  the  Council 
of  Mopsuestra,  550;  Theodore,  about  600.  The  see 
is  mentioned  among  the  suffragans  of  Anazarba  in 
"Notitise  episcopatuum"  of  the  Patriarchate  of 
Antioch,  of  the  sixth  century  (Vailh6  in  "Echos 
d'Orient",  X,  145)  and  one  dating  from  about  840 
(Parthey,  "Hieroclis  synecd.  ct  notit.  gr.  episcopat.", 
not.  la,  827).  In  another  of  the  tenth  century 
Rhosus  is  included  among  the  exempt  sees  (Vailh6, 
ibid.,  93  seq.).  In  the  twelfth  century  the  town  and 
neighbouring  fortress  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Ar- 
menians; in  1268  this  castle  was  captured  from  the 
Templars  by  Sultan  Bibars  (Alishan,  "Sissouan", 
Venice,  1899,  515).  Rhosus  is  near  the  village  of 
Arsous  in  the  vilayet  of  Adana. 

S.    P^TRIDfeS. 

Rhsrmed  Bibles. — The  rhymed  versions  of  the 
Bihk;  are  almost  entirely  collections  of  the  psalms. 
The  oldest  English  rhymed  psalter  is  a  pre-Roforma- 
tion  translation  of  the  Vulgate  psalms,  generally 
assigned  to  the  reign  of  Henry  II  and  still  preserved 
in  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge.  The  Bodle- 
ian Library,  Oxford,  has  another  Catholic  rhyming 
psalter  of  much  the  same  style,  assigned  epigraphic- 
ally  to  the  time  of  Edward  II.  Thomas  l^rampton 
did  the  Seven  Penitential  Psalms,  from  the  Vulgate, 
into  rhyming  verse  in  1414;  the  MS.  is  in  the  Cotton- 
ian  collection,  British  Museum.  The.se  and  other 
prf!-Reformafion  rhyming  psalters  tell  a  story  of 
popular  use  of  the  vernacular  Scripture  in  England, 


RHYTHMICAL 


27 


RHYTHMICAL 


which  they  ignore  who  say  that  the  singing  of  psalma 
in  EngUsh  began  with  the  Reformation.  Sir  Thomas 
Wyat  (d.  1521)  is  said  to  have  done  the  whole  psalter. 
We  have  only  "Certayne  Psalmes  chosen  out  of  the 
Psalter  of  David,  commonlye  called  the  VII  Peni- 
tential Psalmes,  Drawen  into  English  metre  ".  Henry 
Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey  (d.  1547),  translated  Pss. 
Iv,  Ixxiii,  Ixxxviii  into  English  verse.  Miles  Cover- 
dale  (d.  1567)  translated  several  psalms  in  "Goastly 
psalmes  and  spirituall  songs  drawen  out  of  the  Holy 
Scripture  ".  The  old  Version  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
printed  at  the  end  of  the  Prayer  Book  (1562)  con- 
tains thirty-seven  rhyming  psalms  translated  by 
Thomas  Sternhold,  fifty-eight  by  John  Hopkins, 
twenty-eight  by  Thomas  Norton,  and  the  remainder 
by  Robert  Wisdom  (Ps.  cxxv),  William  Whittingham 
(Ps.  cxix  of  700  lines)  and  others.  Sternhold's 
psalms  had  been  previously  published  (1549). 
Robert  Crowley  (1549)  did  the  entire  psalter  into 
verse.  The  Seven  Penitential  Psalms  were  trans- 
lated by  very  many;  William  Hunnis  (1583)  entitles 
his  translation,  with  quaint  Elizabethan  conceit, 
"Seven  Sobs  of  a  Sorrowful  Soul  for  Sinne".  During 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI,  Sir  Thomas  Smith  translated 
ninety-two  of  the  psalms  into  English  verse,  while 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower.  A  chaplain  to  Queen  Mary, 
calling  himself  the  "symple  and  unlearned  Syr 
William  Forrest,  preeiste",  did  a  poetical  version  of 
fifty  psalms  (1551).  Matthew  Parker  (1557),  later 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  completed  a  metrical 
psalter.  The  Scotch  had  their  Psalmes  buickes  from 
1564.  One  of  the  most  renowned  of  Scotch  versifiers 
of  the  Psalms  was  Robert  Pont  (1575).  Zachary 
Boyd,  another  Scotchman,  published  the  Psalms  in 
verse  early  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Of  English 
rhyming  versifications  of  the  Psalms,  the  most  charm- 
ing are  those  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney  (d.  1586)  together 
with  his  sister.  Countess  of  Pembroke.  This  com- 
plete psalter  was  not  published  till  1823.  The  rich 
variety  of  the  versification  is  worthy  of  note;  almost 
all  the  usual  varieties  of  lyric  metres  of  that  lyric  age 
are  called  into  requisition  and  handled  with  elegance. 
The  stately  and  elegant  style  of  Lord  Bacon  is 
distinctive  of  his  poetical  paraphrases  of  several 
psalms.  Richard  Vcrstegan,  a  Catholic,  published 
a  rhyming  version  of  the  Seven  Penitential  Psalms 
(1601).  George  Sandys  (1636)  published  a  volume 
containing  a  metrical  version  of  other  parts  of  the 
Bible  together  with  "a  Paraphrase  upon  the  Psalmes 
of  David,  set  to  new  Tunes  for  Private  Devotion, 
and  a  Thorow  Base  for  Voice  and  Instruments"; 
his  work  is  touching  in  its  simplicity  and  unction. 
The  Psalm  Books  of  the  various  Protestant  churches 
are  mostly  rhyming  versions  and  are  numerous: 
New  England  Psalm  Book  (Boston,  1773);  Psalm 
Book  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  in  North 
America  (New  York,  1792);  The  Bay  Psalm  Book 
(Cambridge,  1640).  Noteworthy  also,  among  the 
popular  and  more  recent  rhymed  psalters  are: 
Brady  and  Tate  (poet  laureate),  "A  new  Version  of 
the  Psalms  of  David"  (Boston,  1762);  James  Mer- 
rick, "The  Psalms  in  English  Verse"  (Reading, 
England,  1765);  I.  Watts,  "The  Psalms  of  David" 
(27th  ed.,  Boston,  1771);  J.  T.  Barrett,  "A  Course 
of  Psalms"  (Lambeth,  1825);  Abraham  Coles,  "A 
New  Rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Psalms  into  English 
Verse"  (New  York,  1885);  David  S.  Wrangham, 
"Lyra  Regis"  (Leeds,  1885);  Arthur  Trevor  Jebb, 
"A  Book  of  Psalms"  (London,  1898).  Such  are  the 
chief  rhyming  English  psalters.  Other  parts  of 
Holy  Writ  done  into  rhyming  English  verse  are: 
Christopher  Tye's  "The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  trans- 
lated into  English  Metre"  (1553);  Zachary  Boyd's 
"St.  Matthew"  (early  seventeenth  cent.);  Thomas 
Prince's  "Canticles,  parts  of  Isaias  and  Revelations" 
in  New  England  Psalm  Book  (1758);  Henry  Ains- 
wort,    "Solomon's   Song   of   Songs"    (1642);    John 


Mason  Good's  "Song  of  Songs"  (London,  1803); 
C.  C.  Price's  "Acts  of  the  Apostles"  (New  York, 
1845).  The  French  have  had  rhyming  psalters  since 
the  "Sainctes  Chansonettes  en  Rime  FranQaise"  of 
Clement  Marot  (1540).  Some  Italian  rhymed  ver- 
sions of  the  Bible  are:  Abbate  Francesco  Rezzano, 
"II  Libro  di  Giobbe"  (Nice,  1781);  Stefano  Egidio 
Petroni,  "Proverbi  di  Salomone"  (London,  1815)  j 
Abbate  Pietro  Rossi,  "  Lamentazioni  di  Geremia,  i 
Sette  Salmi  Penitenziali  e  il  Cantico  di  Mose" 
(Nizza,  1781);  Evasio  Leone,  "II  Cantico  de' 
Cantici"  (Venice,  1793);  Francesco  Campana, 
"Libro  di  Giuditta"  (Nizza,  1782). 

Bibliotheca  Sussexinna,  II  (London,  1839) ;  Warton,  History 
of  English  Poetry  (1774-81);  Holland,  The  Psalmists  of  Britain 
(London,  1843).  WALTER   DruM. 

Rhythmical  OfUce. — I.  Description,  Develop- 
ment, AND  Division. — By  rhythmical  office  is  meant 
a  liturgical  horary  prayer,  the  canonical  hours  of  the 
priest,  or  an  office  of  the  Breviary,  in  which  not  only 
the  hymns  are  regulated  by  a  certain  rhythm,  but 
where,  with  the  exception  of  the  psalms  and  lessons, 
practically  all  the  other  parts  show  metre,  rhythm, 
or  rhyme;  such  parts  for  instance  as  the  antiphons 
to  each  psalm,  to  the  Magnificat,  Invitatorium,  and 
Benedictus,  likewise  the  responses  and  versicles  to 
the  prayers,  and  after  each  of  the  nine  lessons;  quite 
often  also  the  benedictions  before  the  lessons,  and 
the  antiphons  to  the  minor  Horce  (Prime,  Terce,  Sext, 
and  None). 

The  old  technical  term  for  such  an  office  was 
Historia,  with  or  without  an  additional  "rhytmata" 
or  rimala,  an  expression  that  frequently  caused  mis- 
understanding on  the  part  of  later  writers.  The 
reason  for  the  name  lay  in  the  fact  that  originally 
the  antiphons  or  the  responses,  and  sometimes  the 
two  together,  served  to  amplify  or  comment  upon 
the  history  of  a  saint,  of  which  there  was  a  brief 
sketch  in  the  readings  of  the  second  nocturn.  Grad- 
ually this  name  was  transferred  to  offices  in  which 
no  word  was  said  about  a  "history",  and  thus  we 
find  the  expression  "Historia  ss.  Trinitatis".  The 
structure  of  the  ordinary  office  of  the  Breviary  in 
which  antiphons,  psalms,  hymns,  lessons,  and  re- 
sponses followed  one  another  in  fixed  order,  was  the 
natural  form  for  the  rhythmical  office.  It  was  not 
a  question  of  inventing  something  new,  as  with  the 
hymns,  sequences,  or  other  kinds  of  poetry,  but  of 
creating  a  text  in  poetic  form  in  the  place  of  a  text 
in  prose  form,  where  the  scheme  existed,  definitely 
arranged  in  all  its  parts.  A  development  therefore 
which  could  eventually  serve  as  a  basis  for  the 
division  of  the  rhythmical  offices  into  distinct  classes 
is  of  itself  limited  to  a  narrow  field,  namely  the  ex- 
ternal form  of  the  parts  of  the  office  as  they  appear 
in  poetic  garb.  Here  we  find  in  historical  order  the 
following  characters:  (1)  a  metrical,  of  hexameters 
intermixed  with  prose  or  rhymed  prose;  (2)  a  rhyth- 
mical, in  the  broadest  sense,  which  will  be  explained 
below;  (3)  a  form  embellished  by  strict  rhythm  and 
rhyme.  Consequently  one  may  distinguish  three 
classes  of  rhythmical  offices:  (1)  metrical  offices,  in 
hexameters  or  distichs;  (2)  offices  in  rhymed  prose, 
i.  e.,  offices  with  very  free  and  irregular  rhythm,  or 
with  dissimilar  assonant  long  lines;  (3)  rhymed  of- 
fices with  regular  rhythm  and  harmonious  artistic 
structure.  The  second  class  represents  a  state  of 
transition,  wherefore  the  groups  may  be  called  those 
of  the  first  epoch,  the  groups  of  the  transition  period, 
and  those  of  the  third  epoch,  in  the  same  way  as 
with  the  sequences,  although  with  the  latter  the 
characteristic  difference  is  much  more  pronounced. 
If  one  desires  a  general  name  for  all  three  groups,  the 
expression  "Rhymed  Office",  as  suggested  by  ^'His- 
toria rimata"  would  be  quite  appropriate  for  the 
pars  major  et  potior,  which  includes  the  best  and  most 
artistic  offices ;  this  designation :   '  'gereimtes  Officium  " 


RHYTHMICAL 


28 


RHYTHMICAL 


{Reimofficium)  has  been  adopted  in  Germany  through 
the  "Analecta  Hymnica".  The  term  does  not  give 
absolute  satisfaction,  because  the  first  and  oldest 
offices  are  without  rhyme,  and  cannot  very  well  be 
called  rhymed  offices.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  word 
"rhj-thmical"  was  used  as  the  general  term  for  any 
kind  of  poetn.'  to  be  distinguished  from  prose,  no 
matter  whether  there  was  regular  rhythm  in  those 
p>oems  or  not.  And  for  that  reason  it  is  practical 
to  comprise  in  the  name  "rh>-thmical  offices"  all 
those  which  are  other  than  pure  prose,  a  designation 
corresponding  to  the  "Historia  rhj-tmata". 

Apart  from  the  predilection  of  the  Middle  Ages 
for  the  poetic  form,  the  Vitcc  melricce  of  the  saints 
were  the  point  of  departure  and  motive  for  the 
rh\-thmical  offices.  Those  Vitce  were  frequently 
composed  in  hexameters  or  distichs.  From  them 
various  couples  of  hexameters  or  a  distich  were  taken 
to  be  used  as  antiphon  or  response  respectively.  In 
case  the  hexameters  of  the  VitoR  mctriccE  did  not  prove 
suitable  enough,  the  lacking  parts  of  the  office  were 
supplemented  by  simple  prose  or  by  means  of  verses 
in  rhymed  prose,  i.  e.,  by  texi,  lines  of  different  length 
in  which  there  was  very  little  of  rhythm,  but  simply 
assonance.  Such  offices  are  often  a  motley  mixture 
of  hexameters,  rhythmical  stanzas,  stanzas  in  pure 
prose,  and  again  in  rhymed  prose.  An  example  of 
an  old  metrical  office,  intermixed  with  Prose  Re- 
sponses, is  that  of  St.  Lambert.  (Anal.  Hymn., 
XXVII,  no.  79),  where  all  the  antiphons  are  borrowed 
from  that  saint's  Vitce  melricae,  presumably  the  work 
of  Hucbald  of  St.  Amand;  the  office  itself  was  com- 
posed by  Bishop  Stephen  of  Liege  about  the  end  of 
the  ninth  century: 

Antiphona  I :  Orbita  Solaris  praesentia  gaudia  confert 
Prajsulis  eximii  Lantberti  gesta  revolvens. 
Antiphona  II:    Hie  fuit  ad  tempus  Hildrici  regis  in 

aula, 
Dilectus  cunctis  et  vocis  famine  dulcis. 
A  mixing  of  hexameters,  of  rhythmical  stanzas,  and 
of  stanzas  formed  by  unequal  lines  in  rhymed  prose 
is  .shown  in  the  old  Office  of  Rictrudis,  composed  by 
Hucbald  about  907  (Anal.  Hymn.,  XIII,  no.  87). 
By  the  side  of  regular  hexameters,  as  in  the  Invita- 
torium: 

Rictrudis  sponso  sit  laus  et  gloria,  Christo, 
Pro  cuius  merito  iubilemus  ei  vigilando. 
we  find  rhythmical  stanzas,  like  the  first  antiphon  (o 
Lauds: 

Beat  a  Dei  famula 

Rictrudis,  adhuc  posita 

In  terris,  mente  devota 

Christo  hierebat   in  ajfhra; 
or  KlanzaH  in  very  fret;  rhythm,  as  e.  g.,  the  second 
response  to  the  first  nocturn: 

Ha;c  femina  laudabilia 

Merit isque  honorabilis 

Rictnidis  egregia 

Divina  i)rovidf'nf  ia 

Pf-rvcnif   in  Galliam, 

Prajclaris  orta  natalibuH, 

Honf^tis  alt  a  et  instituta  moribus. 
P'rcim  (he  metrical  offices,  from  the  pure  as  well  as 
from  thow!  mixed  with  rhymed  prose,  the  transition 
was  wxm  ma^le  to  such  a«  fonsistefi  of  rhymod  prose 
m«Tely.  An  examt)le  of  this  kind  is  in  the  Offices  of 
Ulrich,  c/>mpf>wd  by  AV>bot  Bfrno  of  Reichenau  (d. 
104S;;  the  antiphon  to  the  Magnificat  of  the  first 
VcHpera  begins  thus: 

Venerandi  patris  Wodalrici  sollemnia 
Magna-  jurunfJitatiH  reprawnfant  gaudia, 
Qiia;  merito  dcri  KUKcii»ninf  ur  vfjto 
Ac  populi  fflflirantur  tripudio. 
lifpfHur  \f\\\\H  tali  fompla  pra'sule, 
Kx«iil1c<   iKiluK  lanto  <litatUH  (u»mpare; 
Solus  da-mori  ingf-mat,  f|iii  w\  c-ius  sepuhTUKi 
Suum  asbidue  ixjrdit  dominium  .  .  .  etc. 


Much  more  perfectly  developed  on  the  other  hand,  is 
the  rhythm  in  the  Office  which  Leo  IX  composed  in 
honour  of  Gregory  the  Great  (Anal.  Hj^mn.,  V,  no. 
64).  This  office,  the  work  of  a  pope,  appeared  in 
the  eleventh  century  in  the  Roman  breviaries,  and 
soon  enjoyed  widespread  circulation;  all  its  verses 
are  iambic  dimeters,  but  the  rhythm  does  not  as  yet 
coincide  with  the  natural  accent  of  the  word,  and 
many  a  verse  has  a  syllable  in  excess  or  a  syllable 
wanting.  For  example,  the  first  antiphon  of  the 
first  nocturn: 

Gregorius  ortus  Romse 
E  senatorum  sanguine 
Fulsit  mundo  velut  gemma 
Auro  superaddita, 
Dum  prajclarior  praeclaria 
Hie  accessit  atavis. 
This  author  does  not  yet  make  use  of  pure  rhyme, 
but    only    of    assonance,    the    precursor    of    rhyme. 
Hence  we  have  before  us  an  example  of  transition 
from  offices  of  the  first  epoch  to  those  of  the  second. 
With  these   latter  the  highest   development  of  the 
rhythmical  office  is  reached.     It  is  marvellous  how 
in  many  offices  of  this  artistic  period,  in  spite  of  all 
symmetry  in  rhythm  and  rhyme,  the  greatest  variety 
exists  in  the  structure  of  the  stanzas,  how  a  smooth 
and  refined  language  matches  the  rich  contents  full 
of   deep   ideas,    and   how  the   individual   parts   are 
joined  together  in  a  complete  and  most  striking  pic- 
ture of  the  saint  or  of  the  mystery  to  be  celebrated. 
A  prominent  example  is  the  Office  of  the  Trinity  by 
Archbishop  Pecham  of  Canterbury. 
The  first  Vespers  begins  with  the  antiphons: 

(1)  Sedenti  super  solium 
Congratulans  trishagium 

Seraphici  clamoris 
Cum  patre  laudat  filium 
Indiflferens  principium 

Reciproci  amoris. 

(2)  Sequamur  per  suspirium, 
Quod  geritur  et  gaudium 

In  Sanctis  cajli  choris; 
Levemus  cordis  studium 
In  trinum  lucis  radium 
Splendoris  et  amoris. 
It.  is  interesting  to  compare  with  the  prec^eding  the 
antiphons  to  the  first  nocturn,  which  have  quite  a 
different  structure;    the  third  of  them  exhibits  the 
profound  thought: 

Leventur  cordis  ostia: 
Memoria  Giqnenli 
Nnlo  intelligontia. 
Voluntas  Proccdcnli. 
again  the  first  response  to  the  tliird  nocturn: 
Candor  lucis,  perpurum  speculum 
Patris  splendor,  perlustrans  sa;culum, 
Nubis  levis  intrans  umbraculum 
In  ^]gypti  venit  ergasfulum. 
Virgo  (lircumdedit  virum 
Mel  mandentem  et   butyrum. 
upon  which  follows  as  second  response  the  beautiful 
picture  of  the  Trinity  in  tlie  following  form: 

A  Vctcrani  facie  manavit  aniens  fluvius: 
Antiqwus  est  ingenitus,  et   facies  est  Filius, 
Ardoris  fluxus  Spiritus,  duorum  amor  medius. 
Sic  olim  multifarie 
Prophetis  luxit  Trinitas, 
Quam  post  pandit  ecclcsia; 
In  came  fulgens  Veritas. 

n  .    1 1 ISTORY  AND  SiGNIFICANCK. — It  CaHHOt  be  dcfl- 

iiit(!ly  stated  which  of  the  three  old  abbeys:  Priim, 
Laiifievennec,  or  Saint-Amand  can  claim  priority  in 
eomf)osing  a  rhythmical  office.  There  is  no  doubt 
liowever  thai  Saint-Amand  and  the  monasteries  in 
Hairiault,  Flanders,  and  Brabant,  was  the  nuil  start- 
ing-point of  this  style  of  poetry,  as  long  ago  as  the 


RIBADENEIRA 


29 


RIBADENEIRA 


ninth  century.  The  pioneer  in  music,  the  Monk 
Hucbald  of  Saint-Amand,  composed  at  least  two, 
probably  four,  rhythmical  offices;  and  the  larger  num- 
ber of  the  older  offices  were  used  liturgically  in  those 
monasteries  and  cities  which  had  some  connexion 
with  Saint-Amand.  From  there  this  new  branch  of 
hymnody  very  soon  found  its  way  to  France,  and  in 
the  tenth  and  eleventh,  and  particularly  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  showed  fine,  if  not  the 
finest  results,  both  in  quality  and  quantity.  Worthy 
of  especial  mention  as  poets  of  this  order  are:  the 
Abbots  Odo  (927-42)  and  Odilo  (994-1049)  of 
Cluny,  Bishop  Fulbert  of  Chartres  (1017-28),  the 
Benedictine  Monk  Odorannus  of  Sens  (d.  1045),  Pope 
Leo  IX  (d.  1054);  Bishop  Stephen  of  Tournay  (1192- 
1203);  Archdeacon  Rainald  of  St.  Maurice  in  Angers 
(d.  about  1074);  Bi.shop  Richard  de  Gerberoy  of 
Amiens  (1204-10);  Prior  Arnaud  du  Pre  of  Toulouse 
(d.  1306),  and  the  General  of  the  Dominican  Order, 
Martialis  Auribelli,  who  in  1456  wrote  a  rhymed  office 
for  the  purpose  of  glorifying  St.  Vincent  Ferrer.  The 
most  eminent  poet  and  composer  of  offices  belongs  to 
Germany  by  birth,  but  more  so  to  France  by  reason 
of  his  activity;  he  is  Julian  von  Speyer,  director  of  the 
orchestra  at  the  Frankish  royal  court,  afterwards 
Franciscan  friar  and  choir  master  in  the  Paris  con- 
vent, where  about  1240  he  composed  words  and  music 
for  the  two  well-known  offices  in  honour  of  St.  Francis 
of  Assisi  and  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua  (Anal.  Hymn., 
V,  nos.  61  and  42).  The.se  two  productions,  the  musi- 
cal value  of  which  has  in  many  ways  been  overesti- 
mated, served  as  a  prototjT^-  f"r  ^  goodly  number  of 
successive  offices  in  honour  of  saints  of  the  Franciscan 
Order  as  well  as  of  others.  In  Germany  the  rhym(!d 
offices  were  just  as  popular  as  in  France.  As  early  y~s 
in  the  ninth  century  an  office,  in  honour  of  St.  Chry- 
santus  and  Daria,  had  its  origin  probably  in  Priim, 
perhaps  through  Friar  Wandalbert  (.\nal.  Hymn., 
XXV,  no.  73) ;  perhaps  not  much  later  through  Abbot 
Gurdestin  of  LandevennKc  a  similar  poem  in  honour 
of  St.  Winwaloeus  (Anal.  Hymn.,  XVIII,  no.  100). 
As  hailing  from  Germany  two  other  composers  of 
rhythmical  offices  in  the  earlier  period  have  become 
known:  Abbot  Berno  of  Reichenau  (d.  1048)  and 
Abbot  Udalschalc  of  Maischach  at  Augsburg  (d. 
1150). 

The  other  German  poets  whose  names  can  be  given 
belong  to  a  period  as  late  as  the  fifteenth  century,  as 
e.  g.  Provost  Lippold  of  Stcinbergund  Bisho])  .lohann 
Hofmann  of  Meissen.  England  took  an  early  ])art 
in  this  style  of  poetry,  but  unfortunately  most  of  the 
offices  wiiich  originated  then;  hav(!  been  lost.  Bril- 
liant among  the  English  jjoets  is  .Vrchbishop  Pecham 
whose  office  of  the  Trinity  lias  been  discussed  above. 
Next  to  him  are  worthy  of  esi)ecial  mention  Cardinal 
AdamEa,ston  ((11397)  and  the;  Carmelite  John  Horneby 
of  Lincoln,  who  about  1370  compo.sed  a  rhymed  office 
in  honour  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus,  and  of  the  Visita- 
tion of  Our  Lady.  Italy  seems  to  have  a  relatively 
small  representation;  Rome  itself,  i.  e.  the  Roman 
Breviary,  as  we  know,  did  not  favour  innovations, 
and  consequently  was  reluctant  to  adopt  rhj'thmical 
offices.  The  famous  Archbishop  Alfons  of  Salerno 
(1058-85)  is  presumably  the  oldest  Italian  poet  of 
this  kind.  Besides  him  we  can  name  only  Abbot 
Reinaldus  de  CoUe  di  Mezzo  (twelfth  century),  and 
the  General  of  the  Dominicans,  Raymundus  de  Vineis 
from  Capua  (fourteenth  century).  In  Sicily  and  in 
Spain  the  rhymed  offices  were  popular  and  quite 
numerous,  but  with  the  exception  of  the  Franciscan 
Fra  Gil  de  Zamora,  who  about  the  middle  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  composed  an  office  in  honovir  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  (Anal.  Hymn.,  XVII,  no.  8)  it  has  been 
impossible  to  cite  by  name  from  those  two  countries 
any  other  poet  who  took  part  in  composing  rhythmical 
offices.  Towards  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
Scandinavia  also  comes  to  the  fore  with  rhymed 


offices,  in  a  most  dignified  manner.  Special  atten- 
tion should  be  called  to  Bishop  Brynolphua  of  Skara 
(1278-1317),  Archbishop  Birgerus  Gregorii  of  Upsala 
(d.  1383),  Bishop  Nicolaus  of  Linkoping  (1374-91), 
and  Johannes  Benechini  of  Oeland  (about  1440). 
The  number  of  offices  where  the  composer's  name  ia 
known  is  insignificantly  small.  No  less  than  seven 
hundred  anonymous  rhythmical  offices  have  been 
brought  to  light  during  the  last  twenty  years  through 
the  "Analecta  Hymnica".  It  is  true  not  all  of  them 
are  works  of  art;  particularly  during  the  fifteenth 
century  many  offices  with  tasteless  rhyming  and 
shallow  contents  reflect  the  general  decadence  of 
hymnody.  Many,  however,  belong  to  the  best  prod- 
ucts- of  rehgious  lyric  poetry.  For  six  centuries  in  all 
countries  of  the  West,  men  of  different  ranks  and  sta- 
tions in  life,  among  them  the  highest  dignitaries  of 
the  Church,  took  part  in  this  style  of  poetry,  which 
enjoyed  absolute  popularity  in  all  dioceses.  Hence 
one  may  surmise  the  significance  of  the  rhythmical 
offices  with  reference  to  the  history  of  civilization, 
their  importance  in  history  and  development  of 
liturgy,  and  above  all  their  influence  on  other  poetry 
and  literature. 

Blcme  and  Dreve.s,  Analecta  Hymnica  medii  cevi,  V,  XIII, 
X  VII.  X  VIII-XX  VI,  XX  VIII,  XL  Va,  LII,  appendix  (Leipzig, 
1SS9-1909):  Raumf.r,  Reimofficien,  356-64,  in  Ge.vcft.  des  Breviers 
(Freiburg,  1S95);  Blume,  Zur  Poexie  des  kirchlichen  Stunden- 
gebetes,  1:32-45,  in  Stimmen  aus  Maria-Loach  (1898);  Felder, 
Liturgische  Reimofficien  auf  die  hlL  Franziskus  und  Antonius 
(Fribourg,  1901). 

Clemens  Blume. 

Ribadeneira  (or  Ribadeneyra  and  among 
Spaniards  often  Riv.\deneira),  Pedro  de,  b.  at 
Toledo,  of  a  noble  Castilian  family,  1  Nov.,  1526 
(Astrain,  1,206);  d.  22  Sept.,  1611.  His  father,  Alvaro 
Ortiz  de  Cisneros,  was  the  son  of  Pedro  Gonzalea 
Ccdillo  and  grand- 
son of  Hernando 
Ortiz  de  Cisneros 
whom  Ferdinand 
IV  had  honoured 
with  the  governor- 
ship of  Toledo  and 
important  mis- 
sions. His  mother, 
of  the  illustrious 
house  of  \'illalobo8, 
wius  still  more  dis- 
tinguished for  her 
virtue  than  for  her 
birth.  Already  the 
mother  of  three 
daughters,  she 
promised  to  con- 
secrate her  fourth 
child  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  if  it  .should 
be  a  son.  Thus 
vowed  to  Mary  be- 
fore his  birth,  Riba- 
deneira received  in 
baptism  the  name 
of  Pedro  which  had 
been  borne  by  his 
paternal  grandfather  and  that  of  Ribadeneira  in  mem- 
ory of  his  maternal  grandmother,  of  one  of  the  first 
families  of  Galicia.  In  the  capacity  of  page  he  followed 
Cardinal  Alexander  Farnese  to  Italy,  and  at  Rome 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
on  IS  Sept.,  1540,  eight  days  before  the  approval  of 
the  order  by  Paul  III. 

After  having  attended  the  Universities  of  Paris, 
Louvain,  and  Padua,  where,  besifles  the  moral  crises 
which  asssailed  him,  h(>  often  had  to  encounter 
great  hardships  and  habitually  confined  himself  to 
very  meagre  fare  [he  wrote  to  St.  Ignatius  (Epp. 
mixta),  V,  649):    "Quanto  al  nostro  magnare   or- 


Pedro  de  Ribadeneira 


BIBAS 


30 


RIBAS 


dinariamente  6,  a  disnare  un  poco  de  menestra  et 
un  p>oco  de  came,  et  con  questo  e  finite "].  He  was 
ordered  in  November,  1549,  to  go  to  Palermo,  to 
profess  rhetoric  at  the  new  college  which  the  Society 
had  just  opened  in  that  city.  He  filled  this  chair 
for  two  years  and  a  half,  devoting  his  leisure  time  to 
visiting  and  consoling  the  sick  in  the  hospitals. 
Meanwhile  St.  Ignatius  was  negotiating  the  creation 
of  the  German  College  which  was  to  give  Germany  a 
chosen  clergy  as  remarkable  for  virtue  and  orthodoxy 
as  for  learning:  his  eflforts  were  soon  successful,  and 
during  the  autumn  of  1552  he  called  on  the  talent 
and  eloquence  of  the  young  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
Palermo.  Ribadeneira  amply  fulfilled  the  expecta- 
tions of  his  master  and  delivered  the  inaugural  ad- 
dress amid  the  applause  of  an  august  assembly  of 
prelates  and  Roman  nobles.  He  was  ordained  priest 
8  December,  1553  (Epp.  mixta;,  HI,  179);  during  the 
twenty-one  years  which  followed  he  constantly  filled 
the  most  important  posts  in  the  government  of  his 
order.  From  1556  to  1560  he  devoted  his  activity 
to  securing  the  official  recognition  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  the  Low  Countries.  At  the  same  time  he  was 
charged  by  his  general  with  the  duty  of  promulgating 
and  causing  to  be  accepted  in  the  Belgian  houses  the 
Constitutions,  which  St.  Ignatius  had  just  completed 
at  the  cost  of  much  labour. 

But  these  diplomatic  and  administrative  missions 
did  not  exhaust  Ribadeneira's  zeal.  He  still  applied 
himself  ardently  to  preaching.  In  December,  1555, 
he  preached  at  Louvain  with  wonderful  success,  and 
likewise  in  January,  1556,  at  Brussels.  On  25 
November  of  the  same  year  he  left  Belgium  and 
reached  Rome  3  February,  1557,  setting  out  again, 
17  October  for  Flanders.  His  sojourn  in  the  Low 
Countries  was  interrupted  for  five  months  (Novem- 
ber, 1558,  to  March,  15.59);  this  period  he  spent  in 
London,  having  been  summoned  thither  on  account 
of  the  sickness  of  Mary  Tudor,  Queen  of  England, 
which  ended  in  her  death.  In  the  summer  of  1559 
he  was  once  more  with  his  general,  Lainez,  whose 
right  hand  he  truly  was.  On  3  November,  1560,  he 
made  hLs  solemn  profession,  and  from  then  until 
the  death  of  St.  Francis  Borgia  (1572)  he  continued 
to  reside  in  Italj',  filling  in  turn  the  posts  of  provincial 
of  Tuscany,  of  commissary-general  of  the  Society  in 
Sicily,  visitor  of  Lombardy,  and  assistant  for  Spain 
and  Portugal.  The  accession  of  Father  Everard 
Mercurian  as  general  of  the  order  brought  a  great 
change  to  Ribadeneira.     His  health  being  much  im- 

Eaircii,  he  was  ordered  to  Spain,  preferably  to  Toledo, 
is  native  town,  to  recuperate.  This  was  a  dreadful 
blow  to  the  poor  invalid,  a  remedy  worse  than  the 
disease.  He  obeyed,  but  had  been  scarcely  a  year 
in  his  native  land  when  he  began  to  importune  his 
general  by  lett<'r  to  permit  him  to  return  to  Italy. 
These  solicitations  continued  for  several  years.  At 
the  same  lime  his  superiors  saw  that  he  was  as  sick  in 
mind  a.s  in  body,  and  that  his  religious  spirit  was  some- 
what shaken.  Not  only  was  he  lax  in  his  religious 
observances,  but  he  did  not  hesitate  to  criticize  the 
pcjrsons  and  affairs  of  the  Society,  so  much  so  that  he 
was  strongly  suspected  of  being  the  author  of  the 
memoirs  then  circulated  through  Spain  against  the 
Jesuits  (Astrain,  III,  106-lOj.  This,  however,  was 
a  mistake,  and  his  innocence  was  recognized  in  1578. 
He  it  was  who  tfX)k  upon  himself  the  task  of  refuting 
the  calumnies  which  mischief-makers,  apparently 
Jesuits,  went  about  dissfiminating  against  the  Con- 
stitutions of  the  Socif'ty,  nor  did  he  show  less  ardour 
and  filial  piety  in  making  known  the  life  of  St. 
Ignatius  Iy«^jyola  and  promoting  his  canonization. 

Outside  of  the  Society  of  Jchuh,  liibadeneira  is 
chiefly  known  for  his  literary  works.  From  the  day 
of  his  arrival  in  Spain  to  repair  his  failing  health 
until  the  day  of  his  death  his  career  was  that  of  a 
brilliant  writer.     His  compatriots  regard  him  as  a 


master  of  Castilian  and  rank  him  among  the  classic 
authors  of  their  tongue.  All  lines  were  familiar  to 
him,  but  he  preferred  history  and  ascetical  literature. 
His  chief  claim  to  glory  is  his  Life  of  St.  Ignatius 
Loyola,  in  which  he  speaks  as  an  eye-witness,  ad- 
mirably supported  by  documents.  Perhaps  the  work 
abounds  too  much  in  anecdotal  details  which  tend 
to  obscure  the  grand  aspect  of  the  saint's  character 
and  genius  (Analecta  Bolland.,  XXIII,  513).  It  ap- 
peared for  the  first  time  in  Latin  at  Naples  in  1572 
(ibid.,  XXI,  230).  The  first  Spanish  edition,  re- 
vised and  considerably  augmented  by  the  author, 
dates  from  1583.  Other  editions  followed,  all  of 
them  revised  by  the  author;  that  of  1594  seems  to 
contain  the  final  text.  It  was  soon  tran.slated  into 
most  of  the  European  languages.  Among  his  other 
works  must  be  mentioned  his  "Historia  eclesidstica 
del  Cisma  del  reino  de  Inglaterra"  and  the  "Flos 
sanctorum",  which  has  been  very  popular  in  many 
countries.  Some  unpublished  works  of  his  deserve 
publication,  notably  his  History  of  the  persecution 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus  and  his  History  of  the  Spanish 
Assistancy. 

Astrain,  Historia  de  la  CompaMa  de  Jesus  en  la  Asistencia  de 
Espafia  (Madrid,  1902-09) ;  Prat,  Hisloire  du  Pire  Rihadeneyra, 
disciple  de  S.  Ignace  (Paris,  1862) ;  Sommervogel,  Bibliothique 
de  la  C.  de  J.,  VI,  1724-58;  de  la  Fuente,  Obras  escojidas  del 
Padre  Pedro  de  Rivadeneira,  con  tma  noticia  de  su  vida  y  juicio 
crltico  de  sus  escritos  in  Biblioteca  de  aulores  Espafioles,  LX  (1868) ; 
Monumenta  historica  S.J.;  Ignatiana,  ser.  I,  Epistolce,  II;  ser. 
IV,  I;   PoLANCO,  Chronicon  Soc.  Jesu,  VI;   Epistolce  mixtoe,  V. 

Francis  Van  Ortroy. 

Ribas,  Andres  P£rez  de,  pioneer  missionary, 
historian  of  north-western  Mexico;  b.  at  Cordova, 
Spain,  1576;  d.  in  Mexico,  26  March,  1655.  He  joined 
the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1602,  coming  at  once  to 
America,  and  finishing  his  novitiate  in  Mexico  in  1604. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  sent  to  undertake  the  Chris- 
tianization  of  the  Ahome  and  Suaqui  of  northern 
Sinaloa,  of  whom  the  former  were  friendly  and  anxious 
for  teachers,  while  the  latter  had  just  been  brought 
to  submission  after  a  hard  campaign.  He  succeeded 
so  well  that  within  a  year  he  had  both  tribes  gathered 
into  regular  towns,  each  with  a  well-built  church, 
while  all  of  the  Ahome  and  a  large  part  of  the  Suaqui 
had  been  baptized.  The  two  tribes  together  num- 
bered about  10,000  souls.  In  1613,  being  then 
superior  of  the  Sinaloa  district,  he  was  instrumental 
in  procuring  the  submission  of  a  hostile  mountain 
tribe.  In  1617,  in  company  with  other  Jesuit  mission- 
aries whom  he  had  brought  from  Mexico  City,  he 
began  the  conversion  of  the  powerful  and  largely 
hostile  Yaqui  tribe  (q.  v.)  of  Sonora,  estimated  at 
30,000  souls,  with  such  success  that  within  a  few  years 
most  of  them  had  been  gathered  into  orderly  town 
communities.  In  1620  he  was  recalled  to  Mexico 
to  assist  in  the  college,  being  ultimately  appointed 
provincial,  which  j)Ost  he  held  for  .several  years. 
After  a  visit  to  Rome  in  1613  to  take  part  in  the  elec- 
tion of  a  general  of  the  order,  he  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  study  and  writing  until  his  death. 

He  left  numerous  works,  religious  and  historical, 
most  of  which  are  still  in  manusorijjt,  but  his  reputa- 
tion as  an  historian  rests  secure  upon  his  history  of  the 
Jesuit  missions  of  Mexico  published  at  Madrid  in  1645, 
one  year  after  its  completion,  under  the  title:  "His- 
toria de  los  Triunfos  de  Nuestra  Santa  Fe  entre 
gentes  las  mds  bdrbaras  .  .  .  conseguidos  por  los 
soldados  de  la  milicia  de  la  Compania  de  Jesus  en  las 
misiones  de  la  Provincia  de  Nueva- Espafia".  Of 
this  work  Bancroft  says:  "It  is  a  complete  history  of 
Jesuit  work  in  Nueva  Vizcaya,  practically  the  only 
history  the  country  had  from  1590  to  1644,  written 
not  only  by  a  contemporary  author  but  by  a  promi- 
n(!nt  actor  in  the  events  narrated,  who  had  access  to 
all  the  voluminous  correspondence'  of  his  order,  com- 
paratively few  of  which  documents  have  been  pre- 
served.    In    short,    Ribas    wrote    under    the    most 


RIBEIRAO 


31 


RIBERA 


favourable  circumstances  and  made  good  use  of  his 
opportunities." 

Alegre,  I/istoria  de  In  CompaAia  de  Jesus  (Mexico,  1841); 
Bancroft,  Hist.  North  Mexican  States  and  Texas,  I  (San  Fran- 
cisco, 1886);  BERf STAIN  r  Sodza,  Biblioteca  Hispano- Americana 
Setentrional,  III  (Amecemeca,  1883). 

James  Mooney. 

Ribeirao  Preto,  Diocese  of  (de  Riberao 
Preto),  suffragan  see  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Sao  Paulo, 
Brazil,  established  7  June,  1908,  with  a  Cathohc  popu- 
lation of  500,000  souls.  The  first  and  present  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Alberto  Jose  Gongalves,  was  bom  20  July, 
1859,  elevated  5  December,  1908,  and  consecrated 
29  April,  1909.  The  district  of  Ribeirao  Preto  is  at 
present  the  most  important  one  of  the  State  of  Sao 
Paulo,  both  on  account  of  the  richness  of  its  soil  and 
the  great  number  of  agricultural,  industrial,  and  com- 
mercial establishments  therein.  Its  principal  prod- 
uct is  coffee,  the  shipments  of  which  are  so  consider- 
able as  to  necessitate  the  constant  running  of  an 
extraordinary  number  of  trains. 

The  seat  of  the  diocese  is  the  city  of  Ribeirao  Preto, 
situated  on  the  shores  of  Ribeirao  Preto  and  Ribeirao 
Retiro,  264  miles  from  the  capital  of  the  state.  The 
municipaUty,  created  by  law  of  1  April,  1889,  is  di- 
vided into  four  wards,  viz.:  Villa  Tibeiro,  Barracao, 
Morro  do  Cip6,  and  RepubUca.  It  is,  like  most  of 
the  interior  towns  of  Sao  Paulo,  of  modem  constmc- 
tion.  The  city  is  lighted  by  electric  light  and  has  ex- 
cellent sewer  and  water-supply  systems.  The  streets 
are  well  laid,  straight,  and  intersecting  at  right  angles, 
with  many  parks  and  squares.  The  cathedral,  now 
Hearing  completion,  will  be  one  of  the  finest  buildings 
of  its  kind  in  Brazil.  It  is  well  provided  with  schools 
and  colleges,  prominent  among  which  are  those  main- 
tained by  the  Church. 

Julian  Morexo-Lacalle. 

Ribera,  Jusepe  de,  called  also  Spagnoletto, 
L'Espagnolet  (the  little  Spaniard),  painter,  b. 
at  Jativa,  12  Jan.,  1588;  d.  at  Naples,  1656.  Fan- 
tastic accounts  have  been  given  of  his  early  history; 
his  father  was  said  to  be  a  noble,  captain  of  the  fortress 
of  Naples,  etc.  All  this  is  pure  romance.  A  pupil 
of  Ribalta,  the  author  of  many  beautiful  pictures 
in  the  churches  of  Valencia,  the  young  man  desired 
to  know  Italy.  He  was  a  very  determined  character. 
At  eighteen,  alone  and  without  resources,  he  begged 
in  the  streets  of  Rome  in  order  to  live,  and  performed 
the  services  of  a  lackey.  A  picture  by  Caravaggio 
aroused  his  admiration,  and  he  set  out  for  Naples  in 
search  of  the  artist,  but  the  latter  had  just  died 
(1609).  Ribera  was  then  only  twenty.  For  fifteen 
years  the  artist  is  entirely  lost  sight  of;  it  is  thought 
that  he  travelled  in  upper  Italy.  He  is  again  found 
at  Naples  in  1626,  at  which  time  he  was  married, 
living  like  a  nobleman,  keeping  his  carriage  and  a 
train  of  followers,  received  by  viceroys,  the  accom- 
plished host  of  all  travelling  artists,  and  very  proud 
of  his  title  of  Roman  Academician.  Velasquez 
paid  him  a  visit  on  each  of  his  journeys  (1630,1649). 
A  sorrow  clouded  the  end  of  his  life;  his  daughter 
was  seduced  by  Don  Juan  of  Austria.  Her  father 
seems  to  have  died  of  grief,  but  the  story  of  his  suicide 
is  a  fiction. 

Ribera' s  name  is  synonymous  with  a  terrifying  art 
of  wild-beast  fighters  and  executioners.  Not  that 
he  did  not  paint  charming  figures.  No  artist  of  his 
time,  not  excepting  Rubens  or  Guido  Reni,  was  more 
sensitive  to  a  certain  ideal  of  Correggio-like  grace. 
But  Ribera  did  not  love  either  ugliness  or  beauty  for 
themselves,  seeking  them  in  tum  only  to  arouse  emo- 
tion. His  fixed  idea,  which  recurs  in  every  form  in 
his  art,  is  the  pursuit  and  cultivation  of  sensation.  In 
fact  the  whole  of  Ribera's  work  must  be  understood 
as  that  of  a  man  who  made  the  pathetic  the  condition 
of  art  and  the  reason  of  the  beautiful.     It  is  the  nega- 


tion of  the  art  of  the  Renaissance,  the  reaction  of  as- 
ceticism and  the  Catholic  Reformation  on  the  volupt- 
uous paganism  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Hence 
the  preference  for  the  popular  types,  the  weather- 
beaten  and  wrinkled  beggar,  and  especially  the  old 
man.  This  "aging"  of  art  about  1600  is  a  sign  of  the 
century.  Heroic  youth  and  pure  beauty  were  dead 
for  a  long  time.  The  anchorites  and  wasted  ceno- 
bites,  the  parchment-hke  St.  Jeromes,  these  singular 
methods  of  depicting  the  mystical  life  seem  Ribera's 
personal  creation;  to  show  the  ruins  of  the  human 
body,  the  drama  of  a  long  existence  written  in  fur- 
rows and  wrinkles,  all  engraved  by  a  pencil  which 
digs  and  scrutinizes,  using  the  sunhght  as  a  kind  of 
acid  which  bites  and  makes  dark  shadows,  was  one 
of  the  artist's  most  cherished  formulas. 

No  one  demonstrates  so  well  the  profound  change 
which  took  place  in  men's  minds  after  the  Reforma- 
tion and  the  Council  of  Trent.  Thenceforth  concern 
for  character  and  accent  forestalled  every  other 
consideration.  Leanness,  weariness,  and  abasement 
became  the  pictorial  signs  of  the  spiritual  Ufe.  A 
sombre  energ>'  breathes  in  these  figures  of  Apostles, 
prophets,  saints,  and  philosophers.  Search  for 
character  became  that  of  ugliness  and  monstrosity. 
Nothing  is  so  personal  to  Ribera  as  this  love  of  de- 
formity. Paintings  like  the  portrait  of  "Cambazo", 
the  blind  sculptor,  the  "Bearded  Woman"  (Prado, 
1630),  and  the  "Club  Foot"  of  the  Lou\Te  (1651) 
inaugurate  curiosities  which  had  happily  been  foreign 
to  the  spirit  of  the  Renaissance.  They  show  a 
gloomy  pleasure  in  humiliating  human  nature. 
Art,  which  formerly  used  to  glorify  life,  now  violently 
empha.sized  its  vices  and  defects.  The  artist  seized 
upon  the  most  ghastly  aspects  even  of  antiquity. 
Cato  of  Utica,  howling  and  distending  his  wound, 
Ixion  on  his  wheel,  Sisyphus  beneath  his  rock.  This 
artistic  terrorism  won  for  Ribera  his  sinister  reputa- 
tion, and  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  had  depraved 
and  perverted  qualities.  The  sight  of  blood  and 
torture  as  the  source  of  pleasure  is  more  pagan  than 
the  joy  of  life  and  the  laughing  sensuality  of  the 
Renaissance.  At  times  Ribera's  art  seems  a  dan- 
gerous return  to  the  dehghts  of  the  amphitheatre. 
His  "Apollo  and  Marsyas"  (Naples),  his  "Duel" 
or  "Match  of  Women"  (Prado)  recall  the  programme 
of  some  spectacle  manager  of  the  decadence.  In 
nothing  is  Ribera  more  "Latin"  than  in  this  san- 
guinary tradition  of  the* games  of  the  circus. 

However,  it  would  be  unjust  wholly  to  condemn  this 
singular  taste  in  accordance  with  our  modern  ideas. 
At  least  we  cannot  deny  extraordinary  merit  to  the 
scenes  of  martyrdom  painted  by  Ribera.  This 
great  master  has  never  been  surpassed  as  a  practical 
artist.  For  plastic  realism,  clearness  of  drawing,  and 
evidence  of  composition  the  "Martyrdom  of  St. 
Bartholomew"  (there  are  in  Europe  a  dozen  copies, 
of  which  the  most  beautiful  is  at  the  Prado)  is  one 
of  the  masterpieces  of  Spanish  genius.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  imagine  a  more  novel  and  striking  idea.  No 
one  has  spoken  a  language  more  simple  and  direct. 
In  this  class  of  subjects  Rubens  usually  avoids 
atrocity  by  an  oratorical  turn,  by  the  splendour  of 
his  discourse,  the  lyric  brilliancy  of  the  colouring. 
Ribera's  point  of  view  is  scarcely  less  powerful  with 
much  less  artifice.  It  is  less  transformed  and  de- 
veloped. The  action  is  collected  in  fewer  persons. 
The  gestures  are  less  redundant,  with  a  more  spon- 
taneous quality.  The  tone  is  more  sober  and  at  the 
same  time  stronger.  Everything  seems  more  severe 
and  of  a  more  concentrated  violence.  The  art  also, 
while  perhaps  not  the  most  elevated  of  all,  is  at  least 
one  of  the  most  original  and  convincing.  Few  artists 
have  given  us,  if  not  serene  enjoyment,  more  serious 
thoughts.  The  "St.  Lawrence"  of  the  Vatican  is 
scarcely  less  beautiful  than  the  "St.  Bartholomew". 

Moreover  it  must  not  be  thought  that  these  ideas 


RICARDUS 


32 


RICCARDI 


of  violence  exhaust  Ribera's  art.  They  are  supple- 
nu'iited  by  sweet  ideas,  and  in  his  work  horrible  pictures 
alternate  with  tender  ones.  There  is  a  type  of  young 
woman  or  rather  young  girl,  still  almost  a  child,  of 
deUcate  beauty  with  candid  oval  features  and  rather 
thin  arms,  with  streaming  hair  and  an  air  of  ignorance, 
a  t\-pe  of  parado.vical  grace,  which  is  found  in  his 
"Rapture  of  St.  Miigdalen"  (Madrid,  Academy  of 
S.  Fernando),  or  the  "St.  Agnes"  of  the  Dresden 
Museum.  This  virginal  figure  is  truly  the  "eternal 
feminine"  of  a  countrj' which  more  than  any  other 
dreamed  of  love  and  sought  to  deify  its  object, 
summarizing  in  it  the  most  irreconcilable  desires  and 
virtues.  No  painter  has  endowed  the  subject  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception  with  such  grandeur  as  Ribera 
in  his  picture  for  the  Ursuhnes  of  Salamanca  (1636). 
Even  a  certain  familiar  turn  of  imagination,  a  certain 
intimate  and  domestic  piety,  a  sweetness,  an  amicable 
and  popular  cordiality  which  would  seem  unknown 
to  this  savage  spirit  were  not  foreign  to  him.  In 
more  than  one  instance  he  reminds  us  of  Murillo. 
He  painted  .several  "Holy  Families",  "Housekeeping 
in  the  Carpenter  Shop"  (Gallery  of  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk).  All  that  is  inspired  by  tender  reverie 
about  cradles  and  chaste  alcoves,  all  the  distracting 
dehghts  in  which  modern  rehgion  rejoices  and  which 
sometimes  result  in  affectation,  are  found  in  more 
than  germ  in  the  art  of  this  painter,  who  is  regarded 
by  many  as  cruel  and  uniformly  inhuman.  Thus 
throughout  his  work  scenes  of  carnage  are  succeeded 
bj-  scenes  of  love,  atrocious  visions  by  visions  of 
beaut}'.  They  complete  each  other  or  rather  the 
impression  they  convey  is  heightened  by  contrast. 
And  under  both  forms  the  artist  incessantly  sought 
one  object,  namely  to  obtain  the  maximum  of  emo- 
tion; his  art  expresses  the  most  intense  nervous 
life. 

This  is  the  genius  of  antithesis.  It  forms  the  very 
basis  of  Ribera's  art,  the  condition  of  his  ideas,  and 
even  dictates  the  customar>'  processes  of  his  chiaro- 
scuro. For  Ribera's  chiaroscuro,  scarcely  less  per- 
sonal than  that  of  Rembrandt,  is,  no  less  than  the 
latter's,  inseparable  from  a  certain  manner  of  feeling. 
Less  supple  than  the  latter,  less  enveloping,  less 
penetrating,  less  permeable  by  the  fight,  twihght, 
and  penumbra,  it  proceeds  more  roughly  by  clearer 
oppositions  and  sharp  intersections  of  light  and  dark- 
ness. Contrary  to  Rembrandt,  Ribera  does  not  de- 
compose or  discolour,  his  palette  does  not  dissolve 
under  the  influence  of  shadows,  and  nothing  is  so 
peculiar  to  him  as  certain  superexcited  notes  of 
furious  red.  Nevertheless,  compared  to  Caravaggio, 
hi.4  chiaroscuro  is  much  more  than  a  mere  means  of 
relief.  The  canvas  assumes  a  vulcanized,  car- 
bonized appearance.  Large  wan  shapes  stand  out 
from  the  a.sphalt  of  the  background,  and  the  shadows 
about  them  deepen  and  accumulate  a  kind  of  obscure 
tragic  capacity.  There  Ls  always  the  same  twofold 
rhythm,  the  same  pathetic  formula  of  a  dramatized 
universf*  regarded  fis  a  duel  between  sorrow  and  joy, 
day  and  night.  This  striking  formula,  infinitely  less 
subtile  than  that  of  Rembrandt,  nevertheless  had  an 
immense  success.  For  all  the  schools  of  the  south 
Caravaggio's  chiaroscuro  perfected  by  Ilibera  had  the 
force  of  law,  such  as  it  is  found  throughout  the  Near 
politan  Kchfxjl,  in  Htanzioni,  Salvator  Rosa,  Luca 
(iiordano.  In  rriod(;m  times  Honnat  and  Ribot 
painted  as  though  they  knew  no  master  but  Ribera. 

R<«t  came  to  tliis  violr-nt  nature  Upwards  tin;  end 
of  his  life;  from  thr-  idea  of  contrast  he  rf)S('  U)  that  of 
harmony.  His  last  works,  the  "Club  Foot"  and 
the  "Adoration  of  the  Shepherds"  (IG.'jO),  both  in 
the  I>juvre,  are  painted  in  a  silvery  t<^jne  which  seems 
to  forcwha/iow  the  light  of  \'claHquez.  His  hand  had 
not  lost  its  vigour,  its  care  for  truth;  he  always  dis- 
played the  same  implacable  and,  as  it  were,  in- 
flexible  realism.     The   objects   of   still   life   in   the 


"Adoration  of  the  Shepherds"  have  not  been  equalled 
by  any  specialist,  but  these  works  are  marked  by  a 
new  serenit}'.  This  impassioned  genius  leaves  us 
under  a  tran(}uil  impression;  we  catch  a  ray — or 
should  it  rather  be  called  a  reflection? — of  the  Ol3Tn- 
pian  genius  of  the  author  of  "The  Maids  of  Honour". 
Ribera  was  long  the  only  Spanish  painter  who  en- 
joyed a  European  fame;  this  he  owed  to  the  fact 
that  he  had  lived  at  Naples  and  has  often  been  classed 
with  the  European  school.  Because  of  this  he  is 
now  denied  the  glory  which  was  formerly  his.  He  is 
regarded  more  or  less  as  a  deserter,  at  any  rate  as 
the  least  national  of  Spanish  painters.  But  in  the 
seventeenth  century  Naples  was  still  Spanish,  and 
by  living  there  a  man  did  not  cease  to  be  a  Spanish 
subject.  By  removing  the  centre  of  the  school  to 
Naples,  Ribera  did  Spain  a  great  service.  Spanish 
art,  hitherto  little  known,  almost  lost  at  Valencia  and 
Seville,  thanks  to  Ribera  was  put  into  wider  circula- 
tion. Through  the  authority  of  a  master  recognized 
even  at  Rome  the  school  felt  emboldened  and  en- 
couraged. It  is  true  that  his  art,  although  more 
Spanish  than  any  other,  is  also  somewhat  less  special- 
ized; it  is  cosmopolitan.  Like  Seneca  and  Lucian, 
who  came  from  Cordova,  and  St.  Augustine,  who 
came  from  Carthage,  Ribera  has  expressed  in  a  uni- 
versal language  the  ideal  of  the  country  where  life 
has  most  savour. 

DoMiNici,  Vite  de'  pittori  .  .  .  napoletani  (Naples,  1742- 
1743;  2nd  ed.,  Naples,  1844);  P,\lomino,  £<  Museo  Pictdrico,  I 
(Madrid,  1715);  II  (Madrid,  1724);  Noticias,  Elogios  y  Vidas  de 
los  Pintores,  at  the  end  of  vol.  II,  separate  edition  (London, 
1742),  in  (IJerman  (Dresden,  1781);  Bermudez,  Diccionario 
historlco  de  los  mdx  ilustres  profesores  de  las  betlas  artes  en  Espafla 
(Madrid,  1800);  Stirling,  Anyials  of  the  artists  of  Spain  (Lon- 
don, 1848);  ViARDOT,  Notices  sur  les  principnux  peintres  de 
V Espagne  (P&ris.lSSQ);  Bla^c,  Ecole  Espagnole  (1869);  Meyer, 
Ribera  (Strasburg,  1908);  Lafond,  Ribera  el  Zurbaran  (Paris, 
1910). 

LOTJIS   GiLLET. 

Ricardus  Anglicus,  Archdeacon  of  Bologna,  was 
an  English  priest  who  was  rector  of  the  law  school 
at  the  University  of  Bologna  in  1226,  and  who,  by 
new  methods  of  explaining  legal  proceedings,  became 
recognized  as  the  pioneer  of  scientific  judicial  pro- 
cedure in  the  twelfth  century.  His  long-lost  work 
"Ordo  Judiciarius"  was  discovered  in  MS.  by 
Wunderlich  in  Douai  and  published  by  Witt  in  1851. 
A  more  correct  MS.  was  subsequently  discovered  at 
Brussels  by  Sir  Travcrs  Twiss,  who,  on  evidence 
which  seems  insufficient,  followed  Panciroli  in  iden- 
tifying him  with  the  celebrated  Bishop  Richard  Poor 
(died  1237).  Probably  he  graduated  in  Paris,  as  a 
Papal  Bull  of  1218  refers  to  "Ricardus  Anglicus 
doctor  Parisiensis",  but  there  is  no  evidence  to  con- 
nect him  with  Oxford.  He  also  wrote  glosses  on  the 
papal  decretals,  and  distinctions  on  the  Decree  of 
Oratian.  He  mu.st  be  distinguished  from  his  con- 
temporary, Ricardus  Anglicanus,  a  physician. 

Rashdall,  Mediwval  Utwersities,  II,  750  (London,  1895); 
Twi89,  Law  Magazine  and  Review,  May,  1894;  Sarti  and 
Fattorini,  De  claris  Arcbigymnasii  Bononiensis  Professoribus; 
Blakiston  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v.  Poor,  Richard. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Riccardi,  Nicholas,  theologian,  writer  and  preach- 
er; b.  at  Genoa,  1585;  d.  at  Rome,  30  May,  1639. 
Physically  he  was  unprepossessing,  even  slightly  de- 
formed. His  physical  deficiencies,  however,  were 
abundantly  compensated  for  by  mentality  of  the 
highest  order.  His  natural  taste  for  study  was  en- 
couraged by  his  parents  who  sent  him  to  Spain  to 
pursue  his  studies  in  the  Pirician  Academy.  While  a 
student  at  this  institution  he  cntcnMl  the  Dominican 
order  and  was  invested  with  its  habit  in  the  Convent 
of  St.  Paul,  where  he  studied  philosophy  and  theology. 
So  brilliant  was  his  record  that  after  completing  his 
studies  he  was  made  a  professor  of  Thomistic  theology 
at  Pincia.  While  discharging  his  academic  duties, 
he  acquired  a  reputation  as  a  preacher  second  only  to 


JUSEPE  DE  RIBERA 


THE    RAPTURE    OF   THE    MAGDALEN 

ACADEMY  OF  B.  FERNANDO,  MADRID 

ST.  JEROME,  THE  BRERA,  MILAN 


ST.  SEBASTIAN,  PRADO,  MADRID 


THE  BLIND  SCULPTOR,  PRADO,  MADRID 


RZCCI 


33 


RICCI 


hie  fame  as  a  theologian.  As  a  preacher  Phihp  III 
of  Spain  named  him  "The  Marvel",  a  sobriquet  by 
which  he  was  known  in  Spain  and  at  Rome  till  the 
end  of  his  life.  On  his  removal  to  Rome  in  1621,  he 
acquired  the  confidence  of  Urban  VIII.  He  was  made 
regent  of  studies  and  professor  of  theology  at  the  Col- 
lege of  the  Minerva.  In  1629  Urban  VIII  appointed 
him  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  to  succeed  Niccold 
Ridolphi,  recently  elected  Master  General  of  the 
Dominicans.  Shortly  after  this  the  same  pontiff  ap- 
pointed him  pontifical  preacher.  These  two  offices 
he  discharged  with  distinction.  His  extant  works 
number  twenty.  Besides  several  volumes  of  sermons 
for  Advent,  Lent,  and  special  occasions,  his  writings 
treat  of  Scripture,  theology,  and  history.  One  of  his 
best  known  works  is  the  "History  of  the  Council  of 
Trent"  (Rome,  1627).  His  commentaries  treat  of 
all  the  books  of  Scripture,  and  are  notable  for  their 
originality,  clearness,  and  profound  learning.  Two 
other  commentaries  treat  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  and 
the  Canticle  of  Canticles. 
Qu^TiF-EcHARD,  SS.  Otd.  Proed.,  II,  503,  504. 

John  B.  O'Connor. 

Ricci,  Lorenzo,  General  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
b.  at  Florence,  2  Aug.,  1703;  d.  at  the  Castle  of  Sant' 
Angelo,  Rome,  24  Nov.,  1775.  He  belonged  to  one  of 
the  most  ancient  and  illustrious  families  of  Tuscany. 
He  had  two  brothers,  one  of  whom  subsequently  be- 
came canon  of  the  cathedral  and  the  other  was  raised 
by  Francis  I,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  to  the  dignity 
of  first  syndic  of  the  Grand  duchy.  Sent  when  very 
young  to  Prato  to  pursue  his  studies  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  the  celebrated  Cico- 
gnini  college,  he  entered  the  society  when  he  was 
scarcely  fifteen,  16  Dec,  1718,  at  the  novitiate  of  S. 
Andrea  at  Rome.  Having  made  the  usual  course  of 
philo.sophical  and  theological  studies  and  twice  de- 
fended with  rare  success  public  theses  in  these  sub- 
jects, he  was  successively  charged  with  teaching  belles 
lettres  and  philosophy  at  Siena,  and  philosophy  and 
theology  at  the  Roman  College,  from  which  he  was 
promoted  to  the  foremost  office  of  his  order.  Mean- 
while he  was  admitted  to  the  profession  of  the  four 
vows,  15  Aug.,  1736.  About  1751  his  edifying  and 
regular  life,  his  discretion,  gentleness,  and  simplicity 
caused  him  to  be  appointed  to  the  important  office  of 
spiritual  father,  the  duties  of  which  he  discharged  to 
the  satisfaction  of  all.  In  1755  P'ather  Luigi  Centuri- 
one,  who  appreciated  his  eminent  qualities,  chose  him 
as  secretary  of  the  society.  Finally  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Congregation  he  was  elected  general  by  unan- 
imous vote  (21  Alay,  1758).  It  was  at  the  most  stormy 
and  distressed  period  of  its  existence  that  the  senate 
of  the  society  placied  its  government  and  its  destinies 
in  the  hands  of  a  man,  deeply  virtuous  and  endowed 
with  rare  merit,  but  who  was  inexperienced  in  the  art 
of  governing  and  who  had  always  lived  apart  from  the 
world  and  diplomatic  intrigues.  The  historiographer 
Julius  Cordara,  who  lived  near  Ricci  and  seems  to  have 
known  him  intimately,  deplored  this  choice:  "Eun- 
dem  tot  inter  iactationes  ac  fluctus  cum  aliquid 
prater  morem  audendum  et  malis  inusitatis  inusitata 
remedia  adhibenda  videbantur,  propter  ipsam  nature 
placiditatem  et  nulla  unquam  causa  incalescentem 
animum,  minus  aptum  arbitrabar"  (On  account  of 
his  placid  nature  and  too  even  temper,  I  regarded  him 
as  little  suited  for  a  time  when  disturbance  and  storm 
seem  to  require  extraordinary  application  of  unusual 
remedies  to  unusual  evils).  (Denkwiirdigkeiten  der 
Jesuiten,  p.  19.)  On  the  other  hand  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  new  general  did  not  have  much  leeway. 

In  his  first  interview  with  Clement  XIII,  who  had 
assumed  the  tiara  6  July,  1758,  and  always  showed 
himself  deeply  attached  to  the  Jesuits,  the  p)ope 
counselled  him:  "Silentium,  patientiam  et  preces; 
cetera  sibi  curaj  fore"  (Cordara,  op.  cit.,  22).  "The 
XIII.— 3 


Lorenzo  Ricci 


saintly  superior  followed  this  line  of  conduct  to  the 
letter  and  incessantly  inculcated  it  in  his  subordinates. 
The  seven  encyclical  letters  which  he  addressed  to 
them  in  the  fifteen  years  of  his  generalship  all  breathe 
the  sweetest  and  tenderest  piety  and  zeal  for  their 
religious  perfection.  "Preces  vestras",  he  says  in  the 
last,  that  of  21  Feb.,  1773,  "animate  omni  pietatis 
exercitio  accurate  fervideque  obeundo,  mutua  inter 
vosmetipsos  caritate,  obedientia  et  observantia  erga 
eos  qui  vobis  Dei  loco  sunt,  tolerantia  laborum, 
serumnarum,  paupertatis,  contumeliarum,  sec(>ssu  et 
solitudine,  prudentia  et  evangelica  in  agendo  sim- 
plicitate,  boni  exempli  operibus,  piisque  colloquiis" 

(Let  your  prayers 

be  inspired  by 
every  practice 
of  piety,  with 
mutual  charity 
among  your- 
selves,  obedience 
and  respect  for 
those  who  hold 
the  place  of  God  in 
your  regard,  en- 
durance of  labour, 
of  hardships,  of 
poverty,  of  insult 
in  retreat  ami 
solitude,  with  pru- 
dence and  evan- 
gelical simplicity 
of  conduct,  the 
example  of  good 
works,  and  pious 
conversation). 
(Epistola;  pra>positorum  generalium  S.J.,  II,  Ghent, 
1847,  306).  This  pious  and  profoundly  upright  man 
was  nevertheless  not  wanting  on  occasion  in  courage 
and  firmness.  When  it  was  suggested  to  save  the 
French  provinces  of  his  order  by  giving  them  a 
superior  entirely  independent  of  the  general  of  Rome, 
he  refused  thus  to  transgress  the  constitutions  com- 
mitted to  his  care  and  uttered  to  the  pope  the  ever 
famous  saj'ing:  "Sint  ut  sunt  aut  non  sint"  (Leave 
them  Jis  they  are  or  not  at  all).  (Cordara,  op.  cit.,  35). 
Unfortunately  he  placed  all  his  confidence  in  his 
assistant  for  Italy,  Father  Timoni,  of  Greek  origin, 
"vir  quippe  pra'fidens  sibi,  iudiciique  sui  plus  niniio 
tenax"  (Idem,  op.  cit.,  20),  who,  like  many  others 
expected  the  society  to  be  saved  by  a  miracle  of  Provi- 
dence. When,  to  the  mass  of  pamphlets  aimed 
against  the  Jesuits,  the  Portuguese  episcopate  brought 
the  reinforcement  of  pastoral  letters,  a  number  of 
bishops  wrote  to  the  pope  letters  vyhich  were  very 
eulogistic  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  and  its  Institute,  and 
Clement  XIII  hastened  to  send  a  copy  to  Father 
Ricci.  It  was  a  brilliant  apologia  for  the  ord(;r. 
Cordara  and  many  of  his  brethren  considered  it  ex- 
pedient to  publish  this  correspondence  in  full  with  the 
sole  title:  "Indicium  Ecclesise  universa;  de  statu 
praesenti  Societatis  lesu"  (op.  cit.,  26).  Timoni,  who 
fancied  that  no  one  would  dare  any  thing  against 
the  Jesuits  of  Portugal,  was  of  a  contrary  opinion, 
and  the  general  was  won  over  to  his  way  of  thinking. 

Disaster  followed  disaster,  and  Ricci  experienced 
the. most  serious  material  difficulties  in  assisting  the 
members  who  were  expelled  from  every  country. 
At  his  instance,  and  perhaps  even  with  his  collabora- 
tion, Clement  XIII,  solicitous  for  the  fate  of  the 
Society,  published  7  January,  1765,  the  Bull  "Apos- 
tolicam  pascendi",  which  was  a  cogent  defence  of  the 
Institute  and  its  members  (Masson,  "Le  cardinal  de 
Bernis  depuis  son  ministere",  80).  But  even  the 
pontiff's  intervention  could  not  stay  the  devastating 
torrent.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  in 
Naples  and  the  Duchy  of  Parma,  the  ambassadors 
of  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal  went   (Jan.,   1769) 


RICCI 


34 


RICCI 


to  request  officially  of  the  pope  the  total  suppression 
of  the  society.  This  was  the  death-blow  of  Clement 
XIII,  who  died  some  days  later  (2  Feb.,  1769)  of  an 
apoplectic  attack.  His  successor,  the  conventual 
Ganganelli,  little  resembled  him.  Whatever  may 
have  been  his  sympathies  for  the  order  prior  to  his 
elevation  to  the  sovereign  pontificate,  and  his  in- 
debtedness to  Ricci,  who  had  used  his  powerful  in- 
fluence to  secure  for  him  the  cardinal's  hat,  it  is 
indisputable  that  once  he  became  pope  he  assumed 
at  least  in  appearance  a  hostile  attitude.  "Sepalam 
Jesuitis  infensum  praebere  atque  ita  quidem,  ut  ne 
generalem  quidem  prtepositum  in  conspectum  ad- 
mitteret"  (Cordara,  43).  There  is  no  necessity  of 
repeating  even  briefly  the  histor>'  of  the  pontificate 
of  Clement  XIV  (18  May,  1769-22  Sept.,  1774), 
which  was  absorbed  by  his  measures  to  bring  about 
the  suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  (see  Clement 
XIV).  Despite  the  exactions  and  outrageous  in- 
justices which  the  Jesuit  houses  had  to  undergo  even 
at  Rome,  the  general  did  not  give  up  hope  of  a  speedy 
dehverance,  as  is  testified  by  the  letter  he  wTote  to 
Cordara  the  day  after  the  feast  of  St.  Ignatius,  1773 
(Cordara,  loc.  cit.,  53).  Although  the  Brief  of  aboli- 
tion had  been  signed  by  the  pope  ten  days  previously, 
Father  Ricci  was  suddenly  notified  on  the  evening 
of  16  August.  The  next  day  he  was  assigned  the 
EngUsh College  as  residence,  until  23  Sept.,  1773,  when 
he  was  removed  to  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  where 
he  was  held  in  strict  captivity  for  the  remaining  two 
years  of  his  life.  The  surveillance  was  so  severe 
that  he  did  not  learn  of  the  death  of  his  secretary 
Cornolli,  imprisoned  with  him  and  in  his  vicinity, 
until  six  months  after  the  event.  To  satisfy  the 
hatred  of  his  enemies  his  trial  and  that  of  his  com- 
panions was  hastened,  but  the  judge  ended  by  recog- 
nizing "nunquam  objectos  sibi  reos  his  innocen- 
tiores;  Riccium  etiam  ut  hominem  vere  sanctum  di- 
laudabat"  (Cordara,  op.  cit.,  62);  and  Cardinal  de 
Bemis  dared  to  vsTite  (5  July):  "There  are  not, 
p>erhaps,  sufficient  proofs  for  judges,  but  there  are 
enough  for  upright  and  reasonable  men"  (Masson, 
op.  cit.,  324). 

Justice  required  that  the  ex-general  be  at  once  set 
at  hberty,  but  nothing  was  done,  apparently  through 
fear  lest  the  scattered  Jesuits  should  gather  about 
their  old  head,  to  reconstruct  their  society  at  the 
centre  of  Catholicism.  At  the  end  of  August,  1775, 
Ricci  sent  an  appeal  to  the  new  pope,  Pius  VI,  to 
obtain  his  rolease.  But  while  his  claims  were  being 
considered  by  the  circle  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff, 
death  came  to  summon  the  venerable  old  man  to  the 
tribunal  of  the  supreme  Judge.  Five  days  pre- 
viously, when  about  to  receive  Holy  Viaticum,  he 
mafle  this  double  protest:  (1)  "I  declare  and  protest 
that  the  suppressed  Society  of  Jesus  has  not  given 
any  caase  for  its  suppression;  this  I  declare  and  pro- 
test with  all  that  moral  certainty  that  a  superior 
well-informed  of  his  order  can  have.  (2)  I  declare  and 
protest  that  I  have  not  given  any  cause,  even  the 
slightest,  for  my  imprisonment;  this  I  declare  and 
protept  with  that  supreme  certainty  and  evidence  that 
each  one  has  of  his  own  actions.  I  make  this  second 
protest  only  becaase  it  is  necessary  for  the  reputation 
of  the  suppressed  Society  of  Jesus,  of  which  I  was 
the  general.''  (Murr,  "Journal  zur  Kunstgeschichte", 
IX,  281.)  To  do  honour  to  his  memory  thf  pope 
cau.sed  the  celebration  of  elaborate  funeral  services  in 
the  church  of  St.  John  of  the  Florentines  near  the 
Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo.  As  is  customary  with  prol- 
atfjH,  the  body  was  placed  on  a  bed  of  state.  It  was 
carried  in  the  evenmg  to  the  Church  of  the  Gesd, 
where  it  was  buried  in  the  vault  reserved  for 
the  burial  of  his  predecessors  in  the  government  of 
the  order. 

Cordara,  DenkwHrdigkeiten  in  D6llinoer,  BeilTOge  zur 
polititchen,    kirchlichen    und    Ctdturgeieh.,    Ill    (1882),    1-74. 


These  memoira  carry  much  weight,  inasmuch  as  Cordara  speaks 
with  severity  of  his  former  brothers  in  arms,  and  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus.  Carayon,  Documents  inedits  concemant  la  Compagnie 
de  JSsus,  XVII,  Le  Pkre  Ricci  et  la  suppression  de  la  Compagnie 
de  Jisus  en  1773,  CLXXIV  (Poitiers,  1869);  Episloloe  prceposi- 
torum  generalium  Societalis  Jesu,  H  (Ghent,  1847) ;  Smith,  The 
Suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  The  Month  (1902-03); 
Murr,  Journal  zur  Kunstgesch.  u,  zur  allgemeinen  Litleratur, 
IX  (Nuremberg,  1780),  254-309;  Masson,  Le  Cardinal  de  Bernis 
depuis  son  ministire,  1758-1794  (Paris,  1903),  a  good  collection  of 
documents,  but  the  author  does  not  know  the  historj'  of  the 
Jesuits;  'RAyionKS^CUmentXIII  etClhnentXIV,  supplementary 
volume,  historical  and  critical  documents  (Paris,  1854);  Boero, 
Osservazioni  sopra  I'istoria  del  pontificato  di  Clemente  XIV 
scritta  dal  P.  A.  Theiner  (2nd  ed.,  Monza,  1854),  useful  for  docu- 
ments. 

Francis  Van  Ortroy. 

Ricci,  Matted,  founder  of  the  Catholic  missions  of 
China,  b.  at  Macerata  in  the  Papal  States,  6  Oct., 
1552;  d.  at  Peking,  11  May,  1610.  Ricci  made  his 
classical  studies  in  his  native  town,  studied  law  at 
Rome  for  two  years,  and  on  15  Aug.,  1571,  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus  at  the  Roman  College,  where  he 
made  his  novitiate,  and  philosophical  and  theological 
studies.  While  there  he  also  devoted  his  attention 
to  mathematics,  cosmology,  and  astronomy  under  the 
direction  of  the  celebrated  Father  Christopher  Clavius. 
In  1577  he  asked  to  be  sent  on  the  missions  in  Farthest 
Asia,  and  his  request  being  granted  he  embarked  at 
Lisbon,  24  March,  1578.  Arriving  at  Goa,  the  capital 
of  the  Portuguese  Indies,  on  13  Sept.  of  this  year,  he 
was  employed  there  and  at  Cochin  in  teaching  and  the 
ministry  until  the  end  of  Lent,  1582,  w^hen  Father 
Alessandro  Valignani  (who  had  been  his  novice- 
master  at  Rome  but  who  since  August,  1573,  was 
in  charge  of  all  the  Jesuit  missions  in  the  East  Indies) 
summoned  him  to  Macao  to  prepare  to  enter  China. 
Father  Ricci  arrived  at  Macao  on  7  August,  1582. 

Beginning  of  the  Mission. — In  the  sixteenth  century 
nothing  remained  of  the  Christian  communities 
founded  in  China  by  the  Nestorian  missionaries  in  the 
seventh  century  and  by  the  Catholic  monks  in  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  (see  China).  Moreover  it 
is  doubtful  whether  the  native  Chinese  population 
was  ever  seriously  affected  by  this  ancient  evangeliza- 
tion. For  those  desiring  to  resume  the  work  every- 
thing therefore  remained  to  be  done,  and  the  obstaclee 
were  greater  than  formerly.  After  the  death  of  St. 
Francis  Xavier  (27  November,  1552)  many  fruitless 
attempts  had  been  made.  The  first  missionary  to 
whom  Chinese  barriers  were  temporarily  lowered  was 
the  Jesuit,  Melchior  Nunez  Barreto,  who  twice  went 
as  far  as  Canton,  where  he  spent  a  month  each  time 
(1555).  A  Dominican,  Father  Caspar  da  Cruz,  was 
also  admitted  to  Canton  for  a  month,  but  he  also  had 
to  refrain  from  "forming  a  (Christian  Christianity". 
Still  others,  Jesuits,  Augustinians,  and  Franciscans  in 
1568,  1575,  1579,  and  1582  touched  on  Chinese  soil, 
only  to  be  forced,  sometimes  with  ill  treatment,  to 
withdraw.  To  Father  Valignani  is  due  the  credit  of 
having  seen  what  prevented  all  these  undertakings 
from  having  lasting  results.  The  attcmjjts  had 
hitherto  been  made  haphazard,  with  men  insufficiently 
prepared  and  incapable  of  profiting  by  favourable 
circumstances  had  they  encountered  them.  Father 
Valignani  substituted  the  methodical  attack  with  pre- 
vious careful  selection  of  the  missionaries  w'ho,  the 
field  once  open,  would  implant  Christianity  there. 
To  this  encf  he  first  summoned  to  Macao  Father 
Michele  de  Ruggieri,  who  had  also  come  to  India  from 
Italy  in  1578.  Only  twenty  years  had  elapsed  since 
the  Portuguese  had  succeeded  in  establishing  their 
colony  at  the  portals  of  China,  and  the  Chinese,  at- 
tracted by  opportunities  for  gain,  were  flocking 
thither.  Ruggieri  reached  Macao  in  July,  1579,  and, 
following  the  given  orders  applied  himsc'lf  wholly  to 
the  study  of  the  Mandarin  language,  that  is,  Chinese 
as  it  is  spoken  throughout  the  empire  by  the  officials 
and  the  educated.  His  progress,  though  very  slow, 
permitted  him  to  labour  with  more  fruit  than  his 


RICCI 


35 


RICCI 


predecessors  in  two  sojourns  at  Canton  (1580-81) 
allowed  him  by  an  unwonted  complacency  of  the 
mandarins.  Finally,  after  many  untoward  events, 
he  was  authorized  (10  Sept.,  1583)  to  take  up  his 
residence  with  Father  Ricci  at  Chao-k'ing,  the  ad- 
ministrative capital  of  Canton. 

Method  of  the  Missionaries. — The  exercise  of  great 
prudence  alone  enabled  the  missionaries  to  remain  in 
the  region  which  they  had  had  such  difficulty  in 
entering.  Omitting  all  mention  at  first  of  their  in- 
tention to  preach  the  Gospel,  they  declared  to  the 
mandarins  who  questioned  them  concerning  their  ob- 
ject "that  they  were  religious  who  had  left  their 
country  in  the  distant  West  because  of  the  renown  of 
the  good  government  of  China,  where  they  desired  to 
remain  till  their  death,  serving  God,  the  Lord  of 
Heaven".  Had  they  immediately  declared  their  in- 
tention to  preach  a  new  religion,  thvy  would  inner 
have  been  received ;  this  would 
have  clashed  with  Chinese 
pride,  which  would  not  admit 
that  China  had  anything  to 
learn  from  foreigners,  and  it 
would  have  especially  alarmed 
their  politics,  which  beheld  a 
national  danger  in  every  in- 
novation. However,  the  mis- 
sionaries never  hid  their  Faith 
nor  the  fact  that  they  were 
Christian  priests.  As  soon  as 
they  were  established  at  Chao- 
k'ing  they  placed  in  a  conspicu- 
ous part  of  their  house  a  pic- 
ture of  the  Blessed  Virgin  with 
the  Infant  Jesus  in  her  arms. 
Visitors  seldom  failed  to  in- 
quire the  meaning  of  this,  to 
them,  novel  rei)r('sentation, 
and  the  missionaries  profited 
thereby  to  give  them  a  first 
idea  of  Christianity.  The  mis- 
sionaries assumed  the  initia- 
tive in  speaking  of  their  re- 
ligion as  soon  as  they  had 
sufficiently  overcome  Chinese 
antipathy  and  distrust  to  see 
their  instructions  desired,  or 
at  least  to  be  certain  of  making 
them  understood  without 
shocking  their  listeners.  They  achieved  this  result 
by  appealing  to  the  curiosity  of  the  Chinese,  by 
making  them  feel,  without  saying  so,  that  the 
foreigners  had  something  new  and  interesting  to 
teach;  to  this  end  they  made  use  of  the  European 
things  they  had  brought  with  them.  Such  were  large 
and  small  clocks,  mathematical  and  astronomical 
instruments,  prisms  revealing  the  various  colours, 
musical  instruments,  oil  paintings  and  prints,  cos- 
mographical,  geographical,  and  architectural  works 
with  diagrams,  maps,  and  views  of  towns  and  build- 
ings, large  volumes,  magnificently  printed  and  splen- 
didly bound,  etc.  The  Chinese,  who  had  hitherto 
fancied  that  outside  of  their  country  only  barbarism 
existed,  were  astounded.  Rumours  of  the  wonders 
displayed  by  the  religious  from  the  West  soon  spread 
on  all  sides,  and  thenceforth  their  house  was  always 
filled,  especially  with  mandarins  and  the  educated. 
It  followed,  says  Father  Ricci,  that  "all  came  by 
degrees  to  have  with  regard  to  our  countries,  our 
people,  and  especially  of  our  educated  men,  an  idea 
vastly  different  from  that  which  they  had  hitherto 
entertained".  This  impression  was  intensified  by  the 
explanations  of  the  missionaries  concerning  their  little 
museum  in  reply  to  the  numerous  questions  of  their 
visitors. 

One  of  the  articles  which  most  aroused  their  curi- 
osity was  a  map  of  the  world.     The  Chinese  had  al- 


scriptions  in  Chinese. 


ready  had  maps,  called  by  their  geographers  "de- 
scriptions of  the  world",  but  almost  the  entire  space 
was  fiUed  by  the  fifteen  provinces  of  China,  around 
which  were  painted  a  bit  of  sea  and  a  few  islands  on 
which  were  mscribed  the  names  of  countries  of  which 
they  had  heard — all  together  was  not  as  large  as  a 
small  Chinese  province.  Naturally  the  learned  men 
of  Chao-k'ing  immediately  protested  when  Father 
Ricci  pointed  out  the  various  parts  of  the  world  on 
the  European  map  and  when  they  saw  how  small  a 
part  China  played.  But  after  the  missionaries  had 
explained  its  construction  and  the  care  taken  by  the 
geographers  of  the  West  to  assign  to  each  country 
its  actual  position  and  boundaries,  the  wisest  of  them 
surrendered  to  the  evidence,  and,  beginning  with 
the  Governor  of  Chao-k'ing,  all  urged  the  missionary 
to  make  a  copy  of  his  map  with  the  names  and  in- 
Ricci  drew  a  larger  map  of  the 
world  on  which  he  wrote  more 
detailed  inscriptions,  suited  to 
the  needs  of  the  Chinese;  when 
the  work  was  completed  the 
governor  had  it  printed,  giv- 
ing all  the  copies  as  presents 
to  his  friends  in  the  province 
and  at  a  distance.  Father 
Kieri  does  not  hesitate  to  say: 
"This  was  the  most  useful 
work  that  could  be  done  at 
that  time  to  dispose  China  to 
give  credence  to  the  things  of 
our  holy  Faith.  .  .  .  Their 
conception  of  the  greatness 
of  their  country  and  of  the 
insignificance  of  all  other 
lands  made  them  so  proud 
that  the  whole  world  sei-med 
to  t hem  savage  and  barbarous 
compared  with  tlu'insclvcs;  it 
was  scarcely  to  be  expected 
that  they,  while  entertaining 
this  idea,  would  heed  foreign 
masters."  But  now  nuniljers 
were  eager  to  learn  of  Euro- 
pean affairs  from  the  mission- 
aries, who  profited  by  these 
dispositions  to  introduce  reli- 
1       ,    ii,   ],:,  gion  more  frequently  with  their 

explanations.  For  example, 
their  beautiful  Bibles  and  the  paintings  and  prints  de- 
picting religious  subjects,  monuments,  churches,  etc., 
gave  them  an  opportunity  of  speaking  of  "the  good 
customs  in  the  countries  of  the  Christians,  of  the  false- 
ness of  idolatry,  of  the  conformity  of  the  law  of  God 
with  natural  reason  and  similar  teachings  found  in  the 
writings  of  the  ancient  sages  of  China".  This  last 
instance  shows  that  F'ather  Ricci  already  knew  how 
to  draw  from  his  Chinese  studies  testimony  favourable 
to  the  religion  which  he  was  to  preach. 

It  was  soon  evident  to  the  missionaries  that  their 
remarks  regarding  religion  were  no  less  interesting 
to  many  of  their  visitors  than  their  Western  curios- 
ities and  learning,  and,  to  satisfy  those  who  wished 
to  learn  more,  they  distributed  leaflets  containing  a 
Chinese  translation  of  the  Ten  Commandments,  an 
abbreviation  of  the  moral  code  much  appreciated 
by  the  Chinese.  Next  the  missionaries,  with  the 
assistance  of  some  educated  Chinese,  composed  a 
small  catechism  in  which  the  chief  points  of  Christian 
doctrine  were  ex-plained  in  a  dialogue  between  a  pagan 
and  a  European  priest.  This  work,  printed  about 
1584,  was  also  well  received,  the  highest  mandarins  of 
the  province  considering  themselves  honoured  to  re- 
ceive it  as  a  present.  The  missionaries  distributed 
himdreds  and  thousands  of  copies  and  thus  "the  good 
odour  of  our  Faith  began  to  be  spread  throughout 
China".     Having  begun  their  direct  apostolate  in 


RICCI 


36 


RICCI 


this  manner,  they  furthered  it  not  a  Uttle  by  their 
edifying  regular '  life,  their  disinterestedness,  their 
charity,  and  their  patience  under  persecutions  which 
often  destroved  the  fruits  of  their  labours. 

Developmait  of  the  Missions. — Father  Ricci  played 
the  chief  part  in  these  earlv  attempts  to  make  Chris- 
tianity know-n  to  the  Chinese.  In  1607  Father 
Ruggieri  died  in  Europe,  where  he  had  been  sent  in 
15S8  by  Father  Valignani  to  interest  the  Holy  See 
more  particularly  in  the  missions.  Left  alone  with  a 
young  priest,  a  pupil  rather  than  an  assistant,  Ricci 
was  expelled  from  Chao-k'ing  in  1589  by  a  viceroy  of 
Canton  who  had  found  the  house  of  the  missionaries 
suited  to  his  o\%-n  needs;  but  the  mission  had  taken 
root  too  deeply  to  be  exterminated  by  the  ruin  of  its 
first  home.  Thenceforth  in  whatever  town  Ricci 
sought  a  new  field  of  a])ostolate  he  was  preceded  by 
his  reputation  and  he  found  powerful  friends  to  pro- 
tect him.  He  first  went  to  Shao-chow,  also  in  the 
province  of  Canton,  where  he  dispensed  with  the 
services  of  interpreters  and  adopted  the  costume  of 
the  educated  Chinese.  In  1595  he  made  an  attempt 
on  Nan-king,  the  famous  capital  in  the  south  of  China, 
and,  though  unsuccessful,  it  furnished  him  with  an 
opportunity  of  forming  a  Christian  Church  at  Nan- 
ch'ang,  capital  of  Kiang-si,  which  was  so  famous  for 
the  number  and  learning  of  its  educated  men.  In 
159S  he  made  a  bold  but  equally  fruitless  attempt  to 
establish  himself  at  Peking.  Forced  to  return  to 
Nan-king  on  6  Feb.,  1599,  he  found  Providential 
compensation  there;  the  situation  had  changed  com- 
pletely since  the  preceding  year,  and  the  highest 
mandarins  were  desirous  of  seeing  the  holy  doctor 
from  the  West  take  up  his  abode  in  their  city.  Al- 
though his  zeal  was  rewarded  with  much  success  in 
this  wider  field,  he  constantly  longed  to  repair  his 
repulse  at  Peking.  He  felt  that  the  mission  was  not 
secure  in  the  provinces  until  it  was  established  and 
authorized  in  the  capital.  On  18  May,  1600,  Ricci 
again  set  out  for  Peking  and,  when  all  human  hope  of 
success  was  lost,  he  entered  on  24  January,  1601, 
summoned  by  Emperor  Wan-li. 

Last  Labours. — Ricci's  last  nine  years  were  spent 
at  Peking,  strengthening  his  work  with  the  same 
wisdom  and  tenacity  of  purpose  which  had  conducted 
it  so  far.  The  imperial  goodwill  was  gained  by  gifts 
of  European  curiosities,  especially  the  map  of  the 
world,  from  which  the  Asiatic  ruler  learned  for  the 
first  time  the  true  situation  of  his  empire  and  the 
existence  of  so  many  other  different  kingdoms  and 
peoples;  he  required  Father  Ricci  to  make  a  copy 
of  it  for  him  in  his  palace.  At  Peking,  as  at  Nan- 
king and  elsewhere,  the  interest  of  the  most  intelligent 
Chinese  was  aroused  chiefly  by  the  revelations  which 
the  European  teacher  made  to  them  in  the  domain 
of  the  sciences,  even  tho.se  in  which  they  considered 
themselves  mo.st  proficient.  Mathematics  and 
astronomy,  for  example,  had  from  time  immemorial 
formed  a  part  of  the  institutions  of  the  Chinese 
Government,  but,  when  they  listened  to  Father 
Ricci,  even  the  men  who  knew  most  had  to  acknowl- 
edge how  small  and  how  mingled  with  errors  was  their 
knowk'dge.  But  this  recognition  of  their  ignorance 
and  their  eHt<'em  for  European  learning,  of  which 
they  had  ju.st  gr)t  a  glimp.se,  impelled  very  few  Chinese 
to  make  s<Tious  clToris  to  acfjuin;  this  knowUnlge, 
their  attax-hrnent  to  tradition  or  the  routine  of 
national  t^-aching  b«-ing  too  deep-rooUsd.  However, 
the  Chin«-w  governors,  who  even  at  the  present  day 
have  nia<Je  no  att^-mpt  at  reform  in  thi.s  matter,  flid 
not  wish  tfj  deprive  tru;  country  of  all  the  advantages 
of  Europr-an  diHcoveries.  To  procure  them  recourse 
had  to  be  ha<l  to  the  missionaries,  and  thus  the 
Chinf-M-  mis.sion  from  Ricci's  time  until  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century  found  its  chief  protection  in 
the  8er\ncc8  performed  with  the  asHistance  of  European 
learning.     lather  Ricci  made  use  of  profane  science 


only  to  prepare  the  ground  and  open  the  way  to  the 
apostolate  properly  so  called.  With  this  object  in 
\dew  he  employed  other  means,  which  made  a  deep 
impression  on  the  majority  of  the  educated  class,  and 
especially  on  those  who  held  public  offices.  He  com- 
posed under  various  forms  adapted  to  the  Chinese 
taste  little  moral  treatises,  e.  g.,  that  called  by  the 
Chinese  "The  Twenty-five  Words",  because  in 
twenty-five  short  chapters  it  treated  "of  the  mortifi- 
cation of  the  passions  and  the  nobility  of  virtue". 
Still  greater  admiration  was  aroused  by  the  "Para- 
doxes", a  collection  of  practical  sentences,  useful 
to  a  moral  life,  familiar  to  Christians  but  new  to  the 
Chinese,  which  Ricci  developed  with  accounts  of 
examples,  comparisons,  and  extracts  from  the  Scrip- 
tures and  from  Christian  philosophers  and  doctors. 
Not  unreasonably  proud  of  their  rich  moral  literature, 
the  Chinese  were  greatly  surprised  to  see  a  stranger 
succeed  so  well;  they  could  not  refrain  from  praising 
his  exalted  doctrine,  and  the  respect  which  they  soon 
acquired  for  the  Christian  writings  did  much  to 
dissipate  their  distrust  of  strangers  and  to  render 
them  kindly  thsposed  towards  the  Christian  reUgion. 

But  the  book  through  which  Ricci  exercised  the 
widest  and  most  fortunate  influence  was  his  "T'ien- 
chu-she-i"  (The  True  Doctrine  of  God).  This  was 
the  little  catechism  of  Chao-k'ing  which  had  been 
delivered  from  day  to  day,  corrected  and  improved 
as  occasion  offered,  until  it  finally  contained  all  the 
matter  suggested  by  long  years  of  experience  in  the 
apostolate.  The  truths  which  must  be  admitted  as 
the  necessary  preliminary  to  faith — the  existence  and 
unity  of  God,  the  creation,  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  reward  or  punishment  in  a  future  life — are  here 
demonstrated  by  the  best  arguments  from  reason, 
while  the  errors  most  widespread  in  China,  especially 
the  worship  of  idols  and  the  belief  in  the  transmigra- 
tion of  souls,  are  successfully  refuted.  To  the  testi- 
mony furnished  by  Christian  philosophy  and  theology 
Ricci  added  numerous  proofs  from  the  ancient  Chinese 
books  which  did  much  to  win  credit  for  his  work.  A 
masterpiece  of  apologetics  and  controversy,  the 
"T'ien-chu-she-i",  rightfully  became  the  manual  of 
the  missionaries  and  did  most  efficacious  missionary 
work.  Before  its  author's  death  it  had  been  reprinted 
at  least  four  times,  and  twice  by  the  pagans.  It  led 
countless  numbers  to  Christianity,  and  aroused 
esteem  for  our  religion  in  those  readers  whom  it  did 
not  convert.  The  perusal  of  it  induced  P^mperor 
K'ang-hi  to  issue  his  edict  of  1692  granting  liberty  to 
preach  the  Gospel.  The  iMni^Tor  Kien-long,  al- 
though he  persecuted  the  Christians,  ordered  the 
"  T'ien-chu-shc-i "  to  be  placed  in  his  lil)rary  with 
his  collection  of  the  most  notable  productions  of  the 
Chinese  language.  Even  to  the  present  time  mission- 
aries have  experienced  its  benefic(>nt  influence,  which 
was  not  confined  to  China,  being  felt  also  in  Japan, 
Tong-king,  and  other  countries  tributary  to  Chinese 
literature. 

Besides  the  works  intended  especially  for  the  in- 
fidels and  the  catechumens  whose  initiation  was  in 
progress,  P'ather  Ricci  wrote  others  for  the  new 
Christians.  As  founder  of  the  mis.sion  he  had  to 
invent  formula-  capable  of  expressing  clearly  and  un- 
equivocally our  dogmas  and  rites  in  a  language  which 
had  hitherto  never  been  put  to  such  use  (except  for 
the  Nestorian  use,  with  which  Ricci  was  not  ac- 
quainted). It  was  a  delicate  and  (liflicuU,  task,  but 
it  formed  only  a  part  of  the  heavy  burdfii  which  the 
direction  of  the  mission  was  for  Father  Ricci,  par- 
ticularly during  his  last  years.  While  advancing 
gradually  on  the  capital  Ricci  did  not  abandon  the 
territory  already  conquered;  he  trained  in  his  meth- 
ods the  fellow-workers  who  joined  him  and  com- 
missioned them  to  continue  his  work  in  the  cities  he 
left.  Thus  in  1601  the  mis.sion  included,  besides 
Peking,  the  three  residences  of  Nan-king,  Nan-ch'ang, 


RICCI 


37 


RICCI 


Shao-chow,  to  which  was  added  in  1608  that  of 
Shang-hai.  In  each  of  these  there  were  two  or  three 
missionaries  with  "brothers",  Chinese  Christians 
from  Macao  who  had  been  received  into  the  Society 
of  Jesus  and  who  served  the  mission  as  catechists. 
Although  as  yet  the  number  of  Christians  was  not 
very  great  (2000  baptized  in  1608),  Father  Ricci  in 
his  "Memoirs"  has  said  well  that  considering  the 
obstacles  to  the  entrance  of  Christianity  into  China 
the  result  was  "a  very  great  miracle  of  Divine  Om- 
nipotence". To  preserve  and  increase  the  success 
already  obtained,  it  was  necessary  that  the  means 
which  had  already  proved  efficacious  should  continue 
to  he  employed;  everywhere  and  alwaj's  the  mission- 
aries, without  neglecting  the  essential  duties  of  the 
Christian  apostolate,  had  to  adapt  their  methods  to 
the  special  conditions  of  the  countrj',  and  avoid 
unnecessary  attacks  on  traditional  customs  and 
habits.  The  application  of  this  undeniably  sound 
policy  was  often  difficult.  In  answer  to  the  doubts 
of  his  fellow-workers  Father  Ricci  outlined  rules, 
which  received  the  approval  of  Father  Valignano; 
these  insured  the  unity  and  fruitful  efficacy  of  the 
apostolic  work  throughout  the  mission. 

Question  of  the  Divine  Names  and  the  Chinese  Rites. 
— The  most  difficult  problem  in  the  evangelization  of 
China  had  to  do  with  the  rites  or  ceremonies,  in  use 
from  time  immemorial,  to  do  honour  to  ancestors  or 
deceased  relatives  and  the  particular  tokens  of  respect 
which  the  educated  felt  bound  to  pay  to  their  master, 
Confucius.  Ricci's  solution  of  this  problem  caused  a 
long  and  heated  controversy  in  which  the  Holy  See 
finally  decided  against  him.  The  discussion  also 
dealt  with  the  use  of  the  Chinese  terms  T'ieti  (heaven) 
and  Shang-ti  (Sovereign  Lord)  to  designate  God; 
here  also  the  custom  established  by  Father  Ricci 
had  to  be  corrected.  The  following  is  a  short  his- 
tory of  this  famous  controversy  which  was  singularly 
compHcated  and  embittered  by  passion.  With  regard 
to  the  designations  for  God,  Ricci  always  preferred, 
and  employed  from  the  first,  the  term  T'ien  chu  (Lord 
of  Heaven)  for  the  God  of  Christians;  as  has  been 
seen,  he  used  it  in  the  title  of  his  catechism.  But  in 
studying  the  most  ancient  Chinese  books  he  con- 
sidered it  established  that  they  said  of  T'ien  (heaven) 
and  Shang-ti  (Sovereign  Lord)  what  we  say  of  the 
true  God,  that  is,  they  described  under  these  two 
names  a  sovereign  lord  of  spirits  and  men  who  knows 
all  that  takes  place  in  the  world,  the  source  of  all 
power  and  all  lawful  authority,  the  supreme  regu- 
lator and  defender  of  the  moral  law,  rewarding  those 
who  observe  and  punishing  those  who  violate  it. 
Hence  he  concluded  that,  in  the  most  revered  monu- 
ments of  China,  T'ien  and  Shang-ti  designate  nothing 
else  than  the  true  God  whom  he  himself  preached. 
Ricci  maintained  this  opinion  in  several  passages  of 
his  "T'ien-chu-she-i";  it  will  be  readily  understood 
of  what  assistance  it  was  to  destroy  Chinese  prej- 
udices against  the  Christian  religion.  It  is  true  that, 
in  drawing  this  conclusion,  Ricci  had  to  contradict 
the  common  interpretation  of  modern  scholars  who 
follow  Chu-Hi  in  referring  T'ien  and  Shang-ti  to  apply 
to  the  material  heaven;  but  he  showed  that  this 
material  interpretation  does  not  do  justice  to  the 
texts  and  it  is  at  least  reasonable  to  see  in  them  some- 
thing better.  In  fact  he  informs  us  that  the  educated 
Confucianists,  who  did  not  adore  idols,  were  grateful 
to  him  for  interpreting  the  words  of  their  master  with 
such  goodwill.  Indeed,  Ricci's  opinion  has  been 
adopted  and  confirmed  by  illustrious  modern  Sinol- 
ogists, amongst  whom  it  suffices  to  mention  James 
Legge  ("The  Notions  of  the  Chinese  concerning  God 
and  Spirits",  1852;  "A  Letter  to  Prof.  Max  Muller 
chiefly  on  the  Translation  of  the  Chinese  terms  Ti 
and  Chang-ti",  1880). 

Therefore  it  was  not  without  serious  grounds  that 
the  founder  of  the  Chinese  mission  and  his  successors 


believed  themselves  justified  in  employing  the  terms 
T'ien  and  Shang-ti  as  well  as  T'ien-chu  to  designate 
the  true  God.  However,  there  were  objections  to 
this  practice  even  among  the  Jesuits,  the  earliest 
arising  shortly  after  the  death  of  Father  Ricci  and 
being  formulated  by  the  Japanese  Jesuits.  In  the 
ensuing  discussion  carried  on  in  various  writings  for 
and  against,  which  did  not  circulate  beyond  the 
circle  of  the  missionaries  only  one  of  those  working 
in  China  declared  himself  against  the  use  of  the  name 
Shang-ti.  This  was  Father  Nicholas  Longobardi, 
Ricci's  successor  as  superior  general  of  the  mission, 
who,  however,  did  not  depart  in  anything  from  the 
lines  laid  down  by  its  founder.  After  allowing  the 
question  to  be  discussed  for  some  years,  the  superior 
ordered  the  missionaries  to  abide  simply  by  the  cus- 
tom of  Father  Ricci;  later  this  custom  together  with 
the  rites  was  submitted  to  the  judgment  of  the  Holy 
See.  In  1704  and  1715  Clement  XI,  without  pro- 
nouncing as  to  the  meaning  of  T'ien  and  Shang-ti  in 
the  ancient  Chinese  books,  forbade,  as  being  open  to 
misconstruction,  the  use  of  these  names  to  indicate 
the  true  God,  and  permitted  only  the  T'ien-chu. 
Regarding  the  rites  and  ceremonies  in  honour  of 
ancestors  and  Confucius,  Father  Ricci  was  also  of 
the  opinion  that  a  broad  toleration  was  permissible 
without  injury  to  the  purity  of  the  Christian  rehgion. 
Moreover,  the  question  was  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance for  the  progress  of  the  apostolate.  To  honour 
their  ancestors  and  deceased  parents  by  traditional 
prostrations  and  sacrifices  was  in  the  eyes  of  the 
Chinese  the  gravest  duty  of  filial  piety,  and  one  who 
neglected  it  was  treated  by  all  his  relatives  as  an 
unworthy  member  of  his  family  and  nation.  Similar 
ceremonies  in  honour  of  Confucius  were  an  indis- 
pensable obligation  for  scholars,  so  that  they  could 
not  receive  any  literary  degree  nor  claim  any  public 
oflice  without  having  fulfilled  it.  This  law  still  re- 
mains inviolable;  Kiang-hi,  the  emperor  who  showed 
most  goodwill  towards  the  Christians,  always  refused 
to  set  it  aside  in  their  favour.  In  modern  times  the 
Chinese  Government  showed  no  more  favour  to  the 
ministers  of  France,  who,  in  the  name  of  the  treaties 
guaranteeing  the  liberty  of  Catholicism  in  China, 
claimed  for  the  Christians  who  had  passed  the  exam- 
inations, the  titles  and  advantages  of  the  corre- 
sponding degrees  without  the  necessity  of  going 
through  the  ceremonies;  the  Court  of  Peking  in- 
variably replied  that  this  was  a  question  of  national 
tradition  on  which  it  was  impossible  to  compromise. 
After  having  carefully  studied  what  the  Chinese 
classical  books  said  regarding  these  rites,  and  after 
having  observed  for  a  long  time  the  practice  of  them 
and  questioned  numerous  scholars  of  every  rank 
with  whom  he  was  associated  during  his  eighteen 
years  of  apostolate,  Ricci  was  convinced  that  these 
rites  had  no  religious  significance,  either  in  their 
institution  or  in  their  practice  by  the  enlightened 
classes.  The  Chinese,  he  said,  recognized  no  divinity 
in  Confucius  any  more  than  in  their  deceased  ances- 
tors; they  prayed  to  neither;  they  made  no  requests 
nor  expected  any  extraordinary  intervention  from 
them.  In  fact  they  only  did  for  them  what  they  did 
for  the  living  to  whom  they  wished  to  show  great 
respect.  "The  honour  they  pay  to  their  parents  con- 
sists in  serving  them  dead  as  they  did  living.  They 
do  not  for  this  reason  think  that  the  dead  come  to  eat 
their  offerings  [the  flesh,  fruit,  etc.]  or  need  them. 
They  declare  that  they  act  in  this  manner  because 
they  know  no  other  way  of  showing  their  love  and 
gratitude  to  their  ancestors.  .  .  .  Likewise 
what  they  do  [especially  the  educated],  they  do  to 
thank  Confucius  for  the  excellent  doctrine  which  he 
left  them  in  his  books,  and  through  which  they  ob- 
tained their  degi-ees  and  mandarinships.  Thus  in 
all  this  there  is  nothing  suggestive  of  idolatry,  and 
perhaps  it  may  even  be  said  that  there  is  no  super- 


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38 


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stition."  The  "perhaps"  added  t9  the  last  part  of 
this  conclusion  shows  the  conscientiousness  with 
which  the  founder  acted  in  this  matter.  That  the 
vulgar  and  indeed  even  most  of  the  Chinese  pagans 
mingled  superstition  with  their  national  rites  Ricci 
never  denied;  neither  did  he  overlook  the  fact  that 
the  Chinese,  like  infidels  in  general,  mixed  super- 
stition with  their  most  legitimate  actions.  In  such 
cases  superstition  is  only  an  accident  which  does  not 
corrupt  the  substance  of  the  just  action  itself,  and 
Ricci  thought  this  applied  also  to  the  rites.  Con- 
sequent Iv  he  allowed  the  new  Christians  to  continue 
the  practice  of  them,  avoiding  everj-thing  suggestive 
of  superstition,  and  he  gave  them  rules  to  assist 
them  to  discriminate.  He  believed,  however,  that 
this  tolerance,  though  licit,  should  be  limited  by  the 
necessitv  of  the  case;  whenever  the  Chinese  Christian 
community  should  enjoy  sufficient  liberty,  its  customs, 
notably  its  manner  of  honouring  the  dead,  must  be 
brought  into  conformity  with  the  customs  of  the  rest 
of  the  Christian  world.  These  principles  of  Father 
Ricci,  controlled  by  his  fellow-workers  during  his 
lifetime  and  after  his  death,  served  for  fifty  years  as 
the  guide  of  all  the  missionaries. 

In  1631  the  first  mission  of  the  Dominicans  was 
foimded  at  Fu-kien  by  two  Spanish  religious;  in 
1633  two  Franciscans,  also  Spanish,  came  to  establish 
a  mission  of  their  order.  The  new  missionaries  were 
soon  alarmed  by  the  attacks  on  the  purity  of  religion 
which  they  thought  they  discerned  in  the  communi- 
ties founded  by  their  predecessors.  Without  taking 
sufficient  time  perhaps  to  become  acquainted  with 
Chinese  matters  and  to  learn  exactly  what  was  done  in 
the  Jesuit  missions  they  sent  a  denunciation  to  the 
bishops  of  the  Philippines.  The  bishops  referred 
it  to  Pope  I'rban  VIII  (1635),  and  soon  the  public 
was  informed.  As  early  as  1638  a  controversy  began 
in  the  Philippines  between  the  Jesuits  in  defence  of 
their  brethren  on  the  one  side  and  the  Dominicans 
and  Franciscans  on  the  other.  In  1643  one  of  the 
chief  accu.sers,  the  Dominican,  Jean-Baptiste  Moralez, 
went  to  Rome  to  submit  to  the  Holy  See  a  series  of 
"questions"  or  "doubts"  which  he  said  were  con- 
troverted between  the  Jesuit  missionaries  and  their 
rivals.  Ten  of  the.se  questions  concerned  the  par- 
ticipation of  Christians  in  the  rites  in  honour  of 
Confucius  and  the  dead.  Moralez's  petition  tended 
to  show  that  the  cases  on  which  he  requested  the  de- 
cision of  the  Holy  See  represented  the  practice  au- 
thorized by  the  Society  of  Jesus;  as  soon  as  the 
Jesuits  learned  of  this  they  declared  that  these  cases 
were  imaginary  and  that  they  had  never  allowed 
the  Christians  to  take  part  in  the  rites  as  set  forth  by 
Moralez.  In  declaring  the  ceremonies  illicit  in 
its  Decree  of  12  Sept.,  1645  (approved  by  Innocent 
X),  the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  gave  the 
only  possible  reply  to  the  questions  referred  to  it. 

In  1651  Father  Martin  Martini  (author  of  the 
"NovuB  Atlas  Sicnensis")  was  aent  from  China  to 
Rome  by  his  brethren  to  give  a  true  account  of  the 
Jf«uit8  pra^itices  and  permLssions  with  regard  to  the 
Chinese  rites.  This  d(!legatc  reached  the  Eternal 
City  in  1654,  and  in  165.5  submitted  four  questions 
to  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office. 
This  supreme  tribunal,  in  its  Decree  of  23  March, 
1656,  approved  by  Pope  Alexander  VII,  sanctioned 
the  practice  of  Ricci  and  his  associates  as  set  forth  by 
Father  Martini,  declaring  that  the  ceremonies  in 
honour  of  Confucius  and  anccKtors  ap7)eared  to  con- 
stitute "a  purfly  civil  and  political  cult".  Did  this 
decrc*  annul  that  of  H>45?  Conc<Tning  this  question, 
laid  before  the  Holy  Office  by  the  Dominican,  Father 
John  de  Poianco,  tfie  reply  was  (20  Nov.,  1669)  that 
\joih  deereeH  hhould  remain  "in  their  full  force" 
and  should  be  observed  "a(;cording  to  the  questions, 
circumstancr*,  and  everything  contained  in  the 
proposed  doubts". 


Meanwhile  an  understanding  was  reached  by  the 
hitherto  divided  missionaries.  This  reconciliation 
was  hastened  by  the  persecution  of  1665  which  as- 
sembled for  nearly  five  years  in  the  same  house  at 
Canton  nineteen  Jesuits,  three  Dominicans,  and  one 
Franciscan  (then  the  sole  member  of  his  order  in 
China).  Profiting  by  their  enforced  leisure  to  agree 
on  a  uniform  Apostolic  method,  the  missionaries  dis- 
cussed all  the  points  on  which  the  discipline  of  the 
Church  should  be  adapted  to  the  exigencies  of  the 
Chinese  situation.  After  forty  days  of  conferences, 
which  terminated  on  26  Jan.,  1668,  all  (with  the  pos- 
sible exception  of  the  Franciscan  Antonio  de  Santa 
Maria,  who  was  very  zealous  but  extremely  uncom- 
promising) subscribed  to  forty-two  articles,  the  result 
of  the  deliberations,  of  which  the  forty-first  was  as 
follows:  "As  to  the  ceremonies  by  which  the  Chinese 
honour  their  master  Confucius  and  the  dead,  the 
replies  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Inquisition 
approved  by  our  Holy  Father  Alexander  VII,  in 
1656,  must  be  followed  absolutely  because  they  are 
based  on  a  very  probable  opinion,  to  which  it  is 
impossible  to  offset  any  evidence  to  the  contrary, 
and,  this  probability  assumed,  the  door  of  salvation 
must  not  be  closed  to  the  innumerable  Chinese  who 
would  stray  from  the  Christian  religion  if  they  were 
forbidden  to  do  what  they  may  do  licitly  and  in  good 
faith  and  which  they  cannot  forego  without  serious 
injury."  After  the  subscription,  however,  a  new 
courteous  discussion  of  this  article  in  writing  took 
place  between  Father  Domingo  Fernand(>z  Navar- 
rete,  superior  of  the  Dominicans,  and  the  most 
learned  of  the  Jesuits  at  Canton.  Navarrete 
finally  appeared  satisfied  and  on  29  Sept.,  1669, 
submitted  his  written  acceptance  of  the  artic^le  to  the 
superior  of  the  Jesuits.  However,  on  19  Dec.  of 
this  j^ear  he  secretly  left  Canton  for  Macao  whence 
he  went  to  Europe.  There,  and  especially  at  Rome 
where  he  was  in  1673,  he  sought  from  now  on  only 
to  overthrow  what  had  been  attempted  in  the  con- 
ferences of  Canton.  He  published  the  "Tratados 
historicos,  politicos,  ethicos,  y  religiosos  de  la  mo- 
narchia  de  China"  (I,  Madrid,  1673;  of  vol.  II, 
printed  in  1679  and  incomplete,  only  two  copies  are 
known).  This  work  is  filled  with  impassioned  accusa- 
tions against  the  Jesuit  missionaries  regarding  their 
methods  of  apostolate  and  especially  their  tolera- 
tion of  the  rites.  Nevertheless,  Navarrete  did  not 
succeed  in  inducing  the  Holy  See  to  resume  the  ques- 
tion, this  being  reserved  for  Charles  Maigrot,  a 
member  of  the  new  Soci6t6  des  Missions  fitrangeres. 
Maigrot  went  to  China  in  1()S3.  He  was  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Fu-kien,  before  being  as  yet  a  bishop, 
when,  on  26  March,  1693,  he  addressed  to  the  mis- 
sionaries of  his  vicariate  a  mandate  proscribing  the 
names  T'ien  and  Shang-ti;  forbidding  that  Christians 
be  allowed  to  participate  in  or  assist  at  "sacrifices  or 
solemn  oblations"  in  honour  of  Confucius  or  the  dead; 
prescribing  modifications  of  the  inscriptions  on  the 
ancestral  tablets;  censuring  and  forbidding  certain, 
according  to  him,  too  favourable  ref(U-ences  to  the 
ancient  Chinese  philosophers;  and,  last  but  notleiistj 
declaring  that  the  exposition  made  by  Father  Martini 
was  not  true  and  that  consequently  the  approval 
which  the  latter  had  received  from  Rome  was  not 
to  be  relied  on. 

By  order  of  Innocent  XII,  the  Holy  Office  resumed 
in  1697  the  study  of  the  question  on  the  documents 
furnished  by  the  procurators  of  Mgr  Maigrot  and  on 
those  showing  the  opposite  sith;  brought  by  the  repre- 
Sfjntativr's  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries.  It  is  worthy 
of  note  that  at  this  period  a  number  of  the  mi.ssionaries 
outside  the  Society  of  Jesus,  especially  all  the  Augu.s- 
tinians,  nearly  all  the  Franciscans,  and  some  Domini- 
cans, were  converted  to  the  practice  of  Ricci  and  the 
Jesuit  missionaries.  The  difficulty  of  grasping  the 
truth  amid  such  diffen^nt  representations  of  facts  and 


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39 


RICCI 


contradictory  interpretations  of  texts  prevented  the 
Congregation  from  reaching  a  decision  until  towards 
the  end  of  1704  under  the  pontificate  of  Clement  XI. 
Long  before  then  the  pope  had  chosen  and  sent  to  the 
Far  East  a  legate  to  secure  the  execution  of  the 
Apostolic  decrees  and  to  regulate  all  other  questions 
on  the  welfare  of  the  missions.  The  prelate  chosen 
was  Charles-Thomas-Maillard  de  Tournon  (b.  at 
Turin)  whom  Clement  XI  had  consecrated  with  his 
own  hands  on  27  Dec,  1701,  and  on  whom  he  con- 
ferred the  title  of  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  Leaving 
Europe  on  9  Feb.,  1703,  Mgr  de  Tournon  stayed  for  a 
time  in  India  (see  Malabar  Rites)  reaching  Macao 
on  2  April,  1705,  and  Peking  on  4  December  of  the 
same  year.  Emperor  K'ang-hi  accorded  him  a  warm 
welcome  and  treated  him  with  much  honour  until  he 
learned,  perhaps  through  the  imprudence  of  the  legate 
himself,  that  one  of  the  objects  of  his  embassy,  if  not 
the  chief,  was  to  abolish  the  rites  amongst  the 
Christians.  Mgr  de  Tournon  was  already  aware  that 
the  decision  against  the  rites  had  been  given  since  20 
Nov.,  1704,  but  not  yet  published  in  Europe,  as  the 
pope  wished  that  it  should  be  publi-shed  first  in  China. 
P'orced  to  leave  Peking,  the  legate  had  returned  to 
Nan-king  when  he  learned  that  the  emperor  had 
ordered  all  missionaries,  under  penalty  of  expulsion, 
to  come  to  him  for  a  piao  or  diploma  granting  per- 
mission to  preach  the  Gospel.  This  diploma  was  to 
be  granted  only  to  those  who  promi.sed  not  to  oppose 
the  national  rites.  On  the  receipt  of  this  news  the 
legate  felt  that  he  could  no  longer  postpone  the  an- 
nouncement of  the  Roman  decisions.  By  a  mandate 
of  15  January,  1707,  he  required  all  missionaries  under 
pain  of  excommunication  to  reply  to  Chinese  author- 
ity, if  it  questioned  them,  that  "several  things"  in 
Chinese  doctrine  and  customs  did  not  agree  with 
Divine  law  and  that  these  were  chiefly  "the  sacri- 
fices to  Confucius  and  ancestors"  and  "the  use  of 
ancestral  tablets",  moreover  that  Shang-ti  and  THen 
were  not  "the  true  God  of  the  Christians".  When  the 
emperor  learned  of  this  Decree  he  ordered  Mgr  de 
Tournon  to  be  brought  to  Macao  and  forbade  him  to 
leave  there  before  the  return  of  the  envoys  whom  he 
himself  sent  to  the  pope  to  explain  his  objections  to 
the  interdiction  of  the  rites,  \\hile  still  subject  to 
this  restraint,  the  legate  died  in  1710. 

Meanwhile  Mgr  Maigrot  and  several  other  mis- 
sionaries having  refused  to  ask  for  the  piao  had  been 
expelled  from  China.  But  the  majority  (i.  e.  all  the 
Jesuits,  most  of  the  Franciscans,  and  other  missionary 
religious,  having  at  their  head  the  Bishop  of  Peking,  a 
Franciscan,  and  the  Bishop  of  Ascalon,  Vicar  Apos- 
tolic; of  Kiang-si,  an  Augustinian)  considered  that,  to 
prevent  the  total  ruin  of  the  mission,  they  might 
postpone  obedience  to  the  legate  until  the  pope  should 
have  signified  his  will.  Clement  XI  replied  by  pub- 
lishing (March,  1709)  the  answers  of  the  Holy  Office, 
which  he  had  already  approved  on  20  November, 
1704,  and  then  by  causing  the  same  Congregation  to 
issue  (25  Sept.,  1710)  a  new  Decree  which  approved 
the  acts  of  the  legate  and  ordered  the  observance  of 
the  mandate  of  Nan-king,  but  interpreted  in  the 
sense  of  the  Roman  replies  of  1704.  Finally,  be- 
lieving that  these  measures  were  not  meeting  with 
a  sufficiently  simple  and  full  submission,  Clement 
issued  (19  March,  1715)  the  Apostolic  Constitution, 
"Ex  ilia  die".  It  reproduced  all  that  was  properly 
a  decision  in  the  replies  of  1704,  omitting  all  the 
questions  and  most  of  the  preambles,  and  concluded 
with  a  form  of  oath  which  the  pope  enjoined  on  all 
the  missionaries  and  which  obliged  them  under  the 
severest  penalties  to  observe  and  have  observed  fully 
and  without  reserve  the  decisions  inserted  in  the 
pontifical  act.  This  Constitution,  which  reached 
China  in  1716,  found  no  rebels  among  the  missionaries, 
but  even  those  who  sought  most  zealously  failed  to 
induce  the  majority  of  their  flock  to  observe  its  pro- 


visions. At  the  same  time  the  hate  of  the  pagans  was 
reawakened,  enkindled  by  the  old  charge  that 
Christianity  was  the  enemy  of  the  national  rites,  and 
the  neophytes  began  to  be  the  objects  of  persecutions 
to  which  K'ang-hi,  hitherto  so  well-disposcMl,  tiow  gave 
almost  entire  liberty.  Clement  XI  souglii  to  remedy 
this  critical  situation  by  sending  to  China  a  second 
legate,  John-Ambrose  Alezzabarba,  whom  he  named 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria.  This  prelate  sailed  from 
Lisbon  on  25  March,  1720,  reaching  Macao  on  26 
September,  and  Canton  on  12  October.  Admitted, 
not  without  difficulty,  to  Peking  and  to  an  audience 
with  the  emperor,  the  legate  could  only  prevent  his 
inmiediate  dismissal  and  the  expulsion  of  all  the  mis- 
sionaries by  making  known  some  alleviations  of  the 
Constitution  "Ex  ilia  die",  which  he  was  authorized 
to  offer,  and  allowing  K'ang-hi  to  hope  that  the  pope 
would  grant  still  others.  Then  he  hastened  to  return 
to  Macao,  whence  he  addressed  (4  November,  1721) 
a  pa.storal  letter  to  the  missionaries  of  China,  com- 
municating to  them  the  authentic  text  of  his  eight 
"permissions"  relating  to  the  rites.  He  declared  that 
he  would  permit  nothing  forbidden  by  the  Constitu- 
tion; in  practice,  however,  his  concessions  relaxed  the 
rigour  of  the  pontifical  interdictions,  although  they 
did  not  produce  harmony  or  unity  of  action  among  the 
apostolic  workers.  To  bring  about  this  highly  de- 
sirable result  the  pope  ordered  a  new  investigation, 
the  chief  object  of  which  was  the  legitimacy  and  op- 
portuneness of  Mezzabarba's  "permissions";  begun 
by  the  Holy  Office  under  Clement  XII  a  conclusion 
was  reached  only  under  Benedict  XIV.  On  11  July, 
1742,  this  pope,  by  the  Bull  "Ex  quo  singulari",  con- 
firmed and  reimposed  in  a  most  emphatic  manner 
the  Constitution  "Ex  ilia  die",  and  condemned  and 
annulled  the  "permissions"  of  Mezzabarba  as  author- 
izing the  superstitions  which  that  Constitution 
sought  to  destroy.  This  action  terminated  the  con- 
troversy among  Catholics. 

The  Holy  See  did  not  touch  on  the  purely  theoreti- 
cal questions,  as  for  instance  what  the  Chinese  rites 
were  and  signified  according  to  their  institution  and 
in  ancient  times.  In  this  Father  Ricci  may  have 
been  right;  but  he  was  mistaken  in  thinking  that  as 
practised  in  modern  times  they  are  not  superstitious 
or  can  be  made  free  from  all  superstition.  The  popes 
declared,  after  scrupulous  investigations,  that  the 
ceremonies  in  honour  of  Confucius  or  ancestors  and 
deceased  relatives  are  tainted  with  superstition  to  such 
a  degree  that  thej-  cannot  be  purified.  But  the  error 
of  Ricci,  as  of  his  fellow- workers  and  successors,  was 
but  an  error  in  judgment.  The  Holy  See  expressly 
forbade  it  to  be  said  that  they  approved  idolatry;  it 
would  indeed  be  an  odious  calumny  to  accuse  such  a 
man  as  Ricci,  and  so  many  other  holy  and  zealous 
missionaries,  of  having  approved  and  permitted  to 
their  neophytes  practices  which  they  knew  to  be  super- 
stitions and  contrary  to  the  purity  of  religion.  De- 
spite this  error,  Matteo  Ricci  remains  a  splendid  type 
of  missionary  and  founder,  unsurpassed  for  his  zealous 
intrepidity,  the  intelligence  of  the  methods  applied 
to  each  situation,  and  the  unwearying  tenacity  with 
which  he  pursued  the  projects  he  undertook.  To  him 
belongs  the  glory  not  only  of  opening  up  a  vast 
empire  to  the  Gospel,  but  of  simultaneously  making 
the  first  breach  in  that  distrust  of  strangers  which 
excluded  China  from  the  general  progress  of  the 
world.  The  establishment  of  the  Catholic  mission 
in  the  heart  of  this  country  also  had  its  economic 
consequences :  it  laid  the  foundation  of  a  better  under- 
standing between  the  Far  East  and  the  West,  which 
grew  with  the  progress  of  the  mission.  It  is  super- 
fluous to  detail  the  results  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
material  interests  of  the  whole  world.  Lastly,  science 
owes  to  Father  Ricci  the  first  exact  scientific  knowl- 
edge received  in  Europe  concerning  China,  its  true 
geographical  situation,  its  ancient  civihzation,  its  vast 


RICCI 


40 


RICE 


and  curious  literature,  its  social  organization  so  different 
from  what  existed  elsewhere.  Thenietliod  instituted 
by  Ricci  necessitated  a  fundamental  study  of  this  new 
world,  and  if  the  missionaries  who  have  since  followed 
him  have  rendered  scarcely  less  service  to  science  than 
to  rehgion,  a  great  part  of  the  credit  is  due  to  Ricci. 

[MaTTEO  Ricci],  DtW  cntrata  dclla  Cunipagnia  di  Gicsu  c 
cristia7)itd  nclla  Cina  (MS.  of  Father  Ricci,  extant  in  the  archives 
of  the  Societv  of  Jesus;  cited  in  the  foregoing  article  as  the 
Memoirs  of  Father  Ricci),  a  somewhat  free  tr.  of  this  work  is 
given  in  Trigaci.t,  De  Christiana  eipeditione  apiid  Siiias  sus- 
cepta  ab  Societate  Jcsu.  Ex  P.  Matlhcei  Ricci  commentariis  Hbri, 
V  (Augsburg,  16151;  de  Ursis,  P.  Matheus  Ricci,  S.J.  Relagao 
e^icripta  pelo  seu  companheiro  (Rome.  1910);  Bartoli,  Dell' 
Historia  delta  Compagnia  di  Giesii.  La  Cina,  I-II  (Rome,  1663). 
Bartoli  is  the  most  accurate  biographer  of  Ricci;  d'Orli^ans, 
La  Tie  du  Pire  Matthieu  Ricci  (Paris,  1693) ;  Natali,  II  .scco/ido 
Confucio  (Rome,  1900);    Vexturi,  L'apostolato  del  P.  M.  Ricci 

d.  C.  d.  G.  in  Cina  secondo  i  suoi  scritti  inediti  (Rome,  1910); 
Brccker,  Le  Pire  Matthieu  Ricci  in  Etudes,  CXXIV  (Paris, 
1910),  5-27;  1S5-20S;  751-79;  De  B.^cker-Sommervogel, 
Bibl.  des  icrivains  de  la  C.de  J.,  VI,  1792-95.  Chinese  Rites.— 
Brucker  in  Vacant,  Diet,  de  Thiol,  cath.,  a.  v.  Chinois  {Rites) 
and  works  indicated;  Cobdier,  Bihl.  Sinica,  II,  2nd  ed.,  869- 
925;  Idem,  Hist,  des  relations  de  la  Chine  avec  les  puissances 
occideniales.  III  (Paris,  1902),  xxv.         Jqseph   BrUCKER. 

Ricci,  SciPio.    See  Pistoia,  Synod  of. 

Riccioli,  Giovanni  Battista,  Italian  astronomer, 
b.  at  Ferrara  17  April,  1598;  d.  at  Bologna  25  June, 
1671.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  6  Oct.,  1614. 
After  teaching  philosophy  and  theology  for  a  number 
of  years,  chiefly  at  Parma  and  Bologna,  he  devoted 
hirnself,  at  the  request  of  his  superiors,  entirely  to  the 
study  of  astronomy,  which  at  that  time,  owing  to  the 
discoveries  of  Kepler  and  the  new  theories  of  Coperni- 
cus, was  a  subject  of  much  discussion.  Realizing 
the  many  defects  of  the  traditional  astronomy  in- 
herited from  the  ancients,  he  conceived  the  bold 
idea  of  undertaking  a  reconstruction  of  the  science 
with  a  view  to  bringing  it  into  harmony  with  con- 
temporary progress.  This  led  to  his  "Almagestum 
novum,  astronomiam  veterem  novamque  com- 
plectens"  (2  vols.,  Bologna,  1651),  considered  by 
many  the  most  important  literary  work  of  the  Jesuits 
during  the  seventeenth  century.  The  author  in 
common  with  many  scholars  of  the  time,  notably  in 
Italy,  rejected  the  Copernican  theory,  and  in  this 
work,  admittedly  of  great  erudition,  gives  an  elab- 
orate refutation  in  justification  of  the  Roman  De- 
crees of  1616  and  1633.  He  praises,  however,  the 
genius  of  Copernicus  and  readily  admits  the  value 
of  his  system  as  a  simple  hypothesis.  His  sincerity 
in  this  connexion  has  been  called  into  question  by  some, 

e.  g.  Wolf,  but  a  study  of  the  work  shows  beyond 
doubt  that  he  wrote  from  conviction  and  with  the 
desire  of  making  known  the  truth.  Riccioli's  proj- 
ect also  included  a  comparison  of  the  unit  of  length 
of  various  nations  and  a  more  exact  determination 
of  the  dimensions  of  the  earth.  His  topographical 
measurements  occupied  him  at  intervals  between 
1644  and  1656,  but  defects  of  method  have  rendered 
his  results  of  but  little  value.  His  most  important 
contribution  to  astronomy  was  perhaps  his  detailed 
telescopic  study  of  the  moon,  made  in  collaboration 
with  P.  Grimaldi.  The  latter's  excellent  lunar  map 
was  inserted  in  the  "Almagestum  novum",  and  the 
lunar  nomenclature  they  adopted  is  still  in  use.  He 
also  ma^le  observations  on  Saturn's  rings,  though  it 
was  reserved  for  Huyghens  to  determine  the  true 
ring-structure.  He  was  an  ardent  defender  of  the 
new  Gregorian  calendar.  Though  of  delicate  health, 
Riccioli  was  an  indefatigable  worker  and,  in  spite  of 
his  opposition  to  the  Copernican  theory,  rendered 
valuable  serv'iccs  to  astronomy  and  also  to  geography 
and  chronology.  His  diief  works  are:  "Geographia; 
et  hydrographiif!  reformata;  libri  XII"  (Bologna, 
1661);  "Afitronomia  reformata"  (2  vols.,  Bologna, 
1665j;  "Vindicia;  calenflarii  gregoriani"  (Bologna, 
1666);  "Chronologia  reformata"  (1660);  "Tabula 
latitudinurn  et  longitudirium"  (Vienna,  1689). 


SoMMERVOGEL,  Bihl.  de  la  C.  de  J.,  VI  (Paris,  1895),  1795; 
Delambre,  Hist,  de  r Astronomic  Moderne,  II  (Paris,  1821),  274; 
Wolf,  Gesch.  d.  Astronomie  (Munich,  1877),  434;  Walsh,  Catholic 
Churchmen  in  Science  (2nd  series,  Philadelphia,  19(D9);  Lins- 
meier,  Natur.  u.  Offenharung,  XLVII,  65  sqq. 

H.  RI.  Brock. 

Rice,  Edmund  Ignatius,  founder  of  the  Institute 
of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  (better  known 
as  "Irish  Christian  Brothers"),  b.  at  Callan,  Co.  Kil- 
kenny, 1762;  d.  at  Waterford,  1844.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  a  Catholic  school  which,  despite  the  provi- 
sions of  the  iniquitous  ])enal  laws,  the  authorities 
suffered  to  exist  in  llio  City  of  Kilkenny.  In  1779  he 
entered  the  business  house  of  his  uncle,  a  largo  export 
and  import  trader  in  the  City  of  \^'aterford,  and,  after 
the  latter's  death,  became  .sole  proprietor.  As  a 
citizen  he  was  distinguished  for  his  probity,  charity, 
and  piety;  he  was 
an  active  member 
of  a  society  estab- 
lished in  the  city 
for  the  relief  of  the 
poor.  About  1794 
he  meditated  en- 
tering  a  conti- 
nental convent, 
but  his  brother, 
an  Augustinian 
who  had  but  just 
returned  from 
Rome,  discoun- 
tenanced the  idea. 
Rice,  thereupon, 
devoted  himself  to 
the  extension  of 
his  business.  Some 
years  lat(>r,  how- 
ever, he  again  de- 
sired to  become  a 
religious.  As  he 
was  discussing  the 
matter  with  a 
friend  of  his,  a  sister  of  Bishop  Power  of  Waterford, 
a  band  of  ragged  boys  pa.s.sed  by.  Pointing  to 
them  Miss  Power  exclaimed:  "What!  would  you 
bury  yourself  in  a  cell  on  the  continent  rather  than 
devote  your  wealth  and  your  life  to  the  spiritual  and 
material  interests  of  these  poor  youths?  "  The  words 
were  an  inspiration.  Rice  related  the  incident  to  Dr. 
Lanigan,  bishop  of  his  native  Diocese  of  Ossory,  and 
to  others,  all  of  whom  advised  him  to  undertake  the 
mission  to  which  God  was  evidently  calling  him. 
Rico  settled  his  worldly  affairs,  his  last  year's  bu.siness 
(1800)  being  the  most  lucrative  one  he  had  known, 
and  commenced  the  work  of  the  Christian  schools. 

Assisted  by  two  young  men,  whom  he  j)Hid  for  their 
services,  he  opened  his  first  s(;hool  in  \\'aterford  in 
1802.  In  June;  of  this  year  Hislioi)  Ilussey  of  Waterford 
laid  the  foundation  stone  of  a  schoolhou.se  on  a  site 
which  he  named  Mount  Sion.  The  building  was  soon 
ready  for  occui)ation,  but  Rice's  assistants  had  fled 
and  could  not  be  induced  to  return  even  when  offered 
higher  salaries.  In  this  extremity  two  young  men 
from  Callan  offered  themselves  as  fellow-labourers. 
Other  work(;rs  soon  ga1her{>d  round  him,  and  by  1806 
Christian  schools  wen;  establishetl  in  Waterford, 
Carrick-on-3uir,  and  Dungarvan.  The  communities 
adopted  a  modific-d  form  of  the  Rule  of  the  Presenta- 
tion Order  of  nuns,  and,  in  1808,  pronounced  their 
vows  before  Bishoj)  Power.  Houses  were  established 
in  Cork,  Dublin,  Limerick,  and  elsewhere.  Though 
the  brothers,  as  a  rule,  made  their  novitiate  in  Mount 
Sion  and  regard(!d  Rice  as  their  father  and  model,  he 
was  not  their  superior;  they  were  subject  to  the 
bishops  of  their  respective  dioceses.  In  1817,  on  the 
advice  of  Bisho))  Murray,  coadjutor  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin,  and  of  Fat  her  Kenny,  S.J.,  a  special 


Edmund  Ignatius  Rice 


RICHARD 


41 


RICHARD 


friend,  Rice  applied  to  the  Holy  See  for  approbation 
and  a  constitution  for  his  society.  In  1820  Pius  VII 
formally  confirmed  the  new  congregation  of  "Fratrea 
Monachi"  by  the  Brief  "Ad  pastoralis  dignitatis 
fastigium".  This  was  the  first  confirmation  by  the 
Church  of  a  congregation  of  religious  men  in  Ireland. 
Brother  Rice  was  unanimously  elected  superior  gen- 
eral by  the  members.  All  the  houses  were  united 
except  the  house  in  Cork,  where  Bishop  Murphy  re- 
fused his  consent.  Later,  however,  in  1826,  the 
Brothers  in  Cork  attained  the  object  of  their  desire, 
but  one  of  their  number,  preferring  the  old  condition 
of  things,  offered  his  services  to  the  bishop,  who 
placed  him  in  charge  of  a  school  on  the  south  side  of 
the  city.  This  secession  of  Br.  Austin  Reardon  was 
the  origin  of  the  teaching  congregation  of  the  Pres- 
entation Brothers.  The  confirmation  of  the  new 
Institute  attracted  considerable  attention,  even  out- 
side of  Ireland,  and  many  presented  themselves  for  the 
novitiate.  The  founder  removed  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment to  Dublin. 

At  this  time  the  agitation  for  Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion was  at  its  height  and  the  people  were  roused  to 
indignation  by  the  reports  of  the  proselytizing  prac- 
tices carried  on  in  the  Government  schools.  Brother 
Rice  conceived  the  idea  of  establishing  a  "Catholic 
Model  School".  The  "Liberator"  entered  warmlj'^ 
into  his  scheme,  and  procured  a  grant  of  £1500  from 
the  Catholic  Association  in  aid  of  the  proposed  build- 
ing. On  St.  Columba's  day,  1828,  Daniel  O'Connell 
laid  the  foundation  stone,  in  North  Richmond  Street, 
Dublin,  of  the  famous  school,  since  known  as  the 
"O'Connell  Schools".  In  his  speech  on  the  occasion 
he  referred  to  Brother  Rice  as  "My  old  friend,  Mr. 
Rice,  the  Patriarch  of  the  Monks  of  the  west".  The 
founder  resigned  his  office  in  1838  and  spent  his  re- 
maining years  in  Mount  Sion.  Before  his  death  he 
saw  eleven  communities  of  his  institute  in  Ireland, 
eleven  in  England,  and  one  in  Sydney,  Australia,  while 
applications  for  foundations  had  been  received  from 
the  Archbi.shop  of  Baltimore  and  from  bishops  in 
Canada,  Newfoundland,  and  other  places. 

Patkick  J.  Hennessy. 

Richard,  a  Friar  Minor  and  preacher,  appearing  in 
history  between  1428  and  1431,  whose  origin  and 
nationality  are  unknown.  He  is  .sometimes  called  the 
disciple  of  St.  Bernurdine  of  Sicitna  and  of  St.  Vincent 
Ferrer,  but  probably  onlj^  becau.se,  like  the  former,  he 
promoted  the  veneration  of  the  lloly  Name  of  Jesus 
and,  like  the  latter,  announced  the  end  of  the  world  as 
near.  In  1428  Richard  came  from  the  Holy  Land  to 
France,  preached  at  Troja's,  newt  year  in  Paris  dui'ing 
ten  days  (16-26  Ajjril)  every  morning  from  about  five 
o'clock  to  ten  or  eleven.  He  had  such  a  sway  over 
his  numerous  auditors  that  after  his  sermons  the  men 
burned  their  dice,  and  the  women  their  vanities. 
Having  been  threatened  by  the  Faculty  of  Theology 
on  account  of  his  doctrine — perhaps,  also,  because  he 
was  believed  to  favour  Charles  VII,  King  of  France, 
whilst  Paris  was  then  in  the  hands  of  the  English- 
he  left  Paris  suddenly  and  betook  himself  to  Orleans 
and  Troyes.  In  the  latter  town  he  first  met  Bl.  Joan 
of  Arc.  Having  contributed  much  to  the  submission 
of  Troyes  to  Charles  VII,  Richard  now  followed  the; 
French  army  and  became  confessor  and  chaplain  to 
Bl.  Joan.  Some  differences,  however,  arose  between 
the  two  on  account  of  Catherine  de  la  Rochelle,  who 
was  protected  by  the  friar,  but  scorned  by  Joan. 
Richard's  name  figures  also  in  the  i)roceedings  against 
Bl.  Joan  of  Arc  in  1431 ;  in  the  same  year  he  preached 
the  Lent  in  Orleans  and  shortly  after  was  interdictecl 
from  preaching  by  the  inquisitor  of  Poitiers.  No 
trace  of  him  is  found  after  this. 

DE  Kerval,  Jeanne  d' Arc  el  lex  Franciscains  (Vanves,  1893); 
Debout,  Jeanne  d'Arc  (Paris,  1905-07),  1,  694-97  and  passim; 
Wallon,  Jeanne  d'Arc  (Paris,  1883),  12.5,  200,  261. 

LiVARIUS   OUGER. 


Richard  I,  King  of  England,  b.  at  Oxford,  6 
Sept.,  1157;  d.  at  Chaluz,  France,  6  April,  1199;  was 
known  to  the  minstrels  of  a  later  age,  rather  than  to 
his  contemporaries,  as  "Coeur-de-Lion".  He  was 
only  the  second  son  of  Henry  II,  but  it  was  part  of 
his  father's  policy,  holding,  as  he  did,  continental 
dominions  of  great  extent  and  little  mutual  cohesion, 
to  assign  them  to  his  children  during  his  own  life- 
time and  even  to  have  his  sons  brought  up  among 
the  people  they  were  destined  to  govern.  To  Richard 
were  allotted  the  territories  in  the  South  of  France 
belonging  to  his  mother  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  and 
before  he  was  sixteen  he  was  inducted  as  Duke  of 
that  province.  It  was  a  weak  point  in  the  old  King's 
management  of  his  sons,  that,  while  dazzling  them 
with  brilliant  prospects,  he  invested  them  with  very 
little  of  the  substance  of  power.  In  1173  the  young 
Henry,  who,  following  a  German  usage,  had  already 
been  crowned  king  in  the  lifetime  of  his  father, 
broke  out  into  open  revolt,  being  instigated  thereto 
by  his  father-in-law,  Louis  VII,  King  of  France. 
Xhider  the  influence  of  their  mother  Eleanor,  who 
bitt(>rly  resented  her  husband's  infidelities,  Geoffrey 
and  Richard  in  1173  also  threw  in  their  lot  with  the 
rebel  and  took  up  arms  against  their  father.  Allies 
gathered  round  them  and  the  situation  grew  so 
threatening,  that  Henry  II  thought  it  well  to  propi- 
tiate heaven  by  doing  penance  at  the  tomb  of  the 
martyred  Archbishop  St.  Thomas  (11  July,  1174). 
By  a  remarkable  coincidence,  on  the  very  next  day, 
a  victory  in  Northumberland  over  William,  King  of 
Scotland,  disposed  of  Henry's  most  formidable  op- 
ponent. Returning  with  a  large  force  to  France,  the 
King  swept  all  before  him,  and  though  Richard  for  a 
while  held  out  alone  he  was  compelled  by  21  Sept.  to 
sue  for  forgiveness  at  his  father's  feet. 

The  King  dealt  leniently  with  his  rebellious  chil- 
dren, but  this  first  outbreak  was  only  the  harbinger 
of  an  almost  uninterrupted  series  of  disloyal  in- 
trigues, fomented  by  Louis  VII  and  by  his  son  and 
successor,  Philip  Augustus,  in  which  Richard,  who 
liv(Hl  almost  entirely  in  Guicnne  and  Poitou,  was  en- 
gag(>d  down  to  the  time  of  his  father's  death.  He 
acquired  for  himself  a  great  and  deserved  reputation 
for  knightly  prowess,  and  he  was  often  concerned  in 
chivalrous  exploits,  showing  much  energy  in  par- 
ticular in  protecting  the  pilgrims  who  passed  through 
his  own  and  adjacent  territories  on  their  way  to  the 
shrine  of  St.  James  of  Compostella.  His  elder  brother 
Henry  grew  jealous  of  him  and  insisted  that  Richard 
should  do  him  homage.  On  the  latter's  resistance 
war  broke  out  between  the  brothers.  Bertrand  de 
Born,  Count  of  Hautefort,  who  was  Richard's  rival 
in  minstreLsy  as  well  as  in  feats  of  arms,  lent  such 
powerful  support  to  the  younger  Henry,  that  the  old 
King  had  to  intervene  on  Richard's  side.  The  death 
of  the  younger  Henry,  11  June,  1183,  once  more 
restored  peace  and  made  Richard  heir  to  the  throne. 
But  other  quarrels  followed  between  Richard  and 
his  father,  and  it  was  in  the  heat  of  the  most  desperate 
of  these,  in  which  the  astuteness  of  Philip  Augustus 
had  contrived  to  implicate  Henry's  favourite  son 
John,  that  the  old  King  died  broken-hearted,  6  July, 
1189.  Despite  the  constant  hostilities  of  the  last 
few  years,  Richard  secured  the  succession  without 
difficulty.  He  came  quickly  to  England  and  was 
crowned  at  Westminster  on  3  Sept.  But  his  object 
in  visiting  his  native  land  was  less  to  provide  for  the 
government  of  the  kingdom  than  to  collect  resources 
for  the  projected  Crusade  which  now  appealed  to  the 
strongest,  if  not  the  best,  instincts  of  his  adventurous 
nature,  and  by  the  success  of  which  he  hoped  to 
startle  the  world.  Already,  towards  the  end  of  1187, 
when  the  news  had  reached  him  of  Saladin's  conquest 
of  Jerusalem,  Richard  had  taken  the  cross.  Philip 
Augustus  and  Henry  II  had  subsequently  followed 
his  example,  but  the  quarrels  which  had  supervened 


RICHARD 


42 


RICHARD 


had  so  far  prevented  the  reaUzation  of  this  pious 
design.  Now  that  he  was  more  free  the  j-oung  King 
seems  to  have  been  conscientiously  in  earnest  in 
putting  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land  before  every- 
thing else.  Though  the  expedients  by  which  he  set 
to  work  to  gather  every  penny  of  ready  money  upon 
which  he  could  lay  hands  were  alike  unscrupulous 
and  impolitic,  there  is  something  which  commands 
respect  in  the  energy  which  he  threw  into  the  task. 
He  sold  sheriffdoms',  justiceships,  church  lands,  and 
appointments  of  all  kinds,  both  lay  and  secular,  prac- 
ticallv  to  the  highest  bidder.  He  was  not  ungenerous 
in  providing  for  his  brothers  John  and  Geoffrey,  and 
he  showed  a  certain  prudence  in  exacting  a  promise 
from  them  to  remain  out  of  England  for  three  years, 
in  order  to  leave  a  free  hand  to  the  new  Chancellor 
William  of  Longchamp,  who  was  to  govern  England 
in  his  absence.  Unfortunately  he  took  with  him 
manv  of  the  men,  e.  g.  Archbishop  Baldwin,  Hubert 
Walter,  and  Ranulf  Glanvill,  whose  statesmanship 
and  experience  would  have  been  most  useful  in 
governing  England,  and  left  behind  many  restless 
spirits  like  John  himself  and  Longchamp,  whose 
energy  might  have  been  serviceable  against  the  in- 
fidel. 

Already  on  11  Dec,  1189,  Richard  was  ready  to 
cross  to  "Calais.  He  met  Philip  Augustus,  who  was 
also  to  start  on  the  Crusade,  and  the  two  Kings  swore 
to  defend  each  other's  dominions  as  they  would  their 
own.  The  storj^  of  the  third  Crusade  has  already 
been  told  in  some  detail  (see  vol.  IV,  p.  549).  It  was 
September,  1190,  before  Richard  reached  Marseilles; 
he  pushed  on  to  Messina  and  waited  for  the  spring. 
There  miserable  quarrels  occurred  with  Philip,  whose 
sister  he  now  refused  to  marry,  and  this  trouble  was 
complicated  by  an  interference  in  the  affairs  of  Sicily, 
which  the  Emjperor  Henry  VI  watched  with  a  jealous 
eye,  and  which  later  on  was  to  cost  Richard  dear. 
Setting  sail  in  March,  he  was  driven  to  Cyprus,  where 
he  quarrelled  with  Isaac  Comnenus,  seized  the  island, 
and  married  Berengaria  of  Navarre.  He  at  last 
reached  Acre  in  June  and  after  prodigies  of  valour 
captured  it.  Phihp  then  returned  to  France  but 
Richard  made  two  desperate  efforts  to  reach  Jeru- 
salem, the  first  of  which  might  have  succeeded  had 
he  known  the  panic  and  weakness  of  the  foe.  Saladin 
was  a  worthy  opponent,  but  terrible  acts  of  cruelty 
as  well  as  of  chivalry  took  place,  notably  when 
Richard  slew  his  Saracen  prisoners  in  a  fit  of  passion. 
In  July,  1192,  further  effort  seemed  hopeless,  and  the 
King  of  England's  presence  was  badly  needed  at  home 
to  secure  his  own  dominions  from  the  treacherous 
intrigues  of  John.  Hiistening  back  Richard  was 
wrecked  in  the  Adriatic,  and  falling  eventually  into 
the  hands  of  Leopold  of  Austria,  he  was  sold  to  the 
Emperor  Henry  \'I,  who  kept  him  prisoner  for  over 
a  year  and  extorted  a  portentous  ransom  which  Eng- 
land was  racked  to  pay.  Recent  investigation  has 
shown  that  the  motives  of  Henry's  conduct  wen;  less 
vindictive  than  political.  Richard  was  induced  to 
surrender  England  to  the  Eiiii»(Tor  (;is  John  a  few 
years  \'dUtr  was  to  make  over  England  to  the  Holy 
See;,  and  then  Henrj'  conferred  tlie  kiiigdoiri  upon 
his  captive  as  a  fief  at  the  Diet  of  Mainz,  in  Feb., 
1194  (see  Bloch,  "Forschungen",  Apix-ndix  IV'). 
Despite  the  intrigues  of  King  Philip  and  John, 
Richard  had  loyal  friends  in  England.  Hubert 
Walter  harl  now  reached  home  and  worked  energeti- 
cally with  the  Just  ices  to  rai.se  the  ran.som,  while 
Eleanor  the  (^ueen  Mother  obtained  from  the  Holy 
See  an  exwjmmunication  against  his  captcjrs.  Eng- 
land responded  nobly  to  the  appeal  for  money  and 
Itichard  reached  home  in  March,  1194. 

He  hhowed  little  gratitude  t<i  his  native  land,  and 
after  t-pending  lesw  thnn  two  months  there  quitted 
it  for  hia  foreign  dominions  never  to  return.  Still, 
in  Hubert  Walter,  who  was  now  both  Archbishop  of 


Canterbury  and  Justiciar,  he  left  it  a  capable  gov- 
ernor. Hubert  tried  to  wring  unconstitutional  sup- 
plies and  service  from  the  impoverished  barons  and 
clergy,  but  failed  in  at  least  one  such  demand  before 
the  resolute  opposition  of  St.  Hugh  of  Lincoln. 
Richard's  diplomatic  struggles  and  his  campaigns 
against  the  wily  King  of  France  were  very  costly  but 
fairly  successful.  He  would  probably  have  triumphed 
in  the  end,  but  a  bolt  from  a  cross-bow  while  he  was 
besieging  the  castle  of  Chaluz  inflicted  a  mortal 
injury.  He  died,  after  receiving  the  last  sacraments 
with  signs  of  sincere  repentance.  In  spite  of  his 
greed,  his  lack  of  principle,  and,  on  occasions,  his 
ferocious  savagery.  Richard  had  many  good  instincts. 
He  thoroughly  respected  a  man  of  fearless  integrity 
like  St.  Hugh  of  Lincoln,  and  Bishop  Stubbs  says  of 
him  with  justice  that  he  was  perhaps  the  most  sin- 
cerely religious  prince  of  his  family.  "He  heard 
Mass  daily,  and  on  three  occasions  did  penance  in  a 
very  remarkable  way,  simply  on  the  impulse  of  his 
owTi  distressed  conscience.  He  never  showed  the 
brutal  profanity  of  John." 

Lingard  and  all  other  standard  Histories  of  England  deal  fully 
with  the  reign  and  personal  character  of  Richard.  Davis,  A 
History  of  Ennhind  in  Sir  Volumes,  II  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1909), 
and  Adams,  The  Political  History  of  England,  II  (London,  1905), 
may  be  specially  recommended.  The  Prefaces  contributed  by 
Bishop  Stubbs  to  his  editions  of  various  Chronicles  in  the  R.  S. 
are  also  very  valuable,  notably  those  to  Roger  of  Hoveden 
(London.  lS6S-71);RalphdeDicelo  (187.5);  and  Benedict  of  Peter- 
borough (1867).  Besides  these  should  be  mentioned  in  the  same  se- 
ries the  twoextremely  important  volumes  of  Chronicles  and  Memo- 
rials of  the  Reign  of  Richard  I  (London,  1864-65),  also  edited  by 
Stubbs;  the  Magna  Vita  S.  Hugonis,  edited  by  Dimock,  1864; 
and  Randulphi  de  Coggeshall  Chronicon  Anglicanum,  ed.  Steven- 
son, 1875.  See  also  Norgate,  Englnnd  under  the  Angevin  Kings 
(London,  1889);  Luchaire  and  Lavisse,  Histoire  de  France 
(Paris,  1902);  Kneller,  Des  Richard  Ldwenherz  deutsche  Ge- 
fangenshaft  (Freiburg,  1893) ;  Bloch,  Forschungen  zur  Politik 
Kaisers  Heinrich  VI  in  den  Jahren  1191-1194  (Berlin,  1892); 
Kindt,  Griinde  der  Gefangenschaft  Richard  I  von  England  (Halle, 
1892) ;  and  especially  RQhricht,  Gesch.  d.  Konigreich  Jerusalem 
(Innsbruck,  1890). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Richard,  Charles-Louis,  theologian  and  publi- 
cist; b.  at  Blainville-sur-l'Eau,  in  Lorraine,  April, 
1711;  d.  at  Mons,  Belgium,  16  Aug.,  1794.  His 
family,  though  of  noble  descent,  was  poor,  and  he 
received  his  education  in  the  schools  of  his  native 
town.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the  Order  of 
St.  Dominic  and,  after  his  religious  profession,  was 
sent  to  study  theology  in  Paris,  where  he  received  the 
Doctorate  at  the  Sorbonne.  lie  next  applied  himself 
to  preaching  and  the  defence  of  religion  against 
d'Alembert,  Voltaire,  and  their  confederates.  The 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  forced  him  to  seek  refuge 
at  Mons,  in  Belgium.  During  the  second  invasion 
of  that  (!Oimtry  by  the  French,  in  1794,  old  age  iire- 
vented  him  from  fleeing,  and,  though  he  eluded 
his  pursuers  for  some  time,  he  was  at  la,st  detected, 
tried  by  court  martial,  and  shot,  as  the  Mutlior  of 
"Parall61e  des  Juifs  qui  ont  crucifix  Jesus-Christ, 
avec  les  Fran^ais  qui  ont  ex6cut6  leur  roi"(Mons, 
1794).  Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  "  Biblio- 
th^que  sacr6e,  oti  dictionnaire  universelle  des  sciences 
eccldsiastiques"  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1760)  and  "Sujjple- 
ment"  (Paris,  1765),  the  last  and  enlarged  edition 
being  that  of  Paris,  1821-27,  29  vols.,  and  "Analyses 
des  conciles  gdndraux  ct  particuliers '  (5  vols.,  Paris, 
1772-77). 

MouLAERT,  Ch.  L.  Richard  aus  dem  Predigerorden  (Ratisbon, 
1870);    Nomenclalor,  III  (3rd  ed.).  433-35. 

H.   J.    SCHROEDER. 


Richard,  Cabriei 


See  Detroit,  Diocese  of. 

See  Thomas  Johnson, 


Richard  Bere,  Blessed. 
Blehsei). 

Richard  de  Bury,  bi.shop  and  bibliophile,  b.  near 
Bury  St.  Eflmunil's,  Suffolk,  England,  24  Jan.,  1286; 
d.  at  Auckland,  Durham,  England,  24  April,  1345. 
He  was  the  son  of  Sir  Richard  Aungervillc,  but  was 


RICHARD 


43 


RICHARD 


Seal  of  Richard  de  Bury 


named  after  his  birthplace.  He  studied  at  Oxford, 
and  became  a  Benedictine.  Having  been  appointed 
tutor  to  Prince  Edward,  son  of  Edward  II  and  Isabella 
of  France,  he  was  exposed  to  some  danger  during  the 
stormy  scenes  that  led  to  the  deposition  of  the  king. 
On  the  accession  of  his  pupil  to  the  throne  (1327),  do 
Bury  eventually  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Durham  (1333), 
High  Chancellor  (1334),  and  Treasurer  of  England 
(1336).  He  was  sent  on  two  embassies  to  John  XXII 
at  Avignon,  and  on  one  of  his  visits,  probably  in  1330, 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  poet  Petrarch.  He 
continued  to  en- 
joy the  favour  of 
the  king,  and  in 
his  later  years  took 
a  prominent  part 
in  the  diplomatic 
negotiations  with 
Scotland  and 
France.  He  died 
at  his  manor  of 
-Vuckland,  and  was 
buried  in  the  ca- 
thedral of  Dur- 
ham. He  founded 
Durham  College 
at  Oxford,  and  ac- 
cording to  tradi- 
tion bequeathed  to 
its  library  most  of 
the  books  which 
he  had  spent  his 
life  in  collecting. 
There  they  re- 
mained until  the 
dissolution  of  the 
College  by  Henry 
VIII.  They  were 
then  scattered,  some  going  to  Balliol  College,  others  to 
the  university  (Duke  Humphrey's)  library,  and  still 
others  pa.ssing  into  the  possession  of  Dr.  George  Owen, 
the  purchaser  of  the  site  whereon  the  dissolved  college 
had  stood.  These  books  were  of  course  all  in  manu- 
script, for  the  art  of  printing  had  not  yet  been  dis- 
covered. 

Bale  mentions  three  of  de  Bury's  works,  namely: 
"Philobiblon";  "  Epistola?  Famiharium  " ;  and  "Ora- 
tiones  ad  Principes  " .  It  is  by  the  ' '  Philobiblon ' '  that 
he  is  principally  remembered.  It  was  first  printed  at 
Cologne  in  1473,  then  at  Spires  in  1483,  in  Paris  in 
1500,  and  at  Oxford  in  1598-99.  Subsequent  editions 
were  made  in  Germany  in  1610,  1614,  1674,  and  1703, 
and  in  Paris  in  1856.  It  was  translated  into  English 
in  1832  by  J.  B.  Inglis,  and  of  this  translation  a  reprint 
was  made  at  Albany,  New  York,  in  1861.  The  stand- 
ard Latin  text — the  result  of  a  collation  of  28  manu- 
scripts and  of  the  printed  editions — was  established  by 
Ernest  C.  Thomas  and  edited  by  him,  with  English 
translation,  in  1888.  A  reprint  of  Thomas's  transla- 
tion appeared  in  the  "Past  and  Present"  Library  in 
1905. 

Bishop  Richard  had  a  threefold  object  in  writing  the 
"Philobiblon":  he  wished  to  inculcate  on  the  clergy 
the  pursuit  of  learning  and  the  cherishing  of  books  as 
its  receptacles;  to  vindicate  to  his  contemporaries 
and  to  posterity  his  own  action  in  devoting  so  much 
time,  attention,  and  money  to  the  acquisition  of  books; 
and  to  give  directions  for  the  management  of  the  li- 
brary which  he  proposed  to  establish  at  Durham 
College,  Oxford.  The  work  is  important  for  its  side- 
lights on  the  state  of  learning  and  manners  and  on  the 
habits  of  the  clergy  in  fourteenth-century  England. 
He  is  the  true  type  of  the  book-lover.  He  had  a 
library  in  each  of  his  residences.  Conspicuous  in  his 
legacy  are  Greek  and  Hebrew  grammars.  He  did  not 
despise  the  novelties  of  the  moderns,  but  he  preferred 
the  well-tested  labours  of  the  ancients,  and,  while  he 


did  not  neglect  the  poets,  he  had  but  little  use  for  law- 
books. He  kept  copyists,  scribes,  binders,  correctors, 
and  illuminators,  and  he  was  particularly  careful  to 
restore  defaced  or  battered  texts.  His  directions  for 
the  lending  and  care  of  the  books  intended  for  his 
college  at  Oxford  are  minute,  and  evince  considerable 
practical  forethought.  His  humility  and  simple  faith 
are  shown  in  the  concluding  chapter,  in  which  he 
acknowledges  his  sins  and  asks  the  future  students  of 
his  college  to  pray  for  the  repose  of  his  soul. 

Bale,  Scriptorum  Illustrium  majoris  Britannia:,  quam  nunc 
Angliam  el  Scotiam  vacant,  Catalogus  (Basle,  1557);  Warton, 
History  of  English  Poetry,  I,  14G;  IIallam,  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe  in  the  Fifteenth,  Sixteenth,  and  Seventeenth 
Centuries;  Thomas,  The  Philobiblon  newly  translated,  published 
under  the  title  of  The  Love  of  Books  in  the  Past  and  Present 
Library  (1905);  Surtees  Society,  edition  of  Scriptores  Tres; 
Wharton,  Anglia  Sacra;  Cambridge  Modern  History,  I,  xvii; 
The  Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature,  II,  410;  Bladeb, 
The  Enemies  of  Books;  Clark,  The  Care  of  Books. 

P.  J.  Lennox. 

Richard  de  la  Vergne,  Fran5ois-Marie-Ben- 
JAMiN,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  b.  at  Nantes,  1  March, 
1819;  d.  in  Paris,  28  January,  1908.  Educated  at  the 
Seminary  of  Saint-Sulpice  he  became  in  1849  secre- 
tary to  Bishop  Jacquemet  at  Nantes,  then,  from  1850 
to  1869,  vicar-general.  In  1871  he  became  Bishop 
of  Bel  ley  where  he  began  the  process  for  the  beatifi- 
cation of  the  Cure  d'Ars.  On  7  May,  1875,  he  became 
coadjutor  of  Cardinal  Guibert,  Archbishop  of  Paris, 
whom  he  succeeded  8  July,  1886,  becoming  cardinal 
with  the  title  of  Santa  Maria  in  Via,  24  May,  1889. 
He  devoted  much  energy  to  the  completion  of  the 
Basilica  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Montmartre,  which 
he  consecrated.  Politically,  Cardinal  Richard  was 
attached  by  ties  of  esteem  and  svmpathy  to  the 
Monarchist  Catholics.  In  1892,  when  Leo  XIII 
recommended  the  rallying  of  Catholics  to  the  Repub- 
lic (see  France,  The  Third  Republic  and  the  Church  in 
France),  the  cardinal  created  the  "Union  of  Christian 
France"  (Union  de  la  France  Chretienne),  to  unite  all 
Catholics  on  the  sole  basis  of  the  defence  of  religion. 
The  Monarchists  opposed  tliis  "rallying"  {Ralliement) 
with  the  policy  which  this  union  represented,  and  at 
last,  at  the  pope's  desire,  the  union  was  dissolved. 
On  many  occasions  Cardinal  Richard  spoke  in  defence 
of  the  religious  congregations,  and  Leo  XIII  addressed 
to  him  a  letter  (27  December,  1900)  on  the  religious 
who  were  menaced  by  the  then  projected  Law  of  As- 
sociations. In  the  domain  of  hagiography  he  earned 
distinction  by  his  "Vie  de  la  bienheureuse  Fran^oise 
d'Amboise"  (1865)  and  "Saints  de  I'^glise  de  Bre- 
tagne"  (1872). 

L'ipiscopat  fran(ais,  1802-190S,  s.  v.  Belley,  Paris;  Leca- 
NUET,  L'Eglise  de  France  sous  la  troisikme  republique,  II  (Paris, 

1910)-  Georges  Goyau. 

Richard  de  Wyche,  Saint,  bishop  and  confessor, 
b.  about  1197  at  Droitwich,  Worcestershire,  from  which 
his  surname  is  derived;  d.  3  April,  12.53,  at  Dover. 
He  was  the  second  son  of  Richard  and  Alice  de 
Wyche.  His  father  died  while  he  was  still  young  and 
the  family  property  fell  into  a  state  of  great  dilapida- 
tion. His  elder  brother  offered  to  resign  the  inheri- 
tance to  him,  but  Richard  refused  the  offer,  although 
he  undertook  the  management  of  the  estate  and  soon 
restored  it  to  a  good  condition.  He  went  to  Oxford, 
where  he  and  two  companions  lived  in  such  poverty 
that  they  had  only  one  tunic  and  hooded  gown  be- 
tween them,  in  which  they  attended  lectures  by  turns. 
He  then  went  to  Paris  and  on  his  return  proceeded 
Master  of  Arts.  At  Bologna  he  studied  canon  law,  in 
which  he  acquired  a  great  reputation  and  was  elected 
Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford. 

His  learning  and  sanctity  were  so  famed  that 
Edmund  Rich,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  Robert 
Grosseteste,  Bishop  of  Lmcoln,  both  offered  him  the 
post  of  chancellor  of  their  respective  dioceses.  Richard 
accepted   the   archbishop's   offer   and  thenceforward 


RICHARD 


44 


RICHARD 


became  St.  Edmund's  intimate  friend  and  follower. 
He  approved  the  archbishop's  action  in  opposing  the 
king  on  the  question  of  the  vacant  sees,  accompanied 
him  in  his  exile  to  Pontigny,  was  present  at  Soissy 
when  he  died,  and  made  him  a  model  in  life.  Richard 
supplied  Matthew  Paris  with  material  for  his  biogra- 
phy, and,  after  attending  the  translation  of  his  relics 
to  Pontignv  in  1249,  wrote  an  account  of  the  incident 
in  a  letter  published  by  Matthew  Paris  (Historia 
major,  V,  VI).  Retiring  to  the  house  of  the  Domini- 
cans at  Orleans,  Richard  studied  theology,  was  or- 
dained priest,  and,  after  founding  a  chapel  in  honour 
of  St.  Edmund,  returned  to  England  where  he  became 
Vicar  of  Deal  and  Rector  of  Charring.  Soon  afterwards 
he  was  induced  by  Boniface  of  Savoy,  the  new  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  to  resume  his  former  office  of 
chancellor. 

In  1244  Ralph  Neville,  Bishop  of  Chichester,  died; 
the  election  of  Robert  Passelewe,  Archdeacon  of  Chi- 
chester, to  the  vacant  see,  was  quashed  b}^  Boniface  at 
a  synod  of  his  suffragans,  held  3  June,  1244,  and  on  his 
recommendation  the  chapter  elected  Richard,  their 
choice  being  immediately  confirmed  by  the  arch- 
bishop. Henrj'  III  was  indignant,  as  Robert  Passe- 
lewe was  a  favourite,  and  he  refused  to  surrender  to 
Richard  the  temporalities  of  his  see.  The  Saint  took 
his  case  to  Innocent  IV,  w^ho  consecrated  him  in  per- 
son at  Lyons,  5  March,  1245,  and  sent  him  back  to 
England.  But  Henry  was  immovable.  Thus  home- 
less in  his  own  diocese,  Richard  was  dependent  on  the 
charity  of  his  clergy,  one  of  whom,  Simon  of  Tarring, 
shared  with  him  the  little  he  possessed.  At  length,  in 
1246,  Henry  was  induced  by  the  threats  of  the  pope  to 
deliver  up  the  temporalities.  As  bishop,  Richard  lived 
in  great  austerity,  giving  away  most  of  his  revenues  as 
alms.  He  compiled  a  number  of  statutes  which  regu- 
late in  great  detail  the  lives  of  the  clergy,  the  celebra- 
tion of  Divine  service,  the  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments, church  privileges,  and  other  matters.  Every 
priest  in  the  diocese  was  bound  to  obtain  a  copy  of 
these  statutes  and  bring  it  to  the  diocesan  synod  (Wil- 
kins,  "Concilia",  I,  688-93);  in  this  way  the  standard 
of  life  among  the  clergy  was  raised  considerably.  For 
the  better  maintenance  of  his  cathedral  Richard  insti- 
tuted a  yearly  collection  to  be  made  in  every  parish  of 
the  diocese  on  Easter  or  Whit  Sunday.  The  mendi- 
cant orders,  particularly  the  Dominicans,  received 
special  encouragement  from  him. 

In  12.50  Richard  was  named  as  one  of  the  collectors 
of  the  subsidy  for  the  crusades  (Bliss,  "Calendar  of 
Papal  Letters",  I,  263)  and  two  years  later  the  king 
appointed  him  to  preach  the  crusade  in  London.  He 
made  strenuous  efforts  to  rouse  enthusiasm  for  the 
cause  in  the  Dioceses  of  Chichester  and  Canterbury, 
and  while  journeying  to  Dover,  where  he  was  to  conse- 
crate a  new  church  dedicated  to  St.  Edmund,  he  was 
taken  ill.  Upon  reaching  Dover,  he  went  to  a  hospital 
called  "Maison  Dieu",  performed  the  consecration 
ceremony  on  2  April,  but  died  the  next  morning.  His 
body  was  taken  back  to  Chichester  and  buried  in  the 
cathedral.  He  was  solemnly  canonized  by  Urban  IV 
in  the  Franciscan  church  at  Viterbo,  12G2,  and  on  20 
P'eb.  a  papal  licence  for  the  translation  of  his  relics  to 
a  new  shrine  was  given;  but  the  unsettled  state  of  the 
country  prevented  this  until  16  .Junf,  1276,  when  the 
translation  wa,s  performed  by  Archbishop  Kilwardby 
in  the  presence  of  lOdward  I.  This  shrine,  which  stood 
in  the  feretory  behind  the  high  altar,  was  rifled  and 
destroyed  at  the  Reformation.  The  much-restored 
altar  tomb  in  the  south  transept  now  commonly 
assigned  to  St.  Richard  has  no  evidence  to  support  its 
claim,  and  no  relics  are  known  to  exist.  The  feast  is 
celebrated  on  3  April.  The  most  accurate  v(;rsion  of 
St.  Richard's  will,  which  has  been  frequently  printed, 
is  that  given  by  Blaauw  in  "Sussex  Archaeological 
Collections",  I,  164-92,  with  a  translation  and  valu- 
able notes.     His  life  was  written  by  his  confessor 


Ralph  Bocking  shortly  after  his  canonization  and 
another  short  life,  compiled  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
was  printed  by  Capgrave.  Both  these  are  included  in 
the  notice  of  St.  Richard  in  the  Bollandist  "Acta 
Sanctorum". 

H.vRDY,  Descriplire  catalogue  of  AfSS.  relating  to  the  history  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  III  (London,  1871),  136-9;  Ada  SS., 
April,  I  (Venice,  1768),  277-318;  C.*.pgr\ve,  Nave  legenda  Anglim 
(London,  1516),  269;  Paris,  Historia  major,  ed.  Madden  in  R.  S., 
II.  Ill  (London,  1866);  Annales  moiiaf!tici,  ed.  Luard  in  R.  S. 
(London,  1864);  Flares  historiarum,  ed.  Idem  in  R.  S.,  II  (London, 
1890);  Rishanger's  Chronicle,  ed.  Riley  in  R.  S.  (London,  186.5); 
Trivet,  ed.  Hog,  Annales  sex  regum  Anglice  (London,  1845); 
Calendar  of  Papal  Letters,  ed.  Buss,  I  (London.  1893);  Vita  di  S. 
Ricardo  vescovo  di  Cicestria  (Milan,  17()6);  Stephens,  Memorials 
of  the  See  of  Chichester  (London,  1876),  83-98,  contains  the  best 
modern  life;  Wallace,  St.  Edmund  of  Canterbury  (London,  1893), 
196-205;  Gasquet,  Henry  III  and  the  Church  (London,  190.5), 
222,  343;  Challoner,  Britannia  sancta  (London,  174.5),  206-13; 
Stanton,  Menology  of  England  and  Wales  (London,  1887),  141-3. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Richard  Fetherston,  Blessed,  priest  and  martyr, 
d.  at  Smithfield,  30  July,  1.540.  He  was  chaplain  to 
Catharine  of  Aragon  and  schoolmaster  to  her  daugh- 
ter. Princess  Mary,  afterwards  queen.  He  is  called 
sacrce  theologice  Doctor  by  Pits  (Do  illustribus  Anglia; 
scriptoribus,  729).  He  was  one  of  the  theologians  ap- 
pointed to  defend  Queen  Catharine's  cause  in  the 
divorce  proceedings  before  the  legates  WoLsey  and 
Campeggio,  and  is  said  to  have  written  a  treatise 
"Contra  divortium  Henrici  et  Catharina;,  Liber 
unus".  No  co])y  of  this  work  is  known  to  exi.st.  He 
took  part  in  the  session  of  Convocation  which  began 
in  April,  1529,  and  was  one  of  the  few  members  wlio 
refused  to  sign  the  Act  declaring  Henry's  marriage 
with  Catharine  to  be  illegal  ah  initio,  through  the 
pope's  inability  to  grant  a  dispensation  in  such  a  case. 
In  1534  he  was  called  upon  to  take  the  Oath  of  Su- 
premacy and,  on  refusing  to  do  so,  was  committed  to 
the  Tower,  13  Dec,  1534.  He  seems  to  have  remained 
in  prison  till  30  July,  1540,  when  he  was  hanged, 
drawn,  and  quartered  at  Smithfield,  together  with  the 
Catholic  theologians,  Thomas  Abel  and  Edward 
Powell,  who  like  himself  had  been  councillors  to  Queen 
Catharine  in  the  divorce  proceedings,  and  three  here- 
tics, Barnes,  Garret,  and  Jerome,  condemned  for 
teaching  Zwinglianism.  All  six  were  drawn  through 
the  streets  u])on  tlirce  hurdles,  a  Catholic  and  a  heretic 
on  each  hurdle.  The  Protestants  were  burned,  and  the 
three  Catholics  executed  in  the  usual  manner,  their 
limbs  being  fixed  over  the  gates  of  the  city  and  their 
heads  being  placed  upon  poles  on  London  Bridge. 
Richard  was  beatified  by  Leo  XIII,  29  Dec,  1886. 

Pits,  De  illustribus  Angliir  scriptoribus  (Paris,  1619),  729; 
Sander,  tr.  Lewis,  Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Anglican  Schism  (Lon- 
don, 1877),  65,  67,  150;  Burnet,  History  of  the  Reformation. 
ed.  PococK  (Oxford,  1865),  I,  260,  472,  566-67;  IV,  555,  563; 
Tanner,  Bibliotheca  Brilannico-Hibernica  (London,  1748),  278; 
Original  Letters  Relative  to  the  English  Reformation  (Parker  Society, 
Cambridge,  1846),  I,  209;  Calendar  of  Stale  Papers,  Henry  VIII, 
ed.  Gairdner  (London.  1882.  1883,  1885),  VI.  311,  1199;  VII, 
5.30;  VIII,  666,  1001. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Richard  Kirkman,  Blessed.  See  William 
Lacy,  Blessed. 

Richard  of  Cirencester,  chronicler,  d.  about 
1400.  He  was  the  coini)iler  of  a  chronicle  from  447  to 
1066,  entitled  "Speculum  Historiale  de  Gestis  Regum 
Anglia;".  The  work,  which  is  in  four  books,  is  of  little 
hi.storical  value,  but  contains  several  charters  granted 
to  Westminster  Abbey.  Nothingisknownof  Richard's 
life  except  that  he  was  a  monk  of  Westminster,  who 
made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  in  1391,  was  still  at 
Westminster  in  1397,  and  that  he  lay  sick  in  the  in- 
firmary in  1400.  Two  other  works  are  attributed  to 
him:  "De  Officiis",  and  "Super  Symbolum  Majus  et 
Minus",  but  neither  is  now  extant.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  his  name  was  used  by  Charles  Bertram  as  the 
pretended  author  of  his  forgery  "Richardus  Copenen- 
sis  de  situ  Britannise",  which  deceived  Stukeley  and 
many  subsequent  antiquarians  and  historians,  includ- 


RICHARD 


45 


RICHARD 


ing  Lingard,  and  which  was  only  finally  exposed  by 
Woodward  in  1866-67.  This  spurious  chronicle,  how- 
ever, still  appears  under  Richard's  name  in  Giles,  "Six 
English  Chronicles"  (London,  1872). 

Ricardi  Cicentrensis  Speculum  Historiale,  ed.  Mayor,  Rolls 
Series  (London,  1863-69);  Stukeley,  An  Account  of  Richard  of 
Cirencester  and  his  works  (London,  1757) ;  Hardy,  Descriptive 
Catalogue  (London,  1871);  Hunt  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v.;  Bol- 
LANDI8T8,  Catalogus  cod.  hagiog.  Lot.  B.  N.  (Paris,  1893). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Richard  of  Cornwall  (Richard  Rufus,  Ruys, 
Rosso,  Rowse). — The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death 
are  unknown,  but  he  was  still  living  in  1259.  He  was 
an  Oxford  Franciscan,  possibly  a  Master  of  Arts  of 
that  university,  who  had  studied  for  a  time  in  Paris 
(1238),  and  then  returned  to  Oxford.  He  was  chosen 
with  Haymo  of  Favcrsham  to  go  to  Rome  to  oppose 
the  minister-general  Elias.  In  1250  he  was  lecturing 
at  Oxford  on  the  "Sentences",  till  he  was  driven  away 
by  the  riots,  w'hen  he  returned  to  Paris  and  continued 
lecturing  there,  gaining  the  title  Philosophus  Admira- 
bilis;  but  according  to  Roger  Bacon  his  teaching  was 
very  mischievous,  and  produced  evil  results  for  the 
next  forty  years.  He  was  again  at  Oxford  in  1255  as 
regent-master  of  the  friars.  Several  works,  all  still 
in  MS.,  are  attributed  to  him.  These  are:  "Com- 
mentaries on  the  Master  of  the  Sentences",  a  work 
formerly  at  Assisi;  "Commentary  on  Bonaventure's 
third  book  of  Sentences"  (Assisi);  and  a  similar  com- 
mentary on  the  fourth  book  (Assisi).  Pits  ("De 
illustribus  Angliai  scriptoribus")  denies  his  identity 
with  Richard  Rufus  on  the  ground  that  Rufus  was 
born  at  Cirencester  in  Gloucestershire,  and  not  in 
Cornwall. 

Monumenta  Franciscana,  ed.  Brewer  and  Howlett  in  R.  S. 
(London,  18.58-82);  Wadding,  Annales  Minorum,  IV  (Lyons  and 
Rome,  1650);  2nd  ed.  (Rome,  1731-45);  and  supplement  by 
Sbaralea  (1800);  Parkinson,  Collectanea  Anglo- Minoritica 
(London,  172C);  Little,  The  Grey  Friars  in  Oxford  (Oxford, 
1892);  tiEtiiFLi,  Chartularium  Universitatis  Parisiensis  (Paris, 
1889);  see  also  tr.  of  Thomas  of  Eccleston  by  Fr.  Cuthbert, 
The  Friars  and  how  they  came  to  England  (London,  1903),  and 
The  Chronicle  of  Thomas  of  Eccleston  (London,  1909). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Richard  of  Middletown  (a  Media  Villa),  flour- 
ished at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  but  the 
dates  of  his  l)irth  and  death  and  most  incidents  of  his 
life  are  unknown.  Middlcton  Stoncy  in  Oxford.shire 
and  Middlcton  Cheyney  in  Northamptonshire  have 
both  been  suggested  as  his  native  place,  and  he  has 
also  been  claimed  as  a  Scotsman.  He  probably 
studied  first  at  Oxford,  but  in  12S3  he  was  at  the 
University  of  Paris  and  graduated  Bachelor  of  Divinity 
in  that  year.  He  entered  the  Franciscan  order.  In 
1278  he  had  been  appointed  by  the  general  of  his  order 
to  examine  the  doctrines  of  Peter  Olivus,  and  the  same 
work  was  again  engaging  his  attention  in  1283.  In 
1286  he  was  sent  with  two  other  Franciscans  to  Naples 
to  undertake  the  education  of  two  of  the  sons  of 
Charles  II,  Ludwig,  afterwards  a  Franciscan,  and 
Robert.  After  the  defeat  of  Charles  by  Peter  of 
Arragon  the  two  princes  were  carried  as  hostages  to 
Barcelona  and  Richard  accompanied  them,  sharing 
their  captivity  till  their  release  in  1295.  The  rest  of 
his  life  lies  in  obscurity.  A  new  point  of  interest  at 
the  present  day  lies  in  the  fact  that,  medieval  scho- 
lastic though  he  was,  he  knew  and  studied  the  phe- 
nomena of  hypnotism,  and  left  the  results  of  his 
investigations  in  his  "Quodlibeta"  (Paris,  1519,  fol. 
90-8)  where  he  treats  of  what  would  now  be  termed 
auto-suggestion  and  adduces  some  instances  of  tele- 
pathy. His  works  include  "Super  sententias  Petri 
Lombardi",  written  between  1281  and  1285,  and  first 
printed  at  Venice,  1489;  "QusestionesQuodlibetales" 
in  MS.  at  Oxford  and  elsewhere;  "Quodlibeta  tria" 
printed  with  the  Sentences  at  Venice,  1509;  "De 
gradibus  formarum"  in  MS.  at  Munich;  and  "Quse- 
stiqnes  disputatae"  in  MS.  at  Assisi.  Other  works 
which   have   been   attributed    to   him   are:    "Super 


epistolas  Pauli";  "Super  evangelia";  "Super  distinc- 
tiones  decreti";  "De  ordine  judiciorum";  "De  cla- 
vium  sacerdotalium  potestate";  "Contra  Patrem 
Joannem  Olivum";  a  poem,  "De  conceptione  im- 
maculata  Virginis  Marise";  three  MS.  sermons  now 
in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  (MS.  14947,  nos.  47, 
69,  98),  and  a  sermon  on  the  Ascension,  the  MS.  of 
which  is  at  Erlangen.  Works  erroneously  ascribed 
to  him  are  a  treatise  on  the  rule  of  St.  Francis;  the 
"Quadragesimale"  which  was  written  by  Francis  of 
Asti;  the  completion  of  the  "Summa"  of  Alexander 
of  Hales,  and  an  "Expositio  super  Ave  Maria", 
probably  by  Richard  of  Saxony.  His  death  is  as- 
signed by  some  to  1307  or  1308,  by  Pits  to  1300,  by 
Parkinson  to  some  earlier  date  on  the  ground  that  he 
was  one  of  the  "Four  Masters",  the  expositors  of  the 
Rule  of  St.  Francis. 

Wadding,  Annales  Minorum  (2nd  ed.,  Rome,  1731-45),  and 
supplement  by  Sbaralea  (1806) ;  Papkinson,  Collectanea  Anglo- 
Minoritica  (London,  172G);  de  Martigne,  La  Scolastigue  et  les 
traditions  Franciscaines:  Richard  de  Middletown  in  Revue,  scien., 
eccles.,  II  (1885);  Portali^,  L'hypnotisme  au  moyen  Age:  Avicenne 
el  Richard  Middletown  in  Etudes  relig.  hist,  lilt.,  LV  (1892); 
Chevalier,  Repertoire  des  sources  historiques  du  Moyen  Age 
(Paris,  1905) ;  Kingsford  in  Diet.    Nat.  Biog.  s.  v.  Middleton. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Richard  of  St.  Victor,  theologian,  native  of 
Scotland,  but  the  date  and  place  of  his  birth  are  un- 
known; d.  1173  and  was  commemorated  on  10  March 
in  the  necrology  of  the  abbey.  He  was  professed  at 
the  monastery  of  St.  Victor  under  the  first  Abbot 
Gilduin  (d.  1155)  and  was  a  disciple  of  the  great 
mystic  Hugo  whose  principles  and  methods  he  adopted 
and  elaborated.  His  career  was  strictly  monastic, 
and  his  relations  w-ith  the  outer  world  were  few  and 
slight.  He  was  sub-prior  of  the  monastery  in  1159, 
and  subsequently  became  prior.  During  his  tenure 
of  the  latter  office,  serious  trouble  arose  in  the  com- 
munity of  St.  Victor  from  the  misconduct  of  the 
English  Abbot  Ervisius,  whose  irregular  life  brought 
upon  him  a  personal  admonition  from  Alexander  III, 
and  was  subsequently  referred  by  the  pope  to  a  com- 
mission of  inquiry  under  the  royal  autliority;  after 
some  delay  and  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  abbot  his 
resignation  was  obtained  and  he  retired  from  the 
monastery.  A  letter  of  exhortation  was  addressed  by 
the  pope  to  "Richard,  the  prior"  and  the  comuumity 
in  1170.  Richard  does  not  appear  to  have  taken  any 
active  part  in  these  proceedings,  but  the  disturbed 
condition  of  his  surroundings  may  well  have  accen- 
tuated his  desire  for  the  interior  solace  of  mj'stical 
contemplation.  Ervisius's  resignation  took  place  in 
1172.  In  1165,  St.  Victor  had  been  visited  by  St. 
Thomas  of  Canterbury,  after  his  flight  from  North- 
ampton; and  Richard  was  doubtless  one  of  the 
auditors  of  the  discourse  delivered  by  the  archbishop 
on  that  occasion.  A  letter  to  Alexander  III,  dealing 
with  the  affairs  of  the  archbishop,  and  signed  by 
Richard  is  extant  and  published  by  Migne.  Like  his 
master,  Hugo,  Richard  may  probably  have  had  some 
acquaintance  and  intercourse  with  St.  Bernard,  who 
is  thought  to  have  been  the  Bernard  to  whom  the 
treatise  "De  tribus  appropriatis  personis  in  Trini- 
tate"  is  addressed.  His  reputation  as  a  theologian 
extended  far  beyond  the  precincts  of  his  monastery, 
and  copies  of  his  writings  were  eagerly  sought  by 
other  religious  houses.  Exclusively  a  theologian, 
unlike  Hugo,  he  appears  to  have  had  no  interest  in 
philosophy,  and  took  no  part  in  the  acute  philosophi- 
cal controversies  of  his  time;  but,  like  all  the  School 
of  St.  Victor,  he  was  willing  to  avail  himself  of  the 
didactic  and  constructive  methods  in  theology  which 
had  been  introduced  by  Abelard.  Nevertheless,  he 
regarded  merely  secular  learning  with  much  suspicion, 
holding  it  to  be  worthless  as  an  end  in  itself,  and  only 
an  occasion  of  worldly  pride  and  self-seeking  when 
divorced  from  the  knowledge  of  Divine  things.  Such 
learning  he  calls,  in  the  antithetical  style  which  char- 


RICHARD 


40 


RICHARD 


acterizes  all  his  writing, "  Sapientia  insipida  et  doctrina 
indocta" ;  and  the  professor  of  such  learning  is  "Cap- 
tator  famae,  neglector  conscientise".  Such  worldly- 
minded  persons  should  stimulate  the  student  of  sacred 
things  to  greater  efforts  in  his  own  higher  sphere — 
"When  we  consider  how  much  the  philosophers  of 
this  world  have  laboured,  we  should  be  ashamed  to  be 
inferior  to  them";  "We  should  seek  always  to  com- 
prehend bv  reason  what  we  hold  by  faith." 

His  works  fall  into  the  three  classes  of  dogmatic, 
mvstical,  and  exegetical.  In  the  first,  the  most  im- 
po'rtant  is  the  treatise  in  six  books  on  the  Trinity,  with 
the  supplement  on  the  attributes  of  the  Three  Persons, 
and  the  treatise  on  the  Incarnate  Word.  But  greater 
interest  now  belongs  to  his  mystical  theology,  which  is 
mainlv  contained  in  the  two  books  on  mystical  con- 
templation, entitled  respectively  "Benjamin  Minor" 
and  "Benjamin  Major",  and  the  allegorical  treatise 
on  the  Tabernacle.  He  carries  on  the  mystical  doc- 
trine of  Hugo,  in  a  somewhat  more  detailed  scheme, 
in  which  the  successive  stages  of  contemplation  are 
described.  These  are  six  in  number,  divided  equally 
among  the  three  powers  of  the  soul — the  imagination, 
the  reason,  and  the  intelligence,  and  ascending  from 
the  contemplation  of  the  visible  things  of  creation  to 
the  rapture  in  which  the  soul  is  carried  "beyond  it- 
self" into  the  Divine  Presence,  by  the  three  final 
stages  of  "Dilatio,  sublevatio,  alienatio".  This 
schematic  arrangement  of  contemplative  soul-states  is 
substantially  adopted  by  Gerson  in  his  more  systema- 
tic treatise  on  mystical  theology,  who,  however,  makes 
the  important  reservation  that  the  distinction  between 
reason  and  intelligence  is  to  be  understood  as  func- 
tional and  not  real.  Much  use  is  made  in  the  mystical 
treatises  of  the  allegorical  interpretation  of  Scripture 
for  which  the  Victorine  school  had  a  special  affection. 
Thus  the  titles  "  Benjamin  Major"  and  "  Minor"  refer 
to  Ps.  Ixvii,  "Benjamin  in  mentis  excessu".  Rachel 
represents  the  reason,  Lia  represents  charity;  the 
tabernacle  is  the  type  of  the  state  of  perfection,  in 
which  the  soul  is  the  dweUing-place  of  God.  In  like 
manner,  the  mystical  or  devotional  point  of  view  pre- 
dominates in  the  exegetical  treatises;  though  the 
critical  and  doctrinal  exposition  of  the  text  also  re- 
ceives attention.  The  four  books  entitled  "Tractatus 
exceptionum",  and  attributed  to  Richard,  deal  with 
matters  of  secular  learning.  Eight  titles  of  works 
attributed  to  him  by  Trithemius  (De  Script.  Eccl.) 
refer  probably  to  MS.  fragments  of  his  known  works. 
A  "Liber  Penitentialis"  is  mentioned  by  Montfau^on 
as  attributed  to  a  "Ricardus  Secundus  a  Sancto 
Victore",  and  may  probably  be  identical  with  the 
treatise  "De  potestate  solvendi  et  ligandi"  above 
mentioned.  Nothing  is  otherwise  known  of  a  second 
Richard  of  St.  Victor.  Fifteen  other  IMSS.  are  said 
to  exist  of  works  attributed  to  Richard  which  have 
appeared  in  none  of  the  published  editions,  and  are 

Erobably  spurious.  Eight  editions  of  his  works  have 
een  published:  Venice,  1506  (incomplete)  and  1592; 
Paris,  1518  and  1550;  Lyons,  1.534;  Cologne,  1621; 
Rouen,  1650,  by  the  Canons  of  St.  Victor;  and  by 
Migne. 

HcooNiK,  Notice  sut  R.  de  Si.  Victor  in  P.  L..  CXCVI;  Enoel- 
HAKDT,  H.  ton  St.  Victor  u.  J.  Ruyshroek  (Erianeen,  1838); 
Vacohan,  HouTt  leilh  the  Mystics,  V  (London,  189.3);  Inge, 
Christian  Mysticism  (London,  1898);  De  Wulf,  Histoire  de  la 
phihsophie  midiivale  (Louvain,  1905);  Bconamici,  R.  di  San 
Vittore^saggi  di  studio  suUa  fdosofia  mislica  del  gecoJoX 77  (Alatri, 
1898);  VON  HCoEL,  The  Mystical  Element  in  Religion  (London, 
1909; ;  Underbill,  Mysticism  (Ix)ndon.  1911). 

A.  B.  Sharpe. 

Richard  Reynolds,  Blessed.  Sec  John  Hough- 
ton, Blessed. 

Richardson  ('alias  Anderson),  William,  Vener- 
able, last  martyr  under  Queen  Elizabeth;  b.  accord- 
ing to  Challoner,  at  Vales  in  Yorkshire  (i.  e.  presu- 
mably Wales,  near  Sheffield),  but,  according  to  the 
Valladolid  diary,   a  Lancashire  man;    executed  at 


Tyburn,  17  Feb.,  1603.  He  arrived  at  Reims  16  July, 
1592,  and  on  21  Aug.  following  was  sent  to  Valladolid, 
where  he  arrived  23  Dec.  Thence,  1  Oct.,  1594,  he  was 
sent  to  Seville  where  he  was  ordained.  According  to 
one  account  ho  was  arrested  at  Clement's  Inn  on  12 
Feb.,  but  another  says  he  had  been  kept  a  close  pris- 
oner in  Newgate  for  a  week  before  he  was  condemned 
at  the  Old  Bailey  on  the  15  Feb.,  under  stat.  27Eliz.,c. 
2,  for  being  a  priest  and  coming  into  the  realm.  He 
was  betrayed  by  one  of  his  trusted  friends  to  the  Lord 
Chief  Justice,  who  expedited  his  trial  and  execution 
with  unseemly  haste,  and  seems  to  have  acted  more  as 
a  public  prosecutor  than  as  a  judge.  At  his  execution 
he  showed  great  courage  and  constancy,  dying  most 
cheerfully,  to  the  edification  of  all  beholders.  One  of 
his  last  utterances  was  a  prayer  for  the  queen. 

GiLLOW,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,  V,  414;  Challoner,  Missionary 
Priests,  I,  n.  134;  Calendar  State  Papers  Domestic,  1601-3  (Lon- 
don, 1870),  292.  298,  300,  301,  302. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Richard  Thirkeld,  Blessed,  martyr;  b.  at  Conis- 
cliffe,  Durham,  England;  d.  at  York,  29  May,  1583. 
From  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  where  he  was  in  1564- 
5,  he  went  to  Reims,  where  he  was  ordained  priest,  18 
April,  1579,  and  left  23  May  for  the  mission,  where  he 
ministered  in  or  about  York,  and  acted  as  confessor  to 
Ven.  Margaret  Clitheroe.  On  the  eve  of  the  Annuncia- 
tion, 1583,  he  was  arrested  while  visiting  one  of  the 
Catholic  prisoners  in  the  Ousebridge  Kidcote,  York, 
and  at  once  confessed  his  priesthood,  both  to  the 
pursuivants,  who  arrested  him,  and  to  the  maj^or 
before  whom  he  was  brought,  and  for  the  night  was 
lodged  in  the  house  of  the  high  sheriff.  The  next  day 
he  was  sent  to  the  Ousebridge  Kidcote.  On  27  May 
his  trial  took  place,  at  which  he  managed  to  appear  in 
cassock  and  biretta.  The  charge  was  one  of  having 
reconciled  the  queen's  subjects  to  the  Church  of  Rome. 
He  was  found  guilty  on  27  May  and  condemned  28 
May.  He  spent  the  night  in  instructing  his  fellow- 
prisoners,  and  the  morning  of  his  condemnation  in  up- 
holding the  faith  and  constancy  of  those  who  were 
brought  to  the  bar.  No  details  of  his  execution  are 
extant:  six  of  his  letters  still  remain,  and  are  summar- 
ized by  Dom  Bede  Camm. 

Camm,  Lives  of  the  English  Martyrs,  II  (London,  1904 — ), 
635-53;  Challoner,  Missionary  Priests,  I,  no.  20;  Surtees,  His- 
tory of  Durham,  III  (London,  1820-40),  381. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Richard  Whiting,  Blessed,  last  Abbot  of  Glaston- 
bury and  martyr,  parentage  and  date  of  birth  un- 
known, executed  15  Nov.,  1539;  was  probably  edu- 
cated in  the  claustral  school  at  Glastonbury,  whence  he 
proceeded  to  Cambridge,  graduating  as  M.A.  in  1483 
and  D.D.  in  1505.  If,  as  is  probable,  he  was  already 
a  monk  when  he  went  to  Cambridge  he  must  have 
received  the  habit  from  John  Selwood,  Abbot  of 
Glastonbury  from  1456  to  1493.  He  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1500  and  priest  in  1501,  and  held  for  some 
years  the  office  of  chamberlain  of  his  monastery.  In 
February,  1525,  Richard  Bere,  Abbot  of  Glastonbury, 
died,  and  the  community,  after  deciding  to  elect  his 
8UCces.sor  per  formam  compromi.'isi,  which  places  the 
selection  in  the  hands  of  some  one  person  of  note, 
agreed  to  request  Cardinal  Wolsey  to  make  the  choice 
of  an  abbot  for  them.  After  obtaining  the  king's  per- 
mission to  act  and  giving  a  fortnight's  inquiry  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  case  Wolsey  on  3  March,  1525, 
nominated  Richard  Whiting  to  the  vacant  post.  The 
first  ten  years  of  Whiting's  rule  were  prosperous  and 
peaceful,  and  he  appears  in  the  State  papers  as  a  care- 
ful overseer  of  his  abbey  alike  in  spirituals  and  tem- 
porals. Then,  in  August,  1.535,  came  the  first  "visi- 
tation "  of  Glastonbury  by  Dr.  Layton,  who,  however, 
found  all  in  good  order.  In  spite  of  this,  however,  the 
abbot's  jurisdiction  over  the  town  of  Glastonbury  was 
suspended  and  minute  "injunctions"  were  given  to 
him  about  the  management  of  the  abbey  property; 


RICHELIEU 


47 


RICHELIEU 


but  then  and  more  than  once  during  the  next  few 
years  he  was  assured  ihat  there  was  no  intention  of 
suppressing  the  abbey. 

By  January,  1539,  Glastonbury  was  the  only  mon- 
astery left  in  Somerset,  and  on  19  September  in  that 
year  the  royal  commissioners,  Layton,  Pollard  and 
Moyle,  arrived  there  without  warning.  Whiting  hap- 
pened to  be  at  his  manor  of  Sharpham.  Thither  the 
commissioners  followed  and  examined  him  according 
to  certain  articles  received  from  Cromwell,  which  ap- 
parently dealt  with  the  question  of  the  succession  to 
the  throne.  The  abbot  was  then  taken  back  to 
Glastonbury  and  thence  sent  up  to  London  to  the 
Tower  that  Cromwell  might  examine  him  for  himself, 
but  the  precise  charge  on  which  he  was  arrested,  and 
subsequently  executed,  remains  uncertain  though  his 
case  is  usually  referred  to  as  one  of  treason.  On  2 
October,  the  commissioners  wrote  to  Cromwell  that 
they  had  now  come  to  the  knowledge  of  "divers  and 
sundry  treasons  committed  by  the  Abbot  of  Ghistoii- 
bury",  and  enclosed  a  "book"  of  evidoncos  thereof 
with  the  accusers'  names,  which  however  is  no  longer 
forthcoming.  In  Cromwell's  MS.,  "  Kememl)rances", 
for  the  same  month,  are  the  entries:  "Item,  Certayn 
persons  to  be  sent  to  the  Towre  for  the  further  exam- 
enacyon  of  the  Abbot  of  Glaston  .  .  .  Item. 
The  Abbot  of  Glaston  to  (be)  tryed  at  Glaston  and 
also  executyd  there  with  his  complj'cys.  .  .  Item. 
Councillors  to  give  evidence  against  the  Abbot  of 
Glaston,  Rich.  Pollard,  Lewis  Forstew  (Forstell), 
Thos.  Moyle."  Marillac,  the  French  Ambassador, 
on  25  October  wrote:  "The  abbot  of  Glastonbury 
.  .  .  has  lately  been  put  in  the  Tower,  because,  in 
taking  the  Abbey  treasures,  valued  at  200,000  crowns, 
they  found  a  written  book  of  arguments  in  behalf  of 
queen  Katherine."  If  the  cliarge  was  high  treason, 
which  appears  mo.st  ])robahlc,  thiMi,  ;is  a  lucinher  of 
the  House  of  Peers,  Whiting  should  have  lieeii  at- 
tainted h>-  an  Act  of  Parliament  passed  for  the  pur- 
pose, but  his  execution  was  an  accomplished  fact  be- 
fore Parlianiciit  even  met.  In  fact  it  seems  clear  that 
his  doom  was  <lelil)erately  wrapped  in  obscurity  by 
Cromwell  and  Henry,  for  Marillac,  writing  to  Francis 
I  on  30  November,  after  mentioning  the  execution  of 
the  Abbots  of  Reading  and  Glastonbury,  adds: 
"could  learn  no  particulars  of  what  they  were  charged 
with,  except  that  it  was  the  relics  of  the  late  lord  mar- 
quis"; which  makes  things  more  perplexing  than  ever. 
Whatever  the  charge,  however,  Whiting  was  sent 
back  to  Somerset  in  the  care  of  Pollard  and  reached 
Wells  on  14  November.  Here  some  sort  of  trial  ap- 
parently took  place,  and  next  day,  Saturday,  15  No- 
vember, he  was  taken  to  Glastonbury  with  two  of  his 
monks,  Dom  John  Thome  and  Dom  Roger  James, 
where  all  three  were  fastened  upon  hurdles  and 
dragged  by  horses  to  the  top  of  Tor  Hill  which  over- 
looks the  town.  Here  they  were  hangeil,  drawn  and 
quartered.  Abbot  Whiting's  head  being  fastened  over 
the  gate  of  the  now  deserted  abbey  and  his  limbs  ex- 
posed at  Wells,  Bath,  Ilchester  and  Bridgewater. 
Richard  Whiting  was  beatified  by  Pope  Leo  XIII  in 
his  decree  of  13  May,  1S95.  His  watch  and  seal  are 
still  preserved  in  the  museum  at  Glastonbury. 

Hearne,  History  and  AnliquilieK  of  Glastonbury  (Oxford,  1722) ; 
Adam  de  Dombrham,  Hist,  de  rebus  .  .  .  Glastoniensibus, 
ed.  Hearne  (Oxford,  1727);  Leland,  Collectanea,  ed.  Hearne 
(Oxford,  1715),  VI,  70;  Letters  and  Papers,  Foreign  and  Domestic, 
Henry  VIII.,  ed.  Brewer  and  Gairdner  (London,  1870,  1902), 
IV-XVIII;  Sander,  tr.  Lewis,  Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Anglican 
Schism  (London,  1877),  141,  142;  Wright,  Letters  relating  to  the 
Suppression  of  the  Monasteries,  in  publ.  Camden  Soc.  (London, 
1843);  Burnet,  History  of  the  Reformation,  ed.  Pollock  (London, 
1875);  Gasquet,  Henry  VIII  and  the  English  Monasteries,  II 
(London,  1888),  325-86;  Idem,  The  la.-it  Abbot  of  Glastonbury 
(London,  1895);  see  also  review  of  this  work  by  Dixon  in 
English  Historical  Review  (Oct.,  1897),  782;  Baumer,  Die  Berie- 
dictiner-Martyren  in  England  unter  Heinrich  VIII  in  Studien 
0.  S.  B.,  VIII,  502-31;  IX,  22-38,  213-34;  Archbold,  Somerset 
Religious  Houses  (Cambridge,  1892);  Collinson,  History  of 
Somerset,    II    (Bath,    1791).     See    also    bibliography    to    article 

GLASTONBURy  Abbey.  g.  Roger  Hudleston. 


Richelieu,  Armand-Jean  du  Plessis,  Cardinal, 
Duke  de,  French  statesman,  b.  in  Paris,  5  September, 
1 585 ;  d .  there  4  December,  1 642 .  At  first  he  intended 
to  follow  a  mihtary  career,  but  when,  in  1605, his  brother 
Alfred  resigned  the  Bishopric  of  LuQon  and  retired  to 
the  Grande  Chartreuse,  RicheUeu  obtained  the  see 
from  Henry  IV  and  withdrew  to  the  country  to  take 
up  his  theological  studies  under  the  direction  of  Bishop 
Cospean  of  Aire.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  on  17 
April,  1607;  he  was  not  yet  twenty-two  years  old,  al- 
though the  Brief  of  Paul  V  dated  19  December,  1606, 
announcing  his  appointment  contains  the  statement: 
"in  vigesimo  tertio  a^tatis  anno  tantum  constitutus". 
Mgr  Lacroix,  the  historian  of  Richelieu's  youth,  be- 


ToMB  OF  Richelieu 
Church  of  (he  Sorbonne,  Paris 

lieves  that  in  a  journey  made  to  Rome  at  the  end  of 
1606,  Richelieu  deceived  the  pope  as  to  his  age,  but 
the  incident  is  still  obscure.  In  his  diocese,  Richelieu 
showed  great  zeal  for  the  conversion  of  Protestants 
and  appointed  the  Oratorians  and  the  Capuchins  to 
give  missions  in  all  the  parishes.  Richelieu  repre- 
sented the  clergy  of  Poitou  in  the  States  General  of 
1614,  when  his  political  career  began.  There  he  was 
the  mouth-piece  of  the  Church,  and  in  a  celebrated 
discourse  demanded  that  bishops  and  prelates  be  sum- 
moned to  the  royal  councils,  that  the  distribution  of 
ecclesiastical  benefices  lo  the  laity  be  forbidden,  that 
the  Church  be  exempt  from  taxation,  that  Protestants 
who  usurped  churches  or  had  their  coreligionists 
interred  in  them  be  punished,  and  that  the  Decrees 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  be  promulgated  through- 
out France.  He  ended  by  as.suring  the  young  king 
Louis  XIII  that  the  desire  of  the  clergy  was  to  have 
the  royal  power  so  assured  that  it  might  be  "comme 
un  ferme  rocher  qui  brise  tout  ce  qui  le  heurte"  (as  a 
firm  rock  which  crushes  all  that  opposes  it). 

Richelieu  was  named  secretary  of  state  on  30  Novem- 
ber, 1616,  but  after  the  assassination  of  Concini,  fav- 
ourite of  Maria  de'  Medici,  he  was  forced  to  leave  the 
ministry  and  follow  the  queen  mother  to  Blois.  To 
escape  the  political  intrigues  which  pursued  him  he  re- 
tired in  June,  1617,  to  the  priory  of  Coussay  and, 
during  this  time  of  leisure  caused  by  his  disgrace,  pub- 
lished in  October,  1617  (date  confirmed  by  Mgr  La- 
croix), his  "  Les  principaux  points  de  la  foi  de  I'eglise 
catholique,  ddfendus  contre  I'ecrit  adress6  au  Roi  par 
les  quatre  ministres  de  Charenton";  it  was  upon 
reading  this  book  half  a  century  later  that  Jacques  de 
Coras,  a  Protestant  pastor  of  Tonneins,  was  converted 
to  Catholicism.     Richelieu  continued  to  be  represented 


RICHELIEU 


48 


RICHELIEU 


to  the  king  as  an  enemy  to  his  power;  the  Capuchin, 
Leclerc  du  Trembhiy,  never  succeeded  in  completely 
clearing  him  in  Louis  XIII's  opinion.  To  disarm 
suspicion  Richelieu  asked  the  king  to  name  a  place  of 
exile,  and  at  his  order  went  in  161 S  io  A\'ignon,  where 
he  passed  nearly  a  year  and  where  he  composed  a 
catechism  which  became  famous  under  the  name  of 
"Instruction  duchr(5tien".  This  book,  destined  to  be 
read  in  every  parish  each  Sunday  at  the  sermon,  was  a 
real  blessing  at  a  time  when  ignorance  of  religion  was 
the  principal  evil.  When  Maria  de'  Medici  escaped 
from  Blois,  in  1619,  Richelieu  was  chosen  by  the  min- 
ister Lu\Ties  to  negotiate  for  peace  between  Louis 
XIII  and  his  mother.  By  Brief  of  3  November,  1622, 
he  was  created  cardinal  by  Gregory  XV.  On  19  April, 
1624.  he  re-entered  the  Council  of  Ministers,  and  on  12 
August.  1624,  was  made  its  president.  Richelieu's 
policy  can  be  reduced  to  two  principal  ideas:  the  do- 
mestic unification  of  France  and  opposition  to  the 
Hou.se  of  Austria.  At  home  he  had  to  contend  with 
constant  conspiracies  in  which  Maria  de'  Medici, 
Queen  Anne  of  Austria,  Gaston  d 'Orleans  (the  king's 
brother),  and  the  highest  nobles  of  the  court  were  in- 
volved. The  executions  of  Marillac  (1632),  Mont- 
morency (1632),  Cinq-Mars  and  of  de  Thou  (1642) 
intimidated  the  enemies  of  the  cardinal.  He  had  also 
to  contend  with  the  Protestants  who  were  forming  a 
state  within  the  state  (see  Huguenots).  The  capitu- 
lation of  La  Rochelle  and  the  peace  of  Alais  (28  June, 
1629)  annihilated  Protestantism  as  a  political  party. 
Richelieu's  foreign  policy  (for  which  see  Leclerc 
DU  Trembl.w)  was  characterized  b^'  his  fearlessness 
in  making  alliances  with  the  foreign  Protestants.  At 
various  times  the  Protestants  of  the  Grisons,  Sweden, 
the  Protestant  Princes  of  Germany,  and  Bernard  of 
Saxe-Weimar  were  his  allies.  The  favourable  treaties 
signed  by  Mazarin  (q.  v.)  were  the  result  of  Richelieu's 
policy  of  Protestant  alliances,  a  policy  which  was 
severely  censured  by  a  number  of  Catholics.  At  the 
end  of  1625,  when  Richelieu  was  preparing  to  give 
back  Valteline  to  the  Protestant  Grisons,  the  parti- 
sans of  Spain  called  him  "Cardinal  of  the  Hugue- 
nots", and  two  pamphlets,  attributed  to  the  Jesuits 
Eudemon  Joannes  and  Jean  Keller,  appeared  against 
him;  these  he  had  burned.  Hostilities,  however,  in- 
crea-sed  until  finally  the  king's  confessor  opposed  the 
foreign  policy  of  the  cardinal.  This  was  a  very  im- 
pfirf  ant  episode,  andon  it  the  recent  researches  of  Father 
de  Piochernonteix  in  the  archives  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus  have  cast  new  light.  P'ather  Caussin,  author 
of  "I^  Cour  Sainfe",  the  Jesuit  whom  Richelieu,  on 
25  March,  1636,  had  maxle  the  king's  confessor,  tried 
to  use  against  the  cardinal  the  influence  of  Mlle.de  La 
Fayette,  a  lady  for  whom  the  king  had  entertained  a 
ff-rtain  regard  and  who  had  become  a  nun.  On 
S  DecernhfT,  1637,  in  a  solemn  interview  Caus.sin  re- 
callrfi  to  the  king  his  dtities  towards  his  wife,  Anne  of 
Austria,  to  whom  he  was  too  indifTerent;  asked  him 
to  allow  his  mother,  Maria  de'  Mr^dici,  to  return  to 
France;  and  p<^jinted  out  the  dangers  to  Catholicism 
which  might  arise  through  Richelieu's  alliance  with 
the  Turks  and  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany. 
After  this  interview  Caussin  gave  Communion  to  the 
king  and  a/ldrc^ssfifl  him  a  very  beautiful  sermon,  en- 
treating him  to  obey  his  directions.  Richelieu  was 
anxious  that  the  king's  cxmfdKHor  should  occupy  him- 
nelf  Kf*lely  with  "giving  absfjlutions",  consequently, 
on  10  DecembcT,  1637,  Caussin  was  dismissf^d  and 
exilr-d  to  Rennes,  and  his  Huccessor,  Father  Jacques 
Sinnond,  e/-l<'brate<l  for  his  hist^)rical  knowl(;dge,  was 
forcf<l  to  promiw  that,  if  he  saw  "anything  censur- 
able in  the  crjndiicf  of  the  State",  he  would  report  it  to 
the  cardinal  and  not  attempt  to  influence  the  king's 
c/jnwience.  However,  1  at  her  Caussin 'h  fears  concern- 
ing Richelieu's  foreign  pf)licy  were  not  shared  by  all  of 
his  confr/TOH.  Father  I^llemand,  for  instance,  affirmed 
that  it  was  rash  to  blame  the  king's  political  alliance 


with  the  Protestant  princes — an  alliance  which  had 
been  made  only  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  form 
one  with  Bavaria  and  the  Catholic  princes  of  Germany. 
That  Richelieu  was  possessed  of  religious  senti- 
ments cannot  be  contested.  It  was  he  who  in  Febru- 
ary, 1638,  prompted  the  declaration  by  which 
Louis  XIII  consecrated  the  Kingdom  of  France  to  the 
Virgin  Marj-;  in  the  ministry  he  surrounded  himself 
with  priests  and  religious;  as  general  he  employed 
Cardinal  de  la  Valette;  as  admiral,  Sourdis,  Arch- 
bishop of  Bordeaux;  as  diplomat,  B^ruUe;  as  chief 
auxiliary  he  had  Leclerc  du  Tremblay.  He  himself 
designated  Mazarin  his  successor.  He  had  a  high 
idea  of  the  sacerdotal  dignity,  was  continually  pro- 
testing against  the  encroachments  of  the  parlements 
on  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church,  and  advised  the 
king  to  choose  as  bishops  only  those  who  should 
"have  passed  after  their  studies  a  considerable  time 
in  the  seminaries,  the  places  established  for  the  study 
of  the  ecclesiastical  functions".  He  wished  to  com- 
pel the  bishops  to  reside  in  their  dioceses,  to  estab- 
lish seminaries  there,  and  to  visit  their  parishes.  He 
aided  the  efforts  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  to  induce  the 
bishops  to  institute  the  "exercises  des  ordinants", 
retreats,  during  which  the  yoimg  clerics  were  to  pre- 
pare themselves  for  the  priesthood.  Richelieu  fore- 
saw the  perils  to  which  nascent  Jansenism  would  ex- 
pose the  Church.  Saint-Cyran's  doctrines  on  the 
constitution  of  the  Church,  his  views  on  the  organi- 
zation of  the  "great  Christian  Republic",  his  liaison 
with  Jansenius  (who  in  1635  had  composed  a  violent 
pamphlet  against  France  under  the  name  of  Mars 
gallicus),  and  the  manner  in  which  he  opposed  the  an- 
nulment of  the  marriage  of  Gaston  d'Orleans,  drew 
upon  him  the  cardinal's  suspicion.  In  having  him 
arrested  14  May,  1638,  Richelieu  declared  that  "had 
Luther  and  Calvin  been  confined  before  they  had  be- 
gun to  dogmatize,  the  states  would  have  been  spared 
many  troubles".  Two  months  later  Richelieu  forced 
the  solitaries  of  Port  Royal-des-Champs  to  disperse; 
some  were  sent  to  Paris,  others  to  Fert^-Milon. 
Saint-Cyran  remained  in  the  dungeon  of  Vincennes 
until  the  cardinal's  death.  With  the  co-operation  of 
the  Benedictine  Gr^goire  Tarisse,  Richelieu  devoted 
himself  seriously  to  the  reform  of  the  Benedictines. 
Named  coadjutor  to  the  Abbot  of  Cluny  in  1627, 
and  Abbot  of  Cluny  in  1629,  he  called  to  this  monas- 
tery the  Reformed  Benedictines  of  Saint- Vannes.  He 
proposed  forming  the  congregations  of  Saint-Vannes 
and  Saint-Maur  into  one  body,  of  wliich  he  was  to  have 
been  superior.  Only  half  of  this  i)r()ject  was  accom- 
plished, however,  when  in  1636  lie  succeeded  in  unit- 
ing the  Order  of  Cluny  with  the  Congregation  of 
Saint-Maur.  From  1622  Richelieu  was  ]>rovi.seur  of 
th(!  Sorbonne,  and  was  in  virtue  of  this  office  head  of 
the  Association  of  Doctors  of  the  Sorbonne.  He  had 
the  Sorbonne  entirely  rebuilt  between  1626  and  1629, 
and  between  1635  and  1642  built  the  church  of  the 
Sorbonne,  in  which  he  is  now  buried. 

On  the  question  of  the  relations  between  the  tem- 
poral and  the  spiritual  powers,  Richelieu  really  pro- 
fes.sed  the  doctrine  called  Duvalism  after  the  theo- 
logian Duvjil,  who  admitted  at  the  same  time  the 
supreme  power  of  the  pope  and  the  supreme  power 
of  the  king  ;ind  the  divine  right  of  both.  In  the  dis- 
sensions between  Rome  and  the  Gallicans  he  most 
frequently  nctcd  as  mediator.  When  in  1626  a  book 
by  the  Jesuit  Sanct.'ircl  ;tj)pe;ired  in  I'aris,  affirming 
the  right  of  the  iM)pes  to  depose  kings  for  wrong-doing, 
heresy,  or  incai)acity,  it  was  burned  in  the  Place;  de 
Grc^ve;  p'ather  Coton  and  the  lliree  superiors  of  the 
Jesuit  houses  summoned  before  the  Parlement,  W(!re 
forced  to  nspudiate  the  work.  The  enemies  of  the 
Jesuits  wished  immediately  to  create  a  new  disturb- 
ance on  the  occasion  of  the  publication  of  the  "Somme 
tht^ologique  des  v^srit^s  apostoliques  capitales  de  la  re- 
ligion chrdticnnc",  by  Father  Garasse,  but  Richelieu 


RICHER 


49 


RICHER 


opposed  the  continued  agitation.  It  was,  however, 
renewed  at  the  end  of  1626,  owing  to  a  thesis  of  the 
Dominican  Tetefort,  which  maintained  that  the  Decre- 
tals formed  part  of  the  Scripture.  Richeheu  again 
strove  to  allay  feehng,  and  in  a  discourse  (while  still 
affirming  that  the  king  held  his  kingdom  from  God 
alone)  declared  that  "the  king  cannot  make  an  article 
of  faith  unless  this  article  has  been  so  declared  by  the 
Church  in  her  oecumenical  councils".  Subsequently, 
Richelieu  gave  .satisfaction  to  the  pope  when  on  7  De- 
cember, 1629,  he  obtained  a  retraction  from  the  Galil- 
ean Edmond  Richer,  syndic  of  the  theological  faculty, 
who  submitted  his  book  "La  puissance  eccl6sias- 
tique  et  politique  "  to  the  judgment  of  the  pope.  Nine 
years  later,  however,  Richelieu's  struggles  against  the 
resistance  offered  by  the  French  clergy  to  taxes  led 
him  to  assume  an  attitude  more  deliberately  Galilean. 
Contrary  to  the  theories  which  he  had  maintained  in 
his  discourse  of  1614  he  considered,  now  that  he  was 
minister,  that  the  needs  of  the  State  constituted  a 
case  of  jorce  majeure,  which  should  oblige  the  clergy  to 
submit  to  all  the  fiscal  exigencies  of  the  civil  power. 
As  early  as  1625  the  assembly  of  the  clergy,  tired  of 
the  incessant  demands  of  the  Government  for  money, 
had  decreed  that  no  deputy  could  vote  supplies  with- 
out having  first  received  full  powers  on  the  subject; 
Richelieu,  contesting  this  principle,  declared  that  the 
needs  of  the  State  were  actual,  while  those  of  the 
Church  were  chimerical  and  arbitrary. 

In  1638  the  struggle  between  the  State  and  the 
clergy  on  the  subject  of  taxes  became  critical,  and 
Richelieu,  to  uphold  his  claims,  enlisted  the  aid  of  the 
V)rothers  Pierre  and  Jacques  Dupuy,  who  about  the 
middle  of  163S  published  "Les  libertcs  de  I'eglise 
gaUicane".  This  book  cstabhshed  the  independence 
of  the  Galilean  Church  in  opposition  to  Rome  only  to 
reduce  it  into  servile  submission  to  the  temporal  power. 
The  clergy  and  the  nuncio  complained;  eighteen 
bishops  assembled  at  the  house  of  Cardinal  de  la 
Rochefoucauld,  and  denounced  to  their  colleagues  this 
"work  of  the  devil".  Richelieu  then  exaggerated  his 
fiscal  exigencies  in  regard  to  the  clergy ;  an  edict  of 
16  April,  1639,  stipulated  that  ecclesiastics  and  com- 
munities were  incapable  of  possessing  landed  prop- 
erty in  France,  that  the  king  could  compel  them  to 
surrender  their  po.sscssions  and  unite  them  to  his  do- 
mains, but  that  he  would  allow  them  to  retain  what 
they  had  inconsidcratitjuof  certain  indemnities  which 
should  be  calculated  in  going  back  to  the  year  1520. 
In  Oct.,  1639,  after  the  murder  of  an  eriuerrj^  of  Mar- 
shal d'Estr^es,  the  French  Ambassador,  Estre6s  de- 
clared the  rights  of  the  people  violated.  Richelieu 
refused  to  receive  the  nuncio  (October,  1639);  a  de- 
cree of  the  royal  council,  22  December,  restrained  the 
powers  of  the  pontifical  Briefs,  and  even  the  canonist 
Marca  proposed  to  break  the  Concordat  and  to  hold  a 
national  council  at  which  Richelieu  was  to  have  been 
made  patriarch.  Precisely  at  this  date  Richelieu  had 
a  whole  scries  of  grievances  against  Rome:  Urban 
VIII  had  refused  successively  to  name  him  Legate  of 
the  Holy  See  in  France,  Legate  of  Avignon,  and  coad- 
jutor to  the  Bishop  of  Trier;  he  had  refu.sed  the  pur- 
ple to  Father  Joseph,  and  had  opposed  the  annulment 
of  the  marriage  of  Gaston  d'Orleans.  But  Richelieu, 
however  furious  he  was,  did  not  wish  to  carry  things 
to  extremes.  After  a  certain  number  of  polemics  on 
the  subject  of  the  taxes  to  be  levied  on  the  clergy,  the 
ecclesiastical  assembly  of  Mantes  in  1641  accorded  to 
the  Government  (which  was  satisfied  therewith)  five 
and  a  half  millions,  and  Richelieu,  to  restore  quiet,  ac- 
cepted the  dedication  of  Marca's  book  "La  concorde 
du  sacerdoce  et  de  I'empire",  in  which  certain  excep- 
tions were  taken  to  Dupuy's  book.  At  the  same  time 
the  sending  of  Mazarin  as  envoy  to  France  by  LTr- 
ban  VIII,  and  the  presentation  to  him  of  the  cardinal's 
hat  put  an  end  to  the  differences  between  Richelieu 
and  the  Holy  See. 
XIII.— 4 


Upon  the  whole,  Richelieu's  policy  was  to  preserve 
a  just  mean  between  the  parliamentary  Galileans  and 
the  Ultramontanes.  "In  such  matters",  he  wrote  in 
his  political  testament,  "one  must  believe  neither  the 
people  of  the  palace,  who  ordinarily  measure  the 
power  of  the  king  by  the  shape  of  his  crowTi,  which,  be- 
ing round,  has  no  end,  nor  those  who,  in  the  excesses 
of  an  indiscreet  zeal,  proclaim  themselves  openly  as 
partisans  of  Rome".  One  may  believe  that  Pierre  de 
Marca's  book  was  inspired  by  him  and  reproduces  his 
ideas.  According  to  this  book  the  liberties  of  the 
Galilean  Church  have  two  foundations:  (1)  the  recog- 
nition of  the  primacy  and  the  sovereign  authority  of 
the  Church  of  Rome,  a  primacy  consisting  in  the 
right  to  make  general  laws,  to  judge  without  appeal, 
and  to  be  judged  neither  by  bishops  nor  by  councils; 
(2)  the  sovereign  right  of  kings  which  knows  no  su- 
perior in  temporal  affairs.  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
Marca  does  not  give  the  superiority  of  a  council  over 
the  pope  as  a  foundation  of  the  Galilean  liberties. 
(For  Richelieu's  work  in  Canada  see  article  Canada.) 
In  1636  Richelieu  founded  the  Academic  Frangaise. 
He  had  great  literary  pretentions,  and  had  several 
mediocre  plays  of  his  own  composition  produced  in  a 
theatre  belonging  to  him.  With  a  stubbornness  in- 
explicable to-day  Voltaire  foolishly  denied  that  Rich- 
elieu's "Testament  politique"  was  authentic;  the  re- 
searches of  M.  Hanotaux  have  proved  its  authenticity, 
and  given  the  proper  value  to  admirable  chapters  such 
as  the  chapter  entitled  "Le  conseil  du  Prince",  into 
which  Richelieu,  says  M.  Hanotaux,  "has  init  all  his 
soul  and  his  genius".  [For  Richelieu's  "Memoires" 
see  Harlay,  Family  of:    (2)  Achille  de  Harlay.] 

Beside.s  the  works  indicated  in  the  articles  Leclerc  du  Trem- 
BLAY  and  Maria  de'  Medici  the  following  may  be  consulted: 
Maximes  d'etat  et  fragments  politiques  du  cardinal  de  Richelieu,  ed. 
Hanotaux  (Paris,  1880) ;  Letlres,  instructions  diplomatiques  et 
papiers  d'Hat  du  cardinal  de  Richelieu,  ed.  Avenel  (8  vols.,  Paris, 
18.53-77);  Memoires  du  cardinal  de  Richelieu,  ed.  Horric  de  Beau- 
CAIRE,  I  (Paris,  1908);  Lair,  Lavoll^e,  Bruel,  Gabriel  de 
MuN,  and  Lecestre,  Rapports  et  notices  sur  Vedition  des  Me- 
moires du  cardinal  de  Richelieu  preparee  pour  la  societe  de  I'his- 
toire  de  France  (3  fasc,  Paris,  1905-07);  Hanotaux,  Hist,  du 
cardinal  de  Richelieu  (2  tomes  in  3  vols.,  Paris,  1893-1903),  ex- 
tends to  1624;  Caillet,  L' Administration  en  France  sous  le  mi- 
nisthe  du  cardinal  de  Richelieu  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1863);  D' Avenel, 
Richelieu  et  la  monarchic  absolue  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1880-7);  Idem, 
La  noblesse  fran^aise  sow  Richelieu  (Paris,  1901);  Idem,  Pri- 
tres,  soldats  et  juges  sous  Richelieu  (Paris,  1907);  Lacroix,  Riche- 
lieu d  Lufon,  sa  jeunesse,  son  episcopal  (Paris,  1890);  Geley, 
Fancan  et  la  politique  de  Richelieu  de  1 6 1 7  d  1G27  (Pari.s,  1884); 
De  Rochemonteix,  Nicholas  Caussin,  confesseur  de  Louis  XIII, 
et  le  cardinal  de  Richelieu  (Paris,  1911) ;  Perraud,  Le  cardinal  de 
Richelieu  evSque,  thiologien  et  protecleur  des  lettres  (Autun,  1882) ; 
Valentin,  Cardinalis  Richelieu  scriptor  ecclesiasticus  (Toulouse, 
1900) ;  Lodge,  Richelieu  (London,  189fi) ;  Perkins,  Richelieu  and 
the  Growth  of  French  Power  (New  York,  1900). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Richer,  a  monk  of  Saint-Rcmi  (flourished  about 
980-1000),  was  the  .son  of  a  knight  belonging  to  the 
Court  of  Louis  IV  d'Outre-Mer  (reigned  936-54). 
Richer  inherited  from  his  father  a  love  of  war  and 
politics.  At  Saint-Remi  he  was  a  pupil  of  Gerbert's; 
besides  Latin  he  studied  philo.sophy,  medicine,  and 
mathematics.  Nothing  more  than  these  facts  is 
known  with  certainty  concerning  his  life.  The  great 
Gerbert  commLssioned  him  to  write  a  history  of 
France.  The  only  MSS.  of  his  "Historiarum  libri 
IV"  was  discovered  by  Pertz  (1833)  at  Bamberg  and 
then  published.  Richer  selected  the  date  882,  with 
which  Hincmar's  annals  closed,  for  the  starting- 
point  of  his  history.  In  his  work  he  depends  upon 
Flodoard  (d.  966) .  In  his  eagerness  for  rhetorical  orna- 
ment Richer  frequently  loses  sight  of  historical  ac- 
curacy. Notwithstanding  this,  in  Wattcnbach's 
opinion,  the  work  has  great  value:  "he  is  our  sole 
informant  for  the  very  important  period  in  which  the 
sovereignty  passed  from  the  Carlovingians  to  tlir- 
Capet ians".  He  gives  a  large  amount  of  important 
information  concerning  this  era.  His  statements 
concern  both  the  events  of  the  larger  history  as  well 
as  of  the  destinies  of  his  church  and  school  at  Reims; 


RICHMOND 


50 


RICHMOND 


we  receive  also  welcome  information  relating  to 
various  matters  regarding  the  history  of  culture. 
In  poUtics  he  defended  the  rights  of  the  Carlovin- 
gians  King  Henn-  I  of  Germany  was  to  hun  only 
the  King  of  Saxonv.  In  ecclesiastical  matters 
Richer  held  to  the  \-iews  of  his  master  Gerbert. 
Richer  is  the  first  writer  to  give  clear  expression  to 
the  conception  of  a  French  nationality.         „    j,     , 

Ebebt.  Allgem.  Ge^^ch.  der  Lit.  des  MitielaUers  xm  Abendlande 
(Leipzig  1S67);  Watten-bach,  DeutsMands  Geschicht^qufUen  im 
MiUelaU'er  (Stuttgart,  1901);  ^i'^'^^ll^"'^"^  l'^%/]-^- 
Pebtz  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Scnp.,  Ill:  new  ed.  by  Waitz  in 
Script,  rer.  Germ,  in  usum  schol.  (Hanover,  1S7,):  Reimaxx,  De 
Richeri  riia  ei  scriptis  (Olsnae,  1S45):  Giesebbecht,  Jahrb.  des 
dexUschen  Reiches  unter  OUo  II  fBerlui,  1840),  excu^us  r^":  Mi- 
vet.  Richeri  hist.  lib.  quatuor  in  Jour,  des  Savants  ^1866) :  -Monod, 
Etudes  sw  Vhist.  de  Hugues  Capet  in  Rer.  hist.,  XXV  III  (1S8.D) ; 
Wi-mcH,  Richer  uber  die  Hersage  Giselbert  ron  Loihnngen  und 
Heinrich  ton  Saditen  in  Porschungen  zur  deiUschen  Gescti.,  Ill 
(1S63.).  „  „ 

Fraxz  K.\mpers. 

Richmond,  Diocxse  of  CRichmondexsis),  suf- 
fragan of  Bahimore,  established  11  July,  1820,  com- 
prises the  State  of  Virginia,  except  the  Counties  of 
Accomac  and  Northampton  (Diocese  of  Wilmington ' ; 
and  Bland,  Buchanan,  Carroll,  Craig  (partly  i.  Dickin- 
son, Flovd,  Giles,  Grayson,  Lee,  Montgomery, 
Pulaski,  Russell,  Scott,  Smyth.  Tazewell,  Washing- 
ton, Wise,  and  W^-the  (Diocese  of  Wheeling  :  and  in 
the  State  of  West  Virginia,  the  Counties  of  Berkeley, 
Grant,  Hampshire,  Hardy,  Jefferson,  Mineral,  Mor- 
gan, and  Pendleton.  It  embraces  31,518  square  miles 
in  Virginia  and  3290  square  miles  in  West  Virginia. 
Originallv  it  included  also  the  territon,-  of  the  present 
Diocese  of  \Mieeling,  created  23  July,  1850. 

Colonial  Period. — In  the  summer  of  1526  a  Spanish 
Catholic  settlement  was  made  in  Virginia  on  the  yer\' 
sp>ot  (according  to  Ecija,  the  pilot-in-chief  of  Florida) 
where,  in  1607,  eighty-one  years  later,  the  English 
founded  the  settlement  of  Jamestown.  Lucas  Vas- 
quez  de  Ayllon,  one  of  the  judges  of  the  island  of  San 
Domingo,  received  from  the  King  of  Spain,  12  June, 
1523,  a  patent  empowering  him  to  explore  the  coast 
for  800  leagues,  estabUsh  a  settlement  within  three 
years  and  Christianize  the  natives.  In  June,  1-526, 
Ayllon  sailed  from  Puerto  de  La  Plata,  San  Domingo, 
with  three  vessels,  600  persons  of  both  sexes,  horses, 
and  supplies.  The  Dominicans  Antonio  de  Monte- 
sinos  and  Antonio  de  Cer\-antes,  with  Brother  Peter 
de  E.strada,  accompanied  the  expedition.  Entering 
the  Capes  at  the  Chesapeake,  and  ascending  a  river 
(the  James '.  he  landed  at  Guandape,  which  he  named 
St.  Michael.  Buildings  were  constructed  and  the 
Holy  Sacrifice  offered  in  a  chapel,  the  second  place  of 
Catholic  worship  on  American  soil.  Ayllon  died  of 
fever,  18  Oct.,  1.526.  The  rebellion  of  the  settlers  and 
hostility  of  the  Indians  cau.sed  Francisco  Gomez,  the 
next  in  command,  to  abandon  the  settlement  in  the 
spring  of  1-527,  when  he  set  sail  for  San  Domingo  in 
two  vessels,  one  of  which  foundered.  Of  the  party 
only  1.50  reached  their  destination. 

A  second  expedition  sent  by  Menendez,  the  Gov- 
ernor of  Horida  and  nominal  Governor  of  N'irginia, 
settlerl  on  the  Rappahannock  River  at  a  point  called 
Axacan,  10  Sept.,  1570.  It  consisted  of  Fathers 
Segura,  Vice-Pro\nncial  of  the  Jesuit.s,  and  Luis  de 
Quiros,  six  Jesuit  brothers,  and  a  few  friendly  Indians. 
A  log  building  Her\-ed  as  chapel  and  home.  Through 
the  treaf-her>'  of  Don  Luis  de  Velasco,  an  Indian  pilot 
of  Spanish  name.  Father  Quiros  and  Brothers  Solis 
and  Mendez  were  slain  by  the  Indians,  14  Feb..  1.571. 
Four  days  later  were  mart\Ted  Father  Segura,  Broth- 
ers Linares,  Redondo,  Gabriel,  Gomez,  and  Sancho 
ZJevalles.  Menenrlez,  8*^;veral  months  later,  sailed  for 
Axar;an,  where  he  h:ul  eiglit  of  the  murderers  hanged; 
they  V>eing  converted  before  death  by  Father  John 
Rogel,  a  Jesuit  mi.ssionar>'. 

Attempts  to  founrl  Catholic  settlements  in  Virginia 
were  made  by  L/jrd  Baltimore  in  1629,  and  Captain 


George  Brent  in  1687.  In  the  spring  of  161  Father 
John  Altham,  a  Jesuit  companion  of  Fath'  Andrew 
"^Tiite,  the  Mar>-land  missionary-,  laboure  amongst 
some  of  the  Virginia  tribes  on  the  south  bj-  of  the 
Potomac.  Stringent  laws  were  soon  enacti  in  Vir- 
ginia against  Catholics.  In  1687  Fathers  xlmonds 
and  Ra}-mond  were  arrested  at  Norfolk  for  zeroising 
their  priestly  functions.  During  the  last  qua  or  of  the 
eighteenth  centun,-  the  few  Catholic  settlerat  Aquia 
Creek,  near  the  Potomac,  were  attended  »  Father 
John  Carroll  and  other  Jesuit  missionaries  frn  Marj'- 
land. 

American  Period. — Rev.  Jean  Dubois,  Terwards 
third  Bishop  of  New  York,  accompanied  v  a  few 
French  priests  and  with  letters  of  introduaon  from 
Lafavette  to  several  piominent  Virginia  fanaies,  came 
to  Norfolk  in  August,  1791,  where  he  laboied  a  few 


Cathedbal  of  the  Sacred  Heabt,  Ric^v,:,^ 

months,  and  probably  left  the  priests  whcame  with 
him.  Proceeding  to  Richmond  towards  le  end  of 
the  year,  he  offered  in  the  House  of  Deler  es,  by  in- 
vitation of  the  General  Assembly,  the  fir,-Ala.ss  ever 
said  in  the  Capital  City.  His  succe-sso  at  Rich- 
mond, with  interruptions,  were  the  Revs.  .  C.  Mon- 
grand,  Xavier  Michel,  John  McElroj',  Jm  Baxter, 
John  Mahoney,  James  Walsh,  ThomasLiore,  and 
Fathers  Homer  and  Schreiber. 

Tradition  tells  us  that  at  an  early  da.  probably 
at  the  time  of  the  Declaration  of  Indepenence,  Alex- 
andria had  a  log  chapel  with  an  unknon  resident 
priest.  Rev.  John  Thayer  of  Boston  (se  Boston, 
Archdiocese  of)  was  stationed  there  in  '94.  Rev. 
Francis  Neale,  who  in  1796  con-structed  a  Alexandria 
a  brick  church,  erected  fourteen  years  '  er  a  more 
suitable  church  where  Fathers  Kohlmi.i,  Enoch, 
and  Benedict  Joseph  Fenwick,  afterwds  second 
Bishop  of  Boston,  frequently  officiated,  bout  1796 
Rev.  James  Bushe  began  the  erection  of  church  at 
Norfolk.  His  succcs,sfjrs  were  the  Very  P/.  Leonard 
Neale,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Baltimo  (.«ee  BaI/- 
TiMORE,  Archdiocese  of).  Revs.  Miiaol  Lacy, 
Christopher  Delaney,  Josejih  Stokes,  Saiiel  Cooper, 
J.  Van  Horsigh,  and  A.  L.  Hitzelberger. 

Bishops  of  Richmond.— (I)  Rig)\t  Rev.  Rrick  Kelly, 
D.D.,  consecrated  first  Bishop  of  Richmcd,  24  Aug., 


RICHMOND 


51 


RICHMOND 


1820,  came  to  reside  at  Norfolk,  where  the  Catholics 
were  much  more  numerous  than  at  Richmond,  19 
Jan.,  1821.  The  erection  of  Virginia  into  a  diocese 
had  been  premature  and  was  accordingly  opposed  by 
the  Archbishop  of  Baltimore.  Because  of  factions 
and  various  other  difficulties,  Bi.shop  Kelly  soon  peti- 
tioned Rome  to  be  relieved  of  his  charge.  He  left 
Virginia  in  July,  1822,  having  been  transferred  to  the 
See  of  Waterford  and  Lismoro,  where  he  died,  8  Oct., 
1829.  Archbishop  Marechal  of  Baltimore  was  ap- 
pointed administrator  of  the  diocese. 

Rev.  Timothy  O'Brien,  who  came  as  pastor  to 
Richmond  in  1832,  did  more  for  Catholicism  during  his 
eighteen  years'  labour  than  any  other  missionary,  ex- 
cepting the  Bishops  of  the  See.  In  1834  he  built  St. 
Peter's  Church,  afterwards  the  cathedral,  and  founded 
St.  Joseph's  Female  Academy  and  Orphan  Asylum, 
bringing  as  teachers  three  Sisters  of  Charity. 

(2)  The  Right  Rev.  Richard  Vincent  Whelan,  D.D., 
consecrated  21  March,  1841,  established  the  same  year, 
on  the  outskirts  of  Richmond,  St.  Vincent's  Seminary 
and  College,  discontinued  in  1846.  Leaving  Rev. 
Timothy  O'Brien  at  St.  Peter's,  Richmond,  the  Bishop 
took  up  his  residence  at  the  seminarj^,  and  acted  as 
president.  In  1842  Bishop  Whelan  dedicated  St. 
Joseph's  Church,  Petersburg,  and  St.  Patrick's 
Church,  Norfolk,  and  the  following  year  that  of  St. 
Francis  at  Lynchburg.  In  1846  he  built  a  church  at 
Wheeling  and,  two  years  later,  founded  at  Norfolk 
St.  Vincent's  Female  Orphan  Asylum.  Wheeling  was 
made  a  separate  see,  23  July,  1850,  and  to  it  was  trans- 
ferred Bishop  Whelan. 

(3)  Right  Rev.  John  McGill,  D.D.,  consecrated  10 
Nov.,  18.50,  was  present  in  Rome  in  1854  when  the 
Dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Concejjtion  was  proclaimed. 
By  pen  and  voice  he  oppo.sed  Knownothingism.  In 
1855  Bishop  McGill  convened  the  First  Diocesan  Synod. 
During  the  yellow  fever  plague  of  the  same  year,  Rev. 
Matthew  O'Keefe  of  Norfolk  and  Rev.  Francis  Devlin 
of  Portsmouth  won  renown;  the  latter  dying  a  martyr 
to  priestly  duty.  In  1856  St.  Vincent's  Hospital, 
Norfolk,  was  founded.  Alexandria,  formerly  in  the 
Baltimore  archdiocese  as  part  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, but  ceded  back  to  Virginia,  was  annexed  to 
the  Richmond  diocese,  15  Aug.,  1858.  In  1860  the 
bishop  transferred  St.  Mary's  German  Church,  Rich- 
mond, to  the  Benedictines.  During  the  Civil  War 
Bishop  McGill  wrote  two  learned  works,  "The  True 
Church  Indicated  to  the  Inquirer",  and  "Our  Faith, 
the  Victory",  republished  as  "The  Creed  of  Cath- 
olics". The  bishop  established  at  Richmond  the 
Sisters  of  the  Visitation,  and  at  Alexandria  the 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross.  He  also  took  part  in  the 
Vatican  Council.  Bishop  McGill  died  at  Richmond, 
14  January,  1872. 

(4)  Right  Rev.  James  Gibbons,  D.D.  (afterwards 
archbishop  and  cardinal),  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of 
Adramyttum  to  organize  North  Carolina  into  a  vica- 
riate, 16  Aug.,  1808,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Rich- 
mond, 30  July,  1872.  He  established  at  Richmond 
the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  and  St.  Peter's  Boys' 
Academy.  Erecting  new  parishes,  churches,  and 
schools,  making  constant  diocesan  visitations,  fre- 
quently preaching  to  large  congregations  of  both 
Catholics  and  non-Catholics,  Bishop  Gibbons,  during 
his  short  rule  of  five  years,  accomplished  in  the  diocese 
a  vast  amount  of  religious  good.  Made  coadjutor 
Bishop  of  Baltimore,  29  May,  1877,  he  succeeded 
Archbishop  Bayley  in  that  see,  3  Oct.,  1877. 

(5)  Right  Rev.  John  Joseph  Keane,  D.D.  (after- 
wards archbishop),  consecrated,  25  Aug.,  1878. 
Gifted  with  ever-ready  and  magnetic  eloquence, 
Bishop  Keane  drew  great  numbers  of  people  to  hear 
his  inspiring  discourses.  He  held  the  Second  Dio- 
cesan Synod  in  1886,  and  introduced  into  the  diocese 
the  Josephites  and  the  Xaverian  Brothers.  Bishop 
Keane  was  appointed  first  Rector  of  the  Catholic 


University,  Washington,  12  Aug.,  1888,  created  titular 
Archbishop  of  Damascus,  9  Jan.,  1897,  and  transferred 
to  the  See  of  Dubuque,  24  July,  1900. 

(6)  Right  Rev.  Augustine  Van  De  Vyvcr,  D.D., 
consecrated,  20  Oct.,  1889,  began  an  able  and  vigorous 
rule.  On  3  June,  1903,  he  publicly  received  the  Most 
Rev.  Diomede  Falconio,  Apostolic  Delegate,  who  the 
following  day  laid  the  cornerstone  of  the  new  Sacred 
Heart  Cathedral,  one  of  the  most  artistic  edifices  in 
the  country,  designed  by  Joseph  McGuire,  architect, 
of  New  York.  A  handsome  bishop's  house  and  a 
pastoral  residence  adjoin  the  cathedral.  The  latter 
was  solemnly  consecrated  by  Mgr.  Falconio  on  29 
Nov.,  1906.  The  event  was  the  most  imposing  Cath- 
olic ceremony  in  the  history  of  the  diocese.  Besides 
Cardinal  Gibbons,  and  the  Apostolic  Delegate,  there 
were  present  IS  archbishops  and  bishops.  Bishop 
Van  De  Vyver  convened  a  quasi-synod,  12  Nov.,  1907, 
which  approved  the  decrees  of  the  Second  Synod  and 
enacted  new  and  needed  legislation.  In  1907  the 
Knights  of  Columbus  held  at  the  Jamestown  Exposi- 
tion their  national  convention  and  jubilee  celebration, 
participated  in  by  the  Apostolic  Delegate,  and  several 
archbishops  and  bishops;  while  the  following  year  the 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society  held  a  similar  celebration 
in  Richmond.  In  June,  1909,  St.  Peter's  (Richmond) 
handsome  new  residence  and  the  adjoining  home  of 
the  McGill  Union  and  the  Knights  of  Columbus  were 
completed,  at  a  total  cost  of  about  $50,000.  In  the 
following  autumn  St.  Peter's  Church  (the  old  cathe- 
dral) celebrated  the  diamond  jubilee  of  its  existence. 
With  it,  either  as  bishops  or  as  priests,  are  indelibly 
linked  the  names  of  Cardinal  Gibbons,  Archbishops 
Keane  and  Janssens,  and  Bishops  Van  De  Vyver, 
Whelan,  McGill,  Becker,  Keiley,  and  O'Connell  of 
San  Francisco.  Most  Rev.  John  J.  Kain,  deceased 
Archbishop  of  St.  Louis,  had  also  been  a  priest  of  the 
diocese.  Bishop  Van  De  Vyver  introduced  into  the 
dioce.se  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  additional 
Benedictine  and  Josephite  Fathers  and  Xaverian 
Brothers;  the  Christian  Brothers;  additional  Sisters 
of  Charity;  the  Benedictine  and  Franciscan  Sisters; 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  Nazareth,  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment and  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration.  Under  his 
regime  have  been  founded  12  new  parishes,  32 
churches,  3  colleges,  4  industrial  schools,  2  orphan 
asylums,  1  infant  asylum  (coloured),  and  many  paro- 
chial schools. 

Notable  Benefactors. — Mr.  and  Mrs.  Thomas  For- 
tune Ryan,  of  New  York,  the  former  donating,  the 
latter  furnishing,  the  imposing  Sacred  Heart  Cathedral 
(nearly  $500,000),  together  with  other  notable  bene- 
factions. Mrs.  Ryan  has  built  churches,  schools, 
and  religious  houses  in  various  parts  of  the  state. 
Other  generous  benefactors  were  Right  Rev. 
Bernard  McQuaid,  D.D.,  Joseph  Gallego,  John  P. 
Matthews,  William  S.  Caldwell,  Mark  Downey,  and 
John  Pope. 

Statistics.— (1911) :  Secular  priests,  50;  Benedictines, 
10;  Josephites,  6;  Holy  Ghost  Fathers,  2;  Brothers, 
Xaverian,  35;  Christian,  12;  Sisters  of  Charity,  60;  of 
St.  Benedict,  50;  Visitation  Nuns,  23;  Sisters  of  Char- 
ity of  Nazareth,  Kentucky,  20;  of  the  Holy  Cross,  20: 
Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  18;  Sisters  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  18;  of  St.  Francis,  12;  of  Perpetual  Adora- 
tion, 10;  parishes  with  resident  priests,  35;  missions 
with  churches,  48;  colleges,  3  (1  coloured),  academies, 
9;  parochial  schools,  26;  industrial  schools,  4  (2  col- 
oured); orphan  asylums,  4;  infant  asylums,  1  (col- 
oured); young  people  attending  Catholic  institutions, 
7500;  home  for  aged,  1  (inmates,  200);  Cathohc  Hos- 
pital, 1  (yearly  patients,  3000). 

Catholic  Societies. — Priests'  Clerical  Fund  Associa- 
tion; Eucharistic  League;  Holy  Name;  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul;  League  of  Good  Shepherd;  boys'  and  girls' 
sodalities;  tabernacle,  altar,  and  sanctuary  societies; 
women's   benevolent  and   beneficial;   fraternal   and 


RICHTER 


52 


RIENZI 


social,  such  as  Knights  of  Columbus,  Hibernians,  and 
flourishing  local  societies.  Of  parishes  there  are  one 
each  of  Germans,  Italians,  and  Bohemians,  and  4  for 
the  coloured  people.  Cathohc  population.  41,000. 
The  causes  of  growth  are  principally  natural  increase 
and  conversions,  there  being  little  Catholic  immigra- 
tion into  the  diocese. 

M.\GRi,  The  Catholic  Church  in  the  City  and  Diocese  of  Richmond 
(Richmond,  Virpinia,  1906);  Parke.  Catholic  Missions  in  Vir- 
ginia (Richmond.  1S50):  Keilet,  Memoranda  (Norfolk.  Virginia, 
1S74);  Proceedings  of  the  Catholic  Benevolent  Union  (Norfolk. 
1S75);  The  Metropolitan  Catholic  Almanac  (Baltimore.  1841-61); 
Caiholif  Almanac  and  Directory  (New  York.  1S65-95);  Catholic 
Directory  (Milwaukee,  1S95-9):  Official  Catholic  Directory  (Mil- 
waukee. 1900-11);  Hughes.  The  History  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  tn 
Xorth  America,  Colonial  and  Federal  (London.  1907);  Shea. 
The  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States  (Akron. 
Ohio,  1890):  foreign  references  cited  by  Shea  (I,  bk.  II,  i,  106, 
107,  149,  150);  Navarette,  Real  Cedula  que  coniiene  el  asiento 
capitulado  con  Lucas  Vdsquez  de  Ayll6n;  Coleccion  de  Viages  y 
Descubrimientos  (Madrid,  1S29),  ii,  153,  156;  Fernandez.  His- 
taria  Eclesiastica  de  Xuestros  Tiempos  (Toledo,  1611);  QuiROS, 
Letter  of  IS  Sept.,  1570;  Rogel.  Letter  of  9  Dec.  1520;  Barcia, 
Ensaj/o  CronoUgico,  142-6;   Tanner.  Societas  Militaris,  447-51. 

F.  Joseph  Magri. 

Richter,  Hexry  Joseph.  See  Grand  Rapids, 
Diocese  of. 

Ricoldo  da  Monte  di  Croce  (Pennini),  b.  at 
Florence  about  1243;  d.  there  31  October,  1320. 
After  studying  in  various  great  European  schools,  he 
became  a  Dominican,  12G7;  was  a  professor  in  several 
convents  of  Tuscany  (1272-88),  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
the  Holy  Land  (1288),  and  then  travelled  for  many 
j-ears  as  a  missionary  in  western  Asia,  having  his  chief 
headquarters  at  Bagdad.  He  returned  to  Florence 
before  1302,  and  was  chosen  to  high  offices  in  his 
order.  His  " Itinerarium "  (written  about  1288-91; 
publi-shed  in  the  original  Latin  at  Leipzig,  1864;  in 
Italian  at  Florence,  1793;  in  French  at  Paris,  1877) 
was  intended  as  a  guide-book  for  missionaries,  and  is 
an  interesting  description  of  the  Oriental  countries 
visited  by  him.  The  "Epistolaj  de  Perditione  Ac- 
conis"  are  five  letters  in  the  form  of  lamentations 
over  the  fall  of  Ptolemais  (written  about  1292,  pub- 
lished at  Paris,  1884).  Ricoldo's  best  known  work  is 
the  "Contra  Legem  Sarracenorum",  written  at  Bag- 
daxi,  which  has  been  ver>'  popular  as  a  polemical 
source  against  Mohammedanism,  and  has  been  often 
edited  rfirst  publishr-d  at  Seville,  1.500).  The  "Chris- 
tiana; Fidei  Confessio  facta  Sarracenis"  (printed  at 
Ba.slc,  1.543)  is  attributed  to  Ricoldo,  and  was  prob- 
ably wTitten  about  the  same  time  as  the  above  men- 
tioned works.  Other  works  are:  "Contra  errores 
Judaeorum"  (MS.  at  Florence);  "Libellus  contra 
nations  orientales"  (MSS.  at  Florence  and  Paris); 
"Contra  Sarracenos  et  Alcoranum"  (MS.  at  Paris); 
"De  variLs  religionibus"  (MS.  at  Turin).  Very  prob- 
ably the  la«t  three  works  were  written  after  his  return 
to  Europe.  Ricoldo  is  also  known  to  have  written 
two  thffjlogical  works — a  defence  of  the  doctrines  of 
St.  Thomas  (in  collaboration  with  John  of  Pistoia, 
about  12H.5J  and  a  commentary  on  the  "Libri  sen- 
tentiarum"  (before  1288.)  Ricoldo  began  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Koran  about  1290,  but  it  is  not  known 
whether  this  work  was  complete<l. 

.Mam/ovnet  in  Rerue  fiiblu,ue  (189.3),  44-fil,  182-202,  .584- 
607;  i:rHAKD-<^*Tir.  .Scrip*.  Cjrd.  Prmd.,  I.  .506;  Todron.  Hint. 
tUi  Hommtt  i«u».  de  I'ordrt  de  St.  Dom.,  I,  769-63;  Murrat, 
IHacotervet  and  Travel*  in  Alia,  I.  197. 

J.  A.  McHuoH. 

Rlel,  Ixitis.     See  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta. 

Riemenschneider,  Tii-lma.nn,  one  of  the  most 
irnjxjrtant  of  Irankish  sculptors,  b.  at  Osterode  am 
Harz  in  or  afUr  1400;  d.  at  WUrzburg,  1.531.  In 
1483  he  wa«  aflmittr;d  into  the  Guild  of  St.  Luke  at 
Wijrzburg,  where  he  worked  until  his  death.  In  the 
tombhtone  of  the  liitter  von  Grumbach  he  still  ad- 
heres to  the  Gothic  style,  but  in  his  works  for  the 
Marienkam-llf;  at  Wlirzburg  he  adopts  the  Renais- 
Bancc  style,  while  retaining  rerniniscences  of  earlier 


art.  For  the  south  entrance  he  carved,  besides  an 
annunciation  and  a  representation  of  Christ  as  a 
gardener,  the  afterwards  renowned  statues  of  Adam 
and  Eve,  the  heads  of  which  are  of  special  importance. 
There  also  he  showed  his  gift  of  depicting  character 
in  the  more  than  life-size  statues  of  Christ,  the  Bap- 
tist, and  the  Twelve  Apostles  for  the  buttresses. 
Elsewhere  indeed  we  seek  in  vain  for  the  merits  of 
rounded  sculpture.  He  had  a  special  talent  for  the 
noble  representation  of  female  saints  (cf .  for  example, 
Sts.  Dorothea  and  Margareta  in  the  same  chapel, 
and  the  Madonna  in  the  Miinsterkirche).  A  small 
Madonna  (now  in  the  nuniicipal  museum  at  Frank- 
fort) is  perfect  both  in  expression  and  drapery.  Be- 
sides other  works  for  the  above-mentioned  churches 
and  a  relief  with  the  "\'ierzehn  Nothelfer"  for  the 
hospital  (St.  Burkhard),  he  carved  for  the  cathedral 
of  Wiirzburg  a  tabernacle  reaching  to  the  ceiling, 
two  episcopal  tombs,  and  a  colossal  cross — all  rec- 
ognized as  excellent  worlcs  by  those  familiar  with  the 
peculiar  style  of  the  master.  Riemenschneider's 
masterpiece  is  the  tomb  of  Emperor  Henry  II  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Bamberg;  the  recumbent  forms  of  the 
emperor  and  his  spouse  are  ideal,  while  the  sides  of 
the  tomb  are  adorned  with  fine  scenes  from  their 
lives.  The  figures  instinct  with  life,  the  drapery, 
and  the  expression  of  sentiment,  are  all  of  equal 
beauty.  Among  his  representations  of  the  "Lament 
over  Christ",  those  of  Heidingsfeld  and  Maidbrunn, 
in  spite  of  some  defects,  are  notable  works;  resem- 
bling the  former,  but  still  more  pleasing,  is  a  third 
in  the  university  collection.  The  defects  in  many  of 
his  works  are  probably  to  be  referred  for  the  most 
part  to  his  numerous  apprentices.  There  are  a  great 
number  of  other  works  by  him  in  various  places,  e.  g 
a  beautiful  group  of  the  Crucifixion  in  the  Darm- 
stadt Museum,  another  at  Volkach  am  Main  rep- 
resenting Our  Lady  surrounded  by  a  rosary  with 
scenes  from  her  life  in  relief  and  being  crowned  by 
angels  playing  music — the  picture  is  suspended  from 
the  roof. 

There  is  a  second  Meistcr  Tillmann  Riemenschnei- 
der, who  car\ed  the  Virgin's  altar  in  Creglingen. 
This  bears  so  clo.se  a  resemblance  to  the  works  of  the 
younger  "Master  Dill",  that  recently  many  be- 
lieved it  should  be  referred  to  him;  in  that  case, 
however,  he  would  have  executed  one  of  his  best 


works  as  a  very  young 

Bode.   Gesch.  der  dexdsche, 


man. 
len  Plastik  (Berlin.  1885);  Weber, 
Lehen  u.  Wirken  T.  Riemenschneitiers  (2nd  ed..  WUrzburg,  1888) 
Tonnies,  Leben  u.  Werke  T.  Riemenschneider  a  (Strasburg.  1900) 
Adelmann  in  Walhalla,  VI  (1910). 

G.  Gietmann. 


Rienzi,  Cola  di  (i.  e.,  Nicola,  son  of  Lorenzo),  a 
popular  tribune  and  extraordinary  historical  figure. 
His  father  was  an  innkeeper  at  Home  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Trastevere;  though  it  was  belicived  that  he  was 
really  the  son  of  the  l"]mperor  Ih^iny  VII.  His  child- 
hood and  youth  were  pa,ssed  at  Anagni,  with  some 
relatives  to  whom  he  was  sent  on  the  death  of  his 
mother.  Though  he  w:is  thus  brought  up  in  the  coun- 
try he  succeeded  in  a(;quiring  a  knowledge  of  letters 
and  of  Latin,  and  devoted  him.self  to  a  study  of  the 
history  of  ancient  Rome  in  the  Latin  authors,  Livy, 
Valerius  Maximus,  Cicero,  Sen(!ca,  Boethius,  and  the 
poets.  When  his  father  di(;d  he  returned  to  Rome 
and  practised  as  a  notary.  The  sight  of  the  remains 
of  the  former  greatness  of  Rome  only  increased  his 
admiration  for  the  city  and  the  men  described  in  his 
favourite  authors.  (Contemplating  the  condition  in 
which  Rome  then  was  in  the  absence  of  the  popes, 
torn  by  the  factions  of  the  nobles  who  plundered  on 
all  sides  and  shed  innocent  blood,  he  conceived  a  de- 
sire of  restoring  the  justice  and  splendour  of  former 
days.  His  plans  became  more  definite  and  settled 
when  his  brother  was  slain  in  a  brawl  between  the  Or- 
sini  and  the  Colonna.     Thenceforth  he  thought  only 


RIENZI 


53 


RIENZI 


of  the  means  of  breaking  the  power  of  the  barons. 
To  accompUsh  this  he  liad  first  to  win  the  favour  of 
the  populace  by  upholding  the  cause  of  the  oppressed. 
In  consequence  of  this  and  on  account  of  the  elo- 
quence with  which  he  sjioke  in  Latin,  he  was  sent  to 
Avignon  in  1343  to  Clement  VI,  by  the  captain  of  the 
people,  to  ask  him  to  return  to  Rome  and  grant  the 
great  jubilee  every  five  years.  Cola  explained  to  the 
pope  the  miserable  condition  of  Rome.  Clement  was 
much  impressed,  and  appointed  him  to  the  office  of 
notary  (secretary)  of  the  Camera  Capitolina,  in  which 
position  he  could  gain  a  better  knowledge  of  the  mis- 
fortunes of  the  city.  Cola  then  by  his  public  dis- 
courses and  private  conversations  prepared  the  peo- 
ple;  a  conspiracy  was  fr)rmod,  and  on  19  May,  1347, 


I 


Statue  of  Cola 
G.  Masini,  Gradinata  del  Campidoglio 

he  summoned  the  populace  to  assemble  the  follow- 
ing day  in  the  Campidoglio.  There  Cola  explained 
his  plans  and  read  a  new  democratic  constitution 
which,  among  other  things,  ordained  the  establish- 
ment of  a  civic  militia.  The  people  conferred  abso- 
lute power  on  him;  but  Cola  at  first  contented  him- 
self with  the  title  of  tribune  of  the  people;  later,  how- 
ever, he  assumed  the  bombastic  titles  of  Candidatus 
Spiritus  Sancli,  Imperalor  Orbis,  Zelator  Italia-,  Atna- 
tor  Orbis  el  Tribunus  Auguslus  (candidate  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  emperor  of  the  world,  lover  of  Ital}',  of  the 
world,  august  tribune).  He  was  wise  enough  to  select 
a  colleague,  the  pojic's  vicar,  Raimondo,  Bishop  of 
Orvieto.  The  success  of  the  new  regime  was  wonder- 
ful. The  most  powerful  barons  had  to  leave  the  city; 
the  others  swore  fealty  to  the  popular  government. 
An  era  of  peace  and  justice  seemed  to  have  come. 
The  pope,  on  learning  what  had  happened,  regretted 
that  he  had  not  been  consulted,  but  gave  Cola  the 
title  and  office  of  Rector,  to  be  exercised  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Bishop  of  Or\'ieto.  His  name  was  heard 
everywhere,  princes  had  recourse  to  him  in  their  dis- 
putes, the  sultan  fortified  his  ports. 

Cola  then  thought  of  re-establishing  the  liberty  and 
independence  of  Italy  and  of  Rome,  by  restoring  the 


Roman  Empire  with  an  Italian  emperor.  In  August, 
1347,  two  hundred  deputies  of  the  Italian  cities  as- 
sembled at  his  request.  Italy  was  declared  free,  and 
all  those  who  had  arrogated  a  lordship  to  themselves 
were  declared  fallen  from  power;  the  right  of  the  peo- 
ple to  elect  the  emperor  was  asserted.  Louis  the 
Bavarian  and  Charles  of  Bohemia  were  called  upon  to 
justify'  their  usurpation  of  the  imperial  title.  Cola 
flattered  himself  secretly  with  the  hope  of  becoming 
emperor;  but  his  high  opinion  of  himself  proved  his 
ruin.  He  was  a  dreamer  rather  than  a  man  of  action; 
he  lacked  many  qualities  for  the  exerci.se  of  good  gov- 
ernment, especially  foresight  and  the  elements  of  po- 
litical prudence.  He  had  formed  a  most  puerile  con- 
cept of  the  empire.  He  surrounded  himself  with 
Asiatic  luxury,  to  pay  for  which  he  had  to  impose  new 
taxes;  thereupon  the  enthusiasm  of  the  people,  weary 
of  serving  a  theatrical  emperor,  vanished.  The  barons 
perceived  this,  and  forgetting  for  the  moment  their 
mutual  discord,  joined  together  against  their  common 
enemy.  In  vain  the  bell  summoned  the  people  to 
arms  in  the  Campidoglio.  No  one  stirred.  Cola  had 
driven  out  the  barons,  but  he  had  not  thought  of  re- 
ducing tliom  to  inaction;  on  the  contrary  he  had  ren- 
dered them  more  hostile  by  his  many  foolish  and  hu- 
miliating acts.  Lacking  all  military  knowledge  he 
could  ofifer  no  serious  resistance  to  their  attacks.  The 
discontent  of  the  people  increased;  the  Bishop  of 
Orvieto,  the  other  Rector  of  Rome,  who  had  already 
protested  against  what  had  occurred  at  the  conven- 
tion of  the  Italian  deputies,  abandoned  the  city;  the 
poi)e  repudiated  Cola  in  a  I3ull.  Thus  deserted,  and 
not  believing  himself  safe,  he  took  refuge  in  the  Castle 
of  8.  Angelo,  and  three  days  later  (18  Dec,  1347)  the 
barons  returned  in  triumph  to  restore  things  to  their 
former  condition. 

Cola  fortunately  succeeded  in  escaping.  He  sought 
refuge  with  the  Spiritual  Franciscans  living  in  the 
hermitages  of  Monte  Maiella.  But  the  plague  of  1348, 
the  i)re.sence  of  bands  of  adventurers  and  the  jubilee 
(jf  i:>.")0  had  increased  the  mysticism  of  the  people 
and  still  mcjre  of  the  Spirituals.  One  of  the  latter, 
l'"ra  Angelo,  told  Rienzi  that  it  was  now  the  proper 
moment  to  think  of  the  common  weal,  to  co-operate 
in  the  restoration  of  the  empire  and  in  the  puri- 
fication of  the  Church:  all  of  which  had  been  pre- 
dicted by  Joachim  of  Flora,  the  celebrated  Calabrian 
abbot,  and  that  he  ought  to  give  his  assistance.  Cola 
betook  himself  thence  to  Charles  IV  at  Prague  (1350), 
who  imprisoned  him,  either  as  a  madman  or  as  a 
heretic.  After  two  years  Cola  was  sent  at  the  request 
of  the  pope  to  Avignon,  where  through  the  interces- 
sion of  Petrarch,  his  admirer,  though  now  disillu- 
sioned, he  was  treated  better.  When  Innocent  VI 
sent  Cardinal  Albornoz  into  Italy  (at  the  beginning  of 
1353)  he  allowed  Cola  di  Rienzi  to  accompany  him. 
The  Romans,  who  had  fallen  back  into  their  "former 
state  of  anarchy,  invited  him  to  return,  and  Albornoz 
consented  to  appoint  him  senator  (sindaco)  of  Rome. 
On  1  Aug.,  1354,  Rienzi  entered  Rome  in  triumph.  But 
the  new  government  did  not  last  long.  His  luxury  and 
revelry,  followed  by  the  inevitable  taxation,  above  all 
the  unjust  killing  of  several  persons  (among  whom  waa 
Fra  Moriale,  a  brigand,  in  the  service  of  Cola),  pro- 
voked the  people  to  fury.  On  8  Oct.,  1354,  the  cry 
of  "Death  to  Rienzi  the  traitor!"  rose  in  the  city. 
Cola  attempted  to  flee,  but  was  recognized  and  slain, 
and  his  corpse  dragged  through  the  streets  of  the 
city.  Cola  represented,  one  might  say,  the  death 
agony  of  the  Guelph  (papal-national-democratic)  idea 
and  the  rise  of  the  classical  (imperial  and  ajsthetic) 
idea  of  the  Renaissance. 

Vita  Kicolai  Laurenlii  in  Muratori,  Antiquitates;  Vita  Nicolai 
Laurentii,  ed.  del  Re  (Florence,  1854) ;  Gabrielli,  Epistolario  di 
Cola  Rienzo  (Rome,  1890) ;  Papencordt,  Cola  di  Rienzo  und  seine 
Zeit  (Hamburg,  1841);  Rodocanachi,  Cola  di  Rienzo  (Paris, 
1888). 

U.  Benigni. 


RIETI 


54 


RIFFEL 


Rieti,  Diocese  of  (Reatina),  Central  Italy,  im- 
mediately subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  city  is  situ- 
ated in  the  valley  of  the  River  Velino,  which,  on 
account  of  the  calcareous  deposits  that  accumulate 
in  it,  grows  shallower  and  imperils  the  city,  so  that 
even  in  ancient  days  it  was  necessary  to  construct. 
canals  and  outlets,  "like  that  of  Marius  Curius  Den- 
tat  us  (272  B.  c.)  which,  repaired  and  enlarged  by 
Clement  VIII,  has  produced  the  magnificent  waterfall 
of  the  Velino,  near  Terni.  The  city,  which  was 
founded  by  the  Pelasgians,  was  the  chief  town  of  the 
Sabines,  and  became  later  a  Roman  municipium  and 
prefecture.  After  the  Longobard  invasion  it  was  the 
seat  of  a  "gastaldo",  dependent  on  the  Duchy  of 
Spoleto.  It  was  presented  to  the  Holy  See  by  Otto  I 
in  962;  in  1143,  after  a  long  siege,  it  was  destroyed  by 
King  Roger  of  Naples.  It  was  besieged  again  in  1210 
by  Otto  of  Brunswick  when  forcing  liis  way  into  the 
Kingdom  of  Naples.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the 
popes  took  refuge  there  on  several  occasions,  and  in 
r2SS  it  witnessed  the  coronation  of  Charles  II  of 
Naples;  later  an  Apostolic  delegate  resided  at  Rieti. 
In  1S60,  by  the  disloyalty  of  a  delegate,  it  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Italian  troops  without  resistance.  Rieti 
was  the  birthplace  of  Blessed  Colomba  (1501) ;  in  the 
sixth  century  it  contained  an  Abbey  of  St.  Stephen; 
the  body  of  St.  Baldovino,  Cistercian,  founder  of  the 
monasterj'  of  Sts.  Matthew  and  Pastor  (twelfth  cen- 
turj')  is  venerated  in  the  cathedral.  Near  Rieti  is 
Greccio,  where  St.  Francis  set  up  the  first  Christmas 
crib.  The  cathedral  is  in  Lombard  style,  with  a  crypt 
dating  from  the  fourth  or  fifth  century.  It  should  be 
remarked  that  in  medieval  documents  there  is  fre- 
quent confusion  between  Reatinus  (Rieti),  Aretinus 
(Arezzo),  and  Teaiinus  (Chieti).  The  first  known 
Bi.shop  of  Rieti  is  Ursus  (499);  St.  Gregory  mentions 
Probus  and  Albinus  (sixth  century).  The  names  of 
many  bishops  in  the  Longobard  period  are  known. 
Later  we  meet  with  Dodonus  (1137),  who  repaired  the 
damage  done  by  King  Roger;  Benedict,  who  in  1184 
officiated  at  the  marriage  of  Queen  Constance  of 
Naples  and  Henr>'  VI;  Rainaldo,  a  Franciscan  (1249), 
restorer  of  discipline,  which  work  was  continued  by 
Tommaso  (12.52);  Pietro  Guerra  (1278),  who  had 
Andrea  PLsano  erect  the  episcopal  palace  with  materi- 
als taken  from  the  ancient  amphitheatre  of  Vespasian; 
Lodovico  Teodonari  (1380),  murdered  while  engaged 
in  Divine  service,  on  account  of  his  severity,  which 
deed  was  cruelly  punished  by  Boniface  IX;  Angelo 
Capranica  04.50),  later  a  cardinal;  Cardinal  Pompeo 
Colonna  (1.508),  who  for  rebellion  against  Julius  II 
and  Clement  VII  was  twice  deprived  of  his  cardinal- 
it  ial  dignity;  Scipione  Colonna  (1.520),  his  nephew, 
took  part  in  the  revolt  against  Clement  VII  in  1.528, 
and  was  kille<l  in  an  encounter  with  Amico  of  Asooli, 
Abbot  of  F^arfa;  Marianus  Victorius  (1572,  for  a  few 
days),  a  distinguished  writer  and  patrologi-st;  Giorgio 
Bolognetti  nG.'i9),  restored  the  episcopal  palace  and 
was  distinguijihed  for  his  charity;  Gabrielle  Ferretti 
(1827),  later  a  cardinal,  a  man  of  great  charity.     At 

Ercjsent  the  diocese  contains  60  parishes,  142,100  in- 
abitants,  2.50  secular  priests,  7  religious  hou-ses  with 
63  prif^tH,  15  houses  of  nuns;  2  educational  establish- 
ments for  boys,  and  4  for  girls. 

CArrELLrm,  1^  r,hu'e  d' Italia,  V;  de  Sanctib,  Notizie  ntoriche 
di  Rxeti  (Hieti,  1887);  Maboni,  Comnuntarii  de  EccUtia  Reatina 

U.  Benioni. 

Riayaulx  (Rievali;),  Abbey  of.— Thurston,  Arch- 
bishop of  ^ork,  was  v<-r>'  anxious  to  have  a  monastery 
of  the  newly  founds]  and  f«;rvent  order  of  Cistercians 
in  his  diwr«e;  and  so,  at  his  invitation,  St.  Bernard 
of  Clairvaux  sent  a  cohmy  of  his  rnonks,  under  the 
leadership  of  Alibot  Willi'am,  to  make  the  flesired 
foundation.  AfU^r  some  delay  Walter  Espec  became 
their  founder  and  chief  benefactor,  presfinting  them 
with  a  suitable  estate,  situated  in  a  wild  and  lonely 


spot,  in  the  valley  of  the  rivulet  Rie  (from  whence 
the  abbey  derived  its  name),  and  surrounded  by  pre- 
cipitous hills,  in  Blakemore,  near  Helmesley.  The 
community  took  possession  of  the  ground  in  1131,  and 
began  the  foundation,  the  first  of  their  order  in  York- 
shire. The  church  and  abbey,  as  is  the  case  with  all 
monasteries  of  the  order,  were  dedicated  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  At  first  their  land  being  crude 
and  uncultivated,  they  suffered  much  until,  after  a 
number  of  years,  their  first  benefactor  again  came  to 
their  assistance  and,  later  on,  joined  their  community. 
Their  land,  also,  through  their  incessant  labours,  even- 
tually became  productive,  so  that,  with  more  ade- 
quate means  of  subsistence,  they  were  able  to  devote 
their  energies  to  the  completion  of  church  and 
monastic  buildings,  though  these  were  finished  only 
after  a  great  lapse  of  time,  on  account  of  their  isola- 
tion and  the  fact  that  the  monastery  was  never 
wealthy.  The  constructions  were  carried  on  section 
by  section,  permanent  edifices  succeeding  those  that 
were  temporary  after  long  intervals.  The  final  build- 
ings, however,  as  attested  by  the  magnificent,  though 
melancholy,  ruins  yet  remaining,  were  completed  on  a 
grand  scale. 

Within  a  very  few  years  after  its  foundation  the 
community  numbered  three  hundred  members,  and 
was  by  far  the  most  celebrated  monastery  in  England ; 
many  others  sprang  from  it,  the  most  important  of 
them  being  Melrose,  the  first  Cistercian  monastery 
built  in  Scotland.  Rievaulx  early  became  a  brilliant 
centre  of  learning  and  holiness;  chief  amongst  its 
lights  shone  St.  Aelred,  its  third  abbot  (1147-67), 
who  from  his  sweetness  of  character  and  depth  of 
learning  was  called  Bernardo  prope  par.  He  had  been, 
before  his  entrance  into  the  cloister,  a  most  dear 
friend  and  companion  of  St.  David,  King  of  Scotland. 
History  gives  us  but  scant  details  of  the  later  life  at 
Rievaulx.  At  the  time  of  its  suppression  and  con- 
fiscation by  Henry  VIII  the  abbot,  Rowland  Blyton, 
with  twenty-three  religious  composed  its  community. 
The  estates  of  this  ancient  abbey  are  now  in  the 
possession  of  the  Duncombe  family. 

Manrique,  Annales  Cistercienses  (Lyons,  1642);  MartJinb 
AND  Ddrand,  Thesaurus  novus  anecdotorum,  IV  (Paris,  1717); 
Henriquez,  Pha:nix  reviviscens  (Brussels,  1626);  Duodalb, 
Monaslicon  Anglicanum,  V  (London,  1817-30);  Carlularium  ab- 
batiw  de  Ricvalle  in  Siirtees'  Soc.  Publ.  (London,  1889);  St.  Aelred, 
Abbot  of  Rievaux  (London,  1845);  Oxford,  Ruins  of  Fountains 
Abbey  (London,  1910);  Hodges,  Fountains  Abbey  (New  York, 
1904). 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 

Riffel,  Caspar,  historian,  b.  at  Biidesheim, 
Bingen,  Germany,  19  Jan.,  1807;  d.  at  Mainz,  15 
Dec,  1856.  He  studied  under  Klee  at  Mainz  and 
Bonn  and  under  Mohler  at  Tubingen.  After  his 
ordination  to  the  priesthood,  18  Dec,  1830,  he  was 
named  assistant  priest  at  Bingen.  In  1835  he  was 
appointed  to  a  parish  at  Giessen,  and  to  the  chair  of 
moral  theology  in  the  local  theological  faculty.  His 
transfer  to  the  profes.sorship  in  Church  history  fol- 
lowed in  1837.  The  publication  of  the  first  volume 
of  his  Church  history  in  1841  aroused  a  storm  of 
indignation  among  Protestants,  to  whom  his  accurate 
though  not  flattering  account  of  the  Reformation  was 
distasteful.  The  Hessian  Government  hastened  to 
pension  the  fearless  teacher  (19  Nov.,  1842).  This 
measure  caused  intense  indignation  among  the  dio- 
cesan Catholic  clergy,  who  denounced  the  Protestant 
atmosphere  of  the  university.  Riffel  retired  to 
Mainz,  where  Bishop  von  Ketteler  appointed  him 
in  1851  professor  of  Church  history  in  his  newly 
organized  ecclesiastical  seminary.  Death  put  a 
j)rematurc  end  to  the  teaching  of  this  Catholic 
educator,  who  contributed  largely  to  the  restoration 
of  a  truly  ecclesiastical  spirit  among  the  German 
clergy.  He  wrote:  "Geschichtliche  Darstellune  des 
Verhaltnisses  zwischen  Kirche  und  Staat",  ^lainz, 
1836;    "Predigten  auf  alle  Sonn-  und  Festtage  des 


RIGBY 


55 


RIGHT 


Jahres",  Mainz,  1839-40,  3rd  ed.,  1854;  "Christ- 
liche  Kirchengeschichte  der  neuesten  Zeit",  Mainz, 
1841-46;  "Die  Aufhebung  des  Jesuitenordens", 
3rd  ed.,  Mainz,  1855. 

GoYAU,  L'Allemagne  religieuse:  le  Catholicisme,  II  (Paris,  1905), 
313. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Rigby,  John,  Venerable,  English  martyr;  b. 
about  1570  at  Harrocks  Hall,  Eccleston,  Lancashire; 
executed  at  St.  Thomas  Waterings,  21  June,  1600. 
He  was  the  fifth  or  sixth  son  of  Nicholas  Rigby,  by 
Mary,  daughter  of  Oliver  Breres  of  Preston.  In  the 
service  of  Sir  Edmund  Huddleston,  at  a  time  when  his 
daughter,  Mrs.  Fortescue,  being  then  ill,  was  cited 
to  the  Old  Bailey  for  recusancy,  Rigby  appeared  on 
her  behalf;  compelled  to  confess  himself  a  Catholic, 
he  was  sent  to  Newgate.  The  next  day,  14  February, 
1599  or  1600,  he  signed  a  confession,  that,  since  he 
had  been  reconciled  by  the  martyr,  John  Jones  the 
Franciscan,  in  the  Clink  some  two  or  three  years 
previously,  he  had  declined  to  go  to  church.  He  was 
then  chained  and  remitted  to  Newgate,  till,  on  19 
February,  he  was  transferred  to  the  White  Lion.  On 
the  first  Wednesday  in  March  (which  was  the  4th 
and  not,  as  the  martyr  himself  supposes,  the  3rd)  he 
was  brought  to  the  bar,  and  in  the  afternoon  given  a 
private  opportunity  to  conform.  The  next  day  he 
was  sentenced  for  having  been  reconciled;  but  was 
reprieved  till  the  next  sessions.  On  19  June  he  was 
again  brought  to  the  bar,  and  as  he  again  refused  to 
conform,  he  was  told  that  his  sentence  must  be  car- 
ried out.  On  his  way  to  execution  the  hurdle  was 
stopped  by  a  Captain  Whitlock,  who  wished  him  to 
conform  and  asked  him  if  he  were  married,  to  which 
the  martyr  replied,  "1  am  a  bachelor;  and  more  than 
that  I  am  a  maid",  and  the  captain  thereupon  de- 
sired his  prayers.  The  priest,  who  reconciled  him, 
had  suffered  on  the  same  spot  12  July,  1598. 

Challoner,  Missionary  Priests,  II  (London,  1878),  n.  117; 
Gii.i,ow,  BiW.  Dirt.Eno.Calh.,  V,  420;  Chatham  Socieli/s  Pub- 
lications. LXXXI  (1870),  74. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Rigby,  Nicholas,  b.  1800  at  Walton  near  Preston, 
Lancashire;  d.  at  Ugthorpe,  7  September,  1SS6. 
At  twelve  years  he  went  to  I'shaw  College,  where  he 
was  for  a  time  professor  of  elocution.  Ordained 
priest  in  September,  1826,  he  was  sent  to  St.  Mary's, 
Wycliffe,  for  six  months,  and  was  then  given  the  united 
missions  of  Egton  Bridge  and  Ugthorpe.  After  seven 
years  the  two  missions  were  again  separated,  and 
he  took  up  his  residence  at  Ugthorpe.  There  he 
built  a  church  (opened  in  1855),  started  a  new  ceme- 
tery, and  founded  a  middle-class  college.  About 
1884  he  resigned  the  mission  work  to  his  curate,  the 
Rev.  E.  J.  Hickey.  His  obituary  notice,  in  the 
"Catholic  Times"  of  17  September,  1886,  gives  a 
sketch  of  his  life.  He  wrote:  "The  Real  Doctrine 
of  the  Church  on  Scripture",  to  which  is  added  an 
account  of  the  conversion  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick 
(Anton  Ulrich,  1710),  and  of  "Father  Ignatius" 
Spencer  (1830),  (York,  1834),  dedicated  to  the  Rev. 
Benedict  Rayment.  Other  works,  chiefly  treatises 
on  primary  truths,  or  sermons  of  a  controversial 
character,  are  described  in  Gillow,  "Bibl.  Diet. 
Eng.  Cath." 

Patrick  Ryan. 

Right,  as  a  substantive  (my  right,  his  right),  desig- 
nates the  object  of  justice.  When  a  person  declares 
he  has  a  right  to  a  thing,  he  means  he  has  .a  kind  of 
dominion  over  such  thing,  which  others  are  obliged  to 
recognize.  Right  may  therefore  be  defined  as  a  moral 
or  legal  authority  to  possess,  claim,  and  use  a  thing 
as  one's  own.  It  is  thus  essentially  distinct  from 
obligation;  in  virtue  of  an  obligation  we  should,  in 
virtue  of  a  right,  we  may  do  or  omit  something.    Again, 


right  is  a  moral  or  legal  authoritj',  and,  as  such,  is 
distinct  from  merely  physical  superiority  or  pre-emi- 
nence; the  thief  who  steals  something  without  being 
detected  enjoys  the  physical  control  of  the  object, 
but  no  right  to  it;  on  the  contrary,  his  act  is  an  in- 
justice, a  violation  of  right,  and  he  is  bound  to  return 
the  stolen  object  to  its  owner.  Right  is  called  a  moral 
or  legal  authority,  because  it  emanates  from  a  law 
which  assigns  to  one  the  dominion  over  the  thing  and 
imposes  on  others  the  obligation  to  respect  this 
dominion.  To  the  right  of  one  person  corresponds  an 
obligation  on  the  part  of  others,  so  that  right  and 
obligation  condition  each  other.  If  I  have  the  right 
to  demand  one  hundred  dollars  from  a  person,  he  is 
under  the  obligation  to  give  them  to  me;  without  this 
obligation,  right  would  be  illusory.  One  may  even 
say  that  the  right  of  one  person  consists  in  the  fact 
that,  on  his  account,  others  are  bound  to  perform  or 
omit  something. 

The  clause,  "to  possess,  claim,  and  use,  anything 
as  one's  own",  defines  more  closely  the  object  of  right. 
Justice  assigns  to  each  person  his  own  {suum  cuique). 
When  anyone  asserts  that  a  thing  is  his  own,  is  his 
private  property,  or  belongs  to  him,  he  means  that 
this  object  stands  in  a  spcrial  n^lation  to  him,  that  it 
is  in  the  first  place  destined  for  his  use,  and  that  he 
can  dispose  of  it  according  to  his  will,  regardless  of 
others.  By  a  thing  is  here  meant  not  merely  a  material 
object,  but  everj'thing  that  can  be  useful  to  man, 
including  actions,  omissions,  etc.  The  connexion  of  a 
certain  thing  with  a  certain  person,  in  virtue  of  which 
the  person  may  declare  the  thing  his  own,  can  orig- 
inate only  on  the  basis  of  concrete  facts.  It  is  an 
evident  demand  of  human  reason  in  general  that  one 
may  give  or  leave  one's  own  to  anyone;  but  what 
constitutes  one's  own  is  determined  by  facts.  Many 
things  are  physically  connected  with  the  human  per- 
son by  conception  or  birth — his  hmbs,  bodily  and 
mental  qualities,  health,  etc.  From  the  order  imposed 
by  the  Creator  of  Nature,  we  recognize  that,  from  the 
first  moment  of  his  being,  his  faculties  and  members 
are  granted  a  person  primarily  for  his  own  use,  and 
so  that  they  may  enable  him  to  supjiort  himself  and 
develop  and  fulfil  the  tasks  appointed  by  the  Creator 
for  this  life.  These  things  (i.  e.,his  qualities,  etc.)  are 
his  own  from  the  first  moment  of  his  existence,  and 
whoever  injures  them  or  deprives  him  of  them  vio- 
lates his  right.  However,  many  other  things  are  con- 
nected with  the  human  person,  not  physically,  but 
only  morally.  In  other  words,  in  virtue  of  a  certain 
fact,  everyone  recognizes  that  certain  things  are 
specially  destined  for  the  use  of  one  person,  and  must 
be  recognized  as  such  by  all.  Persons  who  build  a 
house  for  themselves,  make  an  implement,  catch  game 
in  the  unreserved  forest,  or  fish  in  the  open  sea,  be- 
come the  owners  of  these  things  in  virtue  of  occupation 
of  their  labour;  they  can  claim  these  things  as  their 
own,  and  no  one  can  forcibly  appropriate  or  injure 
these  things  without  a  violation  of  their  rights.  Who- 
ever ha.s  lawfully  purchased  a  thing,  or  been  presented 
with  it  by  another,  may  regard  such  thing  as  his  own, 
since  by  the  purchase  or  presentation  he  succeeds  to 
the  place  of  the  other  person  and  possesses  his  rights. 
As  a  right  gives  rise  to  a  certain  connexion  between 
person  and  person  with  respect  to  a  thing,  we  may 
distingui-sh  in  right  four  elements:  the  holder,  the 
object,  the  title,  and  the  terminus  of  the  right.  The 
holder  of  the  right  is  the  person  who  possesses  the 
right,  the  terminus  is  the  person  who  has  the  obliga- 
tion corresponding  to  the  right,  the  object  is  the  thing 
to  which  the  right  refers,  and  the  title  is  the  fact  on 
the  ground  of  which  a  person  may  regard  and  claim 
the  thing  as  his  own.  Strictly  speaking,  this  fact  alone 
is  not  the  title  of  the  right,  which  originates,  indeed, 
in  the  fact,  but  taken  in  connexion  with  the  principle 
that  one  must  assign  to  each  his  own  property;  how- 
ever, since  this  principle  may  be  presupposed  as  self- 


RIGHT 


56 


RIGHT 


evident,  it  is  customary  to  regard  the  simple  fact  as 
the  title  of  the  right. 

The  right  of  which  we  have  hitherto  been  speaking 
is  individual  right,  to  which  th':>  obligation  of  com- 
mutative justice  corresponds.  Commutative  justice 
regulates  the  relations  of  the  members  of  human 
society  to  one  another,  and  aims  at  securing  that  each 
member  renders  to  his  fellow-members  what  is  equally 
theirs.  In  addition  to  this  commutative  justice,  there 
is  also  a  legal  and  distributive  justice;  these  virtues 
regulate  the  relations  between  the  complete  societies 
(State  and  Church)  and  their  members.  From  the  pro- 
I>ensities  and  needs  of  human  nature  we  recognize 
the  State  as  resting  on  a  Divine  ordinance;  only  in  the 
State  can  man  support  himself  and  develop  according 
to  his  nature.  But,  if  the  Divine  Creator  of  Nature 
has  willed  the  existence  of  the  State,  He  must  also 
will  the  means  necessarj'  for  its  maintenance  and  the 
attainment  of  its  objects.  This  will  can  be  found  only 
in  the  right  of  the  State  to  demand  from  its  members 
what  is  necessar>'  for  the  general  good.  It  must  be 
authorized  to  make  laws,  to  punish  violations  of  such, 
and  in  general  to  arrange  everything  for  the  public 
welfare,  while,  on  their  side,  the  members  must  be 
under  the  obligation  corresponding  to  this  right.  The 
\-irtue  which  makes  all  members  of  society  contribute 
what  is  necessar>'  for  its  maintenance  is  called  legal 
justice,  because  the  law  has  to  determine  in  individual 
cases  what  burdens  are  to  be  borne  by  the  members. 
According  to  Catholic  teaching,  the  Church  is,  like 
the  State,  a  complete  and  indeiJcndent  society,  where- 
fore it  also  must  be  justified  in  demanding  from  its 
members  whatever  is  necessary'  for  its  welfare  and  the 
attainment  of  its  object.  But  the  members  of  the 
State  have  not  only  obligations  towards  the  general 
body;  they  have  likewnse  rights.  The  State  is  bound 
to  distribute  public  burdens  (e.  g.  taxation)  according 
to  the  powers  and  capability  of  the  members,  and  is 
also  under  the  obligation  of  distributing  public  goods 
(offices  and  honours)  according  to  the  degree  of 
worthiness  and  services.  To  these  duties  of  the  gen- 
eral body  or  its  leaders  corresponds  a  right  of  the 
members;  they  can  demand  that  the  leaders  observe 
the  claims  of  distributive  justice,  and  failure  to  do 
this  on  the  part  of  the  authorities  is  a  violation  of  the 
right  of  the  members. 

On  the  basis  of  the  above  notions  of  right,  its  object 
can  be  more  exactly  determined.  Three  species  of 
right  and  justice  have  been  distinguished.  The  object 
of  the  right,  corresponding  to  even-handed  justice, 
has  as  its  object  the  .securing  for  the  members  of 
human  society  in  their  intercourse  with  one  another 
freefiom  and  independence  in  the  use  of  their  own 
po8.sf!s.sioas.  For  the  object  of  right  can  only  be  the 
gwxi  for  the  attainment  of  which  we  recognize  right 
SA  neces.sar>',  anti  which  it  effects  of  its  very  nature, 
and  this  gcxxl  is  the  freedom  and  independence  of 
even,'  member  of  society  in  the  use  of  his  own.  If 
man  is  to  fulfil  fn^-ly  the  tasks  imposed  upon  him  by 
G'kI,  he  must  pf)ss<'Ks  the  means  nece,ssary  for  this 
purpow!,  and  be  at  liberty  U)  utilize  such  indepen- 
dently of  others.  He  must  have  a  sphere  of  free  a(;tiv- 
ity,  in  which  he  is  secure  from  the  interference  of 
others;  this  object  is  attained  by  tlie  right  which 
protects  each  in  the  free  use  of  his  f)wn  from  the  en- 
croaehments  of  others.  Hence  the  proverbs:  "A 
willing  p<Twm  suffors  no  injustice"  and  "Xo  one  is 
c/)rnp<-ll<'d  U>  rnakf  use  of  his  rights".  For  the  object 
of  the  right  whifh  rorrfsponds  to  commutative  justice 
is  the  liberty  of  tlic  iKmsessor  of  the  right  in  the  use  of 
his  own,  and  this  right  is  not  attained  if  «'ach  is  bound 
always  to  mak<-  uh*-  nf  and  insist  ui)on  his  rights.  The 
objffl  of  th»'  right  which  ••orn-sponds  to  legal  justice 
is  the  gfxxi  of  thf  community;  (if  this  right  we  may 
not  say  that  "no  one  is  bound  to  make  use  of  his 
right",  Bince  the  c<^>mmunity — fjr,  mon*  correctly,  its 
l^tdefH — muHt  make  u»e  of  public  rights,  whenever 


and  wherever  the  good  of  the  community  requires  it. 
Finally,  the  right  corresponding  to  the  object  of 
distributive  justice  is  the  defence  of  the  members 
against  the  community  or  its  leaders;  they  must  not 
be  laden  with  public  burdens  beyond  their  powers, 
and  must  receive  as  much  of  the  public  goods  as  be- 
comes the  condition  of  their  meritoriousness  and 
services.  Although,  in  accordance  with  the  above, 
each  of  the  three  kinds  of  rights  has  its  own  immediate 
object,  all  three  tend  in  common  towards  one  remote 
object,  which,  according  to  St.  Thomas  (Cont.  Gent., 
Ill,  xxxiv),  is  nothing  else  than  to  secure  that  peace 
be  maintained  among  men  by  procuring  for  each  the 
peaceful  possession  of  his  own. 

Right  (or  more  precisely  speaking,  the  obligation 
corresponding  to  right)  is  enforceable  at  least  in 
general — that  is,  whoev(>r  has  a  right  with  respect  to 
some  other  person  is  authorized  to  employ  jihysical 
force  to  secure  the  fulfilment  of  this  obligation,  if  the 
other  person  will  not  voluntarily  fulfil  it.  This  en- 
forceable character  of  the  obligation  arises  necessarily 
from  the  object  of  right.  As  already  said,  this  object 
is  to  secure  for  every  member  of  society  a  sphere  of 
free  activity  and  for  society  the  means  necessary  for 
its  development,  and  the  attainment  of  this  object  is 
evidently  indispensable  for  social  life;  but  it  would 
not  be  sufl^ciently  attained  if  it  were  left  to  each  one's 
discretion  whether  he  should  fulfil  his  obligations  or 
not.  In  a  large  community  there  are  always  many  who 
would  allow  themselves  to  be  guided,  not  by  right  or 
justice,  but  by  their  own  selfish  inclinations,  and  would 
disregard  the  rights  of  their  fellowmen,  if  thej'  were 
not  forcibly  confined  to  their  proper  sphere  of  right; 
consequently,  the  obligation  corresponding  to  a  right 
must  be  enforceable  in  favour  of  the  poss(>ssor  of  the 
right.  But  in  a  regulated  community  the  power  of 
compulsion  must  be  vested  in  the  public  authority, 
since,  if  each  might  emplo}'  force  against  his  fellowmen 
whenever  his  right  was  infringed,  there  would  soon 
arise  a  general  conflict  of  all  against  all,  and  order 
and  safety  would  be  entirely  subverted.  Only  in 
cases  of  necessity,  where  an  unjust  attack  on  one's  life 
or  property  has  to  be  warded  off  and  recourse  to  the 
authorities  is  impossible,  has  the  individual  the  right 
of  meeting  violence  with  violence. 

While  right  or  the  obligation  corresponding  to  it  is 
enforceable,  we  must  beware  of  referring  the  essence 
of  right  to  this  enforcibility  or  even  to  the  authority 
to  enforce  it,  as  is  done  by  many  jurists  sinc(>  the  time 
of  Kant.  For  enforcibility  is  only  a  secondary  char- 
acteristic of  right  and  does  not  pertain  to  all  rights; 
although,  for  example,  under  a  real  monarchy  the 
subjects  possess  soidc  rights  with  respect  to  the  ruler, 
they  can  usually  exercise  no  eoiiipulsion  towards  him, 
since  he  is  irrespotisi})le,  and  is  subject  to  no  higher 
authority  which  can  employ  forcible  meiusures  against 
him.  Rights  are  divided,  according  to  the  title  on 
which  they  rest,  into  natural  and  positive  rights,  and 
the  latter  are  subdivided  into  Divine  and  human 
rights.  By  natural  rights  are  meant  all  those  which 
we  acquire  by  our  very  birth,  e.  g.  the  right  to  live, 
to  integrity  of  limbs,  to  freedom,  to  acquire  property, 
etc.;  ail  other  rights  are  called  acquired  rights,  al- 
though many  of  them  are  acquired,  independently  of 
any  positive  law,  in  virtue  of  free  acts,  e.  g.  the  right 
of  the  husliand  and  wife  in  virtue  of  the  marriage  con- 
tract, the  right  to  ownerless  goods  through  occupa- 
tion, the  right  to  a  hou.se  through  purchiise  or  hire, 
etc.  C)n  the  other  hand,  other  rights  may  be  given  by 
positive  law;  according  :ih  the  law  is  Divine  or  human, 
and  the  latter  civil  or  ecclesiasti(;al,  we  distinguish 
between  Divine  or  human,  civil  or  ecclesiastical  rights. 
To  civil  rights  heUing  citizenship  in  a  state,  active  or 
jiiissive  franchise,  etc. 

Sumnut  tht!ol.,ll-U.(.iCi.\vui><\(}.;  Oominiccb  SoTO;  Molina; 
Lehhicr,  Dr  juxtitin  it  jitrr:  Tapabklli  d'Azeolio,  Sapiiio 
te.nrrliro  ili  dirrtln  nad/ra/c  (Palermo,  1840-.3);  Pruneb,  Dix  Le.hre 
vomRecht  (Ratiabon,  1857);  Vebmeersch,  Quccationes  de  juatitia 


RIGHT 


57 


RIMINI 


(2nd  ed.,  Bruges,  1904) ;  Crolly,  Dejustitia  etjure  (Dublin,  1870) ; 
^IEYER,  Die  Grundadtze  der  Sittlichkeit  u.  des  Rechtes  (Freiburg, 
1868);  Idem,  Institutiones  juris  naturalis,  I  (2nd  ed.),  nn.  430 
sqq.;  FiJHRicH,  Rechtssubjekt  u,  Kirchenrecht,  I  (Leipzig,  1908); 
Cathrein,  Recht,  Naturrecht  u.  positiven  Rechl  (2nd  ed.,  Frei- 
burg, 1909);  Idem,  Moral  philosophie,  I  (5th  ed.,  Freiburg),  502 
sqq.;  Thering,  Der  Zweck  in  Recht  (4th  ed.,  Vienna);  St.\mm- 
LER,  Die  Lehre  vom  richtigen  Recht  (Vienna,  1902) ;  Bekker,  Grund- 
hegriffe  des  Rechts  (Berlin,  1910). 

V.  Cathrein. 

Right  of  Asylum.  See  Privileges,  Ecclesias- 
tical. 

Right  of  Presentation.  See  Presentation, 
Right  of. 

Rimbert,  Saint,  Archbishop  of  Bremen-Hamburg, 
d.  at  Bremen  11  June,  888.  It  is  uncertain  whether 
he  was  a  Fleming  or  a  Norman.  He  was  educated  at 
the  monastery  of  Turholt  near  Brugge  in  Flanders. 
There  St.  Ansgar,  first  Archbishop  of  Hamburg,  be- 
came acquainted  with  him,  and  later  made  him  his 
constant  companion.  When  Ansgar  died  on  2  Feb- 
ruary, 865,  Rimbert  was  chosen  his  successor.  Pope 
Nicholas  I  sent  him  the  pallium  in  December,  86.5. 
As  Ansgar's  missionary  system  was  based  on  a  con- 
nexion with  the  Benedictine  Order,  Rimbert  became, 
shortly  after  his  consecration,  a  monk  at  Corvey,  and 
subsequently  made  missionary  journeys  to  West 
Friesland,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  but  concerning 
these  unfortunately  we  have  no  detailed  information. 
In  884  h(^  succeeded  in  putting  to  flight  the  Norman 
marauders  on  the  coast  of  Friesland;  in  remembrance 
of  this  incident  he  was  later  held  in  special  veneration 
in  P'riesland.  Among  his  episcopal  achievements  the 
foundation  of  a  monastery  in  Biicken  near  Bremen 
and  his  care  for  the  poor  and  sick  are  especially  em- 
phasized. Historians  are  indebted  to  him  for  a 
biography  of  St.  Ansgar,  which  is  distinguished  by 
valuable  historical  information  and  a  faithful  charac- 
ter-sketch. On  the  other  hand,  (he  biography  of 
Rimbert  himself,  written  by  a  monk  of  Corvey,  is, 
while  very  edifying,  poor  in  actual  information; 
hence  we  know  so  little  of  his  life. 

Vita  Rimberti  in  Mon.  Germ.  hist.  Scriptores,  II  (Hanover, 
1829),  764-75;  Dehio,  Gesch.  des  Erzbistums  Ilamburg-Bremen, 
I  (Berlin,  1877),  92-8;  .\llgem.  deutsche  Biogr.,  s.  v.;  Biogr. 
iiatioimle  de  Belgique,  s.  v.  Rcmbert. 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Rimini,  Council  of. — The  second  Formula  of 
Sirmium  (357)  stated  the  doctrine  of  the  Anomojans, 
or  extreme  Arians.  Against  this  the  Scmi-Arian 
bishops,  assembled  at  Ancyra,  the  episcopal  city  of 
their  leader  Basilius,  issued  a  counter  formula,  a.ssert- 
ing  that  the  Son  is  in  all  things  like  the  Father,  after- 
wards approved  by  the  Third  Synod  of  Sirmium  (358). 
This  formula,  though  silent  on  the  term  '  honio- 
usios",  consecrated  by  the  Council  of  Nicaja,  was 
signed  by  a  few  orthodox  bishops,  and  probably  by 
Pope  Liberius,  being,  in  fact,  capable  of  an  orthodox 
interpretation.  The  Emperor  Constantius  cheri.shed 
at  that  time  the  hope  of  restoring  peace  between  the 
orthodox  and  the  Semi-Arians  by  convoking  a  general 
council.  Failing  to  convene  one  either  at  Nicsea  or  at 
Nicomedia,  he  was  persuaded  by  Patroi)hilus,  Bishop 
of  Scythopolis,  and  Narcissus,  Bishop  of  Neronias,  to 
hold  two  synods,  one  for  the  East  at  Seleucia,  in 
Isauria,  the  other  for  the  West  at  Rimini,  a  proceeding 
justified  by  diversity  of  language  and  by  expense. 
Before  the  convocation  of  the  councils,  Ursacius  and 
Valens  had  Marcus,  Bishop  of  Arethusa,  designated 
to  draft  a  formula  (the  Fourth  of  Sirmium)  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  two  synods.  It  declared  that  the  Son 
was  born  of  the  Father  before  all  ages  (agreeing  so  far 
with  the  Third  Formula);  but  it  added  that,  when 
God  is  spoken  of,  the  word  ovala,  "essence",  should  be 
avoided,  not  being  found  in  Scripture  and  being  a 
cause  of  scandal  to  the  faithful;  by  this  step  they 
intended  to  exclude  the  similarity  of  essence. 

The  Council  of  Rimini  was  opened  early  in  July, 


359,  with  over  four  hundred  bishops.  About  eighty 
Semi-Arians,  including  Ursacius,  Germinius,  and 
Auxentius,  withdrew  from  the  orthodox  bishops,  the 
most  eminent  of  whom  was  Restitutus  of  Carthage; 
Liberius,  Eusebius,  Dionysius,  and  others  were  still 
in  exile.  The  two  parties  sent  separate  deputations 
to  the  emperor,  the  orthodox  asserting  clearly  their 
firm  attachment  to  the  faith  of  Nicsea,  while  the 
Arian  minority  adhered  to  the  imperial  formula.  But 
the  inexperienced  representatives  of  the  orthodox 
majority  allowed  themselves  to  be  deceived,  and  not 
only  entered  into  communion  with  the  heretical  dele- 
gates, but  even  subscribed,  at  Nice  in  Thrace,  a 
formula  to  the  effect  merely  that  the  Son  is  like  the 
Father  according  to  the  Scriptures  (the  words  "in  all 
things"  being  ornitted).  On  their  return  to  Rimini, 
they  were  met  with  the  unanimous  protests  of  their 
colleagues.  But  the  threats  of  the  consul  Taurus,  the 
remonstrances  of  the  Semi-Arians  against  hindering 
peace  between  East  and  West  for  a  word  not  contained 
in  Scripture,  their  privations  and  their  homesickness 
— all  combined  to  weaken  the  constancy  of  the  or- 
thodox bishops.  And  the  last  twenty  were  induced  to 
subscribe  when  Ursacius  had  an  addition  made  to  the 
formula  of  Nice,  declaring  that  the  Son  is  not  a 
creature  like  other  creatures.  Pope  Liberius,  having 
regained  his  liberty,  rejected  this  formula,  which  was 
t  hereupon  repudiated  by  many  who  had  signed  it.  In 
view  of  the  hasty  manner  of  its  adoption  and  the 
lack  of  approbation  by  the  Holy  See,  it  could  have  no 
authority.  In  any  case,  the  council  was  a  sudden  de- 
feat of  orthodoxy,  and  St.  Jerome  could  say:  "The 
whole  world  groaned  in  astonishment  to  find  itself 
Arian". 

Hefele,  History  of  the  Councils,  tr.;  §  82;  Duchesne,  Histoire 
ancienne  de  I'eglise,  II  (Paris,  1910),  294  sq.;  Mansi,  Coll.  Cone, 
III,  29,3  sq.;  Newman,  The  Arians  of  the  Fourth  Century  (Lon- 
don and  New  York,  reprint,  1901),  335-52;  Gwatkin,  Studies  in 
Arianism  (London). 

U.  Benigni. 

Rimini,  Diocese  of  (Ariminum),  suffragan  of 
Ravenna.  Rimini  is  situated  near  the  coast  between 
the  rivers  Marecchia  (the  ancient  Ariminus)  and  Ausa 
(Aprusa).  Coast  navigation  and  fishing  are  the  prin- 
cipal indu.stries.  The  thirteenth-century  cathedral 
(San  Francesco)  was  originally  Gothic,  but  was  trans- 
formed by  order  of  Sigismondo  Malatesta  (1446- 
55)  according  to  the  designs  of  Leone  Baptista 
Alberti  and  never  completed;  the  cupola  is  lacking, 
also  the  upper  part  of  the  fagade;  in  the  cathedral  are 
the  tombs  of  Sigismondo  and  his  wife  Isotta.  The 
plastic  decorations  of  the  main  nave  and  some  of  the 
chapels,  a  glorification  to  Sigismondo  and  Isotta,  are 
by  Agostino  di  Duccio,  and  breathe  the  pagan  spirit 
of  the  Renaissance.  On  the  southern  side  are  the 
tombs  of  illustrious  humanists,  among  them  that  of 
the  philosopher  Gemistus  Pletho,  whose  remains  were 
brought  back  by  Sigismondo  from  his  wars  in  the 
Balkans.  There  is  a  remarkable  fresco  of  Piero  della 
Francesca.  In  San  Giuliano  is  the  great  picture  of 
Paul  Veronese  representing  the  martyrdom  of  that 
saint,  also  pictures  of  Bittino  da  Faenza  (1357)  dealing 
with  some  episodes  of  the  saint's  life.  Among  the 
profane  edifices  are  the  Arch  of  Augustus  (27  b.  c), 
the  remains  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  the  five-arched 
bridge  of  Augustus  over  the  Marecchia.  The  town 
hall  has  a  small  but  valuable  gallery  (Perin  del  Vaga, 
Ghirlandajo,  Bellini,  Benedetto  Coda,  Tintoretto, 
Agostino  di  Duccio) ;  the  Gambalunga  Library  (1677) 
has  valuable  manuscripts.  There  is  an  archaeological 
museum  and  a  bronze  statue  of  Paul  V;  the  castle  of 
Sigismondo  Malatesta  is  now  user!  as  a  prison. 

Ariminum  was  built  by  the  Umbri.  In  t  he  sixth  cen- 
tury B.  c.  it  was  taken  by  the  Gauls;  after  their  last  de- 
feat (283)  it  returned  to  the  Umbri  and  became  in  263  a 
Latin  colony,  very  helpful  to  the  Romans  during  the 
late  Gallic  wars.     Rimini  was  reached  by  the  Via 


RIMOUSKI 


58 


RIMOUSKI 


Flamminia,  and  here  began  the  Via  ^Emilia  that  led  to 
Piacenza.  Augustus  did  much  for  the  city  and  Galla 
Placida  built  the  church  of  San  Stefano.  When  the 
Goths  conquered  Rimini  in  493,  Odoacer,  besieged  m 
Ravenna,  had  to  capitulate.  During  the  Gothic  wars 
Rimini  was  taken  and  retaken  many  times.  In  its 
vicinity  Narses  overthrew  (553)  the  Alamanni.  Un- 
der Bvzantine  dominion  it  belonged  to  the  Pentapolis. 
In  728  it  was  taken  with  many  other  cities  by  the 
Lombard  King  Liutprand  but  returned  to  the  Byzan- 
tines about  735.  King  Pepin  gave  it  to  the  Holy  See, 
but  during  the  wars  of  the  popes  and  the  Italian  cities 
against  the  emperors,  Rimini  sided  with  the  latter. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  it  suffered  from  the  discords 
of  the  Ganihaoari  and  Ansidei  families.  In  1295 
Malatesta  I  d:i  Nerucchio  was  named  "Signore"  of 


Cathedral  of  San  Francesco,  Rimini 

Originally  XIII  Cf-ntury;   the  exterior  rebuilt  in  Classic  .Stylo 

after  de.siKns  of  Leone  Baptista  Alberti,  XV  Century 

the  city,  and,  despite  interruptions,  his  family  held 
authoritv  until  1528.  Among  his  successors  were: 
Malatesta  II  (1312-17);  Pandolfo  I,  his  brother  (d. 
1326),  named  by  Louis  the  Bavarian  imperial  vicar  in 
Romagna;  Ferrantino,  son  of  Malatesta  II  (1335),  op- 
posed bv  his  cousin  Ramberto  and  by  Cardinal 
Bertando  del  Poggetto  (1331),  legate  of  John  XXII; 
Malatesta  III,  Guastafamiglia  (1363),  lord  also  of 
Pesaro;  Malatesta  IV  I'Ungaro  (1373);  Galeotto, 
uncle  of  the  former  (1385),  lord  also  of  Fano  (from 
1340),  Pesaro,  and  Cesena  (1378);  his  son  Carlo 
(1429),  the  noblest  scion  of  the  family,  laboured  for 
the  cessation  of  the  Western  Schism,  and  was  the 
counsellor,  protector,  and  ambassador  of  Gregory 
XII,  and  patron  of  scholars;  Galeotto  Roberto 
(1432),  his  brother  Sigismondo  Pandolf  (1468)  had 
the  militarj-  and  intelifctual  qualities  of  Carlo  Mala- 
tf«ta  but  not  his  character.  He  was  tyrannous  and 
perfidious,  in  constant  rebellion  against  the  popes,  a 
gooil  soldier,  jK>et,  philowipher,  and  lover  of  the  fine 
artH,  but  a  monster  of  doniestic  and  ptiblic  vices;  in 
1463  he  submittrnl  lo  Pius  II,  who  left  him  Rimini; 
Robert,  his  mm  (1482),  under  Paul  II  nearly  lost  his 
state  and  under  Sixtus  IV  became  the  commanding 
officer  of  the  pontifical  army  against  Alfonso  of  Naples, 
by  whom  he  was  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Campo 
Morto  (1482) ;  Pandolfo  V,  his  8f)n  (1500),  lost  Rimini 
to  C<«are  Borgia  n5(K)-3),  after  whose  overthrow  it 
fell  to  Venice  (1.503-9),  but  waw  retaken  by  Julius  II 
and  incorfK^rated  with  the  territory  of  the  Holy  See. 
After  the  death  of  ]a^)  X  Pandolfo  returned  for  several 
months,  and  with  his  son  Sigismondo  held  tyrannous 
rule.  Adrian  VI  gave  Rimini  to  the  Duke  of  I'rbino, 
the  fK»fK''H  vif-ar.  In  1.727  Sigisnifindo  managi-d  to 
regain  the  city,  but  the  following  vear  the  Malatesta 
dominion  pa.sB»ffl  away  forever.  f{imini  was  thence- 
forth a  papal  city,  sufjject  U)  the  legate  at  Forll.  In 
1845  a  band  of  aidvcnturerH  commanded  by  Ribbolti 


entered  the  city  and  proclaimed  a  constitution  which 
was  soon  abolished.  In  1860  Rimini  and  the  Romagna 
were  incorporated  with  the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

Rimini  was  probably  evangelized  from  Raventia. 
Among  its  traditional  martyrs  are:  St.  Innocent  ia  and 
companions;  Sts.  Juventinus,  Facundinus,  and  com- 
panions; Sts.  Theodoras  and  Marinus.  The  see  was 
probably  established  before  the  peace  of  Constantine. 
Among  the  bishops  were:  Stennius,  at  Rome  in  313; 
Cyriacus,  one  of  his  successors,  sided  with  the  Arians; 
under  St.  Gaudentius  the  famous  Council  of  Rimini 
was  held  (359);  he  was  later  put  to  death  by  the 
Arians  for  having  cxcommvmicated  the  priest  Marci- 
anus;  Stephanus  attended  at  Constantinople  (551); 
the  election  of  Castor  (591)  caused  much  trouble  to 
St.  Gregory  I,  who  had  to  send  to  Rimini  a  "visitor"; 
Agnellus  (743)  was  governor  of  the  city  subject  to 
the  Archbishop  of  Ravenna;  Delto  acted  frequently 
as  legate  for  John  VIII;  Blessed  Arduino  (d.  in  1009); 
I'berto  II  is  mentioned  with  praise  by  St.  Peter 
Damian;  Opizo  was  one  of  the  consecrators  of  the 
Antipope  Clement  III  (Guiberto,  1075);  Ranieri  II 
dcgli  I'berti  (1143)  consecrated  the  ancient  cathedral 
of  St.  Colomba;  Alberigo  (1153)  made  peace  between 
Rimini  and  Cesena;  Bonaventura  Trissino  founded 
the  hospital  of  Santo  Spirito;  under  Benno  (1230) 
some  pious  ladies  founded  a  hospital  for  the  lepers, 
and  themselves  caretl  for  the  afflicted.  At  the  end  of 
tlie  thirteenth  century  the  Armenians  received  at 
Rimini  a  church  and  a  hospital.  P>om  1407  Gregory 
XII  resided  at  Rimini.  Giovanni  Rosa  united  the 
eleven  hospitals  of  Rimini  into  one.  Under  Giulio 
Parisani  (1549)  the  seminary  was  opened  (1568). 
Giambattista  Castelli  (1569)  promoted  the  Triden- 
tine  n^forms  and  was  nuncio  at  Paris.  Andrea 
Minucci  was  severely  tried  during  the  French  Revolu- 
tion; under  him  the  Malatt'sta  church  (San  Fran- 
cesco) became  the  cathedral.  The  diocese  has  124 
parishes,  125,400  inhabitants,  336  priests,  10  houses 
of  religious  with  56  priests,  24  houses  of  religious 
women,  who  care  for  the  hospitals,  orphanages,  and 
other  charitable  institutions,  or  communal  and  private 
schools.  There  are  also  1  school  for  boys  and  3  for 
girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d'ltalia,  II;  Nardi,  Cronotassi  dei 
panlori  della  Chiesa  di  Rimini  (Rimini,  1813);  Tonini,  Sloria 
civile  e  mcra  di  Rimini  (6  vols.,  Rimini,  1848-88);  Idem,  Com- 
pendia della  sloria  di  Rimini  (1896) ;  Yriarte,  Rimini:  Etudes  sur 
les  leltres  el  les  arts  d  la  cour  des  Malatesta  (Paris,  1882). 

U.  Benigni, 

Rimouski,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Germani  db 
RiMousKi),  suffragan  of  Quebec,  comprises  the 
counties  of  Bonaventure,  Gaspe  (excej)t  Magdalen 
Islands),  Rimouski  and  the  greater  part  of  Temis- 
eouata,  and  forms  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec.  At  the  extreme  point  of  the  Gasp^ 
peninsula  (formerly  called  Honguedo),  Jacques 
Cartier  landed  on  his  first  voyage  of  discovery  (1534) 
and  plantetl  a  ctoss  with  tlie  royal  arms  of  I'Vance. 
The  Souriquois  or  Micmacs  occupied  the  shores  of 
Bale  des  Chaleurs,  and  their  successive  missionaries, 
RecoUets,  Capuchins,  Jesuits,  amongst  them  Father 
Labrosse,  and  Spirit  ians  (or  priest  s  of  the  seminary  of 
the  Holy  Ghost),  including  the  celebrated  Pierre 
Maillard,  ministered  to  that  region  of  the  Rimouski  dio- 
cese. The  first  Mass  was  celebrated  near  the  city  of 
Rimouski,  at  a  place  since  called  Pointe-au-Pc^re,  by 
the  Jesuit  Henri  Nouvel,  in  1()()3,  on  his  way  to  the 
Papinachois  and  Montagnais  of  Tadoussac,  on  the 
north  shore.  The  first  settler  at  Rimou.ski  was 
CJermain  Lejjage  (1()96),  whose  patronymic  was  chosen 
as  titular  of  the  future  parish  and  diocese.  The 
B(!igniory  had  been  conceded  to  his  son  Rene  in  1688. 
The  latest  statistics  give  120  churches  and  chapels, 
with  148  priests.  Two  wooden  churches  were  built 
at  Rimouski,  in  1712  and  1787  respectively;  the  first 
stone  church,    1824,   was  replaced  by   the  present 


RINGS 


59 


RINGS 


cathedral  in  1854.  Before  the  creation  of  the  see, 
Rimouski  was  successively  visited  by  Bishops  Hubert 
(1791),  Denaut  (1798),  Plessis  (1806-14-22),  Panet 
(1810-26),  Signay  (1833-38-43),  Turgeon  (1849),  and 
Baillargeon  (1855-60-65).  The  see  was  created  and 
its  first  titular  nominated  on  15  January,  1867,  and 
acquired  civil  incorporation  ipso  facto  the  same  day, 
according  to  the  law  of  the  country. 

The  first  bishop,  Jean-Pierre-Fran9ois  Laforce- 
Langevin,  was  b.  at  Quebec,  22  Sept.,  1821,  and  or- 
dained on  12  Sept.,  1844.  As  director  of  the  Quebec 
seminary  he  was  one  of  the  joint  founders  of  Laval 
University  (1852).  He  successively  filled  the  offices  of 
pastor  to  the  parishes  of  Ste  Claire  and  Beauport,  and 
of  principal  of  Laval  Normal  School.  He  was  con- 
secrated 1  May,  1867,  resigned  1891,  and  died  1892. 
He  completed  the  organization  of  a  classical  college 
previously  founded  by  the  Abbes  C.  Tanguay  and  G. 
Potvin  and  adopted  it  as  the  seminary  of  the  diocese. 
He  introduced  the  Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of 
Notre-Dame  (Montreal)  and  sanctioned  the  founda- 
tion (1879)  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Most  Holy  Rosary, 
a  flourishing  institute  largely  due  to  the  zeal  of  Vicar- 
General  Langevin,  his  brother.  Bishop  Langevin 
established  the  cathedral  chapter  in  1878. 

The  second  bishop,  still  in  office,  Andre-Albert 
Blais,  b.  at  St-Vallier,  P.  Q.,  1842,  studied  at  the 
college  of  Ste  Anne  de  la  Pocatiere,  graduated  in  Rome 
Doctor  of  Canon  Law,  and  taught  the  same  branch 
at  Laval  University.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  18 
May,  1890,  and  took  possession  of  the  see  in  1891. 
Bishop  Blais  created  many  new  parishes  in  the  dio- 
cese, and  founded  a  normal  school  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  LTrsulines.  The  clergy,  exclusivcl}^ 
French-Canadian,  study  classics  and  philosophy  at  the 
diocesan  seminary,  and  theology  princii)ally  at  Laval 
University,  in  some  cases  at  the  Proi)ag:uul:i,  Rome. 
(For  parochial  system,  incorporation  of  religious  in- 
stitutions, etc.,  see  Canada,  and  Quebec,  Province 
OF.)  There  are  no  cities  besides  Rimouski,  but  all 
the  larger  rural  parishes  have  fine  churches  and  con- 
vent-schools; the  only  domestic  mission  is  that  of  the 
Micmacs  at  Ristigouche,  under  the  care  of  the  Capu- 
chins. Besides  a  Priests'  Aid  Society,  there  are 
several  benevolent  and  mutual  aid  societies  for  the 
laity.  The  religious  orders  of  men  are  the  Capuchins, 
Eudists,  and  Brothers  of  the  Cross  of  Jesus;  those  of 
women  are  the  Ursulines,  Sisters  of  Charity,  of  the 
Good  Shepherd  (t(!aching),  of  the  Holy  Rosary,  of 
the  Holy  Family,  and  the  Daughters  of  Jesus.  Re- 
treats for  the  clergy  are  given  each  year;  conferences 
to  discuss  theological  cases  take  place  every  three 
months.  Nearly  all  the  secular  clergy  (110  out  of  137) 
belong  to  the  iMicharistic  League.  Out  of  a  total 
Catholic  population  of  118,740,  only  3695  are  not 
French  Canadians.  The  Indians  number  610.  The 
Protestant  element  amounts  to  8798.  There  is  no 
friction  between  these?  difTercnt  elements  and  no 
difficult  racial  ijroblem  to  solve,  the  parishes  contain- 
ing an  English-s])caking  element  as  well  as  the  Mic- 
macs being  instructed  in  their  native  tongues. 

GuAY,  Chroniques  de  Rimouski  (Quebec,  1873);  Le  Canada 
ecclesiastique  (Montreal,  1911). 

Lionel  Lindsay. 

Rings. — L  In  General. — Although  the  siu-viving 
ancient  rings,  proved  by  their  devices,  provenance, 
etc.,  to  be  of  Christian  origin,  are  fairly  numerous 
(See  Fortnum  in  "Arch.  Journ.",  XXVI,  141,  and 
XXVIII,  275),  we  cannot  in  most  cases  identify 
them  with  any  liturgical  use.  Christians  no  doubt, 
just  like  other  people,  wore  rings  in  accordance  with 
their  station  in  life,  for  rings  are  mentioned  without 
reprobation  in  the  New  Testament  (Luke, xv,  22, and 
James,  ii,  2).  Moreover,  St.  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(Paed.,  Ill,  c.  xi)  says  that  a  man  might  lawfully  wear 
a  ring  on  his  little  finger,  and  that  it  should  bear  some 
religious  emblem — a  dove,  or  a  fish,  or  an  anchor — 


Christian  Symbols 


though,  on  the  other  hand,  TertuUian,  St.  Cyprian,  and 
the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (I,  iii)  protest  against  the 
ostentation  of  Christians  in  decking  themselves  with 
rings  and  gems.  In  any  case  the  Acts  of  Sts.  Perpetua 
and  Felicitas  (c.  xxi),  about  the  beginning  of  the  thu-d 
century,  inform  us  of  how  the  martyr  Saturus  took  a 
ring  from  the  finger  of  Pudens,  a  soldier  who  was 
looking  on,  and  gave  it  back  to  him  as  a  keepsake, 
covered  with  his  own  blood. 

Knowing,  as  we  do,  that  in  the  pagan  days  of  Rome 
every  flamen  Dialis  (i.  e.,  a  priest  specially  consecrated 
to  the  worship  of 
Jupiter)  had,  like  the 
senators,  the  priv- 
ilege of  wearing  a 
gold  ring,  it  would 
not  be  surprising  to 
find  evidence  in  the 
fourth  century  that 
rings  were  worn  by 
Christian  bishops. 
But  the  various  pas- 
sages t  hat  have  been 
appealed  to,  to  prove 
this,  are  either  not 
authentic  or  else  are 
inconclusive.  St.  Augustine  indeed  speaks  of  his  seal- 
ing a  letter  with  a  ring  (Ep.  ccxvii,  in  P.  L.,  XXXIII, 
227),  but  on  the  other  hand  his  contemporary  Possidius 
ex'pressly  states  that  Augustine  himself  wore  no  ring  (P. 
L.,  XXXII,  53),  whence  we  are  led  to  conclude  that 
the  possession  of  a  signet  does  not  prove  the  use  of  a 
ring  as  part  of  the  episcopal  insignia.  However, 
in  a  Decree  of  Pope  Boniface  IV  (a.  d.  610)  we  hear  of 
monks  raised  to  the  episcopal  dignity  as  anulo 
pontificali  subarrhalis,  while  at  the  Fourth  Council 
of  Toledo,  in  633,  we  are  told  that  if  a  bishop  has  been 
deposed  from  his  office,  and  is  afterwards  reinstated, 
he  is  to  receive  back  stole,  ring,  and  crosier  {orarium, 
anulum  el  baculum).  St.  Isidore  of  Seville  at  about 
the  same  period  couples  the  ring  with  the  crosier 
and  declares  that  the  former  is  conferred  as  "an 
emblem  of  the  pontifical  dignity  or  of  the  sealing  of 
secrets"  (P.  L.,  LXXXIII,  783).  From  this  time 
forth  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  ring  was  strictly 
speaking  an  episcopal  ornament  conferred  in  the  rite 
of  consecration,  and  that  it  was  commonly  regarded  as 
emblematic  of  the  betrothal  of  the  bishop  to  his 
Church.  In  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  in  MSS. 
of  the  Gregorian  Sacramen- 
tary  and  in  a  few  early  Pon- 
tificals (e.g.,  that  attributed 
to  Archbishop  Egbert  of 
York)  we  meet  with  various 
formula?  for  the  delivery  of 
the  ring.  The  Gregorian 
form,  which  survives  in  sub- 
stance to  the  jjresent  day, 
runs  in  these  terms:  "Re- 
ceive the  ring,  that  is  to  say 
the  seal  of  faith,  whereby 
thou,  being  thyself  adorned 
with  spotless  faith,  mayst  keep  unsullied  the  troth 
which  thou  hast  pledged  to  the  spouse  of  God,  His 
holy  Church." 

These  two  ideas — namely  of  the  seal,  indicative  of 
discretion,  and  of  conjugal  fidelity — dominate  the 
symbolism  attaching  to  the  ring  in  nearly  all  its 
liturgical  uses.  The  latter  idea  was  pressed  so  far 
in  the  case  of  bishops  that  we  find  ecclesiastical  decrees 
enacting  that  "a  bishop  deserting  the  Church  to 
which  he  was  consecrated  and  transferring  himself 
to  another  is  to  be  held  guilty  of  adultery  and  is  to 
be  visited  with  the  same  penalties  as  a  man  who, 
forsaking  his  own  wife,  goes  to  live  with  another 
woman"  (Du  Saussay,  "Panoplia  episcopalis",  250). 
It  was  perhaps  this  idea  of  espousals  which  helped 


Silver  ring  of  Leubatius, 
Abbot  op  Senaparia,  Gaul 


RINGS 


60 


RINGS 


to  establish  the  rule,  of  which  we  hear  ah-eady  in  the 
ninth  centurv,  that  the  episcopal  ring  was  to  be  placed 
on  the  fourth  finger  (i.  e.,  that  next  thehttle  finger) 
of  the  right  hand.  As  the  pontifical  ring  had  to  be 
worn  on  occasion  over  the  glove,  it  is  a  common  thing 
to  find  medieval  specimens  large  in  size  and  pro- 
portionately hea\-}-  in  execution.  The  inconvenience 
of  the  looseness  thus  resulting  was  often  met  by 


Cbtstal  rings  engraved  in  intaguo  with  Christian 
Emblems,  Rome 

placing  another  smaller  ring  just  above  it  as  a  keeper 
(see  Lacy,  "Exeter  Pontifical",  3).  As  the  pictures 
of  the  medieval  and  Renaissance  periods  show,  it 
was  formerly  quite  usual  for  bishops  to  wear 
other  rings  along  with  the  episcopal  ring;  indeed  the 
existing  " Cseremoniale  episcoporum"  (Bk.  II,  viii, 
nn.  10-11)  assumes  that  this  is  still  likely  to  be  the 
case.  Custom  prescribes  that  a  layman  or  a  cleric 
of  inferior  grade  on  being  presented  to  a  bishop  should 
kiss  his  hand,  that  is  to  say  his  episcopal  ring,  but  it 
is  a  popular  misapprehension  to  suppose  that  any 
indulgence  is  attached  to  the  act.  Episcopal  rings, 
both  at  an  earlier  and  later  period,  were  sometimes 
used  as  receptacles  for  relics.  St.  Hugh  of  Lincoln 
had  such  a  ring  which  must  have  been  of  considerable 
capacity.  (On  investiture  by  ring  and  staff  see 
Inve-stitcres,  Conflict  of.) 

Besides  bi.shops,  many  other  ecclesiastics  are 
privileged  to  wear  rings.  The  pope  of  course  is  the 
first  of  bishops,  but  he  docs  not  habitually  wear  the 
signet  ring  distinctive  of  the  papacy  and  known  as 
"the  Ring  of  the  FLsherman"  (see  below  in  this  ar- 
ticle), but  usually  a  simple  cameo,  while  his  more 
magnificent  pontifical  rings  are  reserved  for  solemn 
ecclesiastical  functions.  Cardinals  also  wear  rings 
independent!}'  of  their  grade  in  the  ecclesiastical 
hierarchy.  The  ring  belonging  to  the  cardinalitial 
dignity  is  conferred  by  the  pope  himself  in  the  con- 
BLstory  in  which  the  new  canlinal  is  named  to  a  par- 
ticular "title".  It  is  of  small  value  and  is  .set  with  a 
Bai)phire,  while  it  bears  on  the  inner  side  of  the  bezel 
the  arms  of  the  jxjpe  conferring  it.  In  practice  the 
cardinal  is  not  required  to  wear  habitually  the  ring 
thus  pres<-nte<l,  and  he  commonly  prefers  to  use  one 
of  his  own.  The  privilege  of  wearing  a  ring  has  be- 
longe<i  to  cardinal-priests  since  the  time  of  Innocent 
III  or  earlier  (see  Sagmiiller,  "Thatigkeit  und  Stel- 
lung  der  Cardinale",  163).  Abbots  in  the  earlier 
Middle  Ages  were  permitted  to  wear  rings  only  by 
Bper-ial  privilege.  A  letter  of  Peter  of  Blois  in  the 
twelfth  century  (P.  L.,  CCVII,  283)  shows  that  at 
that  datf  the  wearing  of  a  ring  by  an  abbot  was  apt 
to  be  Irxjkfd  ujKjn  an  a  pief:e  of  ostentation,  l)Ut  in 
the  later  Pontifieids  the  blessing  and  deliver}'  of  a 
ring  forrne<l  fiart  of  the  ordinary  ritual  for  the  con- 
secration of  an  abbot,  and  this  is  still  the  case  at  the 
prew-nt  day.  On  the  other  hand^  there  is  no  such 
ceremony  indicated  in  the  blessmg  of  an  abbess, 
though  certain  abbenwH  hnve  received,  or  assumed, 
the  privilege  of  wearing  a  ring  of  office.  The  ring 
is  ali*o  regularly  worn  by  certain  other  minor  prelates, 
for  example  prothonotaries,  but  the  privilege  cannot 
be  said  to  belong  to  canons  a»  such  (B.  de  Montault, 


"Le  costume,  etc.",  I,  170)  without  special  indult. 
In  any  case  such  rings  cannot  ordinarily  be  worn  by 
these  minor  prelates  during  the  celebration  of  Mass. 
The  same  restriction,  it  need  hardly  be  said,  applies 
to  the  ring  which  is  conferred  as  part  of  the  insignia 
of  the  doctorate  either  of  theology  or  of  canon  law. 

The  plain  rings  worn  by  certain  orders  of  nuns  and 
conferred  upon  them  in  the  course  of  their  solemn 
profession,  according  to  the  ritual  provided  in  the 
Roman  Pontifical,  appear  to  find  some  justification 
in  ancient  tradition.  St.  Ambrose  (P.  L.,  XVII, 
701,  735)  speaks  as  though  it  were  a  received  custom 
for  virgins  consecrated  to  God  to  wear  a  ring  in 
memory  of  their  betrothal  to  their  heavenly  Spouse. 
This  delivery  of  a  ring  to  jirofessed  nuns  is  also  men- 
tioned by  several  medieval  Pontificals,  from  the 
twelfth  century  onwards.  Wedding  rings,  or  more 
strictly,  rings  given  in  the  betrothal  ceremonj',  seem 
to  have  been  tolerated  among  Christians  under  the 
Roman  Empire  from  a  quite  early  period.  The  use 
of  such  rings  was  of  course  of  older  date  than  Chris- 
tianity, and  there  is  not  much  to  suggest  that  the 
giving  of  the  ring  was  at  first  incorporated  in  any 
ritual  or  invested  with  anj'  precise  religious  signifi- 
cance. But  it  is  highly  probable  that,  if  the  accept- 
ance and  the  wearing  of  a  betrothal  ring  was  toler- 
ated among  Christians,  such  rings  would  have  been 
adorned  with  Christian  emblems.  Certain  extant 
specimens,  more  particularly  a  gold  ring  found  near 
Aries,  belonging  apparently  to  the  fourth  or  fifth 
centur}',  and  bearing  the  inscription,  Tecla  vivat 
Deo  cum  marito  seo  [suo],  may  almost  certainly  be 
assumed  to  be  Christian  espousal  rings.  In  the 
coronation  ceremony,  also,  it  has  long  been  the  cus- 
tom to  deliver  both  to  the  sovereign  and  to  the  queen 
consort  a  ring  previously  blessed.  Perhaps  the  ear- 
liest example  of  the  use  of  such  a  ring  is  in  the  case 
of  Judith,  the  step-mother  of  Alfred  the  Great.  It 
is  however  in  this  instance  a  little  difficult  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  ring  was  bestowed  upon  the  queen 
in  virtue  of  her  dignity  as  queen  con.sort  or  of  her 
nuptials  to  Ethelwulf. 

Rings  have  also  occasionally  been  used  for  other 
religious  puri)oses.     At  an  early  date  the  small  keys 


Signet  of  St.  Arnould,  Bishop 
OF  Metz,  VII  Century 


Bishop's  Gold  Ring, 
Gaul,  VII  Century 


which  contained  filings  from  the  chains  of  St.  Peter 
seem  to  have  been  welded  to  a  band  of  metal  and  worn 
ui)on  the  finger  as  reliquaries.  In  more  modern 
times  rings  have  been  constructed  with  ten  small 
knobs  or  protuberances,  and  used  for  saying  the 
rosary. 

Babinoton  in  Diet.  Christ.  Anliq.;  Leclercq  in  Did.  darch. 
chrit.,  I  (Paris,  1907),  s.  v.  Anneaux;  Deloche,  Etude  historigue 
el  archiologique  Kiir  leu  anneaux  (Paris,  1900);  I)u  Saussay, 
Parioplia  rinHcopalis  (Paris,  1640),  17.5-294;  Dalton,  Catalof/ue 
of  early  Chrintinn  Anlu/uities  in  the  British  Museum  (London, 
1901);  Barbier  de  Montault,  Le  co.tlume  el  leu  usages  ccclesias- 
tiques  aelon  la  tradition  romaine  (Paris,   1897-1901). 

IIeubert  Thurston. 

II.  The  Ring  of  the  Fisherman. — The  earliest 
mention  of  the  Fisherman's  ring  worn  by  the  popes 
is  in  a  letter  of  Clement  IV  written  in  ]2V}Fi  to  his 
nephew,  Peter  Grossi.  The  writer  states  that  jjopes 
were  then  accustomed  to  seal  their  private  letters 
with  "the  seal  of  the  Fisherman",  whereas  public 
documents,    he    odds,    were    distinguished    by    the 


RINUCCINI 


61 


RIOBAMBA 


leaden  "bulls"  attached  (see  Bulls  and  Briefs). 
From  the  fifteenth  century,  however,  the  Fisher- 
man's ring  has  been  used  to  seal  the  class  of  papal 
official  documents  known  as  Briefs.  The  Fisherman's 
ring  is  placed  by  the  cardinal  carnerlengo  on  the 
finger  of  a  newly  elected  pope.  It  is  made  of  gold, 
with  a  representation  of  St.  Peter  in  a  boat,  fishing, 
and  the  name  of  the  reigning  pope  around  it. 

Babington  in  Diet.  Christ.  Antiq.,  s.  v.,  3. 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Rinuccini,  Giovanni  Battista,  b.  at  Rome,  1592; 
d.  at  Fermo,  1653,  was  the  son  of  a  Florentine  patri- 
cian, his  mother  being  a  sister  of  Cardinal  Ottavo. 
Educated  at  Rome  and  at  the  Universities  of  Bologna, 
Perugia  and  Pisa,  in  due  course  he  was  ordained 
priest,  having  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  obtained  his 
doctor's  degree  from  the  University  of  Pisa.  Return- 
ing to  Rome  he  won  distinction  as  an  advocate  in  the 
ecclesiastical  courts,  and  in  1625  became  Archbishop 
of  Fermo.  For  the  twenty  years  following,  his  life 
was  the  uneventful  one  of  a  hard-working  chief  pastor, 
and  then,  in  1645,  he  was  sent  as  papal  nuncio  to  Ire- 
land. Maddened  by  oppression,  the  Irish  Catholics 
had  taken  up  arms,  had  set  up  a  legislative  assembly 
with  an  executive  government,  and  had  bound  them- 
selves by  oath  not  to  cease  fighting  until  they  had 
secured  undisturbed  possession  of  their  lands  and  reli- 
gious liberty.  But  the  difficulties  were  great.  The 
Anglo-Irish  and  old  Irish  disagreed,  their  generals 
were  incompetent  or  quarrelled  with  each  other,  sup- 
plies were  hard  to  get,  and  the  Marquis  of  Ormond 
managed  to  sow  dissension  among  the  members  of 
the  Supreme  Council  at  Kilkenny.  In  these  circum- 
stances the  Catholics  sought  for  foreign  aid  from  Spain 
and  the  pope;  and  the  latter  sent  them  Rinuccini  with 
a  good  supply  of  arms,  ammunition,  and  money.  He 
arrived  in  Ireland,  in  the  end  of  1645,  after  having 
narrowly  escaped  capture  at  sea  by  an  English  vessel. 
Acting  on  his  instructions  from  the  pope,  he  encour- 
aged the  Irish  Catholics  not  to  strive  for  national 
independence,  but  rather  to  aid  the  king  against  the 
revolted  Puritans,  provided  there  was  a  repeal  of  the 
penal  laws  in  existence.  Finding,  however,  that  Or- 
mond, acting  for  the  king,  would  grant  no  toleration 
to  the  Catholics,  Rinuccini  wished  to  fight  both  the 
Royalists  and  the  Puritans.  The  Anglo-Irish,  satis- 
fied with  even  the  barest  toleration,  desired  negotia- 
tions with  Ormond  and  peace  at  any  price,  while  the 
Old  Irish  were  for  continuing  the  war  until  the  Planta- 
tion of  Ulster  was  undone,  and  complete  toleration 
secured.  Failing  to  cfTect  a  union  between  such 
discordant  elements,  Rinuccini  lost  courage;  and 
when  Ormond  surrendered  Dublin  to  the  Puritans, 
and  the  Catholics  becam(>  utterly  helpless  from  dis- 
sension, he  left  Ireland,  in  1649,  and  retired  to  his 
diocese,  where  he  died. 

Rinuccini,  The  Embassy  to  Ireland  (tr.  Hutton.  Dublin, 
1873);  Gilbert,  History  of  Irish  Affairs  {1641-62)  (Dublin, 
1880);  Meehan,  Confederation  of  Kilkenny  (Dublin,  184G); 
D'Alton,  History  of  Ireland  (London,  1910). 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

Rio,  Alexis-Francois,  French  writer  on  art,  b. 
on  the  Island  of  Arz,  Department  of  Morbihan,  20 
May,  1797;  d.  17  June,  1874.  He  was  educated  at 
the  college  of  Vannes,  where  he  received  his  first 
appointment  as  instructor,  which  occupation  how- 
ever proved  to  be  distasteful.  He  proceeded  to  Paris, 
but  was  temporarily  disappointed  in  his  hope  of  ob- 
taining there  a  chair  of  history.  His  enthusiastic 
championsliip  of  the  liberty  of  the  Greeks  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  Government,  which  appointed 
him  censor  of  the  public;  press.  His  refusal  of  this 
appointment  won  him  great  popularity  and  the  life- 
long friendship  of  Montalembert.  In  1828  he  pub- 
lished his  first  work,  "Essai  sur  I'histoire  de  I'esprit 
humain  dans  I'antiquite",   which  brought  him  the 


favour  of  the  minister  de  La'  Ferronays  and  a  secreta- 
riate in  the  Ministry  of  P''oreign  AiTairs.  This  position 
allowed  him  (as  Montalembert  later  wrote  to  him)  to 
become  for  Christian,  what  Winckelmann  had  been 
for  ancient,  art.  He  spent  the  greater  portion  of  the 
period  1830-60  in  travels  through  Italy,  Germany, 
and  England.  In  Munich  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  spokesmen  of  contemporary  Catholicism — 
Boisserde,  Baader,  Dollinger,  Gorres,  and  Rumohr — 
and  also  with  Schelling.  Schelling  gave  him  an  in- 
sight into  the  aesthetic  ideal;  Rumohr  directed  him  to 
Italy,  where  the  realization  of  this  ideal  in  art  could 
be  seen.  In  1835  the  first  volume  of  his  "Art  chrd- 
tien"  appeared  under  the  misleading  title,  "De  la 
poesie  chretienne — ^Forme  de  I'art".  This  work, 
which  was  received  with  enthusiasm  in  Germany  and 
Italy,  was  a  complete  failure  in  France.  Discouraged, 
he  renounced  art  study  and  wrote  a  history  of  the 
persecutions  of  the  English  Catholics,  a  work  which 
was  never  printed.  As  the  result  of  his  intercourse 
with  the  Pre-Raphaelites  of  England,  where  he  lived  for 
three  years  and  married,  and  especially  of  Montalem- 
bert's  encouragement,  he  visited  again,  in  company 
with  his  wife,  all  the  important  galleries  of  Europe, 
although  he  had  meanwhile  become  lame  and  had  to 
drag  himself  through  the  museums  on  crutches. 
Prominent  men  like  Gladstone,  Manzoni,  and  Thiers 
became  interested  in  his  studies,  which  he  published 
in  four  volumes  under  the  title  "L'art  chr6tien" 
(1861-7).  This  work  is  not  a  history  of  all  Christian 
art,  but  of  Italian  painting  from  Cimabue  to  the  death 
of  Raphael.  Without  any  strict  method  or  criticism, 
he  expresses  preference  for  the  art  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, not  without  many  an  inexact  and  even  unjust 
judgment  on  the  art  of  later  ages;  but,  in  spite,  or 
rather  on  account  of  this  partiality,  he  has  contributed 
greatly  towards  restoring  to  honour  the  forgotten  and 
despised  art  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Rio  describes  the 
more  notable  incidents  of  his  life  in  the  two  works, 
"Histoire  d'un  college  breton  sous  I'Empire,  la  petite 
chouannerie"  (1842)  and  "Epilogue  h  l'art  chrdtien" 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1872).  He  also  published  the  following 
works:  "Shakespeare"  (1864),  in  which  he  claims 
the  great  dramatist  as  a  Catholic;  "Michel-Ange 
et  Raphael"  (1867);  "L'id6al  antique  et  I'iddal  Chre- 
tien" (1873). 

Lef^bure,  Portraits  de  croyants  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  190.5),  157- 
284.  B.    KlEINSCHMIDT. 

Riobamba,  Diocese  of  (Bolivarensis),  suffragan 
of  Quito,  Ecuador,  erected  by  Pius  IX,  5  Jan.,  1863. 
The  city,  which  has  a  population  of  18,000,  is  situated 
9039  feet  above  sea-level,  85  miles  E.N.E.  of  Guaya- 
quil. Its  streets  are  wide  and  its  adobe  houses  gen- 
erally but  one  story  high  on  account  of  the  frequent 
earthquakes.  Formerly  the  city  was  situated  about 
18  miles  further  west  near  the  village  of  Cajabamba 
and  contained  40,000  inhabitants,  but  it  was  com- 
pletely destroyed  on  4  Feb.,  1797,  by  an  earthquake. 
Old  Riobamba  was  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Puruha  before  the  conquest  of  the  Incas;  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  Ruminahui  during  his  retreat  in  1533  after 
his  defeat  by  Benalcdzar.  The  cathedral  and  the 
Redemptorist  church  in  the  new  city  are  very  beauti- 
ful. Velasco  the  historian  and  the  poets  Larrea  and 
Orozco  were  natives  of  Riobamba.  It  was  here  too 
that  the  first  national  Ecuadorian  convention  was 
held  in  1830.  The  diocese,  comprising  tlu;  civil  Prov- 
inces of  Chimborazo  and  Bolivar  (ha\'ing  an  area  of 
4250  square  miles),  has  63  priests,  48  churches  and 
chapels,  and  about  200,000  inhabitants.  The  pres- 
ent bishop,  Mgr  Andres  Machado,  S.J.,  was  born  at 
Cuenca,  Ecuador,  16  Oct.,  1850,  and  appointed,  12 
Nov.,  1907,  in  succession  to  Mgr  Arsenio  Andrade  (b. 
at  Uyumbicho,  in  the  Archdiocese  of  (Juito,  8  Sept., 
1825,  appointed  on  13  Nov.,  1884,  d.  1907). 

Mera,  Geog.  de  la  republica  del  Ecuador. 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 


BIO 


62 


RIPON 


Rio  de  Janeiro.  See  Sao  Sebastiao,  Archdio- 
cese OF. 

Rio  Negro,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of,  in  Brazil, 
bounded  on  the  south  by  a  hne  running  westwards 
from  the  confluence  of  the  Rio  Negro  and  Rio  Branco 
along  the  watershed  of  the  Rio  Negro  to  Colombia, 
separating  the  new  prefecture  from  those  of  Teff6  and 
Upper  SoUmOes.,  and  the  See  of  Amazones  (from 
which  it  was  separated  by  a  Decree  of  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  the  Consistory,  19  Oct.,  1910),  on 
the  west  by  Colombia,  on  the  north  by  Colombia 
and  Venezuela,  on  the  east  by  the  territorj^  of  Rio 
Branco.  The  whit^  population  is  small,  and  confined 
to  the  few  \-illages  along  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Negro. 
As  early  as  165S  a  Jesuit  Father,  Francisco  Gonsales, 
established  a  mission  among  the  natives  of  the  Upper 
Rio  Negro,  and  traces  of  the  work  of  the  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries still  exist  in  the  scattered  villages.  Two 
years  later  a  Carmelite,  Father  Theodosius,  evan- 
gehzed  the  Tucumaos.  The  Franciscans  laboured 
among  the  Indians  from  1870  and  had  seven  stations 
on  the  Rio  Uaup^s  (Tariana  Indians),  four  on  the 
Rio  Tikie  (Toccana  Indians),  and  one  on  the  Rio 
Papuri  (Macu  Indians),  but  on  the  fall  of  the  empire 
most  of  the  missions  were  abandoned,  though  some 
of  them  were  re-established  later. 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Riordan,  Patrick  William.  See  San  Francisco, 
Archdiocese  of. 

Ripalda,  Jcan  MartIxez  de,  theologian,  b.  at 
Pamplona,  Navarre,  1594;  d.  at  Madrid,  26  April, 
1648.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Pamplona 
in  1609.  In  the  triennial  reports  of  1642  he  saj^s  of 
him.self  that  he  was  not  physically  strong,  that  he 
had  studied  religion,  arts,  and  theology,  that  he  had 
taught  grammar  one  year,  arts  four,  theolog}^  nine- 
teen, and  had  been  professed.  According  to  South- 
well, he  taught  philosophy  at  Monforte,  theology  at 
Salamanca,  and  was  called  from  there  to  the  Imperial 
College  of  Madrid,  where,  by  royal  decree,  he  taught 
moral  theologj'.  Later  he  was  named  censor  to 
the  Inquisition  and  confessor  of  de  Olivares,  the 
favourite  of  Philip  IV.  whom  he  followed  when  he 
was  exiled  from  Madrid.  Southwell  describes  his 
character  by  saying  that  he  was  a  good  religious, 
not«d  for  his  innocence.  Mentally  he  qualifies  him 
Bls  subtle  in  argument,  sound  in  opinion,  keen-edged 
and  rlfar  in  exfjrc.ssion,  and  wcll-vcr.sfd  in  St.  Augus- 
tine and  St.  Thomas.  According  to  Drews,  no  Jesuit 
ever  occupied  this  chair  in  the  University  of  Sala- 
manca with  more  honour  than  he,  and  I  lurter  places 
him,  with  Lugo,  first  among  the  contemporary  theo- 
logians of  Spain,  and  perhaps  of  all  Europe.  Among 
the  numerous  thc-ological  opinions  which  characterize 
him  the  following  are  worth  citing:  (1)  He  thinks 
that  the  creation  of  an  intrinsically  supernatural  sub- 
stance is  possible,  in  other  words,  that  a  creature 
is  possible  to  which  supernatural  grace,  with  the  ao- 
comnanying  gift«  and  intuitive  vision,  is  due.  (2) 
He  rioKlH  that,  by  a  positive  decree  of  God,  super- 
natural graw;  is  conferred,  in  the  existing  providence, 
for  *'ver>'  gofxi  acX  whatsoever;  so  that  (;very  good 
a<;t  is  supernatural,  or  at  least  that  (!very  natural 
good  act  is  accompanied  by  another  which  is  8uy)er- 
natural.  (3j  He  maintains  that,  prescinding  from 
the  extrinsic  Divine  law,  and  taking  mto  account  only 
the  nature  of  things,  the  supernatural  faith  which  is 
callwl  Inlfi  would  be  HufTuient  for  iustification,  that 
faith,  namely,  which  comes  In'  the  contemplation 
of  creat*,-*]  thing.4,  though  assent  is  not  jjroduced  with- 
out grace.  (4)  He  affinnH  that  in  the  promissory 
revelations  the  formal  object  of  faith  is  God's  faith- 
fulness to  His  promises,  the  constancy  of  His  will, 
and  the  efficacy  of  omnipotence.  (5)  He  asserts 
that  all  the  propositions  of  Baius  were  (;on- 
demned  for  doctrine  according  to  the  Bcnue  in  which 


he  (Baius)  held  them.  (6)  He  maintains  that  the 
Divine  maternity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  is  of 
itself  a  sanctifying  form.  The  following  are  his 
works:  "De  ente  supernaturaU  disputationes  in 
imiversam  theologiam  ,  three  vols.,  I  (Bordeaux, 
1634),  II  (Lyons,  1645),  III,  written  "AdversusBa- 
janos"  (Cologne,  1648);  rare  editions  like  that  of 
Lyons,  1663,  have  been  published  of  the  two  first 
volumes.  It  is  a  classic  work  in  which  he  included 
questions  which  are  not  included  in  ordinary  theologi- 
cal treatises.  His  third  volume  was  attacked  in  an 
anonymous  work,  "P.  Joannis  Martinez  .  .  .  Vulpes 
capta  per  theologos  .  .  .  Academiaj  Lovaniensis", 
which  Reusch  says  was  the  work  of  Sinnich.  "Ex- 
positio  brevis  littera?  Magistri  Sententiarum"  (Sala- 
manca, 1635),  praised  by  the  Calvinist  Voet.  "Trac- 
tatus  theologici  et  scholastici  dc  virtutibus,  fide,  spe 
et  charitate"  (Lyons,  1652),  a  i)ost  humous  work  and 
very  rare.  Two  new  editions  of  all  his  works  have  been 
issued:  Vives  (8  vols.,  Paris,  1871-3),  Palm6  (4 
vols.,  Paris,  Rome,  Propaganda  Fide,  1870-1). 
"Discurso  sobre  la  elecci6n  de  sucessor  del  ponti- 
ficado  en  vida  del  pontifi(;e"  (Seville).  Uriarte  says 
this  work  was  published  in  Aragon,  perhaps  in  Huesca, 
with  the  anagram  of  Martin  Jir6n  de  Palazeda,  writ- 
ten by  order  of  the  Count  de  Olivares.  The  following 
are  in  manuscript:  "De  visione  Dei"  (2  vols.); 
"De  prsedestinatione";  "De  angelis  et  auxiliis"; 
"De  voluntate  Dei" — preserved  in  the  University 
of  Salamanca;  "Discurso  acerca  de  la  ley  de 
desafio  y  parecer  sobre  el  desafio  de  Medina  Sidonia 
d  Juan  de  Braganza",  preserved  in  the  Biblioteca 
Nacional. 

SocTHWELL,  Biblioteca  scriptorum  S.  J.  (Rome,  1670),  478; 
Antonio,  Bibliotheca  fiixpaim  nova,  I  (Madrid,  1783),  736; 
HuRTER,  Nomenclator,  I  (Innsbruck,  1892),  381;  Sommervogel, 
Bibliolheque,  V.,  col.  640;  Bioyrafia  eclesidstica  completa,  XXII 
(Madrid,  1864),  179. 

Antonio  Perez  Goyena. 

Ripatransone,  Diocese  of  (Ripanensis),  in 
Ascoli  Piceiu),  Central  Italy.  The  city  is  situated  on 
five  hills,  not  far  from  the  site  of  ancient  Cupra  Marit- 
tima.  The  modern  name  comes  from  Ripa  trans 
Asonem,  "the  other  bank  of  the  A,sonc".  A  castle 
was  erected  there  in  the  early  Middle  Ages,  and  en- 
larged later  by  the  bishops  of  Fermo,  who  had  several 
conflicts  with  the  people.  In  1571  St.  Pius  V  made  it 
an  episcopal  see,  naming  as  its  first  bishop  Cardinal 
Lucio  Sasso  and  including  in  its  jurisdiction  .small  por- 
tions of  the  surrounding  Dioceses  of  Fermo,  Ascoli,  and 
Teramo.  Noteworthy' bishops  were :  Cardinal  Filippo 
Sega  (1575);  Gaspare  Sillingardi  (1582),  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Modena,  employed  by  Alfon.so  II  of  Ferrara 
on  various  missions  to  Rome  and  to  Spain,  eff'ected 
a  revival  of  religious  life  in  Ripatransone;  Gian  Carlo 
Gcntili  (1845),  historian  of  Sanseverino  and  Ripa- 
transone; Alessandro  Spoglia  (1860-67),  not  recog- 
nized by  the  Government .  Th(!  cathedral  is  the  work 
of  Gaspare  Guerra  and  has  a  b(;autiful  marble  altar 
with  a  triptych  by  Crivelli;  th(>  church  of  the  Madonna 
dr-l  Carmine;  po.ssesses  i)ictures  of  the  Raphael  School. 
The  diocese,  at  first  dir(!ctly  subj(!ct  to  the  Holy  See, 
has  been  suffragan  of  Fermo  since  1680. 

Cappeli-etti.  Lr  chiiKC  d' Italia,  III  (Venice,  1857);  Annuaire 
pontifical  aitholique  (Parb,  1911),  b.  v. 

U.  Beniqni. 

Ripon,  Marquess  of,  George  Frederick  Samuel 
Robinson,  K.G.,  P.C,  G.C.S.I.,  F.R.S.,  Earl  de 
Grey,  Earl  of  Ripon,  Viscount  Goderich,  Baron  Grant- 
ham, and  barrjiiet ;  !>.  at  the  prime  minister's  resi- 
dence, 10  Downing  Street,  London,  24  Oct.,  1827;  d. 
9  July,  1909.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Frederick 
John  Robinson,  Vi.scount  Goderich,  afterwards  first 
Earl  of  Ripon,  and  Lady  Sarah  Albinia  Louisa, 
daughter  of  Robert,  fourth  Earl  of  Buckinghamshire; 
and  he  was  bom  during  his  father's  brief  tenure  of  the 
office  of  prime  minister.    Before  entering  public  life 


RISBY 


63 


RISHTON 


he  married  (8  April,  1851)  hia  cousin  Henrietta  Ann 
Theodosia,  elder  daughter  of  Captain  Henry  Vyner, 
and  by  her  had  two  children,  Frederick  Oliver,  who 
succeeded  to  his  honours,  and  Mary  Sarah,  who  died 
in  infancy.  Inheriting  the  principles  which  were 
common  to  the  great  Whig  families,  Lord  Ripon 
remained  through  his  long  public  life  one  of  the  most 
generally  respected  supporters  of  Liberalism,  and 
even  those  who  most  severely  criticised  his  admin- 
istrative ability — and  in  his  time  he  held  very  many 
of  the  great  offices  of  state — recognized  the  integrity 
and  disinterestedness  of  his  aims.  He  entered  the 
House  of  Commons  as  member  for  Hull  in  1852,  and 
after  representing  Huddersfield  (1853-57),  and  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire  (1857-59),  he  succeeded 
his  father  as  Earl  of  Ripon  and  Vis(!Ount  Goderich 
on  28  Jan.,  1859,  taking  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
In  the  following 
November  he  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle 
as  Earl  de  Grey 
and  Baron  Gran- 
tham. In  the  same 
year  he  first  took 
office,  and  was  a 
member  of  every 
Liberal  adminis- 
tration for  the 
next  half-century. 
The  offices  he  held 
were:  under  sec- 
retary of  State 
for  war  (1859- 
61);  under  secre- 
tary of  State  for 
India  (1861- 
1863);  secretary 
of  State  for  war 
(1863-66),  all  un- 
der Lord  Palmer- 


M.\Rgr 


George  Frederick  Sa% 

OF    RlI'O 

Bton;  secretary  of  State  for  India  (1866)  under  Earl 
Russell.  In  Mr.  Gladstone's  first  administration  he 
was  lord  president  of  the  council  (1868-73)  and 
during  this  period  acted  as  chairman  of  the  joint 
commission  for  drawing  up  the  Treaty  of  Washington, 
which  settled  the  Alabama  claims  (1876).  For  this 
great  public  service  he  was  created  Marquess  of  Ripon. 
He  also  was  grand  master  of  the  freemasons  from 
1871  to  1874,  when  he  resigned  this  office  to  enter  the 
Catholic  Church.  He  was  received  at  the  London 
Oratory,  4  Sept.,  1S74.  When  Gladstone  returned  to 
power  in  1880  he  appointed  Lord  Ripon  Governor- 
General  and  Viceroy  of  India,  the  office  with  which  his 
name  willev^er  be  connected,  he  having  made  himself 
beloved  by  the  Indian  subjects  of  the  Crown  as  no 
one  of  his  predecessors  had  been.  He  held  this  office 
until  1884.  In  the  short  administration  of  1886  he 
was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  in  that  of  1892- 
1895  he  was  secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies. 
When  the  Liberals  again  returned  to  power  he  took 
office  as  lord  privy  seal.  This  office  he  resigned  in 
1908.  Ever  a  fervent  Catholic,  Lord  Riix)n  took  a 
great  share  in  educational  and  charitable  works.  He 
was  president  of  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
from  1899  until  his  death ;  vice-president  of  the  Cath- 
olic Union,  and  a  great  supporter  of  St.  Joseph's 
Catholic  Missionary  Society. 

The  Tablet  (17  July,  1909);  Annual  Register  (London.  1909). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Risby,  Richard,  b.  in  the  parish  of  St.  Lawrence, 
Reading,  1490;  executed  at  Tyburn,  London,  20 
April,  1534.  He  entered  Winchester  College  in  1500, 
and  was  subsequently  a  fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford, 
taking  his  degree  in  1510.  He  resigned  in  1513  to 
enter  the  Franciscan  Order,  and  eventually  became 
warden   of   the    Observant    friary    at    Canterbury. 


He  was  condemned  to  death  by  the  Act  of  Attainder, 
25  Henry  VIII,  c.  12,  together  with  Elizabeth  Barton, 
Edward  Bocking,  Hugh  Rich,  warden  of  the  Ob- 
servant friary  at  Richmond,  John  Dering,  B.D. 
(Oxon.),  Benedictine  of  Christ  Church,  Canterbury, 
Henry  Gold,  M.A.  (Oxon.),  parson  of  St.  Mary,  Alder- 
manbury,  London,  and  vicar  of  Hayes,  Middlesex, 
and  Richard  Master,  rector  of  Aldington,  Kent,  who 
was  pardoned;  but  by  some  strange  oversight 
Master's  name  is  included  and  Risb^y's  omitted  in  the 
catalogue  of  prcetermissi.  Father  Thomas  Bourchier, 
who  took  the  Franciscan  habit  at  Greenwich  about 
1557,  says  that  Fathers  Risby  and  Rich  were  twice 
offered  their  lives,  if  they  would  accept  the  king's 
supremacy. 

^  Gairdner,  Letters  and  Papers  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII, 
VI,  VII  (London,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Edini)urgh,  and  Dublin, 
1882-3),  passim;  Gasquet,  Henry  VIII  and  the  English  \fonas- 
teries  (London,  1906),  44;  Kirby,  Winchester  Scholars  (London 
and  Winchester,  1888),  98;  Boase,  Register  of  the  Uuiversitu  of 
Oxford  (Oxford,  1885),  71. 

J.  B.  Wainewright. 

Rishanger,  William,  chronicler,  b.  at  Rishangles, 
Suffolk,  about  1250;  d.  after  1312.  He  became  a 
Benedictine  at  St.  Alban's  Abbey,  Hertfordshire  in 
1271,  and  there  revived  the  custom  of  composing 
chronicles  which  had  languished  since  the  time  of 
Matthew  Paris.  His  chief  work  is  the  history  of  the 
Barons'  Wars,  "Narratio  de  bellis  apud  Lewes  et 
E^vesham",  covering  the  period  from  12.58  to  1267 
and  including  a  reference  which  shows  that  he  was 
still  engaged  on  it  on  3  May,  1312.  Apart  from  its 
historical  matter  which  is  derived  from  Mat  thew  Paris 
and  his  continuators,  it  is  interesting  for  the  evidence 
it  affords  of  the  extreme  veneration  in  which  Simon 
de  Montfort  was  held  at  that  time.  He  also  wrote 
a  short  chronicle  about  Edward  I,  "Quiedam  recapi- 
tulatio  brevis  de  gestis  domini  Edwardi".  It  is 
possible,  though  not  very  probable,  that  he  wrote 
the  earlier  part  of  a  chronicle,  "Willelmi  Rishanger, 
monachi  S.  Albani,  Chronica".  Four  other  works 
attributed  to  him  by  Bale  are  not  authentic. 

Riley,  Willelmi  Rishanger  chronica  et  annates  in  R.  S.  (London, 
1S(33-7G);  Riley  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  XXVIII  (Berlin,  1865); 
Halliwell,  Chronicle  of  William  de  Rishanger  of  the  Barons' 
Wars  in  Camden  Society  Publications,  XV  (London,  1840); 
B^MONT,  Simon  de  Montfort  (Paris,  1884) ;  Hardy,  Descriptive 
Catalogue  (London,  1862-71),  I,  871;  III,  171-2,  191-3;  Tout  in 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Rishton,  Edward,  b.  in  Lancashire,  1550;  d.  at 
Sainte-Menehouid,  Lorraine,  29  June,  1.585.  He  was 
probably  a  younger  son  of  John  Rishton  of  Dunken- 
halgh  and  Dorothy  Southworth.  He  studied  at 
Oxford  from  1568  to  1572,  when  he  proceeded  B.A. 
probably  from  Braseno.se  College.  During  the  next 
year  he  was  converted  and  went  to  Douai  to  study 
for  the  priesthood.  He  was  the  first  Englishman  to 
matriculate  at  Douai,  and  is  said  to  have  taken  his 
M.A.  degree  there.  While  a  student  ho  drew  up  and 
publi-shed  a  chart  of  ecclesiastical  history,  and  was  one 
of  the  two  sent  to  Reims  in  November,  1576,  to  see  if 
the  college  could  be  removed  there.  After  his  ordina- 
tion at  Cambrai  (6  April,  1576)  he  was  sent  to  Rome. 
In  1580  he  returned  to  England,  visiting  Reims  on  the 
way,  but  was  soon  arrested.  He  was  tried  and  con- 
demned to  death  with  Blessed  Edmund  Campion  and 
others  on  20  November,  1581,  but  was  not  executed, 
being  left  in  prison,  first  in  King's  Bench,  then  in  the 
Tower.  On  21  January  he  was  exiled  with  several 
others,  being  sent  under  escort  as  far  as  Abbeville, 
whence  he  made  his  way  to  Reims,  arriving  on  3 
March.  Shortly  aftenvards,  at  the  suggestion  of 
Father  Persons,  he  completed  Sander's  imperfect 
"Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Anglican  Schism".  With 
the  intention  of  taking  his  doctorate  in  divinity  he 
proceeded  to  the  University  of  Pont-;\-Mousson  in 
Lorraine,  but  the  plague  broke  out,  and  though  ho 


RITA 


64 


RITES 


went  to  Saintc-Mdnohould  to  escape  the  infection,  he 
died  of  it  and  was  buried  there.  Dodd  in  error 
ascribes  his  death  to  loS6,  in  which  mistake  he  has 
been  followed  bv  the  writer  in  the  "Dictionary  of 
National  Biography"  and  others.  After  his  death  the 
book  on  the  schisin  was  published  by  Leather  Persons, 
and  subseqvient  editions  included  two  tracts  attributed 
to  Rishton,  the  one  a  diary  of  an  anonymous  priest  in 
the  Tower  (15S0-5),  which  was  probably  the  work  of 
Father  John  Hart,  S.J.;  the  other  a  list  of  martyrs 
with  later  additions  by  Persons.  Recent  luiblicat  ion  of 
the  "Tower  Bills"  makes  it  certain  that  Rishton  did 
not  write  the  diary,  and  his  only  other  known  works 
are  a  tract  on  the  difference  between  Catholicism  and 
Protestantism  (Douai,  1575)  and  "Profession  of  his 
faith  made  manifest  and  confirmed  by  twenty-one 
reasons". 

Pitts,  De  illufiribus  Angliee  scriptorihus  (Paris,  1619);  Dodd, 
Church  History  (Brussels  vere  Wolverhampton,  1737-42),  II,  74, 
a  verv  inaccurate  account;  a  Wood,  Athen(e  Oxonicnxes,  ed. 
Bus.s\London,  1813-20);  Kinsella  and  Deane,  The  Rise  and 
Progress  of  the  English  Reformation  (Dublin,  1827),  a  translation 
of  Sander:  Lewis,  Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Anglican  Schism  (Lon- 
don, 1877),  the  best  translation  of  Sander,  the  editor  accepts  the 
diary  in  the  Tower  as  being  by  Rishton;  Knox,  First  and  Second 
Dowiy  Diaries  (London,  1878);  Foley,  Records  Eng.  Prov.  S.J., 
VI  (London,  18S0);  Foster,  Alumni  Oionienses  (Oxford,  1891); 
GiLLOw,  Bihl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.;  Simpson,  Edmund  Campion,  re- 
vised ed.  (London,  1896-1907);  Cooper  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.; 
Persons,  Memoirs  in  Calholic  Record  Society,  II,  IV  (London, 
1906);  Tower  BilU,  ed.  Pollen  in  Catholic  Record  Society,  III 
(London.  1906). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Rita  of  Cascia,  Saikt,  b.  at  Rocca  Porena  in  the 
Diocese  of  Spoleto,  13SG;  d.  at  the  Augustinian  con- 
vent of  Cascia,  1456.  Feast,  22  May.  Represented  as 
holding  roses,  or  roses  and  figs,  and  sometimes  with 
a  wound  in  her  forehead.  According  to  the  "Life" 
(.\cta  SS.,  May,  V,  224)  written  at  the  time  of  her 
beatification  by  the  Angustinian,  Jacob  Carelicci, 
from  two  older  biographies,  she  was  the  daughter  of 
parents  advanced  in  years  and  distinguished  for 
charity  which  merited  them  the  surname  of  "Peace- 
makers of  Je.siLS  Christ".  Rita's  great  desire  was  to 
become  a  nun,  but,  in  obedience  to  the  will  of  her 
parents,  she,  at  the  age  of  twelve,  married  a  man 
extremely  rruel  and  ill-tempered.  P"or  eighteen  years 
she  was  a  niftdel  wife  and  mother.  When  her  husband 
was  murdered  she  tried  in  vain  to  dissuade  her  twin 
iK)ns  from  attempting  to  take  revenge;  she  appealed  to 
Heaven  to  prevent  such  a  crime  on  their  part,  and 
the}'  were  taken  away  by  death,  reconciled  to  God. 
She  applied  for  admission  to  the  August  inian  convent 
at  Cascia,  but,  being  a  widow,  was  refused.  By  con- 
tinued entreaties,  and,  as  is  related,  by  Divine  inter- 
vention, she  gained  admission,  received  the  habit  of 
the  order  and  in  due  time  her  profession.  As  a  reli- 
f^ouH  she  was  an  example  for  all,  excelled  in  mortifica- 
tions, and  was  widely  known  for  the  effieaey  of  Ikt 
pravers.  Urban  VIII,  in  1G37,  perrnittetl  her  Mass 
and  OfTice.  On  account  of  the  many  miracles  re- 
jKjrted  to  have  been  wrought  at  her  intercc^ssion,  she 
n'ceived  in  Spain  the  title  of  La  Srinta  de  los  impon- 
aiffiles.    She  was  solemnly  canonized  24  May,  1900. 

MrnKengrr  of  the  Sarred  Henri  (1902),  200;  Dunbar,  Diet,  of 
Saintly  llV;m^n  dyfindon,  I90.">);  .Staiiler,  llriliiim-leTicon;  Aria 
K.  Sedi-.  X.XXII,  m.i:  Acta  SS.,  March,  V,  221-31;  Cardi,  Vita 
della  b.  Rita  da  Cascia  (Foligno,  180.5;  rev.  cd.,  Uoiiii-,  1900). 

Francis  Mer.shman. 

Rites. — I.  Name  and  Definition. — Rilus'm  classi- 
cal Lai  in  means,  primarily,  the  ff)rm  and  manner  of  any 
religious  observance,  8f>  Livy,  I,  7:  "Sacra  diis  aliis 
albano  ritu,  grjeeo  HeretiJi  nt  ab  Evandro  instituta 
erant  (Romulus j  facit";  then,  in  general,  any  custom 
or  usage.  In  EngliKh  the  word  "rite"  ordinarily 
means  the  ceremonies,  prayers,  and  functions  of  any 
religiouH  bwly,  whether  pagan,  Jewish,  Moslem,  or 
Christian.  Hut  here  we  must  distinguish  two  uses 
of  the  word.     We  speak  of  any  om:  such  religious 


function  as  a  rite — the  rite  of  the  blessing  of  palms, 
the  coronation  rite,  etc.  In  a  slightly  different  sense 
we  call  the  whole  complex  of  the  services  of  any 
Church  or  group  of  Churches  a  rite — thus  we  speak 
of  the  Roman  Rite,  Byzantine  Rite,  and  various 
Eastern  rites.  In  the  latter  sense  the  word  is  often 
considered  equivalent  to  liturgy  (q.  v.),  which, 
however,  in  the  older  and  more  proper  use  of  the 
word  is  the  Eucharistic  Service,  or  Mass;  hence  for 
a  whole  series  of  religious  functions  "rite"  is  pref- 
erable. 

A  Christian  rite,  in  this  sense,  comprises  the  manner 
of  performing  all  services  for  the  worship  of  God  and 
the  sanctification  of  men.  This  includes  therefore: 
(1)  the  administration  of  sacraments,  among  which 
the  service  of  the  Holy  Eucharist,  as  being  also  the 
Sacrifice,  is  the  most  important  element  of  all;  (2) 
the  series  of  psalms,  lessons,  prayers,  etc.,  divided 
into  separate  unities,  called  "hours",  to  make  up 
together  the  Divine  Office;  (3)  all  other  religious  and 
ecclesiastical  functions,  called  sacramentals.  This 
general  term  includes  blessings  of  persons  (such  as  a 
coronation,  the  blessing  of  an  abbot,  various  cere- 
monies performed  for  catechumens,  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  public  penitents,  Benediction  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  etc.),  blessings  of  things  (the  consecration 
of  a  church,  altar,  chalice,  etc.),  and  a  number  of 
devotions  and  ceremonies,  e.  g.  processions  and  the 
taking  of  vows.  Sacraments,  the  Divine  Office, 
and  sacramentals  (in  a  wide  sense)  make  up  the  rite 
of  any  Christian  religious  body.  In  the  case  of 
Protestants  these  three  elements  must  be  modified 
to  suit  their  theological  opinions. 

II.  Difference  of  Rite. — The  Catholic  Church 
has  never  maintained  a  principle  of  uniformity  in  rite. 
Just  as  there  are  different  local  laws  in  various  parts 
of  the  Church,  whereas  certain  fundamental  laws  are 
obeyed  by  all,  so  Catholics  in  different  places  have 
their  own  local  or  national  rites;  they  say  prayers 
and  perform  ceremonies  that  have  evolved  to  suit 
people  of  the  various  countries,  and  are  only  dif- 
ferent expressions  of  the  same  fundamental  truths. 
The  essential  elements  of  the  functions  are  obviously 
the  same  everj^where,  and  are  observed  by  all  Catho- 
lic rites  in  obedience  to  the  command  of  Christ  and 
the  Apostles,  thus:  in  every  rite  baptism  is  adminis- 
tered with  water  and  the  invocation  of  the  Holy 
Trinity;  the  Holy  Eucharist  is  celebrated  with  bread 
and  wine,  over  which  the  words  of  institution  are 
said;  pen.ance  involves  the  confession  of  .sins.  In  the 
ain])lificati()n  of  these  essential  elements,  in  the  ac- 
comi)anying  prayers  and  practical  or  symbolic  cere- 
monies, various  customs  have  produced  the  changes 
which  make  the  difTerent  rites.  If  any  rite  did  not 
contain  one  of  the  essenti.al  notes  of  the  service  it 
would  be  invalid  in  that  point,  if  its  prayers  or  cere- 
monies expressed  false  doctrine  it  would  be  heretical. 
Such  rites  would  not  be  tolerated  in  the  Catholic 
Church.  But,  supposing  uniformity  in  essentials 
and  in  faith,  the  authority  of  the  Church  has  never 
insisted  on  uniformity  of  rite;  Rome  has  never  re- 
sented the  fact  that  other  people  have  their  own 
expressions  of  th(>  same  truths.  The  Roman  Rite 
is  the  most  venerable,  the  mo.st  archaic,  and  immeas- 
urably the  most  important  of  all,  but  our  fellow- 
Catholics  in  the  East  have  the  same  right  to  their 
traditional  liturgies  as  we  have  to  ours.  Nor  can 
we  doubt  that  otlier  rites  too  have  many  beautiful 
prayers  and  ceremonies,  which  add  to  the  richness  of 
Catholic  liturgical  inheritance.  To  lo.se  these  would 
be  a  misfortune  second  onlv  to  the  loss  of  the  Roman 
Rite.  Leo  XIII  in  his  I^ncyelieal,  "Prtrclara"  (20 
June,  W.)\),  expressr-d  tlie  tradition.al  attitude  of  the 
papacy  when  he  wrote  of  his  rc-verence  for  the  vener- 
able rites  of  the  Ivistern  Churches  and  assured  the 
schismatics,  whom  he,  invited  to  reunion,  that  there 
was  no  jealousy  of  these  things  at  Rome;    that  for 


RITES 


65 


RITES 


all  Eastern  customs  "we  shall  provide  without  nar- 


At  the  time  of  the  Schism,  Photius  and  Cerularius 
hurled  against  Latin  rites  and  customs  every  con- 
ceivable absurd  accusation.  The  Latin  fast  on 
Saturday,  Lenten  fare,  law  of  celibacy,  confirmation 
by  a  bishop,  and  especially  the  use  of  unleavened 
bread  for  the  Holy  Eucharist  were  their  accusations 
against  the  West.  Latin  theologians  replied  that 
both  were  right  and  suitable,  each  for  the  people 
who  used  them,  that  there  was  no  need  for  uni- 
formity in  rite  if  there  was  unity  in  faith,  that  one 
good  custom  did  not  prove  another  to  be  bad,  thus 
defending  their  customs  without  attacking  those  of 
the  East.  But  the  Byzantine  patriarch  was  breaking 
the  unity  of  the  Church,  denying  the  primacy,  and 
plunging  the  East  into  schism.  In  1054,  when 
Cerularius's  schism  had  begun,  a  Latin  bishop, 
Dominic  of  Gradus  and  Aquileia,  wrote  concerning 
it  to  Peter  III  of  Antioch.  He  discussed  the  ques- 
tion Cerularius  had  raised,  the  use  of  azymes  at  Mass, 
and  carefully  explained  that,  in  using  this  bread, 
Latins  did  not  intend  to  disparage  the  Eastern  cus- 
tom of  consecrating  leavened  bread,  for  there  is  a 
symbolic  reason  for  either  practice.  "Because  we 
know  that  the  sacred  mixture  of  fermented  bread  is 
used  and  lawfully  observed  by  the  most  holy  and 
orthodox  Fathers  of  the  Eastern  Churches,  we  faith- 
fully approve  of  both  customs  and  confirm  both  by  a 
spiritual  explanation"  (Will,  "Acta  et  scripta  qua; 
de  controv(!rsiis  occlesiie  grseca;  et  latina;  sa^c.  XI 
composita  extant",  Leipzig,  1861,  207).  These  words 
represent  very  well  the  attitude  of  the  papacy  to- 
wards other  rites  at  all  times.  Three  points,  how- 
ever, may  seem  opposed  to  this  and  therefore  require 
some  explanation:  the  supplanting  of  the  old  Gal- 
ilean Rite  by  that  of  Rome  almost  throughout  the 
West,  the  modification  of  Uniat  rites,  the  sup- 
pression of  the  later  medieval  rites. 

The  existence  of  the  Galilean  Rite  was  a  imique 
anomaly.  The  natural  principle  that  rite  follows 
patriarchate  has  been  sanctioned  by  universal  tra- 
dition with  this  one  exception.  Since  the  first  or- 
ganization of  patriarchates  there  has  been  an  ideal 
of  uniformity  throughout  cat-h.  The  close  bond  that 
joined  bishops  anil  metroijolitans  to  their  patriarch 
involved  the  use  of  his  liturgy,  just  as  the  priests  of  a 
diocese  follow  the  rite  of  their  bishop.  Before  the 
arbitrary  imposition  of  the  Byzantine  Rite  on  all 
Orthodox  Churches  no  Eastern  jiatriarch  would  have 
tolerated  a  foreign  liturgy  in  his  domain.  All  Egypt 
used  the  Alexandrine  Rite,  all  Syria  that  of  Antioch- 
Jerusalem,  all  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  the  Balkan 
lands,  that  of  Constantinople.  But  in  the  vast  West- 
ern lands  that  make  up  the  Roman  patriarchate, 
north  of  the  Alps  and  in  Spain,  various  local  rites 
developed,  all  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  each 
other,  yet  different  from  that  of  Rome  itself.  These 
form  the  Galilean  family  of  liturgies.  Abbot  Cabrol, 
Dom  Cagin,  and  other  writers  of  their  school  think  that 
the  Galilean  Rite  was  really  the  original  Roman  Rite 
before  Rome  modified  it  ( "  Pal^^ographie  musicale  ", 
V,  Solesmes,  1889;  Cabrol,  "Lesoriginesliturgiques", 
Paris,  1906).  Most  writers,  however,  maintain  with 
Mgr  Duchesne  ("Origines  du  culte  chr^tien",  Paris, 
1898,  84-89),  that  the  Galilean  Rite  is  Eastern,  Antio- 
chene  in  origin.  Certainly  it  has  numerous  Antio- 
chene  peculiarities  (see  Gallican  Rite),  and  when  it 
emerged  as  a  complete  rite  in  the  sixth  and  seventh 
centuries  (in  Germanus  of  Paris,  etc.),  it  was  dif- 
ferent from  that  in  use  at  Rome  at  the  time.  Non- 
Roman  liturgies  were  used  at  Milan,  Aquileia,  even 
at  Gubbio  at  the  gates  of  the  Roman  province  (In- 
nocent I's  letter  to  Decentius  of  Eugubium;  Ep. 
XXV,  in  P.  L.,  XX,  551-61).  Innocent  (401-17)  nat- 
urally protested  against  the  use  of  a  foreign  rite  in 
Umbria;  occasionally  other  popes  showed  some  de- 
XIII.— 5 


sire  for  uniformity  in  their  patriarchate,  but  the  great 
majority  regarded  the  old  state  of  things  with  per- 
fect indifference.  When  other  bishops  asked  them 
how  ceremonies  were  performed  at  Rome  they  sent 
descriptions  (so  Pope  Vigilius  to  Profuturus  of  Braga 
in  538;  Jaff6,  "Regesta  Rom.  Pont.",  n.  907),  but 
were  otherwise  content  to  allow  different  uses.  St. 
Gregory  I  (590-604)  showed  no  anxiety  to  make  the 
new  English  Church  conform  to  Rome,  but  told  St. 
Augustine  to  take  whatever  rites  he  thought  most 
suitable  from  Rome  or  Gaul  (Ep.  xi,  64,  in  P.  L., 
LXXVII,  1186-7). 

Thus  for  centuries  the  popes  alone  among  patriarchs 
did  not  enforce  their  own  rite  even  throughout  their 
patriarchate.  The  gradual  romanization  and  sub- 
sequent disappearance  of  Gallican  rites  were  (be- 
ginning in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries),  the  work 
not  of  the  popes  but  of  local  bishops  and  kings  who 
naturally  wished  to  conform  to  the  use  of  the  Apos- 
tolic See.  The  GaUican  Rites  varied  everywhere 
(Charles  the  Great  gives  this  as  his  reason  for  adopt- 
ing the  Roman  Use;  see  Hauck,  " Kirchengesch. 
Deutschlands",  II,  107  sq.),  and  the  inevitable  desire 
for  at  least  local  uniformity  arose.  The  bishops'  fre- 
quent visits  to  Rome  brought  them  in  contact  with 
the  more  dignified  ritual  observed  by  their  chief  at 
the  tomb  of  the  Apostles,  and  they  were  naturally  in- 
fluenced by  it  in  their  return  home.  The  local  bis- 
hops in  synods  ordered  conformity  to  Rome.  The 
romanizing  movement  in  the  West  came  from  be- 
low. In  the  Prankish  kingdom  Charles  the  Great,  as 
part  of  his  scheme  of  unifying,  sent  to  Adrian  I  for 
copies  of  the  Roman  books,  commanding  their  use 
throughout  his  domain.  In  the  history  of  the  sub- 
stitution of  the  Roman  Rite  for  the  Gallican  the  popes 
appear  as  spectators,  except  perhaps  in  Spain  and 
much  later  in  Milan.  The  final  result  was  the  ap- 
plication in  the  West  of  the  old  principle,  for  since 
the  pope  was  undoubtedly  Patriarch  of  the  West  it 
was  inevitable,  that  sooner  or  later  the  West  should 
conform  to  his  rite.  The  places,  however,  that 
really  cared  for  their  old  local  rites  (Milan,  Toledo) 
retain  them  even  now. 

It  is  true  that  the  changes  made  in  some  Uniat  rites 
by  the  Roman  correctors  have  not  always  corre- 
sponded to  the  best  liturgical  tradition.  There  are, 
as  Mgr  Duchesne  says,  "corrections  inspired  by  zeal 
that  was  not  always  according  to  knowledge" 
(Origines  du  culte,  2nd  ed.,  69),  but  they  are  much 
fewer  than  is  generally  supposed  and  have  never  been 
made  with  the  idea  of  romanizing.  Despite  the 
general  prejudice  that  Uniat  rites  are  mere  mutilated 
hybrids,  the  strongest  impression  from  the  study  of 
them  is  how  little  has  been  changed.  Where  there  is 
no  suspicion  of  false  doctrine,  as  in  the  Byzantine 
Rite,  the  only  change  made  was  the  restoration  of 
the  name  of  the  pope  where  the  schismatics  had 
erased  it.  Although  the  question  of  the  procession 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  has  been  so  fruitful  a  source  of 
dispute  between  Rome  and  Constantinople  the 
Filioque  clause  was  certainly  not  contained  in  the 
original  creed,  nor  did  the  Roman  authorities  insist  on 
its  addition.  So  Rome  is  content  that  Eastern 
Catholics  should  keep  their  traditional  form  un- 
changed, though  they  believe  the  Catholic  doctrine. 
The  Filioque  is  only  sung  by  those  Byzantine  Uniata 
who  wish  it  themselves,  as  the  Ruthenians.  Other 
rites  were  altered  in  places,  not  to  romanize  but  only 
to  eradicate  passages  suspected  of  heresy.  All 
other  Uniats  came  from  Nestorian,  Monophysite, 
or  Monothelete  sects,  whose  rites  had  been  used  for 
centuries  by  heretics.  Hence,  when  bodies  of  these 
people  wished  to  return  to  the  Catholic  Church  their 
services  were  keenly  studied  at  Rome  for  possible 
heresy.  In  most  cases  corrections  were  absolutely 
necessary.  The  Nestorian  Liturgy,  for  instance,  did 
not  contain  the  words  of  institution,  which  had  to  be 


RITES 


66 


RITES 


added  to  the  Liturgy  of  the  converted  Chaldees. 
The  Monophvsite  Jacobites,  Copts,  and  Armenians 
have  in  the  Trisagion  the  fateful  clause:  "who  wast 
crucified  for  us",  which  has  been  the  watchword  of 
Monophvsitism  ever  since  Peter  the  Dyer  of  Antioch 
added  it  "(470-SS).  If  only  because  of  its  associations 
this  could  not  remain  in  a  Catholic  Liturgy. 

In  some  instances,  however,  the  correctors  were 
over  scrupulous.  In  the  Gregorian  Armenian  Liturgy 
the  words  said  by  the  deacon  at  the  expulsion  of  the 
catechumens,  long  before  the  Consecration:  "The 
body  of  the  Lord  and  the  blood  of  the  Saviour  are  set 
forth  (or  "are  before  us")  (Brightman,  "Eastern 
Liturgies",  430)  were  in  the  Uniat  Rite  changed  to: 
"are  about  to  be  before  us".  The  Uniats  also  omit 
the  words  sung  by  the  Gregorian  choir  before  the 
Anaphora:  "Christ  has  been  manifested  amongst  us 
(has  appeared  in  the  midst  of  us)"  (ibid.,  434),  and 
further  change  the  cherubic  hymn  because  of  its  antici- 
pation of  the  Consecration.  These  misplacements 
are  really  harmless  when  understood,  yet  any  reviser 
would  be  shocked  by  such  strong  cases.  In  many 
other  ways  also  the  Armenian  Rite  shows  evidence  of 
Roman  influence.  It  has  unleavened  bread,  our 
confession  and  Judica  psalm  at  the  beginning  of 
Mass,  a  Lavabo  before  the  Canon,  the  last  Gospel, 
etc.  But  so  Uttle  is  this  the  effect  of  union  with  Rome 
that  the  schismatical  Armenians  have  all  these 
points  too.  They  date  from  the  time  of  the  Crusades, 
when  the  Armenians,  vehemently  opposed  to  the 
Orthodox,  made  many  advances  towards  Cathohcs. 
So  also  the  strong  romanizing  of  the  Maronite 
Liturgy  was  entirely  the  work  of  the  Maronites 
themselves,  when,  surrounded  by  enemies  in  the 
East,  they  too  turned  towards  the  great  Western 
Church,  sought  her  communion,  and  eagerly  copied 
her  practices.  One  can  hardly  expect  the  pope  to 
prevent  other  Churches  from  imitating  Roman  cus- 
toms. Yet  in  the  case  of  Uniats  he  does  even  this. 
A  Byzantine  Uniat  priest  who  uses  unleavened 
bread  in  his  Liturgy-  incurs  excommunication.  The 
only  case  in  which  an  ancient  Eastern  rite  has  been 
wilfully  romanized  is  that  of  the  Uniat  Malabar 
Christians,  where  it  was  not  Roman  authority  but 
the  misguided  zeal  of  Alexius  de  Menezes,  Arch- 
bishop of  Goa,  and  his  Portuguese  advisers  at  the 
Synod  of  Diamper  (1599)  which  spoiled  the  old 
Alalabar  Rite. 

The  Western  medieval  rites  are  in  no  case  (except 
the  AmV>rosian  and  Mozarabic  Rites),  really  inde- 
pendent of  Rome.  They  are  merely  the  Roman  Rite 
with  local  additions  and  modifications,  most  of  which 
are  to  its  disadvantage.  They  are  late,  exuberant, 
and  inferior  variants,  whose  ornate  additions  and  long 
interpolates!  tropes,  sequences,  and  farcing  destroy 
the  dignifie<i  simplicity  of  the  old  liturgy.  In  1570 
the  revisers  appointed  by  the  Council  of  Trent 
rcfitorwl  with  scrupulous  care  and,  even  in  the  light 
of  later  studies,  brilliant  success  the  pure  Roman 
Missal,  which  Pius  V  ordered  should  alone  be  used 
wherever  the  Roman  liite  is  followed.  It  was  a 
return  to  an  oMer  and  purer  form.  The  medieval 
riteH  have  no  doubt  a  certain  archaeological  interest; 
but  where  the  Roman  Rite  is  used  it  is  best  to  use 
it  in  its  pure  form.  This  too  only  means  a  return 
to  the  principle  that  rite  should  follow  patriarchate. 
The  reform  was  made  very  prudently,  Pius  V  allowing 
any  rite  that  could  prove  an  existence  of  two  cen- 
turies to  remain  (Bull,  "Quo  primum",  19  July, 
1570,  printed  first  in  the  Missal),  thus  saving  any 
local  use  that  had  a  certain  antiquity.  Some  dio- 
ceses (e.  g.  Lyons)  and  religious  orders  (Domin- 
icans, Carthusians,  Carmelites),  therefore  keep  their 
special  uses,  and  the  independent  Ambrosian  and 
Mozarabic  Kites,  whose  loss  would  have  been  a  real 
misfortune  (see  Liturgy,  Mass,  Liturot  of  the) 
still  remain. 


Rome  then  by  no  means  imposed  uniformity 
of  rite.  Catholics  are  united  in  faith  and  discipline, 
but  in  their  manner  of  performing  the  sacred  func- 
tions there  is  room  for  variety  based  on  essential 
unity,  as  there  was  in  the  first  centuries.  There  are 
cases  (e.  g.  the  Georgian  Church)  where  union  with 
Rome  has  saved  the  ancient  use,  while  the  schis- 
matics have  been  forced  to  abandon  it  by  the  cen- 
tralizing poUcy  of  their  authorities  (in  this  case 
Russia).  The  rutliless  destruction  of  ancient  rites 
in  favour  of  uniformity  has  been  the  work  not  of 
Rome  but  of  the  schismatical  patriarchs  of  Con- 
stantinople. Since  the  thirteenth  century  Con- 
stantinople in  its  attempt  to  make  itself  the  one 
centre  of  the  Orthodox  Church  has  driven  out  the  far 
more  venerable  and  ancient  Liturgies  of  Antioch  and 
Alexandria  and  has  compelled  all  the  Orthodox  to 
use  its  owTi  late  derived  rite.  The  Greek  Liturgy  of 
St.  Mark  has  ceased  to  exist;  that  of  St.  James  has 
been  revived  for  one  or  two  days  in  the  year  at 
Zakynthos  and  Jerusalem  only  (see  Antiochene 
Liturgy).  The  Orthodox  all  the  world  over  must 
follow  the  Rite  of  Constantinople.  In  this  unjustifi- 
able centralization  we  have  a  defiance  of  the  old 
principle,  since  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  Alexandria, 
Cyprus,  in  no  way  belong  to  the  Byzantine  Patriarch- 
ate. Those  who  accuse  the  papacy  of  sacrificing 
everything  for  the  sake  of  uniformity  mistake  the  real 
offender,  the  oecumenical  patriarch. 

III.  The  Old  Rites. — Catholic  and  Schismatical. — 
A  complete  table  of  the  old  rites  with  an  account  of 
their  mutual  relations  will  be  found  in  the  article 
Liturgy.  Here  it  need  only  be  added  that  there  is  a 
Uniat  body  using  each  of  the  Eastern  rites.  There  is  no 
ancient  rite  that  is  not  represented  within  the  Catholic 
Church.  That  rite,  liturgical  language,  and  religious 
body  connote  three  totally  different  ideas  has  been 
explained  at  length  in  the  article  Greek  Rites.  The 
rite  a  bishop  or  priest  follows  is  no  test  at  all  of  his 
religion.  Within  certain  broad  limits  a  member  of 
any  Eastern  sect  might  use  any  rite,  for  the  two 
categories  of  rite  and  religion  cross  each  other  con- 
tinually. They  represent  quite  different  classifica- 
tions: for  instance,  liturgically  all  Armenians  belong 
to  one  class,  theologically  a  Uniat  Armenian  belongs 
to  the  same  class  as  Latins,  Chaldees,  Maronites,  etc., 
and  has  nothing  to  do  with  his  Gregorian  (Mono- 
physite)  fellow-countrymen  (see  Eastern  Churches). 
Among  Catholics  the  rite  forms  a  group;  each  rite  is 
used  by  a  branch  of  the  Church  that  is  thereby  a 
special,  though  not  separate,  entity.  So  within  the 
Catholic  unity  we  speak  of  local  Churches  whose 
characteristic  in  each  case  is  the  rite  they  use.  Rite 
is  the  only  basis  of  this  classification.  Not  all  Ar- 
menian Catholics  or  Byzantine  Uniats  obey  the  same 
patriarch  or  local  authority;  yet  they  are  "Churches  " 
in(lividual  provinces  of  the  same  great  Church, 
because  each  is  bound  together  by  their  own  rites. 
In  the  West  there  is  the  vast  Latin  Church,  in  the 
Ea.st  the  Byzantine,  Chaldean,  Coptic,  Syrian, 
Maronite,  Armenian,  and  Malabar  Uniat  Churches. 
It  is  of  course  possible  to  subdivide  and  to  speak 
of  the  national  Churches  (of  Italy,  France,  Spain, 
etc.)  under  one  of  these  main  bodies  (see  Latin 
Church).  In  modern  times  rite  takes  the  place 
of  the  old  classification  in  patriarchates  and  provinces. 

IV.  Protestant  Rites. — The  Reformation  in  the 
sixteenth  century  produced  a  new  and  numerous 
series  of  rites,  which  are  in  no  sense  continuations  of 
the  old  development  of  liturgy.  They  do  not  all 
represent  descendants  of  the  earliest  rites,  nor  can 
they  be  classified  in  the  table  of  genus  and  species 
that  includes  all  the  old  liturgies  of  Christendom. 
The  old  rites  are  unconscious  and  natural  develop- 
ments of  earlier  ones  and  go  back  to  the  original 
fluid  rite  of  the  first  centuries  (see  Liturgy).  The 
Protestant  rites  are  deliberate  compositions  made 


RITES 


67 


RITES 


by  the  various  Reformers  to  suit  their  theological 
positions,  as  new  services  were  necessary  for  their 
prayer-meetings.  No  old  hturgy  could  be  used 
by  people  with  their  ideas.  The  old  rites  contain 
the  plainest  statements  about  the  Real  Presence, 
the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice,  prayers  to  saints,  and  for 
the  dead,  which  are  denied  by  Protestants.  The 
Reformation  occurred  in  the  West,  where  the  Roman 
Rite  in  its  various  local  forms  had  been  used  for  cen- 
turies. No  Reformed  sect  could  use  the  Roman 
Mass;  the  medieval  derived  rites  were  still  more 
ornate,  explicit,  in  the  Reformers'  sense  super- 
stitious. So  all  the  Protestant  sects  abandoned  the 
old  Mass  and  the  other  ritual  functions,  composing 
new  services  which  have  no  continuity,  no  direct  re- 
lation to  any  historic  liturgy.  However,  it  is  hardly 
possible  to  compose  an  entirely  new  Christian  ser- 
vice without  borrowing  anything.  Moreover,  in  many 
cases  the  Reformers  wished  to  make  the  breach  with 
the  past  as  little  obvious  as  could  be.  So  many  of 
their  new  services  contain  fragments  of  old  rites; 
they  borrowed  such  elements  as  seemed  to  them 
harmless,  composed  and  re-arranged  and  evolved 
in  some  cases  services  that  contain  parts  of  the  old 
ones  in  a  new  order.  On  the  whole  it  is  surprising 
that  they  changed  as  much  as  they  did.  It  would 
have  been  possible  to  arrange  an  imitation  of  the 
Roman  Mass  that  would  have  been  much  more 
like  it  than  anything  they  produced. 

They  soon  collected  fragments  of  all  kinds  of  rites. 
Eastern,  Roman,  Mozarabic,  etc.,  which  with  their 
new  prayers  they  arranged  into  services  that  are  hope- 
less liturgical  tangles.  This  is  specially  true  of  the 
Anglican  Prayer-books.  In  some  cases,  for  instance, 
the  placing  of  the  Gloria  after  the  Communion  in 
Edward  VI's  second  Prayer-book,  there  seems  to  be 
no  object  except  a  love  of  change.  The  first  Lutheran 
services  kept  most  of  the  old  order.  The  Calvinist 
arrangements  had  from  the  first  no  connexion  with 
any  earlier  rite.  The  use  of  the  vulgar  tongue  was  a 
great  principle  with  the  Reformers.  Luther  and 
Zwingli  at  first  compromised  with  Latin,  but  soon  the 
old  language  disappeared  in  all  Protestant  services. 
Luther  in  1523  published  a  tract,  "Of  the  order  of  the 
service  in  the  parish"  ("Von  ordenung  gottis  diensts 
3mn  der  gemeine"  in  Clemen,  "Quellenbuch  zur 
prakt.  Theologie",  I,  24-6),  in  which  he  insists  on 
preaching,  rejects  all  "unevangelical"  parts  of  the 
Mass,  such  as  the  Offertory  and  idea  of  sacrifice,  in- 
vocation of  saints,  and  ceremonies,  and  denounces 
private  Masses  (Winkclmessen),  Masses  for  the  dead, 
and  the  idea  of  the  priest  as  a  mediator.  Later  in  the 
same  year  he  issued  a  "  Formula  missa?  et  communionis 
pro  ecclesia  Vittebergensi "  (ibid.,  26-34),  in  which  he 
omits  the  preparatory  prayers.  Offertory,  all  the  Canon 
to  qui  pridie,  from  Unde  et  memores  to  the  Pater,  the 
embolism  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  fraction,  Ite  missa 
est.  The  Preface  is  shortened,  the  Sanctus  is  to  be 
sung  after  the  words  of  institution  which  are  to  be 
said  aloud,  and  meanwhile  the  elevation  may  be 
made  because  of  the  weak  who  would  be  offended  by 
its  sudden  omission  (ibid.,  IV,  30).  At  the  end  he 
adds  a  new  ceremony,  a  blessing  from  Num.,  vi,  24-6. 
Latin  remained  in  this  service. 

Karlstadt  began  to  hold  vernacular  services  at 
Wittenberg  since  1521.  In  1524  Kaspar  Kantz  pub- 
lished a  German  service  on  the  lines  of  Luther's 
"Formula  missae"  (Lohe,  "Sammlung  liturgischer 
Formulare",  III,  Nordlingen,  1842,  37  sq.);  so  also 
Thomas  Munzer,  the  Anabaptist,  in  1523  at  Alstedt 
(Smend,  "Die  evang.  deutschen  Messen",  1896,  99 
sq.).  A  number  of  compromises  began  at  this  time 
among  the  Protestants,  services  partly  Latin  and 
partly  vernacular  (Rietschel,  "Lehrbuch  der  Litur- 
gik",  I,  404-9).  Vernacular  hymns  took  the  place  of 
the  old  Proper  (Introit,  etc.).  At  last  in  1526  Luther 
issued  an  entirely  new  German  service,  "Deudsche 


Messe  und  ordnung  Gottis  diensts"  (Clemen,  op.  cit., 
34-43),  to  be  used  on  Sundays,  whereas  the  "P'ormula 
missae",  in  Latin,  might  be  kept  for  week-days.  In 
the  "Deudsche  Messe"  "a  spiritual  song  or  German 
psahn"  replaces  the  Introit,  then  follows  Kyrie  elei- 
son  in  Greek  three  times  only.  There  is  no  Gloria. 
Then  come  the  Collects,  Epistle,  a  German  hymn. 
Gospel,  Creed,  Sermon,  Paraphrase  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  words  of  institution  with  the  account  of 
the  Last  Supper  from  I  Cor.,  xi,  20-9,  Elevation 
(always  kept  by  Luther  himself  in  spite  of  Karl- 
stadt and  most  of  his  colleagues).  Communion, 
during  which  the  Sanctus  or  a  hymn  is  sung,  Collects, 
the  blessing  from  Num.,  vi,  24-6.  Except  the  Kyrie, 
all  is  in  German;  azj^me  bread  is  still  used  but  de- 
clared indifferent;  Communion  is  given  under  both 
kinds,  though  Luther  preferred  the  unmixed  chalice. 
This  service  remained  for  a  long  time  the  basis  of  the 
Lutheran  Communion  function,  but  the  local  branches 
of  the  sect  from  the  beginning  used  great  freedom  in 
modifying  it.  The  Pietistic  movement  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  with  its  scorn  for  forms  and  still  more 
the  present  Rationalism,  have  left  very  little  of  Lu- 
ther's scheme.  A  vast  number  of  Agendce,  Kirchen- 
ordnungen,  and  Prayer-books  issued  by  various  Lu- 
theran consistories  from  the  sixteenth  century  to  our 
own  time  contain  as  many  forms  of  celebrating  the 
Lord's  Supper.  Pastors  use  their  own  discretion  to  a 
great  extent,  and  it  is  impossible  to  foresee  what  ser- 
vice will  be  held  in  any  Lutheran  church.  An  arrange- 
ment of  hymns,  Bible  readings  (generally  the  Nicene 
Creed),  a  sermon,  then  the  words  of  institution  and 
Communion,  prayers  (often  extempore),  more  hymns, 
and  the  blessing  from  Num.,  vi,  make  up  the  general 
outline  of  the  service. 

Zwingli  was  more  radical  than  Luther.  In  1523  he 
kept  a  form  of  the  Latin  Mass  with  the  omission  of  all 
he  did  not  like  in  it  ("De  canone  missa)  epichiresis" 
in  Clemen,  op.  cit.,  43-7),  chiefly  because  the  town 
council  of  Zurich  feared  too  sudden  a  change,  but  in 
1525  he  overcame  their  scruples  and  issued  his 
"Action  oder  bruch  (=Brauch)  des  nachtmals" 
(ibid.,  47-50).  This  is  a  complete  breach  with  the 
Mass  an  entirely  new  service.  On  Maundy  Thurs- 
day the  men  and  women  are  to  receive  communion, 
on  Good  Friday  those  of  "middle  age",  on  Easter 
Sunday  only  the  oldest  {die  alleraliesten) .  These 
are  the  only  occasions  on  which  the  service  is  to 
be  held.  The  arrangement  is:  a  prayer  said  by  the 
pastor  facing  the  people,  reading  of  I  Cor.,  xi,  20-9, 
Gloria  in  Excelsis,  "The  Lord  be  with  you"  and  its 
answer,  reading  of  John,  vi,  47-63,  Apostles'  Creed, 
an  address  to  the  people.  Lord's  Prayer,  extempore 
prayer^  words  of  institution,  Communion  (under  both 
kinds  in  wooden  vessels),  Ps.  cxiii,  a  short  prayer  of 
thanksgiving;  the  pastor  says:  "Go  in  peace".  On 
other  Sundays  there  is  to  be  no  Communion  at  all, 
but  a  service  consisting  of  prayer.  Our  Father,  sermon, 
general  confession,  absolution,  prayer,  blessing. 
Equally  radical  was  the  Calvinist  sect.  In  1535 
through  Farel's  influence  the  Mass  was  abolished  in 
Geneva.  Three  times  a  year  only  was  there  to  be  a 
commemorative  Supper  in  the  baldest  form ;  on  other 
Sundays  the  sermon  was  to  suffice.  In  1542  Calvin 
issued  "  La  forme  des  prieres  ecclcsiastiques"  (Clemen, 
op.  cit.,  51-S),  a  supplement  to  which  describes  "La 
maniere  de  cel^brer  la  c^ne"  (ibid.,  51-68).  This  rite, 
to  be  celebrated  four  times  yearly,  consists  of  the  read- 
ing of  I  Cor.,  xi,  an  excommunication  of  various  kinds 
of  sinners,  and  long  exhortation.  "This  being  done, 
the  ministers  distribute  the  bread  and  the  cup  to  the 
people,  taking  care  that  they  approach  reverently  and 
in  good  order"  (ibid.,  60).  Meanwhile  a  psalm  is  sung 
or  a  lesson  read  from  the  Bible,  a  thanksgiving  fol- 
lows (ibid.,  55),  and  a  final  blessing.  Except  for  their 
occurrence  in  the  reading  of  I  Cor.,  xi,  the  words  of 
institution  are  not  said ;  there  is  no  kind  of  Commu- 


RITES 


68 


RITES 


nion  form.    It  is  hardly  possible  to  speak  of  rite  at  all 
in  the  Calvinist  body. 

The  other  ritual  functions  kept  by  Protestants 
(baptism,  confirmation  as  an  introduction  to  Com- 
munion, marriage,  funerals,  appointment  of  ministers) 
went  through  much  the  same  development.  The 
first  Reformers  expunged  and  modified  the  old  rites, 
then  gradually  more  and  more  was  changed  until 
Uttle  remained  of  a  rite  in  our  sense.  Psalms,  hymns, 
pravers,  addresses  to  the  people  in  various  combina- 
tions make  up  these  functions.  The  Calvinists  have 
alwavs  been  more  radical  than  the  Lutherans.  The 
development  and  multiple  forms  of  these  services  may 
be  seen  in  Rietschei,  "Lehrbuch  der  Liturgik",  II, 
and  Clemen,  "Quellenbuch  zur  praktischcn  Theolo- 
gie",  I  (texts  only).  The  Anglican  body  stands 
somewhat  apart  from  the  others,  inasmuch  as  it  has  a 
standard  book,  almost  unaltered  since  1662.  The 
first  innovation  was  the  introduction  of  an  English 
Utany  under  Henry  VIII  in  1544.  Cranmer  was  pre- 
paring further  changes  when  Henry  VIII  died  (see 
Procter  and  Frere,  "A  New  History  of  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer",  London,  1908,  29-35).  Under 
Edward  VI  (1547-53)  many  changes  were  made  at 
once:  blessings,  holy  water,  the  creeping  to  the  Cross 
were  abolished.  Mass  was  said  in  English  (ibid.,  39-41), 
and  in  1549  the  first  Prayer-book,  arranged  by  Cran- 
mer, was  issued.  Much"^of  the  old  order  of  the  Mass 
remained,  but  the  Canon  disappeared  to  make  way 
for  a  new  praj'er  from  Lutheran  sources.  The  "Kol- 
nische  Kirchenordnung "  composed  by  Melanchthon 
and  Butzer  supplied  part  of  the  prayers.  The  changes 
are  Lutheran  rather  than  Calvinist.  In  1552  the 
second  Prayer-book  took  the  place  of  the  first.  This 
is  the  present  Anglican  Book  of  Common  Prayer  and 
represents  a  much  stronger  Protestant  tendency.  The 
commandments  take  the  place  of  the  Introit  and 
Kyrie  (kept  in  the  first  book),  the  Gloria  is  moved  to 
the  end,  the  Consecration-prayer  is  changed  so  as  to 
deny  the  Sacrifice  and  Real  Presence,  the  form  at  the 
Communion  becomes:  "Take  and  eat  this  in  remem- 
brance that  Christ  died  for  thee,  and  feed  on  him  in 
thy  heart  by  faith  with  thanksgiving"  (similarly  for 
the  chalice).  In  1558  Elizabeth's  Government  issued 
a  new  edition  of  the  second  Prayer-book  of  Edward 
VI  with  slight  modifications  of  its  extreme  Protestant- 
ism. Both  the  Edwardine  forms  for  communion 
are  combined.  In  1662  a  number  of  revisions  were 
made.  In  particular  the  ordination  forms  received 
additions  defining  the  order  to  be  conferred.  A  few 
slight  modifications  (as  to  the  lessons  read,  days  no 
longer  to  be  kept)  have  been  made  since. 

The  Anglican  Communion  service  follows  this 
order:  The  Lord's  Prayer,  Collect  for  purity.  Ten 
Commandments,  Collect  for  the  king  and  the  one  for 
the  day,  Epistle,  Gospel,  Creed,  sermon,  certain  sen- 
tences from  the  Bible  (meanwhile  a  collection  is  made), 
prayer  for  the  Church  militant,  address  fo  the  people 
about  Communion,  general  confession  and  absolution, 
the  comfortable  words  (Matt.,  xi,  28;  John,  iii,  16; 
1  Tim.,  i,  15;  I  John,  ii,  1),  Preface,  prayer  ("We  do 
not  j»rfi8ume"j,  Consecration-prayer,  Communion  at 
once,  I>jrd's  Prayer,  Thanksgiving-prayer,  "Glory  be 
to  G(k1  on  high  ",  blessing.  Ver>'  little  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  old  Mass  remains  in  this  service,  for  all  the 
ideap  Protest  ants  reject  are  carefully  excluded.  The 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  contains  all  the  official  ser- 
vices of  the  Anglican  Church,  baptism^  the  catechism, 
confirmation,  marriage,  funeral,  ordmation,  articles 
of  religion,  etc.  It  has  also  forms  of  morning  and 
evening  j)rayer,  composfid  partly  from  the  Catholic 
Office  with  rnanv  moflifications  and  very  considerably 
re^lucwl.  The  i-'piscopal  Church  in  Scotlanrl  has  a 
Prayer-bofjk,  formed  in  lt)37  and  revised  in  1764, 
which  ifl  more  nearly  akin  to  the  first  Prayer-bf)ok  of 
Edward  VI  and  in  decidedly  more  High-C^hurch  in 
tone.     In  1789  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of 


America  accepted  a  book  based  on  the  English  one  of 
1662,  but  taking  some  features  from  the  Scotch  ser- 
vices. The  Anghcan  service-books  are  now  the  least 
removed  from  Cathohc  Uturgies  of  those  used  by  any 
Protestant  body.  But  this  is  saying  very  Uttle.  The 
Non-jurors  in  the  eighteenth  century  produced  a 
number  of  curious  liturgies  which  in  many  ways  go 
back  to  Catholic  principles,  but  have  the  fault  common 
to  all  Protestant  services  of  being  conscious  and  arti- 
ficial arrangements  of  elements  selected  from  the  old 
rites,  instead  of  natural  developments  (Overton,  "The 
Non-jurors",  London,  1902,  ch.  vi).  The  Irvingites 
have  a  not  very  successful  service-book  of  this  type. 
Many  Methodist  s  use  the  Anglican  book ;  the  other  later 
sects  have  for  the  most  part  nothing  but  loose  arrange- 
ments of  hymns,  readings,  extempore  praj'crs,  and  a 
sermon  that  can  hardly  be  called  rites  in  any  sense. 
V.  Liturgical  Language. — The  language  of  any 
Church  or  rite,  as  distinct  from  the  vulgar  tongue,  is 
that  used  in  the  official  services  and  may  or  may  not 
be  the  common  language.  I^or  instance  the  Rumanian 
Church  uses  liturgically  the  ordinary  language  of  the 
country,  while  Latin  is  used  by  the  Latin  Church  for 
her  Liturgy  without  regard  to  the  mother  tongue  of 
the  clergy  or  congregation.  There  are  many  cases 
of  an  intermediate  state  between  these  extremes,  in 
which  the  liturgical  language  is  an  older  form  of  the 
vulgar  tongue,  sometimes  easily,  sometimes  hardly  at 
all,  understood  by  people  who  have  not  studied  it 
specially.  Language  is  not  rite.  Theoretically  any 
rite  may  exist  in  any  language.  Thus  the  Armenian, 
Coptic,  and  East  S>Tian  Rites  are  celebrated  always 
in  one  language,  the  Byzantine  Rite  is  used  in  a  great 
number  of  tongues,  and  in  other  rites  one  language 
sometimes  enormously  preponderates  but  is  not  used 
exclusively.  This  is  determined  by  church  discipUne. 
The  Roman  Liturgy  is  generally  celebrated  in  Latin. 
The  reason  why  a  liturgical  language  began  to  be  used 
and  is  still  retained  must  be  distinguished  in  liturgical 
science  from  certain  theological  or  mystic  considera- 
tions by  which  its  use  may  be  explained  or  justified. 
Each  liturgical  language  was  first  chosen  because  it  was 
the  natural  language  of  the  people.  But  languages 
change  and  the  Faith  spreads  into  countries  where 
other  tongues  are  spoken.  Then  either  the  authori- 
ties are  of  a  more  practical  mind  and  simph'  translate 
the  prayers  into  the  new  language,  or  the  conservative 
instinct,  always  strong  in  religion,  retains  for  the 
liturgy  an  older  language  no  longer  used  in  common 
life.  The  Jews  showed  this  instinct,  when,  though 
Hebrew  was  a  dead  language  after  the  Captivity,  they 
continued  to  use  it  in  the  Temple  and  the  synagogues 
in  the  time  of  Christ,  and  still  retain  it  in  their  ser- 
vices. The  Moslem,  also  conservative,  reads  the 
Koran  in  classical  Arabic,  whether  he  be  Turk,  Persian, 
or  Afghan.  The  translation  of  the  church  service  is 
complicated  by  the  difficulty  of  determining  when  the 
language  in  whit-h  it  is  written,  as  Latin  in  the  West 
and  Hellenistic  Greek  in  the  East,  has  ceased  to  be  the 
vulgar  tongue.  Though  the  Byzantine  services  were 
translated  into  the  common  language  of  the  Slavonic 
peo])le  that  they  might  he  understood,  this  form  of  the 
language  fChurfh-Slavonic)  is  no  longer  spoken,  but 
is  gradually  becoming  as  unintelligible  as  the  original 
Greek.  Protestants  make  a  great  point  of  using 
languages  "understanded  of  the  people",  yet  (he 
language  of  Luther's  Bible  and  the  Anglican  Prayer- 
book  is  already  archaic. 

History. — \Vhen  Christianity  appeared  Hellenistic 
Greek  was  the  common  language  spoken  around  the 
Mediterranean.  St.  Paul  writes  to  people  in  Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Italy  in  Greek.  When  the  parent 
rites  were  finally  written  down  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries  Eastern  liturgical  language  had  slightly 
changed.  The  Greek  of  these  liturgies  (Apost. 
Const.  VIII,  St.  James,  St.  Mark,  the  Byzantine 
Liturgy)  was  that  of  the  Fathers  of  the  time,  strongly 


RITES 


(59 


RITES 


coloured  by  the  Septuagint  and  the  New  Testament. 
These  liturgies  remained  in  this  form  and  have  never 
been  recast  in  any  modern  Greek  dialect.  Like  the 
text  of  the  Bible,  that  of  a  liturgy  once  fixed  becomes 
sacred.  The  formulae  used  Sunday  after  Sunday  are 
hallowed  by  too  sacred  associations  to  be  changed 
as  long  as  more  or  less  the  same  language  is  used. 
The  common  tongue  drifts  and  develops,  but  the 
liturgical  forms  are  stereotyped.  In  the  East  and 
West,  however,  there  existed  different  principles  in 
this  matter.  Whereas  in  the  West  there  was  no 
literary  language  but  Latin  till  far  into  the  Middle 
Ages,  in  the  East  there  were  such  languages,  totally 
unlike  Greek,  that  had  a  position,  a  literature,  a 
dignity  of  their  own  hardly  inferior  to  that  of  Greek 
itself.  In  the  West  every  educated  man  spoke  and 
wrote  Latin  almost  to  the  Renaissance.  To  trans- 
late the  Liturgy  into  a  Celtic  or  Teutonic  language 
would  have  seemed  as  absurd  as  to  write  a  prayer- 
book  now  in  some  vulgar  slang.  The  East  was  never 
hellenized  as  the  West  was  latinized.  Great  nations, 
primarily  Egypt  and  Syria,  kept  their  own  languages 
and  literatures  as  part  of  their  national  inheritance. 
The  people,  owing  no  allegiance  to  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, had  no  rea.son  to  say  their  prayers  in  it,  and 
the  Liturgy  was  translated  into  Coptic  in  Egypt,  into 
Syriac  in  Syria  and  Palestine.  So  the  principle  of  a 
uniform  liturgical  language  was  broken  in  the  East 
and  people  were  accustomed  to  hear  the  church  ser- 
vice in  different  languages  in  different  places.  This 
uniformity  once  broken  never  became  an  ideal  to 
Eastern  Christians  and  the  way  was  opened  for  an 
indefinite  multi[)lication  of  liturgical  tongues. 

In  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  the  Rites  of  Antioch 
and  Alexandria  were  used  in  Greek  in  the  great  towns 
where  people  spoke  Greek,  in  Coptic  or  Syriac  among 
peasants  in  the  country.  The  Rite  of  Asia  Minor  and 
Constantinople  was  always  in  Greek,  because  here 
there  was  no  rival  tongue.  But  when  the  Faith  was 
preached  in  Armenia  (from  Ca^sarea)  the  Armenians 
in  taking  over  the  Cesarean  Rite  translated  it  of 
course  into  their  own  language.  And  the  great  Xes- 
torian  Church  in  East  Syria,  evolving  her  own  litera- 
ture in  Syriac,  naturally  used  that  language  for  her 
church  services  too.  This  diversity  of  tongues  was 
by  no  means  parallel  to  diversity  of  sect  or  religion. 
People  who  agreed  entirely  in  faith,  who  were  sepa- 
rated by  no  schism,  nevertheless  said  their  prayers  in 
different  languages.  Melchites  in  Syria  clung  entirely 
to  the  Orthodox  faith  of  Constantinople  and  used  the 
Byzantine  Rite,  yet  used  it  translated  into  Syriac. 
The  process  of  translating  the  Liturgy  continued  later. 
After  the  Schism  of  the  eleventh  century,  the  Ortho- 
dox Church,  unlike  Rome,  insisted  on  uniformity  of 
rite  among  her  members.  All  the  Orthodox  use  the 
Byzantine  Rite,  yet  have  no  idea  of  one  language. 
When  the  Slavs  were  converted  the  Byzantine  Rite 
was  put  into  Old  Slavonic  for  them;  whVn  Arabic  be- 
came the  only  language  spoken  in  Egyi)t  and  Syria,  it 
became  the  languag(M)f  the  Liturgy  in  those  countries. 
For  a  long  time  all  the  peojjle  north  of  Constantinople 
used  Old  Slavonic  in  church,  although  the  dialects  they 
spoke  gradually  drifted  away  from  it.  Only  the 
Georgians,  who  are  Slavs  in  no  sense  at  all,  used  their 
own  language.  In  the  seventeenth  century  as  part 
of  the  growth  of  Rumanian  national  feeling  came  a 
great  insistence  on  the  fact  that  they  were  not  Slavs 
either.  They  wished  to  be  counted  among  Western, 
Latin  races,  so  they  translated  their  liturgical  books 
into  their  own  Romance  language.  These  represent 
the  old  classical  liturgical  languages  in  the  East. 

The  Monophysite  Churches  have  kept  the  old 
tongues  even  when  no  longer  spoken;  thus  they  use 
Coptic  in  P]gypt,  Syriac  in  Syria,  Armenian  in  Ar- 
menia. The  Nestorians  and  their  daughter-Church 
in  India  (Malabar)  also  use  Syriac.  The  Orthodox 
have  four  or  five  chief  liturgical  languages:   Greek, 


Arabic,  Church-Slavonic,  and  Rumanian.  Georgian 
has  almost  died  out.  Later  Russian  missions  have 
very  much  increased  the  number.  They  have 
translated  the  same  Byzantine  Rite  into  German, 
Esthonian,  and  Lettish  for  the  Baltic  provinces, 
Finnish  and  Tartar  for  converts  in  Finland  and 
Siberia,  Eskimo,  a  North  American  Indian  dialect, 
Chinese,  and  Japanese.  Hence  no  general  principle 
of  liturgical  language  can  be  established  for  Eastern 
Churches,  though  the  Nestorians  and  Monophysitea 
have  evolved  something  like  the  Roman  princi{)le 
and  kept  their  old  languages  in  the  liturgy,  in  spite 
of  change  in  common  talk.  The  Orthodox  services 
are  not,  however,  everywhere  understood  by  the 
people,  for  since  these  older  versions  were  made  lan- 
guage has  gone  on  developing.  In  the  case  of  con- 
verts of  a  totally  different  race,  such  as  Chinese  or 
Red  Indians,  there  is  an  obvious  line  to  cross  at  once 
and  there  is  no  difficulty  about  translating  what 
would  otherwise  be  totally  unintelligible  to  them. 
At  home  the  spoken  language  gradually  drifts  away 
from  the  form  stereotyped  in  the  Liturgy,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  determine  when  the  Liturgy  ceases  to  be 
understood.  In  more  modern  times  with  the  growth 
of  new  sects  the  conservative  instinct  of  the  old 
Churches  has  grown.  The  Greek,  Arabic,  and 
Church-Slavonic  te.xts  are  jealously  kept  unchanged, 
though  in  all  cases  they  have  become  archaic  and 
difficult  to  follow  by  uneducated  people.  Lately  the 
question  of  liturgical  language  has  become  one  of  the 
chief  difficulties  in  Macedonia.  Especially  since  the 
Bulgarian  Schism  the  Phanar  at  Constantinople  in- 
sists on  Greek  in  church  as  a  sign  of  Hellenism,  while 
the  people  clamour  for  Old-Slavonic  or  Rumanian. 

In  the  West  the  whole  situation  is  different. 
Greek  was  first  used  at  Rome,  too.  About  the  third 
century  the  services  were  translated  into  the  vulgar 
tongue,  Latin  (see  Mass,  Liturgy  of  the),  which  has 
remained  ever  since.  There  was  no  possible  rival 
language  for  many  centuries.  As  the  Western 
barbarians  became  civilized  they  accepted  a  Latin 
culture  in  everj'thing,  having  no  literatures  of  their 
own.  Latin  was  the  language  of  all  educated  people, 
so  it  was  used  in  church,  as  it  was  for  books  or  even 
letter-writing.  The  Romance  people  drifted  from 
Latin  to  Italian,  Spanish,  French,  etc.,  so  gradually 
that  no  one  can  say  when  Latin  became  a  dead  lan- 
guage. The  vulgar  tongue  was  used  by  peasants  and 
ignorant  people  only;  but  all  books  were  written, 
lectures  given,  and  solemn  speeches  made  in  Latin. 
Even  Dante  (d.  1321)  thought  it  necessary  to  write 
an  apology  for  Italian  (De  vulgari  eloquentia). 
So  for  centuries  the  Latin  language  was  that,  not  of 
the  Catholic  Church,  but  of  the  Roman  patriarchate. 
When  people  at  last  realized  that  it  was  dead,  it  was 
too  late  to  change  it.  Around  it  had  gathered  the 
associations  of  Western  Christendom;  the  music 
of  the  Roman  Rite  was  composed  and  sung  only  to  a 
Latin  text;  and  it  is  even  now  the  official  tongue  of 
the  Roman  Court.  The  ideal  of  uniformity  in  rite 
extended  to  language  also,  so  when  the  rebels  of  the 
sixteenth  century  threw  over  the  old  language,  sacred 
from  its  long  use,  as  they  threw  over  the  old  rite  and 
old  laws,  the  Catholic  Church,  conservative  in  all 
these  things,  would  not  give  way  to  them.  As  a 
bond  of  union  among  the  many  nations  who  make  up 
the  Latin  patriarchate,  she  retains  the  old  Latin 
tongue  with  one  or  two  small  exceptions.  Along 
the  Eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  the  Roman 
Rite  has  been  used  in  Slavonic  (with  the  Glagolitic 
letters)  since  the  eleventh  century,  and  the  Roman 
Mass  is  said  in  Greek  on  rare  occasions  at  Rome. 

It  is  a  question  how  far  one  may  speak  of  a  special 
liturgical  Latin  language.  The  writers  of  our  Col- 
lects, hymns.  Prefaces,  etc.,  wrote  simply  in  the  lan- 
guage of  their  time.  The  style  of  the  various  ele- 
ments of  the  Mass  and  Divine  Office  varies  greatly  ac- 


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cording  to  the  time  at  which  they  were  written.  V^e 
have  texts  from  the  fourth  or  fifth  to  the  twentieth 
century.  Liturgical  Latin  then  is  simply  late  Chris- 
tian Latin  of  various  periods.  On  the  other  hand  the 
Liturgy  had  an  influence  on  the  style  of  Christian 
Latin  writers  second  only  to  that  of  the  Bible.  First 
we  notice  Hebraisms  (per  omnia  scecula  sceculorum) , 
many  Greek  constructions  (per  Dominum  nostrum, 
meaning  " for  the  sake  of",  Sid)  and  words  (Eucha- 
ristia,  litania,  episcopus),  expressions  borrowed  from 
B.'blical  metaphors  (pastor,  liber  pra'destinationis, 
crucifigere  carnem,  lux,  vita,  Agnus  Dei),  and  words 
in  a  new  Christian  sense  (humilitas,  compunctio, 
caritas).  St.  Jerome  in  his  Vulgate  more  than  any 
one  else  helped  to  form  liturgical  style.  His  con- 
structions and  phrases  occur  repeatedly  in  the  non- 
Biblical  parts  of  the  ALass  and  Office.  The  style 
of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  (St.  Leo  I,  Celestine  I, 
Gregory  I)  forms  perhaps  the  main  stock  of  our 
services.  The  mediaeval  Schoolmen  (St.  Thonias 
Aquinas)  and  their  technical  terminology  have  in- 
fluenced much  of  the  later  parts,  and  the  Latin  of  the 
Renaissance  is  an  important  element  that  in  many 
cases  overlays  the  ruder  forms  of  earlier  times.  Of 
this  Renaissance  Latin  many  of  the  Breviary  lessons 
are  typical  examples;  a  comparison  of  the  earlier 
forms  of  the  hvmns  with  the  improved  forms  drawn 
up  by  order  of  Urban  VIII  (1623-44)  will  convince 
any  one  how  disastrous  its  influence  was.  The  ten- 
dency to  write  inflated  phrases  has  not  yet  stopped: 
almost  any  modern  Collect  compared  with  the  old 
ones  in  the  "Gelasian  Sacramentary  "  will  show  how 
much  we  have  lost  of  style  in  our  liturgical  prayers. 

Use  of  Latin. — The  principle  of  using  Latin  in 
church  is  in  no  way  fundamental.  It  is  a  question 
of  discipline  that  evolved  differently  in  East  and  West, 
and  may  not  be  defended  as  either  primitive  or  uni- 
versal. The  authority  of  the  Church  could  change 
the  liturgical  language  at  any  time  without  sacrificing 
any  important  principle.  The  idea  of  a  universal 
tongue  may  seem  attractive,  but  is  contradicted  by 
the  fact  that  the  Catholic  Church  uses  eight  or  nine 
different  liturgical  languages.  Latin  preponderates 
as  a  result  of  the  greater  influence  of  the  Roman 
patriarchate  and  its  rite,  caused  by  the  spread  of 
Western  Europeans  into  new  lands  and  the  unhappy 
schism  of  so  many  Easterns  (see  Fortescue,  "Or- 
thodox Eastern  Church",  431).  Uniformity  of  rite 
or  liturgical  language  has  never  been  a  Catholic 
ideal,  nor  was  Latin  chosen  deliberately  as  a  sacred 
language.  Had  there  been  any  such  idea  the  lan- 
guage would  have  been  Hebrew  or  Greek.  The 
objections  of  Protestants  to  a  Latin  Liturgy  can  be 
answered  eaj?ily  enough.  An  argument  often  made 
from  I  Cor.,  xiv,  4-18,  is  of  no  value.  The  whole 
pasKage  treats  of  quite  another  thing,  prophesying  in 
tongu<«  that  no  one  understands,  not  even  the  speaker 
(sf"e  14 :  "  I'"or  if  I  pray  in  a  tongue,  my  spirit  prayeth, 
hut  my  understanding  is  without  fruit").  The 
other  argument,  from  practical  convenience,  from  the 
loKH  to  the  people  who  do  not  unrlerstand  what  is 
being  said,  has  some  value.  The  Church  has  never 
set  up  a  mysterious  unintelligible  language  as  an 
ideal.  There  is  no  principle  of  sacerdotal  mysteries 
from  which  the  layman  is  shut  out.  In  spite  of  the 
use  of  Latin  the  people  have  means  of  understanding 
the  service.  That  they  might  do  so  still  better  if 
everything  were  in  the  vulgar  tongue  may  be  ad- 
mittwl,  but  in  making  this  change  the  loss  would 
probably  be  greater  than  the  gain. 

By  changing  the  language  of  the  Liturgy  we  should 
losfi  the  principle  of  uniformity  in  the  Roman  patri- 
archate. According  to  the  ancient  principle  that 
rite  follows  patriarchate,  the  Western  rite  should  be 
that  of  the  Wf*item  patriarch,  the  Roman  Bishop, 
who  uwH  the  local  rite  of  the  city  of  Rom'-  There  is 
a  further  advantage  in  using  it  in  hia  language,  bo 


the  use  of  Latin  in  the  West  came  about  naturally 
and  is  retained  through  conservative  instinct.  It  is 
not  so  in  the  East.  There  is  a  great  practical  ad- 
vantage to  travellers,  whether  priests  or  laymen,  in 
finding  their  rite  exactly  the  same  everywhere.  An 
English  priest  in  Poland  or  Portugal  could  not  say 
his  Mass  unless  he  and  the  server  had  a  common 
language.  The  use  of  Latin  all  over  the  Roman 
patriarchate  is  a  very  obvious  and  splendid  witness 
of  unity.  Every  Catholic  traveller  in  a  country  of 
which  he  does  not  know  the  language  has  felt  the 
comfort  of  finding  that  in  church  at  least  everything 
is  familiar  and  knows  that  in  a  Catholic  church  of  his 
own  rite  he  is  at  home  anywhere.  Moreover,  the 
change  of  liturgical  language  would  be  a  break  with 
the  past.  It  is  a  witness  of  antiquitj'  of  which  a 
Catholic  may  well  be  proud  that  in  Mass  to-day  we 
are  still  used  to  the  very  words  that  Anselm,  Gregory, 
Leo  sang  in  their  cathedrals.  A  change  of  language 
would  also  abolish  Latin  chant.  Plainsong,  as 
venerable  a  relic  of  antiquity  as  any  part  of  the  ritual, 
is  composed  for  the  Latin  text  only,  supposes  always 
the  Latin  syllables  and  the  Latin  accent,  and  becomes 
a  caricature  when  it  is  forced  into  another  language 
with  different  rules  of  accent. 

These  considerations  of  antiquity  and  universal 
use  always  made  proportionately  (since  there  are  the 
Eastern  Uniat  rites)  but  valid  for  the  Roman  patri- 
archate may  well  outweigh  the  practical  convenience 
of  using  the  chaos  of  modern  languages  in  the  liturgy. 
There  is  also  an  aesthetic  advantage  in  Latin.  The 
splendid  dignity  of  the  short  phrases  with  their 
rhythmical  accent  and  terse  style  redolent  of  the 
great  Latin  Fathers,  the  strange  beauty  of  the  old 
Latin  hymns,  the  sonorous  majesty  of  the  Vulgate, 
all  these  things  that  make  the  Roman  Rite  so  digni- 
fied, so  characteristic  of  the  old  Imperial  City  where 
the  Prince  of  the  Apostles  set  up  his  throne,  would 
be  lost  altogether  in  modern  English  or  French 
translations.  The  impossibility  of  understanding 
Latin  is  not  so  great.  It  is  not  a  secret,  unknown 
tongue,  and  till  quite  lately  every  educated  person 
understood  it.  It  is  still  taught  in  every  school. 
The  Church  does  not  clothe  her  prayers  in  a  secret 
language,  but  rather  takes  it  for  granted  that  people 
understand  Latin.  If  Catholics  learned  enough 
Latin  to  follow  the  very  easy  style  of  the  Church 
language  all  difficulty  would  be  solved.  For  those 
who  cannot  take  even  this  trouble  there  is  the  ob- 
vious solution  of  a  translation.  The  Missal  in  Eng- 
lish is  one  of  the  easiest  books  to  procure;  the 
ignorant  may  follow  in  that  the  prayers  that  lack  of 
education  prevents  their  understanding  without  it. 

The  liturgical  languages  used  by  Catholics  are: 

1.  Latin  in  the  Roman,  Milanese,  and  Mozarabic 
Rites  (except  in  parts  of  Dalmatia). 

2.  Greek  in  the.  Byzantine  Rite  (not  exclusively). 

3.  Syriac  in  the  Syrian,  Maronite,  Chaldean,  and 
Malabar  Rites. 

4.  Coptic  in  the  Coptic  Rite. 

.5.  Armenian  bv  all  the  C'hurclies  of  that  rite. 

6.  /Ironic  by  tlie  .Mclchitcs  (Byzantine  Rite). 

7.  Slavonic  by  Slavs  of  the  Byzantine  Rite  and  (in 
Glagolitic  letters)  in  the  Roman  Rite  in  Dalmatia. 

8.  Georgian  (Byzantine  Rite). 

9.  Rumanian  (Byzantine  Rite). 

VI.  Liturgical  Science. — A.  Rubrics.  The  most 
obvious  and  necessary  study  for  ecclesiastical  persons 
is  that  of  the  laws  that  regulate  the  performance  of 
liturgical  functions.  From  this  point  of  view  litur- 
gical study  is  a  branch  of  canon  law.  The  rules  for 
the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Mysteries,  administration 
of  sacraments,  etc.,  are  part  of  the  positive  law  of  the 
Church,  jtist  as  much  as  the  laws  about  benefices, 
church  property,  or  fiisting,  and  oblige  those  whom 
they  concern  under  pain  of  sin.  As  it  is  therefore 
the  duty  of  persons  in  Holy  orders  to  know  them, 


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they  are  studied  in  all  colleges  and  seminaries  as  part 
of  the  training  of  future  priests,  and  candidates  are 
examined  in  them  before  ordination.  Because  of 
its  special  nature  and  complication  liturgical  science 
in  this  sense  is  generally  treated  apart  from  the  rest 
of  canon  law  and  is  joined  to  similar  practical  matters 
(such  as  preaching,  visiting  the  sick,  etc.)  to  makeup 
the  science  of  pastoral  theology.  The  sources  from 
which  it  is  learned  are  primarily  the  rubrics  of  the 
liturgical  books  (the  Missal,  Breviary,  and  Ritual). 
There  are  also  treatises  which  explain  and  arrange 
these  rubrics,  adding  to  them  from  later  decrees  of  the 
S.  Congregation  of  Rites.  Of  these  Martinucci  has 
not  yet  been  displaced  as  the  most  complete  and  au- 
thoritative, Baldeschi  has  long  been  a  favourite  and 
has  been  translated  into  English,  De  Herdt  is  a  good 
standard  book,  quite  sound  and  clear  as  far  as  it  goes 
but  incomplete,  Le  Vavasseur  is  perhaps  the  most 
practical  for  general  purposes. 

B.  History. — The  development  of  the  various  rites, 
their  spread  and  mutual  influence,  the  origin  of  each 
ceremony,  etc.,  form  a  part  of  church  history  whose 
importance  is  becoming  more  and  more  realized. 
For  practical  purposes  all  a  priest  need  know  are 
the  present  rules  that  affect  the  services  he  has  to 
perform,  as  in  general  the  present  laws  of  the  Church 
are  all  we  have  to  obey.  But  just  as  the  student 
of  history  needs  to  know  the  decrees  of  former  synods, 
even  if  abrogated  since,  as  he  studies  the  history  of 
earlier  times  and  remote  provinces  of  the  Church, 
because  it  is  from  these  that  he  must  build  up  his 
conception  of  her  continuous  life,  so  the  liturgical 
student  will  not  be  content  with  knowing  only  what 
affects  him  now,  but  is  prompted  to  examine  the  past, 
to  inquire  into  the  origin  of  our  present  rite  and  study 
other  rites  too  as  expressions  of  the  life  of  the  Church 
in  other  lands.  The  history  of  the  liturgies  that  deeply 
affect  the  life  of  Christians  in  many  ways,  that  are 
the  foundation  af  many  other  objects  of  study 
(architecture,  art,  music,  etc.)  is  no  inconsiderable 
element  of  church  history.  In  a  sense  this  study 
is  com|)aratively  new  and  not  yet  sufficiently  organ- 
ized, though  to  some  extent  it  has  always  accompanied 
the  practical  study  of  liturgy.  The  great  mediaeval 
liturgists  were  not  content  with  describing  the  rites 
of  their  own  time.  They  suggested  historical  reasons 
for  the  various  ceremonies  and  contrasted  other  prac- 
tices with  those  of  their  own  Churches.  Benedict 
XIV's  treatise  on  the  Mass  discusses  the  origin  of  each 
element  of  the  Latin  liturgy.  This  and  other  books 
of  seventeenth-  and  eighteenth-century  liturgiologists 
are  still  standard  works.  So  also  in  lectures  and 
works  on  liturgy  in  our  first  sense  it  has  always  been 
the  custom  to  add  historical  notes  on  the  origin  of  the 
ceremonies  and  prayers. 

But  the  interest  in  the  history  of  liturgy  for  its  own 
sake  and  the  systematic  study  of  early  documents  is  a 
comparatively  new  thing.  In  this  science  England 
led  the  way  and  still  takes  the  foremost  place.  It 
followed  the  Oxford  Movement  as  part  of  the  revived 
interest  in  the  early  Church  among  Anglicans.  W. 
Palmer  (Origines  liturgicaj)  and  J.  M.  Neale  in  his 
various  works  are  among  those  who  gave  the  first 
impulse  to  this  movement.  The  Catholic  Daniel  Rock 
("Hierurgia"  and  "The  Church  of  our  Fathers") 
further  advanced  it.  It  has  now  a  large  school  of 
followers.  F.  C.  Brightman's  edition  of  "Eastern 
Liturgies"  is  the  standard  one  used  everywhere. 
The  monumental  editions  of  the  "Gelasian  Sacra- 
mentary"  by  H.  A.  Wilson  and  the  "Leonine  Sacra- 
mentary"  by  C.  L.  Feltoe,  the  various  essays  and  dis- 
cussions by  E.  Bishop,  C.  Atchley,  and  many  others 
keep  up  the  English  standard.  In  France  Dom 
Gu^ranger  (L'ann^e  liturgique)  and  his  school  of 
Benedictines  opened  a  new  epoch.  Mgr  Duchesne 
supplied  a  long-felt  want  with  his  "Origines  du  culte 
Chretien",  Dom  Cabrol  and  Dom  Leclercq  ("Mon. 


eccl.  lit.",  etc.,  especially  the  monumental  "Diet, 
d'arch.  chret.  et  de  liturgie")  have  advanced  to  the 
first  place  among  modern  authorities  on  historical 
liturgy.  From  Germany  we  have  the  works  of  H. 
Daniel  (Codex  lit.  eccl.  universae),  Probst,  ThaUiofer, 
Gihr,  and  a  school  of  living  students  (Drews,  Riet- 
schel,  Baumstark,  Buchwald,  Rauschen).  In  Italy  good 
work  is  being  done  by  Semeria,  Bonaccorsi,  and  others. 
Nevertheless  the  study  of  liturgy  hardly  yet  takes  the 
place  it  deserves  in  the  education  of  church  students. 
Besides  the  practical  instruction  that  forms  a  part 
of  pastoral  theology,  lectures  on  liturgical  history 
would  form  a  valuable  element  of  the  course  of  church 
history.  As  part  of  such  a  course  other  rites  would  be 
considered  and  compared.  There  is  a  fund  of  deeper 
understanding  of  the  Roman  Rite  to  be  drawn  from 
its  comparison  with  others,  Galilean  or  Eastern.  Such 
instruction  in  liturgiology  should  include  some  notion 
of  ecclesiology  in  general,  the  history  and  comparison 
of  church  planning  and  architecture,  of  vestments  and 
church  music.  The  root  of  all  these  things  in  different 
countries  is  the  liturgies  they  serve  and  adorn. 

Dogmatic  Value. — The  dogmatic  and  apologetic 
value  of  liturgical  science  is  a  very  important  con- 
sideration to  the  theologian.  It  must,  of  course,  be 
used  reasonably.  No  Church  intends  to  commit  her- 
self officially  to  every  statement  and  implication  con- 
tained in  her  official  books,  any  more  than  she  is 
committed  to  everything  said  by  her  Fathers.  For 
instance,  the  Collect  for  St.  Juliana  Falconieri  (19 
June)  in  the  Roman  Rite  refers  to  the  story  of  her 
miraculous  communion  before  her  death,  told  at 
length  in  the  sixth  lesson  of  her  Office,  but  the  truth 
of  that  story  is  not  part  of  the  Catholic  Faith.  Lit- 
urgies give  us  arguments  from  tradition  even  more 
valuable  than  those  from  the  Fathers,  for  these  state- 
ments have  been  made  by  thousands  of  priests  day 
after  day  for  centuries.  A  consensus  of  liturgies  is, 
therefore,  both  in  space  and  time  a  greater  witness  of 
agreement  than  a  consensus  of  Fathers,  for  as  a  gen- 
eral principle  it  is  obvious  that  people  in  their  prayers 
say  only  what  they  believe.  This  is  the  meaning  of 
the  well-known  axiom:  Lex  orandi  lex  credendi.  The 
prayers  for  the  dead,  the  passages  in  which  God  is 
asked  to  accept  this  Sacrifice,  the  statements  of  the 
Real  Presence  in  the  oldest  liturgies  are  unimpeach- 
able witnesses  of  the  Faith  of  the  early  Church  as  to 
these  points.  The  Bull  of  Pius  IX  on  the  Immaculate 
Conception  ("  Ineffabilis  Deus",  8  Dec,  1854)  con- 
tains a  classical  example  of  this  argument  from  liturgy. 
Indeed  there  are  few  articles  of  faith  that  cannot  be 
established  or  at  least  confirmed  from  liturgies.  The 
Byzantine  Office  for  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  (29  June) 
contains  plain  statements  about  Roman  primacy. 
The  study  of  liturgy  from  this  point  of  view  is  part  of 
dogmatic  theology.  Of  late  years  especially  dogmatic 
theologians  have  given  much  attention  to  it.  Chris- 
tian Pesch,  S.J.,  in  his  "  Praelectiones  theologiae  dog- 
maticae"  (9  vols.,  Freiburg  i.  Br.)  quotes  the  liturgical 
texts  for  the  theses  as  part  of  the  argument  from  tra- 
dition. There  are  then  these  three  aspects  under 
which  liturgiology  should  be  considered  by  a  Catholic 
theologian,  as  an  element  of  canon  law,  church  history, 
and  dogmatic  theology.  The  history  of  its  study 
would  take  long  to  tell.  There  have  been  liturgiol- 
ogists through  all  the  centuries  of  Christian  theology. 
Briefly  the  state  of  this  science  at  various  periods  is 
this: 

Liturgiologists  in  the  Ante-Nicene  period,  such  as 
Justin  Martyr,  composed  or  wrote  down  descriptions 
of  ceremonies  performed,  but  made  no  examination  of 
the  sources  of  rites.  In  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries 
the  scientific  study  of  the  subject  began.  St.  Am- 
brose's "Liber  de  Mysteriis"  (P.  L.,  XVI,  405-26), 
the  anonymous  (pseudo- Ambrose)  "  De  Sacramentis  " 
(P.  L.,  XVI,  435-82),  various  treatises  by  St.  Jerome 
(e.  g.,  "Contra  Vigilantium"  in  P.  L.,  XXIII,  354- 


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367)  and  St.  Augustine,  St.  CjtII  of  Jerusalem's 
"Catechetical  Instructions"  (P.  L.,  XXXIII,  331- 
1154)  and  the  famous  "  Peregrinat  io  Silviae"  (in  the 
"Corpus  script,  eccl.  Latin."  of  \'ienna:  "Itinera 
hierosol>'mitana",  35-101)  represent  in  various  de- 
grees the  beginning  of  an  examination  of  hturgical 
texts.  From  the  sixth  to  the  eighth  centuries  we  have 
valuable  texts  (the  Sacrament aries  and  Ordines)  and 
a  liturgical  treatise  of  St.  Isidore  of  Seville  ("De  eccl. 
officiis"  in  P.  L.,  LXXXIII).  The Carlovingian revival 
of  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  began  the  long  line 
of  medieval  Uturgiologists.  Alcuin  (P.  L.,  C-CI), 
Amalarius  of  Metz  (P.  L.,  XCIX,  CV),  Agobard  (P. 
L.,  CIV).  Florus  of  Lvons  (P.  L.,  CXIX,  15-72), 
Rabanus  Maurus  (P.  L.,  CVII-CXII),  and  Wala- 
frid  Strabo  (P.  L.,  CXIV,  916-66)  form  at  this 
time  a  galaxy  of  liturgical  scholars  of  the  first  impor- 
tance. In  the  eleventh  century  Berno  of  Constance 
("Micrologus"  in  P.  L.,  CLI,  974-1022),  in  the 
twelfth  Rupert  of  Deutz  ("De  divinis  ofhciis"  in 
P.  L.,  CLXX,  9-334),  Honorius  of  Autun  ("Gemma 
animx'"  and  "De  Sacramentis"  in  P.  L.,  CLXXII), 
John  Beleth  ("Rationale  div.  offic."  in  P.  L.,  CCII, 
9-166),  and  Beroldusof  Milan  (ed.  Magistretti,  Milan, 
1894)  carrj'  on  the  tradition.  In  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury William  Durandus  of  Mende  ("Rationale  div. 
offic";  see  Dur.\ndus)  is  the  most  famous  of  all  the 
mediaeval  Uturgiologists.  There  is  then  a  break  till 
the  sLxteenth  century.  The  discussions  of  the  Refor- 
mation period  called  people's  attention  again  to 
liturgies,  either  as  defences  of  the  old  Faith  or  as 
sources  for  the  compilation  of  reformed  services. 

From  this  time  editions  of  the  old  rites  were  made 
for  students,  with  commentaries.  J.  Clichtove 
(" Elucidatorium  eccl.",  Paris,  1516)  and  J.  CochliEus 
("Speculum  ant.  devotionis",  Mainz,  1549)  were  the 
first  editors  of  this  kind.  Claude  de  Sainctes,  Bishop 
of  E\Teux,  published  a  similar  collection  ("Liturgiae 
eive  missae  ss.  Patrum",  Antwerp,  1562).  Pamelius's 
"Liturgica  latin."  (Cologne,  1571)  is  a  valuable  edition 
of  Roman,  Milanese,  and  Mozarabic  texts.  Melchior 
Hittorp  published  a  collection  of  old  commentaries 
on  the  liturgj'  ("De  Cath.  eccl.  div.  offic",  Cologne, 
1568)  which  was  re-edited  in  Bigne's  "Bibl.  vet. 
Patrum.",  X  (Paris,  1610).  The  seventeenth  century 
opened  a  great  period.  B.  Gavanti  ("Thesaurus  sacr. 
rituum",  re-edited  by  Merati,  Rome,  173()-8)  and  H. 
Menard,  O.S.B.  (" Sacrament arium  Gregorianum"  in 
P.  L.,  LXXVIII)  began  a  new  line  of  liturgiologists. 
J.  Goar,  O.P.  ("Euchologion",  Paris,  1647),  and  Leo 
Allatius  in  his  various  dissertations  did  great  things 
for  the  study  of  Ea.stern  rites.  The  Oratorian  J.  Morin 
("Comm.  hist,  de  disciplina  in  admin.  Sac.  Pa'n.", 
Paris,  1651,  and  "Comm.  de  sacr  is  eccl.  ordination- 
ibus",  Paris,  1655).  Cardinal  John  Bona  ("Rerum 
lit.  libri  duo",  Rome,  1671),  Card.  Tommasi  ("Co- 
dices saframentorum",  Rome,  1680;  "Antiqui  libri 
missarum",  Rome,  1691),  J.  Mabillon,  O.S.B.  ("Mu- 
ea-um  Italicum",  Paris.  1687-9),  E.  Martene,  O.S.B. 
("De  ant.  eccl.  ritibus  ,  Antwerp,  1736-8),  represent 
the  highest  p<jint  of  liturgical  study.  Dom  Claude  de 
Vert  wrote  a  series  of  treatises  on  liturgical  matters. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  the  most  im}>ortant  names 
are:  Benc^diet  XIV  ("De  SS.  Sacrificio  Mis-sae",  re- 
published at  Mainz,  1879),  E.  Rcnaudot  ("Lit.  orient, 
collectio",  Paris,  1716),  the  four  Assemani,  Maronites 
("Kalendaria  eccl.  universae",  Rome,  1755;  "Codex 
lit.  eccl.  universy;",  Rrjme,  1749-66,  etc.).  Muratori 
("Liturgia  romana  vetus",  Venice,  1748).  So  we  come 
to  the  revival  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Dom 
Gu<^Tanger  and  the  modem  authors  already  men- 
tionefi. 

liENArDOT.  IMuTginTum  mienUilium  colUctv)  (Frankfurt,  1847); 
MARTtNE,  iJt  arUi'juxn '■crUficc  rilihun  f Antwerp  ari'l  Milan,  17.30- 
8) :  Amemani.  Codtz  liturgicut  Krclmia  univerit  (Home,  1749-66) ; 
Da!OEL,  f'rtdtz  liturgicuf  ecrUtirr  tinitniKT  (I>eiprig,  1847); 
Denzioek,  Rituii  f}HinUil\Hm  fWCrzliurK,  lHr,3);  Niu.bh.  Knlen- 
dnrium  mnnuaU  rlnnxtirurk,  ISWi);  Hammond,  Liturgieii,  EnKlprn 
and     WeMern    (Oxford,     1878;;    Hbiuhtman,    Batlern    Uturgiei 


(Oxford,  1896);  Cabrol,  Introduction  aux  itudes  liturgiquea 
(Paria,  1907);  Rietschbl,  Lehrbuch  tier  Liturgik  (Berlin,  1900); 
Clemen,  Quellenbuch  zur  praktischen  Theologie,  I:  LxtuTgik 
(Gieasen,  1910);  The  Prayer-books  of  Edward  VI  and  Elizabeth 
are  reprinted  in  the  Ancient  and  Modem  Library  of  Theological 
Literature  (London);  Proctor  and  Frere,  .4  New  History  of  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  (London,  1908);  Maude,  .1  History  of 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  (London,  1899). 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Benedictine  Rite. — The  only  important  rite  pecu- 
liar to  the  Benedictine  Order  is  the  Benedictine 
Breviary  (Breviarium  Monasticum).  St.  Benedict 
devotes  thirteen  chapters  (viii-xx)  of  his  rule  to 
regulating  the  canonical  hours  for  his  monks, 
and  the  Benedictine  Breviary  is  the  outcome  of  this 
regulation.  It  is  used  not  only  by  the  so-called 
Black  Benedictines,  but  also  by  the  Cistercians, 
Olivetans,  and  all  those  orders  that  have  the  Rule 
of  St.  Benedict  as  their  basis.  The  Benedictines 
are  not  at  liberty  to  .substitute  the  Roman  for  the 
Monastic  Breviary;  by  using  the  Roman  Breviary 
they  would  not  satisfy  their  obligation  of  saying  the 
Divine  Office.  Each  congregation  of  Benedictines 
has  its  own  ecclesiastical  calendar. 

Michael  Ott. 

Carmelite  Rite. — The  rite  in  use  among  the 
Carmelites  since  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Rite  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  the  Carmelite  Rule,  which  was  written 
about  the  year  1210,  ordering  the  hermits  of  Mount 
Carmel  to  follow  the  approved  custom  of  the 
Church,  which  in  this  in.stance  meant  the  Patriarchal 
Church  of  Jerusalem:  "Hi  qui  litteras  noverunt  et 
legere  psalmos,  per  singulas  horas  eos  dicant  qui  ex 
institutione  sanctorum  patrum  et  ecclesiae  approbata 
consuetudine  ad  horas  singulas  sunt  deputati."  This 
Rite  of  the  Holj^  Sepulchre  belonged  to  the  Galilean 
family  of  the  Roman  Rite;  it  appears  to  have  de- 
scended directly  from  the  Parisian  Rite,  but  to  have 
undergone  some  modifications  pointing  to  other 
sources.  For,  in  the  Sanctorale  we  find  influences  of 
Angers,  in  the  proses  traces  of  meridional  sources, 
while  the  lessons  and  prayers  on  Holy  Saturday  are 
purely  Roman.  The  fact  is  that  most  of  the  clerics 
who  accompanied  the  Crusaders  were  of  French  na- 
tionality; some  even  belonged  to  the  Chapter  of 
Paris,  as  is  proved  by  documentary  evidence.  Local 
influence,  too,  played  an  important  part.  The 
Temple  itself,  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  the  vicinity  of 
the  Mount  of  Olives,  of  Bethany,  of  Bethlehem,  gave 
rise  to  magnificent  ceremonies,  connecting  the  prin- 
cipal events  of  the  ecclesiastical  year  with  the  very 
localities  where  the  various  episodes  of  the  work  of 
Redemption  has  taken  place.  The  rite  is  known  to 
us  by  means  of  some  manuscripts,  one  (Barberini 
6.')9  of  A.  D.  1160)  in  the  V.atican  library,  another  at 
Barletta,  described  by  Kohler  (Revue  de  I'Orient 
Latin,  VIII,  19fK)-01,  pp.  383-500)  and  by  him 
ascribed  to  about  1240. 

The  hermils  on  Mount  Carmel  were  bound  by  rule 
only  to  a.ssembl(!  once  a  day  for  the  celebration  of 
Mass,  the  Divine  Office  being  recited  privately. 
Lay  brothers  who  were  able  to  read  might  recite  the 
Office,  while  others  repeated  the  Lord's  Prayer  a 
certain  number  of  times,  according  to  the  length  and 
solemnity  of  tlu;  various  offices.  It  may  be  presumed 
that  on  settling  in  lOurope  (from  about  a.  d.  1240)  the 
Carmelites  conformed  to  the  habit  of  the  other  men- 
dicant orders  with  respect  to  the  choral  recitation 
or  chant  of  the  Office,  and  there  is  documentary  evi- 
dence that  on  Mount  Carmel  itself  the  choral  recita- 
tion was  in  force  at  leiist  in  1254.  The  General 
Chapter  of  12.59  passed  a  number  of  regulations  on 
liturgical  matters,  but,  owing  to  the  loss  of  the  acts, 
their  nature  is  unfortunately  not  known.  Sub- 
serjuent  chapters  very  frecjuently  dealt  with  the  rite, 
chiefly  adding  new  fefisfs,  changing  old  established 
cusUjms,  or  revising  rubrics.     An  Ordinal,  belonging 


RITES 


73 


RITES 


to  the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  is  pre- 
served at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  while  portions 
of  an  Epistolarium  of  about  1270  are  at  the  Maglia- 
becchiana  at  Florence  (D6,  1787).  The  entire  Or- 
dinal was  rearranged  and  revised  in  1312  by  Master 
Sibert  de  Beka,  and  rendered  obligatory  by  the 
General  Chapter,  but  it  experienced  some  difficult}"^ 
in  superseding  the  old  one.  Manuscripts  of  it  are 
preserved  at  Lambeth  (London),  Florence,  and  else- 
where. It  remained  in  force  until  1532,  when  a 
committee  was  appointed  for  its  revision;  their  work 
was  approved  in  1539,  but  published  only  in  1544 
after  the  then  General  Nicholas  Audet  had  intro- 
duced some  further  changes.  The  reform  of  the 
Roman  liturgical  books  under  St.  Pius  V  called  for  a 
corresponding  reform  of  the  Carmelite  Rite,  which 
was  taken  in  hand  in  1580,  the  Breviary  appearing 
in  1584  and  the  Missal  in  1587.  At  the  same  time 
the  Holy  See  withdrew  the  right  hitherto  exercised 
by  the  chapters  and  the  generals  of  altering  the  liturgy 
of  the  order,  and  placed  all  such  matters  in  the  hands 
of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites.  The  publica- 
tion of  the  Reformed  Breviary  of  1584  caused  the 
newly  established  Discalced  Carmelites  to  abandon 
the  ancient  rite  once  for  all  and  to  adopt  the  Roman 
Rite  instead.  Besides  the  various  manuscripts  of 
the  Ordinal  already  mentioned,  we  have  examined 
a  large  number  of  manus(Tii)t  missals  and  breviaries 
preserved  in  public  and  private  libraries  in  the  Un- 
ited Kingflom,  France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  other  coun- 
tries. We  have  seen  most  of  the  early  prints  of  the 
Missal  enumerated  by  Weale,  as  well  as  some  not 
mentioned  by  him,  and  the  breviaries  of  1480,  1490, 
1504,   1510  (Horaj),   1542,   1568,   1575,  and  1579. 

Roughly  speaking,  the  ancient  Carmelite  Rite 
may  be  said  to  stand  about  half  way  between  the 
Carthusian  and  the  Dominican  rites.  It  shows  signs 
of  great  antiquity — e.  g.  in  the  absence  of  liturgical 
colours,  in  the  sparing  use  of  altar  candles  (one  at 
low  Mass,  none  on  the  altar  itself  at  high  Mass  but 
only  acolytes'  torches,  even  these  being  extinguished 
during  part  of  the  Mass,  four  torches  and  one  candle 
in  choir  for  Tenebrie) ;  incense,  likewise,  is  used  rarely 
and  with  noteworthy  restrictions;  the  Blessing  at 
the  end  of  the  Mass  is  only  i)ormittod  where  tlic  cus- 
tom of  the  country  requires  it ;  passing  before  the 
tabernacle,  the  brethren  are  directed  to  make  a  pro- 
found inclination,  not  a  genuflexion.  Many  other 
features  might  be  quoted  to  show  that  the  whole 
rite  points  to  a  period  of  transition.  Already  ac- 
cording to  the  earliest  Ordinal  Communion  is  given 
under  one  speci(!s,  the  days  of  general  Communion 
being  seven,  later  on  ten  or  twelve  a  year  with  leave 
for  more  frequent  Communion  under  certain  condi- 
tions. Extreme  Unction  was  administered  on  the 
eyes,  ears,  nostrils,  mouth,  both  hands  (the  palms, 
with  no  distinction  between  priests  and  others)  and 
the  feet  superius.  The  Ordinal  of  1312  on  the  con- 
trary orders  the  hands  to  be  anointed  exlerius, 
but  also  without  distinction  for  the  priests;  it  more- 
over adds  another  anointing  on  the  breast  {super 
pectus:  per  ardorem  libidinis). 

In  the  Mass  there  are  some  peculiarities,  the  altar 
remains  covered  until  the  priest  an<l  ministers  are 
ready  to  begin,  when  the  acolytes  then  roll  hack  the 
cover;  likewise  before  the  end  of  the  Mass  they  cover 
the  altar  again.  On  great  feasts  the  Introit  is  said 
three  times,  i.  e.  it  is  repeated  both  before  and  after 
the  Gloria  Patri;  besides  tlie  I^pistle  and  Gospel  there 
is  a  lesson  or  prophecy  to  be  recited  by  an  acolyte. 
At  the  Lavaho  the  prie-st  leaves  the  altar  for  the 
piscina  where  he  says  that  psalm,  or  else  Veni 
Creator  Spiritus  or  Deiis  misereatur.  Likewi.se  after 
the  first  ablution  he  goes  to  the  piscina  to  wash  his 
fingers.  During  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  the  deacon 
moves  a  fan  to  keep  the  flies  away,  a  custom  still  in 
use  in  Sicily  and  elsewhere.     At  the  word  fregil  in 


the  form  of  consecration,  the  priest,  according  to 
the  Ordinal  of  1312  and  later  rubrics,  makes  a  move- 
ment as  if  breaking  the  host.  Great  care  is  taken 
that  the  smoke  of  the  thurible  and  of  the  torches  do 
not  interfere  with  the  clear  vision  of  the  host  when 
lifted  up  for  the  adoration  of  the  faithful;  the  chalice, 
however,  is  only  slightly  elevated.  The  celebrating 
priest  does  not  genuflect  but  bows  reverently.  After 
the  Pater  Noster  the  choir  sings  the  psalm  Deus 
venerunt  gentes  for  the  restoration  of  the  Holy  Land. 
The  prayers  for  communion  are  identical  with  those 
of  the  Sarum  Rite  and  other  similar  uses,  viz.  Domine 
sancte  pater,  Domine  Jesu  Christe  (as  in  the  Roman 
Rite),  and  Salve  salus  mundi.  The  Domine  non 
sum  dignus  was  introduced  only  in  1568.  The  Mass 
ended  with  Dominus  vobiscum,  lie  missa  est  (or  its 
equivalent)  and  Placeat.  The  chapter  of  1324.  or- 
dered the  Salve  regina  to  be  said  at  the  end  of  each 
canonical  hour  as  well  as  at  the  end  of  the  Mass. 
The  Last  Gospel,  which  in  both  ordinals  serves  for 
the  priest's  thanksgiving,  appears  in  the  Missal  of 
1490  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Mass.  On  Sundays 
and  feasts  there  was,  besides  the  festival  Mass  after 
Terce  or  Sext,  an  early  Mass  {malulina)  without 
solemnities,  corresponding  to  the  commemorations  of 
the  Office.  From  Easter  till  Advent  the  Sunday  Mass 
was  therefore  celebrated  early  in  the  morning,  the 
high  Mass  being  that  of  the  Resurrection  of  our  Lord; 
similarly  on  these  Sundays  the  ninth  lesson  with  its 
responsory  was  taken  from  one  of  the  Easter  days; 
these  customs  had  been  introduced  soon  after  the 
conquest  of  the  Holy  Land.  A  solemn  commemora- 
tion of  the  Resurrection  was  held  on  the  last  Sunday 
before  Advent;  in  all  other  respects  the  Carmelite 
Liturgy  reflects  more  especially  the  devotion  of  the 
order  towards  the  Blessed  Virgin. 

The  Divine  Office  also  presents  some  noteworthy 
features.  The  first  Vespers  of  certain  feasts  and  the 
Vespers  during  Lent  have  a  responsory  usually  taken 
from  Matins.  Compline  has  various  hymns  accord- 
ing to  the  season,  and  also  special  antiphons  for  the 
Canticle.  The  lessons  at  Matins  follow  a  somewhat 
different  plan  from  those  of  the  Roman  Office.  The 
singing  of  the  genealogies  of  Christ  after  Matins  on 
Christmas  and  the  Epiphany  gave  rise  to  beautiful 
ceremonies.  After  Tenebrte  in  Holy  Week  (sung  at 
midnight)  we  notice  the  chant  of  the  Tropi;  all  the 
Holy  Week  services  present  interesting  archaic 
features.  Other  points  to  be  mentioned  are  the 
antiphons  Pro  fidei  meritis  etc.  on  the  Sundays  from 
Trinity  to  Advent  and  the  verses  after  the  psalms  on 
Trinity,  the  feasts  of  St.  Paul,  and  St.  Laurence. 
The  hymns  are  those  of  the  Roman  Office;  the  proses 
appear  to  be  a  uniform  collection  which  remained 
practically  unchanged  from  the  thirteenth  century 
to  1544,  when  all  but  four  or  five  were  abolished. 
The  Ordinal  prescribes  only  four  processions  in  the 
course  of  the  year,  viz.  on  Candlemas,  Palm  Sunday, 
the  Ascension,  and  the  Assumption. 

The  calendar  of  saints,  in  the  two  oldest  recensions 
of  the  Ordinal,  exhibits  some  feasts  proper  to  the 
Holy  Land,  namely  some  of  the  early  bishops  of 
Jerusalem,  the  Patriarchs  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob, 
and  Lazarus.  The  only  special  features  were  the 
fejist  of  St.  Anne,  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
Carmelites  occupied  for  a  short  time  a  convent  dedi- 
cated to  her  in  Jerusalem  (vacated  by  Benedictine 
nuns  at  the  capture  of  that  city  in  1187),  and  the 
octave  of  the  Nativity  of  Our  Lady,  which  also  was 
proper  to  the  order.  In  the  works  mentioned  below 
we  have  given  the  list  of  feasts  added  in  the*  course 
of  three  centuries,  and  shall  here  speak  only  of  a  few. 
The  Chapter  of  1306  introduced  those  of  St.  Louis, 
Barbara,  Corpus  Christi,  and  the  Conception  of 
Our  Lady  (in  Conceptione  seu  potius  veneratione 
sanctificationis  B.  V.);  the  Corpus  Christi  procession, 
however,  dates  only  from  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 


RITES 


74 


RITES 


centurv'.  In  1312  the  second  part  of  the  Confiteor, 
which  "till  then  had  been  ver>'  short,  was  introduced. 
Daily  commemorations  of  St.  Anne  and  Sts.  Albert 
and 'Angelas  date  respectively  from  the  beginning 
and  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  centurj-,  but  were  trans- 
ferred in  1503  from  the  canonical  Office  to  the  Little 
Office  of  Our  Ladv.  The  feast  of  the  "Three  Maries" 
dates  from  1342,  "those  of  the  Visitation,  of  Our  Lady 
ad  nii^e^,  and  the  Presentation  from  1391.  Feasts 
of  the  order  were  first  introduced  towards  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  centurj' — viz.  the  Commemoration 
(Scapular  Fe;ist)  of  16  July  appears  first  about 
1386;  St.  Eliseus.  prophet,  and  St.  Cyril  of  Con- 
stantinople in  1399;  St.  Albert  in  1411;  St.  Angelus 
in  1456.  Owing  to  the  printing  of  the  first  Breviary 
of  the  order  at  Brussels  in  1480,  a  number  of  terri- 
torial feasts  were  introduced  into  the  order,  such  as 
St.  Joseph,  the  Ten  Thousand  Martyrs,  the  Division 
of  the  Apostles.  The  raptus  of  St.  Elias  (17  June)  is 
first  to  be  found  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth 
centur\'  in  England  and  Germany;  the  feast  of  the 
Prophet  (20  July)  dates  at  the  earliest  from  1551. 
Some  general  chapters,  especially  those  of  1478  and 
1564,  added  whole  lists  of  saints,  partly  of  real  or 
supposed  saints  of  the  order,  partly  of  martyrs  whose 
bodies  were  preserved  in  various  churches  belonging 
to  the  Carmelites,  particularly  that  of  San  Martino  ai 
Monti  in  Rome.  The  revision  of  1584  reduced  the  Sanc- 
torale  to  the  smallest  possible  dimensions,  but  many 
feasts  then  suppressed  were  afterwards  reintroduced. 
A  word  must  be  added  about  the  singing.  The 
Ordinal  of  1312  allows /auxbowrdon,  at  least  on  solemn 
occasions;  organs  and  organists  are  mentioned  with 
ever-increa.sing  frequency  from  the  first  j'ears  of  the 
fifteenth  centun,',  the  earliest  notice  being  that  of 
Mathias  Johannis  de  Lucca,  who  in  1410  was  elected 
organist  at  Florence;  the  organ  itself  was  a  gift  of 
Johannes  Dominici  Bonnani,  sumamed  Clerichinus, 
who  died  at  an  advanced  age  on  24  Oct.,  1416. 

Zimmerman,  Le  ceremonial  de  Matlre  Sibert  de  Bcka  in  Chro- 
niquet  du  Corme!  (Jambes-lez-Namur,  1903-.5) ;  Idem,  Ordinaire 
de  I'Ordre  de  Notre-Dame  du  Mont  Carmel  (Paris,  1910),  being 
the  thirteenth  volume  of  Bibliotheque  lUurgique;  Wessels, 
Ritus  Ordinis  in  Analecta  Ordinis  Carmeliiarum  (Rome,  1909); 
Weale,  Bibliographia  liturgica  (London,  1886).  The  oldest 
Ordinal,  now  in  Dublin  but  of  English  origin,  written  after  1262 
and  before  the  publication  of  the  Constitution  of  Boniface  VIII, 
"Gloriotus  DeuK,"  C.  Gloriosus,  de  Reliquiis,  in  Sexto,  has  not 
yet  been  printed.  BENEDICT  ZiMMERMAN. 

Cistercian  Rite. — This  rite  is  to  be  found  in  the 
liturgical  books  of  the  order.  The  collection,  com- 
po.sed  of  fifteen  books,  was  made  by  the  General 
Chapter  of  Ctteaux,  most  probably  in  1134;  they  are 
now  included  in  the  Missal,  Breviary,  Ritual,  and 
calendar,  or  Martyrology.  When  Pius  V  ordered  the 
entire  Church  to  conform  to  the  Roman  Missal  and 
Breviary,  he  exempted  the  Cistercians  from  this  law, 
because  their  ritf;  ha^i  been  more  than  400  years  in 
existence.  Under  Claude  Vaussin,  General  of  the 
Cistercians  fin  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century), 
several  refonns  were  ma^le  in  the  liturgical  books  of 
the  order,  and  were  appnived  by  Alexander  VII, 
Clement  IX,  and  Clement  XIII.  Thrae  approbations 
were  eonfirmef]  by  Pius  IX  on  7  Feb.,  1871,  for  the 
Cisterr-ians  of  the  Common  as  well  as  for  those  of  the 
Strict  Obsers-ance.  The  Breviary  is  quite  different 
from  the  Roman,  as  it  follows  exactly  the  prescrip- 
tion«  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  with  a  very  few 
minor  a^iditions.  St.  Benedict  wished  the  entire 
PsalU-r  recite  each  week;  twelve  psalms  are  to  be 
Raid  at  Matins  when  there  are  but  two  Noctums; 
when  there  is  a  third  Noctum,  it  is  to  be  composed 
of  thrw!  divisions  of  a  canticle,  there  being  in  this 
latter  case  always  twelve  leswjns.  Three  psalms  or 
divisions  of  psalms  are  appointed  for  Prime,  the  Little 
llours,  and  Compline  Hn  this  latter  hour  the  "Nunc 
dimittifl"  is  never  saidj,  and  always  four  psalms  for 
Vespfjrfl.  Many  minor  divisions  and  directions  arc 
given  in  St.  Benedict's  Rule. 


In  the  old  missal,  before  the  refoim  of  Claude 
Vaussin,  there  were  wide  divergences  between  the 
Cistercian  and  Roman  rites.  The  psalm  "Judica" 
was  not  said,  but  in  its  stead  was  recited  the  "Veni 
Creator";  the  "Indulgentiam"  was  followed  by  the 
"Pater"  and  "Ave",  and  the  "Oramus  te  Domine" 
was  omitted  in  kissing  the  altar.  Aft«r  the  "Pax 
Domini  sit  semper  vobiscum",  the  "Agnus  Dei"  was 
said  thrice,  and  was  followed  immediately  by  "Ha;c 
sacrosancta  commixtio  corporis",  said  by  the  priest 
while  placing  the  small  fragment  of  the  Sacred  Host 
in  the  chahce;  then  the  "Domine  Jesu  Christe,  Fih 
Dei  Vivi"  was  said,  but  the  "Corpus  Tuum"  and 
"Quod  ore  sumpsimus"  were  omitted.  The  priest 
said  the  "Placeat"  as  now,  and  then  "Meritis  et 
precibus  istorum  et  omnium  sanctorum  Suonim 
misereatur  nostri  Omnipotens  Dominus.  Amen", 
while  kissing  the  altar;  with  the  sign  of  the  Cross  the 
Mass  was  ended.  Outside  of  some  minor  exceptions 
in  the  wording  and  conclusions  of  various  prayers,  the 
other  parts  of  the  Mass  were  the  same  as  in  the  Roman 
Rite.  Also  in  some  Masses  of  the  year  the  ordo  was 
diflferent;  for  instance,  on  Palm  Sunday  the  Passion 
was  only  said  at  the  high  Mass,  at  the  other  Masses 
a  special  gospel  only  being  said.  However,  since  the 
time  of  Claude  Vaussin  the  differences  from  the 
Roman  Mass  are  insignificant. 

In  the  calendar  there  are  relatively  few  feasts  of 
saints  or  other  modern  feasts,  as  none  were  introduced 
except  those  especially  prescribed  by  Rome  for  the 
Cistercian  Order;  this  was  done  in  order  to  adhere  as 
closely  as  possible  to  the  spirit  of  St.  Benedict  in 
prescribing  the  weekly  recitation  of  the  Psalter.  The 
divisions  of  the  feasts  are:  major  or  minor  feast  of 
sermon;  major  or  minor  feast  of  two  Masses;  feast 
of  twelve  lessons  and  Mass;  feast  of  three  lessons  and 
Mass;  feast  of  commemoration  and  Mass;  then 
merely  a  commemoration;   and  finally  the  feria. 

The  differences  in  the  ritual  are  very  small.  As  re- 
gards the  last  sacraments,  Extreme  Unction  is  given 
before  the  Holy  Viaticum,  and  in  Extreme  Unction 
the  word  "Peccasti"  is  used  instead  of  the  "Deli- 
quisti"  in  the  Roman  Ritual.  In  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance  a  shorter  form  of  absolution  may  be  used  in 
ordinary  confessions. 

Missaie  Cislerciense,  MS.  of  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth 
century;  Mis.  Cisl.  (Strasburg,  1486);  Mis.  Cist.  (Paris,  1516, 
154.5,  1584);  Regula  Ssmi.  Patris  Benedicli;  Breviarium  Ciat. 
cum  Bulla  Pii  Papa;  IX  die  7  Feb.,  1871;  Bona,  Op.  omnia 
(Antwerp,  1677);  Gdignart,  Mon.  primitifa  de  la  rhgle  cist. 
(Dijon,  1878);  Rubriques  du  breviaire  cist.,  by  a  religious  of  La 
Grande  Trappe  (1882);  Trilhb,  Mimoire  sur  le  projet  de  c6ri- 
monial  cisl.  (Toulouse,  1900) ;  Idem,  Man.  cceremoniarum  juxla 
usum  S.  0.  Cist.  (Westmalle,  1908). 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 

Dominican  Rite,  a  name  denoting  the  distinctive 
ceremonies  embodied  in  the  privileged  liturgical 
books  of  the  Order  of  Preachers,  (a)  Origin  and 
development. — The  question  of  a  special  unified  rite 
for  the  order  received  no  official  attention  in  the  time 
of  St.  Dominic,  each  province  sharing  in  the  general 
liturgical  diversities  prevalent  throughout  the  Church 
at  the  time  of  the  order's  confirmation  (1216).  Hence, 
each  province  and  often  each  convent  had  certain 
peculiarities  in  the  text  and  in  the  ceremonies  of  the 
Holy  Sacrifice  and  the  recitation  of  the  Office.  The 
successors  of  St.  Dominic  were  quick  to  recognize  the 
impracticability  of  such  conditions  and  soon  busied 
themselves  in  an  effort  to  eliminate  the  embarrassing 
distinctions.  They  maintained  that  the  safety  of  a 
basic  principlr-  of  community  life — unity  of  prayer 
and  worship — Wiis  eiidangerecl  by  this  conformity  with 
different  diocesan  conditions.  This  belief  was  im- 
pressed upon  them  more  ff)rcibly  by  the  confusion 
that  these  liturgical  diversities  occasioned  at  the 
general  chaptcTs  of  the  order  where  brothers  from 
every  province  were  a.Hsembled. 

The  first  indication  of  an  effort  to  regulate  liturgical 
conditions  was  manifested  by  Jordan  of  Saxony,  the 


RITES 


75 


RITES 


successor  of  St.  Dominic.  In  the  Constitutions  (1228) 
ascribed  to  him  are  found  several  rubrics  for  the  reci- 
tation of  the  Office.  These  insist  more  on  the  atten- 
tion with  which  the  Office  should  be  said  than  on  the 
qualifications  of  the  liturgical  books.  However,  it  is 
said  that  Jordan  took  some  steps  in  the  latter  direc- 
tion and  compiled  one  Office  for  universal  use. 
Though  this  is  doubtful,  it  is  certain  that  his  efforts 
were  of  little  practical  value,  for  the  Chapters  of 
Bologna  (1240)  and  Paris  (1241)  allowed  each  convent 
to  conform  with  the  local  rites.  The  first  systematic 
attempt  at  reform  was  made  under  the  direction  of 
John  the  Teuton,  the  fourth  master  general  of  the 
order.  At  his  suggestion  the  Chapter  of  Bologna 
(1244)  asked  the  delegates  to  bring  to  the  next 
chapter  (Cologne,  1245)  their  special  rubrics  for  the 
recitation  of  the  Office,  their  Missals,  Graduals,  and 
Antiphonaries,  "pro  concordando  officio".  To  bring 
some  kind  of  order  out  of  chaos  a  commission  was 
appointed  consisting  of  four  members,  one  each  from 
the  Provinces  of  France,  England,  Lombardy,  and 
Germany,  to  carry  out  the  revision  at  Angers.  They 
brought  the  result  of  their  labours  to  the  Chapter  of 
Paris  (1246),  which  approved  the  compilation  and 
ordered  its  exclusive  use  by  the  whole  Order.  This 
same  chapter  approved  the  "  Lectionarj' "  which  had 
been  entrusted  to  Humbert  of  Remains  for  revision. 
The  work  of  the  commi.ssion  was  again  approved  by 
theChaptersof  Montepulciano  (1247)  and  Paris  (1248). 
But  dissatisfaction  with  the  work  of  the  commission 
was  felt  on  all  sides,  especially  with  their  interpretation 
of  the  rubrics.  They  had  been  hurried  in  their  work, 
and  had  left  too  much  latitude  for  local  customs. 
The  question  was  reopened  and  the  Chapter  of  Lon- 
don (1250)  asked  the  commission  to  reassemble  at 
Metz  and  revise  their  work  in  the  light  of  the  criti- 
cisms that  had  been  made;  the  result  of  this  revision 
was  approved  at  the  Chapters  of  Metz  (1251)  and 
Bologna  (1252)  and  its  use  made  obligator>'  for  the 
whole  order.  It  was  also  ordained  that  one  copy  of 
the  liturgical  books  should  be  placed  at  Paris  and  one 
at  Bologna,  from  which  the  books  for  the  other  con- 
vents should  be  faitlifully  copied.  However,  it  was 
recognized  that  these  books  wore  not  entirely  perfect, 
and  that  there  was  room  for  further  revision.  Though 
this  work  was  done  under  the  direction  of  John  the 
Teuton,  the  brunt  of  the  revision  fell  to  the  lot  of 
Humbert  of  Remains,  then  provincial  of  the  Paris 
Province.  Humbert  was  elected  Master  General  of 
the  Chapter  of  Buda  (12.54)  and  was  asked  to  direct 
his  attention  to  the  question  of  the  order's  liturgical 
books.  He  subjected  each  of  them  to  a  most  thorough 
revision,  and  after  two  years  submitted  his  work  to  the 
Chapter  of  Paris  (1256).  This  and  several  subsequent 
chapters  endorsed  the  work,  effected  legislation  guard- 
ing against  corruption,  constitutionally  recognized  the 
authorship  of  Humbert,  and  thus  once  and  for  all 
settled  a  common  rite  for  the  Order  of  Preachers 
throughout  the  world. 

(b)  Preservation. — Clement  IV,  through  the  gen- 
eral, John  of  Vercelli,  issued  a  Bull  in  1267  in  which 
he  lauded  the  abiUty  and  zeal  of  Humbert  and  forbade 
the  making  of  any  changes  without  the  proper  author- 
ization. Subsequent  papal  regulation  went  much 
further  towards  preserving  the  integrity  of  the  rite. 
Innocent  XI  and  Clement  XII  prohibited  the  print- 
ing of  the  books  without  the  permission  of  the  master 
general  and  also  ordained  that  no  member  of  the  order 
should  presume  to  use  in  his  fulfilment  of  the  choral 
obligation  any  book  not  bearing  the  seal  of  the  general 
and  a  reprint  of  the  pontifical  Decrees.  Another  force 
preservative  of  the  special  Dominican  Rite  was  the 
Decree  of  Pius  V  (1570),  imposing  a  common  rite  on 
the  universal  Church  but  excepting  those  rites  which 
had  been  approved  for  two  hundred  years.  This  ex- 
ception gave  to  the  Order  of  Friars  Preachers  the 
privilege  of  maintaining  its  old  rite,  a  privilege  which 


the  chapters  of  the  order  sanctioned  and  which  the 
members  of  the  order  gratefully  accepted.  It  must 
not  be  thought  that  the  rite  has  come  down  through 
the  ages  absolutely  without  change.  Some  slight  cor- 
ruptions crept  in  despite  the  rigid  legislation  to  the 
contrary.  Then  new  feasts  have  been  added  with  the 
permission  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs  and  many  new  edi- 
tions of  the  liturgical  books  have  been  printed.  Changes 
in  the  text,  when  they  have  been  made,  have  always 
been  effected  with  the  idea  of  efiminating  arbitrary 
mutilations  and  restoring  the  books  to  a  perfect  con- 
formity with  the  old  exemplars  at  Paris  and  Bologna. 
Such  were  the  reforms  of  the  Chapters  of  Salamanca 
(1551),  Rome  (1777),  and  Ghent  (1871).  Several 
times  movements  have  been  started  with  the  idea  of 
conforming  with  the  Roman  Rite;  but  these  have  al- 
ways been  defeated,  and  the  order  still  stands  in  posses- 
sion of  the  rite  conceded  to  it  by  Pope  Clement  in  1267. 

(c)  Sources  of  the  rite. — To  determine  the  sources 
of  the  Dominican  Rite  is  to  come  face  to  face  with 
the  haze  and  uncertainty  that  seems  to  shroud  most 
liturgical  history.  The  thirteenth  century  knew  no 
unified  Roman  Rite.  While  the  basis  of  the  usages 
of  north-western  Europe  was  a  Gallicanized-Gre- 
gorian  Sacramentary  sent  by  Adrian  IV  to  Charle- 
magne, each  little  locality  had  its  own  peculiar  dis- 
tinctions. At  the  time  of  the  unification  of  the 
Dominican  Rite  most  of  the  convents  of  the  order 
were  embraced  within  the  territory  in  which  the  old 
Galilean  Rite  had  once  obtained  and  in  which  the 
Gallico-Roman  Rite  then  prevailed.  Jordan  of 
Saxony,  the  pioneer  in  liturgical  reform  within  the 
order,  greatly  admired  the  Rite  of  the  Church  of 
Paris  and  frequently  assisted  at  the  recitations  of  the 
Office  at  Notre-Dame.  Humbert  of  Romains,  who 
played  so  important  a  part  in  the  work  of  unification, 
was  the  provincial  of  the  French  Province.  These 
facts  justify  the  opinion  that  the  basis  of  the  Domini- 
can Rite  was  the  typical  Galilean  Rite  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  But  documentary  evidence  that  the 
rite  was  adapted  from  any  one  locality  is  lacking. 
The  chronicles  of  the  order  state  merely  that  the  rite 
is  neither  the  pure  Roman  nor  the  pure  Galilean, 
but  based  on  the  Roman  usage  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, with  additions  from  the  Rites  of  Paris  and  other 
places  in  which  the  order  existed.  Just  from  where 
these  additions  were  obtained  and  exactly  what 
they  were  cannot  be  determined,  except  in  a  general 
way,  from  an  examination  of  each  distinctive  feature. 

Two  points  must  be  emphasized  here:  (1)  the 
Dominican  Rite  is  not  an  arbitrary  elaboration  of 
the  Roman  Rite  made  against  the  spirit  of  the  Church 
or  to  give  the  order  an  air  of  exclusiveness,  nor  can 
it  be  said  to  be  more  gallicanized  then  any  use  of  the 
Gallico-Roman  Rite  of  that  period.  It  was  an  honest 
and  sincere  attempt  to  harmonize  and  simplify  the 
widely  divergent  usages  of  the  early  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  (2)  The  Dominican  Rite,  for- 
mulated by  Humbert,  saw  no  radical  development 
after  its  confirmation  by  Clement  IV.  When  Pius 
V  made  his  reform,  the  Dominican  Rite  had  been  fixed 
and  stable  for  over  three  hundred  years,  while  a  con- 
stant liturgical  change  had  been  taking  place  in  other 
communities.  Furthermore,  the  comparative  sim- 
plicity of  the  Dominican  Rite,  as  manifested  in  the  dif- 
ferent liturgical  books,  gives  evidence  of  its  antiquity. 

(d)  Liturgical  books. — The  rite  compiled  by  Hum- 
bert contained  fourteen  books:  (1)  the  Ordinary, 
which  was  a  sort  of  an  index  to  the  Divine  Office, 
the  Psalms,  Lessons,  Antiphons,  and  Chapters  being 
indicated  by  their  first  words.  (2)  The  Martyrology, 
an  amplified  calendar  of  martyrs  and  other  saints. 
(3)  The  CoUectarium,  a  book  for  the  use  of  the 
hebdomidarian,  which  contained  the  texts  and  the 
notes  for  the  prayers,  chapters,  and  blessings.  (4) 
The  Processional,  containing  the  hymns  (text  and 
music)  for  the  processions.     (5)  The  Psalterium,  con- 


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76 


RITES 


taining  merely  the  rsalter.  (0)  The  Lectionary, 
which  contained  the  Sunday  homilies,  the  lessons 
from  Sacred  Scripture  and  the  lives  of  the  saints. 

(7)  The  Antiphonary,  giving  the  text  and  music  for 
the  parts  of  the  Office  sung  outside  of  the  Mass. 

(8)  The  Gradual,  which  contained  the  words  and  the 
music  for  the  parts  of  the  Mass  sung  by  the  chou-. 

(9)  The  Conventual  Missal,  for  the  celebration  of 
solemn  Mass.  (10)  The  Epistolary,  containing  the 
Epi.^tles  for  the  Mass  and  the  Office.  (11)  The 
Book  of  Gospels.  (12)  The  Pulpitary,  which  con- 
tained the  musical  notation  for  the  Gloria  Patri, 
the  Invitatorv,  Litanies,  Tracts,  and  the  Alleluia. 
(13)  The  Missal  for  a  private  Mass.  (14)  The 
Breviarj',  a  compilation  from  all  the  books  used  in 
the  choral  recitation  of  the  Office,  very  much  reduced 
in  size  for  the  convenience  of  travellers. 

By  a  process  of  elimination  and  synthesis  under- 
gone also  by  the  books  of  the  Roman  Rite  many  of 
the  books  of  Humbert  have  become  superfluous  while 
several  others  have  been  formed.  These  add  noth- 
ing to  the  original  text,  but  merely  provide  for  the 
addition  of  feasts  and  the  more  convenient  recitation 
of  the  office.  The  collection  of  the  liturgical  books 
now  contains:  (1)  MartjTology;  (2)  Collectarium; 
(3)  Processional;  (4)  Antiphonary;  (5)  Gradual; 
(6)  Missal  for  the  conventual  Mass;  (7)  Missal  for 
the    private     Mass;      (8)  Breviary;      (9)  Vesperal; 

(10)  Hora?  Diurnae;  (11)  Ceremonial.  The  con- 
tents of  these  books  follow  closely  the  books  of  the 
same  name  issued  by  Humbert  and  which  have  just 
been  described.  The  new  ones  are:  (1)  the  Horse 
Diurme;  (2)  the  Vesperal  (with  notes),  adaptations 
from  the  Breviary  and  the  Antiphonary  respectively; 
(3)  the  Collectarium,  which  is  a  compilation  from  all 
the  rubrics  scattered  throughout  the  other  books. 
With  the  exception  of  the  Breviary,  these  books  are 
similar  in  arrangment  to  the  correspondingly  named 
books  of  the  Roman  Rite.  The  Dominican  Breviary 
is  divided  into  two  parts:  Part  I,  Advent  to  Trinity; 
Part  II,  Trinity  to  Advent. 

(e)  Distinctive  marks  of  the  Dominican  Rite. — 
Only  the  most  striking  differences  between  the 
Dominican  Rite  and  the  Roman  need  be  mentioned 
here.  The  most  important  is  in  the  manner  of  cele- 
brating a  low  Mass.  The  celebrant  in  the  Domini- 
can Rite  wears  the  amice  over  his  head  until  the  be- 
ginning of  Ma.ss,  and  prepares  the  chalice  as  soon 
as  he  reaches  the  altar.  The  Psalm  "Judica  me 
Deus"  is  not  said  and  the  Confiteor,  much  shorter 
than  the  Roman,  contains  the  name  of  St.  Dominic. 
The  Gloria  and  the  Credo  are  begun  at  the  centre  of 
the  altar  and  finished  at  the  MLssal.  At  the  Offertory 
there  is  a  simultaneous  oblation  of  the  Host  and  the 
chalice  and  only  one  prayer,  the  "Suscipe  Sancta 
Trinitas".  The  Canon  of  the  Mass  is  the  same  as  the 
Canon  of  the  Roman  Rite,  but  after  it  are  several 
noticeable  differences.  The  Dominican  celebrant 
says  the  "Agnus  Dei"  immediately  after  the  "Pax 
Domini"  and  then  recites  three  prayers,  "Ha;c 
sacrosancta  commixtio",  "Domine  Jesu  Christe", 
and  "Corpus  et  sanguis".  Then  follows  the  Com- 
munion, tne  yjriest  receiving  th(!  Host  from  his  left 
hand.  No  prayers  are  said  at  the  consumption  of 
the  Precious  Bfoo<l,  the  first  prayer  after  the  "Cor- 
pus et  Sanguis"  I>ein^  the  Communion.  These  are 
the  most  noticeable  differences  in  the  celebration  of  a 
low  Ma«8.  In  a  Hf)\<-mn  Mass  the  chalice  is  prepared 
just  after  the  celebrant  has  read  the  Gospel,  seated 
at  the  Kpistle  side  of  the  sanctuary.  The  chalice 
iH  V^rouf^Iit  from  the  altar  to  flu;  pla^;e  where  the  cele- 
V^rant  is  Heat<-<i  by  the  Kub-<lf'acon,  who  pours  the 
wine  and  wat^-r  into  it  and  r»i)l;uTH  it  on  the  altar. 

The  Dominican  Breviary  differs  Ijut  slightly  from 
the  Roman.  The  Offices  celebrated  are  of  seven 
cla»w«: — of  the  srjason  (de  tempore),  of  saints  (de 
Banctiaj,  of  vigils,  of  octaves,  votive  Offices,  Office  of 


the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  Office  of  the  Dead.  In 
point  of  dignity  the  feasts  are  classified  as  "totum 
duplex",  "duplex",  "simplex",  "of  three  lessons", 
and  "of  a  memory".  The  ordinary  "totum  duplex" 
feast  is  equivalent  to  the  Roman  greater  double. 
A  "totum  duplex"  with  an  ordinary  octave  (a  simple 
or  a  solemn  octave)  is  equal  to  the  second-class 
double  of  the  Roman  Rite,  and  a  "totum  duplex" 
with  a  most  solemn  octave  is  like  the  Roman  first- 
class  double.  A  "duplex"  feast  is  equivalent  to  the 
lesser  double  and  the  "simplex"  to  the  semi-double. 
There  is  no  difference  in  the  ordering  of  tlie  canonical 
hours,  except  that  all  during  Paschal  time  the  Domini- 
can Matins  provide  for  only  three  i)salms  and  three 
lessons  instead  of  the  customary  nine  i)sa!ms  and  nine 
lessons.  The  Office  of  the  Blessed  \'irgin  must  be 
said  on  all  days  on  which  feasts  of  the  rank  of  duplex 
or  "totum  duplex"  are  not  celebrated.  The  Gradual 
psalms  must  be  said  on  all  Saturdays  on  which  is  said 
the  votive  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  Office 
of  the  Dead  must  be  said  once  a  week  except  dur- 
ing the  week  following  Easter  and  the  week  follow- 
ing Pentet^ost.  Other  minor  points  of  difference  are 
the  manner  of  making  the  commemorations,  the 
text  of  the  hjTnns,  the  Antiphons,  the  lessons  of 
the  common  Offices  and  the  insertions  of  special 
feasts  of  the  order.  There  is  no  great  distinction 
between  the  musical  notation  of  the  Dominican 
Gradual,  Vesperal,  and  Antij^honary  and  the  cor- 
responding books  of  the  new  Vatican  edition.  The 
Dominican  chant  has  been  faithfully  co])ie(l  from  the 
MSS.  of  the  thirteenth  century,  wjiicli  were  in  turn 
derivx'd  indirectly  from  the  Gregorian  Sacramentary. 
One  is  not  surjjrised  therefore  at  the  remarkable 
similarity  between  the  chant  of  the  two  rites.  For 
a  more  detailed  study  of  the  Dominican  Rite  ref- 
erence may  be  had  to  the  order's  liturgical  books. 

MoRTiER,  Ilitit.  des  Tnallres  geniraui  de  VOrdre  des  Frhrea 
Prgcheurs,  I  (Paris.  1903),  174,  309-312,  ."579  sq.;  Cassitto, 
Liturgia  Dominicana  (Naples,  1804) ;  Masetti,  Afon.  et  Antiq. 
vet.  discipl.  Ord.  Prccd.  (Rome,  1804);  Danzas,  Etudes  sur  lea 
temps  prim,  de  I'ordre  de  S.  Dominique  (Paris,  1884);  Acta 
Capitulorum  Ord.  Prwd.,  ed.  Reichert  (Rome,  1898-1904); 
Lilt.  Encyc.  Maoist.  Gener.  O.  P.,  ed.  Reichert  .Rome,  1900); 
TuRON,  Hist,  des  hommes  ill.  de  VOrdre  de  St.  Dominique,  I,  341; 
Bullarium  O.  P.,  passim.  IGNATIUS   SmITH. 

Franciscan  Rite. — The  Franciscans,  unlike  the 
Dominicans,  Carmelites,  and  other  orders,  have  never 
had  a  peculiar  rite  properly  so  called,  but,  conform- 
ably to  the  mind  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  have  always 
followed  the  Roman  Rite  for  the  celelirat  ion  of  Mass. 
However,  the  Friars  Minor  and  the  Ca{)uchins  wear 
the  amice,  instead  of  the  biretta,  over  the  head,  and 
are  accustomed  to  say  Mass  with  tlu'ir  feet  uncovered, 
save    only    by    sandals.     They    also    enjoy    certain 

Erivileges  in  regard  to  the  time  and  place  of  cele- 
rating  Mass,  and  the  Missale  Romano -Seraphicum 
contains  many  proper  Masses  not  found  in  the 
Roman  Missal.  These  are  mostly  feasts  of  Fran- 
ciscan saints  and  blessed,  which  are  not  celebrated 
throughout  the  Church,  or  other  feasts  having  a 
peculiar  connexion  with  the  order,  e.  g.  the  Feast  of 
the  Mysteries  of  the  Way  of  the  Cross  (Friday  before 
Septuag(!sima),  and  that  of  the  Seven  Joys  of  the 
Bl(!3se(l  Virgin  (First  Sunday  after  the  octave  of  the 
Assumption).  The  same  is  true  in  regard  to  the 
Breviarium  Romano-Seraphicum,  and  Martyrolo- 
giurn  Romano-Seraphicum.  The  Franciscans  ex- 
ercisecl  great  influence  in  the  origin  and  evolution 
of  the  Breviarv,  and  on  the  revision  of  the  Ru- 
brics of  the  Miiss.  They  have  also  their  own 
calendar,  or  orflo.  This  calendar  may  be  used  not 
only  in  the  churches  of  the  First  Order,  but  also  in 
the  churches  and  (ihafx-ls  of  the  Second  Order,  and 
Third  Orfler  Regular  (if  aggregated  to  the  First 
Order)  and  Secular,  as  well  as  those  religious  in- 
stitutes which  have  had  some  connexion  with  the 
parent  body.     It  may  also  be  used  by  secular  priests 


RITES 


77 


RITES 


or  clerics  who  are  members  of  the  Third  Order.  The 
order  has  also  its  own  ritual  and  ceremonial  for 
its  receptions,  professions,  etc. 

CcBrem.  Romano-Seraph.  (Quaracchi,  1908) ;  Rit.  Romano-Seraph. 
(Quaracchi,  1910);   Prom ptuarium  Seraph.  (Quaracchi,  1910). 

Ferdinand  Heckmann. 

Friars  Minor  Capuchin  Rite. — The  Friars  Minor 
Capuchin  use  the  Roman  Rite,  except  that  in  the 
Confiteor  the  name  of  their  founder,  St.  Francis, 
is  added  after  the  names  of  the  Apostles,  and  in  the 
suffrages  they  make  commemorations  of  St.  Francis 
and  all  saints  of  their  order.  The  use  of  incense  in 
the  conventual  mass  on  certain  solemnities,  even 
though  the  Mass  is  said  and  not  sung,  is  another 
liturgical  custom  (recently  sanctioned  by  the  Holy 
See)  peculiar  to  their  order.  Generally  speaking, 
the  Capuchins  do  not  have  sung  Masses  except  in 
parochial  churches,  and  except  in  these  churches 
they  may  not  have  organs  without  the  minister 
general's  permission.  By  a  Decree  of  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Rites,  14  May,  1890,  the  minister 
general,  when  celebrating  Mass  at  the  time  of  the 
canonical  visitation  and  on  solemnities,  has  the  privi- 
leges of  a  domestic  prelate  of  His  Holiness.  In 
regard  to  the  Divine  Office,  the  Capuchins  do  not 
sing  it  according  to  note  but  recite  it  in  monotone. 
In  the  larger  communities  they  generally  recite 
Matins  and  Lauds  at  midnight,  except  on  the  three 
last  days  of  Holy  Week,  when  Tenebra?  is  chanted 
on  the  preceding  evening,  and  during  the  octaves  of 
Corpus  Christ i  and  the  Immaculate  Conception  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  when  matins  are  recited 
also  on  the  preceding  evening  with  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  exposed.  Every  day  after  Complin 
they  add,  extra-liturgically,  commemorations  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  St.  Francis,  and  St.  An- 
thony of  Padua.  On  the  feast  of  St.  Francis  after 
second  Vespers  they  observe  the  service  called  the 
"Transitus"  of  St.  Francis,  and  on  all  Saturdays, 
■  except  feasts  of  first  and  second  class  and  certain 
privileged  feria;  and  octaves,  all  Masses  said  in  their 
churches  are  votive  in  honour  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  excepting  only  the  conventual  mass. 
They  follow  the  universal  calendar,  with  the  addition 
of  feasts  proper  to  their  order.  These  additional 
feasts  include  all  canonized  saints  of  the  whole 
Franciscan  Order,  all  heali  of  the  Capuchin  Reform 
and  the  more  notable  heati  of  the  whole  order;  and 
every  year  the  5th  of  October  is  observed  as  a  com- 
memoration of  the  departed  members  of  the  order 
in  the  same  way  as  the  2nd  of  November  is  observed 
in  the  universal  Church.  Owing  to  the  great  number 
of  feasts  thus  observed,  the  Capuchins  have  the 
privilege  of  transferring  the  greater  feasts,  when 
necessary,  to  days  marked  semi-double.  According 
to  the  ancient  Constitutions  of  the  Order,  the  Capu- 
chins T'/ere  not  allowed  to  use  vestments  of  rich  tex- 
ture, not  even  of  silk,  but  by  Decree  of  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Rites,  17  December,  1888,  they  must 
now  conform  to  the  general  laws  of  the  Church  in  this 
matter.  They  are,  however,  still  obliged  to  main- 
tain severe  simplicity  in  their  churches,  especially 
when  non-parochial. 

Ceremoniale  Ord.  Cap.;  Analecta  Ord.  Cap.;  Constil.  ord.  (Rome). 

Father  Cuthbert. 

Premonstratensian  Rite. — The  Xorbertine  rite 
differs  from  the  Roman  in  the  celebration  of  the  Sacri- 
fice of  the  Mass,  in  the  Divine  Office,  and  in  the 
administration  of  the  Sacrament  of  Penance.  (1) 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass. — The  Missal  is  proper  to  the 
order  and  is  not  arranged  like  the  Roman  Missal. 
The  canon  is  identical,  with  the  exception  of  a  slight 
variation  as  to  the  time  of  making  the  sign  of  the 
cross  with  the  paten  at  the  "Libera  nos".  The 
music  for  the  Prefaces  etc.  differs,  though  not  con- 
siderablv,   from  that  of  the  Roman   Missal.     Two 


alleluias  are  said  after  the  "Ite  missa  est"  for  a  week 
after  Easter;  for  the  whole  of  the  remaining  Paschal 
time  one  alleluia  is  said.  The  rite  for  the  celebration 
of  feasts  gives  the  following  grades:  three  classes  of 
triples,  two  of  doubles,  celebre,  nine  lessons,  three 
lessons.  No  feasts  are  celebrated  during  privileged 
octaves.  There  are  so  many  feasts  lower  than 
double  that  usually  no  privilege  is  needed  for  votive 
Masses.  The  rubrics  regulating  the  various  feasts 
of  the  year  are  given  in  the  "Ordinarius  seu  liber 
ca?remoniarum  canonici  ordinis  Pra;monstratensis". 
Rubrics  for  the  special  liturgical  functions  are  found 
in  the  Missal,  the  Breviary,  the  Diurnal,  the  Pro- 
cessional, the  Gradual,  and  the  Antiphonary. 

(2)  Divine  Office.— The  Breviary  differs  from  the 
Roman  Breviary  in  its  calendar,  the  manner  of  recit- 
ing it,  arrangement  of  matter.  Some  saints  on  the 
Roman  calendar  are  omitted.  The  feasts  peculiar 
to  the  Norber tines  are:  St.  Godfried,  C,  16  Jan.; 
St.  Evermodus,  B.  C,  17  Feb.;  Bl.  Frederick,  Abbot, 
3  Mar.;  St.  Ludolph,  B.  M.,  29  Mar.;  Bl.  Herman 
Joseph,  C,  7  Apr.;  St.  Isfrid,  B.  C,  15  June;  Sts. 
Adrian  and  James,  MM.,  9  July;  Bl.  Hrosnata, 
M.,  19  July,  19;  Bl.  Gertrude,  V.,  13  Aug.;  Bl. 
Bronislava,  V.,  30  Aug.;  St.  Gilbert,  Abbot,  24  Oct.; 
St.  Siardus,  Abbot,  17  Nov.  The  feast  of  St.  Nor- 
bert,  founder  of  the  order,  which  falls  on  6  June  in 
the  Roman  calendar,  is  permanently  transferred  to 
1 1  July,  so  that  its  solemn  rite  may  not  be  interfered 
with  by  the  feasts  of  Pentecost  and  Corpus  Christi. 
Other  feasts  are  the  Triumph  of  St.  Norbert  over 
the  sacramentarian  heresy  of  Tanchelin,  on  the  third 
Sunday  after  Pentecost,  and  the  Translation  of  St. 
Norbert  commemorating  the  translation  of  his  body 
from  Magdeburg  to  Prague,  on  the  fourth  Sunday 
after  Easter.  Besides  the  daily  recitation  of  the 
canonical  hours  the  Norbertines  are  obliged  to  say 
the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  except  on 
triple  feasts  and  during  octaves  of  the  first  class. 
In  choir  this  is  said  immediately  after  the  Divine 
Office.  (3)  Administration  of  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance. — The  form  of  absolution  is  not  altogether 
in  harmony  with  that  of  the  Roman  Ritual.  The 
following  is  the  Norbertine  formula:  "Dominus  nos- 
ter  Jesus  Christus  te  absolvat,  et  ego  auctoritate 
ipsius,  mihi  licet  indignissimo  concessa,  absolvo  te 
in  primis,  a  vinculo  excommunicationis  ...  in  quan- 
tum po.ssum  et  indiges",  etc. 

The  liturgical  books  of  the  Norbertines  were  re- 
printed by  order  of  the  general  chapter,  held  at 
Premontre,  in  1738,  and  presided  over  by  Claude  H. 
Lucas,  abbot-general.  A  new  edition  of  the  Missal 
and  the  Breviary  was  issued  after  the  General 
Chapter  of  Prague,  in  1890.  In  1902  a  committee 
was  appointed  to  revise  the  Gradual,  Antiphonary, 
etc.  This  committee  received  much  encouragement 
in  its  work  by  the  Motu  Proprio  of  Pius  X  on  church 
music.  The  General  Chapter  of  Tepl,  Austria,  in 
1908,  decided  to  edit  the  musical  books  of  the  order 
as  prepared,  in  accordance  with  ancient  MSS.  by 
this  committee.  G.  Rybrook. 

Servite  Rite. — The  Order  of  Servites  (see  Ser- 
vants OF  Mary)  cannot  be  said  to  possess  a  separate 
or  exclusive  rite  similar  to  the  Dominicans  and 
others,  but  follows  the  Roman  Ritual,  as  provided  in 
its  constitutions,  with  very  slight  variations.  De- 
votion towards  the  Mother  of  Sorrows  being  the  prin- 
cipal distinctive  characteristic  of  the  order,  there  are 
special  prayers  and  indulgences  attaching  to  the 
solemn  celebration  of  the  five  major  Marian  feasts, 
namely,  the  Annunciation,  Visitation,  Assumption, 
Presentation,  and  Nativity  of  our  Blessed  Lady. 

The  feast  of  the  Seven  Dolours  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary,  celebrated  always  on  the  Third  Sunday 
of  September,  has  a  privileged  octave  and  is  en- 
richea   with   a   plenary    indulgence   ad   instar   Por- 


RITES 


78 


RITES 


tiuncula;  that  is,  as  often  as  a  visit  is  made  to  a  church 
of  the  order.  In  common  with  all  friars  the  Servite 
priests  wear  an  amice  ou  the  head  instead  of  a  biretta 
while  proceeding  to  and  from  the  altar.  The  Mass 
is  begun  with  the  first  part  of  the  Angelical  Salutation, 
and  in  the  Confiteor  the  words  Septcm  beati^  patribus 
nostris  are  inserted.  At  the  conclusion  of  >iass  the 
Salve  Regina  and  the  oration  Omiiipotens  sempiterne 
Deus  are  recited.  In  the  rei^itation  of  the  Divine 
Office  each  canonical  hour  is  begun  with  the  Ave 
Maria  do\\Ti  to  the  words  vcntris  tui,  Jesus.  The 
custom  of  reciting  daily,  immediately  before  Vespers, 
a  special  prayer  called  Vigilia,  composed  of  the  three 
psalms  and  three  antiphons  of  the  first  nocturn  of  the 
Office  of  the  Blessed  \'irgin.  followed  by  three  les- 
sons and  responses,  comes  down  from  the  thirteenth 
century,  when  they  were  ofTerod  in  thanksgiving  for 
a  special  favour  bestowed  ujjon  the  order  by  Pope 
Alexander  IV  (13  May,  1259).  The  Salve  Regina 
is  daily  chanted  in  choir  whether  or  not  it  is  the  anti- 
phon  proper  to  the  season.  P.  J.  Griffin. 

Rites,  Congregation  of.  See  Roman  Congre- 
gations. 

Rites  in  the  United  States. — Since  immigration 
from  the  eastern  portion  of  Europe  and  from  Asia 
and  Africa  set  in  with  such  volume,  the  peoples  who 
(both  in  union  with  and  outside  the  imitj^  of  the 
Church)  follow  the  various  Eastern  rites  arrived  in 
the  United  States  in  large  numbers,  bringing  with 
them  their  priests  and  their  forms  of  worship.  As 
the}'  grew  in  number  and  financial  strength,  they 
erected  churches  in  the  various  cities  and  towns 
throughout  the  country.  Rome  used  to  be  considered 
the  city  where  the  various  rites  of  the  Church  through- 
out the  world  could  be  seen  grouped  together,  but  in 
the  United  States  they  may  be  observed  to  a  greater 
advantage  than  even  in  Rome.  In  Rome  the  various 
rites  are  kept  alive  for  the  purpose  of  educating  the 
various  national  clergj'  who  study  there,  and  for 
demonstrating  the  unity  of  the  Church,  but  there  is  no 
body  of  laymen  who  follow  those  rites;  in  the  United 
States,  on  the  contrarj-,  it  is  the  number  and  pressure 
of  the  laity  which  have  caused  the  establi.shment  and 
support  of  the  churches  of  the  various  rites.  There  is 
consequently  no  better  field  for  studying  the  various 
rites  of  the  Church  than  in  the  chief  cities  of  the 
United  States,  and  such  study  has  the  advantage  to 
the  exact  observer  of  affording  an  opportunity  of 
comparing  the  dissident  churches  of  those  rites  with 
those  which  belong  to  Catholic  unity.  The  chief 
rites  which  have  established  themselves  in  America 
are  these:  (1)  Armenian,  (2)  Greek  or  Byzantine,  and 
(3)  S>TO-Maronite.  There  are  also  a  handful  of  ad- 
herents of  the  Coptic,  Syrian,  and  Chaldean  rites, 
which  will  also  be  noticed,  and  there  are  occasionally 
priests  of  the  various  Latin  rites. 

I.  The  Armenian  Rite. — This  rite  alone,  of  all 
the  rites  in  the  Church,  is  confined  to  one  people,  one 
language,  and  one  alphabet.  It  Ls,  if  anything,  more 
exclusive  than  Judaism  of  old.  Other  rites  are  more 
widely  extendwl  in  every  way:  the  Roman  Rite  is 
spread  throughout  Latin,  Teutonic,  and  Slavic 
peoples,  and  it  even  has  two  languages,  the  Latin  and 
the  Ancient  Slavonic,  and  two  alphabets,  the  Roman 
and  the  Glagolitic,  in  which  its  ritual  is  written;  the 
Gre<;k  or  Byzantine  Rite  extends  among  Greek, 
Slavic,  Latin,  and  Syrian  peoples,  and  its  services  are 
celebrateiJ  in  Greek,  Slavonic,  Rumanian,  and  Arabic 
with  sr^rvice-books  in  the  Greek,  Cyrillic,  Latin,  and 
Arabic  alphabets.  But  the  Armenian  Rite,  whether 
Catholic  or  Gregorian,  is  confined  exclusively  to  per- 
sons of  the  Armenian  race,  and  employs  the  ancient 
Armenian  language  and  alphabet.  The  history  and 
origin  of  the  race  have  been  given  in  the  article  Ar- 
menia, but  a  word  may  be  said  of  the  language  (Hayk, 
as  it  is  called;,  and  its  use  in  the  hturgy.     The  uuijor- 


ity  of  the  Armenians  were  converted  to  Christianity 
bj'  St.  Gregory  the  Illuminator,  a  man  of  noble 
family,  who  was  made  Bishop  of  Armenia  in  302  (see 
Gregory  the  Illuminator).  So  thoroughly  was 
his  work  effected  that  Armenia  alone  of  the  ancient 
nations  converted  to  Christianity  has  preserved  no 
pagan  literature  antedating  the  Christian  literature 
of  the  people ;  pagan  works,  if  they  ever  existed,  seem 
to  have  perished  in  the  ardour  of  the  Armenians  for 
Christian  thought  and  expression.  The  memory  of 
St.  Gregorj^  is  so  revered  that  the  Armenians  who  are 
opposed  to  union  with  the  Holy  See  take  pride  in 
calling  themselves  "Gregorians",  impljong  that  they 
keep  the  faith  taught  by  St.  Gregor5\  Hence  it  is 
usual  to  call  the  dissidents  "Gregorians",  in  order  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  Uniat  Catholics.  At  first 
the  language  of  the  Christian  liturgy  in  Armenia  was 
S>Tiac,  but  later  they  discarded  it  for  their  own  tongue, 
and  translated  all  the  services  into  Armenian,  which 
was  at  first  written  in  Syriac  or  Persian  letters. 
About  400  St.  Mesrob  invented  the  present  Armenian 
alphabet  (except  two  final  letters  which  were  added 
in  the  year  1200),  and  their  language,  both  ancient 
and  modern,  has  been  ■nTitten  in  that  alphabet  ever 
since.  Mesrob  al.so  translated  the  New  Testament 
into  Armenian  and  revised  the  entire  liturgy.  The 
Armenians  in  their  church  life  have  led  almost  aa 
checkered  an  existence  as  they  have  in  their  national 
life.  At  first  they  were  in  full  communion  with  the 
Universal  Church.  They  were  bitterly  opposed  to 
Nestorianism,  and,  when  in  451  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  condemned  the  doctrine  of  Eutyches,  they 
seceded,  holding  the  opinion  that  such  a  definition  was 
sanctioning  Nestorianism,  and  have  since  remained 
separated  from  and  hostile  to  the  Greek  Church  of 
Constantinople.  In  1054  the  Greeks  seceded  in  turn 
from  unity  with  the  Roman  Church,  and  nearly 
three  centuries  later  the  Armenians  became  reconciled 
with  Rome,  but  the  union  lasted  only  a  brief  period. 
Breaking  away  from  unity  again,  the  majority  formed 
a  national  church  which  agrees  neither  with  the  Greek 
nor  the  Roman  Church;  a  minority,  recruited  by  con- 
verts to  union  with  the  Holy  See  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  remained  united  Armenian  Catholics. 

The  Mass  and  the  whole  liturgy  of  the  Armenian 
Church  is  said  in  Ancient  Armenian,  which  differs 
considerably  from  the  modern  tongue.  The  lan- 
guage is  an  offshoot  of  the  Iranian  branch  of  the  Indo- 
Germanic  family  of  languages,  and  probably  found 
its  earliest  written  ex-pression  in  the  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions; it  is  unlike  the  Semitic  languages  im- 
mediately  surrounding  it.  Among  its  peculiarities 
are  twelve  regular  declensions  and  eight  irregular 
declensions  of  nouns  and  five  conjugations  of  the 
verbs,  while  there  are  many  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
postpositions  and  the  like.  It  abounds  in  consonants 
and  guttural  sounds;  the  words  of  the  Lord's  Prayer 
in  Armenian  will  suffice  as  an  example:  "Hair  mier, 
vor  herghins  ies,  surp  iegitzi  anun  ko,  ieghastze 
arkautiun  ko,  iegitzin  garnk  ko,  vorbes  hierghms  iev 
hergri,  zhatz  mi<!r  hanabazort  dur  miez  aissor,  iev  tog 
miez  ezbardis  mier,  vorbes  iev  mek  togumk  merotz 
bardabanatz,  iev  mi  danir  zmez  i  porsutiun,  ailperghea 
i  chare."  The  language  is  written  from  left  to  right, 
like  Greek,  Latin  or  Engli.sh,  but  in  an  alphabet  of 
thirtyH'ight  neculiar  letters  which  are  dissimilar  in 
form  to  anything  in  the  (ire(!k  or  Latin  alphabet,  and 
are  arranged  in  a  most  penilexing  order.  For  in- 
stance, the  Armenian  alphabet  starts  off  with  a,  p, 
k,  t,  z,  etc.,  and  ends  up  with  the  letter/.  It  may  also 
be  noted  that  the  Armenian  has  changed  the  con- 
sonantal values  of  most  of  the  ordinary  sounds  in 
Christian  names;  thus  George  becomes  Kevork; 
Sergius,  Sarkis;  Jacob,  Hagop;  Joseph,  Hovsep; 
Gregory,  Krikori;  Peter,  Bedros,  and  so  on.  The 
usual  clan  a<ldition  of  the  word  "son"  (ian)  to  most 
Armenian  family  names,  something  like  the  use  of 


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mac  in  the  Gaelic  languages,  renders  usual  Armenian 
names  easy  of  identification  (e.  g.,  Azarian,  Hagopian, 
Rubian,  Zohrabian,  etc.)- 

The  book  containing  the  regulations  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  sacraments,  analogous  to  the 
Greek  Euchologion  or  the  Roman  Ritual,  is  called 
the  "Mashdotz",  after  the  name  of  its  compiler  St. 
Mesrob,  who  was  surnamed  Mashdotz.  He  arranged 
and  compiled  the  five  great  liturgical  books  used  in 
the  Armenian  Church:  (1)  the  Breviary  (Zhamakirk) 
or  Book  of  Hours;  (2)  The  Directory  (Tzutzak)  or 
Calendar,  containing  the  fixed  festivals  of  the  year; 
(3)  The  Liturgy  (Pataragakirk)  or  Missal,  arranged 
and  enriched  also  by  John  Mantaguni;  (4)  The  Book 
of  Hymns  (Dagaran),  arranged  for  the  principal  great 
feasts  of  the  year;  (5)  The  Ritual  or  "Mashdotz", 
mentioned  above.  A  peculiarity  about  the  Armenian 
Church  is  that  the  majority  of  great  feasts  falling  upon 
weekdays  are  celebrated  on  the  Sunday  immediately 
following.  The  great  festivals  of  the  Christian  year 
are  divided  by  the  Armenians  into  five  classes:  (1) 
Easter;  (2)  feasts  which  fall  on  Sunday,  such  as  Palm 
Sunday,  Pentecost,  etc.;  (3)  feasts  which  are  observed 
on  the  days  on  which  they  occur:  the  Nativity, 
Epiphany,  Circumcision,  Presentation,  and  Annun- 
ciation; (4)  feasts  which  are  transferred  to  the  follow- 
ing Sunday :  Transfiguration,  Immaculate  Conception, 
Nativity  B.  V.  M.,  Assumption,  Holy  Cross,  feasts 
of  the  Apostles,  etc.;  (5)  other  feasts,  which  are  not 
observed  at  all  unless  they  can  be  transferred  to 
Sunday.  The  Gregorian  Armenians  observe  the 
Nativity,  Epiphany,  and  Baptism  of  Our  Lord  on  the 
same  day  (6  January),  but  the  Catholic  Armenians 
observe  Christmas  on  25  December  and  the  Epiphany 
on  6  January,  and  they  observe  many  of  the  other 
feasts  of  Our  Lord  on  the  days  on  which  they  actually 
fall.  The  principal  fasts  are:  (1)  Lent;  (2)  the  Fast 
of  Nineveh  for  two  weeks,  one  month  before  the  com- 
mencement of  Lent — in  reality  a  remnant  of  the 
ancient  Lenten  fast,  now  commemorated  only  in 
name  by  our  Septuagesima,  Sexagesima,  and  Quin- 
quagesima  Sundays;  (3)  the  week  following  Pentecost. 
The  days  of  abstinence  are  the  Wednesdays  and 
Fridays  throughout  the  year  with  certain  exceptions 
(e.  g.,  during  the  week  after  the  Nativity,  Easter,  and 
the  Assumption).  In  the  Armenian  Church  Saturday 
is  observed  as  the  Sabbath,  commemorating  the  Old 
Law  and  the  creation  of  man,  and  Sunday  as  the 
Lord's  Day  of  Resurrection  and  rejoicing,  commem- 
orating the  New  Law  and  the  redemption  of  man. 
Most  of  the  saints'  days  are  dedicated  to  Armenian 
saints  not  commemorated  in  other  lands,  but  the 
Armenian  Catholics  in  Galicia  and  Transylvania  use 
the  Gregorian  (not  the  Julian)  Calendar,  and  have 
many  Roman  saints'  days  and  feasts  added  to  their 
ancient  ecclesiastical  year. 

In  the  actual  arrangement  of  the  church  building 
for  worship  the  Armenian  Rite  differs  both  from  the 
Greek  and  the  Latin.  While  the  Armenian  Church 
was  in  communion  with  Rome,  it  seems  to  have  united 
many  Roman  practices  in  its  ritual  with  those  that 
were  in  accord  with  the  Greek  or  Byzantine  forms. 
The  church  building  may  be  divided  into  the  sanctuary 
and  church  proper  (choir  and  nave.)  The  sanctuary 
is  a  platform  raised  above  the  general  level  of  the 
chiu-ch  and  reached  by  four  or  more  steps.  The  altar 
is  always  erected  in  the  middle  of  it,  and  it  is  again  a 
few  steps  higher  than  the  level  of  the  sanctuary.  It 
is  perhaps  possible  that  the  Armenians  originally 
used  an  altar — screen  or  iconostasis,  like  that  of  the 
Greek  churches,  but  it  has  long  since  disappeared. 
Still  they  do  not  use  the  open  altar  like  the  Latin 
Church.  Two  curtains  are  hung  before  the  sanc- 
tuary :  a  large  double  curtain  hangs  before  its  entrance, 
extending  completely  across  the  space  like  the  Roman 
chancel  rail,  and  is  so  drawn  as  to  conceal  the  altar, 
the  priest,  and  the  deacons  at  certain  parts  of  the 


Mass;  the  second  and  smaller  curtain  is  used  merely  to 
separate  the  priest  from  the  deacons  and  to  cover  the 
altar  after  service.  Each  curtain  opens  on  both  sides, 
and  ordinarily  is  drawn  back  from  the  middle.  The 
second  curtam  is  not  much  used.  The  use  of  these 
curtains  is  ascribed  to  the  year  340,  when  they  were 
required  by  a  canon  formulated  by  Bishop  Macarius 
of  Jerusalem.  Upon  the  altar  are  usually  the  Missal, 
the  Book  of  Gospels,  a  cross  upon  which  the  image  of 
Our  Lord  is  painted  or  engraved  in  low  relief,  and  two 
or  more  candles,  which  are  lighted  as  in  the  Roman 
use.  The  Blessed  Sacrament  is  usually  reserved  in  a 
tabernacle  on  the  altar,  and  a  small  lamp  kept  burn- 
ing there  at  all  times.  In  the  choir,  usually  enclosed 
within  a  low  iron  railing,  the  singers  and  priests  stand 
in  lines  while  singing  or  reciting  the  OtTice.  In  the 
East,  the  worshipper,  upon  entering  the  nave  of  the 
church,  usually  takes  off  his  shoes,  just  as  the  Moham- 
medans do,  for  the  Armenian  founds  this  practice  upon 
Ex.,  iii,  5;  this  custom  is  not  followed  in  the  United 
States,  nor  do  the  Armenians  there  sit  cross-legged 
upon  the  floor  in  their  churches,  as  they  do  in  Asia. 
The  administration  of  the  sacraments  is  marked 
by  some  ceremonies  unlike  those  of  the  Roman  or 
Greek  Churches,  and  by  some  which  are  a  composite 
of  the  two.  In  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism  the  priest 
meets  the  child  carried  in  the  arms  of  the  nurse  at 
the  chiu-ch  door,  and,  while  reciting  Psalms  li  and 
cxxx,  takes  two  threads  (one  white  and  the  other 
red)  and  twists  them  into  a  cord,  which  he  afterwards 
blesses.  Usually  the  godfather  goes  to  confession 
before  the  baptism,  in  order  that  he  may  fulfil  his 
duties  in  the  state  of  grace.  The  exorcisms  and 
renunciations  then  take  place,  and  the  recital  of  the 
Nicene  Creed  and  the  answers  to  the  responses 
follow.  The  baptismal  water  is  blessed,  the  anoint- 
ing with  oil  performed,  the  prayers  for  the  catechumen 
to  be  baptized  are  said,  and  then  the  child  is  stripped. 
The  priest  takes  the  child  and  holds  it  in  the  font 
so  that  the  body  is  in  the  water,  but  the  head  is  out, 
and  the  baptism  takes  place  in  this  manner:  "N., 
the  servant  of  God  coming  into  the  state  of  a  catechu- 
men and  thence  to  that  of  baptism,  is  now  baptized 
by  me,  in  the  name  of  the  Father  [here  he  pours  a 
handful  of  water  on  the  head  of  the  child],  and  of  the 
Son  [here  he  pours  water  as  before],  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  [here  he  pours  a  third  handful]".  After  this 
the  priest  dips  the  child  thrice  under  the  water, 
saying  on  each  occasion:  "Thou  art  redeemed  by  the 
blood  of  Christ  from  the  bondage  of  sin,  by  receiving 
the  liberty  of  sonship  of  the  Heavenly  Father,  and 
becoming  a  co-heir  with  Christ  and  a  temple  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  Amen."  Then  the  child  is  washed 
and  clothed  again,  generally  with  a  new  and  beautiful 
robe,  and  the  priest  when  washing  the  child  says: 
"Ye  that  were  baptized  in  Christ,  have  put  on  Christ, 
Alleluia.  And  ye  that  have  been  illumined  by  God 
the  Father,  may  the  Holy  Ghost  rejoice  in  you. 
Alleluia."  Then  the  passage  of  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Matthew  relating  the  baptism  of  Christ  in  the  Jordan 
is  read,  and  the  rite  thus  completed. 

The  Sacrament  of  Confirmation  is  conferred  by 
the  priest  immediately  after  baptism,  although  the 
Catholic  Armenians  sometimes  reserve  it  for  the 
bishop.  The  holy  chrism  is  applied  by  the  priest 
to  the  forehead,  eyes,  ears,  nose,  mouth,  palms, 
heart,  spine,  and  feet,  each  time  with  a  reference  to 
the  .seal  of  the  Spirit.  Finally,  the  priest  lays  his 
hand  upon  and  makes  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  the 
child's  forehead  saying:  "Peace  to  thee,  saved 
through  God."  When  the  confirmation  is  thus 
finished,  the  priest  binds  the  child's  forehead  with  the 
red  and  white  string  which  he  twisted  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  baptism,  and  fastens  it  at  the  end  with  a 
small  cross.  "Then  he  gives  two  candles,  one  red 
and  one  green,  to  the  godfather  and  has  the  child 
brought  up  to  the  altar  where  Communion  is  given 


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to  it  by  a  small  drop  of  the  Sacred  Blood,  or,  if  it 
be  not  "at  the  time  of  Mass,  by  taking  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  from  the  Tabernacle  and  signing  the 
mouth  of  the  child  with  it  in  the  form  of  the  cross, 
saj'ing  in  either  case:  "The  plenitude  of  the  Holy 
Ghost";  if  the  candidate  be  an  adult,  full  Commu- 
nion is  administered,  and  there  the  confirmation  is 
ended.  The  formula  of  absolution  in  the  Sacrament 
of  Penance  is:  "May  the  merciful  God  have  mercy 
upon  you  and  grant  you  the  pardon  of  all  your  sins, 
both  confessed  and  forgotten;  and  I  by  virtue  of  my 
order  of  priesthood  and  in  force  of  the  power  granted 
by  the  Divine  Command:  Whosesoever  sins  you 
remit  on  earth  they  are  remitted  unto  them  in  heaven; 
through  that  same  word  I  absolve  you  from  all  par- 
ticipation in  sin,  by  thought,  word  and  deed,  in  the 
name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  And  I  again  restore  you  to  the  sacraments 
of  the  Holy  Church;  whatsoever  good  you  shall  do, 
shall  be  counted  to  you  for  merit  and  for  glory  in  the 
life  to  come.  May  the  shedding  of  the  blood  of  the 
Son  of  God,  which  He  shed  upon  the  cross  and  which 
delivered  human  nature  from  hell,  deliver  you  from 
your  sins.  Amen."  As  a  rule  Armenians  are  ex- 
horted to  make  their  confession  and  communion  on 
at  least  five  days  in  the  year:  the  so-called  Daghavork 
or  feasts  of  Tabernacles,  i.  e.,  the  Epiphany,  Easter, 
Transfiguration,  Assumption,  and  Exaltation  of  the 
Holy  Cross.  The  first  two  festivals  are  obligatory, 
and,  if  an  Armenian  neglects  his  duty,  he  incurs 
excommunication.  The  Sacrament  of  Extreme  Unc- 
tion (or  "Unction  with  Oil",  as  it  is  called)  is  sup- 
posed to  be  administered  by  seven  priests  in  the 
ancient  form,  but  practically  it  is  performed  by  a 
single  priest  on  most  occasions.  The  eyes,  ears, 
nose,  lips,  hands,  feet,  and  heart  of  the  sick  man  are 
anointed,  with  this  form:  "I  anoint  thine  eyes  with 
holy  oil,  so  that  whatever  sin  thou  mayst  have  com- 
mitted through  thy  sight,  thou  mayst  be  saved  there- 
from by  the  anointing  of  this  oil,  through  the  grace 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ",  and  with  a  similar  ref- 
erence to  the  other  members  anointed. 

The  Divine  Liturgy  or  Mass  is  of  course  the  chief 
rite  among  the  Armenians,  whether  Catholic  or 
Gregorian,  and  it  is  celebrated  with  a  form  and  cere- 
monial which  partakes  in  a  measure  both  of  the  Roman 
and  Byzantine  rites.  As  we  have  said,  the  curtains 
are  used  instead  of  the  altar-rail  or  iconosta.sis  of 
tho.se  rites,  and  the  vestments  are  also  peculiar. 
The  Armenians,  like  the  Latins,  use  unleavened 
bread,  in  the  form  of  a  wafer  or  small  thin  round  cake, 
for  con.secration;  but  like  the  Greeks  they  prepare 
niany  wafers,  and  those  not  u.sed  for  con.secration 
in  the  Mass  are  given  afterwards  to  the  people  as 
the  antuloron.  The  wine  u.sed  mast  be  solely  the 
fermented  juice  of  the  bfst  grapes  obtainable.  In  the 
Gregorian  churrhfs  Communion  is  given  to  the  people 
imder  both  species,  the  Ho.st  being  dipped  in  the  chalice 
before  delivering  it  to  the  communicant,  but  in  the 
Catholic  churches  Communion  is  now  given  only  in 
one  species,  that  of  the  Body,  although  there  is  no 
express  prohibition  against  the  older  form.  On 
Chriutmafl  Eye  and  Easter  Eve  the  .\rmenians  cele- 
brate Ma«8  in  the  evening;  the  Ma.ss  then  begins 
with  the  curtains  drawn  whilst  the  introductory 
psalms  and  prophecif«  are  sung,  but,  at  the  moment 
the  great  feast  is  announces!  in  the  Introit,  the  cur- 
tains are  withdrawn  and  the  altar  appears  with  full 
illumination.  During  I^ent  the  altar  remains  entirely 
hidden  by  the  great  curtains,  and  during  all  the  Sun- 
days m  I>-nt,  except  Palm  Sunday,  Ma-ss  is  cele- 
brat^fl  behmd  the  drawn  curtains.  A  relio  of  this 
practice  still  remains  in  the  Hornan  Kite,  as  shown 
by  the  veiling  of  the  images  and  pictures  from  Passion 
Sunday  till  Kast^-r  Eve.  The  Annenian  vestments 
for  Mass  are  fK-ruliar  and  splendid.  The  priest  wears 
a  crown,  exactly  in  the   form  of  a  Greek  biahop'fl 


mitre,  which  is  called  the  Saghavard  or  helmet.  This 
is  also  worn  bj'  the  deacons  attending  on  a  bishop  at 
pontifical  Mass.  The  Armenian  bishops  wear  a 
mitre  almost  identical  in  shape  with  the  Latin  mitre, 
and  said  to  have  been  introduced  at  the  time  of  their 
union  with  Rome  in  the  twelfth  century,  when  they 
relinquished  the  Greek  form  of  mitre  for  the  priests 
to  wear  in  the  Mass.  The  celebrant  is  first  vested 
with  the  shapik  or  alb,  which  is  usually  narrower  than 
the  Latin  form,  and  usually  of  linen  (sometimes  of 
silk).  He  then  puts  on  each  of  his  arms  the  bazpans 
or  cuffs,  which  replace  the  Latin  maniple;  then  the 
ourar  or  stole,  which  is  in  one  piece;  then  the  goti 
or  girdle,  then  the  varkas  or  amict,  which  is  a  large 
embroidered  stiff  collar  with  a  shoulder  covering 
to  it;  and  finally  the  shoochnr,  or  chasuble,  which  is 
almost  exactly  like  a  Roman  cope.  If  the  celebrant 
be  a  bishop,  he  also  wears  the  gonker  or  Greek  epigo- 
nation.  The  bishops  carry  a  staff  shaped  like  the 
Latin,  vv-hile  the  vartabeds  (deans,  or  doctors  of  divin- 
ity; analogous  to  the  Roman  mitred  abbots)  carry 
a  staff  in  the  Greek  form  (a  staff  with  two  intertwined 
serpents).  No  organs  are  used  in  the  Armenian 
church,  but  the  elaborate  vocal  music  of  the  Eastern 
style,  sung  by  choir  and  people,  is  accompanied  by 
two  metallic  instruments,  the  keshotz  and  zinzgha 
(the  first  a  fan  with  small  bells;  the  second  similar 
to  cymbals),  both  of  which  are  used  during  various 
parts  of  the  Mass.  The  deacon  wears  merely  an  alb 
and  a  stole  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  Roman  Rite. 
The  subdeacons  and  lower  clergy  wear  simply  the  alb. 
The  Armenian  Mass  may  be  divided  into  three 
parts:  Preparation,  Anaphora  or  Canon,  and  Con- 
clusion. The  first  and  preparatory  portion  extends 
as  far  as  the  Preface,  when  the  catechumens  are 
directed  by  the  deacon  to  leave.  The  Canon  com- 
mences with  the  conclusion  of  the  Preface  and  ends 
with  the  Communion.  As  soon  as  the  priest  is 
robed  in  his  vestments  he  goes  to  the  altar,  washes 
his  hands  reciting  Psalm  xxvi,  and  then  going  to  the 
foot  of  the  altar  begins  the  Mass.  After  saying  the 
Intercessory  Prayer,  the  Confiteor  and  the  Ab.solu- 
tion,  which  is  given  with  a  crucifix  in  hand,  he  re- 
cites Psalm  xlii  (Introibo  ad  altare),  and  at  every  two 
verses  ascends  a  step  of  the  altar.  After  he  has 
intoned  the  prayer  "In  the  tabernacle  of  holiness", 
the  curtains  are  drawn,  and  the  choir  sings  the  ap- 
propriate hymn  of  the  day.  Meanwhile  the  cele- 
brant behind  the  curtain  prepares  the  bread  on  the 
paten  and  fills  the  chalice,  ready  for  the  oblation. 
When  this  is  done  the  curtains  are  withdrawn  and 
the  altar  incensed.  Then  the  Introit  of  the  day  is 
sung,  then  the  prayers  corresponding  to  those  of  the 
first,  second,  and  third  antiphons  of  the  Byzantine 
Rite,  while  the  proper  psalms  are  sung  by  the  choir. 
Then  the  deacon  intones  "  Proschume  "  (let  us  attend), 
and  elevates  the  book  of  the  gospels,  which  is  in- 
censed as  he  brings  it  to  the  altar,  making  the  Little 
Entrance.  The  choir  then  sings  the  Trisagion 
(Holy  God,  Holy  and  Mighty,  Holy  and  Immortal, 
have  mercy  on  us)  thrice.  The  Gregorians  inter- 
polate after  "Holy  and  Immortal"  some  words  de- 
scriptive of  the  feast  day,  such  as  "who  was  made 
manifest  for  us",  or  "who  didst  ri.se  from  the  dead", 
but  this  aridition  has  been  condemned  at  Rome  as 
being  a  relic  of  the  Patripassian  heresy.  During  the 
Trisagion  the;  Keshnfz  is  jingled  in  accompaniment. 
Then  the  Greek  Ektene  or  Litany  is  sung,  and  at  its 
conclusion  the  reafler  reads  the  Prophecy;  then  the 
Antiphon  before  the  Epistle  is  sung,  and  the  epistle 
of  the  day  read.  At  th(i  end  of  each  the  choir  re- 
sponds Alleluia.  Then  the  deacon  announces  "Orthi" 
(stand  up)  and,  taking  the  Gospels,  reads  or  intones 
the  gospel  of  the  day.  Immediately  afterwarrls,  the 
Armenian  form  of  the  Nicene  Creed  is  said  or  sung. 
It  differs  from  the  creed  aa  saifl  in  the  Roman  and 
Greek  Churches  in  that  it  has,  "consubstantial  with 


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81 


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the  Father  by  whom  all  things  were  made  in  Heaven 
and  in  Earth,  visible  and  invisible;  who  for  us  men  and 
our  salvation  came  down  from  Heaven,  was  incarnate 
and  was  made  man  and  perfectly  begotten  through 
the  Holy  Ghost  of  the  most  Holy  Virgin  Mary;  he 
assumed  from  her  body,  soul,  and  mind,  and  all  that 
in  man  is,  truly  and  not  figuratively;"  and  "we  be- 
lieve also  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  not  created,  all  perfect, 
who  proceedeth  from  the  Father  (and  the  Son), 
who  spake  in  the  Law,  in  the  Prophets  and  the  Holy 
Gospel,  who  descended  into  the  Jordan,  who  preached 
Him  who  was  sent,  and  who  dwelt  in  the  Saints,"  and 
after  concluding  in  the  ordinary  form  adds  the  sen- 
tence pronounced  by  the  First  Council  of  Nicsea: 
"Those  who  say  there  was  a  time  when  the  Son  was 
not,  or  when  the  Holy  Ghost  was  not;  or  that  they 
were  created  out  of  nothing;  or  that  the  Son  of  God 
and  the  Holy  Ghost  are  of  another  substance  or  that 
they  are  mutable;  the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  church 
condemns."  Then  the  Confession  of  St.  Gregory  is 
intoned  aloud,  and  the  Little  Ektene  sung.  The  kiss 
of  peace  is  here  given  to  the  clergy.  The  deacon  at 
its  close  dismi.sscs  the  catechumens,  and  the  choir 
sings  the  Hymn  of  the  Great  Entrance,  when  the  bread 
and  wine  are  solemnly  brought  to  the  altar.  "The 
Body  of  our  Lord  and  the  Blood  of  our  Redeemer  are 
to  be  before  us.  The  Heavenly  Powers  invisible 
sing  and  proclaim  with  uninterrupted  voice,  Holy, 
Holy,  Holy,  Lord  God  of  Hosts." 

Here  the  curtains  are  drawn,  and  the  prie.st  takes 
off  his  crown  (or  the  bishop  his  mitre).  The  priest 
incenses  the  holy  gifts  and  again  washes  his  hands, 
repeating  Psalm  xxvi  as  before.  After  the  Saluta- 
tion is  sung,  the  catechumens  are  dismissed,  and  the 
Anaphora  or  Canon  begins.  The  Preface  is  said 
secretly,  only  the  concluding  part  being  intoned  to 
which  the  choir  responds  with  the  Sanctus.  The 
prayer  before  consecration  follows,  with  a  comparison 
of  the  Old  and  the  New  Law,  not  found  in  either 
Greek  or  Roman  Rite:  "Holy,  Holy,  Holy;  Thou  art 
in  truth  most  Holy;  who  is  there  who  can  dare  to 
describe  by  words  thy  bounties  which  flow  down  upon 
us  without  measure?  For  Thou  didst  protect  and 
console  our  forefathers,  when  they  had  fallen  in  sin, 
by  means  of  the  prophets,  the  Law,  the  priesthood, 
and  the  offering  of  bullocks,  showing  forth  that  which 
was  to  come.  And  when  at  length  He  came.  Thou 
didst  tear  in  pieces  the  register  of  our  sins,  and  didst 
bestow  on  us  Thine  Only  Begotten  Son,  the  debtor 
and  the  debt,  the  victim  and  the  anointed,  the  Lamb 
and  Bread  of  Heaven,  the  Priest  and  the  Oblation, 
for  He  is  the  distributor  and  is  always  distributed 
amongst  us,  without  being  exhausted.  Being  made 
man  truly  and  not  apparently,  and  by  union  without 
confusion.  He  was  incarnate  in  the  womb  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  Mother  of  God,  and  journeyed  through 
all  the  passions  of  human  life,  sin  only  excepted,  and 
of  His  own  free  will  walked  to  the  cross,  whereby  He 
gave  life  to  the  world  and  wrought  salvation  for  us." 
Then  follow  the  actual  words  of  consecration,  which 
are  intoned  aloud.  Then  follow  the  Offering  and  the 
Epiklesis,  which  differs  slightly  in  the  Gregorian  and 
Cathohc  form;  the  Gregorian  is:  "whereby  Thou  wilt 
make  the  bread  when  blessed  truly  the  body  of  our 
Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ;"  and  the  Catholic 
form:  "whereby  Thou  hast  made  the  bread  when 
blessed  truly  the  Body  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ."  As  there  is  actually  no  blessing  or  con- 
secration after  the  Epiklesis  the  Cathohc  form  repre- 
sents the  correct  belief.  Then  come  the  prayers  for 
the  living  and  the  dead,  and  an  intoning  by  the 
deacons  of  the  Commemoration  of  the  Saints,  in 
which  nearly  all  the  Armenian  saints  are  mentioned. 
Then  the  deacon  intones  aloud  the  Ascription  of  Praise 
of  Bishop  Chosroes  the  Great  in  thanksgiving  for  the 
Sacrament  of  the  Altar.  After  this  comes  a  long 
Ektene  or  Litany,  and  then  the  Our  Father  is  sung 
XHL— 6 


by  the  choir.  The  celebrant  then  elevates  the  con- 
secrated Host,  saying  "  Holy  things  for  Holy  Persons," 
and  when  the  choir  responds,  he  continues:  "Let  ua 
taste  in  holiness  the  holy  and  honourable  Body  and 
Blood  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ  who  came 
down  from  heaven  and  is  now  distributed  among  us. " 
Then  the  choir  sings  antiphons  in  honour  of  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  Body  and  Blood,  and  the  small  curtain  is 
drawn.  The  priest  kisses  the  sacred  Victim,  saying 
"I  confess  and  I  believe  that  Thou  art  Christ,  the 
Son  of  God,  who  has  borne  the  sins  of  the  world." 
The  Host  is  divided  into  three  parts,  one  of  which  is 
placed  in  the  chaUce.  The  choir  sing  the  communion 
hymns  as  appointed ;  the  priest  and  the  clergy  receive 
the  Communion  first,  and  then  the  choir  and  people. 
The  little  curtain  is  withdrawn  when  the  Communion 
is  given,  and  the  great  curtains  are  drawn  back  when 
the  people  come  up  for  Communion. 

After  Communion,  the  priest  puts  on  his  crown  (or 
the  bishop  his  mitre),  and  the  great  curtains  are  again 
drawn.  Thanksgiving  prayers  are  said  behind  them, 
after  which  the  great  curtains  are  withdrawn  once 
more,  and  the  priest  holding  the  book  of  gospels  says 
the  great  prayer  of  peace,  and  blesses  the  people. 
Then  the  deacon  proclaims  "Orthi"  (stand  up)  and 
the  celebrant  reads  the  Last  Gospel,  which  is  nearly 
always  invariable,  being  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,i, 
1  sqq.:  "In  the  beginning  was  the  Word,  etc.";  the 
only  exception  is  from  Easter  to  the  eve  of  Pentecost, 
when  they  use  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  xxi,  15-20: 
"So  when  they  had  dined,  etc."  Then  the  prayer  for 
peace  and  the  "Kyrie  Eleison"  (thrice)  are  said,  the 
final  benediction  is  given,  and  the  priest  retires  from 
the  altar.  Whilst  Psalm  xxxiv  is  recited  or  sung  by 
the  people,  the  blessed  bread  is  distributed.  The 
Catholic  Armenians  confine  this  latter  rite  to  high 
festivals  only.  The  chief  editions  of  the  Gregorian 
Armenian  Missals  are  those  printed  at  Constantinople 
(1823,  1844),  Jemsalem  (1841,  1873,  and  1884),  and 
Etschmiadzin  (1873);  the  chief  Catholic  Armenian 
editions  are  those  of  Venice  (1808,  1874,  1895), 
Trieste  (1808),  and  Vienna  (1858,  1884). 

Armenian  Catholics. — Armenians  had  come  to  the 
United  States  in  small  numbers  prior  to  1895.  In 
that  and  the  following  year  the  Turkish  massacres 
took  place  throughout  Armenia  and  Asia  Minor,  and 
large  numbers  of  Armenians  emigrated  to  America. 
Among  them  were  many  Armenian  Catholics,  al- 
though these  were  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  organ- 
ize any  religious  communities  like  their  Gregorian 
brethren.  In  1898  Mgr  Stephan  Azarian  (Stephen 
X),  then  Catholic  Patriarch  of  Cilicia  of  the  Arme- 
nians, who  resided  in  Constantinople,  entered  into 
negotiations  with  Cardinal  Ledochowski,  Prefect  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda,  and  through 
him  obtained  the  consent  of  Archbishop  Corrigan  of 
New  York  and  Archbishop  Williams  of  Boston  for 
priests  of  the  Armenian  Rite  to  labour  in  their  re- 
spective pro\'inces  for  the  Armenian  Cathohcs  who 
had  come  to  this  country.  He  sent  as  the  first  Ar- 
menian missionary  the  Very  Reverend  Archpriest 
Mardiros  Mighirian,  who  had  been  educated  at  the 
Propaganda  and  the  Armenian  College,  and  arrived 
in  the  United  States  on  Ascension  Day,  11  May,  1899. 
He  at  first  went  to  Boston  where  he  assembled  a  small 
congregation  of  Armenian  Catholics,  and  later  pro- 
ceeded to  New  York  to  look  after  the  spiritual  welfare 
of  the  Cathohc  Armenians  in  Manhattan  and  Brook- 
IjTi.  He  also  established  a  mission  station  in  Worces- 
ter, Massachusetts.  In  New  York  and  Brooklyn  the 
Cathohcs  of  the  Armenian  Rite  are  (Uvdded  into  those 
who  speak  Armenian  and  those  who,  coming  from 
places  outside  of  the  historic  Armenia,  speak  the 
Arabic  language.  At  present  this  missionary  is 
stationed  at  St.  Stephen's  church  in  East  Twenty- 
eighth  Street,  since  large  numbers  of  Armenians  live 
in  that  vicinity,  but  has  another  congregation  under 


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82 


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his  charge  in  BrookljTi.  All  these  Catholic  Armenians 
are  too  poor  to  build  any  church  or  chapel  of  their 
own,  and  use  the  bas^ement  portion  of  the  Latin 
churches.  Towards  the  end  of  1906  another  Ar- 
menian priest,  Rev.  Manuel  Basieganian,  commenced 
mission  work  in  Paterson,  Xew  Jersey,  and  now  at- 
tends mission  stations  throughout  New  England, 
New  Jersey,  and  Eastern  Pennsylvania.  In  1908 
Rev.  Hovsep  (Joseph)  Keossajian  settled  in  Law- 
rence, Massachusetts,  and  estabUshcd  a  chapel  in 
St.  Mar}-'s  Church.  He  also  ministers  to  the  spiritual 
wants  of  the  Armenian  Cathohcs  at  Boston,  Cam- 
bridge. East  Watertown,  Newton,  Lynn,  Chelsea, 
and  Lowell.  In  1909  Rev.  Moses  Mazarian  took 
charge  of  the  Armenian  mission  at  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
and  in  the  cities  throughout  the  west.  None  of  these 
have  been  able  to  build  independent  Armenian 
churches,  but  usuallj'  hold  their  services  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  churches.  Besides  the  places  already  men- 
tioned there  are  slender  Armenian  Catholic  congrega- 
tions at  Haverhill,  Worcester,  Fitchburg,  Milford, 
Fall  River,  Holyoke,  and  Whiting,  in  Massachusetts; 
Nashua  and  Manchester,  in  New  Hampshire;  Provi- 
dence, Pawtucket,  and  Central  Falls  in  Rhode 
Island;  New  Britain  and  Bridgeport,  in  Connecticut; 
Jersey  Citj-,  West  Hoboken,  and  Newark,  in  New 
Jersey;  and  Philadelphia  and  Chicago.  The  number 
of  Catholic  Armenians  in  the  United  States  is  very 
small,  being  <'stimate(l  at  about  2000  to  2500  all  told. 
So  many  of  them  reside  among  the  other  Armenians 
and  frequent  their  churches,  that  there  may  be  more 
who  do  not  profess  themselves  Catholics,  and  purely 
Armenian  chapels  would  doubtless  bring  to  light  many 
whom  the  mission  priestc  on  their  rounds  do  not  reach. 
Gregorian  An?ienians. — Inasmuch  as  Armenia  was 
converted  to  the  faith  of  St.  Gregory  the  Illuminator, 
the  Armenians  who  are  not  in  union  with  the  Holy 
See  pride  themselves  upon  the  fact  that  they  more 
truly  hold  the  faith  preached  by  St.  Gregory  and  they 
are  accordingly  called  Gregorians,  since  the  word 
"Orthodox"  would  be  likely  to  confuse  them  with 
the  Greek.s.  By  reason  of  the  many  schools  founded 
in  Armenia  and  in  Constantinople  by  American 
Protestant  missionaries,  their  attention  was  turned 
to  America,  and,  when  the  massacres  of  189.5-96  took 
place,  large  numbers  came  to  the  United  States. 
Many  of  them  belonged  to  the  Protestant  Armenian 
Church,  and  identified  them.selves  with  the  Con- 
gregationalists  or  Presbyterians;  but  the  greater 
number  of  them  belonged  to  the  national  Gregorian 
Church.  In  1889  Rev.  Hovsep  Sarajian,  a  priest 
from  Constantinople,  was  sent  to  the  Armenians  in 
Massachusetts,  and  a  church  which  was  built  in 
Worcester  in  1891,  is  still  the  headquarters  of  the 
Armenian  Church  in  the  United  States.  The  emigra^ 
tion  increaiiing  greatly  after  the  massacres.  Father 
Sarajian  was  reinforced  by  several  other  Armenian 
priests;  in  1898  he  was  made  bishop,  and  in  1903  was 
mvf«ted  with  archiepiscopal  authority,  having  Canada 
and  the  Unitfd  Statf-s  umlcr  his  jurisdiction.  Seven 
grf-at  pastorates  wen;  organizr^d  to  serve  as  the  nuclei 
of  future  diofcsf-s:  at  Worcester,  Boston,  and  Law- 
n-nee fMa.ssachu.settH),  New  York,  Providence  (Rhode 
Island;,  Fresno  (California),  and  Chicago  (Illinois). 
To  these  was  a/lded  West  Hoboken  in  1906.  There 
are  numerous  congregations  and  mi.ssion  stations  in 
various  citic-s.  Churches  have  been  built  in  Worces- 
ter, Fresno,  and  Went  Holxjken;  in  Boston  and  Prov- 
idenc<;  halls  are  renU-d,  and  in  other  places  arrange- 
mentH  are  often  ma/le  with  Episcopal  churches  where 
their  Bt;r\iceH  are  held,  l^he  Gregorian  Armenian 
clergy  c^>mpnw;s  the  archbishop,  seven  resiflent  and 
thrf!e  missionary  prifsls,  while  th(;  number  of  Gregor- 
ian Armenians  is  given  at  20,(XX)  in  the  United  States. 
There  are  Beveral  Armenian  societies  and  two  Ar- 
menian newspapers,  and  also  Armenian  reading- 
rooms  in  Beveral  places. 


IssAVERDENZ,  The  Armenian  Liturgy  (Venice,  1873);  Idem, 
The  Armenian  Ritual  (Venice,  1873);  Idem,  The  Sacred  Rites 
and  Ceremonies  of  the  Armenian  Church  (Venice,  1888) ;  Prince 
Maximilian,  Missa  Armenica  (Ratisbon  and  New  York,  1908); 
Fortescue,  The  Armenian  Church  (London,  1873);  Asdvad- 
ZADOTJRiANTS,  Armenian  Liturgy,  Armenian  and  English  (Lon- 
don, 1887) ;  Brightman,  Liturgies  Eastern  and  Western  (Oxford, 
1896);  NiLLES,  Kalendarium  Manuale,  II  (Innsbruck,  1897);  U. 
S.  Census  Bureau,  Religious  Bodies,  pt.  II  (Washington,  1910). 

II.  Byzantine  or  Greek  Rite. — This  rite, 
reckoning  both  the  Catholic  and  Schismatic  Churches, 
comes  next  in  expansion  through  the  Christian  world 
to  the  Roman  Rite.  It  also  ranks  next  to  the  Roman 
Rite  in  America,  there  being  now  (1911)  about  156 
Greek  Catholic  churches,  and  about  149  Greek 
Orthodox  churches  in  the  United  States.  The 
Eastern  Orthodox  Churches  of  Russia,  Turkey, 
Rumania,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria,  and  other  places 
where  they  are  found,  make  up  a  total  of  about 
120,000,000,  while  the  Uniat  Churches  of  the  same 
rite,  the  Greek  Catholics  in  Austria,  Hungary,  Italy, 
Bulgaria,  Asia,  and  elsewhere,  amount  to  upwards  of 
7,500,000.  The  Byzantine  Rite  has  already  been 
fully  described  [see  Const.\ntinople,  The  Rite  of; 
Greek  Rites;  Orthodox  Church;  Altar  (in 
the  Greek  Church);  Archimandrite;  Epiklesis; 
Euchologion;  Iconostasis],  as  well  as  the  or- 
ganization and  development  of  the  various  churches 
using  the  Greek  or  Byzantine  Rite  (see  Eastern 
Churches;  Greek  Church;  Russia).  Unlike  the 
Armenian  Rite,  it  has  not  been  confined  to  any  par- 
ticular people  or  language,  but  has  spread  over  the 
entire  Christian  Orient  among  the  Slavic,  Rumanian, 
and  Greek  populations.  As  regards  jurisdiction  and 
authority,  it  has  not  been  united  and  homogeneous 
like  the  Roman  Rite,  nor  has  it,  like  the  Latin 
Church,  been  uniform  in  language,  calendar,  or  par- 
ticular customs,  although  the  same  general  teaching, 
ritual,  and  observances  have  been  followed.  The 
principal  languages  in  which  the  liturgy  of  the  Greek 
Rite  is  celebrated  are  (1)  Greek;  (2)  Slavonic;  (3) 
Arabic,  and  (4)  Rumanian.  It  is  also  celebrated  in 
Georgian  by  a  small  and  diminishing  number  of  wor- 
shippers, and  sometimes  experimentally  in  a  number 
of  modern  tongues  for  missionary  purposes;  but,  as 
this  latter  use  has  never  been  approved,  the  four 
languages  named  above  may  be  considered  the  official 
ones  of  the  Byzantine  Rite.  A  portion  of  the  popula- 
tion of  all  the  nations  which  use  this  rite,  follow  it  in 
union  with  the  Holy  See,  and  the.se  have  by  their 
union  placed  the  Byzantine  Rite  in  the  position  which 
it  occupied  before  the  schism  of  1054.  Thus,  the 
Russians,  Bulgarians,  and  Servians,  who  are  schis- 
matic, use  the  Old  Slavonic  in  their  church  books  and 
services;  so  hkewi.se  do  the  Catholic  Ruthenians, 
Bulgarians,  and  Servians.  Likewise  the  Rumanians 
of  Rumania  and  Transylvania,  who  are  schismatic, 
use  the  Rumanian  language;  in  the  Greek  Rite;  but 
the  Rumanians  of  Transylvania,  who  are  Catholic, 
do  the  same.  The  Orthodox  Greeks  of  Greece  and 
Turkey  use  the  original  Greek  of  their  rite;  but  the 
Italo-Greeks  of  Italy  and  Sicily  and  the  Greeks  of 
Constantinople,  who  are  CathoHc,  use  it  also.  The 
Syro-Arabians  of  Svria  and  Egypt,  who  are  schis- 
matic, use  the  Arabic  in  the  Greek  Rite;  but  the 
Catholic  Melchites  likewi.se  use  it. 

The  numerous  emigrants  from  these  countries  to 
America  have  brought  with  them  their  Byzantine 
Rite  with  all  its  local  peculiarities  and  its  language. 
In  some  respects  the  environment  of  a  people  pro- 
fessing the  Greek  Rite  in  union  with  the  Holy  See 
but  in  close  touch  with  their  countrymen  of  the  Roman 
Rite  has  tended  to  change;  in  unimportant  particulars 
several  of  the  ceremonies  and  sometimes  particular 
phra.ses  of  the  rite  (see  Italo-Gkeeks;  Melchite.s; 
Ruthe.via.v  Rite),  but  not  to  a  greater  extent  tluvn 
the  various  Schismatic  Churches  have  changed  the 
language  and  ceremonies  in  their  several  national 
Churches.     Where  this  has  occurred  in  the  Greek 


RITES 


83 


RITES 


Churches  united  with  the  Holy  See,  it  has  been  fiercely 
denounced  as  latinizing,  but,  where  it  has  occurred 
in  Russia,  Bulgaria,  or  Syria,  it  is  merely  regarded  by 
the  same  denouncers  as  a  mere  expression  of  na- 
tionalism. There  is  in  the  aggregate  a  larger  number 
of  Catholics  of  the  Byzantine  Rite  in  America  than 
of  the  Orthodox.  The  chief  nationalities  there  which 
are  Catholic  are  the  Ruthenians,  Rumanians,  Mel- 
chites,  and  Italo-Greeks;  the  principal  Orthodox 
ones  are  the  Russians,  Greeks,  Syro-Arabians,  Ser- 
vians, Rumanians,  Bulgarians,  and  Albanians.  The 
history  and  establishment  of  each  of  these  has  been 
already  given  (see  Greek  Catholics  in  America; 
Greek  Orthodox  Church  ix  America).  As  emi- 
gration from  those  lands  increases  daily,  and  the  rep- 
resentatives of  those  rites  are  increasing  in  numbers 
and  prosperity,  a  still  wider  expansion  of  the  Greek 
Rite  in  the  United  States  may  be  expected.  Al- 
ready the  Russian  Orthodox  Church  has  a  strong 
hierarchy,  an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  and  monas- 
teries, supported  chiefly  by  the  Holy  Synod  and  the 
Orthodox  Missionary  Society  of  Russia,  and  much 
proselytizing  is  carried  on  among  the  Greek  Catho- 
lics. The  latter  are  not  in  such  a  favourable  position; 
they  have  no  home  governmental  support,  but  have 
had  to  build  and  equip  their  own  institutions  out 
of  their  own  slender  means.  The  Holy  See  has  pro- 
vided a  bishop  for  them,  but  the  Russians  have  stirred 
up  dissensions  and  made  his  position  as  difficult  as 
possible  among  his  own  people.  The  Hellenic  Greek 
Orthodox  Church  expects  soon  to  have  its  own  Greek 
bishop,  and  the  Servians  and  Rumanians  also  expect  a 
bishop  to  be  appointed  by  their  home  authorities. 

III.  Maronite  Rite. — The  Maronite  is  one  of  the 
Syrian  rites  and  has  been  closely  assimilated  in  the 
Church  to  the  Roman  Rite  (see  Maroxites).  Un- 
like the  Syro-Chaldean  or  the  Syro-Catholic  rites, 
for  they  all  use  the  Syriac  language  in  the  Mass  and 
liturgy,  it  has  not  kept  the  old  forms  intact,  but  has 
modelled  itself  more  and  more  upon  the  Roman  Rite. 
Among  all  the  Eastern  rites  which  are  now  in  com- 
munion with  the  Holy  See,  it  alone  has  no  Schismatic 
rite  of  corresponding  form  and  language,  but  is 
wholly  united  and  Catholic,  thereby  difTering  also 
from  the  other  Syrian  rites.  The  liturgical  language 
is  the  ancient  Syriac  or  Aramaic,  and  the  Maronites, 
as  well  as  all  other  rites  who  use  Syriac,  take  especial 
pride  in  the  fact  that  they  celebrate  the  Mass  in  the 
very  language  whi(;h  Christ  spoke  while  He  was  on 
earth,  as  evidenced  by  some  fragments  of  His  very 
words  still  preserved  in  the  Greek  text  of  the  Gospels  (e. 
g.  in  Matt.,  xxvii,  46,  and  Mark,  v,  41).  The  Syriac  is 
a  Semitic  language  closely  related  to  the  Hebrew,  and 
is  sometimes  called  Aramaic  from  the  Hebrew  word 
Aram  (Northern  Syria).  As  the  use  of  Ancient 
Hebrew  died  out  after  the  Babylonian  captivity,  the 
Syriac  or  Aramaic  took  its  place,  very  much  as 
ItaUan  has  supplanted  Latin  throughout  the  Italian 
peninsula.  This  was  substantially  the  situation  at 
the  time  of  Christ's  teaching  and  the  foundation  of 
the  early  Church.  Syriac  is  now  a  dead  language, 
and  in  the  Maronite  service  and  liturgy  bears  the 
same  relation  to  the  vernacular  Arabic  as  the  Latin 
in  the  Roman  Rite  does  to  the  modern  languages  of  the 
people.  It  is  written  wth  a  peculiar  alphabet,  reads 
from  right  to  left  like  the  Hebrew  or  Arabic  languages, 
but  its  letters  are  unlike  the  current  alphabets  of 
either  of  these  languages.  To  simplify  the  Maronite 
Missals,  Breviary,  and  other  service  books,  the  ver- 
nacular Arabic  is  often  employed  for  the  rubrics  and 
for  manjy  of  the  best-known  prayers;  it  is  written,  not 
in  Arabic  characters,  but  in  Syriac,  and  this  mingled 
language  and  alphabet  is  called  Karshuni.  The  Epis- 
tle, Gospel,  Creed,  and  Pater  Noster  are  nearly  always 
given  in  Karshuni,  instead  of  the  original  Arabic. 

The  form  of  the  Liturgy  or  Mass  is  that  of  St. 
James,  so  called  because  of  the  tradition  that  it  orig- 


inated with  St.  James  the  Loss,  Apostle  and  Bishop 
of  Jerusalem.  It  is  the  type  form  of  the  Syriac  Rite, 
but  the  Maronite  Use  has  accommodated  it  more  and 
more  to  the  Roman.  This  form  of  the  Liturgy  of 
St.  James  constitutes  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass, 
which  is  always  said  in  the  same  manner,  merely 
changing  the  epistles  and  gospels  according  to  the 
Christian  year.  But  the  Syrians,  whether  of  the 
Maronite,  Syrian,  Catholic,  or  Syro-Chaldaic  rite, 
have  the  peculiarity  (not  found  in  other  liturgies) 
of  inserting  different  anaphoras  or  canons  of  the  Mass, 
composed  at  various  times  by  different  Syrian  saints; 
these  change  according  to  the  feast  celebrated, 
somewhat  analogously  to  the  Preface  in  the  Roman 
Rite.  The  principal  anaphoras  or  canons  of  the 
Mass  used  by  the  Maronites  are:  (1)  the  Anaphora 
according  to  the  Order  of  the  Holy  Catholic  and 
Roman  Church,  the  Mother  of  all  the  Churches; 
(2)  the  Anaphora  of  St.  Peter,  the  Head  of  the  Apos- 
tles; (3)  the  Anaphora  of  the  Twelve  Apostles;  (4) 
the  Anaphora  of  St.  James  the  Apostle,  brother  of 
the  Lord;  (5)  the  Anaphora  of  St.  John  the  Apostle 
and  Evangelist;  (6)  the  Anaphora  of  St.  Mark  the 
Evangelist;  (7)  the  Anaphora  of  St.  Xystus,  the 
Pope  of  Rome;  (8)  the  Anaphora  of  St.  John  sur- 
named  Maro,  from  whom  they  derive  their  name; 
(9)  the  Anaphora  of  St.  John  Chrysostom;  (10)  the 
Anaphora  of  St.  Basil;  (11)  the  Anaphora  of  St. 
Cyril;  (12)  the  Anaphora  of  St.  Dionysius;  (13)  the 
Anaphora  of  John  of  Harran,  and  (14)  the  Anaphora 
of  Alarutha  of  Tagrith.  Besides  these  they  have  also 
a  form  of  liturgy  of  the  Presanctified  for  Good  Friday, 
after  the  Roman  custom.  Frequent  use  of  incense 
is  a  noticeable  feature  of  the  Maronite  Mass,  and 
not  even  in  low  Mass  is  the  incense  omitted.  In 
their  form  of  church  building  the  Maronites  have 
nothing  special  like  the  Greeks  with  their  iconostasis 
and  square  altar,  or  the  Armenians  with  their  cur- 
tains, but  build  their  churches  very  much  as  Latins 
do.  While  the  sacred  vestments  are  hardly  dis- 
tinguishable from  those  of  the  Roman  Church,  in 
some  respects  thoy  approach  the  Greek  form.  The 
alb,  the  girdle,  and  the  maniple  or  cuffs  on  each  hand, 
a  peculiar  form  of  amict,  the  stole  (sometimes  in 
Greek  and  sometimes  in  Roman  form),  and  the  or- 
dinary Roman  chasuble  make  up  the  vestments  worn 
by  the  priest  at  Mass.  Bishops  use  a  cross,  mitre, 
and  staff  of  the  Roman  form.  The  sacred  vessels 
used  on  the  altar  are  the  chalice,  paten  or  disk,  and 
a  small  star  or  asterisk  to  cover  the  consecrated  Host. 
They,  like  us,  use  a  small  cross  or  crucifix,  with  a 
long  silken  banneret  attached,  for  giving  the  blessings. 
The  Maronites  use  unleavened  bread  and  have  a 
round  host,  as  in  the  Roman  Rite. 

The  Maronite  Mass  commences  with  the  ablution 
and  vesting  at  the  foot  of  the  altar.  Then,  standing 
at  the  middle  of  the  sanctuary,  the  priest  recites 
Psalm  xlii,  "Introibo  ad  altare",  moving  his  head  in 
the  form  of  a  cross.  He  then  ascends  the  altar, 
takes  the  censer  and  incenses  both  the  uncovered 
chalice  and  paten,  then  takes  up  the  Host 
and  has  it  incensed,  puts  it  on  the  paten  and 
has  the  corporals  and  veils  incensed.  He  next 
pours  wine  in  the  chahce,  adding  a  little  water,  and 
then  incenses  it  and  covers  both  host  and  chalice 
with  the  proper  veils.  Then,  going  again  to  the  foot 
of  the  altar,  he  says  aloud  the  first  prayer  in  Arabic, 
which  is  followed  by  an  antiphon.  The  strange 
Eastern  music,  with  its  harsh  sounds  and  quick 
changes,  is  a  marked  feature  of  the  Maronite  Rite. 
The  altar,  the  elements,  the  clergy,  servers,  and 
people  are  incensed,  and  the  Kyrie  Eleison  (Kurrili- 
son)  and  the  "Holy  God,  Holy  strong  one  etc." 
are  sung  by  choir  and  people.  Then  comes  the  Pater 
Noster  in  Arabic,  with  the  response:  "For  thine  is 
the  kingdom  and  the  power  and  the  glory,  world 
without  end,   Amen."     The  celebrant  and  deacon 


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84 


RITES 


Intone  the  SjTiapte  for  peace,  which  is  followed  by  a 
Bhort  form  of  the  Gloria  in  excelsis:  "Glory  be  to 
God  on  high,  and  on  earth  peace  and  good  hope  to 
the  sons  of  men  etc."  The  Phrumiur  is  then  said; 
this  is  an  introductory  prayer,  and  always  comes 
before  the  Sedro.  which  is  a  prayer  of  praise  said  aloud 
bj-  the  priest  standing  before  the  altar  while  the  censer 
is*  swung.  It  is  constructed  by  the  insertion  of  verses 
into  a  more  or  less  constant  framework,  commemora- 
tive of  the  feast  or  season,  and  seems  to  be  a  survival 
of  the  old  psalm  verses  with  the  Gloria.  For  in- 
stance, a  sedro  of  Our  Lady  will  commemorate  her 
in  many  ways,  something  like  our  litany,  but  more 
poetically  and  at  length ;  one  of  Our  Lord  will  celebrate 
Him  in  His  nativity,  baptism  etc.  Then  come  the 
commemorations  of  the  Prophets,  the  Apostles,  the 
martyrs,  of  all  the  saints,  and  lastly  the  commemora- 
tion of  the  departed:  "  Be  ye  not  sad,  all  ye  who  sleep 
in  the  dust,  and  in  the  decay  of  your  bodies.  The 
living  Body  which  you  have  eaten  and  the  saving 
Blood  which  you  have  drunk,  can  again  vivify  all  of 
you,  and  clothe  your  bodies  with  glory.  O  Christ, 
Who  hast  come  and  given  peace  by  Thy  Blood  to  the 
heights  and  the  depths,  give  rest  to  the  souls  of  Thy 
servants  in  the  promised  life  everlasting!"  The 
priest  then  prays  for  the  living,  and  makes  special 
intercession  by  name  of  those  living  or  dead  for  whom 
the  Mass  is  offered.  He  blesses  and  offers  the  sacred 
elements,  in  a  form  somewhat  analogous  to  the 
Offertory  in  the  Roman  Rite.  Another  phrumiun 
and  the  great  Sedro  of  St.  Ephraem  or  St.  James  is 
said,  in  which  the  whole  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  fore- 
shadowed. The  psalm  preparatory  to  the  Epistle 
in  Arabic  is  recited,  and  the  epistle  of  the  day  then 
read.  The  Alleluia  and  gradual  psalm  is  recited, 
the  Book  of  Gospels  incensed,  and  the  Gospel,  also 
in  Arabic,  intoned  or  read.  The  versicles  of  thanks- 
giving for  the  Gospel  are  intoned,  at  several  parts 
of  which  the  priest  and  deacon  and  precentor  chant 
in  unison.  The  Nicene  Creed,  said  in  unison  by 
priest  and  deacon,  follows,  and  immediately  after  the 
celebrant  washes  his  hands  saying  Psalm  xxvi.  This 
ends  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass. 

The  Anaphora,  or  Canon  of  the  Mass,  is  then  begun, 
and  varies  according  to  season,  place,  and  celebrant. 
In  the  Anaphora  of  the  Holy  Catholic  and  Roman 
Church,  which  is  a  typical  one,  the  Mass  proceeds 
with  the  prayers  for  peace  very  much  as  they  stand 
at  the  end  of  the  Roman  Mass;  then  follow  prayers 
of  confe.ssion,  adoration,  and  glor>',  which  conclude 
by  givnng  the  kiss  of  peace  to  the  deacon  and  the  other 
cferg>'.  The  Preface  follows:  "Let  us  lift  up  our 
thoughts,  our  conscience  and  our  hearts!  I^.  They 
are  lifted  up  to  Thee,  O  Lord!  P.  Let  us  give 
thanks  to  the  Lord  in  fear,  and  adore  Him  with 
trembling.  I^.  It  is  meet  and  just.  P.  To  Thee, 
O  God  of  Abraham  and  Isaac  and  Jacob,  O  glorious 
and  holy  King  of  Israel,  for  ever!  I^.  Glory  be  to 
the  Father  and  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  now  and 
forever,  world  without  end.  I^.  Before  the  glorious 
and  divine  mysteries  of  our  Redeemer,  with  the 
pleasant  things  which  are  imposed,  let  us  implore 
the  mercy  of  the  Lord!  I^.  It  is  meet  and  just" 
(and  the  Preface  continues  secretly).  Then  the 
Sanctus  is  sung,  and  the  Consecration  immediately 
follows.  The  words  of  Consecration  are  intoned 
aloud,  the  choir  answering  "Amen".  After  the 
succeeding  prayer  of  commemoration  of  the  Resur- 
rection and  hope  of  the  Second  Coming  and  a  prayer 
for  mercy,  the  Epiklfisis  is  said:  "How  tremendous 
is  thin  hour  and  how  awful  this  moment,  my  beloved, 
in  which  the  Holy  and  Life-giving  Spirit  comes  down 
from  on  high  and  descends  upon  this  Eucharist  which 
w  placed  in  this  sanctuary  for  our  reconciliation. 
With  silence  and  fear  stand  and  pray!  Salvation  to 
Ufl  and  the  peace  of  God  the  Father  of  all  of  us.  I^t 
118  cry  out  and  say  thrice:    Have  mercy  on  us,  O 


Lord,  and  send  down  the  Holy  and  Life-giving  Spirit 
upon  us!  Hear  me,  O  Lord!  and  let  Thy  living  and 
Holy  Spirit  descend  upon  me  and  upon  this  sacrifice! 
and  so  complete  this  mystery,  that  it  be  the  Body  of 
Christ  our  God  for  our  redemption!"  The  prayers 
for  the  Pope  of  Rome,  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  and 
all  the  metropolitans  and  bishops  and  orthodox  pro- 
fessors and  believers  of  the  Catholic  Faith  imme- 
diately follow.  This  in  turn  is  followed  by  a  long 
prayer  by  the  deacon  for  tranquillity,  peace,  and  the 
commemoration  of  all  the  saints  and  doctors  of  the 
early  Church  and  of  Syria,  including  St.  John  Maro, 
with  the  petition  for  the  dead  at  the  end.  Then  comea 
the  solemn  offering  of  the  Body  and  the  Blood  for 
the  sins  of  priest  and  people,  concluding  with  the 
words:  "Thy  Body  and  Thy  Holy  Blood  are  the  way 
which  leads  to  the  Kingdom!"  The  adoration  and 
the  fraction  follow;  then  the  celebrant  elevates  the 
chalice  together  with  the  Host,  and  saj^s:  "O  de- 
sirable sacrifice  which  is  offered  for  us!  O  victim  of 
reconciliation,  which  the  Father  obtained  in  Thy  own 
person!  O  Lamb,  Who  wast  the  same  person  as  the 
High  Priest  who  sacrificed!"  Then  he  genuflects 
and  makes  the  sign  of  the  Cross  over  the  chalice: 
"Behold  the  Blood  which  was  shed  upon  Golgotha 
for  my  redemption ;  because  of  it  receive  my  supplica- 
tion". The  "Sanctus  fortis"  is  again  sung,  and  the 
celebrant  lifts  the  Sacred  Body  on  high  and  says: 
"  Holy  things  for  holy  persons,  in  purity  and  holiness! " 
The  fraction  of  the  Host  follows  after  several  prayers, 
and  the  priest  mingles  a  particle  with  the  Blood, 
receives  the  Body  and  the  Blood  himself,  and  gives 
communion  to  the  clergy  and  then  to  the  people. 
When  it  is  finished  he  makes  the  sign  of  the  Cross 
with  the  paten  and  blesses  the  people. 

Then  follow  a  synapte  (litany)  of  thanksgiving, 
and  a  second  signing  of  the  people  with  both  paten 
and  chalice,  after  which  the  priest  consumes  all  the 
remaining  species  saying  afterwards  the  prayers  at 
the  purification  and  ablution.  The  prayer  of  blessing 
and  protection  is  said,  and  the  people  and  choir 
sing:  "Alleluia!  Alleluia!  I  have  fed  upon  Thy 
Body  and  by  Thy  living  Blood  I  am  reconciled,  and 
I  have  sought  refuge  in  Thy  Cross!  Through  these 
may  I  please  Thee,  O  Good  Lord,  and  grant  Thou 
mercy  to  the  sinners  who  call  upon  Thee! "  Then 
they  sing  the  final  hymn  of  praise,  which  in  this 
anaphora  contains  the  words:  "By  the  prayers  of 
Simon  Peter,  Rome  was  made  the  royal  city,  and  she 
shall  not  be  shaken!"  Then  the  people  all  say  or 
sing  the  Lord's  Prayer;  when  it  is  finished,  the  final 
benediction  is  given,  and  the  priest,  coming  again  to 
the  foot  of  the  altar,  takes  off  his  sacred  vestments  and 
proceeds  to  make  his  thanksgiving. 

The  principal  editions  of  the  Maronitc  missals  and  service 
boolcs  for  the  deacons  and  those  assisting  at  the  altar  are  The 
Book  of  Sacrifice  according  to  the  Rite  of  the  Maronile  Church  of 
Antioch  (Kozhayya,  1816,  1838,  and  188.5;  Beirut,  1888),  and 
The  Book  of  the  Ministry  according  to  the  Rile  of  the  MaroniU 
church  of  Antioch  (Kozhayya,   185.5). 

Maronites  in  America. — The  Maronites  are  chiefly 
from  the  various  districts  of  Mount  Lebanon  and  from 
the  city  of  Beirut,  and  were  at  first  hardly  distin- 
guishable from  the  other  Syrians  and  Arabic-speaking 
persons  who  canu;  to  America.  At  first  they  were 
merely  ptidlars  and  small  traders,  chiefly  in  religious 
and  devotional  articles,  but  they  soon  got  into  other 
lines  of  business  and  at  present  possess  many  well- 
established  business  enterprises.  Not  only  are  they 
established  in  the  United  States,  but  they  have  also 
spread  to  Mexico  and  Canada,  and  have  several 
fairly  large  colonies  in  Brazil,  Argentine,  and  Uruguay. 
Their  numbcjrs  in  the  United  States  are  variously  es- 
timated from  10(),00()  to  120,000,  including  the  native 
born.  Many  of  them  have  become  prosperous  mer- 
chants and  are  now  American  citizens.  Several 
Maronite  families  of  title  (Emir)  have  emigrated  and 
made  their  homes  in  the  United  States;  among  them 


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85 


RITES 


are  the  Emirs  Al-Kazen,  Al-Khouri,  Abi-Saab,  and 
others.  There  is  also  the  well-known  Arabic  novelist 
of  the  present  day,  Madame  Karam  Hanna  (Afifa 
Karam)  of  Shreveport,  Louisiana,  formerly  of 
Amshid,  Mount  Lebanon,  who  not  only  writes  enter- 
taining fiction,  but  touches  on  educational  topics 
and  even  women's  rights.  Nahum  Mokarzel,  a  grad- 
uate of  the  Jesuit  College  of  Beirut,  is  a  clever  writer 
both  in  Arabic  and  English.  The  Maronites  are 
established  in  New  York,  the  New  England  States, 
Pennsylvania,  Minnesota,  and  Alabama.  The  first 
Maronite  priest  to  visit  the  United  States  was  Rev. 
Joseph  Mokarzel,  who  arrived  in  1879  but  did  not 
remain.  Very  Rev.  Louis  Kazen  of  Port  Said, 
Egypt,  came  later,  but,  as  there  were  very  few  of  his 
countrymen,  he  likewise  returned.  On  6  August, 
1S90,  ihe  Rev.  Butrosv  Korkemius  came  to  establish 
a  permanent  mission,  and  after  considerable  difficulty 
rented  a  tiny  chapel  in  a  store  on  \\'a.shington  Street, 
New  York  City.  He  was  accompanied  by  his  nephew, 
Rev.  Joseph  Yasbek,  then  in  deacon's  orders,  who 
was  later  ordained  to  the  priesthood  by  Archbishop 
Corrigan,  and  founded  the  Maronite  mission  in 
Boston;  he  is  now  Chor-Bishop  of  the  Maronites 
and  practically  the  head  of  that  rite  in  America. 

A  church  was  later  established  in  Philadelphia, 
then  one  in  Troy  and  one  in  Brooklyn,  after  which 
the  Maronites  branched  out  to  other  cities.  At 
present  (1911)  there  are  fifteen  Maronite  churches  in 
the  United  States:  in  New  York,  Brooklyn,  Troy, 
Buffalo,  Boston,  Lawrence,  Springfield,  Pliiladelphi'a, 
Scranton,  St.  Paul,  St.  Louis,  Birmingham,  Chicago, 
Wheeling,  and  Cleveland.  Meanwliile  new  con- 
gregations are  being  formed  in  smaller  cities,  and  are 
regularly  visited  by  missionary  priests.  The  Maro- 
nite clergy  is  composed  of  two  chor-bishops  (deans 
vested  with  certain  episcopal  powers)  and  twenty- 
three  other  priests,  of  whom  five  are  Antonine  monks. 
In  Mexico  there  are  three  Maronite  chapels  and  four 
priests.  In  Canada  there  is  a  Maronite  chapel  at 
New  Glasgow  and  one  resident  priest.  There  are 
only  two  Arabic-English  schools,  in  New  York  and 
St.  Louis,  since  many  of  the  Maronite  children  go  to 
the  ordinary  Catholic  or  to  the  public  schools. 
There  are  no  general  societies  or  clubs  with  religious 
objects,  although  there  is  a  Syrian  branch  of  the  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  Society.  About  fifteen  years  ago 
Nahum  A.  Mokarzel  founded  and  now  publishes  in 
New  York  City  the  daily  newspaper,  "Al  Hoda" 
(The  Guidance),  which  is  now  the  best  known 
Arabic  newspaper  in  the  world  and  the  only  illus- 
trated one.  His  brother  also  publi-shes  an  Arabic 
monthly  magazine,  "Al  Alam  ul  Jadid"  (The  New 
World),  which  contains  modern  Arabic  literature  and 
translations  of  American  and  English  writers.  There 
are  also  two  Maronite  papers  published  in  Me.\ico. 
The  Maronites  also  have  in  New  York  a  publishing 
house  on  a  small  scale,  in  which  novels,  pamphlets, 
and  scientific  and  religious  works  are  printed  in 
Arabic,  and  the  usual  Arabic  literature  sold. 

Dandini,  Reisebemerkungen  tiber  die  Maroniten  (Jena,  1903); 
Istafan-ai^Dawaihi,  a  History  of  the  Maronites  (Beirut,  1890) ; 
Nau,  Opuscules  Maronites  (Paris,  1899-1900);  Kohler,  Die 
kathol.  Kirchen  des  Morgenlandes  (Darmstadt,  1896);  Prince 
Maximiuan,  Missa  Maronitica  (Ratisbon  and  New  York,  1907); 
AzAR,  Les  Maronites  (Cambrai,  1852);  Etheridqe,  The  S;/ri(in 
Churches  (London,  1879) ;  Silbernagl,  Verfassung  u.  gegen- 
waniger  Bestand  samllicher  Kirchen  des  Orients  (Ratisbon,  1904). 

IV.  Other  Oriextal  Rites. — The  rites  already 
described  are  the  principal  rites  to  be  met  with  in 
the  United  States;  but  there  are  besides  them  a  few 
representatives  of  the  remaining  Eastern  rites,  al- 
though these  are  perhaps  not  sufficiently  numerous 
to  maintain  their  own  churches  or  to  constitute 
separate  ecclesiastical  entities.  Among  these  smaller 
bodies  are:  (1)  the  Chaldean  Catholics  and  the 
schismatic  Christians  of  the  same  rite,  known  as 
Nestorians;  (2)  the  Syrian  Catholics  or  Syro-Catholics 
and  their  correlative  dissenters,  the  Jacobites,  and 


(3)  finally  the  Copts,  Catholic  or  Orthodox.  All  of 
these  have  a  handful  of  representatives  in  America, 
and,  as  immigration  increa.ses,  it  is  a  question  how 
great  their  numbers  will  become. 

(1)  Chaldean  or  Syro-Chaldean  Catholic  Rite.— 
Those  who  profess  this  rite  are  Eastern  Syrians, 
coming  from  what  was  anciently  Mesopotamia,  but 
is  now  the  borderland  of  Persia.  Thev  ascribe 
the  origin  of  the  rite  to  two  of  the  early' disciples, 
Addeus  and  Maris,  who  first  preached  the  Gospel 
in  their  lands.  It  is  really  a  remnant  of  the  early 
Persian  Church,  and  it  has  always  used  the  Syriac 
language  in  its  hturgy.  The  principal  features  of 
the  rite  and  the  celebration  of  the  jVIass  have  already 
been  described  (see  Addeus  .a.nd  Maris,  Liturgy  of). 
The  peculiar  Syriac  which  it  uses  is  known  as  the 
eastern  dialect,  as  distinguished  from  that  used  in 
the  Maronite  and  Syro-Catholic  rites,  which  is  the 
western  dialect.  The  method  of  writing  this  church 
Syriac  among  the  Chaldeans  is  somewhat  different 
frorn  that  used  in  writing  it  among  the  western 
Syrians.  The  Chaldeans  and  Nestorians  use  in  their 
church  books  the  antique  letters  of  the  older  versions 
of  the  Syriac  Scriptures  which  are  called  "astran- 
gelo",  and  their  pronunciation  is  somewhat  different. 
The  Chaldean  Church  in  ancient  times  was  most 
flourishing,  and  its  history  under  Persian  rule  was  a 
bright  one.  Unfortunately  in  the  sixth  century  it 
embraced  the  Nestorian  heresy,  for  Nestorius  on 
being  removed  from  the  See  of  Constantinople  went 
to  Persia  and  taught  his  views  (see  Ne.storius  and 
Nestoria.vism;  Persia).  The  Chaldean  Church 
took  up  his  heresy  and  became  Nestorian  (see 
Chaldean  Christians).  This  Nestorian  Church 
not  only  extended  throughout  Mesopotamia  and 
Persia,  but  penetrated  also  into  India  (Malabar)  and 
even  into  China.  The  inroads  of  Mohammedanism 
and  its  isolation  from  the  centre  of  unity  and  from 
intercommunication  with  other  Catholic  bodies 
caused  it  to  diminish  through  the  centuries.  In  the 
sixteenth  century  the  Church  in  Malabar,  India, 
came  into  union  with  the  Holy  See,  and  this  induced 
the  Nestorians  to  do  likewise.  The  conversion  of 
part  of  the  Nestorians  and  the  reunion  of  their  an- 
cient Church  with  the  Holy  See  began  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  has  continued  to  the  present  day. 
The  Chaldean  Patriarch  of  Babylon  (who  really  haa 
liis  see  at  Mossul)  is  the  chief  prelate  of  the  Chaldean 
Catholics,  and  has  under  him  two  archbishops 
(of  Diarbekir  and  Kerkuk)  and  nine  bishops  (of 
Amadia,  Gezireh,  Mardin,  Mossul,  Sakou,  Salmas, 
Seert,  Sena,  and  Urmiah).  The  Malabar  Christiana 
have  no  regular  Chaldean  hierarchy,  but  are  governed 
by  vicars  Apostolic.  The  number  of  Chaldean  Catho- 
lics is  estimated  at  about  70,000,  while  the  cor- 
responding schismatic  Nestorian  Church  has  about 
140,000  (see  Asia;  Chaldean  Christians). 

There  are  about  100  to  150  Chaldean  Catholics  in 
the  United  States;  about  fifty  live  in  Yonkers,  New 
York,  while  the  remainder  are  scattered  in  New  York 
City  and  vicinity.  The  community  in  Yonkers  is 
cared  for  by  Rev.  Abdul  Masih  (a  married  priest  from 
the  Diocese  of  Diarbekir),  who  came  to  this  country 
from  Damascus  some  six  years  ago.  He  says  Mass 
in  a  chapel  attached  to  St.  Mary's  Catholic  Church, 
and  some  Nestorians  also  attend.  At  present  (1911) 
there  are  two  other  Chaldean  priests  in  this  country: 
Rev.  Joseph  Ghariba,  from  the  Diocese  of  Aleppo, 
who  is  a  travelling  missionary  for  his  people,  and  Rev. 
Gabriel  Oussani,  who  is  professor  of  church  history, 
patrology,  and  Oriental  languages  in  St.  Joseph's 
Seminary  at  Dunwoodie  near  Yonkers,  and  from 
whom  some  of  these  particulars  have  been  obtained. 
There  are  also  said  to  be  about  150  Nestorians  in  the 
United  States;  the  majority  of  these  hve  and  work 
in  Yonkers,  New  York.  They  have  no  priest  of  their 
own,  and,  where  they  do  not  attend  the  Cathohc 


RITSCHLIANISM 


86 


RITSCHLIANISM 


Rite,  are  drifting  into  modern  Protestantism. 
Several  of  them  have  become  members  of  the  Epis- 
copal Church,  and  they  are  looked  after  by  Dr. 
Abraham  Yohannan,  an'Armenian  from  Persia,  now 
a  minister  in  the  Episcopal  Chm-ch  and  lectm-er  on 
modern  Persian  at  Columbia  University.  They  have 
no  church  or  chapel  of  their  own. 

(2)  Syro-Catholic  Rite.— This  rite  is  professed  by 
those  S\Tiac  Cliristians  who  were  subjects  of  the  an- 
cient Patriarchate  of  Antioch;  these  are  spread 
throughout  the  plains  of  Syria  and  Western  Mesopo- 
tamia, whereas  the  Maronites  live  principally  on 
Mount  Lebanon  and  the  sea  coast  of  Syria  (see 
Asia;  E.a.stern  Churches).  The  Syriac  Mass  and 
liturgj-  is,  like  the  Maronite  (which  is  but  a  variation 
of  it),"  the  Liturgv  of  St.  James,  Apostle  and  Bishop 
of  Jerusalem.  P'or  this  reason,  but  principally  for 
the  reason  that  Jacob  Baradaeus  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  Syriac  Church  (see  Barad.eus,  Jacob)  em- 
braced the  Monophysite  heresy  of  Eutyches  (see 
RIoNOPHYSiTES  AND  Monophysitism),  the  schis- 
matic  branch  of  this  rite  are  called  Jacobites,  although 
they  call  themselves  Suriani  or  Syrians.  Thus  we 
have  in  the  tliree  Syrian  rites  the  historic  remem- 
brance of  the  three  greatest  heresies  of  the  early 
Church  after  it  had  become  well-developed.  Nes- 
torians  and  Chaldeans  represent  Nestorianism  and  the 
return  to  Catholicism;  Jacobites  and  Syro-Catholics 
represent  Monophysitism  and  the  return  to  Cathol- 
icism; the  Maronites  represent  a  vanished  Mono- 
thehtism  now  wholly  Catholic  (see  Monothelitism 
AND  MoNOTHELiTEs).  The  Syro-Catholics  like  the 
Maronites  vary  the  Ordinary  of  their  Mass  by  a  large 
number  of  anaphoras  or  canons  of  the  Mass,  con- 
taining changeable  forms  of  the  consecration  service. 
The  Syro-Catholics  confine  themselves  to  the  an- 
aphoras of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  St.  James,  St. 
Peter,  St.  John  Chrysostom,  St.  Xystus  the  Pope 
of  Rome,  St.  Matthew,  and  St.  Basil;  but  the  schis- 
matic Jacobites  not  only  use  these,  but  have  a  large 
number  of  others,  some  of  them  not  yet  in  print, 
amounting  perhaps  to  thirty  or  more  (see  Syria; 
Syrian  Rite,  E.-vst).  The  epistles,  gospels,  and  many 
well-known  prayers  of  the  Mass  are  said  in  Arabic  in- 
stead of  the  ancient  Syriac.  The  form  of  their  church 
vestments  is  derived  substantially  from  the  Greek  or 
Byzantine  Rite.  Their  church  hierarchy  in  union  with 
the  Holy  See  consists  of  the  Syrian  Patriarch  of  An- 
tioch with  three  archbishops  (of  Bagdad,  Damascus, 
and  Horns)  and  five  bishops  (of  Aleppo,  Beirut, 
Gezireh,  Mardin-Diarbekir,  and  Mossul).  The  num- 
ber of  Syro-Catholics  is  about  25,000  families,  and  of 
the  Jacobites  about  80,000  to  S.5,000  persons. 

There  are  about  60  persons  of  the  Syro-Catholic 
Rite  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  of  whom 
forty  live  in  Brooklyn,  New  York.  They  are  mostly 
from  the  Diocesf;  of  Aleppo,  and  their  emigration 
thither  began  only  about  five  years  ago.  They  have 
organized  a  church,  although  there  is  but  one  priest 
of  thf'ir  rite  in  the  United  States,  Rev.  Paul  Kassar 
from  Ale})[)o,  an  alumnus  of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome. 
He  i.H  a  mission  priest  engagfid  in  looking  after  his 
c<juntr>'men  and  resides  in  BrfKjklyn,  but  he  is  only 
here  upon  an  ext<!nded  leave  of  absence  from  the 
diocjisa.  There  are  alsfj  sfjme  thirty  or  forty  Syro- 
JacjbiUjs  in  the  Unitc;d  States;  they  are  mostly  from 
Mardin,  Aleppo,  and  Northern  Syria,  and  have  no 
priest  or  chapel  of  their  own. 

(3j  Coptic  Rite. — There  is  only  a  handful  of  Copts 
in  this  country — in  New  York  City  perhaps  a  dozen 
individuals.  Oriental  theatrical  pieces,  in  which  an 
Eastern  setting  is  required,  has  attracted  some  of 
them  thither,  principally  from  Egypt.  They  have 
no  priest,  either  Catnolic  or  Orthodox,  and  no  place 
of  worship.  As  to  their  Church  and  its  organization, 
see  Eabtehn  Churches;  Egypt:  V.  Coptic  Church. 
Andkew  J.  Shipman. 


Ritschlianism,  a  jxHuhar  conception  of  the  nature 
and  scope  of  Cliristianity,  widely  held  in  modern 
Protestantism,  especially  in  Germany.  Its  founder 
was  the  Protestant  theologian,  Albrecht  Ritschl  (b. 
at  Berlin,  25  March,  1822;  d.  at  Gottingen,  20  March, 
1889).  Having  completed  his  studies  in  the  gymna- 
sium at  Stettin,  where  his  father  resided  as  general 
superintendent  of  Pomerania,  Ritschl  attended  the 
University  of  Bonn,  and  was  for  a  time  captivated  by 
the  "Biblical  supernaturalism "  of  his  teacher,  K.  J. 
Nitzsch.  Mental  dissatisfaction  caused  him  to  leave 
Bonn  in  1841,  and  he  continued  his  studies  under 
Julius  M tiller  and  Tholuck  in  the  University  of  Halle. 
Disabused  here  also  as  to  the  teachings  of  his  pro- 
fessors, he  sought  and  found  peace  in  the  reconcilia- 
tion doctrine  of  the  Tiibingen  professor,  Ferdinand 
Christian  Baur,  through  whose  writings  he  was  won 
over  to  the  philosophy  of  Hegel.  On  21  May,  1843, 
he  graduated  Doctor  of  Philosophy  at  Halle  with  the 
dissertation,  "Expositio  doctrina)  Augustini  de 
creatione  mundi,  peccato,  gratia"  (Halle,  1843). 
After  a  long  residence  in  his  parents'  house  at  Stettin, 
he  proceeded  to  Tubingen,  and  there  entered  into 
personal  intercourse  with  the  celebrated  head  of  the 
(later)  Tubingen  School,  Ferdinand  Christian  Baur. 
He  here  wrote,  entirely  in  the  spirit  of  this  theologian, 
"Das  Evangelium  Marcions  und  das  kanonische 
Evangelium  des  Lukas"  (Tubingen,  1846),  wherein 
he  attempts  to  prove  that  the  apocryphal  gospel 
of  the  Gnostic  Marcion  forms  the  real  foundation  of 
the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke.  Having  qualified  as  Privat- 
docent  at  Bonn  on  20  June,  1846,  he  was  appointed 
professor  extraordinary  of  Evangelical  theology  on 
22  December,  1852,  and  ordinary  professor  on  10  July, 
1859.  Meanwhile  he  had  experienced  a  radical 
change  in  the  earlier  views  which  he  had  formed  under 
Baur's  influence;  this  change  removed  him  farther 
and  farther  from  the  Tubingen  School. 

In  1851  he  had  withdrawn  his  hypothesis  concerning 
the  origin  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  as  untenable,  and 
in  1856  he  had  a  public  breach  with  Baur.  Hence- 
forth Ritschl  was  resolved  to  tread  his  own  path. 
In  the  second  edition  of  his  "Die  Entstehung  der 
altkatholischen  Kirche"  (Bonn,  1857;  1st  ed.,  1850), 
he  rejected  outright  Baur's  sharp  distinction  between 
St.  Paul  and  the  original  Apostles — between  Paul- 
inism  and  Petrinism — by  maintaining  the  thesis  that 
the  New  Testament  contains  the  religion  of  Jesus 
Christ  in  a  manner  entirely  uniform  and  disturbed 
by  no  internal  contradictions.  At  Gottingen,  whither 
he  was  called  at  lOaster,  1864,  his  peculiar  ideas  first 
found  full  realization  in  his  "Die  christliche  Lehre 
von  der  Rechtfertigung  und  Versohnung"  (3  vols., 
Bonn,  1870-4;  4th  ed.,  1895-1903).  His  practical 
conception  of  Christianity  was  described  first  in  his 
lecture  on  "Christliche  VoUkommenheit"  (Gottingen, 
1874;  3rd  ed.,  1902)  and  then  in  his  "Unterricht  in 
der  christlichen  Religion"  (Bonn,  1875;  6th  ed., 
1903),  which  was  intended  as  a  manual  for  the 
gymnasium,  h\ii  proved  very  unsatisfactory  for  prac- 
tical purposes.  In  his  small,  but  inii)ortant,  work, 
" Theologie  und  Metaphysik"  (Bonn,  18S1;  3rd  ed., 
Gottingen,  1902),  he  dc^nies  the  influence  of  phi- 
losophy in  the  formation  of  theology.  In  addition  to 
numerous  smaller  writings,  which  were  re-edited  after 
his  death  under  the  title  "Gcsammelte  Aufsatze" 
(2  vols.,  Gottingen,  1893-0),  lie  coinjjiled  a  "Ge- 
Bchichte  des  Pietismus"  (3  vols.,  Bonn,  1880-6),  based 
upon  a  wide  study  of  the  sources.  Pietism  itself,  as 
it  appeared  in  Calvinistic  and  Lutheran  circles  during 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  he  con- 
demns as  an  abortion  of  modern  Protestantism  caused 
by  the  false  Catholic  ideal  of  piety.  His  last  and 
incomplete  work,  "Fides  implicita,  oder  eine  Unter- 
Buchung  iiber  K6hlerglauben,  Wissen  und  Glauben, 
fJlauben  und  Kirche"  (Bonn,  1890),  appeared  .shortly 
after  his  death.     After  1888  he  suffered  from  heart 


RITSCHLIANISM 


87 


RITSCHLIANISM 


disease,  of  which  he  died  in  the  following  year.  Al- 
though Ritschl  was  violently  attacked  during  his 
lifetime  not  only  by  the  orthodox  party,  but  also  by 
the  Erlangen  school  named  after  Hofmann,  he  at- 
tached to  himself  a  large  circle  of  enthusiastic  follow- 
ers with  Liberal  leanings,  who  are  included  under  the 
name  of  Ritschlianists.  The  hterary  organs  of 
Ritschlianism  in  Germany  are  the  "  Theologische 
Literaturzeitung",  the  "Zeitschrift  fur  Theologie 
und  Kirche",  and  the  "Christliche  Welt". 

To  understand  and  rightly  appraise  the  rather 
abstruse  train  of  thought  in  the  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion, which  constitutes  the  focus  of  Ritschl's  theolog- 
ical system,  we  must  go  back  to  the  epistemology  on 
which  the  whole  edifice  rests.  Influenced  by  the  phi- 
losophy of  Kant  rather  than  of  Lotze,  Ritschl  denies 
human  reason  the  power  to  arrive  at  a  scientific  knowl- 
edge of  God.  Consequently  religion  cannot  have  an 
intellectual,  but  merely  a  practical-moral  foundation. 
Religious  knowledge  is  essentially  distinct  from  scien- 
tific knowledge.  It  is  not  acquired  by  a  theoretical 
insight  into  truth,  but,  as  the  product  of  religious  faith, 
is  bound  up  with  the  practical  interests  of  the  soul. 
Religion  is  practice,  not  theory.  Knowledge  and  faith 
are  not  only  distinct  domains;  they  are  independent 
of  and  separated  from  each  other.  While  knowledge 
rests  on  judgments  of  existence  (Seinsurleile),  faith 
proceeds  on  independent  "judgments  of  value" 
(Werturteile),  which  affirm  nothing  concerning  the 
essence  or  nature  of  Divine  things,  but  refer  simply 
to  the  usefulness  and  fruitfulncss  of  religious  ideas. 
Anticipating  to  some  extent  the  principles  of  Prag- 
matism put  forward  in  a  later  generation  by  W.  James, 
Schiller,  etc.,  Ritschl  declared  that  knowledge  alone 
valuable  which  in  practice  brings  us  forward.  Not 
what  the  thing  is  "in  itself",  but  what  it  is  "for  us", 
is  decisive.  80  far  Ritschl  is  not  original,  since 
Schleiermacher  had  already  banished  metaphysics 
from  Christian  philosophy,  and  had  explained  the 
nature  of  religion  subjectively  as  springing  from  the 
feeling  of  our  absolute  dependence  on  God.  Ritschl's 
teaching  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Berlin 
scholar  especially  by  the  fact  that  he  seeks  to  establish 
a  better  Biblical  and  historical  foundation  for  his 
ideas.  In  the  latter  respect  he  is  the  promoter  of  the 
so-called  historical-critical  method,  of  the  application 
of  which  many  Ritschlianists  of  the  present  day  are 
thorough  masters. 

Like  Schleiermacher,  Ritschl  connects  mankind's 
subjective  need  of  redemption  with  Jesus  Christ,  the 
"originator  of  the  perfect  spiritual  and  moral  reli- 
gion". Since  we  can  determine  the  historical  reality 
of  Christ  only  through  the  faith  of  the  Christian  com- 
munity, the  religious  significance  of  Jesus  is  really 
independent  of  His  biography  and  investigation  into 
His  life.  A  convinced  Ritschlianist  seems  to  be  ready 
to  persevere  in  his  Christianity,  even  though  radical 
criticism  were  to  succeed  in  setting  aside  the  historical 
existence  of  Christ.  He  could  be  a  Christian  without 
Christ,  as  there  could  be  a  Tibetan  Buddhist  without 
an  historical  Buddha  (cf.  "Christliche  Welt",  1901, 
n.  35).  Ritschl  himself  never  wished  to  separate 
Christianity  from  the  Person  of  Christ.  Since,  as 
Ritschl  especially  emphasizes  in  reply  to  Baur,  the 
original  consciousness  of  the  early  Christian  com- 
munity reveals  itself  with  perfect  consistency  in  the 
writings  of  the  New  Testament,  theology  must  in  its 
investigation  of  the  authentic  contents  of  the  Christian 
religion  begin  with  the  Bible  as  source,  for  the  more 
thorough  understanding  of  which  the  ancient  Chris- 
tian professions  of  faith  furnish  an  indirect,  and  the 
s5rmbolical  books  of  Protestants  (Luther)  a  direct, 
guidance.  The  Reformation  rightly  elevated  the 
Pauline  justification  by  faith  to  the  central  place  in 
Christian  doctrine,  and  in  the  West  carried  it  to  a 
successful  conclusion.  As  the  necessary  doctrine  of 
salvation  through  Christ,  this  doctrine  of  justification 


is  thus  alone  obligatory  for  theology  and  Church, 
while  the  other  convictions  and  institutions  of  the 
earliest  Christian  community  are  of  a  subsidiary 
nature.  For  this  reason,  therefore,  Luther  himself 
recognized  the  Bible  as  the  Word  of  God  only  in  so 
far  as  it  "makes  for  Christ".  Since  the  Christian  faith 
exists  only  through  personal  experience  or  subjective 
acquaintance  with  justification  and  reconciliation,  the 
objects  of  faith  are  not  presented  to  the  mind  from 
without  through  a  Divine  revelation  as  an  authorita- 
tive rule  of  faith,  but  become  vividly  present  for  the 
Christian  only  through  subjective  ex-perience.  The 
revelation  of  God  is  given  only  to  the  believer  who 
religiously  lays  hold  of  it  by  experience,  and  recog- 
nizes it  as  such. 

Justifying  faith  especially  is  no  mere  passive  atti- 
tude of  man  towards  God,  but  an  active  trust  in  Him 
and  His  grace,  evincing  itself  chiefly  in  humility, 
patience,  and  prayer.  It  is  by  no  means  a  dogmatical 
belief  in  the  truth  of  Revelation,  but  it  possesses 
essentially  a  thoroughly  practico-moral  character. 
Ritschlianism  can  thus  speak  without  any  incon- 
sistency of  an  "undogmatic  Christianity"  (Kaftan). 
The  harmonizing  of  the  free-religious  moral  activity 
of  the  Christian  with  dependence  on  God  is  proclaimed 
by  Ritschl  the  "master-question  of  theology".  This 
fundamental  problem  he  solves  as  follows:  The  re- 
turning sinner  is  at  first  passively  determined  by  God, 
whereupon  justification  achieves  its  practical  success 
in  reconciliation  and  regeneration,  which  in  their 
turn  lead  to  Christian  activity.  Justification  and 
reconciliation  are  so  related  that  the  former  is  also 
the  forgiveness  of  sin  and  as  such  removes  man's 
consciousness  of  guilt  (i.  e.,  mistrust  of  God),  while  the 
latter,  as  the  cessation  of  active  resistance  to  God, 
introduces  a  new  direction  of  the  will  calculated  to 
develop  Christian  activity  in  the  true  fulfilment  of 
one's  vocation.  These  two — justification  and  recon- 
ciliation— form  the  basis  of  our  sonship  as  children 
of  God.  This  justification,  identical  with  forgiveness 
of  sin,  is,  however,  no  real  annihilation  of  sin,  but  a 
forensic  declaration  of  righteousness,  inasmuch  as  God 
regards  the  believing  sinner,  in  spite  of  his  sins,  as  just 
and  pleasing  in  consideration  of  the  work  of  Christ. 

A  special  characteristic  of  Ritschlianism  lies  in  the 
assertion  that  justifying  faith  is  possible  only  within 
the  Christian  community.  The  Church  of  Christ  (by 
which,  however,  is  to  be  understood  no  external  in- 
stitution with  legal  organization)  is  on  the  one  hand  the 
aggregate  of  all  the  justified  believers,  but  on  the 
other  hand  has,  as  the  enduring  fruit  of  the  work  of 
Christ,  a  duration  and  existence  prior  to  all  its  mem- 
bers, just  as  the  whole  is  prior  to  its  parts.  Like  the 
children  in  the  family  and  the  citizens  in  the  state, 
the  believers  must  also  be  bom  in  an  already  existing 
Christian  community.  In  this  alone  is  God  preached 
as  the  Spirit  of  Love,  just  as  Jesus  Himself  preached, 
and  in  this  alone,  through  the  preaching  of  Christ 
and  His  work,  is  that  justifying  faith  rendered  po.ssible, 
in  virtue  of  which  the  individual  experiences  regenera- 
tion and  attains  to  adoption  as  a  son  of  God  (cf. 
Conrad,  "Begriff  und  Bedeutung  der  Gemeinde  in 
Ritschl's  Theologie"  in  "Theol.  Studien  und  Krit.", 
1911,  230  sqq.).  It  is  plain  that,  according  to  this 
view.  Christian  baptism  loses  all  its  importance  m 
the  real  door  to  the  Church. 

\NTiat  is  Ritschl's  opinion  of  Jesus  Christ?  Does 
he  consider  Him  a  mere  man?  If  we  set  aside  the 
pious  flourishes  with  which  he  clothes  the  form  of  the 
Saviour,  we  come  speedily  to  the  conviction  that  he 
does  not  recognize  the  true  Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ. 
As  the  efficacious  bearer  and  transmitter  of  the  Divine 
Spirit  of  Love  to  mankind  Jesus  is  "superordinate" 
to  all  men,  and  has  in  the  eternal  decree  of  God  a 
merely  ideal  pre-existence.  He  is  therefore,  as  for 
the  earliest  community  so  also  for  us,  our  "God  and 
Saviour"  only  in  the  metaphorical  sense.    All  other 


RITTER 


88 


RITUAL 


theological  questions — such  as  the  Trinity,  the  meta- 
physical Divine  sonship  of  Christ,  original  sin, 
eschatology — possess  an  entirely  secondary  impor- 
tance. This  selt-limitation  is  specially  injurious  to  the 
doctrine  concerning  God:  all  the  Divine  attributes, 
except  such  as  are  practico-moral,  are  set  aside  as 
unknowable.  The  essence  of  God  is  love,  to  which  all 
His  other  attributes  may  be  traced.  Thus,  His 
omnipotence  is  another  phase  of  love  inasmuch  as  the 
world  is  nothing  else  than  the  means  for  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  Even  the  Divine 
justice  ends  in  love,  especially  in  God's  fidelity  to 
the  chosen  people  in  the  Old  Testament  and  to  the 
Christian  community  in  the  New.  Every  other 
explanation  of  the  relation  between  the  just  God  and 
sinful  mankind — such  as  the  juridical  doctrine  of 
satisfaction  taught  by  St.  Anselm  of  Canterbury — is 
called  by  Ritschl  "sub-Christian".  Only  the  sin 
against  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  renders  man  incapable 
of  salvation,  calls  forth  the  anger  of  God  and  hurls 
him  into  everlasting  damnation.  Other  e\'ils  decreed 
by  God  are  not  puni.shments  for  sin,  but  punishments 
intended  for  our  instruction  and  improvement.  Sin 
being  conceivable  only  as  personal  guilt,  the  idea  of 
original  .sin  is  morally  inconceivable. 

Although  Ritschlianism  has  undergone  manifold 
alterations  and  developments  in  one  direction  or 
another  at  the  hands  of  its  learned  representatives 
(Hamack,  Kaftan,  Bender,  Sell,  and  so  on),  it  has 
remained  unchanged  in  its  essential  features.  The 
Liberal  and  modern-positive  theology  of  Germany 
is  distinctly  coloured  with  Ritschlianism,  and  the 
efforts  of  orthodox  Protestantism  to  combat  it  have 
met  with  poor  success.  More  than  a  decade  ago 
Adolf  Zahn  ("Abriss  ciner  Geschichte  der  evan- 
gelischen  Kirche  im  19.  Jahrhundert",  3rd  ed., 
Stuttgart,  1893)  passed  the  sharp  judgment  on 
Ritschhanism,  that  it  was  "a  rationalist  scepticism 
and  Pelagian  moralism,  vainly  decked  out  in  the 
truths  of  the  Reformers,  the  threadbare  garment 
of  Lutheranism,  for  purposes  of  deceit;  the  clearest 
sign  of  the  complete  exhaustion  and  impoverish- 
ment of  Protestantism,  which  at  the  end  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  again  knows  no  more  than  the  com- 
mon folk  have  ever  known:  'Do  right  and  fear  no 
man'."  The  Cathohc  critic  will  probably  see  in  the 
scorn  for  metaj)hysics  and  the  elimination  of  the 
int^-llectual  factor  the  chief  errors  of  Ritschlian 
theology.  The  separation  of  faith  and  knowledge, 
of  theoiogj'  and  metaphysics,  has  indeed  a  long  and 
gkxjmy  history  behind  it.  The  philosophy  of  the 
Renaissance,  with  its  doctrine  of  the  "double  truth", 
erected  the  fir.«t  separating  wall  between  faith  and 
knowledge;  this  division  was  increased  by  Spinoza, 
when  he  assigned  to  faith  the  role  of  concerning  itself 
with  j)ifi  dogmntn,  but  entrusted  to  pl)iIosof)hv  alone 
the  investigation  of  truth.  Finally  a|)i)(  ared  Kant, 
who  cut  the  la-st  threads  which  still  held  together 
thwlogy  and  metaphysics.  IJy  denying  the  demon- 
Htrability  of  the  existence  of  God  through  reason,  he 
consist/'ntly  effected  the  complete  segregation  of 
faith  anri  knowledge  into  two  ".sei)aratc  liouseliolds". 
In  this  he  was  followeri  by  Schleiermaclicr  and  Ritschl. 
Since;  rr-cent  Modernism,  with  its  Agnosticism  and 
Immanentism,  a/lopts  the  same  attitude,  it  is, 
whether  avowedly  or  not,  the  death-knell  not  only 
of  ChriHtianity,  but  of  evr-ry  objective  religion. 
Con.sequently,  the  n-giilations  of  I'ius  X  against 
Modernism  represe-nt  a  conU-st  in  which  the  vital 
int<'rf!«tH  of  the  Catholic  religion  are  at  stake.  Ah 
the  foremfwt  champion  of  tlio  powers  and  rights  of 
reawni  in  its  relations  with  faith,  Catholicism  is  the 
def<.ri<l»T  of  the  law  of  causality  whidi  leads  to  the 
knowl#-«|gc  (,f  rne1ai)hysical  and  Divine  truths,  the 
guardian  of  a  conKtant,  eternal,  and  unalterable 
truth,  and  the  outspoken  focr  of  every  ff»rni  of  Scep- 
ticism,   Criticism,    Relativism,    and'  PragmatiHm— 


always  in  the  interests  of  Christianity  itself,  since, 
without  a  rational  foundation  and  substructure, 
Revelation  and  faith  would  hang  unsupported  in  the 
air.  In  this  statement  the  Catholic  opposition  to 
Ritschhanism  in  one  of  the  most  fundamental  points 
of  difference  is  sufficiently  characterized. 

O.  Ritschl,  Albert  RiUchVs  Leben  (Leipzig,  1892-()).  Concern- 
ing the  system  consult:  Fricke,  Mel  iphysik  u.  Dogmalik  in  ihrem 
gegenseitigen  Verhdllnis  unter  besonderer  Beziehung  auf  die 
Rilschl'sche  Theologie  (Leipzig,  1882);  Thikotter,  Darstdlung 
u.  Beurteilung  der  Theologie  A.  Ritschl's  (Leipzig,  1887);  Flugel, 
A.  Ritschl's  philosoph.  Ansichten  (Langensalza,  1886);  Lipsiu.s, 
Die  Rilschl'sche  Theolotie  (Leipzig,  1888) ;  Harino,  Zu  Ritschl's 
VersShnungslehre  (Zurich,  1888) ;  Herrmann,  Der  evangel.  Glaube 
u.  die  Theologie  A.  Ritschl's  (Marburg,  1890);  Pfleiderer, 
Die  Rilschl'sche  Theologie  (Brunswick,  1891);  Bertrand,  L'ne 
nouvelle  conception  de  la  Redemption.  La  doctrine  de  la  justifi- 
cation el  de  la  reconciliation  dans  le  systems  theologique  de  Ritschl 
(Paris,  1891);  Goyau,  L'Allemagne  religieuse  (Paris,  1897),  94 
sqq.;  Garvie,  The  Ritschlian  Theology  (Edinburgh,  1899);  Kat- 
TENBUSCH,  Von  Schleiermacher  zu  Ritschl  (Halle,  1903) ;  Schoen, 
Les  origines  hiUor.  de  la  theoL  de  Ritschl  (Paris,  1893) ;  Fabre,  Les 
principes  philosophiques  de  la  theol.  de  Ritschl  (Paris,  1894) ;  von 
KuGELCHEN,  Grundriss  der  Ritschl'schen  Dogmatik  (Gottingen, 
1903) ;  Swing,  The  Theology  of  A.  Ritschl  (New  York,  1901) ;  Fabri- 
civs,  Die  Entioickelung in  R.'s  Theol.  von  1874-1889  (Leipzig,  1909); 
Herrmann,  tr.  Matheson  and  Stewart,  Faith  and  Morals:  I. 
Faith  as  Ritschl  Defined  if;  II.  The  Moral  Law,  as  Understood  in 
Romanism  and  Protestantism  (London,  1910).  Cf.  also  Sanday, 
Christologies  Ancient  and  Modern  (Oxford,  1910),  81  sqq.  For 
refutation  consult:  Strange,  Der  dogmatische  Erlrag  der  Ritschl'- 
schen Theologie  nach  Kaftan  (Leipzig,  1906) ;  Schader,  Theo- 
zentrische  Theologie,  I  (I^eipzig,  1909);  Edghill,  Faith  and  Fad. 
A  Study  of  Ritschlianism  (London,  1910)  (a  fundamental  work). 
See  also:  O.  Ritschl  in  Realencykl.  fiir  prot.  Theol.  (Leipzig, 
1906),  s.  V.  Ritschl,  Albrecht  Benjamin;  American  Journal  of 
Theol.  (Chicago,  1906),  423  sqq.;  Kiefl,  Der  geschichtl.  Christus 
u.  die  moderne  Philosophie  (Mainz,  1911),  .51  sqq. 

Joseph  Pohle. 

Ritter,  Joseph  Ignatius,  historian,  b.  at  Schwein- 
itz,  Silesia,  12  April,  17S7;  d.  at  Breslau,  5  Jan., 
1857.  He  pursued  his  philosophical  and  theological 
studies  at  the  University  of  Breslau,  was  ordained 
priest  in  1811,  and  for  several  years  was  engaged  in 
pastoral  work.  An  annotated  translation  of  St. 
John  Chrysostom's  treatise  on  the  priesthood  not 
only  obtained  for  him  the  doctorate  in  theology,  but 
also  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Prassian  ministry, 
which  in  1823  named  him  ordinarj'^  professor  of  church 
history  and  patrology  at  the  University  of  Bonn. 
Here  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Hermes,  and  be- 
came favourably  disposed  towards  his  system.  He 
was  in  1830  named  professor  and  canon  at  Breslau. 
As  administrator  of  this  diocese  (1840-43),  he  atoned 
for  his  earlier  Hermesian  tendencies  by  his  fearless 
Catholic  policy,  notably  in  the  question  of  mixed 
marriages.  Later  he  published  tracts  defending  the 
Church  against  the  attacks  of  Ronge,  the  founder  of 
the  so-called  German  Catholics.  Also  worthy  of 
commendation  is  his  beneficence,  exercised  par- 
ticularly towards  deserving  students.  His  i)rincipal 
writings  which  bear  on  church  history  anfl  canon 
law  are:  "Handbuch  der  Kirchengcscliichte", 
Elberfeld  and  Bonn,  lS2f)-33;  sixth  editidu  by  lOnnen, 
Bonn,  1862;  "Irenicon  oder  Briefc  zur  Foixlerung  des 
Friedens  zwischen  Kirche  u.  Staat",  Leipzig,  1840; 
"Der  Capitularvicar",  Munster,  1842;  "Geschichte 
der  Dioce.se  Breslau",  Breslau,  184.'i.  With  J.  W.  J. 
Braun  he;  brought  out-  a  new  (-(jition  of  Pellicia's  work, 
"De  Christiana-  ecclcsia-  polit la",  Cologne,  1829-38. 

Bellamy,  La  Theohgi,:  Cilh.  au  XIX"  slide  (Paris,  1904),  36. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Ritual. — The  Ritual  (Riluale  Romanum)  is  one 
of  the  f)flici:il  books  of  the  Roman  Rite.  It  contains 
all  the  services  performed  by  a  ])riest  that  arc  not  in 
the  Missal  and  Breviary  and  has  also,  for  convenience, 
some  that  are  in  those  books.  It  is  the  latest  and 
still  the  least  uniform  book  of  our  rite. 

When  first  ritual  functions  were  written  in  Imoks, 
the  Sacramentary  in  tin;  \\'est,  the  Euchologioii  in 
the  East  contained  all  the  priest's  (and  bishop's) 
part  of  whatever  functions  they  performed,  not  only 
th(!  holy  Liturgy  in  the  strict  sense,  but  all  other 
eacrainents,    blessings,    sacramentals,    and    ritea    of 


RITUAL 


89 


RITUAL 


I 


every  kind  as  well.  The  contents  of  our  Ritual  and 
Pontifical  were  in  the  Sacramentaries.  In  the  East- 
ern Churches  this  state  of  things  still  to  a  great  ex- 
tent remains.  In  the  West  a  further  development 
led  to  the  distinction  of  books,  not  according  to  the 
persons  who  use  them,  but  according  to  the  services 
for  which  they  are  used.  The  Missal,  containing  the 
whole  Mass,  succeeded  the  Sacramentary.  Some 
early  Missals  added  other  rites,  for  the  convenience 
of  the  priest  or  bishop;  but  on  the  whole  this  later 
arrangement  involved  the  need  of  other  books  to 
supply  the  non-Eucharistic  functions  of  the  Sacra- 
mentary. These  books,  when  they  appeared,  were 
the  predecessors  of  our  Pontifical  and  Ritual.  The 
bishop's  functions  (ordination,  confirmation,  etc.) 
filled  the  Pontifical,  the  priest's  offices  (baptism, 
penance,  matrimony,  extreme  unction,  etc.)  were 
contained  in  a  great  variety  of  little  handbooks, 
finally  replaced  by  the  Ritual. 

I'he  Pontifi(;al  emerged  first.  The  book  under 
this  name  occurs  already  in  the  eighth  century 
(Pontifi(!al  of  Egbert).  From  the  ninth  there  is  a 
multitude  of  Pontificals.  For  the  priest's  functions 
there  was  no  uniform  book  till  1614.  Some  of  these 
are  contained  in  the  Pontificals;  often  the  chief  ones 
were  added  to  Missals  and  Books  of  Hours.  Then 
special  books  were  arranged,  but  there  was  no  kind 
of  uniformity  in  arrangement  or  name.  Through  the 
Middle  Ages  a  vast  number  of  handbooks  for  priests 
having  the  care  of  souls  was  written.  Every  local 
rite,  almost  every  diocese,  had  such  books;  indeed 
many  were  compilations  for  the  convenience  of  one 
priest  or  church.  Such  books  were  called  by  many 
names — Manuale,  Liber  agendarum,  Agenda,  Sacrn- 
mentale,  sometimes  Rituale.  Specimens  of  such 
medieval  predecessors  of  the  Ritual  are  the  Mannnle 
Curalorum  of  Roeskilde  in  Denmark  (first  i)rinted 
1513,  ed.  J.  Freisen,  Paderborn,  1898),  and  the 
Liber  Agendarum  of  Schleswig  (printed  1416,  Pader- 
born, 1898).  The  Roeskilde  book  contains  the 
blessing  of  salt  and  water,  baptism,  marriage,  bless- 
ing of  a  house,  visitation  of  the  sick  with  viaticum 
and  extreme  unction,  prayers  for  the  dead,  funeral 
service,  funeral  of  infants,  prayers  for  pilgrims, 
blessing  of  fire  on  Holy  Saturday,  and  other  blessings. 
The  Schleswig  book  has  besides  much  of  the  Holy 
Week  services,  and  that  for  All  Souls,  Candlemas,  and 
Ash  Wednesday.  In  both  many  rites  differ  from  the 
Roman  forms. 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  while  the  other  liturgical 
books  were  being  revised  and  issued  as  a  uniform 
standard,  there  was  naturally  a  desire  to  substitute 
an  official  book  that  should  take  the  place  of  these 
varied  collections.  But  the  matter  did  not  receive 
the  attention  of  the  Holy  See  itself  for  some  time. 
First,  various  books  were  issued  at  Rome  with  the 
idea  of  securing  uniformity,  but  without  official  sanc- 
tion. Albert  Castellani  in  1537  published  a  Sacer- 
dolale  of  this  kind;  in  1579  at  Venice  another  version 
appeared,  arranged  by  Francesco  Samarino,  Canon 
of  the  Lateran;  it  was  re-edited  in  1583  by  Angelo 
Rocca.  In  1586  Giulio  Antonio  Santorio,  Cardinal 
of  St.  Severina,  printed  a  handbook  of  rites  for  the 
use  of  priests,  which,  as  Paul  V  says,  "he  had  com- 
posed after  long  study  and  with  much  industry  and 
labour"  (Apostolicce  Sedis).  This  book  is  the  foun- 
dation of  our  Roman  Ritual.  In  1614  Paul  V 
published  the  first  edition  of  the  official  Ritual  by  the 
Constitution  "Apostolica; Sedis"  of  17  June.  In  this 
he  points  out  that  Clement  VIII  had  already  issued 
a  uniform  text  of  the  Pontifical  and  the  Coerimoniale 
Episcoporum,  which  determines  the  functions  of 
many  other  ecclesiastics  besides  bishops.  (That  is 
still  the  case.  The  Coerimoniale  Episcoporum  forms 
the  indispensable  complement  of  other  liturgical 
books  for  priests  too.)  "It  remained",  the  pope 
continues,  "that  the  sacred  and  authentic  rites  of  the 


Church,  to  be  observed  in  the  administration  of 
sacraments  and  other  ecclesiastical  functions  by  those 
who  have  the  care  of  souls,  should  also  be  included 
in  one  book  and  published  by  authority  of  the  Apos- 
tolic See;  so  that  they  should  carry  out  their  office 
according  to  a  public  and  fixed  standard,  instead  of 
following  so  great  a  multitude  of  Rituals". 

But,  unlike  the  other  books  of  the  Roman  Rite, 
the  Ritual  has  never  been  imposed  as  the  only  stand- 
ard. Paul  V  did  not  abolish  all  other  collections 
of  the  same  kind,  nor  command  every  one  to  use 
only  his  book.  He  says:  "Wherefore  we  exhort  in 
the  Lord"  that  it  should  be  adopted.  The  result 
of  this  is  that  the  old  local  Rituals  have  never  been 
altogether  abolished.  After  the  appearance  of  the 
Roman  edition  these  others  were  gradually  more  and 
more  conformed  to  it.  They  continued  to  be  used, 
but  had  many  of  their  prayers  and  ceremonies  modi- 
fied to  agree  with  the  Roman  book.  This  applies 
especially  to  the  rites  of  baptism.  Holy  Communion, 
the  form  of  absolution,  extreme  unction.  The 
ceremonies  also  contained  in  the  Missal  (holy  water, 
the  processions  of  Candlemas  and  Palm  Sunday,  etc.), 
and  the  prayers  also  in  the  Breviary  (the  Office  for 
the  Dead)  are  necessarily  identical  with  those  of 
Paul  V's  Ritual;  these  have  the  absolute  authority 
of  the  Missal  and  Breviary.  On  the  other  hand, 
rnany  countries  have  local  customs  for  marriage,  the 
visitation  of  the  sick,  etc.,  numerous  special  blessings, 
processions  and  sacramentals  not  found  in  the  Roman 
book,  still  printed  in  various  diocesan  Rituals.  It 
is  then  by  no  means  the  case  that  every  priest  of  the 
Roman  Rite  uses  the  Roman  Ritual.  Very  many 
dioceses  or  provinces  still  have  their  own  local  hand- 
books under  the  name  of  Rituale  or  another  (Ordo 
administrandi  sacramenta,  etc.),  though  all  of  these 
conform  to  the  Roman  text  in  the  chief  elements. 
Most  contain  practically  all  the  Roman  book,  and 
have  besides  local  additions. 

The  further  history  of  the  Rituale  Romanum  is  this: 
Benedict  XIV  in  1752  revised  it,  together  with  the 
Pontifical  and  Ccerimoniale  Episcoporum.  His  new 
editions  of  these  three  books  were  published  by  the 
Brief  "Quam  ardenti"  (25  March,  1752),  which 
quotes  Paul  V's  Constitution  at  length  and  is  printed, 
as  far  as  it  concerns  this  book,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  Ritual.  He  added  to  Paul  V's  text  two  forms  for 
giving  the  papal  blessing  (V,  6;  VIII,  31).  Mean- 
while a  great  number  of  additional  blessings  were 
added  in  an  appendix.  This  appendix  is  now  nearly 
as  long  as  the  original  book.  Under  the  title  Bene- 
diclionale  Romanum  it  is  often  issued  separately. 
Leo  XIII  approved  an  edilio  typica  published  by 
Pustet  at  Ratisbon  in  1884.  This  is  now  out  of  date. 
The  Ritual  contains  several  chants  (for  processions, 
burials.  Office  of  the  Dead,  etc.).  These  should  be 
conformable  to  the  Motu  Propria  of  Pius  X  of  22 
Nov.,  1903,  and  the  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congre- 
gation of  Rites  of  8  Jan.,  1904.  All  the  Catholic 
liturgical  publishers  now  issue  editions  of  this  kind, 
approved  by  the  Congregation. 

The  Rituale  Romanum  is  divided  into  ten  "titles" 
(tiiuli);  all,  except  the  first,  subdivided  into  chapters. 
In  ea(;h  (except  I  and  X)  the  first  chapter  gives  the 
general  rules  for  the  sacrament  or  function,  the  others 
give  the  exact  ceremonies  and  prayers  for  various 
cases  of  administration.  Titulus  I  (caput  unicum) 
is  "of  the  things  to  be  observed  in  general  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  sacraments";  II,  About  baptism, 
chap,  vi  gives  the  rite  when  a  bishop  baptizes,  vii 
the  blessing  of  the  font,  not  on  Holy  Saturday  or 
Whitsun  Eve;  III,  Penance  and  absolutions  from 
excommunication;  IV,  Administration  of  Holy  Com- 
munion (not  during  Mass);  V,  Extreme  Unction, 
the  seven  penitential  psalms,  litany,  visitation  and 
care  of  the  dying,  the  Apostolic  blessing,  commenda- 
tion of  a  departing  soul;   VI,  Of  funerals.  Office  of 


RITUALISM 


90 


RITUALISTS 


the  Dead,  absolutions  at  the  grave  on  later  days, 
funerals  of  infants;  VII,  Matrimony  and  churching 
of  women;  VIII,  Blessings  of  holy  water,  candles, 
houses  (on  Holy  Saturday),  and  many  others;  then 
blessings  reserved  to  bishops  and  priests  who  have 
special  faculties,  such  as  those  of  vestments,  ciboriums, 
statues,  foundation  stones,  a  new  church  (not,  of 
course,  the  consecration,  which  is  in  the  Pontifical), 
cemeteries,  etc.;  IX,  Processions,  for  Candlemas, 
Palm  Sunday,  Rogation  Days,  Corpus  Christ i,  etc.; 
X,  Exorcism  and  forms  for  filling  up  parochial  books 
(of  baptism,  confirmation,  marriage,  status  animarum, 
the  dead).  The  blessings  of  tit.  VIII  are  the  old 
ones  of  the  Ritual.  The  appendix  that  follows  tit. 
X  contains  additional  forms  for  blessing  baptism- 
water,  for  confirmation  as  administered  by  a  mission- 
ary priest,  decrees  about  Holy  Communion  and  the 
"Forty  Hours"  devotion,  the  litanies  of  Loreto  and 
the  Holj-  Name.  Then  follow  a  long  series  of  bless- 
ings, not  reserved;  reserved  to  bishops  and  priests 
they  delegate,  reserved  to  certain  religious  orders; 
then  more  blessings  (no\-issima?)  and  a  second  appen- 
dix containing  yet  another  collection.  These  ap- 
pendixes grow  continuall}'.  As  soon  as  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Rites  approves  a  new  blessing  it  is 
added  to  the  next  edition  of  the  Ritual. 

The  Milanese  Rite  has  its  own  ritual  (Rituale 
Amhrosianutn,  published  by  Giacomo  Agnelli  at  the 
Archiepiscopal  Press,  Milan).  In  the  Byzantine 
Rite  the  contents  of  our  ritual  are  contained  in  the 
Evxo\6yLov.  The  Armenians  have  a  ritual  (Mashdotz) 
like  ours.  Other  schismatical  Churches  have  not  yet 
arranged  the  various  part  s  of  this  book  in  one  collection. 
But  nearly  all  the  Uniats  now  have  Rituals  formed  on 
the  Roman  model  (see  Liturgical  Books,  §  IV). 

Babcffaldi,  Ad  rituale  romanum  commentaria  (Venice,  1731); 
Catalan:,  Rituale  romanum  .  .  .  perpetuis  commentariis 
eiornalum  (Rome,  1757) ;  Zaccaria,  Bibliotheca  Ritualis  (Rome, 
1770);  Thalhofer,  Handbuch  der  kalh.  Liturgik,  II  (Freiburg, 
1893),  509-36.  ADRIAN   FORTESCUE. 

Ritualism.    See  Ritualists. 

Ritualists. — The  word  "Ritualists"  is  the  term 
now  most  commonly  employed  to  denote  that  ad- 
vanced section  of  the  High  Church  party  in  the  An- 
glican Estah)lishment,  which  since  about  1860  has 
adhered  to  and  developed  further  the  principles  of  the 
earlier  Tractarian  Movement.  Although  this  desig- 
nation is  one  that  is  not  adopted  but  rather  resentwl 
by  the  persons  to  whom  it  is  applied,  it  cannot  exactly 
be  called  a  nickname.  "Ritualism"  in  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  centur>'  not  uncommonly  meant  the 
study  or  practice  of  ritual,  i.  e.  ecclesiastical  ceremo- 
nial; while  those  who  favoured  ritualism  were  apt  to 
be  called  "ritualists".  For  example,  the  Rev.  J.  Jebb, 
in  a  pubhcation  of  1856  entitled  "The  Principle  of 
Ritualism  Defended",  defines  ritualism  equivalently 
as  "a  sober  and  chastened  regard  for  the  outward 
accessories  of  worship",  and  insists  further  that  "we 
nee<^l  srjmething  more  than  a  lawyer's  mind  to  examine 
fairly  eccUjsiastical  questions.  The  Church  requires 
that  divines  and  ritualists  should  be  called  into 
counsel".  It  was  only  some  time  later,  about  1865  or 
1806,  that  the  word  came  to  be  used  as  the  name  of  a 
party  and  was  printed  with  a  capital  letter. 

Unlike  many  other  party  names  which  have  grown 
up  in  the  coursf;  of  cxjntroversy,  the  word  "Ritualists" 
drxis  ver>'  fairly  indicate  the  original,  if  not  the  most 
fundamental,  charact^iristic  which  has  divided  those 
so  designated  from  their  fellow-IIigh-Churchmen. 
The  movement  headed  by  Newman  and  his  friends 
ha/J  b<«n  primarily  doctrinal.  Pusey  always  stated 
that  the  leaders  hari  rather  discouraged  as  too  con- 
spicuous anything  in  the  way  of  ceremonies,  fearing 
that  they  might  awaken  prejudice  and  divert  atten- 
tion from  more  imp^jrtant  issues.  Nevertheless  the 
Bj'mpathifjs  awakened  for  the  traditions  of  a  Catholic 
past,  and  esixMjially  the  revival  of  faith  in  the  Real 


Presence  and  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice,  could  not  fail 
in  the  long  run  to  produce  an  effect  upon  the  externals 
of  worship.  Many  of  the  followers  were  more  ven- 
turous than  the  leaders  approved.  Moreover,  the 
conversion  of  Newman  and  other  prominent  Trac- 
tarians,  while  somewhat  breaking  up  the  party  and 
arresting  the  progress  of  events  at  Oxford,  had  only 
transferred  the  movement  to  the  parish  churches 
throughout  the  country,  where  each  incumbent  was  in 
a  measure  free  to  follow  his  owm  light  and  to  act  for 
himself.  ^  The  Rev.  W.  J.  E.  Bennett,  Vicar  of  St. 
Paul's,  Knightsbridge,  became  notorious  for  a  number 
of  innovations  in  ritual,  notably  in  such  details  as  the 
use  of  altar  lights,  cross,  and  coverings  which  brought 
him  into  conflict  with  his  bishop  (in  1850)  and  led  in 
the  end  to  his  resigning  his  benefice.  In  1859  still 
greater  sensation  was  caused  by  the  "Romish"  cere- 
monial of  the  Rev.  Bryan  King  at  St.  George's  in  the 
East.  The  roughs  of  the  district,  with  some  violent 
Evangelicals,  for  months  together  continued  to  inter- 
rupt the  services  with  brawling  and  rioting.  The 
Enghsh  Church  Union,  however,  founded  at  about 
this  period  to  defend  the  interests  of  the  High  Church 
movement,  lent  effective  aid,  and  public  opinion 
turned  against  the  authors  of  these  disturbances. 

During  the  j^ears  that  followed  ceremonial  innova- 
tions, imitating  more  and  more  pronouncedly  the 
worship  of  the  Catholic  Church,  spread  throughout 
the  country.  A  regular  campaign  was  carried  on, 
organized  on  the  one  side  by  the  English  Church 
Union  and  on  the  other  by  the  Church  Association, 
which  latter  was  called  into  existence  in  1865  and 
earned  amongst  its  opponents  the  nickname  of  the 
"Persecution  Company  Limited".  The  lovers  of 
ornate  ceremonial  were  for  the  most  part  sincerely 
convinced  that  they  were  loyal  to  the  true  principles 
of  Anglicanism,  and  that  they  were  rightly  insisting 
on  the  observance  of  the  letter  of  the  law  embodied  in 
the  so-called  "Ornaments  Rubric ",  which  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  Morning  Service  in  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.     It  could  not  of  course  be  denied  that  the 

{)ractices  which  the  Tractarians  were  introducing  had 
ong  been  given  up  in  the  Church  of  England.  But 
though  these  had  fallen  completely  into  abeyance,  the 
party  contended  that  the  letter  of  the  Prayer  Book 
made  it  a  duty  to  revive  them.  It  may  be  said  indeed 
that  it  is  round  the  Ornaments  Rubric  that  the  whole 
ritualistic  controversy  has  turned  down  to  the  present 
day.  For  this  reason  a  somewhat  full  account  of  it  is 
indispensable. 

The  first  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI,  which  came 
into  use  on  9  June,  1549,  has  the  following  rubric  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Mass:  "Upon  the  day  and  at  the 
time  appointed  for  the  administration  of  the  Holy 
Communion,  the  Priest  that  shall  execute  the  holy 
ministry  shall  put  upon  him  the  vesture  appointed  for 
that  ministration,  that  is  to  say  a  white  Alb  plain, 
with  a  Vestment  or  Cope."  This  first  Prayer  Book 
of  Edward  VI  remained  in  use  for  three  years  when 
it  was  supplanted  by  the  second  Prayer  Book  of 
Edward  VI  (1  Nov.,  1552).  In  this,  under  the  in- 
fluences of  Continental  reformers,  the  rubric  just 
quoted  was  expunged  and  the  following  substituted: 
"And  here  is  to  be  noted  that  the  Minister  at  the  time 
of  the  Communion,  and  at  all  other  times  in  his  minis- 
tration, shall  use  neither  Albae,  Vestment  or  Cope". 
After  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  a  revised  Prayer  Book 
was  issued  in  1559,  which  contained  the  rubric  in  the 
following  form:  "And  here  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the 
minister  at  the  time  of  the  Communion  and  at  all 
other  times  in  his  ministration  shall  use  such  orna- 
ments in  the  Church  as  were  in  use  by  authority  of 
Parliament  in  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of  King 
Edward  VI  according  to  the  Act  of  Parliament  set  in 
the  beginning  of  the  book."  In  spite  of  a  brief  sup- 
pre.ssion  un(l(!r  the  Ix)ng  I^arliament  and  during  the 
Commonwealth,  the  same  rubric  was  restored  in  sub- 


RITUALISTS 


91 


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I 


etantially  identical  terms  in  the  Prayer  Book  of  1662 
which  remains  in  force  to-day.  Now  it  must  not  of 
course  be  forgotten  that  the  word  "ornaments"  is 
used  in  a  technical  sense  which  has  been  defined  by 
the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council  to  include 
"all  the  several  articles  used  in  the  performance  of  the 
rites  and  services  of  the  Church".  Vestments,  books, 
cloths,  chahces,  and  patens  must  be  regarded  as  church 
ornaments.  In  modem  times  even  organs  and  bells 
are  held  to  fall  under  this  denomination.  Further 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  if  the  reference  to  the 
second  year  of  Edward  VI  be  strictly  interpreted, 
much  Catholic  ceremonial  was  then  still  retained  em- 
bracing such  adjuncts  as  lights,  incense,  vestments, 
crosses,  etc.  There  is  considerable  controversy  re- 
garding the  precise  meaning  of  the  rubric,  but,  how- 
ever we  regard  it,  it  certainly  gives  much  more  latitude 
to  the  lovers  of  ritual  than  was  recognized  by  the 
practice  of  the  English  Church  in  1850. 

Although  of  recent  years  the  innovators  have  gone 
far  beyond  those  usages  which  could  by  any  possibility 
be  covered  by  a  large  interpretation  of  the  Ornaments 
Rubric,  it  seems  clear  that  in  the  beginning  the  new 
school  of  clergy  founded  them.selves  upon  this  and 
were  not  exactly  accused  of  doing  what  was  illegal. 
Their  position,  a  position  recognized  in  1851  by  the 
bishops  them.selves,  was  rather  that  of  wishing  "to 
restore  an  unusual  strictness  of  ritual  observance". 
Their  tendencies  no  doubt  were  felt  to  be  "popish", 
but  they  were  primarily  censured  by  the  Protestant 
party  as  "ultra-rubricians".  The  first  appeal  to 
legal  tribunals  in  the  Westerton  v.  Liddell  case  (Mr. 
Liddell  was  the  successor  of  Mr.  Bennett)  terminated, 
after  appeal  to  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy 
Council,  substantially  in  favour  of  the  Ritualists.  It 
was  decided  that  the  Ornaments  Rubric  did  establish 
the  legality  of  a  credence  table,  coloured  frontals  and 
altar  coverings,  candlesticks  and  a  cross  above  the 
holy  table.  This  gave  confidence  to  the  party  in  other 
directions  and  between  the  j-ears  1857  and  1866  there 
was  a  considerable  extension  of  ritual  usages  such  as 
the  Eucharistic  vestments,  altar  lights,  flowers,  and 
incense,  while  the  claim  was  generally  made  that  they 
were  all  perfectly  lawful. 

With  the  year  1866  began  a  period  of  almost  inces- 
sant controversy.  Six  specific  practices,  known  as 
the  "Six  Points",  were  about  this  time  recognized  as 
constituting  the  main  features  in  the  claims  of  the  less 
extreme  Ritualists.  They  were:  (1)  the  eastward 
position  (i.  e.  that  by  which  the  minister  in  con- 
secrating turns  his  back  to  the  people);  (2)  the  use  of 
incense;  (3)  the  use  of  altar  lights;  (4)  the  mixed 
chalice;  (5)  the  use  of  vestments;  (6)  the  use  of  wafer 
bread.  A  committee  of  the  Lower  House  of  Convoca- 
tion in  1866  ex-pressed  a  strong  opinion  that  most  of 
these  things  should  not  be  introduced  into  parish 
churches  without  reference  to  the  bishop.  A  royal 
commission  followed  (1867-70),  but  came  to  no  very 
clear  or  unanimous  decision  except  as  regards  the 
inexpediency  of  tolerating  any  vesture  which  departs 
from  what  had  long  been  the  established  usage  of  the 
English  Church.  Meanwhile  the  Dean  of  Arches, 
and,  after  appeal,  the  Privy  Council,  delivered  judg- 
ment in  the  Mackonochie  case  and  between  them 
decided  against  the  legality  of  the  elevation,  use  of 
incense,  altar  lights,  ceremonially  mLxed  chalice,  and 
against  any  position  of  the  minister  which  would  hide 
the  manual  acts  from  the  communicants.  Even 
more  important  was  the  judgment  of  the  same  Judicial 
Committee  of  the  Privy  Council  in  the  Purchas  Case 
(Ap.  1871),  which  besides  confirming  these  previous 
decisions,  even  as  against  the  opinion  of  the  Dean  of 
Arches,  declared  in  more  unequivocal  terms  the  illegal- 
ity of  wafer-bread  and  of  all  Eucharistic  vestments. 
The  reaction  among  the  High  Church  party  against 
this  sweeping  condemnation  was  considerable,  and  it  is 
probably  true  that  much  of  the  strong  feeling  which 


has  existed  ever  since  against  the  Judicial  Committee 
as  a  court  of  appeal  is  traceable  to  this  cause.  Many 
of  the  Ritualists  not  only  refuse  to  acknowledge  the 
jm-isdiction  of  a  secular  court  in  church  matters,  but 
they  declare  themselves  justified  in  withholding 
obedience  from  their  bishops  as  long  as  the  bishops 
are  engaged  in  enforcing  its  decrees.  The  passing  of 
the  Pubhc  Worship  Regulation  Act  in  1874  which,  as 
Disraeli  stated  in  Parliament,  was  meant  "to  put 
down  the  Ritualists",  seems  only  to  have  led  to  in- 
creased litigation,  and  the  Risdale  judgment  in  1877 
by  which  the  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  after 
elaborate  argument  by  counsel  on  either  side,  recon- 
sidered the  question  of  Eucharistic  vestments  and  the 
eastward  position,  reaffirming  the  condemnation  of 
the  former  but  pronouncing  the  latter  to  be  lawful, 
providing  that  it  did  not  render  the  manual  acts  in- 
visible to  the  congregation,  gave  encouragement  to 
the  Ritualists  by  showing  that  earlier  decisions  were 
not  irreversible.  In  any  ca,se  there  were  no  signs  of 
any  greater  disposition  to  submit  to  authority.  The 
committal  of  four  clergymen  to  prison  in  the  years 
1878-81  for  disobedience  to  the  order  of  the  courts 
whose  jurisdiction  they  challenged,  only  increased  the 
general  irritation  and  unrest.  In  1888  came  another 
sensation.  Proceedings  were  taken  before  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  sitting  with  episcopal  assessors 
against  Dr.  King,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  for  various 
ritualistic  practices.  In  his  judgment,  subsequently 
confirmed  by  the  Priy>^  Council,  Archbishop  Benson 
sanctioned  under  carefully  defined  conditions  the 
eastward  position,  mixed  chalice,  altar  lights,  the 
ablutions,  and  the  singing  of  the  Agnus  Dei,  but  for- 
bade the  signing  of  the  cross  in  the  air  when  giving 
the  absolution  and  the  benediction. 

Naturally  the  effect  of  these  alternate  relaxations 
and  restrictions  was  not  favourable  to  the  cause  of 
sober  uniformity.  The  movement  went  on.  The 
bishops  had  probably  grown  a  little  weary  in  repres- 
sing an  energy  which  was  much  more  full  of  conviction 
than  their  own,  and  in  the  years  which  followed, 
especially  in  the  Diocese  of  London,  under  Bishop 
Temple,  a  large  measure  of  licence  seems  to  have  been 
granted  or  at  any  rate  taken.  The  rapid  spread  of 
"romanizing"  practices,  though  in  their  extreme 
form  they  were  confined  to  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  churches,  began  to  attract  general  atten- 
tion, while  causing  profound  uneasiness  to  Evangeli- 
cals and  Nonconformists.  In  1898  Sir  William 
Harcourt  started  a  vigorous  campaign  against 
ritualistic  lawlessness  by  a  series  of  letters  in  the 
"Times",  and  almost  concurrently  Mr.  John  Kensit 
and  his  followers  appealed  to  another  phase  of  public 
opinion  by  their  organized  interruptions  of  the 
services  in  the  churches  they  disapproved  of.  It  was 
felt  once  again  that  something  must  be  done  and  this 
time  the  remedy  took  the  form  of  the  so-called 
"Lambeth  Hearings",  when  the  Archbishops  of  Can- 
terbury and  York,  after  listening  to  legal  and  expert 
argument,  delivered  a  joint  "opinion"  upon  certain 
burning  questions,  to  wit  (a)  the  use  of  incense  and 
processional  lights,  and  (b)  the  practice  of  reserva- 
tion. On  31  July,  1899,  they  jointly  pronounced  the 
use  of  incense  to  be  inadmissible,  and  on  1  May,  1900, 
in  two  independent  "opinions",  they  concurred  in 
forbidding  any  form  of  reservation  of  the  consecrated 
elements.  Very  little  was  effected  by  this  or  by  a 
series  of  Church  Discipline  Bills  which  were  intro- 
duced into  Parliament,  but  which  died  stillborn. 
Consequently  in  1904  a  royal  commission  was  ap- 
pointed "to  inquire  into  the  alleged  prevalence  of 
breaches  or  neglect  of  the  Law  relating  to  the  conduct 
of  Divine  Service  in  the  Church  of  England  and  to 
the  ornaments  and  fittings  of  churches."  The  com- 
mission, after  collecting  an  immense  mass  of  evidence 
from  ecclesiastics  and  laymen  of  every  shade  of  opin- 
ion,   not   forgetting   the   agents   employed   by   the 


RITUALISTS 


92 


RITUALISTS 


Church  Association  to  keep  watch  on  the  services  in 
rituaUstic  churches,  issued  a  voluminous  report  in  1906. 

Although  the  commission  has  accomplished  little 
more  than  the  propounding  of  certain  suggestions 
regarding  the  reconstitution  of  the  ecclesiastical 
courts,  suggestions  which  have  not  yet  been  acted 
upon,  the  "Report"  is  a  document  of  the  highest  im- 
portance for  the  evidence  which  it  contains  of  the 
developments  of  Ritualism.  The  commissioners 
single  out  certain  practices  which  they  condemn  as 
being  graver  in  character  and  of  a  kind  that  demand 
immediate  suppression.  No  doubt  the  numerical 
proportion  of  the  churches  in  which  the  clergy  go  to 
these  lengths  is  small,  but  the  number  seems  to  be 
increasing.  The  practices  censured  as  of  special 
gravity  and  significance,  are  the  following:  "The 
interpolation  of  prayers  and  ceremonies  belonging 
to  the  Canon  of  the  Mass.  The  use  of  the  words 
'Behold  the  Lamb  of  God'  accompanied  by  the 
exhibition  of  a  consecrated  wafer  or  bread.  Res- 
ervation of  the  sacrament  under  conditions  which 
lead  to  its  adoration.  Mass  of  the  prcsanctified. 
Corpus  Christ i  processions  with  the  sacrament. 
Benediction  with  the  sacrament.  Celebration  of 
the  Holy  Eucharist  with  the  intent  that  there  should 
be  no  communicant  except  the  celebrant.  Hymns, 
prayers  and  devotions  involving  invocation  or  a 
confession  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  or  the  saints.  The 
observance  of  the  festivals  of  the  Assumption  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  and  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 
The  veneration  of  images  and  roods."  These 
practices  are  described  as  having  an  exceptional 
character  because  they  are  at  once  (1)  in  flagrant 
contradiction  with  the  teaching  of  the  Articles  and 
Prayer  Book;  (2)  they  are  illegal,  and  (3)  their 
illegality  does  not  depend  upon  any  judgment  of  the 
Pri\-y'  Council.  Similar  objection  is  taken  to  any  ob- 
servance of  All  Souls'  Day  or  of  the  festival  of  Corpus 
Chri.«ti  which  implies  the  "Romish"  doctrine  con- 
cerning i)urgatorj'  or  transubstantiation. 

But  while  it  is  quite  true  that  the  number  of 
churches  in  which  these  extremes  are  practised  is 
small,  it  is  important  to  remember  that  private 
oratories,  communities,  and  sisterhoods,  which  last 
commonly  follow  forms  of  devotion  and  ritual  w^hich 
cannot  externally  be  distinguished  from  those  pre- 
vailing in  the  Catholic  Church,  were  not  in  any  way 
touched  by  these  investigations  of  the  commissioners. 
It  is  in  such  strongholds  that  the  ritualistic  spirit 
is  nurtured  and  propagated,  and  there  is  as  yet  no 
sign  that  the  feeling  which  animated  this  revival  of 
the  religious  life  is  less  earnest  than  of  yore. 

Again  everj'thing  seems  to  point  to  the  conclusion 
that  if  extreme  prac;tices  have  not  spread  more  widely 
this  is  due  le.ss  to  any  distaste  for  such  iiractices  in 
themselves  than  to  a  shrinking  from  the  unpleasant- 
ness engendered  V)y  open  conflict  with  ecclesiastical 
authority.  Where  comparative  impunity  hjus  been 
wcured,  :is  for  example  by  the  ambiguity  of  the  Or- 
nament.s  Rubric,  a  notable  an<l  increasing  proportion 
of  the  clergy  ha%'e  axlvanced  to  the  very  limits  of 
what  was  likely  to  be  tolerated  in  the  way  of  ritualis- 
tic development.  It  has  been  stated  by  Archbishop 
Davidson  that  before  IS.^0  the  use  of  vestments  in  a 
public  church  wa.s  known  hardly  anywhere.  In  1901 
carefully  compiled  statistics  showed  that  Eucharis- 
tic  vestments  of  some  kind  Cother  than  the  stole  au- 
thorized by  long  tra/iitionji  were  used  in  no  less  than 
lo'Jti  churches  of  the  provinces  of  York  and  Canter- 
bur>'.  that  is  aVxtut  twelve  per  cent  of  the  whole; 
and  the  number  has  increased  since.  A  slighter  but 
not  altogether  contemptible  indication  of  the  drift 
of  opinion  when  unchecked  by  authority  is  to  be 
found  in  the  familiar  "Roman  collar".  I^ss  than 
^f^y^yf^i^rn  ago,  at  the  time  of  the  "Roman  aggres- 
sion" it  was  regarded  in  Engliind  as  the  distinctive 
feature  of  the  dress  of  a  Catholic  priest,  an  article 


which  by  its  very  name  manifested  its  proper  usage. 
Not  long  afterwards  it  was  gradually  adopted  by 
certain  High  Church  clergymen  of  an  extreme  type. 
At  the  present  day  it  is  the  rule  rather  than  the  ex- 
ception among  English  ecclesiastics  of  all  shades  of 
opinion,  not  excepting  even  the  Nonconformists. 

With  regard  to  the  present  position  and  principles 
of  the  Ritualists  we  shall  probably  do  well  with 
Monsignor  R.  H.  Benson  (Non-Catholic  Denomina- 
tions, pp.  29-58)  to  recognize  a  distinction  between 
two  separate  schools  of  thought,  the  moderate  and  the 
extreme.  On  the  one  hand  all  the  members  of  this 
party  seem  to  agree  in  recognizing  the  need  of  some 
more  immediate  court  of  appeal  to  settle  disputed 
questions  of  dogma  and  ritual  than  can  be  afforded 
by  the  "Primitive  Church"  which  the  early  Trac- 
tarians  were  content  to  invoke  in  their  difficulties. 
On  the  other  hand  while  both  sections  of  the  Ritual- 
ists are  in  search  of  a  "Living  Voice"  to  guide  them, 
or  at  any  rate  of  some  substitute  for  that  Living 
Voice,  the}'  have  come  to  supply  the  need  in  two  quite 
different  ways.  To  the  moderate  Rituali.sts  it  has 
seemed  sufficient  to  look  back  to  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.  This,  it  is  urged,  was  drawn  uj)  in  full  view 
of  the  situation  created  by  "Roman  abuses",  and 
though  it  was  not  intended  to  be  a  complete  and  final 
guide  in  every  detail  of  doctrine  and  discipline, 
the  fact  that  it  was  originally  issued  to  men  already 
trained  in  Catholic  principles,  justifies  us  in  supplying 
deficiencies  bj^  setting  a  Catholic  interpretation  upon 
all  doubtful  points  and  omissions.  The  Ritualist 
of  this  school,  who  of  course  firmly  believes  in  the 
continuity  of  his  Church  with  the  Church  of  England 
before  the  Reformation,  thinks  it  his  duty  to  "behave 
and  teach  as  a  Marian  priest,  conforming  under 
Elizabeth,  would  have  behaved  and  taught  when  the 
Prayer  Book  was  first  put  into  his  hands:  he  must 
supply  the  lacump  and  carry  out  the  imperfect 
directions  in  as  'Catholic'  a  manner  as  possible" 
(Benson,  op.  cit.,  p.  32).  Thus  interpreted,  the 
Prayer  Book  supplies  a  standard  by  which  the  rulings 
of  bishops  and  judicial  committees  may  be  measured, 
and,  if  necessary,  set  aside;  for  the  bishops  themselves 
are  no  less  bound  by  the  Prayer  Book  than  are  the 
rest  of  the  clcrgj-,  and  no  command  of  a  bishop  need 
be  obeyed  if  it  transgress  the  directions  of  this  higher 
written  authority.  The  objections  to  which  this 
solution  of  the  difficulty  is  oj^en  must  be  sufficiently 
obvious.  Clearlj'  the  text  of  this  written  authority 
itself  needs  inter])retation  and  it  must  seem  to  the 
unprejudiced  mind  that  uiion  contested  points  the 
interpretation  of  the  Ijishops  and  other  officials  of  the 
Establishment  is  not  only  l)etter  authorized  than  that 
of  the  individual  Ritualist,  but  that  in  almost  every 
case  the  intrri)retation  of  the  latter  in  view  of  the 
Arti(:les,  canons,  homilies,  and  other  official  utter- 
ances is  strained  and  unnatural.  Moreover  there  is 
the  undeniable  fact  of  desuetude.  To  apj)eal  to  such 
an  ordinance  as  the  "Ornameiils  Ruliric"  as  evi- 
dently binding,  after  it  has  been  in  i)ractice  neglected 
by  all  orders  of  the  Church  for  nearly  three  hundred 
years,  is  contrary  to  all  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  civil 
presumptions  in  matters  of  external  observance. 

The  extreme  party  among  the  Ritualists,  though 
they  undoubtedly  go  beyond  their  more  moder^e 
brethren  in  their  sympathy  with  Catholic  ])ractice8 
and  also  in  a  very  definitely  formulated  wish  for 
"Reunion"  (see  Union'  of  Chki.stendom),  do  not 
greatly  differ  from  them  in  matters  of  doctrine. 
.Slany  adopt  .such  dcvot  ions  as  the  ro.sary  and  benedic- 
tion, some  iiriitate  Catholic;  practice  so  far  as  to  recite 
the  Canon  of  the  Mass  in  Latin,  a  few  profess  even 
to  hold  the  infallibility  of  the  Roman  Pontiff  and  to 
recreive  (of  course  with  excei)tion  of  the  necessity  of 
external  conununion  with  Rome)  all  doctrines  defined 
and  taught  by  him.  But  the  more  fundamental 
diflference  which  divides  the  Ritualists  into  two  classes 


RITUALISTS 


93 


RITUALISTS 


is  probably  to  be  found  in  their  varying  conceptions 
of  the  authority  to  which  they  profess  allegiance. 
Giving  up  the  appeal  to  the  Prayer  Book  as  a  final 
rule,  the  extreme  party  find  a  substitute  for  the 
Living  Voice  in  the  consensus  of  the  Churches  which 
now  make  up  Catholic  Christendom — that  is  prac- 
tically speaking  in  the  agreement  of  Canterbury, 
Rome,  and  Moscow — if  Moscow  may  be  taken  as  the 
representative  of  a  number  of  eastern  communions 
which  do  not  in  doctrinal  matters  differ  greatly  from 
one  another.  Where  these  bodies  are  agreed  either 
explicitly  or  by  silence,  there,  according  to  the  theory 
of  this  advanced  school,  is  the  revealed  faith  of  Chris- 
tendom; where  these  bodies  differ  among  themselves, 
there  we  have  matters  of  private  opinion  which  do  not 
necessarily  command  the  assent  of  the  individual. 

It  is  difficult  perhaps  for  anyone  who  has  not  been 
brought  up  in  a  High  Church  atmosphere  to  under- 
stand how  such  a  principle  can  be  applied,  and  how 
Ritualists  can  profess  to  distinguish  between  beliefs 
which  are  de  fide  and  those  which  are  merely  specula- 
tive. To  the  outsider  it  would  seem  that  the  Church 
of  Canterbury  has  quite  clearly  rejected  such  doc- 
trines  as  the  Real  Presence,  the  invocation  of  saints, 
and  the  sacrificial  character  of  the  Eucharist.  But 
the  Ritualist  has  all  his  life  been  taught  to  interpret 
the  Thirty-Nine  Articles  in  a  "Catholic"  sense. 
When  the  Articles  say  that  transubstantiation  is 
repugnant  to  the  plain  words  of  Scripture,  he  is 
satisfied  to  believe  that  some  misconception  of  tran- 
substantiation was  condemned,  not  the  doctrine 
as  defined  a  little  later  by  the  Council  of  Trent. 
When  the  Articles  speak  of  "the  sacrifices  of  Masses 
— for  the  quick  and  the  dead"  as  "blasphemous 
fables  and  dangerous  deceits",  he  understands  that 
this  repudiation  was  only  dire(;ted  against  certain 
popular  "Romish  errors  about  the  multiplication 
of  the  effe(!t3  of  such  Masses,  not  against  the  idea 
of  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  in  itself.  Again  the  state- 
ment that  "tlie  Romish  doctrine  concerning  .  .  .  In- 
vocation of  Saints  is  a  fond  thing  vainly  invented", 
for  him  amounts  to  no  more  than  a  rejection  of  cer- 
tain abuses  of  extreme  romanizers  who  went  perilously 
near  to  idolatry.  In  this  way  the  Church  of  England 
is  exonerated  from  the  ajiparent  repudiation  of  these 
Catholic  beliefs,  and  the  i)resumption  stands  that  she 
accepts  all  Catholic  doctrine  which  she  does  not  ex- 
plicitly reject.  Hence  as  Rome  and  Moscow  and 
Canterbury  (in  the  manner  just  explained)  profess 
the  three  beliefs  above  specified,  such  beliefs  are  to  be 
regarded  as  part  of  the  revealed  faith  of  Christendom. 
On  the  other  hand  such  points  as  papal  infallibility, 
indulgences,  and  the  proc^ession  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
which  are  admittedly  reje(!ted  by  one  or  more  of  the 
three  great  branches  of  the  Catholic  Chiu-ch,  have 
not  the  authority  of  the  Living  Voice  behind  them. 
They  may  be  true,  but  it  cannot  be  shown  that  they 
form  part  of  the  Revelation,  the  acceptance  of  which 
is  obligatory  upon  all  good  Christians. 

With  this  fundamental  view  are  connected  many 
other  of  the  strange  anomalies  in  the  modern  Ritualist 
position.  To  begin  with,  those  who  so  think,  feel 
bound  to  no  particular  reverence  for  the  Church  of 
their  baptism  or  for  the  bishops  that  represent  her. 
By  her  negative  attitude  to  so  many  points  of  Catholic 
doctrine  she  has  paltered  with  the  truth.  She  has  by 
God's  Providence  retained  the  bare  essentials  of 
Cathohcity  and  preserved  the  canonical  succession  of 
her  bishops.  Hence  English  Catholics  are  bound  to 
be  in  communion  with  her  and  to  receive  the  sacra- 
ments from  her  ministers,  but  they  are  free  to  criticize 
and  up  to  a  certain  point  to  disobey.  On  the  other 
hand  the  Ritualist  believes  that  each  Anglican  bishop 
possesses  jurisdiction,  and  that  this  jurisdiction,  par- 
ticularly in  the  matter  of  confessions,  is  conferred 
upon  every  clergyman  in  virtue  of  his  ordination. 
Further  the  same  jurisdiction  inherent  in  the  canon- 


ically  appointed  bishop  of  the  diocese  requires  that 
English  Catholics  should  be  in  communion  with  him, 
and  renders  it  gravely  sinful  for  them  to  hear  Mass  in 
the  churches  of  the  "Italian  Mission" — so  the  Ritual- 
ist is  prone  to  designate  the  Churches  professing  obe- 
dience to  Rome.  This  participation  in  ahen  services  is 
a  schismatical  act  in  England,  while  on  the  other  hand 
on  the  Continent,  an  "English  Cathohc"  is  bound  to 
respect  the  jurisdiction  of  the  local  ordinary  by  hear- 
ing Mass  according  to  the  Roman  Rite,  and  it  becomes 
an  equally  schismatical  act  to  attend  the  services  of 
any  English  Church. 

The  weak  points  in  this  theory  of  the  extreme  Rit- 
uaUst  party  do  not  need  insisting  upon.  Apart  from 
the  difficulty  of  reconciling  this  view  of  the  supposed 
"Catholic"  teaching  of  the  Established  Church  with 
the  hard  facts  of  history  and  with  the  wording  of  the 
Articles,  apart  also  from  the  circumstance  that  nothing 
was  ever  heard  of  any  such  theory  until  about  twenty- 
five  years  ago,  there  is  a  logical  contradiction  about 
the  whole  assumption  which  it  seems  impossible  to 
evade.  The  most  fundamental  doctrine  of  all  in  this 
system  (for  all  the  other  beliefs  depend  upon  it)  is  pre- 
cisely the  principle  that  the  Living  Voice  is  constituted 
by  the  consensus  of  the  Churches,  but  this  is  itself  a 
doctrine  which  Rome  and  Moscow  explicitly  reject 
and  which  the  Church  of  England  at  best  professes 
only  negatively  and  imperfectly.  Therefore  by  the 
very  test  which  the  Ritualists  themselves  invoke,  this 
principle  falls  to  the  ground  or  at  any  rate  becomes  a 
matter  of  opinion  which  binds  no  man  in  conscience. 

The  real  strength  of  Ritualism  and  the  secret  of  the 
steady  advance,  which  even  in  its  extreme  forms  it 
still  continues  to  make,  hes  in  its  sacramental  doctrine 
and  in  the  true  devotion  and  self-sacrifice  which  in  so 
many  cises  follow  as  a  consequence  from  this  more 
spiritual  teaching.  The  revival  of  the  celibate  and 
ascetic  ideal,  more  particularly  in  the  communities  of 
men  and  women  living  under  religious  vows  and  con- 
secrated to  prayer  and  works  of  charity,  tends  strongly 
in  the  same  direction.  It  is  the  Ritualist  clergy  who 
more  than  any  other  body  in  the  English  Church  have 
thrown  themselves  heart  and  soul  into  the  effort  to 
spiritualize  the  lives  of  the  poor  in  the  slums  and  to 
introduce  a  higher  standard  into  the  missionary  work 
among  the  heathen.  Whatever  there  may  be  of 
affectation  and  artificiality  in  the  logical  position  of 
the  Ritualists,  the  entire  sincerity,  the  real  self-denial, 
and  the  apostolic  spirit  of  a  large  proportion  of  both 
the  clergy  and  laity  belonging  to  this  party  form  the 
greatest  asset  of  which  Anglicanism  now  disposes, 
(For  those  aspects  of  Ritualism  which  touch  upon 
Anglican  Orders  and  Reunion,  see  Anglican  Orders 
and  Union  of  Christendom.) 

For  a  concise  Catholic  view  of  Ritualism  at  the  present  day, 
more  particularly  in  its  relations  to  the  other  parties  in  the  Church 
of  England,  see  Benson,  Non-Catholic  Denominations  (London, 
1910).  An  excellent  historical  sketch  of  the  movement  may  be 
found  in  Thureau-Danoin,  La  renaissance  catholique  en  Angle- 
terre  au  XIX'  «i^cie  (Paris,  1901-8),  especially  in  the  third 
volume.  The  most  important  Anglican  account  is  probably 
Wabre-Cornish,  History  of  the  English  Church  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century  (London,  1910),  especially  Part  II;  a  good  summary  ia 
also  provided  by  Holland  in  the  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia 
of  Religious  Knowledge  (New  York,  1910),  s.  v.  Ritualism. 

The  best  materials  for  the  history  of  the  movement  may  be 
found  in  the  Blue  Books  issued  by  the  various  royal  commissions 
more  especially  the  Report  and  the  four  accompanying  volumes 
of  minutes  of  evidence  printed  for  the  royal  commission  on  ec- 
clesiastical discipline  in  190fi.  The  letters  and  other  documents 
published  in  such  complete  biographies  as  those  of  Pusey,  Bishop 
S.  Wilberforce,  Archbishop  Tait,  Bishop  Wilkinson,  Archbishop 
Benson,  Lord  Shaftesbury,  Charles  Lowder,  and  others,  are  also 
very  useful.  See  also  Spencer  Jones,  England  and  the  Holy  See 
iLondon,1902);M\LLOCK,  Doctrine  and  Doctrinal  Disruption  {Lon- 
don, 190S) ;  MacColl,  The  Royal  Commission  and  the  Ornaments 
Rubric  (London,  1906);  Moves,  Aspects  of  Anglicanism  (London, 
1906);  Dolling,  Ten  Years  in  a  Portsmouth  Slum  (London,  1898); 
MacColl,  Lawlessness,  Sacerdotalism  and  Ritualism  (London, 
1875);  Roscoe,  The  Bishop  of  Lincoln's  Case  (London,  1891); 
Sanday,  The  Catholic  Movement  and  the  Archbishop's  Decision  (Lon- 
don, 1899) ;  ToMLiNSON,  Historical  Grounds  of  the  Lambeth  Judg- 
ment (London,  1891),  and  in  general  The  Reunion  Magazine  and 
the  now  extinct  Church  Review.  HERBERT  ThURSTON. 


RIVINQTON 


94 


RIZAL 


Rivingrton,  Luke,  b.  in  London,  May,  1838;  d. 
in  London,  30  May,  1899;  fourth  son  of  Francis 
Ri\-ington,  a  well-kno\rn  London  publisher.  He  was 
educated  at  Highgate  Grammar  School  and  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford.  After  his  ordination  as  an  Anglican 
clerg>-man  in  1862,  he  became  curate  of  St.  Clement's, 
Oxford,  leaving  there  in  1867  for  All  Saints's,  Mar- 
garet Street,  London,  where  he  attracted  attention  as 
a  preacher.  Faihng  in  his  efforts  to  found  a  rehgious 
community  at  Stoke,  Staffordshire,  he  joined  the 
Cowley  Fathers  and  became  superior  of  their  house 
in  Bombay'.  Becoming  unsettled  in  his  religious 
con\'ictions  he  \nsited  Rome,  where  in  1888  he  was 
received  into  the  Church.  His  ordination  to  the 
priesthood  took  place  on  21  Sept.,  1889.  He  re- 
turned to  England  and  settled  in  Bayswater,  not 
undertaking  any  parochial  work,  but  devoting 
himself  to  preaching,  hearing  confessions,  and  writing 
controversial  works.  The  chief  of  these  were  "Au- 
thoritv;  or  a  plain  reason  for  joining  the  Church 
of  Rome"  (1888);  "Dust"  a  letter  to  the  Rev. 
C.  Gore  on  his  book  "Roman  Catholic  Claims" 
(1888);  "Dependence;  or  the  insecurity  of  the 
Anglican  Position"  (1889);  "The  Primitive  Church 
and  the  See  of  Peter"  (1894);  "Anglican  Fallacies; 
or  I^rd  Halifax  on  Reunion"  (1895);  "Rome  and 
England  or  Ecclesiastical  Continuity"  (1897);  "The 
Roman  Primacj'  a.  d.  430-51"  (1899)  which  was 
practically  a  new  edition  of  "The  Primitive  Church 
and  the  See  of  Peter".  He  also  wrote  several 
pamphlets  and  brought  out  a  new  edition  of  Bishop 
Milner's  "End  of  Religious  Controversy".  This 
was  for  the  Catholic  Truth  Society  of  which  he  was 
long  a  member  of  the  committee,  and  a  prominent 
figure  at  the  annual  conferences  so  successfully  or- 
ganized by  the  society.  His  pamphlets  include 
"  Primitive  and  Roman "  (1894)  a  reply  to  the  notice 
of  his  book  "The  Primitive  Church"  in  the  "Church 
Quarterly  Review";  "The  Conversion  of  Cardinal 
Newman"  (1896)  and  "Tekel"  (1897)  in  which  he 
criticized  the  reply  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury 
and  York  to  Pope  Leo  XIII  after  the  condemnation 
of  Anglican  Orders.  In  1897  the  pope  conferred  on 
him  an  honorar>'  doctorate  in  divinity.  During  his 
latter  years  he  lived  near  St.  James  church,  Spanish 
Place,  devoting  himself  to  his  literary  work  and  the 
instruction  of  inquirers  in  the  Catholic  Faith. 

The  Tablet  (3  and  10  June,  1899) ;  Catholic  Book  Notes  (15  June, 
1899):  GiLLOW,  BM.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.;  Annual  Register  (London, 

1899).  Edwin  Burton. 

Rizal,  Jos6  Mercado,  Filipino  hero,  physician, 
poet,  novelist,  and  sculptor;  b.  at  Calamba,  Province  of 
La  Lagima,  Luzon,  19  June,  1861;  d.  at  Manila, 
30  Df'cember,  1896.  On  his  father's  side  he  was 
dcat'cndoA  from  Lam-co,  who  came  from  China  to 
settle  in  the  Philippines  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
sevent^-enth  century.  His  mother  was  of  P'ilipino- 
ChineH<vSpani.sh  origin.  Rizal  studied  at  the  Jesuit 
College  of  the  At^;nc<j,  Manila,  where  he  received  the 
d^KFce  of  Ba^;helor  of  Arts  with  highest  honours 
before  he  ha^^i  cx)mpleUid  his  sixteenth  year.  He  con- 
tinufjd  his  studies  in  Manila  for  four  years  and  then 
proceeded  to  Spain,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
philosfiphy,  literature,  and  medicine,  with  ophthal- 
mology an  a  speciality.  In  Madrid  he  became  a 
Freemason,  and  thus  became  associated  with  men 
like  Zorilla,  Sagasta,  Ca«telar,  and  Balaguer,  promi- 
nent in  Spanish  politics.  Here  and  in  France  he 
bf^an  to  imbibe  the  political  ideas,  which  later  cost 
him  his  life.  In  Gennany  he  was  enrolled  as  a  law 
student  in  the  University  of  Heidelburg  and  became 
acquainU^  with  Virchow  and  Blumentritt.  In 
Berlin  was  published  his  novel  "Noli  me  tangere" 
(1886)  charar;t/'rized,  perhaps  too  extravagantly, 
by  W.  D.  Howfllfi  as  "a  great  novel"  written  by  one 
"bom  with  a  gift  m  far  beyond  that  of  any  or  all 


of  the  authors  of  our  roaring  Uterary  successes". 
Several  editions  of  the  work  were  published  in 
Manila  and  in  Spain.  There  is  a  French  translation 
(" Bibhotheque  sociologique",  num.  25,  Paris,  1899), 
and  two  abbre\dated  Enghsh  translations  of  little 
value:  "An  Eagle's  Flight"  (New  York,  1900),  and 
"Friars  and  FUipinos  (New  York,  1902).  The 
book  satirizes  the  friars  in  the  Philippines  as  well  as 
the  Filipinos.  Rizal's  animosity  to  the  friars  was 
largely  of  domestic  origin.  The  friars  were  the  land- 
lords of  a  large  hacienda  occupied  by  his  father; 
there  was  vexatious  litigation,  and  a  few  years  later, 
by  Weyler's  order,  soldiers  destroyed  the  buildings 
on  the  land,  and  various  members  of  the  family  were 
exiled  to  other  parts  of  the  Islands. 

Rizal  returned  to  the  PhiUppines  in  1887.  After 
a  stay  of  about  six  months  he  set  out  again  for 
Europe,  passing  through  Japan  and  the  United 
States.  In  London  he  prepared  his  annotated  edi- 
tion of  Morga's  "Sucesos  de  las  Islas  Filipinas"  which 
he  completed  in  Paris  (1890).  In  Belgium  he  pub- 
Ushed  (Ghent,  1891;  Manila,  1900)  "El  FiUbus- 
terismo",  a  sequel  to  "NoU  me  tangere".  Its 
animus  may  be  judged  from  its  dedication  to  three 
Filipino  priests  who  were  executed  for  complicity 
in  the  Cavite  outbreak  of  1872.  In  1891  he  arrived 
in  Hong-Kong,  where  he  practised  medicine.  The 
following  year  he  came  to  Manila,  but  five  days 
before  his  arrival  a  case  was  filed  against  him  for 
' '  anti-rehgious  and  anti-patriotic  propaganda  " .  On  7 
July  the  governor-general  ordered  Rizal's  deporta- 
tion to  Mindanao.  The  reasons  given  were  the 
finding  in  his  baggage  of  a  package  of  leaflets,  "satir- 
izing the  friars  and  tending  to  de-catholicize  and  so 
de-nationahze  the  people";  and  the  "publication 
of  'El  Filibusterismo'  dedicated  to  the  memory  of 
three  traitors — condemned  and  executed  by  com- 
petent authority — and  whom  he  hails  as  martyrs". 
Rizal  spent  four  years  in  peaceful  exile  in  Dapitan, 
Mindanao,  when  he  volunteered  his  services  to  the 
governor  to  go  to  Cuba  as  a  surgeon  in  the  Spanish 
Army.  The  offer  was  accepted.  When  he  arrived  in 
Spain,  he  was  arrested  and  brought  back  to  Manila, 
where  he  was  charged  with  founding  unlawful  associa- 
tions and  promoting  rebellion,  and  .sentenced  to  be  shot. 

Rizal  had  given  up  the  practice  of  his  religion  long 
years  before.  But  now  he  gladly  welcomed  the  minis- 
trations of  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  his  former  professors,  and 
he  wrote  a  retractation  of  his  errors  and  of  Masonry 
in  particular.  On  the  morning  of  his  execution  he 
assisted  at  two  Masses  wath  great  fervour,  received 
Holy  Communion  and  was  married  to  an  Irish  half- 
caste  girl  from  Hong-Kong  with  whom  he  had  co- 
habited in  Dapitan.  Almost  the  last  words  he  spoke 
were  to  the  Jesuit  who  accoinpariicd  him:  "My  great 
pride,  Father,  ha-s  brought  me  here."  SO  December, 
the  day  of  his  execution,  has  been  made  a  national 
holiday  by  the  American  (jovcirninent  and  .S50,000 
appropriated  for  a  monument  to  his  memory;  a  new 
province,  adjacent  to  Manila,  is  called  Rizal;  the 
two  centavo  postage  stamp  and  two  peso  bill — the 
denominations  in  most  common  use — bear  his  picture. 
Whether  he  was  unjustly  executed  or  not,  is  dis- 
puted; his  plea  in  his  own  defen.sc  is  undoubtedly 
a  strong  one  (cf.  Retana).  The  year  of  his  death  was 
a  year  of  great  uprising  in  the  Islands  and  feeling 
ran  high.  Whatever  may  be  said  about  his  sentence, 
its  fulfilment  was  a  political  mistake.  Rizal,  it  is  said, 
did  not  favour  separation  from  Spain,  nor  the  expul- 
sion of  the  friars.  Nor  did  he  wish  to  accompli.sh  his 
ends — reforms  in  the  Ciovernment — by  revolutionary 
methods,  but  by  the  education  of  his  countrymen  and 
their  formation  to  habits  of  industry. 

liesides  the  works  mentioned  above,  Rizal  wrote  a 
number  of  poems  and  essays  in  Spanish  of  literary 
merit,  some  translations  and  short  papers  in  German, 
PYench,  English,  and  in  his  native  dialect,  Tagalog. 


ROBBER 


95 


ROBERT 


A  complete  list  of  his  writings  is  given  in  Retana, 
"Vida  y  escritos  del  Dr.  Rizal"  (Madrid,  1907). 

Ckaiq,  The  Story  of  Jose  Rizal  (Manila,  1909);  El  Dr.  Rizal  y 
su  obra  in  La  Juventud  (Barcelona,  Jan.,  Feb.,  1897);  Pi,  La 
muerte  cristiana  del  Dr.  Rizal  (Manila,  1910);  Craig,  Los  errores 
de  Retana  (Manila,  1910.) 

Philip  M.  Finegan. 
Robber  Council  of  Ephesus.    See  Ephesus. 

Robbia,  Andrea  della,  nephew,  pupil,  assistant, 
and  sharer  of  Luca's  secrets,  b.  at  Florence,  1431;  d. 
1528.  It  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  between  his 
works  and  Luca's.  His,  undoubtedly,  are  the  medal- 
lions of  infants  for  the  Foundling  Hospital,  Florence, 
and  the  noble  Annunciation  over  the  inner  entrance; 
the  Meeting  of  S.  Francis  and  S.  Dominic  in  the  loggia 
of  S.  Paolo;  the  charming  Madonna  of  the  Architects, 
the  Virgin  adoring  the  Divine  Child  in  the  Crib  and 
other  pieces  in  the  Bargello;  the  fine  St.  Francis  at 
Assisi;  the  Madonna  della  Querela  at  Viterbo;  the 
high  altar  (marble)  of  S.  Maria  delle  Grazie  at  Arezzo; 
the  rich  and  variegated  decora- 
tions of  the  vaulted  ceiling, 
porch  of  Pistoia  Cathedral,  and 
many  other  works. 

Andrea  had  several  sons,  of 
whom  Giovanni,  Girolamo,  Luca 
the  Younger,  and  Ambrogio  are 
the  best  known.  Giovanni  exe- 
cuted the  famous  reliefs  for  the 
Ospedale  del  Ceppo,  Pistoia;  and 
Girolamo  worked  much  in 
France,  where  he  died.  The 
Della  Robbia  school  gradually 
lost  power  and  inspiration,  the 
later  works  being  often  over- 
crowded with  figures  and  full  of  1^7 
conflicting  colour.  Uif 

See  bibl.  of  Robbia,  Luca  di  Simone      ^ . 

DELLA.  M.  L.  Handley. 


Robbia,  Luca  di  Simonk 
DELLA,  sculptor,  b.  at  Florence, 
1400;  d.  1481.  He  is  believed 
to  have  studied  design  with  a 
goldsmith,  and  then  to  ha\c 
worked  in  marble  and  bronzi 
under  Ghiberti.  He  was  earl\ 
invited  to  execute  sculptures  t<  t 
the  Cathedral  of  S.  Maria  del 
Fiore  and  the  Campanile.  The 
latter — representing  Philosophy 
Arithmetic,  Grammar,  Orpheus, 
and  Tubalcain  (1437) — are  st 
in  character.  For  the  organ-gallery  of  the  cathe- 
dral he  made  the  famous  panels  of  the  Cantorie, 
groups  of  boys  singing  and  playing  upon  musical  in- 
struments (1431-8),  now  in  the  Museo  del  Duomo. 
For  the  north  sacristy  he  made  a  bronze  door;  figures 
of  angels  bearing  candles  and  a  fine  glazed  earthen- 
ware relief  of  Christ  rising  from  the  tomb  over  the 
entrance  are  also  of  his  execution.  Above  the  en- 
trance to  the  southern  sacristy  he  made  the  Ascension 
(1446).  From  this  time  on,  Luca  seems  to  have  worked 
almost  entirely  in  his  new  ware.  The  medium 
was  not  unknown,  but  by  dint  of  experimenting  he 
brought  his  material  to  great  perfection.  The  colours 
are  brilliant,  fresh,  and  beautiful  in  quality,  the  blue 
especially  being  quite  inimitable.  The  stanniferous 
glaze,  or  enamel,  contained  various  minerals  and  was 
Luca's  own  secret;  in  the  firing,  it  became  exceed- 
ingly hard,  durable,  and  bright.  Luca's  design  is 
generally  an  architectural  setting  with  a  very  few 
figures,  or  half  figures,  and  rich  borders  of  fruits  and 
flowers.  He  excels  in  simplicity  and  loveliness  of 
composition.  His  madonnas  have  great  charm, 
dignity,  and  grace.  In  the  earlier  productions  colour 
is  used  only  for  the  background,  for  the  stems  and 


LUC.V    DELM.    IlOBBI.\ 

Detail  from  the  fresco  by  Vasari,  in  the 
Palazzo  Vecchio,  Florence 

somewhat  Gothic 


leaves  of  lilies,  and  the  eyes;  an  occasional  touch  of 
gold  is  added  in  coronal  or  lettering.  Later  Luca 
used  colour  more  freely.  The  Delia  Robbia  earthen- 
wares are  so  fresh  and  beautiful  and  so  decorative 
that  even  in  Luca's  time  they  were  immediately  in 
great  request.  They  are  seen  at  their  best  in  Florence. 
A  few  of  the  principal  ones  are:  the  crucifix  at  S. 
Miniato  and  the  ceiling  of  the  chapel  in  which  it  is 
found;  the  medallions  of  the  vault  (centre,  the  Holy 
Ghost;  corners,  the  Virtues)  in  the  chapel  of  Cardinal 
Jacopo  of  Portugal,  also  at  S.  Miniato;  the  decora- 
tions of  the  Pazzi  chapel  at  Sta.  Croce;  the  armorial 
bearings  of  the  Arti  at  Or  San  Michele;  the  Madonna 
of  S.  Pierino;  the  exquisite  street  lunette  of  Our  Lady 
and  Angels  in  the  Via  dell'  Agnolo ;  the  tomb  of  Bishop 
Benozzo  Federighi  at  the  Sta.  Trinity ;  and,  in  the 
Bargello,  the  Madonna  of  the  Roses,  the  Madonna 
of  the  Apple,  and  a  number  of  equally  fine  reliefs. 
Of  his  works  outside  Florence  may  be  mentioned: 
the  Madonna  at  Urbino;  the  tabernacle  at  Im- 
pruneta,  the  vault  panels  of  S. 
Giobbe,  Venice  (sometimes  said 
to  be  by  the  school  only) ;  medal- 
lions of  Justice  and  Temperance, 
Museum  of  Cluny,  Paris;  arms 
of  Rened'Anjou,  London,  South 
Kensington  Museum,  and  other 
works  in  Naples,  Sicily,  and  else- 
where. The  admirable  and 
much  disputed  group  of  the 
Visitation  at  S.  Giovanni  Fuor- 
civitas,  Pistoia,  is  attributed 
both  to  Luca  and  to  Andrea. 

Barbet  de  Jouy,  Les  Della  Robbia 
(Paris,  1855);  MOntz,  Hist,  de  I'Art 
■pendant  la  Renaissance  (Paris,  1895); 
Reymond,  Les  Della  Robbia  (Florence, 
1897);  Crutwell,  Luca  and  Andrea 
Delia  Robbia  (London,  1902). 

M.  L.  Handley. 

Robert,  Saint,  founder  of 
the  Abbey  of  Chaise-Dieu  in 
Auvergne,  b.  at  Aurillac,  Au- 
vergne,  about  1000;  d.  in  Au- 
vergne, 1067.  On  his  father's 
side  he  belonged  to  the  family 
of  the  Counts  of  Aurillac,  who 
had  given  birth  to  St.  G<iraud. 
He  studied  at  Brioude  near  the 
basilica  of  St-Julien,  in  a  school 
open  to  the  nobility  of  Auvergne 
by  the  canons  of  that  city.  Hav- 
ing entered  their  community, 
and  being  ordained  priest,  Robert  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  piety,  charity,  apostolic  zeal,  eloquent 
discourses,  and  the  gift  of  miracles.  For  about  forty 
years  he  remained  at  Cluny  in  order  to  live  under  the 
rule  of  his  compatriot  saint,  Abb6  Odilo.  Brought 
back  by  force  to  Brioude,  he  started  anew  for  Rome  in 
order  to  consult  the  pope  on  his  project.  Benedict  IX 
encouraged  him  to  retire  with  two  companions  to  the 
wooded  plateau  south-east  of  Auvergne.  Here  he  built 
a  hermitage  under  the  name  of  Chaise-Dieu  (CasaDei). 
The  renown  of  his  virtues  having  brought  him  numer- 
ous disciples,  he  was  obliged  to  build  a  monastery, 
which  he  placed  under  the  rule  of  Saint  Benedict 
(1050).  Leo  IX  erected  the  Abbey  of  Chaise-Dieu, 
which  became  one  of  the  most  flourishing  in  Christen- 
dom. At  the  death  of  Robert  it  numbered  300  monks 
and  had  sent  multitudes  all  through  the  centre  of 
France.  Robert  also  founded  a  community  of  women 
at  Lavadieu  near  Brioude.  Through  the  elevation  of 
Pierre  Roger,  monk  of  Chaise-Dieu,  to  the  sovereign 
pontificate,  under  the  name  of  Clement  VI,  the  abbey 
reached  the  height  of  its  glory.  The  body  of  Saint 
Robert,  preserved  therein,  was  burned  by  the  Hugue- 
nots during  the  religious  wars.  His  work  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  French  Revolution,  but  there  remain 


ROBERT 


96 


ROBERT 


for  the  admiration  of  tourists,  the  vast  church,  cloister, 
tomb  of  Clement  VI,  and  Clementine  Tower.  The 
feast -dav  of  St.  Robert  is  24  April. 

L^BBE.'BiW.  nora.  II.  6.37.  646,  659;  Ada  SS.,  April,  III. 
318-34;  M^BiLLOX,  Ada  S.O.S.  Benedidi,  VI.  ii,  188-222; 
Annalts  O.S.  Benedicti.  V,  1-9,  80-110;  Branche,  Lfs  monaslires 
d'Autergnr.  97-117.  129—14;  Mossier,  Les  Saints  d'Aurergne,  I 
(P'arU.  1900).  412-47.  A.    FoURXET. 

Robert  Johnson  (Richardson),  Blessed.  See 
Thomas  Ford.  Blessed. 

Robert  Laurence,  Blessed.  See  John  HotTGHTON, 
Blessed. 

Robert  of  Arbrissel,  itinerant  preacher,  founder  of 
Fontevrault,  b.  c.  1047  at  Arbrissel  (now  Arbressec) 
near  Rhetiers.  Brittany;  d.  at  Or.san,  probably  1117. 
Robert  studied  in  Paris  during  the  pontificate  of  Greg- 
or>-  VII,  perhaps  under  Anselm  of  Laon  and  later 
displayed  consitlerable  theological  knowledge.  The 
date  and  place  of  his  ordination  are  unknown.  In 
10S9  he  was  recalled  to  his  native  Diocese  of  Rennes 
by  Bishop  Sylvester  de  la  Guerche,  who  desired  to 
reform  his  flock.  As  archpriest,  Robert  devoted 
himself  to  the  suppression  of  simony,  lay  investiture, 
clerical  concubinage,  irregular  marriages,  and  to 
the  healing  of  feuds.  This  reforming  zeal  aroused 
such  enmity  that  upon  Sylvester's  death  in  1093, 
Robert  was  "compelled  to  leave  the  diocese.  He  went 
to  Angers  and  there  commenced  ascetic  practices 
which  he  continued  throughout  his  life.  In  1095 
he  became  a  hermit  in  the  forest  of  Craon  (s.  w.  of 
Laval),  living  a  life  of  severest  penance  in  the  com- 
pany of  Bernard,  afterwards  founder  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  Tiron.  Vitalis,  founder  of  Savigny,  and  others 
of  considerable  note.  His  piety,  eloquence,  and 
strong  personality  attracted  many  followers,  for 
whom  in  1096  he  founded  the  monastery  of  Canons 
Regular  of  La  Ro6,  becoming  him.self  the  first  abbot. 
In  the  same  year  Urljan  II  summoned  him  to  Angers 
and  appointed  him  a  "preacher  {seminiverhus,  cf. 
Acts  17,  18)  second  only  to  himself  with  orders  to 
travel  everywhere  in  the  performance  of  this  duty" 
(Vita  Baldrici). 

There  is  no  evidence  that  Robert  assisted  Urban 
to  preach  the  Crusade,  for  his  theme  was  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  world  and  especially  poverty.  Living 
in  the  utmo.st  destitution,  he  addressed  himself  to 
the  poor  and  would  have  his  followers  known  only 
as  the  "poor  of  Christ",  while  the  ideal  he  put  for- 
ward was  "In  nakedness  to  follow  Christ  naked  upon 
the  Cross".  His  eloquence,  heightened  by  his 
strikingly  a,scetic  appearance,  drew  crowds  every- 
where. Those  who  desired  to  embrace  the  monastic 
state  under  his  leaxlership  he  sent  to  La  Ro6,  but  the 
Canons  objected  to  the  number  and  diversity  of  the 
postulants,  and  between  1097  and  1100  Robert  for- 
mally resigned  his  aVjbacy,  and  founded  Fontevrault 
(q.  v.).  His  disciples  were  of  every  age  and  condi- 
tion, including  even  lepers  and  converted  prostitutes. 
Robert  e/)ntinued  his  mi.ssionary  journeys  over  the 
whole  of  We.Ktem  France  till  the  end  of  his  life,  but 
little  is  known  of  this  period.  At  the  Council  of 
Poitiers,  Nov.,  llfX),  he  supported  the  papal  legates 
in  exr/jmmunicating  Philip  of  France  on  account  of 
his  lawless  union  with  Bertrafle  de  Mont  fort;  in 
1110  he  atfentlf^l  the  Coiincil  of  Nantes.  Knowledge 
of  his  approaf;liing  deatli  cau.sed  him  to  take  steps  to 
ensure  the  permanence  of  his  foundation  at  Fonte- 
vrault. He  impose/l  a  vow  of  stability  on  his  monks 
and  summoned  a  Chapter  (September,  1116)  to  settle 
the  form  of  government.  Yroxn  Ha>itebruy(>re,  a  priory 
founded  by  the  |M;nitent  Bertraxie,  he  went  to  Orsan, 
another  prior>'  of  Fontevrault,  where  he  died.  The 
"Vita  Andrea,'"  gives  a  detailed  account  of  his  last 
year  of  life. 

\\()\)cx\  was  never  canonized.  The  accusation  made 
against  him  by  Geoffrey  of  Venclome  of  exf  reme  indis- 
cretion in  his  choice  of  exceptional  ascetic  practices  (see 


P.  L.,  CLVII,  182)  was  the  source  of  much  controversy 
during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
Other  evidence  of  eccentric  actions  on  Robert's  part 
and  scandals  among  his  mixed  followers  may  have 
helped  to  give  rise  to  these  rumors.  The  Fontcvrists 
did  everything  in  tlieir  power  to  discredit  the  attacks 
on  their  founder.  The  accusatory  letters  of  Marbodius 
of  Rennes  and  Geoffrey  of  Vendome  were  without  suf- 
ficient cause  declared  to  be  forgeries  and  the  MS. 
letter  of  Peter  of  Saumur  was  made  away  with,  prob- 
ably at  the  instigation  of  Jeanne  Baptiste  de  Bourbon, 
Abbess  of  Fontevrault.  This  natural  daughter  of 
Henry  IV  applied  to  Innocent  X  for  the  beatification 
of  Robert,  her  request  being  supported  by  Louis  XIV 
and  Henrietta  of  England.  Both  this  attempt  and  one 
made  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
failed,  but  Robert  is  usually  given  the  title  of  "Bles- 
sed". The  original  recension  of  tlie  Rule  of  Fonte- 
vrault no  longer  exists;  the  only  surviving  writing  of 
Robert  is  his  letter  of  exhortation  to  Ermengarde  of 
Brittany  (ed.  Petignv  in  "Bib.  der6cole  des  Chartes", 
1854,  V,  iii). 

Acta  SS.,  Feb.,  Ill,  593  sqq.,  contains  two  ancient  lives  by 
Baldric  of  Dol  and  the  monk  Andrew;  Petigny,  Robert 
d'Arbissel  et  Geffroi  de  Venddme  in  Bib.  de  Vfcole  des  Chartes; 
Walter,  Erslen  Wanderprediger  Frankreichs,  I  (Leipzig,  1903), 
a  modern  scientific  book;  Idem,  Excurs,  II  (1906);  Boehmkr  in 
Theologische  Lileraturzeitung,  XXIX,  col.  330,  396,  a  hostile 
review.  RaymUND   WebSTER. 

Robert  of  Courgon  (De  Cursone,  De  Cursim, 
CuRsus,  etc.),  cardinal,  b.  at  Kedleston,  England; 
d.  at  Damietta,  1218.  After  having  studied  at  Ox- 
ford, Paris,  and  Rome,  he  became  in  1211  Chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Paris;  in  1212  he  was  made 
Cardinal  of  St.  Stephen  on  the  Ca;lian  Hill;  in  1213 
he  was  appointed  legate  a  latere  to  preach  the  crusade, 
and  in  1215  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  commission 
to  inquire  into  the  errors  prevalent  at  the  University 
of  Paris.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  campaign 
again.st  heresy  in  France,  and  accompanied  the  army 
of  the  Crusaders  into  Egypt  as  legate  of  Honorius 
III.  He  died  during  the  siege  of  Damietta.  He  is 
the  author  of  several  works,  including  a  "Summa" 
devoted  to  questions  of  canon  law  and  ethics  and 
dealing  at  length  with  the  question  of  usury.  His 
interference  in  the  affairs  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
in  the  midst  of  the  confusion  arising  from  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Arabian  translations  of  Aristotle, 
resulted  in  the  proscription  (1215)  of  the  metaphysical 
as  well  as  the  physical  treatises  of  the  Stagyrite, 
together  with  the  summaries  thereof  (Summa?  de 
eisdem).  At  the  same  time,  his  rescript  (Denifle, 
"Chartul.  Univ.  Paris",  I,  78)  renews  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  Pantheists,  David  of  Dinant,  and  Amaury 
of  Bene,  but  permits  the  u.se,  as  texts,  of  Aristotle's 
" Ethics"  and  logical  treat  ises.  The  rescript  also  con- 
tains several  enactments  relating  to  academic  discipline. 

Denifle,  Chartul.  Univ.  Paris.  1  (Paris,  1889),  72,  78;  Db 
WuLF,  //v.4.  of  Medieval  Phil.,  tr.  Coffey  (New  York,  1909),  252. 

William  Turner. 

Robert  of  Geneva,  antipope  under  the  name  of 
Clement  VII,  b.  at  (Jeneva,  1342;  d.  at  Avignon,  16 
Sept.,  1394.  He  was  the  son  of  Count  Amadeus  III. 
Appointed  prothonotary  Apostolic  in  1359,  he  became 
Bishop  of  Th<;rouanne  in  1361,  Archbishop  of  Cam- 
brai  in  1368,  and  cardinal  30  May,  1371.  As  papal 
legate  in  Up[)er  Italy  (1376-78),  in  order  to  put  down 
a  rebellion  in  the  Pontifical  States,  he  is  said  to  have 
authorized  the  m{i,ssacre  of  4000  persons  at  Cesena, 
and  was  consequently  called  "the  executioner  of 
Cesena".  Elected  to  the  papacy  at  Fondi,  20  Sept., 
1378.  by  the  French  cardinals  in  opposition  to  Urban 
VI,  he  was  the  first  antipope  of  the  (jlnjat  Schism. 
France,  Scotland,  Castih;,  Aragon,  Navarre,  Portugal. 
Savoy,  some  minor  German  states,  Denmark,  ana 
Norway  acknowledged  his  authority.  Unable  to 
maintain  himself  in  Italy  he  took  up  his  residence  at 
Avignon,   when;   he   became   completely   dependent 


ROBERT 


97 


ROBERT 


on  the  French  Court.  He  created  excellent  cardinals, 
but  donated  the  larger  part  of  the  Pontifical  States 
to  Louis  II  of  Anjou,  resorted  to  simony  and  extortion 
to  meet  the  financial  needs  of  his  court,  and  seems 
never  to  have  sincerely  desired  the  termination  of 
the  Schism. 

Baluze,  Vita  Paparum  Avenionensium,  I  (Paris,  1693),  486 
sqq.;  Salembier,  The  Great  Schism  of  the  West  (tr.  New  York, 
1907),  passim.  N,   A.   Weber. 

Robert  of  Jumieges,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1051-2).  Rohcit  ClKiinpart  was  a  Norman  monk  of 
St.  Ouen  at  lioucn  and  was  prior  of  that  house  when 
in  1037  he  was  elected  Abbot  of  Jumieges.  As  abbot 
he  began  to  build  the  fine  Xorman  abbey-church,  and 
at  this  time  he  was  able  to  be  of  service  to  St.  Edward 
the  Confessor,  then  an  exile.  When  Edward  returned 
to  England  as  king  in  1043  Robert  accompanied  him 
and  was  made  Bishop  of  London  in  1044.  In  this 
capacity  he  became  the  head  of  the  Norman  party  in 
opposition  to  the  Saxon  party  under  Godwin,  and 
exerted  supreme  influence  over  the  king.  In  1051 
Robert  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Canterbury'  and 
went  to  Rome  for  his  pall,  but  the  appointment  was 
very  unpopular  among  the  English  clergy  who  re- 
sented the  intrusion  of  a  foreigner  into  the  metro- 
politan see.  For  a  time  he  was  successful  in  opposing 
Godwin  even  to  the  extent  of  instigating  his  exile, 
but  when  Godwin  returned  in  1052  Robert  fled  to 
Rome  and  was  outlawed  by  the  Witenagemot.  The 
pope  reinstated  him  in  his  see,  but  he  could  not  regain 
possession  of  it,  and  ^\'illiam  of  Normandy  made  his 
continued  exclusion  one  of  his  pretexts  for  invading 
England.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  at 
Jumieges,  but  the  precise  date  of  his  death  has  not 
been  ascertained,  though  Robert  de  Torigni  states  it 
as  26  May,  1055.  The  valuable  liturgical  MS.  of  the 
"Missal  of  Robert  of  Jumieges",  now  at  Rouen,  was 
given  by  him,  when  Bishop  of  London  to  the  abbey 
at  Jumieges. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  ed.  Thorpe,  R.  S.  (London, 
1861);  Vita  Eadwanli  in  LcaRD,  Lives  of  Edward  the  Confessor, 
R.  S.  (London,  1858);  William  of  Malmesbury,  Gesta  Ponti- 
ficum;  P.  L.,  CXLL  1441,  giving  one  of  his  charters;  Wilso:<, 
The  Missal  of  Robert  of  Jumieges  (London,  1896);  Hook,  Lives 
of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  (London,  1865-75);  Hcnt  in 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog.;  Searle,  Anglo-Saxon  Bishops,  Nobles,  and 
Kings  (Cambridge,  1899) ;  Obituary  of  the  Abbey  of  Jumiiges  in 
Recueil  des  Hisloriens,  XXIII  (Rouen,  1872),  419. 

Edwin  Burton. 
Robert  of  Lincoln.     See  Grosseteste. 

Robert  of  Luzarches  (Lus),  b.  at  Luzarches  near 
Pontoise  towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century; 
is  said  to  have  been  summoned  to  Paris  by  Philip 
Augustus  who  employed  him  in  beautifying  the  city, 
and  to  have  had  a  share  in  the  work  on  Notre  Dame. 
The  real  fame  of  this  master  is,  however,  connected 
with  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  in  Amiens.  The 
old  cathedral  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1218  and  Bishop 
Evrard  de  Fouilloy  had  it  rebuilt  in  Gothic  style. 
An  inscription  made  in  1288  in  the  "labyrinth"  of 
the  floor  (now  removed)  testified  that  the  building 
had  been  begun  in  1220,  and  names  "Robert,  called 
of  Luzarches",  as  the  architect,  and  as  his  successors, 
Thomas  de  Cormont  and  the  latter's  son.  The  work 
was  completed  in  later  centuries.  Viollet-le-Duc 
sees  a  fact  of  great  significance  in  the  employment  of 
the  layman,  Robert;  but  it  is  not  accurate  that  in 
Romanesque  times  the  architects  were  always  bish- 
ops, priests,  or  monks;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
since  the  Gothic  period  the  Church  relinquished  the 
direction  of  church-building  so  entirely  as  is  now  be- 
lieved. Robert  was  not  long  employed  on  the  cathe- 
dral. Under  the  successor  of  Bishop  Evrard,  who 
apparently  died  in  1222,  Cormont  appears  as  the 
architect.  Before  1240  the  work  had  grown  up  to  the 
vault.  About  1270  Bishop  Bernard  put  a  choir 
window  in  the  provisionally  completed  cathedral. 
An  intended  alteration  of  the  original  plan  was  not 
XIII.— 7 


used  in  the  finished  building,  so  that  the  whole  re- 
mains a  splendid  monument  to  Robert.  In  his  day 
it  was  already  called  the  "Gothic  Parthenon". 
Gracefully  built  and  better  lighted  than  several  of  the 
large  churches  of  France,  there  is  yet,  especially  about 
the  fa9ade,  a  majestic  severity.  It  is  more  spacious 
than  Notre  Dame  in  Paris  and  considerably  larger 
than  the  cathedral  of  Reims.  The  former  is  effec- 
tive tlirough  its  quiet  simplicity,  which  amounts  to 
austerity;  the  latter  is  less  rich  in  the  modelling 
of  choir,  windows,  and  triforium.  But  Robert's 
creation  became  a  standard  far  and  near,  tlirough 
France  and  beyond,  on  account  of  the  successful 
manner  in  which  weight  and  strength  are  counter- 
balanced and  of  the  consistently  Gothic  style.  The 
design  presents  a  middle  aisle  and  two  side  aisles, 
though  the  choir  has  five  aisles  and  the  tran.sept  has 
the  width  of  seven  aisles.  The  choir  is  flanked  by 
seven  chapels;  that  in  the  centre  (the  Lady  chapel) 
projecting  beyond  the  others  in  French  style.  The 
majestic  and  harmonious  interior  is  surpassed  in 
beauty  by  few  cathedrals.  The  nave  is  about  470 
ft.  in  length,  164  ft.  in  breadth  (213  ft.  in  the  transept), 
and  141  ft.  in  height.  A  poet  writes  aptly,  "Fabrica 
nil  demi  patitur  nee  sustinet  addi"  (It  is  not  possible 
to  add  anything  to  or  to  take  anything  from  it). 

G.    GlETMANN. 

Robert  of  Melun  (De  Melduno;  Melidensis; 
Meliduxus),  an  English  philosopher  and  theologian, 
b.  in  England  about  1100;  d.  at  Hereford,  1167.  He 
gets  his  surname  from  Melun,  near  Paris,  where, 
after  having  studied  under  Hugh  of  St.  Victor  and 
probably  Abelard,  he  taught  philosophy  and  theology. 
Among  his  pupils  were  John  of  Salisbury  and  Thomas  k 
Becket.  Through  the  influence  of  the  latter  he  was 
made  Bishop  of  Hereford  in  1163.  Judging  from  the 
tributes  paid  him  by  John  of  Salisbury  in  the  "Me- 
talogicus"  (P.  L.,  CXCIX),  Robert  must  have  en- 
joyed great  renown  as  a  teacher.  On  the  question 
of  Universals,  which  agitated  the  schools  in  those 
days,  he  opposed  the  nominaUsm  of  Roscelin  and 
seemed  to  favour  a  doctrine  of  moderate  realism. 
His  principal  work,  "Summa  Theologiae"  or  "Summa 
Sententiarum"  is  .still  in  MS.,  except  portions  which 
have  been  published  by  Du  Boulay  in  his  "Historia 
Univ.  Paris",  ii,  585  sqq.  He  also  wrote  "Quajstiones 
de  Divina  Pagina"  and  "Quaestiones  de  Epistoha 
Pauli",  both  of  which  are  kept  in  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale.  Those  who  have  examined  the  "Summa" 
pronounce  it  to  be  of  great  value  in  tracing  the  his- 
tory of  scholastic  doctrines. 

Materials  for  the  History  of  Thomas  Becket  in  Rer.  Britt.  SS. 
contains  valuable  data;  De  Wulf,  Hist,  of  Medieval  Phil.,  tr. 
Coffey  (New  York,  1909),  210;  Haureac,  Hist,  de  la  phil.  scol. 
(Paris,  1872),  490  sqq.  WiLLIAM   TURNER. 

Robert  of  Molesme,  Saint,  b.  about  the  year 
1029,  at  Champagne,  France,  of  noble  parents  who 
bore  the  names  of  Thierry  and  Ermengarde;  d.  at 
Molesme,  17  April,  1111.  When  fifteen  years  of  age, 
he  commenced  his  novitiate  in  the  Abbey  of  Montier- 
la-Celle,  or  St.  Pierre-la-Celle,  situated  near  Troyes, 
of  which  he  became  later  prior.  In  1068  he  succeeded 
Hunaut  II  as  Abbot  of  St.  Michael  de  Tonnerre,  in  the 
Diocese  of  Langres.  About  this  time  a  band  of  seven 
anchorites  who  lived  in  the  forest  of  Collan,  in  the 
same  diocese,  sought  to  have  Robert  for  their  chief, 
but  the  monks,  despite  their  constant  resistance  to  his 
authority,  insisted  on  keeping  their  abbot  who  enjoyed 
so  great  a  reputation,  and  was  the  ornament  of  their 
house.  Their  intrigues  determined  Robert  to  resign 
his  charge  in  1071,  and  seek  refuge  in  the  monastery 
of  Montier-la-Celle.  The  same  year  he  was  placed 
over  the  priory  of  St.  Ayoul  de  Provins,  which  de- 
pended on  Montier-la-Celle.  Meantime  two  of  the 
hermits  of  Collan  went  to  Rome  and  besought  Gregory 
VII  to  give  them  the  prior  of  Provins  for  their  supe- 


ROBERT 


98 


ROBERTS 


rior.  The  pope  granted  their  request,  and  in  1074 
Robert  initiated  the  hermits  of  Collan  in  the  monastic 
life.  As  the  location  at  Collan  was  found  unsuitable, 
Robert  founded  a  monastery  at  Molesme  in  the  valley 
of  Langres  at  the  close  of  1075.  To  Molesme  as  a 
guest  came  the  distinguished  canon  and  doctor 
Xecxyl&irc)  of  Reims,  Bruno,  who,  in  1082,  placed  him- 
self under  the  direction  of  Robert,  before  founding  the 
celebrated  order  of  the  Chart reux.  At  this  time  the 
primitive  discipline  was  still  in  its  full  vigour,  and  the 
religious  lived  by  the  labour  of  their  hands.  Soon, 
however,  the  monastery  became  wealthy  through  a 
number  of  donations,  and  with  wealth,  despite  the 
vigilance  of  the  abbot,  came  laxity  of  discipline. 
Robert  endeavoured  to  restore  the  primitive  strict- 
ness, but  the  monks  showed  so  much  resistance  that 
he  abdicated,  and  left  the  care  of  his  community  to 
his  prior,  Alberic,  who  retired  in  1093.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  returned  with  Robert  to  Molesme.  On  29 
Nov.,  1095,  Urban  II  confirmed  the  institute  of 
Molesme.  In  109S  Robert,  still  unable  to  reform  his 
rebellious  monks,  obtained  from  Hugues,  Archbishop 
of  Lyons  and  Legate  of  the  Holy  See,  authority  to 
found  a  new  order  on  new  lines.  Twenty-one  religious 
left  Molesme  and  set  out  joyfully  for  a  desert  called 
Citeaux  in  the  Diocese  of  Chalons,  and  the  Abbey  of 
Citeaux  (q.  v.)  was  founded  21  March,  1098. 

Left  to  themselves,  the  monks  of  Molesme  appealed 
to  the  pope,  and  Robert  was  restored  to  Molesme, 
which  thereafter  became  an  ardent  centre  of  monastic 
life.  Robert  died  17  April,  1111,  and  was  buried 
with  great  pomp  in  the  church  of  the  abbey.  Pope 
Honorius  III  by  Letters  Apostolic  in  1222  authorized 
his  veneration  in  the  church  of  Molesme,  and  soon 
after  the  veneration  of  St.  Robert  was  extended  to  the 
whole  Church  by  a  pontifical  Decree.  The  feast  was 
fixed  at  first  on  17  April,  but  later  it  was  transferred 
to  29  April.  The  Abbey  of  Molesme  existed  up  to  the 
French  Revolution.  The  remains  of  the  holy  founder 
are  preserved  in  the  parish  church. 

VOa  S.  Roberti,  Abbalis  Molismensis,  auclore monacho  molismensi 
lab  Adone,  atjb.  sire.  XII;  Exordium  Cisterciensis  Cenobii;  Cui- 
ONABD,  Leu  Monuments  primitifs  de  la  Regie  Cistercienne  (Dijon, 
1878j;  William  OF  Malmesbcry,  Bk.  I.De  rebus  gestis  Anglorum, 
P.  L.,CLXXIX;  Lacren-t,  Carl,  de  Molesme,  Bk.  I  (Paris,  1907). 

F.  M.  Gild  AS. 

Robert  of  Newminster,  Saint,  b.  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Craven,  Yorkshire,  probably  at  the  village 
of  Gargrave;  d.  7  June,  1159.  He  studied  at  the 
University  of  Paris,  where  he  is  said  to  have  composed 
a  commentarj' on  the  Psalms;  became  parish  priest  at 
Gargrave,  and  later  a  Benedictine  at  Whitby,  from 
where,  with  the  abbot's  permission,  he  joined  the 
founders  of  the  Cistercian  monastery  of  Fountains. 
About  1138  he  headed  the  first  colony  sent  out  from 
Fountains  and  established  the  Abbey  of  Newminster 
near  the  castle  of  Ralph  de  Merlay,  at  Morpeth  in 
Northumberland.  During  his  abbacy  three  colonies 
of  monks  were  sent  out;  monasteries  were  founded: 
Pipfjwel!  (1143),  Roche  (1147)  and  Sawley  (1148). 
Capgrave's  life  tells  that  an  accusation  of  misconduct 
was  brought  against  him  by  his  own  monks  and  that 
he  went  abroa/1  (1147-8),  to  defend  himself  before 
St.  Bernard,  but  doubt  has  been  cast  upon  the  truth 
of  this  Htx)r>',  which  may  have  ariwm  from  a  desire 
to  a«w>ciate  tlie  English  saint  personally  with  the 
greaUtfit  of  the  Cistercians.  His  tomb  in  the  church 
of  NewmmKter  became  an  object  of  pilgrimage; 
hlH  fe^aKt  is  kept  on  7  .June. 

/»j*i  ,S.S  Jiin.-.  II,  47-8;  Dawairnh,  The  Cintercian  Saint,,  of 
Bn^Uirul  'lyjri'lori,  1814);  Hakdt.  Denrriptive  Catalogue.  II,  282; 
MCLLEK,  III.  Robert  ron  Newmtnnler  jn  CUtercienner  Chronik,  V 
{Mehrerau.    ]Hmn    ChnrtuUirium    AbbaluK   de   Novo   Mona^tleric 

(Hums.  K,.,.  ,H78).  Raymund  Webster. 

Robert  Pullus  (Pullen,  Puli.an,  Pully),  car- 
dinal. Knghsh  philosopher  and  theologian,  of  the 
twelfth  century,  b.  m  England  about  1080;  d.  1)47- 
50.     He  secmH  U)  have  studied  in  Paris  in  the  firet 


decades  of  the  twelfth  century.  In  1153  he  began  to 
teach  at  O.xford,  being  among  the  first  of  the  cele- 
brated teachers  in  the  schools  which  were  afterwards 
organized  into  the  University  of  Oxford.  After  the 
death  of  Henry  II  he  returned  to  Paris;  thence  he 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  appointed  cardinal  and 
Chancellor  of  the  Apostolic  See.  His  influence  was 
always  on  the  side  of  orthodo.xy  and  against  the  en- 
croachments of  the  rationalistic  tendency  represented 
by  Abelard.  This  we  know  from  the  biography  of 
St.  Bernard  \^Titten  by  William  of  St.  Thierry,  and 
from  his  letters.  Robert  wrote  a  compendium  of 
theology,  entitled  "Sententiarum  Theologicarum  Libri 
Octo",  which,  for  a  time,  held  its  place  in  the  schools 
of  Western  Europe  as  the  official  text  book  in  theology. 
It  was,  however,  supplanted  by  the  "Libri  Senten- 
tiarum" of  Peter  the  Lombard,  compared  with 
whom  Robert  seems  to  have  been  more  inclined  to 
strict  interpretation  of  ecclesiastical  tradition  than 
to  yield  to  the  growing  demands  of  the  dialectical 
method  in  theology  and  philosophy.  The  Lombard, 
however,  finally  gained  recognition  and  decided  the 
fate  of  scholastic  theology  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
Robert's  "Summa"  was  first  published  by  the  Bene- 
dictine Dom  Mathoud  (Paris,  1055).  It  is  reprinted 
in  Migne  (P.  L.,  CLXXXVI,  639  sqq.). 

Hauh]6au,  Hist,  de  la  phil.  scol,  I  (Paris,  1872),  483  sqq. 

William  Turner. 

Roberts,  John,  Venerable,  first  Prior  of  St. 
Gregory's,  Douai  (now  Downside  Abbey),  b.  1575-6; 
martyred  10  December,  1610.  He  was  the  son  of  John 
and  Anna  Roberts  of  Trawsfynydd,  Merionethshire, 
N.  Wales.  He  matriculated  at  St.  John's  College, 
Oxford,  in  February,  1595-6,  but  left  after  two  years 
without  taking  a  degree  and  entered  as  a  law  student 
at  one  of  the  Inns  of  Court.  In  1.598  he  travelled  on 
the  continent  and  in  Paris,  through  the  influence  of  a 
Catholic  fellow-countryman,  was  converted.  By  the 
advice  of  John  Cecil,  an  English  priest  who  afterwards 
became  a  Government  spy,  he  decided  to  enter  the 
English  college  at  Valladolid,  where  he  was  admitted 
18  October,  1.598.  The  following  year,  however,  he 
left  the  college  for  the  Abbey  of  St.  Benedict,  Vallado- 
lid; whence,  after  some  months,  he  was  sent  to  make 
his  novitiate  in  the  great  Abbey  of  St.  Martin  at 
Compostella  wiiere  lie  made  his  profession  towards  the 
end  of  1600.  Ilis  studios  coiiiplctcd  he  was  ordained, 
and  set  out  for  England  2(5  Dcccinbcr,  1602.  Although 
observed  by  a  Government  spy,  Roberts  and  his  com- 
panions succeeded  in  entering  the  country  in  April, 
1603;  but,  his  arrival  being  known,  he  was  arrested 
and  banished  on  13  May  following.  He  reached  Douai 
on  24  May  and  soon  managed  to  return  to  England 
where  belaboured  zealously  among  the  plague-stricken 
people  in  London.  In  1604,  while  embarking  for  Spain 
with  four  postulants,  he  was  again  arrested,  but  not 
being  recognizcil  as  a  priest  was  soon  released  and 
banished,  but  returned  again  at  once.  On  5  Novem- 
ber, 1605,  while  Justice  Grange  was  searching  the 
house  of  Mrs.  Percy,  first  wife  of  Thomas  Percy,  who 
was  involved  in  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  he  found  K()l)ert8 
there  and  arrested  him.  Though  acciuittcd  of  any 
complicity  in  the  plot  itself,  Roberts  was  imprisoned 
in  the  Gatehouse  at  Westminster  for  seven  months 
and  then  exiled  anew  in  July,  1606. 

This  time  he  was  absent  for  some  fourteen  months, 
nearly  all  of  which  he  spent  at  Douai  where  he  founded 
a  house  for  the  English  Benedictine  monk.s  who  had 
entered  various  Spanish  monasteries.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Gregory  at  Douai 
which  still  exists  as  Down.side  Abbey,  near  Bath, 
England.  In  October,  1607,  Roberts  returned  to 
England,  was  again  arrested  in  December  and  placed 
in  the  Gatehouse,  from  which  he  contrived  to  escape 
after  some  months.  He  now  lived  for  about  a  year  in 
London  and  was  again  taken  some  time  before  May, 


ROBERT 


99 


ROCABERTI 


1609,  in  which  month  he  was  taken  to  Newgate  and 
would  have  been  executed  but  for  the  intercession  of 
de  la  Broderie,  the  French  ambassador,  whose  petition 
reduced  the  sentence  to  banishment.  Roberts  again 
visited  Spain  and  Douai,  but  returned  to  England 
within  a  year,  knowing  that  his  death  was  certain  if 
he  were  again  captured.  This  event  took  place  on  2 
December,  1610;  the  pursuivants  arriving  just  as  he 
was  concluding  Mass,  took  him  to  Newgate  in  his 
vestments.  On  5  December  he  was  tried  and  found 
guilty  under  the  Act  forbidding  priests  to  minister  in 
England,  and  on  10  December  was  hanged,  drawn, 
and  quartered  at  Tyburn.  The  body  of  Roberts  was 
recovered  and  taken  to  St.  Gregory's,  Douai,  but  dis- 
appeared during  the  French  Revolution.  Two  fingers 
are  still  preserved  at  Downside  and  Erdington  Abbeys 
respectively  and  a  few  minor  relics  exist.  At  Erding- 
ton also  is  a  unique  contemporary  engraving  of  the 
martyrdom  which  has  been  reproduced  in  the  "  Dov\ti- 
side  Review"  (XXIV,  286).  The  introduction  of  the 
cause  of  beatification  was  approved  by  Leo  XIII  in  his 
Decree  of  4  December,  1886. 

The  earlier  accounts  given  by  Challoner,  Dod  (Dodd),  Plow- 
den,  and  Foley  are  misleading,  as  they  confound  John  Roberts 
the  Benedictine  with  an  earlier  priest  of  the  same  name.  This  has 
been  shown  conclusively  by  Camm,  whose  work  is  the  best  on  the 
subject.  Yepes,  Coronicn  general  de  la  Orden  de  San  Benito,  IV 
(Valladoiid,  1613),  folios  58-63;  Pollen,  Acts  of  English  Martyrs 
(London,  1891),  143-70;  Camm,  A  Benedictine  Martyr  in  England, 
Being  the  Life  .  .  .  of  Dom  John  Roberts  O.S.B.  (London, 
1897) ;  Idem,  The  Martyrdom  of  V.  John  Roberts  in  Downside 
Review,  XXIV,  286;  Bishop,  The  Beginning  of  Douai  Convent  and 
The  First  Prior  of  St.  Gregory's  in  Downside  Review,  XVI,  21; 
XXV,   52;    FuLLERTON,    Life    of  Luisa  de  Carvajal    (London, 

1873).  G.  Roger  Hudleston. 


See  Thomas  Johnson, 


Robert  Salt,   Blessed. 

Blessed. 

Robertson,  James  Burton,  historian,  b.  in  Lon- 
don 15  Nov.,  1800;  d.  at  Dublin  14  Feb.,  1877,  son 
of  Thomas  Robertson,  a  landed  proprietor  in  Grenada, 
West  Indies,  where*  he  .spent  his  boyhood.  In  1809 
his  mother  brouglit  him  to  England,  and  placed  him 
at  St.  Edmund's  College,  Old  Hall  (1810),  where  he 
remained  nine  years.  In  1819  he  began  his  legal 
studies,  and  in  1825  was  called  to  the  bar,  but  did 
not  practise.  For  a  time  he  studied  philosophy  and 
theology  in  France  under  the  influence  of  his  friends 
Lamennais  and  Gerbct.  In  1835  he  published  his 
translation  of  Frederick  Schlegel's  "Philosophy  of 
History",  which  passed  through  many  editions. 
From  1837  to  1854  he  lived  in  Germany  or  Belgium. 
During  this  time  he  translated  Miihler's  "Symbol- 
ism", adding  an  introduction  and  a  life  of  Mohler. 
This  work  considerably  influenced  some  of  the  Ox- 
ford Tractarians.  In  1855  Dr.  Newman  nominated 
Robertson  as  professor  of  geography  and  modern 
history  in  the  Catholic  University  of  Ireland.  In 
this  capacity  he  published  two  series  of  lectures  (1859 
and  1864),  as  well  as  "Lectures  on  Edmund  Burke" 
(1869),  and  a  translation  of  Dr.  Hergenrother's 
"Anti  Janus"  (1870)  to  which  he  prefixed  a  history 
of  Gallicanism.  He  also  wrote  a  poem,  "The  Prophet 
Enoch"  (1859),  and  contributed  several  articles  to 
the  "  Dublin  Review  ".  His  services  to  literature  ob- 
tained for  him  a  pension  from  the  Government  in 
1869,  and  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  from 
Pius  IX  (1875).     He  is  buried  in  Glasnevin  cemetery. 

Tablet  (24  Feb.,  1877);  Gillow  in  Bibl.  Did.  Eng.  Cath.;  The 
Edmundum,  II,  no.  8  (1895).  EdwIN   BuRTON. 

Robinson,  Christopher,  Venerable,  martyr,  b. 
at  Woodside,  near  Westward,  Cumberland,  date  un- 
known; executed  at  Carlisle,  19  Aug.,  1598.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  English  College  at  Reims  in  1589,  and 
was  ordained  priest  and  sent  on  the  mission  in  1592. 
Two  years  later  he  was  a  witness  of  the  condemnation 
and  execution  of  the  venerable  martyr  John  Boste(q.  v.) 
at  Durham,  and  wrote  a  very  graphic  account  of  this, 
which  has  been  printed  from  a  seventeenth-century 
transcript  in  the  first  volume  of  the  "Catholic  Record 


Society's  Pubhcations"  (London,  1905),  pp.  85-92. 
His  labours  seem  to  have  been  mainly  in  Cumberland 
and  Westmoreland;  but  nothing  is  knowm  about 
them.  Eventually  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  at 
Carlisle,  where  Bishop  Robinson,  who  may  have  been 
a  relative,  did  his  best  to  persuade  him  to  save  his  life 
by  conforming;  but  the  priest  remained  constant,  and 
being  condemned,  under  27  Eliz.,  c.  2,  for  being  a 
priest  and  coming  into  the  realm,  suffered  the  last 
penalty  with  such  cheerful  constancy  that  his  death 
was  the  occasion  of  many  conversions. 

Challoner,  Missionary  Priests,  I,  no.  114;  Gillow,  Bibl. 
Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,  s.  v.;  Wilson  in  Victoria  History  of  Cumberland, 
II  (London,  1905),  87.  JoHN   B.    WaINEWRIGHT. 

Robinson,  John,  Venerable.  See  Wilcox, 
Robert,  Venerable. 

Robinson,  William  Callyhan,  jurist  and  educa- 
tor, b.  26  July,  1834,  at  Norwich,  Conn.;  d.  6  Nov., 
1911,  at  Washington,  D.  C.  After  preparatory  studies 
at  Norwich  Academy,  Williston  Seminary,  and  Wes- 
leyan  University,  he  entered  Dartmouth  College  from 
which  he  was  graduated  in  1854.  He  then  entered 
the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  was  graduated  in  1857,  and  ordained  to  the 
Episcopalian  Ministry,  in  which  he  served  first  at 
Pittston,  Pa.  (1857-8),  and  then  at  Scran  ton.  Pa. 
(1859-62).  He  was  received  into  the  Catholic 
Church  in  1863,  was  admitted  to  the  Bar  in  1864,  and 
was  lecturer  and  professor  in  law  in  Yale  University 
(1869-95).  For  two  years  (1869-71)  he  was  judge 
of  the  City  Court  and  later  (1874-6)  judge  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas  at  New  Haven,  Conn.  In 
1874  also  he  served  as  member  of  the  Legislature. 
From  Dartmouth  College  he  received  (1879)  the  de- 
gree LL.D.,  and  from  Yale  University  the  degree  M.A. 
(1881).  He  married,  2  July,  1857,  Anna  Elizabeth 
Haviland  and,  31  March,  1891,  Ultima  Marie  Smith. 
His  thorough  knowledge  of  law  made  him  eminent  as 
a  teacher  and  enabled  him  to  render  important  service 
to  the  Church.  In  1895  he  was  appointed  professor 
in  the  Catholic  University  of  America,  where  he  or- 
ganized the  School  of  Social  Sciences  and  remained  as 
Dean  of  the  School  of  Law  until  his  death.  Besides 
articles  contributed  to  various  periodicals,  he  wrote: 
"Life  of  E.  B.  Kelly"  (1855);  "Notes  of  Elementary 
Law"  (1876);  "Elementary  Law"  (Boston,  1876); 
"Clavis  Rerum"  (1883);  "Law  of  Patents"  (3  vols., 
Boston,  1890);  "Forensic  Oratory"  (Boston,  1893); 
"Elementsof  American  Jurisprudence"  (Boston,  1900). 

Catholic  University  Bulletin  (Deo.,  1911);  Catholic  Educational 
Review  (Dec.  1911).  E.    A.    PaCE. 

Rocaberti,  Juan  TomXs  de,  theologian,  b.  of  a 
noble  family  at  Perelada,  in  Catalina,  c.  1624;  d.  at 
Madrid,  13  June,  1699.  Educated  at  Gerona  he  en- 
tered the  Dominican  convent  there,  receiving  the 
habit  in  1640.  His  success  in  theological  studies  at 
the  convent  of  Valencia  secured  for  him  the  chair  of 
theology  in  the  university.  In  1666  he  was  chosen 
provincial  of  Aragon,  and  in  1670  the  General  Chapter 
elected  him  general  of  the  order.  He  became  en- 
deared to  all  who  came  in  contact  with  him.  No  one, 
perhaps,  held  him  in  greater  esteem  than  Clement  X. 
The  celebrated  Dominican  Contenson  dedicated  to 
him  his  "Theologia  mentis  et  cordis".  He  obtained 
the  canonization  of  Sts.  Louis  Bertrand  and  Rose  of 
Lima,  the  solemn  beatification  of  Pius  V,  and  the 
annual  celebration  in  the  order  of  the  feast  of  BI. 
Albert  the  Great  and  others.  In  1676  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Charles  II  first  Archbishop  of  Valencia 
and  then  governor  of  that  province.  In  1695  he  was 
made  inquisitor-general  of  Spain. 

Rocaberti  is  best  known  as  an  active  apologist  of 
the  papacy  against  Gallicans  and  Protestants.  His 
first  work  in  this  sense  was  "De  Romani  pontificis 
auctoritate"  (3  vols.,  Valentia,  1691-94).  His  most 
important  work  is  the  "Bibliotheca  Maxima  Pouti- 


ROCAMADOUR 


100 


ROCH 


ficia"  (21  vols.,  Rome,  1697-99).  In  this  monu- 
mental work  the  author  collected  and  published  in 
alphabetical  order,  and  in  their  entirety,  all  the  impor- 
tant works  dealing  with  the  primacy  of  the  Holy  See 
from  an  orthodox  point  of  view,  beginning  with  Abra^ 
ham  Bzovius  and  ending  with  Zacharias  Boverius.  An 
excellent  summiu-y  is  given  in  Hurter's  "Nomenclator". 

QuETir-EcHARD,  Script,  ord.  Prnd.,  II  (Paris,  1721).  630,  827; 
TocRON,  Hist,  des  horn.  ill.  de  I'ordre  Dom.,  V  (Pans,  1748), 
714-26;  HrRTER,  Somendator,  II;  Annee  Dominicaine,  XII, 
785.  H.    J.    SCHROEDER. 

Rocamadour,  communal  chief  town  of  the  canton 
of  Gramat,  district  of  Gourdon.  Department  of  Lot, 
in  the  Diocese  of  Cahors  and  the  ancient  province 
of  Quercy.  This  \-illage  by  the  wonderful  beauty  of 
its  situation  merits  the  attention  of  artists  and  excites 
the  curiosity  of  archaeologists;  but  its  reputation  is 
due  especially  to  its  celebrated 
sanctuarj-  of  the  BlessedVirgin 
which  for  centuries  has  at- 
tracted pilgrims  from  every 
count rj',  among  them  kings, 
bishops,  and  nobles. 

A  curious  legend  purport- 
ing to  explain  the  origin  of 
this  pilgrimage  has  given  rise 
to  controversies  between  criti- 
cal and  traditional  schools, 
especially  in  recent  times.  Ac- 
cording to  the  latter,  Rocama- 
dour is  indebted  for  its  name 
to  the  founder  of  the  ancient 
sanctuary,  St.  Amadour,  who 
was  none  other  than  Zacheus 
of  the  Gospel,  husband  of  St. 
Veronica,  who  wiped  the 
Sa\nour's  face  on  the  way  to 
Calvar>'.  Driven  forth  from 
Palestine  by  persecution, 
Amadour  and  Veronica  em- 
barked in  a  frail  skiff  and, 
guided  by  an  angel,  landed 
on  the  coast  of  Aquitaine, 
where  they  met  Bishop  St. 
Martial,  another  disciple  of 
Christ  who  was  preaching 
the  Gospel  in  the  south-west 
of  Gaul.  After  journeying  to 
Rome,  where  he  witnessed  the 

martyrdoms  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Saint 

Paul,  Arnafiour,  having  re-  G-  Martinetti,  Church  of 
turned  to  P>ance,  on  the  death  of  his  spouse,  withdrew 
to  a  wild  spot  in  Quercy  where  he  built  a  chapel  in  hon- 
our of  the  Blfsscd  Virgin,  near  which  he  died  a  little 
later.  Thismarvf'IlouHaccount,likemostother  similar 
Icgenrls,  unfortunately  does  not  make  its  first  appear- 
ance till  long  after  the  agf;  in  which  the  chief  actors  are 
deemefl  to  have  lived.  The  name  of  .4madour  occurs  in 
no  df)cument  previous  to  the  compilation  of  his  Acts, 
which  on  careful  examination  and  on  an  application 
of  the  rules  of  the  curHim  to  the  text  cannot  be  judged 
older  than  the  twelfth  century.  It  is  now  well  es- 
tabliHhed  that  St.  Martial,  Amaflour's  contemporary 
in  the  legend,  lived  in  the  third  not  the  first  century, 
and  Rome  hiw  never  included  him  among  the  members 
of  the  ArK>Kt/>lic  Oillege.  The  mention,  therefore, 
of  St.  Martial  in  the  Acts  of  St.  Ama<lour  wo)ilrl  alone 
suffice,  even  if  other  proof  were  wanting,  to  prove  them 
a  forgery.  The  untrustworthiness  of  the  legend  ha,s 
Iwl  wm\o.  recent  authors  to  suggest  that  Amadour 
wafl  an  unknown  hermit  or  possibly  St.  Arnator, 
Bishop  of  Auxr-rre,  but  this  is  mere  hypothesis,  with- 
out any  hist/jrical  briKJH.  Although  the  origin  f)f  th<! 
sanctuary  of  R^K-arna^iour,  lost  in  antimiity,  is  thus 
first  w;t  down  along  with  fabulous  tnwlitions  whif:h 
cannot  bear  the  light  f.f  sound  criticism,  yet  it  is 
undoubted  that  this  sprit,  hallf)wefl  by  the  prayers  of 
innumerable  multitudes  of  pilgrims,  is  worthy  of  our 


veneration.  After  the  religious  manifestations  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  Rocamadour,  as  a  result  of  war 
and  revolution,  had  become  almost  deserted.  Re- 
cently, owing  to  the  zeal  and  activity  of  the  bishops 
of  Cahors,  it  seems  to  have  revived  and  pilgrims  are 
beginning  to  crowd  there  again. 

De  Gissey,  Hist,  et  miracles  de  N.  D.  de  Roc-Amadour  au  pays 
de  Quercy  (Tulle,  1666);  Caillau,  Hist.  cril.  el  relig.  de  N.  D.  de 
Roc-Amadour  (Paris,  1834);  Idem,  Le  Jour  de  Marie  ou  le  guide 
du  pklerin  de  Roc-Amadour  (Paris,  1836);  Servois,  Notice  et 
extraits  du  recueil  des  miracles  de  Roc-Amadour  (Paris,  1856); 
LiEUTAUD,  La  Vida  de  S.  Amadour,  texte  provenQal  du  XIV'  s. 
(Cahors,  1876);  BouRRifcREs,  Saint  Amadour  et  Sainle  Vironique, 
disciples  de  Notre  Seigneur  et  apdtres  des  Gaules  (Paris,  1895); 
Enard,  Lettre  pastorale  sur  I'hist.  de  Roc-Amadour  .  .  . 
(Cahors,  1899);  Rdpin,  Roc-Amadour,  Stude  hist,  et  archiol. 
(Paris,  1904),  an  excellent  work  containing  the  definitive  history 
of  Roc-Amadour;  Albe,  Les  miracles  de  N.  D.  de  Roc-Amadour 
au  XII'  s.,  texte  el  traduction  des  manuscrits  de  la  Bibliothique 
nationale  (Paris,  1907).  corroborating  the  work  of  Rupin. 

L^ON  Clugnet. 

Rocca,  Angelo,  founder  of 
the  Angelica  Library  at  Rome, 
b.  at  Rocca,  now  Arecevia, 
near  Ancona,  1545;  d.  at 
Rome,  8  April,  1620.  He  was 
received  at  the  age  of  seven 
into  the  Augustinian  monas- 
tery at  Camerino  (hence  also 
called  Camcrs,  Camerinus), 
studied  at  Perugia,  Rome, 
Venice,  and  in  1577  graduated 
as  doctor  in  theology  from 
Padua.  He  became  secretary 
to  the  superior-general  of  the 
Augustinians  in  1579,  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Vati- 
can printing-office  in  1585,  and 
entrusted  with  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  projected  edi- 
tions of  the  Bible  and  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Fathers.  In  1595 
he  was  appointed  sacristan  in 
the  papal  cluipel,  and  in  1605 
became  titular  Bishop  of  Ta- 
gaste  in  Numidia.  The  pub- 
lic library  of  the  Augustinians 
at  Rome,  formally  established 
23  October,  1614,  perpetuates 
his  name.  It  is  mainly  to  his 
efforts  that  we  owe  the  edition 
RocH  of  the  Vulgate  published  dur- 

the  Saviour,  Jerusalem  ing  the  pontificate  of  Clem- 
ent VIII.  He  also  edited  the  works  of  Egidio 
Colonna  (Venice,  1581),  of  Augustinus  Triumphus 
(Rome,  1.582),  and  wrote:  " Bibliotheca;  theological 
et  scripturalis  epitome"  (Rome,  1594);  "De  Sacro- 
sancto  Christi  corpore  romanis  pontificibus  iter 
conficientibus  pra>ferendo  comment  arius"  (Rome, 
1599);  "De  canonizatione  sanctorum  commentarius" 
(Rome,  1601);  "Do  campanis"  (Rome,  1612).  An 
incomplete  collection  of  his  works  was  published  in 
1719  and  1745  at  Rome:  "Thesaurus  pontificiarum 
sacrarumque  antiquitatum  necnon  rituum  praxium 
et  caeremoniarium". 

Obsinoer.  liibl.  August  (Ingolstadt,  1768),  754-64;  Chalmers, 
Gen.  Biog.  Did.,  s.  v. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Roch,  Saint,  b.  at  Montpellier  towards  1295;  d. 
1.327.  His  father  was  governor  of  that  city.  At  his 
birth  St .  Roch  is  said  to  have  been  found  mir.aculously 
markcfl  on  the  breast  with  a  red  cross.  Deprived  of 
his  parents  wh(!n  about  twenty  years  old,  he  dis- 
tributed his  fortune  among  the  poor,  handed  over  to 
his  uncle  the  government  of  Montpellier,  and  in  the 
disguise  of  a  mendicant  pilgrim,  set  out  for  Italy,  but 
stoi)j)ed  at  Arjua[)('nclente,  which  was  stricken  by  the 
j)lagiie,  and  (levf)ted  liimself  to  the  plague-.stricken, 
curing  them  with  the  sign  of  the  cro.ss.  \\t\  next 
visited  Ccscna  and  other  neighbouring  cities  and  then 


ROCHAMBEAU 


101 


ROCHESTER 


Rome.  Everywhere  the  terrible  scourge  disappeared 
before  his  miraculous  power.  He  visited  Mantua, 
Modena,  Parma,  and  other  cities  with  the  same 
results.  At  Piacenza,  he  himself  was  stricken  with 
the  plague.  He  withdrew  to  a  hut  in  the  neighbour- 
ing forest,  where  his  wants  were  supplied  by  a  gentle- 
man named  Gothard,  who  by  a  miracle  learned  the 
place  of  his  retreat.  After  his  recovery  Roch  returned 
to  France.  Arriving  at  Montpellier  and  refusing  to 
disclose  his  identity,  he  was  taken  for  a  spy  in  the 
disguise  of  a  pilgrim,  and  cast  into  prison  by  order  of 
the  governor,— his  owTi  uncle,  some  writers  say, —where 
five  years  later  he  died.  The  miraculous  cross  on  his 
breast  as  well  as  a  document  found  in  his  possession 
now  served  for  his  identification.  He  was  accordingly 
given  a  public  funeral,  and  numerous  miracles  at- 
tested his  sanctity. 

In  1414,  during  the  Council  of  Constance,  the 
plague  having  broken  out  in  that  city,  the  Fathers  of 
the  Council  ordered  public  prayers  and  processions  in 
honour  of  the  saint,  and  immediately  the  plague 
ceased.  His  relics,  according  to  Wadding,  were 
carried  furtively  to  Venice  in  1485,  where  they  are 
still  venerated.  It  is  commonly  held  that  he  belonged 
to  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis;  but  it  cannot  be 
proved.  Wadding  leaves  it  an  open  question.  Urban 
VIII  approved  the  ecclesiastical  office  to  be  recited 
on  his  feast  (16  August).  Paul  III  instituted  a  con- 
fraternity, under  the  invocation  of  the  saint,  to  have 
charge  of  the  church  and  hospital  erected  during 
the  pontificate  of  Alexander  VI.  The  confraternity 
increased  so  rapidly  that  Paul  IV  raised  it  to  an  arch- 
confraternity,  with  powers  to  aggregate  similar  con- 
fraternities of  St.  Roch.  It  was  given  a  cardinal- 
protector,  and  a  prelate  of  high  rank  was  to  be  its 
immediate  superior  (see  Reg.  et  Const.  Societatis  S. 
Rochi).  Various  favours  have  been  bestowed  on  it 
by  Pius  IV  (C.  Regimini,  7  March,  1561),  bv  Gregorj- 
XIII  (C.  dated  5  Januar>%  1577),  by  Gregory  XIV 
(C.  Paternar.  pont.,  7  i\iarch,  1591),  and  by  other 
pontiffs.     It  still  flourishes. 

Wadding,  Annates  Min.  (Rome,  1731),  VII,  70;  IX,  251; 
Acta  SS.  (Venice,  1752),  16  August;  Gallia  Christiana,  VI  ad  an. 
1328:  AsDR±,  Hist,  de  S.  Roch  (Carpentras,  1854);  Ch.^vanne, 
S.  Roch.  Hist,  compute,  etc.  (Lyons,  1876);  CoFKiNifcnES, 
S.  Roch,  etudes  histor.  sur  Montpellier  au  XIV'  siecle  (Montpellier, 
1855);  Bevion.vni,  Vita  del  Taumaturgo  S.  Rocco  (Rome,  1878); 
Vita  del  gloriosa  S.  Rocco,  figlio  di  Giovanni  principe  di  Agntopoli, 
ora  delta  Montpellieri,  con  la  storica  relazione  del  suo  corpo  (Venice, 
1751);  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  16  August;  Leon,  Lives  of 
the  Saints  of  the  Three  Orders  of  S.  Francis  (Taunton,  England, 
1886);  Piazza,  Opere  pie  di  Roma  (Rome,  1679). 

Gregory  Cleary. 

Rochambeau,  Jean  -  Baptiste  -  Donatien  de 
ViMEUH,  Coi.NT  DE,  marshal,  b.  at  Vendome,  France, 
1  July,  1725;  d.  at  Thorc,  10  May,  1807.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the  army  and  in  1745  be- 
came an  aid  to  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans,  sub- 
sequently commanding  a  regiment.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  several  important  battles,  notably  those 
of  Minorca,  Crevclt,  and  Minden,  and  wa.s  wounded 
at  the  battle  of  Lafeldt.  When  the  French  monarch 
resolved  to  despatch  a  military  force  to  aid  the  .Amer- 
ican colonies,  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  Rochambeau 
was  created  a  lieutenant-general  and  placed  in  com- 
mand of  a  body  of  troops  which  numbered  some  6000 
men.  It  was  the  smallness  of  this  force  that  made 
Rochambeau  at  first  averse  to  taking  part  in  the  Amer- 
ican War,  but  his  sympathy  with  the  colonial  cause 
compelled  him  eventually  to  accept  the  command,  and 
he  arrived  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island  July,  1780, 
and  joined  the  American  army  under  Washington, 
on  the  Hudson  a  few  miles  above  the  city  of  New 
York.  Rochambeau  performed  the  double  duties 
of  a  diplomat  and  general  in  an  alien  army  with  rare 
distinction  amidst  somewhat  trying  circumstances, 
not  the  least  of  which  being  a  somewhat  unaccount- 
able coolness  between  Washington  and  himself, 
which,  fortunately,  was  of  but  passing  import  (see 


the  correspondence  and  diary  of  Count  Axel  Fersen). 
After  the  first  meeting  with  the  American  general 
he  marched  with  his  force  to  the  Virginia  peninsula, 
and  rendered  heroic  assistance  at  Yorktown  in  the 
capture  of  the  English  forces  under  Lord  Cornwallis, 
which  concluded  the  hostilities.  When  Cornwallis 
surrendered,  19  Oct.,  1781,  Rochambeau  was  pre- 
sented ^nth  one  of  the  captured  cannon.  After  the 
surrender  he  embarked  for  France  amid  ardent  pro- 
testations of  gratitude  and  admiration  from  the 
officers  and  men  of  the  American  army.  In  1783  he 
received  the  decoration  of  Saint-Esprit  and  obtained 
the  baton  of  a  marshal  of  France  in  1791.  Early 
in  1792  he  was 
placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  army 
of  the  North,  and 
conducted  a  force 
against  the  Aus- 
trians,  but  re- 
signed the  same 
year  and  narrowly 
escaped  the  guillo- 
tine when  the  Ja- 
cobin revolution- 
ary power  had 
obtained  supreme 
control  in  Paris. 
When  the  fury  of 
the  revolution  had 
spent  itself, 
Rochambeau  was 
reinstated  in  the 
regard  of  his 
countrymen.  He 
was  granted  a 
pension  by  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte  in 
1804,  and  was  dec- 
orated with  the 
Cross  of  Grand 
Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  The  last  years  of  the 
distinguished  niilitary  leader's  life  were  passed  in  the 
dictation  of  his  memoirs,  which  appeared  in  two 
volumes  in  Paris  in  1809,  and  which  throw  many  per- 
sonal and  briUiant  sidelights  on  the  events  of  two 
of  the  most  historically  impressive  revolutions,  and 
the  exceptional  men  therein  concerned. 

Wright,  Memoirs  of  Marshal  Count  de  Rocliambeau  Relative  to 
the  War  of  Independence  (1838);  SouL^,  Histoire  des  troubles  de 
r.imerique  anglaise  (Paris,  1787) ;  standard  histories  of  the  United 
States  may  also  be  consulted. 

Jarvis  Keiley. 

Roche,  John,  Venerable.  See  Leigh,  Richard, 
Vener.\ble. 

Rochester,  Ancient  See  of  (Roffa;  Roffensis), 
the  oldest  and  smallest  of  all  the  suffragan  sees  of 
Canterbury,  was  founded  by  St.  Augustine,  Apostle 
of  England,  who  in  604  consecrated  St.  Justus  as  its 
first  bishop.  It  consisted  roughly  of  the  western 
part  of  Kent,  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  county 
by  the  Medway,  though  the  diocesan  boundaries 
did  not  follow  the  river  very  closely.  The  cathedral, 
founded  by  King  Ethelbert  and  dedicated  to  St. 
Andrew  from  whose  monastery  at  Rome  St.  Augus- 
tine and  St.  Justus  had  come,  was  served  by  a  college 
of  secular  priests  and  endowed  with  land  near  the 
city  called  Priestfield.  It  suffered  much  from  the 
Mercians  (676)  and  the  Danes,  but  the  city  retained 
its  importance,  and  after  the  Norman  Conquest  a  new 
cathedral  was  begun  by  the  Norman  bishop  Gundulf . 
This  energetic  prelate  replaced  the  secular  chaplains 
by  Benedictine  monks,  translated  the  relics  of  St. 
Paulinus  to  a  silver  shrine  which  became  a  place  of 
pilgrimage,  obtained  several  royal  grants  of  land, 
and  proved  an  untiring  benefactor  to  his  cathedral 
city.     Gundulf  had  built  the  nave  and  western  front 


-Baptiste  Rochambeau 


ROCHESTER 


102 


ROCHESTER 


before  his  de^th;  the  western  transept  was  added  be- 
tween 1179  and  1200,  and  the  eastern  transept  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  III.  The  cathedral  is  small, 
being  only  30(5  feet  long,  but  its  nave  is  the  oldest 
in  England  and  it  has  a  fine  Norman  crypt .  Besides 
the  shrine  of  St.  Paulinus.  the  cathedral  contained 
the  rehcs  of  St.  Ithamar,  the  first  Saxon  to  be  con- 
secrated to  the  episcopate,  and  St.  William  of  Perth, 
who  was  held  in  popular  veneration.  In  1130  the 
cathedral  was  consecrated  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  assisted  by  thirteen  bishops  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Henry  I,  but  the  occasion  was  marred  by 
a  great  fire  which 
nearly  destroyed  the 
whole  city  and  dam- 
aged the  new  cathe- 
dral. After  the  burial 
of  St.  William  of 
Perth  in  1201  the 
ofTerings  at  his  tomb 
were  so  great,  that 
by  their  means  the 
choir  was  rebuilt  and 
the  central  tower  was 
added  (1343),  thus 
completing  the  ca- 
thedral. From  the 
foundation  of  the  see 
the  archbishops  of 
Canterbury  had  en- 
joj-ed  the  privilege 
of  nominating  the 
bishop,  but  Arch- 
bishop Theobald 
transferred  the  right 


Thomas  Brown,  1435 
William  Wells,  1437 
John  Lowe,  1444 
Thomas     Rotheram     (or 

Scott),  1468 
John  Alcock,  1472 
John  Russell,  1476 
Edmund  Audley,  1480 
Thomas  Savage,   1492 


Bl.     John     Fisher 

(Cardinal) 

Schismatical  bishops: 
John  Hilsey,   1535 
Richard  Heath,   1539 
Henry  Holbeach,   1543 
Nicholas   Ridley,    1547 
John  Poynet,  1550 
John  Scory,  1551 


1504 


to  the  Benedictine  monks  of  the  cathedral  who  ex- 
ercised it  for  the  first  time  in  1148. 

The  following  is  the  list  of  bishops  with  the  date 
of  their  accession;  but  the  succession  from  Tatnoth 
(844)  to  Siweard  (1058)  is  obscure,  and  may  be  modi- 
fied b}'  fresh  research: 

Radulphus         d'Escures, 


St.  Ju-stus,  604 
Romanus,  624 
Vacancv,  625 
St.  Paulinus,  633 
St.  Ithamar,  644 
Damianus,  655 
Vacancy,  664 
Putta,  666-9 
Cwichelm,  676 
Gebmund,  678 
Tobias,  693-706 
Ealdwulf,  727 
Dunno,  741 
Eardwulf,  747 
Deora,  765-72 
Wairmund  I,  781 
Befjmmod,  803-5 
Tatnoth,  844 
Bea<]unoth  (possibly  iden- 


Richard  Fitz  James,  1496    Vacancy,  1552 

The  canonical  line  was  restored  by  the  appoint>- 

ment  in  1554  of  Maurice  Griffith,  the  last  Catholic 
bishop  of  Rochester, 
who  died  in  1558. 
The  diocese  was  so 
small,  consisting 
merely  of  part  of 
Kent,  that  it  needed 
only  one  archdeacon 
(Rochester)  to  super- 
vise the  97  parishes. 
It  was  also  the  poor- 
est diocese  in  Eng- 
land. The  cathedral 
was  dedicated  to  St. 
Andrew  the  Apostle. 
The  ariiLs  of  the  see 
were  argent,  on  a  sal- 
tire  gules  an  Escalop 
shell,  or. 

Shrubsole        and 
Denne,  History  and  An- 
tiquities of  RochcsleriLon- 
don,    1772);    Wharton, 
Anglia    Sacra    (London, 
1691),     pt.     i,    includes 
annals    by   de    Hadenham    (604-1307)    and    de    Dene    (1.314- 
.50) ;    PeaRMan,    Rochester:    Diocesan    History    (London,     1S97) ; 
Palmer,  Rochester:  The  Cathedral  and  See  (London,  1897);  Hope, 
Architectural  History  of  Cathedral  in  Ketit  Archa-ological  Society, 
XXIII,  XXIV  (1898-1900);  ERNaLPHCs,    Textus  Rnffensis.  ed. 
Hearne  (London,   1720).  reprinted    in  P.  L.,  CLXIII;  Pegoe, 
Account  of  Texttis   Roffensis   (London,    1784)   in   Nichols,   Bib. 
Topog.    Brit.    (London,    1790);   J.    Thorpe,    Registrum   Roffense 
(London,   1769);  J.  Thorpe,  Jr.,  Custumale  Roffense  (London, 
1788);  Winkle,  Cathedral  Churches  of  England  and  Wales  (Lon- 
don, 1860);  Fairbairns,  Cathedrals  of  England  and  Wales  (Lon- 
don,   1907);   Godwin,    De   pra-siilibus   Anglia-    (London,    1743); 
John  of  Canterbury    1125      Gams,    Series   Episcoporum    (Ratisbon,    1873);    Seakle,    Anglo- 


The  Cath 


Rochester,  England 


1108 
Ernulf,   1115 


John  of  Sees,  1137 
Ascelin,  1142 
Walter,  1148 
Gualeran,  1182 
Gilbert  de  Glanvill,  1185 
Benedict     de     Sansetun, 

1215 
Henry  Sandford,  1226 
Richard     de     Wendover, 

1235    (consecrated, 

1238) 
Lawrence  de  St.  Martin, 

1251 
Walter  de  Merton,  1274 
John  de  Bradfield,  1277 


Saxon  Bishops,  Kings  and  Nobles  (Cambridge,  1899). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Rochester,  Dioce.sb  of,  on  its  establishment  by 
separation  from  the  See  of  Buffalo,  24  January, 
1868,  comprised  the  counties  of  Monroe,  Livingston, 
Wajme,  Ontario,  Seneca,  Cayuga,  Yates,  and  Tomp- 
kins in  the  state  of  New  York.  In  1896,  after  the 
death  of  Bishop  Ryan  of  Buffalo,  the  boundary  line 
of  the  two  dioceses  was  somewhat  (!hang(>d,  the 
counties  of  Steuben,  Schuj'ler,  Chemung,  and  Tioga 
being  d(!t  a(;hed  from  the  See  of  Buffalo  and  added  to 
that  of  Ro(-hcslcr. 

Bishops:  (1)  Rev.  Bernard  J.  Mc(2uaid,  who  be- 
came a  pioneer  and  leader  in  Catholic  education  and 
the  founder  of  a  modtsl  seminary,  was  consecrated 


tical  with  Warmund  II)    Thomas  Inglethorp,  1283     bishop  of  Rochester  in  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New 


Wx-rmund  II,  84.5-t32 

Cuthwulf,  H60-8 

Swithwulf  (date  unknown) 

Ccfjlmund,  S97-W4 

Cynefrith  (date  unknown) 

Burhric,  933  or  9.34 

Beorhtsigc  (doubtful 
name) 

Daniel,  951-5 

Aelfstan,  c.  964 

Godwine  I,  995 

Go<Jwine    II     (date    un- 
known) 

Siweard,   1058 

AmoHt,   1076 

Gundulf,  1077 


Thomas    de    Wouldham 

1292 
Vacancy,   1317 
Hamo  de  Hythe,   1319 
John  de  Sheppey,  1352 
William    of     Whittlesea, 

1362 
Thomas  Trilleck,  1364 
Thomas  Brinton,  1373 
William     de     Botti.sham, 

13S9 
John  de  Bottisham,  MOO 
Richard  Young,   \\()\ 
John  Kemp,   1419  fafler- 

ward.s  (Cardinal) 
John  Langdon,  1421 


York  City,  on  12  July,  1808.  Four  days  later  he 
took  possession  of  his  small  and  poor  diocese,  con- 
taining only  sixty  churches  admini.stered  by  thirty- 
eight  priests,  seven  of  whom  were  Redemi)lorist 
Fathers.  When  he  died,  18  Jan.,  1909,  after  forty 
years  spent  in  a  laborious  episcopate,  his  diocese  was 
richly  furnished  with  churches,  schools,  seminaries, 
charitable  institutions,  answering  the  manifold 
needs  of  the  Catholic  population,  then  I'stimated 
at  121,000.  (2)  Rev.  Thomas  F.  Hickey  was  con- 
HC(Tat(!d  in  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  Rochester,  24 
M;iy,  1905,  having  been  appointed  coadjutor  to 
Bishop    McQuaid. 

Chiihchbh:  The  steady  growth  of  the  Catholic 
population  in  the  Diocese  of  Rochester,  due  mainly 
to   immigration  of   Irish,   German,   French,    Polish, 


ROCHESTER 


103 


ROCHESTER 


Italian,  Lithuanian,  and  Ruthenian  Catholics,  taxed 
the  resources  at  the  disposal  of  Bishop  McQuaid, 
who  was  anxious  throughout  his  entire  episcopate  to 
supply  the  people  with  churches  and  priests  of  their 
own  nationality  and  language,  whenever  they  were 
willing  and  able  to  support  them.  The  parishes  were 
not  allowed  to  become  unwieldy,  but  were  increased 
in  number  to  meet  the  needs  and  convenience  of  the 
faithful.  The  problem  of  spiritual  ministration  to 
Catholics  dwelling  at  watering-places  in  the  diocese 
in  the  summer  found  a  good  solution  in  the  erection 
of  neat  summer  chapels. 

Catholic  Education. — Elementary. — The  common 
schools  in  the  Diocese  of  Rochester  at  the  time 
of  its  creation  professed  to  be  non-sectarian.  Bishop 
McQuaid  felt  that  they  were  very  dangerous  to  the 
Catholic  (ihild  which  really  finds  its  church  in  the 
school.  He  sought  a  remedy  in  a  vigorous  agitation 
for  the  rights  of  Catholic  i)arents,  contributing  to 
the  support  of  the  public  school  system  by  their 
taxes,  to  receive  public  money  for  the  maintenance 
of  schools,  in  which  their  children  could  be  educated 
with  that  "amount  and  description  of  religious  in- 
struction" which  conscience  tells  them  is  good, 
expedient,  necessary.  The  failure  of  the  State  to 
remedy  the  injustice  was  met  with  the  firm  command 
of  the  bishop  which  was  put  into  execution  as  soon 
as  possil)l('  throughout  the  diocese:  "Build  school- 
houses  1  hen  for  the  religious  education  of  your  children 
as  the  best  i)rotest  against  a  system  of  education  from 
which  religion  has  been  excluded  by  law."  At 
Rochester  in  1868,  there  were  2056  children  in  the 
parochial  schools  of  the  five  CJerman  churches,  and 
441  children  in  the  schools  attached  to  the  Churches 
of  St.  Patri(;k  and  St.  Mary.  Both  of  these  had  a 
select  or  pay  school  and  a  free,  parish,  or  poor  school, 
admitting  invidious  distinctions  very  distasteful 
to  the  new  bishop. 

Outside  of  Rochester  schools  were  attached  to  a 
few  churches  of  the  diocese,  but  with  a  very  small 
attendance.  These  were  the  humble  beginnings  of 
the  admirable  parochial  school  S3'st(>m,  which  em- 
braces to-day  practically  all  the  Catholic  children 
of  the  school  age  in  the  diocese.  Not  all  the  Catholic 
schools  were  brought  to  their  present  high  degree  of 
efficiency  at  once;  it  took  many  years  and  persistent 
effort  to  accomplish  this  work.  The  brot  hei-s  gradually 
yielded  their  places  to  the  sisters,  who  now  teach 
all  the  children  in  the  Catholic  .schools,  both  boys  and 
girls.  Bishoj)  McQuaid  spared  no  pains  in  de- 
veloping good  teach(>rs  in  his  own  order  of  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph,  for  whom  a  normal  training  school  was 
established.  Occasional  "teachers'  institutes"  or- 
ganized for  the  benefit  of  these  sisterhoods  in  Roches- 
ter prepared  the  way  for  the  annual  conference  held 
by  the  parochial  teachers  in  the  ei)iscopal  city  since 
1904,  at  which  the  various  orders  meet  to  discuss 
educational  problems  and  to  perfect  in  every  possible 
way  the  parochial  school  system. 

As  early  as  1855  the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
transferred  their  convent  in  Buffalo  to  Rochester  as 
a  more  central  point  for  their  academy.  About  the 
same  time  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  in  Canandaigua 
opened  St.  Mary's  academy  for  young  ladies,  now 
Nazareth  Academy  attached  to  the  new  mother- 
house  of  the  order  in  Rochester.  Advanced  courses 
were  also  introduced  in  1903  into  the  Cathedral  school 
under  the  (lircft ion  of  Bishoj)  Hickey,  who,  in  190G, 
converted  the  old  Cathedral  Hall  into  a  high  school, 
classical  and  commercial,  open  to  both  girls  and 
boys. 

Ecclesiastical. — (a)  Preparatory. — Believing  that 
it  was  hard  for  a  boy  to  become  a  worthy  priest 
without  first  leading  the  normal  life  of  the  family 
in  the  world.  Bishop  McQuaid  planned  his  prepara- 
tory ecclesiastical  seminary  as  a  free  day-school  and 
not  a  boarding-school,  the  students  living  at  home 


under  the  care  of  their  parents,  or  in  a  boarding- 
house  approved  by  the  superiors.  Within  two  years 
after  the  erection  of  the  diocese,  this  plan  was 
realized.  On  his  return  from  the  Vatican  Coun(;il 
in  1870,  St.  Andrew's  Preparatory  Seminary  was 
opened  in  a  small  building  to  the  rear  of  the  episcopal 
residence.  It  has  already  given  nearly  175  priests 
to  the  diocese  of  Rochester.  The  rule  has  been 
made  to  adopt  no  one  in  this  diocese  who  has  not 
spent  at  least  two  years  in  St.  Andrew's  Seminary. 
Through  the  generosity  of  Mgr.  H.  De  Regge  and 
some  others,  Bishop  McQuaid  was  enabled  to  erect 
a  new  building  in  1880  and  to  enlarge  it  in  1889; 
and  in  1904  the  younger  priests  of  the  diocese  fur- 
nished him  with  funds  to  erect  a  fire-proof  structure 
with  fitting  accommodations  for  the  work  of  the 
school. 

(b)  Theological. — For  many  years  the  ecclesiastical 
students  of  the  Diocese  of  Rochester  were  sent  mainly 
to  the  provincial  seminary  at  Troy  or  to  Rome  and 
Innsbruck  in  Europe  for  their  theological  education. 
In  1879  Bishop  McQuaid  put  aside  a  small  legacy  be- 
queathed him  as  a  nucleus  of  a  fund  for  the  erection 
of  suitable  buildings  for  a  diocesan  seminary.  Al- 
though the  fund  grew  slowly,  the  bishop  would  not 
lay  the  first  stone  until  nearly  all  the  money  needed 
for  the  work  was  in  hand,  nor  would  he  open  the  semi- 
nary for  students  unt  il  the  buildings  were  completed 
and  paid  for,  and  at  least  four  professorships 
endowed.  In  April,  1887,  ho  was  able  to  purchase 
a  site  on  the  bank  of  the  Genesee  River  gorge,  only 
three  miles  from  the  cathedral.  Four  years  later  he 
began  the  erection  of  the  buildings.  In  two  years  they 
were  corni)leted,  and  in  Se])tember,  1893,  the  .seminary 
was  opened  with  39  students.  Applications  for 
admission  soon  came  from  various  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  Four  years  after  its  establish- 
ment, it  became  evident  that  more  room  was  neces- 
sary. A  fund  for  an  additional  building  was  begun, 
and  in  1900  the  Hall  of  Philosophy  and  Science  was 
erected  with  accommodations  for  class-rooms,  library, 
and  living  rooms.  In  the  following  year  Bishop 
McQuaid  received  a  recognition  for  these  labours 
from  Leo  XIII  in  a  Brief  granting  to  himself  and  his 
successors  the  power  of  conf(>rring  degrcH's  in  Philoso- 
phy and  Theology.  The  Hall  of  Tlu^ology  was 
begun  in  1907  and  solemnly  dedicatcnl  20  August, 
1908.  Th(!  priests  of  the  dioces(!  founded  the  ninth 
endowed  professorship  in  honour  of  their  bishop's 
jubilee.  An  infirmary  for  sic^k  students  was  in  pro- 
cess of  construction  when  Bishop  McQuaid  died. 

Charities.— Though  Catholic  education  was  the 
primary  concern  of  Bishop  McQuaid  in  his  diocese, 
ample  provision   for  its   charities  was  not  lacking. 

(1)  As  early  a.s  1845  the  R.  C.  A.  Society  of  Rochester, 
already  in  existence  some  years,  was  incorporated, 
having  for  its  object  the  support  of  the  orphan  girls 
in  St.  Patrick's  Female  Orphan  Asylum  at  Rochester 
and  the  support  of  the  orphan  boys  sent  to  the  Boys' 
Asylum,  either  at  Lancaster,  New  York,  or  at  Lime 
Stone  Hill  near  Buffalo.  In  1SG4  St.  Mary's  Boys' 
Orphan  Asylum  was  also  established  in  Rochester 
under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  to  whom  also 
the  Girls'  Orphan  Asylum  was  confided  in  1870 
on  the  resignation  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  hitherto 
in  charge.  When  the  Auburn  Orphan  Asylum,  in- 
cori)orated  in  1853,  was  transferred  to  Rochester  in 
1910,  all  this  work  was  then  centralized  in  the  epis- 
copal city.  Here  also  special  jirovision  had  been 
made  for  the  German  Catholic  orphans  since  1866, 
when  St.  Joseph's  Orphan  Asvlum  was  erected  and 
placed  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  Notre-Dame. 

(2)  In  1873  a  short-lived  attempt  was  made  to  sup- 
plement the  work  of  St.  Mary's  Orphan  Asylum  by 
giving  the  boys  of  suitable  age  an  opportunity  of 
ac(iuu-ing  a  practical  knowledge  of  farming  or  of  a 
useful  trade.     A  similar  institution  for  girls  flourished 


ROCHET 


104 


ROCHETTE 


under  Mother  Hioronynio  for  some  twenty  years 
under  the  name  of  The  Home  of  Industry  which  then 
was  changed  into  a  home  for  the  aged.  The  location 
did  not  prove  desirable  for  such  an  institution, 
and  S65,000  having  been  raised  by  a  bazaar,  Bishop 
McQuaid  was  enabled  to  erect  St.  Anne's  Home  for 
the  Aged,  admitting  men  as  well  as  women. 

(3)  The  s])iritvial  needs  of  another  class  of  the  des- 
titute, the  Cutholic  inmates  of  public  eleemosynary 
and  iienal  inst  il  ut  ions  in  t  he  diocese,  appealed  strongly 
to  Bishop  McQuaid,  who  at  once  became  their  cham- 
pion in  the  endeavour  to  have  their  religious  rights  re- 
spected according  to  the  guarantee  of  the  Constitution 
of  the  State  of  New  York.  His  agitation  in  this  noble 
cause  was  crowned  with  success,  and  the  State  sup- 
ports to-ilay  chaplains  at  the  State  Industrial  School, 
Industry,  at  the  State  Reformatory,  Elmira,  at  the 
Craig  (jolony  (state  hosjntal  for  epileptics),  Sonyea, 
at  the  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Home,  Bath,  while  the 
county  maintains  a  chaplain  in  Rochester  for  its 
public  institutions  of  this  kind.  (4)  The  Catholic 
sick  have  one  of  the  largest  and  best  equipped  hos- 
pitals in  Rochester  at  their  disposal  in  St.  Mary's 
Hosjiital,  established  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity  under 
Mother  Hieronymo  in  1857.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy 
ha\e  charge  of  St.  James  Hospital  in  Hornell,  and  of 
late  years  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  have  also  opened 
a  hospital  in  Elmira. 

Statistics. — Priests,  163  (6  Redemptorists) ; 
churches  with  resident  priests,  94;  missions  with 
churches,  36;  chapels,  18;  parishes  with  parochial 
schools,  54  with  20,189  pupils;  academies  for  young 
ladies,  2  with  470  pupils  (Nazareth,  352;  Sacred 
Heart,  118);  theological  seminary  for  secular  clergy, 
1  with  234  students  (73  for  the  Diocese  of  Rochester; 
preparatory  seminary,  1  with  80  students;  orphan 
asylums,  3  with  438  orphans  (St.  Patrick's,  Girls', 
119,  St.  Mary's  Boys',  204;  St.  Joseph's,  115); 
Home  for  the  Aged,  1  with  145  inmates  (men,  25); 
hospitals,  3  with  3115  inmates  during  year  (St. 
Mary's,  Rochester,  2216;  St.  Joseph's,  Elmira,  463; 
St.  James,  Hornell,  436);   Catholics,  142,263. 

Cone.  Ball.  Plen.  II  acta  et  decreUi;  Acta  S.  Sedis,  III;  Leonis 
XIII  .\cUi  xti,  xxi;  Catholic  Directory  (1868-1911);  McQuaid: 
Diaries  (fragmentary);  Idem,  Pastorals  in  Annual  Coll.  for  Eccl. 
StwlerUs  (1871-1911);  Idem,  Pastoral  (Jubilee)  (1875);  Idem, 
Pastoral  (Visitation)  (1878);  Idem,  Our  American  Seminaries  in 
Am.  Eccl.  Rev.  (May,  1897),  reprint  in  Smith,  The  Training  of  a 
Priest,  pp.  xxi-xxxix;  Idem,  The  Training  of  a  Seminary  Professor 
in  Smith,  op.  cit.,  pp.  .327-35;  Idem,  Christian  Free  Schools  (1892), 
a  reprint  of  lectures;  Idem,  Kelif/ion  in  Schools  in  North  Am.  Rev. 
(April,  1881) ;  Idem,  Religious  Teaching  in  Schools  in  Forum  (Dec, 
1889) ;   Reports  of  Conferences  hell  by  parochial  teachers  (1904-10). 

Frederick  J.  Zwierlein. 

Rochet,  an  over-tunic  usually  made  of  fine  white 
linen  (cambric;  fine  cotton  material  is  also  allowed), 
and  reaching  to  the  knees.  While  bearing  a  general 
resemblance  to  the  surplice,  it  is  distinguished  from 
that  vestment  by  the  shape  of  the  sleeves;  in  the 
surplice  these  are  at  least  fairly  wide,  while  in  the 
rochet  fhey  are  always  tight-fitting.  The  rochet  is 
decorated  with  lace  or  embroidered  borders — broader 
at  the  hern  and  narrower  on  the  sleeves.  To  make  the 
ye^-tmcnt  entirely  of  tulle  or  lace  is  inconvenient,  as 
m  the  inordinate  use  of  jjlaits;  in  both  cases,  the  vest- 
ment becfjmes  too  efTeminate.  The  roch(!t  is  not  a 
vestment  pertaining  to  all  clerics,  like  the  surplice; 
it  is  distinctive  of  jjrelates,  and  may  be  worn  by  other 
ecclesiast  ifs  only  when  (as,  e.  g.,  in  the  case  of  cathe- 
dral chapters)  the  usuh  rochelti  has  been  granted  them 
by  a  special  papal  indult.  That  the  rochet  possesses 
no  liturgifiil  character  is  clear  both  from  the  Decree 
of  Urban  VII  i)refixed  to  the  Roman  Missal,  and  from 
an  express  deciwion  of  tlie  Congregation  of  Rites  (10 
Jan.,  1S.52),  which  dechires  llial,  in  the  administra- 
tirm  of  the  sacraments,  the  rochet  may  not  be  xm'.d 
a8  a  vfiiliK  Harm;  in  the  administration  of  the  sacra- 
nicnts,  as  well  oh  at  the  conferring  of  the  tonsure  and 
the  minor  orders,  iise  should  be  made  of  the  surplice 


(cf.  the  decisions  of  31  May,  1817;  17  Sept.,  1722;  16 
April,  1831).  However,  as  the  rochet  may  be  used 
by  the  properly  privileged  persons  as  choir-dress,  it 
may  be  included  among  the  liturgical  vestments  in  the 
broad  sense,  like  the  biretta  or  the  cappa  mogna. 
Prelates  who  do  not  belong  to  a  religious  order, 
should  wear  the  rochet  over  the  soutane  during  Mass, 
in  so  far  as  this  is  convenient. 

The  origin  of  the  rochet  may  be  traced  from  the 
clerical  (non-liturgical)  alhn  or  camisia,  that  is,  the 
clerical  linen  tunic  of  everyday  life.  It  was  thus  not 
originally  distinctive  of  the  higher  ecclesiastics  alone. 
This  camisia  appears  first  in  Rome  as  a  privileged  vest- 
ment; that  this  was  the  case  in  the  Christian  capital 


^ -  -m^- 

'.           \ 

. 

r" 

J    k 

V 

%\ 

\  '-^ 

'~^-  -L^___   _ 

^\^-' 

I{i)(  iiKT  OF  St.   Thc 


OF  Canterbuhy 


as  early  as  the  ninth  century  is  established  by  the 
St.  Gall  catalogue  of  vestments.  Outside  of  Rome 
the  rochet  remained  to  a  great  extent  a  vestment 
common  to  all  clerics  until  the  fourteenth  century 
(and  even  longer);  according  to  various  German 
synodal  statutes  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  (Trier,  Passau,  Cambrai,  etc.),  it  was  worn 
even  by  sacristans.  The  Fourth  Lateran  Council 
prescribed  its  use  for  bishops  who  did  not  belong  to 
a  religious  order,  both  in  the  church  and  on  all  public 
appearances.  The  name  rochet  (from  the  medieval 
roccus)  was  scarcely  in  use  before  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. It  is  first  met  outside  of  Rome,  wiiere,  until  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  vestment  was  called  camisia, 
alba  romana,  or  succa  (subta).  These  nanu^s  gradually 
yielded  to  rochet  in  Rome  also.  Originally,  t  he  rochet 
reached,  like  the  liturgical  alb,  to  the  feet,  and,  even 
in  the  fifteenth  century  still  reached  to  the  shins. 
It  was  not  reduced  to  its  present  length  until  the 
seventeenth  century. 

Braun,  Die  lilurg.  Gewandung  im  Occident  u.  Orient  (Freiburg, 
1907),  125  Bqq.;  Bock,  Gesch.  der  lilurg.  Gewdnder,  II  (Bonn, 
1860),  329  sqq.;  Rohault  de  Fleury,  La  Messe,  VII  (Paris, 
1888). 

Joseph  Braun. 

Rochette,  DfisiR^  Raoul,  usually  known  as 
Raoul-Rochette,  a  French  archaeologist,  b.  at  St- 
Amand  (Cher),  9  March,  1789;  d.  in  Paris,  3  June, 
18.54.  His  father  was  a  physician.  He  made  his 
classical  studi(\s  in  the  lyceum  of  Bourges,  and  then 
took  up  post-graduate  work  in  the  Ecole  Normalc 
Sup6rieure  in  Paris.  In  1810,  he  obtained  a  chair  of 
grammar  in  the;  lyc(!um  Louis-le-Cirand,  and  in  the 
same  year,  married  the  daughter  of  the  celebrated 
sculptor  Houdon.  Three  years  later,  he  was  awarded 
a  prize  by  the  Institute  for  his  "M^moire  sur  les 
C'olonies  Cirecques".  In  1815,  he  became  lecturer  at 
the  Ecole  Normale  and  succeeded  Guizot  in  the  chair 
of  modern  history  at  the  Sorbonne.  It  has  been  often 
said  that  lie  owed  his  rapid  advancement  only  to 
favouritism,  because  of  his  devotion  to  the  ruling 
power;  this  is  not  entirely  true.  He  was  a  real 
scholar  whose  deep  knowledge  of  archirology  was 
admired  even  by  his  political  enemies.    He  was  elected 


ROCK 


105 


ROCKHAMPTON 


to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-Lettres  in 
1816,  and  two  years  later,  made  a  keeper  of  medals 
and  antiques.  His  appointment  to  the  position  of 
censor  (1S20)  aroused  the  hostility  of  his  students,  who 
prevented  him  from  delivering  his  lectures  and  caused 
the  course  to  be  suspended.  In  1824  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  chair  of  archaeology.  He  entered  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1838,  and  was  made  its 
perpetual  secretary  in  1839.  Besides  his  memoirs  for 
the  Institute  and  numerous  contributions  to  the 
"Journal  des  Savants",  he  wrote  manj'  books,  the 
chief  of  which  are:  "Histoire  critique  de  I'etablisse- 
ment  des  colonies  grecquea"  (Paris,  1815);  "Anti- 
quites  grecques  du  Bosphore  Cimmerien"  (Paris, 
1822);  "Lettressur  la  Suisse"  (Paris,  1826);  "Mc- 
moires  inedits  d'antiquite  figuree  grecque,  6trusque 
et  Romaine"  (Paris,  1828);  "Pompei"  (Paris,  1828); 
"Cours  d'archeologie"  (Paris,  1828);  "Peintures 
antiques  inedites"  (Paris,  1836). 

Louis  N.  Delamarre. 

Rock,  Daniel,  antiquarian  and  ecclesiologist, 
b.  at  Liverpool,  31  August,  1799;  d.  at  Kensington, 
London,  28  November,  1871.  He  was  educated  at 
St.  Edmund's  College,  Old  Hall,  where  he  studied 
from  April,  1813,  to  Dec,  1818.  There  he  came 
under  the  influence  of  the  Rev.  Louis  Havard  from 
whom  he  acquired  his  first  interest  in  liturgy,  and 
was  the  intimate  companion  of  the  future  historian, 
Mark  A.  Tierney.  He  was  then  chosen  as  one  of  the 
first  students  sent  to  reopen  the  English  College  at 
Rome,  where  he  remained  till  he  took  the  degree  of 
D.D.  in  1825.  He  had  been  ordained  priest,  13 
March,  1824.  On  his  return  to  London  he  became 
assistant  priest  at  St.  Mary's,  Moorfields,  till  1827, 
when  he  was  appointed  domestic  chaplain  to  John, 
Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  with  whom  he  had  contracted  a 
friendship  based  on  similarity  of  tastes  while  at  Rome. 
He  accordingly  resided  at  Alton  Towers,  Stafford- 
shire,  till  1840,  witli  the  exception  of  two  years  during 
which  Lord  Shrewsbury's  generosity  enabled  him  to 
stay  at  Rome  collecting  materials  for  his  great  work, 
"Hierurgia  or  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass",  which 
was  published  in  1833.  He  had  previously  published 
two  short  works:  "Transubstantiation  vindicated 
from  the  strictures  of  the  Rev.  Maurice  Jones" 
(1830),  and  "The  Liturgy  of  the  Mass  and  Common 
Vespers  for  Sundays"  (1832). 

In  1840  he  became  chaplain  to  Sir  Robert  Throck- 
morton of  Buckland  in  Berkshire,  and  while  there 
wrote  his  greatest  book,  "The  Church  of  Our  Fathers  ", 
in  which  he  studies  the  Sarum  Rite  and  other  medie- 
val liturgical  observances.  This  work,  which  has 
profoundly  influenced  liturgical  study  in  England 
and  which  caused  his  recognition  as  the  leading  au- 
thority on  the  subject,  was  published  in  1849  (vols. 
I  and  II)  and  1853-4  (vol.  III).  After  1840  Dr. 
Rock  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  "Adelphi", 
an  association  of  London  i)riests  who  were  working 
together  for  the  restoration  of  the  hierarchy.  When 
this  object  was  achieved,  he  w-as  elected  one  of  the 
first  canons  of  Southwark  (1852).  Shortly  after,  he 
ceased  parochial  work,  and  having  resided  succes- 
sively at  Newick,  Surrey  (1854-7),  and  Brook  Green, 
Hammersmith  (1857-64),  he  went  to  live  near  the 
South  Kensington  Museum  in  which  he  took  the 
keenest  interest  and  to  which  he  proved  of  much 
service.  His  "Introduction  to  the  Catalogue  of 
Textile  Fabrics"  in  that  Museum  has  been  separately 
reprinted  (1876)  and  is  of  great  authority.  He  also 
contributed  frequent  articles  to  the  Archaeological 
Journal,  the  Dublin  Review,  and  other  periodicals. 
For  many  years  before  his  death  he  held  the  honour- 
able position  of  President  of  the  Old  Brotherhood 
of  the  English  Secular  Clergy.  There  is  an  oil 
painting  of  him  at  St.  Edmund's  College,  Old  Hall. 

GiLLOw,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Calh.,  s.  v.;  Sutton  in  Diet.   Nat. 


Biog.,  8.  v.,  incorrectly  dating  his  departure  for  Rome  1813  instead 
of  1818;  Kelly,  Life  of  Daniel  Rock,  D.D.,  prefixed  to  the 
modern  Anglican  ed.  The  Church  of  Our  Fathers,  ed.  Hart  and 
Frere  (London,  1903),  with  portrait.  The  Edmundian,  II 
(1895).  no.  8. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Rockford,  Diocese  of  (Rockfordiensis),  created 
23  September,  1908,  comprises  Jo  Daviess,  Stephen- 
son, Winnebago,  Boone,  McHenry,  Carroll,  Ogle, 
DeKalb,  Kane,  Whiteside,  Lee,  and  Kendall  Counties 
in  the  north-western  part  of  the  State  of  Illinois. 
The  diocese  has  an  area  of  6867  sq.  miles,  and  a  Cath- 
olic population  of  50,000,  mostly  Irish  and  Germans 
or  their  descendants.  The  total  population  of  the 
twelve  counties  that  form  the  diocese,  according  to 
the  last  census,  is  414,872.  The  entire  territory  of 
the  Diocese  of  Rockford  was  a  part  of  the  Archdiocese 
of  Chicago  until  23  September,  1908.  Tlie  city  of 
Rockford  has  a  population  of  48,000;  it  is  a  manu- 
facturing centre.  The  Right  Reverend  Peter  James 
Muldoon,  formerly  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Chicago,  was 
appointed  the  first  Bishop  of  Rockford,  and  took 
possession  of  his  see,  15  December,  1908.  There  are 
in  the  diocese  (1911),  99  secular  priests,  64  churches 
with  resident  priests,  18  missions  with  churches, 
3  high  schools,  25  parochial  schools  with  an  attend- 
ance of  3850,  5  hospitals,  1  maternity  home,  1 
home  for  aged,  and  Mt.  St.  Mary's  Academy  for 
Girls  (St.  Charles)  with  an  attendance  of  84. 

Offic.  Catholic  Director!/  (1911). 

J.  J.  Flanagan. 

Rockhampton,  Diocese  of,  in  Queensland, 
Australia.  In  1862  Father  Duhig  visited  the  infant 
settlement  on  the  banks  of  the  Fitzroy  River  and 
celebrated  the  first  Mass  there.  Father  Scully  came 
from  Brisbane  to  attend  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  the 
little  congregation  and  in  1863  Dean  Murlay  was 
appointed  first  resident  pastor  of  Rockhampton, 
his  parish  extending  as  far  north  as  Cooktown  and 
south  to  Maryborough.  He  built  the  first  Catholic 
church  in  Rockhami)ton,  a  wooden  edifice  still  stand- 
ing, and  for  many  years  was  the  only  priest  to  look 
after  the  Catholics  scattered  over  the  vast  territory. 
A  fountlation  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  from  All-Hallows 
Convent,  Brisbane,  was  established  in  1873,  and  Sister 
Mary  do  Sales  (jorry,  the  first  Queensland-born  nun, 
was  appointed  Superioress.  Rockhamj)ton  remained 
part  of  the  Diocese  of  Brisbane  until  18S2.  In  1876 
the  Holy  See  erected  the  northern  portion  of  the 
colony  into  a  pro-vicariate,  and  in  1882  made  Rock- 
hampton a  see  with  a  territory  of  some  350,000 
square  miles.  Right  Rev.  Dr.  Cani,  a  native  of 
the  papal  states,  who  had  had  a  distinguished  scholas- 
tic career  at  Rome,  and  former  pro-vicar  Apostolic 
of  North  Queensland,  was  appointed  first  bishop  of 
the  new  diocese.  Bishop  Cani,  who  was  then 
administering  the  Diocese  of  Brisbane,  was  con- 
secrated by  Archbishop  Vaughan  in  St.  Mary's 
Cathedral,  Sydney,  21  May,  1882,  and  was  installed 
in  his  temporary  cathedral  at  Rockhampton  on  11 
June  following. 

In  the  new  diocese  there  were  about  10,000  Catho- 
lics, 6  or  7  priests,  8  Catholic  schools,  and  1  orphan- 
age. Bishop  Cani  added  to  the  small  number  of 
priests,  purchased  sites  for  new  churches,  and  acquired 
3000  acres  of  fertile  land  near  Rockhampton  for  a 
central  orphanage  which  he  had  built  and  placed 
under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  His  great 
work  was  the  erection  of  St.  Joseph's  Cathedral,  a 
magnificent  stone  edifice  which  he  did  not  live  to  see 
dedicated.  After  a  strenuous  episcopate  of  sixteen 
years  Dr.  Cani  died,  3  March,  1898.  His  great  vir- 
tues were  recognized  even  by  those  outside  the 
Church.  Humility  and  simplicity  of  life,  love  of  the 
poor  and  orphans  were  his  special  characteristics. 
He  was  succeeded  in  Rockhampton  by  Right  Rev. 
Dr.  Higgins,  a  native  of  Co.  Meath,  Ireland,  and  now 


ROCOCO 


106 


ROCOCO 


Bishop  of  Ballarat.  Dr.  Higgins  studied  in  May- 
nooth,  was  subsequently  President  of  the  Diocesan 
Seminary  at  Navan,  and  in  ISSS  was  chosen  auxiUary 
bishop  to  the  Cardinal  .\rchbishop  of  Sydney  with 
the  title  of  titular  Bishop  of  Antifelle.  He  had 
zealously  laboiu-ed  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Sydney  for 
over  ten  years,  when  appointed  to  RockJiampton. 
He  traversed  his  new  diocese  from  end  to  end, 
gauged  its  wants,  attracted  priests  to  his  aid,  placed 
students  for  the  mission  in  various  ecclesiastical  col- 
leges, introduced  new  religious  teaching  orders, 
built  and  dedicated  churches,  convents,  and  schools 
in  several  centres,  bringing  the  blessings  of  religion 
and  Cliristian  education  to  the  children  of  the  back- 
blocks. 

On  15  October,  1899,  the  beautiful  new  cathedral 
was  dedicated  by  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Sydney 
assisted  by  several  other  distinguished  Australian 
prelates  in  the  presence  of  a  great  concourse  of  people. 
The  remains  of  Dr.  Cani  were  transferred  thither. 
Dr.  Higgins  visited  Rome  and  Ireland  in  1904,  and 
returned  with  renewed  energy  to  carry  on  his  great 
work.  On  the  death  of  Dr.  'Moore,  Bishop  of  Bal- 
larat, Victoria,  he  was  translated  to  that  important 
See,  where  he  has  ever  since  laboured  with  cliarac- 
teristic  zeal  and  devotedness.  The  present  Bishop 
of  Rockhampton  is  Right  Rev.  Dr.  James  Duhig, 
bom  at  Broadford,  Co.  Limerick,  Ireland,  1870.  Dr. 
Duhig  emigrated  from  Ireland  with  his  famih'  at  the 
age  of  thirteen,  studied  with  the  Christian  Brothers 
at  Brisbane  and  at  the  Irish  College,  Rome,  was 
ordained  priest,  19  Sept.,  1896,  and,  returning  to 
Queensland  in  the  following  year,  was  appointed 
to  a  curacy  in  the  parish  of  Ipswich.  In  1905  he  was 
appointed  administrator  of  St.  Stephen's  Cathedral, 
Bri.sbane,  and  received  the  briefs  of  his  appointment 
to  the  See  of  Rockhampton.  At  present  (1911)  there 
are  in  the  Diocese  of  Rockhampton:  about  28,000 
Catholics;  19  missions  or  districts;  30  priests  (4 
of  whom  belong  to  the  Marist  Congregation,  who 
have  1  house  in  the  diocese);  12  Christian  Brothers; 
150  nuns;  and  26  Cathohc  schools,  attended  by  about 
5000  children, 

J.  Duhig. 

Rococo  Style, — This  style  received  its  name  in 
the  nineteenth  century  from  French  emigres,  who 
used  the  word  to  designate  in  whimsical  fashion  the 
shell  work  style  {style  rocaille),  then  regarded  as  Old 
Frankish,  as  opposed  to  the  succeeding  more  simple 
styles.  Essentially,  it  is  the  same  kind  of  art  and 
decoration  as  flouri.shed  in  France  during  the  regency 
following  Louis  XIV's  death,  and  remained  in  fashion 
for  about  forty  years  (1715-50).  It  might  be  termed 
the  climax  or  degeneration  of  the  Baroque,  which, 
coupk^l  with  French  grace,  began  towards  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  Ix)uis  XIV  to  convert  grotesques  into 
curve*,  linfs,  and  bands  fjcan  B<''rain,  16.38-1711). 
As  its  efT«-ct  was  less  pronounced  on  architectural 
construction  than  elsewhere,  it  is  not  so  much  a  real 
style  as  a  new  kind  of  decoration,  which  culminates 
in  the  resrjlution  of  architectural  forms  of  the  interiors 
(pilasters  and  architraves;  by  arbitrary  ornamenta- 
tion after  the  fashion  of  an  unregulated,  enervated 
Barofjue,  while  also  influencing  the  arrangement  of 
space,  the  construction  of  the  facades,  the  portals, 
tne  forms  of  the  doors  and  windows.  The  Rococo 
style  was  rea/lily  received  in  Germany,  where  it 
was  still  further  perverted  into  the  arbitrary,  un- 
symmetrical,  and  unnatural,  and  remained  in  favour 
until  1770  Cor  even  longer);  it  found  no  welcome  in 
England.  In  Italy  a  tendency  towards  the  Rococo 
stvle  is  evinced  by  tlie  Borromini,  Guarini,  and  others. 
The  French  them.H<-lve8  speak  only  of  the  Style 
lUgence  and  Louii  XV,  which,  however,  is  by  no 
means  confined  to  this  one  tendency. 

To  a  race  grown  effeminate  the  Baroque  forms 


seemed  too  coarse  and  heavj',  the  lines  too  straight 
and  stiff,  the  whole  impression  too  weighty  and  forced. 
The  small  and  the  light,  sweeps  and  flourishes,  caught 
the  public  taste;  in  the  interiors  the  architectonic  had 
to  yield  to  the  picturesque,  the  curious,  and  the  whim- 
sical. There  develops  a  style  for  elegant  parlours, 
dainty  sitting-rooms  and  boudoirs,  drawing-rooms 
and  libraries,  in  which  walls,  ceiUng,  furniture,  and 
works  of  metal  and  porcelain  present  one  ensemble 
of  sportive,  fantastic,  and  sculptured  forms.  The 
horizontal  lines  are  almost  completely  superseded 
by  curves  and  interruptions,  the  vertical  varied  at 
least  by  knots;  everywhere  shell-like  curves  appear 
in  a  hundred  forms,  pronged,  blazed,  and  sharpened 
to  a  cusp;  the  natural  construction  of  tlie  walls  is 
concealed  behind 
thick  stucco- 
framework ;  on 
the  ceiling  per- 
haps a  glimpse  of 
Olympus  en- 
chants the  view — 
all  executed  in  a 
beautiful  white  or 
in  bright  colour 
tones.  All  the 
simple  laws  and 
rules  being  set 
aside  in  favour  of 
free  and  enchant- 
ing imaginative- 
ness, the  fanc}'  rc- 
ceived  all  tin 
greater  incenti\< • 
to  activity,  and 
the  senses  were 
the  more  keenly 
requisitioned. 
Everything  vigor- 
ous is  banned, 
every  suggestion 
of  earnestness; 
nothing  disturbs 
the  shallow  re- 
pose of  distinguished  banality;  the  sportively  grace- 
ful and  light  appears  side  by  side  with  the  elegant 
and  the  ingenious.  The  sculptor  Bouchardon  repre- 
sented Cupid  engaged  in  carving  his  darts  of  love 
from  the  club  of  Hercules;  this  serves  as  an  ex- 
cellent symbol  of  the  Rococo  style — the  demigod  is 
transformed  into  the  soft  child,  the  bone-shattering 
club  becomes  the  heart-scathing  arrows,  just  as 
marble  is  so  freely  replaced  by  stucco.  Effeminacy, 
softness,  and  caprice  attitudinize  before  us.  In 
this  connexion,  the  French  sculptors,  Robert  le 
Lorrain,  Michel  Clodion,  and  Pigalle  may  be  men- 
t  ioned  in  passing.  For  small  i)last  i(;  figures  of  gypsum, 
clay,  biscuit,  porcelain  (Sevres,  Meissen),  the  gay 
Rococo  is  not  unsuitable;  in  wood,  iron,  and  royal 
metal,  it  h;is  created  some  valuable  works.  How- 
ever, (confessionals,  ])ulpits,  altars,  and  even  fa9ade9 
lead  ever  more  into  the  territory  of  the  architectonic, 
which  does  not  ejisily  combine  with  the  curves  of 
Rococo,  the  light  and  the  petty,  with  forms  whose 
whence  and  wherefore  baffle  inquiry.  Even  as  mere 
decoration  on  the  walls  of  the  interiors  the  new  forms 
could  maintain  their  ground  only  for  a  few  decades. 
In  France  the  sway  of  Rococo  practically  ceases  with 
Oppenord  (d.  1742)  and  Meissonier  (d.  1750).  In- 
auguratcfl  in  some  rooms  in  the  Palace  of  Versailles, 
it  unfolds  its  magnificence  in  several  Parisian  buildings 
(esnecially  the  Hotel  Soubise).  In  Germany  French 
anrl  German  artists  fCuvillies,  Neumann,  Knobels- 
dorfT,  etc.)  effected  the  dignified  equipment  of  the 
Amalienburg  near  Muiiieli.  and  the  castles  of  Wiirz- 
burg,  Potsdam,  Charlottenburg,  Briihl,  Bruchsal, 
Schcinbrunn,  etc.     In  France  the  style  remained  some- 


DooRWAY  AT  Toulouse, 
France 


RODEZ 


107 


RODEZ 


what  more  reserved,  since  the  ornaments  were  mostly 
of  wootl,  or,  after  the  fashion  of  wood-carving,  less 
robust  and  naturalistic  and  less  exuberant  in  the 
mixture  of  natural  with  artificial  forms  of  all  kinds 
(e.  g.  plant  motives,  stalactitic  representations,  gro- 
tesques, masks,  implements  of  various  professions, 
badges,  paintings,  precious  stones).  As  elements 
of  the  beautiful  France  retained,  to  a  greater  extent 
than  Germany,  the  unity  of  the  whole  scheme  of 
decoration  and  the  symmetry  of  its  parts. 

This  style  needs  not  only  decorators,  goldsmiths, 
and  other  technicians,  but  also  painters.  The 
French  painters  of  this  period  reflect  most  truly  the 
moral  depression  dating  from  the  time  of  Louis  XIV, 
even  the  most  celebrated  among  them  confining  them- 
selves to  social  portraits  of  high  society  and  de- 
picting "gallant  festivals",  with  their  informal, 
frivolous,    theatrically   or   modishly   garbed   society. 


Rococo  Decoratio.n  from  a  Chateau  near  Paris 

The  "beautiful  sensuality"  is  effected  by  masterly 
technique,  especially  in  the  colouring,  and  to  a  great 
extent  by  quite  immoral  licences  or  mythological 
nudities  as  in  loo.se  or  indelicate  romances.  As  for 
Watteau  (1684-1721),  the  very  titles  of  his  works— 
e.  g.  Conversation,  Breakfast  in  the  Open  Air,  Rural 
Pleasures,  Italian  or  French  Comedians,  Embark- 
raent  for  the  Island  of  Cythera — indicate  the  spirit 
and  tendency  of  his  art.  Add  thereto  the  figures  in 
fashionable  costume  slim  in  head,  throat,  and  feet, 
in  unaffected  pos(%  represented  amid  enchanting,  rural 
scenery,  painted  in  tlu;  finest  colours,  and  we  have  a 
pictun;  of  the  high  society  of  the  period  which  beheUl 
Louis  XV  and  tlie  Pompadour.  Fran(^ois  Boucher 
(1703-70)  is  llie  most  celebrated  painter  of  ripe  Rococo. 
For  the  church  Rococo  may  be,  generally  speaking, 
compared  with  worldly  church  music.  Its  lack  of 
simplicity,  earnestness,  and  repose  is  evident,  while 
its  obtrusive  artificiality,  unnaturalness,  and  triv- 
iality have  a  distracting  effect.  Its  softness  and 
pettiness  likewise  do  not  become  the  house  of  God. 
However,  shorn  of  its  most  grievous  outgrowths,  it 
may  have  been  less  distracting  during  its  proper 
epoch,  since  it  then  harmonized  with  the  spirit  of 
the  age.  A  development  of  Baroque,  it  will  be  found 
a  congruous  decoration  for  Baroque  churches.  In 
general  it  makes  a  vast  difference  whether  the  style 
is  used  with  moderation  in  the  finer  and  more  in- 
genious form  of  the  French  masters,  or  is  carried  to 
extremes  with  the  consistency  of  the  German.  The 
French  artists  seem  ever  to  have  regarded  the  beauty 
of  the  whole  composition  as  the  chief  object,  while 
the  German  laid  most  stress  on  the  bold  vigour  of 
the  lines;  thus,  the  lack  of  symmetry  was  never  so 
exaggerated  in  the  works  of  the  former.  In  the 
church  Rococo  may  at  times  have  the  charm  of 
prettincss  and  may  please  by  its  ingenious  technic, 
provided  the  objects  be  small  and  subordinate  a 
credence  table  with  cruets  and  plate,  a  vase,  a  choir 
desk,  lamps,  key  and  lock,  railings  or  balustrade,  do 
not  too  boldly  challenge  the  eye,  and  fulfil  all  the 


requirements  of  mere  beauty  of  form.  Rococo  is 
indeed  really  empty,  solely  a  pleasing  play  of  the 
fancy.  In  the  sacristy  (for  presses  etc.)  and  ante- 
chambers it  is  more  suitable  than  in  the  church  it- 
self— at  least  so  far  as  its  employment  in  conspicuous 
places  is  concerned. 

The  Rococo  style  accords  very  ill  with  the  solemn 
office  of  the  monstrance,  the  tabernacle,  and  the  altar, 
and  even  of  the  pulpit.  The  naturalism  of  certain 
Belgian  pulpits,  in  spite  or  perhaps  on  account  of 
their  artistic  character,  has  the  same  effect  as  have 
outspoken  Rococo  creations.  The  purpose  of  the 
confessional  and  the  baptistery  would  also  seem  to 
demand  more  earnest  forms.  In  the  ca.se  of  the 
larger  objects,  the  sculpture  of  Rococo  forms  either 
seems  petty,  or,  if  this  pettiness  be  avoided,  resem- 
bles Baroque.  The  phantasies  of  this  style  agree  ill 
with  the  lofty  and  broad  walls  of  the  church.  How- 
ever, everything  must  be  decided  according  to  the 
object  and  circumstances;  the  stalls  in  the  cathedral 
of  Mainz  elicit  not  only  our  approval  but  also  our 
admiration,  while  the  celebrated  privileged  altar  of 
Vierzcluiheiligen  repels  us  both  by  its  forms  and 
its  plastic  decoration.  There  are  certain  Rococo 
chalices  (hke  that  at  the  monastery  of  Einsiedeln) 
which  are,  as  one  might  say,  decked  out  in  choice 
f(stiv(>  array;  there  are  others,  which  are  more  or 
less  niissliapen  owing  to  their  bulging  curves  or  figures. 
('iKuidcliers  and  lamps  may  also  be  disfigured  by 
ol)trusive  shellwork  or  want  of  all  symmetry,  or 
may  amid  great  decorativeness  be  kept  within 
reasonable  limits.  The  material  and  technic  are 
also  of  consequence  in  Rococo.  Woven  materials, 
wood-carvings,  and  works  in  plaster  of  Paris  are 
evidently  less  obtrusive  than  works  in  other  materials, 
when  they  employ  the  sportive  Rococo.  Iron  (es- 
pecially in  railings)  and  bronze  lose  their  coldness  and 
hardness,  when  animated  by  the  Rococo  style;  in 
the  case  of  the  latter,  gilding  may  be  used  with  ad- 
vantage. Gilding  and  painting  belong  to  the  regular 
means  through  which  this  style,  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, enchants  the  eye  and  fancy.  All  things 
considered,  we  may  say  of  the  Rococo  style — as  has 
not  unreasonably  been  said  of  the  Baroque  and  of  the 
Renaissance — that  it  is  very  apt  to  introduce  a 
worldly  spirit  into  the  church,  even  if  we  overlook 
the  figural  accessories,  which  are  frequently  in  no 
way  conducive  to  sentiments  of  devotion,  and  are 
incompatible  with  the  sobriety  and  greatness  of  the 
architecture  and  with  the  seriousness  of  sacred  func- 
tions. 

Ornements  Louis  XV  et  du  style  Rocaille,  reproduits  d'apris  les 
originaux  (Paris,  1890) ;  Recueil  des  ceuvres  de  G.  M.  Oppenord 
(Paris,  1888) ;  Recueil  des  ceuvres  de  J.  A.  Meissonier  (Paris,  183;) ; 
GuRLiTT,  Das  Barock-  u.  Rokokoornament  Deutschlands  (Berlin, 
1885-9);  DoHME,  Barock-  u.  Roknko-Architeklur;  Jessen,  Das 
OTiiament  des  Rokoko  (Leipzig,  1894). 

G.    GlETMANN. 

Rodez,  Diocese  of  (Ruthen^),  was  united  to 
the  Diocese  of  Cahors  by  the  Concordat  of  1802, 
and  again  became  an  episcopal  see  by  the  Concordat 
of  1817  and  Bull  of  1822,  having  jurisdiction  over: 
(1)  the  ancient  Diocese  of  Rodez  with  the  exception 
of  the  deanery  of  Saint  Antonin,  incorporated  with 
the  Diocese  of  Montauban;  (2)  the  ancient  Diocese 
of  Vabres;  (3)  a  few  scattered  comnumcs  of  the 
Diocese  of  Cahors.  The  Diocese  of  Rodez  corre- 
sponds exactly  to  the  Department  of  Avcyron  (for- 
merly Rouergue).  It  was  suffragan  of  Bourges  until 
1676,  then  of  Albi,  and  has  again  been  suffragan  of 
Albi  since  1822.  Modern  tradition  attributes  to  St. 
Martial  the  foundation  of  the  church  of  Rodez  and 
the  sanctuary  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  at  Ceignac, 
for  according  to  Cardinal  Bourret,  the  church  of 
Rodez  honoured  St.  Martial  as  early  as  the  sixth  cen- 
tury (see  Limoges).  There  were  bishops  of  Rodez 
before  675,  as  Sidonius  Apollinaris  mentions  that  the 


RODEZ 


108 


RODEZ 


Goths  left  it  at  that  date  without  bishops.  Amantius, 
who  ruled  about  the  end  of  the  fifth  centurj-,  is  the 
first  bishop  mentioned.  Among  others  are:  S. 
Quint  ianus  who  assisted  at  the  Councils  of  Agde 
(506)  and  Orleans  (511),  afterwards  Bishop  of  Cler- 
mont; S.  Dalmatius  (524-80);  S.  Gausbert  (tenth 
century),  probablj'  a  Bishop  of  Cahors;  Jean  de 
Cardaillac  (1371-9);  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  who 
fought  against  English  rule;  Blessed  Francis 
d'Estaing  (1501-29).  ambassador  of  Louis  XII  to 
Juluis  II;  Ivouis  Avelly  (ItHU-G)  who  wrote  the  life 
of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul;  Joseph  Bourret  (1871-96), 
made  Cardinal  in  1893.  The  Benedictine  Abbey  of 
Vabres,  founded  in  862  by  Raymond  I,  Count  of 
Toulouse,  was  raised  to  episcojxil  rank  in  1317,  and 
its  diocesan  territory  was  taken  from  the  south- 
eastern  portion   of   the    Diocese   of   Rodez.     Some 


The  Cathedral,  Rodez 

scholars  hold  that  within  the  limits  of  the  modern 
Diocese  of  Rodez  there  existed  in  Merovingian  times 
the  See  of  Arisitum  which,  according  to  Mgr  Duchesne, 
was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Alais. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  the  Bishop  of  Rodez  held 
temporal  <lominion  over  that  portion  of  the  town 
known  as  the  Cile,  while  in  the  eleventh  century  the 
Bourg  became  the  County  of  Rodez.  The  cathedral 
of  lifjdez  (thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries)  is  a 
beautiful  Gothic  building,  famous  for  its  belfry 
(1510-20)  and  unique  rood-beam.  It  wa,s  spared 
during  the  Revolution  for  dedication  to  Marat.  The 
town  of  Milhau  adopted  Calvinism  in  1534,  and  in 
1573  and  1620  was  the  scone  of  two  large  a.ssemblie3 
of  Protestant  de|)iiii(.s.  In  1629  Milhau  and  Saint- 
Afriqiie,  another  Protestant  stronghold,  were  taken 
and  di.smantled  by  Ixmis  XIII.  In  1628  a  pest  at 
Villefranche  carried  ofT  K(XX)  inhabitants  within  six 
months;  Fatli<T  Ambroise,  a  Franciscan,  and  the 
chief  of  fxilice  Jean  de  Pomayrol  saved  the  lives  of 
many  little  children  by  causing  th(!m  to  be  sucklcid 
by  eoatH.  The  Cistercian  Abbeys  f)f  Silbanc^s, 
Beaulieu,  IxK--Dieu,  Bonneval,  and  Bonn(!combe 
were  mrMlel-furrns  <luring  the  Middle  Ag(!S.  At- 
tiwkr-d  by  brigands  in  tlie  liouergue  country  on  his 
way  to  Santiago  di  Ojini^wtfjlla,  Adalard,  Viscount  of 
Flanders,  erect^;d  in  1031  a  monjistery  known  aw  the 
Dornerie  d'Aubnve,  a  sfx-cial  order  of  pri(!sts,  knights. 
lay  brothers,  la^lies,  and  lay  sisters  for  the  care  and 
proUnrtion  of  travellers.  At  Milhau,  R^>dez,  Nazac, 
and  IJ«^>zoul»,  hoHpitalu,  Htyled  "  Commander ics",  of 


this  order  of  Aubrac  adopted  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine 
in  1162. 

The  Diocese  of  Rodez  is  famous  also  through  the 
Abbey  of  Conques  and  the  cult  of  Sainte  Foy.  Some 
Christians,  fl.ying  from  the  Saracens  about  730,  sought 
a  '•efuge  in  the  "Val  Rocheux"  of  the  Dourdou  and 
built  an  oratory  there.  In  790  the  hermit  Dadon 
made  this  his  abode  and  aided  by  Louis  the  Pious, 
then  King  of  Aquitaine,  founded  an  abbey,  which 
Louis  named  Conques.  In  838  Pepin,  King  of  Aqui- 
taine, gave  the  monastery  of  Figeac  to  Conques. 
Between  877  and  883  the  monks  carried  off  the  body 
of  the  youthful  martjT  Ste-Foy  from  the  monastery 
of  Sainte  Foy  to  Conques,  where  it  became  the  object 
of  a  great  jjilgrimage.  Abbot  Odolric  built  the  abbey 
church  between  1030  and  1060;  on  the  stonework  over 
the  doorway  is  carved  the  most  artistic  representation 
in  France  of  the  Last  Judgment.  Abbot  Begon 
(1099-1118)  enriched  Conques  with  a  superb  rel- 
i(|uary  of  beaten  gold  and  cloisonn6s  enamels  of  a 
kind  extremely  rare  in  France.  Pascal  II  gave  him 
permission  for  the  name  of  Ste-Foy  to  be  inserted  in 
the  Canon  of  the  Mass  after  the  names  of  the  Roman 
virgins.  At  this  time  Conques,  with  Agen  and 
Schelestadt  in  Alsace,  was  the  centre  of  the  cult  of 
Ste.  Foy  which  soon  spread  to  England,  Spain,  and 
America  where  many  towns  bear  the  name  of  Santa 
Fe.  The  statute  of  Ste-Foy  seated,  which  dated 
from  the  tenth  century,  was  originally  a  small  wooden 
one  covered  with  gold  leaf.  In  time,  gems,  enamels, 
and  precious  stones  were  added  in  such  quantities 
that  it  is  a  living  treatise  on  the  history  of  the  gold- 
smiths art  in  France  between  the  eleventh  and  .six- 
teenth centuries.  It  was  known  during  the  Middle 
Ages  as  "Majeste  de  Sainte  Foy".  The  shrine  en- 
closing the  relics  of  the  Saint,  which  in  1590  was  hid- 
den in  the  masonry  connecting  the  pillars  of  the 
choir,  was  found  in  1875,  repaired,  transferred  to  the 
cathedral  of  Rodez  for  a  no  vena,  and  brought  back 
to  Conques,  a  distance  of  25  miles,  on  the  shoulders 
of  the  clergy. 

Among  Saints  specially  honoured  in  the  Diocese 
of  Rodez  and  Vabres  are:  S.  Antoninus  of  Pamiers, 
Apostle  of  the  Rouergue  (date  uncertain) ;  S.  Gratus 
and  S.  Ansutus,  martyrs  (fourth  century);  S.  Naama- 
tius,  deacon  and  confessor  (end  of  fifth  century); 
Ste.  Tarsicia,  grand-daughter  of  Clothaire  I  and  of 
Ste-Radegunda,  who  retired  to  the  Rouergue  to  lead 
an  ascetic  life  (sixth  century);  S.  Africanus,  wrongly 
styled  Bishop  of  Commingcs,  who  died  in  the  Rouer- 
gue (sixth  century);  S.  Hilarianus,  martyred  by  the 
Saracens  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne  (eighth  and 
ninth  century);  S.  George,  a  monk  in  the  Diocese 
of  Vabres,  afterwards  BLshop  of  Lodeve  (877);  S. 
Gua.sbert,  founder  and  first  abbot  of  the  monastery 
of  Montsalvy  in  the  modern  Diocese  of  St.  Flour 
(eleventh  century).  Among  natives  of  the  diocese 
are:  Cardinal  Bernard  of  Milhau,  Abbot  of  St. 
Victor's  at  Marseilles  in  1063,  and  l(>gatc  of  Gregory 
VII;  Theodatus  de  Gozon  (d.  1353)  and  John  of 
La  Valotta  (1494-1.568),  grand  m,asters  of  the  order 
of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem;  the  former  is  famous  for 
his  victory  over  the  dragon  of  Rhodes,  the  latter  for 
his  heroic  defence  of  Malta;  Frassinous  (1765- 
1841),  preacher  and  minister  of  worsiii))  under  the 
Restoration;  Bonald  (1754-1840)  and  Laroiiiiguidre 
(173()- 18.37),  pliilosophers;  Affre  (17;»3  ISIS),  born 
at  St.  Roinf!  fie  Tarn  and  slain  at  tlie  Barricades  as 
y\rclihisIiop  of  Paris.  The  chief  shrines  of  (lie  diocese 
are:  Notre;  Dame  de  Ceignac,  an  ancient  shrine  re- 
built anfl  enlarged  in  14.55,  which  over  15,000  ))ilgrim8 
visit  annually;  Notre  Dame  du  Saint  Voile  at 
Coupiac,  another  ancient  shrine;  Notn;  Dame  des 
Treize  Pierrcs  at  Vilhifranche,  a  pilgrimage  dating 
from  1.509. 

Brjfore  the  application  of  the  Associations'  Law  in 
1901,  there  were  in  the  Diocese  of  Rodez,  Capuchins, 


RODRIGUES 


109 


ROE 


Jesuits,  Trappists,  Peres  Blancs,  Premonstratensians, 
Fathers  of  Picpus,  Sulpicians,  Clerics  of  St.  Victor, 
and  many  congregations  of  teaching  brothers.  This 
diocese  furnishes  more  missionaries  than  any  other 
in  France.  Of  the  numerous  congregations  for  women 
which  had  their  origin  there,  the  principal  are: 
affiliations  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  known 
as  the  Union,  teaching  orders  founded  in  1672,  1698, 
1739,  1790,  with  mother-houses  at  St-Geniez, 
d'Olt,  Bozouls,  Lavernhe,  Auzits;  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph,  founded  in  1682  for  teaching  and  district 
nursing,  with  mother-house  at  Marcillac,  and  other 
sisters  of  the  same  name,  united  in  1822,  1824,  1856, 
with  mother-houses  at  Milhau,  Villecomtal,  Salles- 
la-Source;  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  a  teaching 
and  nursing  order,  founded  in  1816  by  Emilie  de 
Rodat,  with  mother-house  at  Villefranche  and  many 
convents  throughout  the  diocese;  the  Minim  Sisters 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary  founded  in  1844  by  Mile. 
Chauchard,  with  mother-house  at  Cruejouls,  for  the 
care  of  the  sick  and  children  of  the  working  classes; 
two  branches  of  Dominican  Sisters,  teaching  orders, 
founded  in  1843  and  1849  with  mother-houses  at 
Gramond  and  Bor-et-Bar;  the  Sisters  of  the  Union 
of  Ste-Foy,  teaching  and  nursing  nuns,  founded  in 
1682  with  mother-house  at  Rodez.  At  the  close  of 
the  nineteenth  century  the  religious  congregations 
of  the  diocese  had  charge  of  75  nurseries;  1  institute 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb;  3  orphanages  for  boys;  13 
orphanages  for  girls;  2  houses  of  rescue;  2  houses  of 
mercy;  1  economic  bakery;  83  houses  of  religious 
women  devoted  to  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  own 
homes;  3  hospitals.  At  tlie  end  of  1909  the  diocese 
had  a  population  of  377,299.  .")1  jxirishes,  617  auxiliary 
parishes,  287  curacies,  and  1200  priests. 

Gallia  Christiana,  Nova  (1715),  I,  195-234;  InstTumenla.  49-55. 
203;  Duchesne,  Pastes  Episcopaux,  II,  39-41;  Sicard,  Ruthena 
Christiana,  ed.  Maison.^be  in  Mimoirea  de  la  sociHe  des  lettres, 
sciences  et  arts  de  VAveyron,  XIV  (Rodez,  1893),  331-447;  Bour- 
RET,  Documents  sur  les  origines  chrHiennes  de  Rouergue.  Saint 
Martial  (Rodez,  1902);  SERVifeRES,  Les  Saints  du  Rouergue 
(Rodez,  1872);  Idem,  Histoire  de  I'Eglise  du  Rouergue  (Rodez, 
1875);  BouiLLET  and  SERVifcRES,  Sainte  Foy  viirge  et  martyre 
(Rodez,  1900) ;  Grimaldi,  Les  Benifices  du  Diochse  de  Rodez  avant 
la  Rivolution  de  178!>  (Rodez,  1906);  DB  Marlavaone,  Histoire 
de  la  cathedrale  de  Rodez  (Rodez,  1876);  Bousquet,  Tableau 
chronologique  et  biograph.  des  cardinaux,  archeviques  et  iviques  ori- 
ginaires  du  Rouergue  (Rodez,  1850);  Calmet,  L'ahbaye  de  Vabres 
et  son  irection  en  ^vtchk  in  Ann.  de  St.  Louis  des  FrauQais  (1898). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Rodrigues  Ferreira,  Alexandre,  a  Brazilian 
natural  scientist  and  explorer,  b.  at  Bahia  in  1756; 
d.  at  Lisbon  in  1815.  He  was  sent  to  Portugal  for 
his  training  and  there  studied  at  the  University  of 
Coimbra.  After  taking  his  degrees,  he  taught  nat- 
ural history  subjects  for  a  time  at  liis  Alma  Mater, 
until  in  1778  he  was  called  to  Lisbon  to  work  in  the 
Museo  da  Ajuda.  He  devoted  his  time  for  the  next 
five  years  to  cataloguing  the  various  specimens  con- 
tained in  the  museum,  and  to  the  writing  of  learned 
monographs  and  reports.  As  a  result  of  his  efforts 
he  was  elected  a  Corresponding  Member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Lisbon.  The  Portuguese 
Government  empowered  him  to  engineer  a  journey 
of  exploration  for  scientific  purposes  in  the  interior 
of  his  native  land.  He  entered  upon  this  expedition 
in  1783  and  spent  nine  years  in  it.  First  examining 
the  Island  of  Alarajo,  since  important  for  the  produc- 
tion of  rubber,  he  crossed  to  the  mainland,  and 
followed  the  course  of  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries, 
studying  the  natives,  their  languages  and  customs, 
and  the  fauna  and  flora  of  a  vast  region.  On  account 
of  the  energy  and  skill  with  which  he  conducted  his 
investigations  he  became  known  as  the  Brazilian 
Humboldt.  From  1793  until  his  death  he  was  in 
Lisbon,  acting  as  Director  of  the  Gabinete  de  His- 
toria  Natural  and  of  the  Jardim  Botanico.  Most 
of  the  records  of  his  Brazilian  explorations  seem  to 
have  passed  from  view.  J.  D.  M.  Ford. 


Rodriguez,  Alonso,  b.  at  Valladolid,  Spain,  1526; 
d.  at  Seville  21  February,  1616.  When  twenty  years 
of  age  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  after  com- 
pleting his  studies  taught  moral  theology  for  twelve 
years  at  the  College  of  Monterey,  and  subsequently 
filled  the  posts  of  master  of  novices  for  twelve  more 
years,  of  rector  for  seventeen  years,  and  of  spiritual 
father  at  Cordova  for  eleven  years.  As  master  of 
novices  he  had  under  his  charge  Francis  Suarcz,  the 
celebrated  theologian.  Alonso's  characteristics  in 
these  offices  were  care,  diligence,  and  charity.  He 
was  a  religious  of  great  piety  and  candour,  hating  all 
pride  and  ostentation.  It  was  said  of  him  by  those 
who  were  personally  acquainted  with  him,  that  his 
character  and  virtues  were  accurately  depicted  in 
"The  Practice  of  Christian  and  Religious  Perfection",  . 
published  at  Seville,  1609.  This  work  is  based  on  the 
material  which  he  collected  for  his  spiritual  exliorta- 
tions  to  his  brethren,  and  published  at  the  request  of 
his  superiors.  Although  the  book  thus  written  was 
primarily  intended  for  the  use  of  his  religious  brethren, 
yet  he  destined  it  also  for  the  profit  and  edification  of 
other  religious  and  of  laymen  in  the  world.  Of  set 
purpose  it  avoids  the  loftier  flights  of  mysticism  and 
all  abstruse  speculation.  It  is  a  book  of  practical 
instructions  on  all  the  virtues  which  go  to  make  up  the 
perfect  Christian  life,  whether  lived  in  the  cloister  or  in 
the  world.  It  became  popular  at  once,  and  it  is  as 
much  used  to-day  by  all  classes  of  Christians  as  it  was 
when  it  first  became  known.  More  than  twenty-five 
editions  of  the  original  Spanish  have  been  issued,  be- 
sides extracts  and  abridgments.  More  than  sixty  edi- 
tions have  appeared  in  French  in  seven  different 
translations,  twenty  in  Italian,  at  least  ten  in  German, 
and  eight  in  Latin.  An  English  translation  from  the 
French  by  Fr.  Antony  Hoskins,  S.J.,  was  printed  at 
St.  Omer  in  1612.  The  best  known  English  transla- 
tion, often  reprinted,  is  that  which  first  appeared  in 
London,  1697,  from  the  French  of  Abb6  Regnier  dea 
Marais.  P.  O.  Shea  issued  in  New  York  an  edition 
adapted  to  general  use  in  1878.  The  book  has  been 
translated  into  nearly  all  the  European  languages  and 
into  many  of  tho.se  of  the  East.  No  other  work  of  the 
author  was  published.  Gilmary  Shea  left  a  translation 
of  the  work  which  has  never  been  published, 

Cordara,  Historiij;  Socielatis  Jcku:  Pars  Sexta,  I  (Rome,  17.50); 
De  Guilhermy,  Menologe  de  la  C.  de  J.,  Assistance  d'Espagne, 
I  (Paris,  1902),  321;  a  short  life  is  prefixed  to  the  English  trans- 
lation of  The  Practice  of  Christian  and  Religious  Perfection  (Dub- 
lin, 1861);  Sommervooel,  Bibl.  de  la  C.  de  J.,  VI  (Paris,  1895). 

T.  Slater. 

Rodriguez,  Joao  (Giram,  Girao,  Giron,  Roiz), 
missionary  and  author,  b.  at  Alcochete  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Lisbon  in  1558;  d.  in  Japan  in  1633.  He 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  on  16  December,  1576, 
and  in  1583  began  his  missionary  labours  in  Japan. 
His  work  was  facilitated  by  his  winning  the  esteem 
of  the  Emperor  Taicosama.  He  studied  the  Japanese 
language  ardently,  and  is  particularly  known  for  his 
efforts  to  make  it  accessible  to  the  Western  nations. 
His  Japanese  grammar  ranks  among  the  important 
linguistic  productions  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries. 
Published  at  Nagasaki  in  1604  under  the  title  "Arte 
da  lingoa  de  Japam",  it  appeared  in  1624  in  an 
abridged  form  at  Macao:  "Arte  breve  da  lingoa 
japoa";  from  the  manuscript  of  this  abridgement 
preserved  in  the  National  Library  in  Paris,  the 
Asiatic  Society  prepared  a  French  edition  of  the  work : 
"Elements  de  la  grammaire  japonaise  par  le  P. 
Rodriguez"  (Paris,  1825).  Rodriguez  compiled  also 
a  Japanese-Portuguese  dictionary  (Nagasaki,  1603), 
later  adapted  to  the  French  by  Pages  (Paris,  1862). 

R^musat,  in  Nouv.  melanges  asiat.,  I  (Paris,  1829),  354-57; 
Gansen,  in  Buchberger's  Handlexikon,  a.  v. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Roe,  Bartholomew  (Venerable  Alban),  English 
Benedictine  martyr,  b.  in  Suffolk,  1583;  executed  at 


ROERMOND 


110 


ROGATION 


Tyburn,  21  Jan.,  1641.  Educated  in  Suffolk  and  at 
Cambridge,  he  became  converted  through  a  visit  to 
a  Cathohc  prisoner  at  St.  Albans  which  unsettled  his 
religious  views.  He  was  admitted  as  a  con  victor  into 
the  English  College  at  Douai,  entered  the  English 
Benedictine  monastery  at  Dieulward  where  he  was 
professed  in  1012,  and,  after  ordination,  went  to  the 
mission  in  1615.  From  161S  to  1623  he  was  impris- 
oned in  the  New  Prison,  Maiden  Lane,  whence  he  w^as 
banished  and  went  to  the  English  Benedictine  house  at 
Douai  but  returned  to  England  after  four  months.  He 
was  again  arrested  in  1625,  and  was  imprisoned  for  two 
months  at  St.  Albans,  then  in  the  Fleet  whence  he  was 
frequently  liberated  on  parole,  and  finally  in  Newgate. 
He  was  condemned  a  few  days  before  his  execution 
under  the  statute  27  Eliz.  c.  2,  for  being  a  priest. 
With  him  suffered  Thomas  Greene,  aged  eighty,  who 
on  the  mission  had  taken  the  name  of  Reynolds.  He 
was  probably  descended  from  the  Greenes  of  Great 
Milton,  Oxfordshire,  and  the  Reynoldses  of  Old 
Stratford,  Warwickshire,  and  was  ordained  deacon  at 
Reims  in  1590,  and  priest  at  Seville.  He  had  lived 
under  sentence  of  death  for  fourteen  years,  and  was 
executed  without  fresh  trial.  They  w^ere  drawn  on 
the  same  hurdle,  where  they  heard  each  other's  con- 
fessions, and  were  hanged  simultaneously  on  the  same 
gibbet  amidst  great  demonstrations  of  popular  sym- 
pathv. 

GiLLOW,  Bill.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,  Ill,  36;  V,  437;  Challoner, 
Missionary  Priests,  II,  nos.  166,  167;  Pollen,  Acts  of  the  English 
Martyrs  (London,  1891),  339-43. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Roennond,  Diocese  of  (Rur.emundensis),  in 
Holland,  suffragan  of  Utrecht.  It  includes  the  Prov- 
ince of  Liinburg,  and  in  1909  had  3.32,201  inhabitants, 
among  whom  were  325,000  Catholics.  The  diocese 
has  a  cathedral  chapter  with  9  canons,  14  deaneries, 
173  parishes,  197  churches  with  resident  priests,  an 
ecclesiastical  seminary  at  Roermond,  a  preparatory 
seminary  for  boys  at  Rolduc,  about  70  Catholic 
primary  schools,  2  Catholic  preparatory  gymnasia,  1 
training  college  for  male  teachers,  24  schools  for  phil- 
osophical, theological,  and  classical  studies,  35  higher 
schools  for  girls,  about  60  charitable  institutions,  45 
hou.ses  of  religious  (men)  with  about  2400  members, 
and  130  convents  with  3900  sisters.  Among  the 
orders  and  congregations  of  men  in  the  diocese  are: 
Jesuits,  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Word  of  Steyl, 
Brothers  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  Redemptor- 
ists,  Marists,  Reformed  Cistercians,  Dominicans, 
Benedictines,  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  Brothers 
of  Mercy,  Poor  Brothers  of  St.  Francis,  Conventuals, 
Calced  Carmelites,  Missionaries  of  Africa,  Priests  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  Brothers  of  the  Seven 
Sorrows  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Brothers  of  St. 
Francis,  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph,  the  Society  of  Mary, 
the  Congregation  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  the 
Congregation  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  and  the  Congrega- 
tion of  Missions.  Among  the  female  orders  and  con- 
gregatioruj  are:  Benedictines,  Brigittines,  Ur.sulines, 
oifiters  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  Sisters  of  Tilburg, 
SiHtcrH  of  the  Child  Jesus,  Sisters  of  St.  Francis, 
Sii5t/Ts  of  the  Divine  Providence,  Sisters  of  Mercy  etc. 

llu!  Dioc('K<!  of  Roermond  was  established  in  1559, 
during  the  reign  of  Pliilip  II,  when  after  long  and 
difficult  negotiations  with  the  papacy  the  dioceses  of 
the  Nftlicrlands  were  reorganized.  By  these  negotia- 
tions all  juri.s<liftion  of  foreign  bishop.s,  e.  g.  that  of 
the  Archbihhoi*  of  Cologne,  came  to  an  end.  In  this 
way  the  Dioces*;  of  Roermond,  the;  boundaries  of 
which  were  settled  in  l.jOl,  became  a  suffragan  of 
Mechlin.  'Ilie  reorganization  of  th(?  dioceses,  how- 
ever, met  with  violent  opposition,  partly  from  bish- 
ops to  whotw;  territories  tlie  new  diocescw  ha<l  formerly 
belonged,  partly  from  a  numbr-r  of  abbots  whose 
abbevH  were  incorj)orat/;d  in  the  new  bishoprics. 
Much  difficulty  wa8  also  caused  by  the  rapid  growth 


of  Calvinism  in  the  Netherlands.  In  Roermond  the 
first  bishop,  Lindanus,  who  was  consecrated  in  1563, 
could  not  enter  upon  his  duties  until  1569;  notwith- 
standing his  zeal  and  charitableness  he  was  obliged 
to  retire  on  account  of  the  revolutionary  movement; 
he  died  Bishop  of  Ghent.  The  ei>iscopal  see  remained 
vacant  until  1591;  at  later  periods  also,  on  account 
of  the  political  turmoils,  the  see  was  repeatedly 
vacant.  In  1801  the  diocese  was  suppressed;  the 
last  bishop,  Johann  Baptist  Baron  van  Velde  de 
Melroy,  died  in  1824. 

When  in  1839  the  Duchy  of  Limburg  became  once 
more  a  part  of  the  Netherlands,  Gregory  XVI  sepa- 
rated (2  June,  1840)  that  part  of  Limburg  which  had 
been  incorporated  in  the  Diocese  of  Louvain  in  1802, 
and  added  to  this  territory  several  new  parishes  which 
had  formerly  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Aachen,  and 
formed  thus  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Roermond, 
over  which  the  parish  priest  of  Roermond,  Johann 
August  Paredis,  was  placed  as  vicar  Apostolic  and 
titular  Bishop  of  Hirene.  In  1841  a  seminar}^  for 
priests  was  established  in  the  former  Carthusian 
monastery  of  Roermond,  where  the  celebrated 
Dionysius  the  Carthusian  had  been  a  monk.  Upon 
the  re-establishment  of  the  Dutch  hierarchy  in  1853 
the  Vicariate-Apostolic  of  Roermond  was  raised  to  a 
bishopric  and  made  a  suffragan  of  Utrecht.  The  first 
bishop  of  the  new  diocese  was  Paredis.  In  1858  a 
cathedral  chapter  was  formed;  in  1867  a  synod  was 
held,  the  first  since  1654;  in  1876  the  administration 
of  the  church  property  was  transferred,  by  civil  law, 
to  the  bishop.  During  the  Kulturkmipf  in  Germany 
a  number  of  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  driven  out  of 
Prussia  found  a  hospitable  welcome  and  opportunities 
for  further  usefulness  in  the  Diocese  of  Roermond; 
among  these  churchmen  were  Melchers  of  Cologne, 
Brinkmann  of  Miinster,  and  Martin  of  Paderborn. 
Bishop  Paredis  was  succeeded  by  Franziskus  Boreman 
(1886-1900) ,  on  whose  death  the  present  bishop,  Joseph 
Hubertus  Drehmann,  was  appointed. 

Gallia  Christiana,  V,  371  sqq.;  Neerlandia  catholica  seu 
provinci(e  Ulrajeclensis  historia  et  conditio  (Utrecht,  1888),  263- 
335;  Albers,  Geschiedenis  van  het  herstel  der  hierarchie  in  de 
Nederlanden  (Nymwegen,  1893-4);  Meerdinck,  Roermond  in 
de  Middeleeuwen;  Onze  Pius  Almanak.  Jaarboek  voorde  Katholiken 
van  Nederland  (Alkmaar,  1910),  338  sqq. 

Joseph  Lins. 

Rogation  Days,  days  of  prayer,  and  formerly  also 
of  fasting,  instituted  by  the  Church  to  appease  God's 
anger  at  man's  transgressions,  to  ask  protection  in 
calamities,  and  to  obtain  a  good  and  bountiful  harvest, 
known  in  England  as  "Gang  Days"  and  "Cross 
Week",  and  in  Germany  as  Bittagc,  Billivochc,  Kreuz- 
woche.  The  Rogation  Days  were  highly  esti^emed  in 
England  and  King  Alfred's  laws  considered  a  theft 
committed  on  these  days  equal  to  one  committed  on 
Sunday  or  a  higher  Church  Holy  Day.  Their  cele- 
bration continued  even  to  the  thirteenth  year  of 
Elizabeth,  1571,  when  one  of  the  ministers  of  the 
E-stablished  Church  inveighed  against  the  Roga- 
tion processions,  or  Gang  Days,  of  Cross  Week. 
The  ceremonial  may  he  found  in  the  Council  of 
Clovcsho  (Thorpe,  Ancient  Laws,  I,  64;  Hefele, 
Conciliengeschichte,  III,  564). 

The  Rogation  Days  are  the  25th  of  April,  called 
Major,  and  the  three  days  before  the  feast  of  the 
Ascension,  called  Minor.  The  Major  Rogation, 
which  has  no  cf)nn('xion  with  the  feast  of  St.  Mark 
(fixed  for  this  flate  much  later)  seems  to  be  of  very 
early  date  and  tf)  have  been  introduced  to  covmteract 
th(!  an(;i(?nt  Rohujalia,  on  which  the  heathens  held 
processions  and  supplications  to  their  gods.  St. 
Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604)  regulated  the  already  exist- 
ing custom.  The  Minor  Rogations  were  introduced 
by  St.  Mamertus,  Bishr)p  of  Vienne,  and  were  after- 
wards ordered  by  the  Fift  h  Council  of  Orleans,  which 
was  held  in  511,  and  then  approved  by  Leo  III  (795- 


ROGATISTS 


111 


ROGER 


816).  This  is  asserted  by  St.  Gregory  of  Tours  in 
"Hist.  Franc",  II,  34,  by  St.  Avitus  of  Vienne  in  his 
"Horn,  de  Rogat."  (P.  L.,  LVIII,  563),  by  Ado  of 
Vienne  (P.  L.,  CXXIII,  102),  and  by  the  Roman 
Martyrology.  Sassi,  in  "  Archiepiscopi  Mediolanen- 
ses",  ascribes  their  introduction  at  an  earher  date  to 
St.  Lazarus.  This  is  also  held  by  the  Bollandist 
Henschen  in  "Acta  SS.",  II,  Feb.,  .522.  The  liturgical 
celebration  now  consists  in  the  procession  and  the 
Rogation  Ma.ss.  For  25  April  the  Roman  Missal 
gives  the  rubric:  "If  the  feast  of  St.  Mark  is  trans- 
ferred, the  procession  is  not  transferred.  In  the  rare 
case  of  25  April  being  Easter  Sunday  [1886,  1943], 
the  procession  is  held  not  on  Sunday  but  on  the 
Tuesday  following". 

The  order  to  be  observed  in  the  procession  of  the 
Major  and  Minor  Rogation  is  given  in  the  Roman 
Ritual,  title  X,  ch.  iv.  After  the  antiphon  "Exurge 
Domine",  the  Litany  of  the  Saints  is  chanted  and 
each  verse  and  response  is  said  twice.  After  the  verse 
"Sancta  Maria"  the  procession  begins  to  move.  If 
necessary,  the  litany  may  be  repeated,  or  some  of  the 
Penitential  or  Gradual  Psalms  added.  For  the  Minor 
Rogations  the  "Ceremoniale  Episcoporum",  book  II, 
ch.  xxxii,  notes:  "Eadem  serventur  sed  aliquid  re- 
missius".  If  the  procession  is  held,  the  Rogation 
Mass  is  obligatory,  and  no  notice  is  taken  of  whatever 
feast  may  occur,  unless  only  one  Mass  is  said,  for  then 
a  commemoration  is  made  of  the  feast.  An  exception 
is  made  in  favour  of  the  patron  or  titular  of  the  church, 
of  whom  the  Mass  is  said  with  a  commemoration  of 
the  Rogation.  The  colour  used  in  the  procession  and 
Mass  is  violet.  The  Roman  Breviary  gives  the  in- 
struction: "All  persons  bound  to  recite  the  Office,  and 
who  are  not  present  at  the  procession,  are  bound  to 
recite  the  Litany,  nor  can  it  be  anticipated". 

Rock,  The  Church  of  Our  Fathers,  III  (London,  1904),  181; 
Duchesne,  Chr.  Worship  (tr.  London,  1904),  288;  Binterim, 
DenkxDilrdigkeiten;  Amberoer,  Pnslorallheologie,  II,  834;  Van 
DER  Steppen,  Sacra  Liturgiu,  IV,  405;  Nilles,  Kalendarium 
Manuale  (Innsbruck,  1897). 

Francis  Mershman. 

Rogatists.     See  Donatists. 

Roger,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  d.  at  Tours,  9  August, 
1179.  A  younger  son  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Gloucester, 
he  was  educated  with  the  future  king,  Henry  II, 
afterwards  ordained  priest,  and  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Worcester  by  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury,  23  Aug., 
1163.  He  adhered  loyally  to  St.  Thomas,  and  though 
one  of  the  bisho[)s  sent  to  the  pope  to  carry  the  king's 
appeal  against  the  archbishop,  he  took  no  active 
part  in  the  embass}%  nor  did  he  join  the  appeal  made 
by  the  bishops  against  the  archbishop  in  1166,  thus 
arousing  the  enmity  of  the  king.  When  St.  Thomas 
desired  Roger  to  join  him  in  his  exile,  Roger  went 
without  leave  (1167),  Henry  having  refused  him  per- 
mission. He  boldly  reproached  the  king  when  they 
met  at  Falaise  in  li70,  and  a  reconciliation  followed. 
After  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Thomas,  England  was 
threatened  with  an  interdict,  but  Roger  interceded 
with  the  pope  and  was  thereafter  highly  esteemed  in 
England  and  at  Rome.  Alexander  III,  who  frequently 
employed  him  as  delegate  in  ecclesiastical  causes,  spoke 
of  him  and  Bartholomew,  Bishop  of  Exeter,  as  "the 
two  great  lights  of  the  English  Church  ". 

Materials  for  the  History  of  Archbishop  Becket  in  R.  S.  (London, 
1875-85);  Gervase  of  Canterbury,  Hist.  Works  in  R.  S.  (Lon- 
don, 1879-80) ;  de  Diceto,  Opera  Hist,  in  R.  S.  (London,  1876) ; 
P.  L.,  CXCIX,  365,  gives  one  of  his  letters  to  .Alexander  III; 
Giles,  Life  and  Letters  of  Becket  (London,  1846);  Hope,  Life  of 
St.  Thomas  a  Becket  (London,  1868);  Morris,  Life  of  St.  Thomas 
Becket  (London,  1885);  Norgate  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Roger  Bacon,  philosopher,  surnamed  Doctor 
MiRABiLis,  b.  at  Ilchester.  Somersetshire,  about 
1214;  d.  at  Oxford,  perhaps  11  June,  1294.  His 
wealthy  parents  sided  with  Henry  III  against  the 
rebellious  barons,  but  lost  nearly  all  their  property. 


It  has  been  presumed  that  Robert  Bacon,  O.P.,  was 
Roger's  brother;  more  probably  he  was  his  uncle. 
Roger  made  his  higher  studies  at  Oxford  and  Paris, 
and  was  later  professor  at  Ox-ford  (Franciscan  school). 
He  was  greatly  influenced  by  his  Oxonian  masters 
and  friends  Richard  Fitzacre  and  Edmund  Ricli,  but 
especially  by  Robert  Grosseteste  and  Adam  Marsh, 
both  professors  at  the  Franciscan  school,  and  at  Paris 
by  the  Franciscan  Petrus  Peregrinus  de  Maricourt 
(see  Schlund  in  "Archiv.  Francisc.  Histor.",  IV,  1911, 
pp.  436  sqq.).  They 
created  in  him  a 
predilection  for 
positive  sciences, 
languages,  and 
physics ;  and  to 
the  1  a  s  t  -  m  e  n- 
tioned  he  owed 
his  entrance  about 
1240(125171257?) 
into  the  Francis- 
cans, either  at 
Oxford  or  Paris. 
He  continued  his 
learned  work;  ill- 
ness, however, 
compelled  him  to 
give  it  up  for  two 
years.  When  he 
was  able  to 
recommence      his  Roger  Bacon 

studies,    his  SU-         From  an  old  engraving  by  Sadeler 

periors  imposed  other  duties  on  him,  and  forbade 
him  to  pubhsh  any  work  out  of  the  order  without 
special  permission  from  the  higher  superiors  "under 
pain  of  losing  the  book  and  of  fasting  several  days 
with  only  bread  and  water". 

This  prohibition  has  induced  modern  writers  to 
pass  severe  judgment  upon  Roger's  superiors  being 
jealous  of  Roger's  abilities;  even  serious  scholars 
say  they  can  hardly  understand  how  Bacon  conceived 
the  idea  of  joining  the  Franciscan  Order.  Such 
critics  forget  that  when  Bacon  entered  the  order  the 
Franciscans  numbered  many  men  of  ability  in  no  way 
inferior  to  the  most  famous  scholars  of  other  religious 
orders  (see  Felder,  "Gesch.  der  wissenschaftlichen 
Studien  im  Franziskanerorden  bis  um  (he  Mitte  des 
13.  Jahrhunderts",  Freiburg,  1904).  The  prohibi- 
tion enjoined  on  Bacon  was  a  general  one,  which  ex- 
tended to  the  whole  order;  its  promulgation  was  not 
even  directed  against  him,  but  rather  against  Gerard 
of  Borgo  San  Donnino^  as  Salimbene  says  expressly 
(see  "Chronica  Fr.  Salimbene  Parmensis"  in  "Mon, 
Germ.  Hist.:  SS.",  XXU,  462,  ed.  Holder-Egger). 
Gerard  had  pubhshed  in  1254  without  permission 
his  heretical  work,  "  Introductorius  in  Evangelium 
seternum";  thereupon  the  General  Chapter  of  Nar- 
bonne  in  1260  promulgated  the  above-mentioned 
decree,  identical  with  the  "constitutio  gravis  in 
contrarium"  Bacon  speaks  of,  as  the  text  shows  (see 
the  constitution  published  by  Ehrle,  S.J.,  "Die 
altesten  Redactionen  der  Generalconstitutionen  des 
Franziskanerordens"  in  "Archiv  fiir  Literatur-  und 
Kirchengeschichte  des  Mittelalters",  VI,  110;  St. 
Bonaventure,  "Opera Omnia",  Quaracchi,  VIII,  456). 

We  need  not  wonder  then  that  Roger's  immediate 
superiors  put  the  prohibition  into  execution,  especially 
as  Bacon  was  not  always  very  correct  in  doctrine; 
and  although  on  the  one  hand  it  is  wrong  to  consider 
him  as  a  necromancer  and  astrologer,  an  enemy  of 
scholastic  philosophy,  an  author  full  of  heresies  and 
suspected  views,  still  we  cannot  deny  that  some  of 
his  expressions  are  imprudent  and  inaccurate.  The 
judgments  he  passes  on  other  scholars  of  his  day  are 
sometimes  too  hard,  so  it  is  not  surprising  that  his 
friends  were  few.  The  above-mentioned  prohibition 
was  rescinded  in  Roger's  favour  unexpectedly  in  1266. 


ROGER 


112 


ROGER 


Some  years  before,  while  still  at  Oxford,  he  had  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Cardinal  Guy  le  Gros  de  Foulques, 
whom  Urban  IV  had  sent  to  England  to  settle  the 
disputes  between  Henr>'  III  and  the  barons;  others 
believe  that  the  cardinal  met  Roger  at  Paris,  in  1257  or 
125S  (see  ''Archiv.  Francisc.  Histor.",  IV,  442). 
After  a  conference  about  some  current  abuses,  espe- 
cially about  ecclesiastical  studies,  the  cardinal  asked 
Roger  to  present  his  ideas  in  writing.  Roger  delayed 
in  doing  this;  when  the  cardinal  became  Clement 
IV  and  reiterated  his  desire.  Bacon  excused  himself 
because  the  prohibition  of  his  superiors  stood  in  the 
way.  Then  the  pope  in  a  letter  from  Viterbo  (22 
June,  1266)  commanded  him  to  send  his  work  immedi- 
ately, notwithstanding  the  prohibition  of  superiors  or 
any' general  constitution  whatsoever,  but  to  keep  the 
commission  a  secret  (see  letter  published  by  Martene- 
Durand,  "Thesaurus  novus  anecdotorum",  II,  Paris, 
1717,  35S,  Clement  IV,  epp.  n.  317  a;  Wadding,  "An- 
nales",  ad  an.  1266,  n.  14,  II,  294;  IV,  265;  Sbaralea, 
"BullariumFranciscanum",  III,  89  n.  8f,  22  June,  1266). 
We  may  suppose  that  the  pope,  as  Bacon  says,  from 
the  first  had  wished  the  matter  kept  secret;  otherwise 
we  can  hardly  understand  why  Bacon  did  not  get  ]ier- 
mission  of  his  superiors;  for  the  prohibition  of  Nar- 
bonne  was  not  absolute;  it  only  forbade  him  to  pub- 
lish works  outside  the  order  "unless  they  were 
examined  thoroughly  by  the  minister  general  or  by 
the  provincial  together  with  his  definitors  in  the 
provincial  chapter".  The  removal  of  the  prohibi- 
tive constitution  did  not  at  once  remove  all  ob- 
stacles; the  secrecy  of  the  matter  rather  produced 
new  embarrassments,  as  Bacon  frankly  declares. 
The  first  impediment  was  the  contrary  will  of  his 
superiors:  "as  Your  Hohness",  he  writes  to  the 
pope,  "did  not  write  to  them  to  excuse  me,  and  I 
could  not  make  known  to  them  Your  secret,  because 
You  had  commanded  me  to  keep  the  matter  a  secret, 
they  did  not  let  me  alone  but  charged  me  with  other 
labours;  but  it  was  impossible  for  me  to  obey  because 
of  Your  commandment".  Anotlier  difficulty  was  the 
lack  of  money  necessary  to  obtain  parchment  and  to 
pay  copyists.  As  the  superiors  knew  nothing  of  his 
commission,  Bacon  had  to  devise  means  to  obtain 
money.  Accordingly  he  ingenuously  reminded  the 
pope  of  this  oversight,  "As  a  monk",  he  says,  "I  for 
myself  have  no  money  and  cannot  have;  therefore  I 
cannot  borrow,  not  having  wherewith  to  return;  my 
parents  who  before  were  rich,  now  in  the  troubles  of 
war  have  run  into  poverty;  others,  who  were  able 
refused  to  spend  money ;  so  deeply  embarrassed,  I  urged 
my  friends  and  poor  people  to  expend  all  they  had, 
to  sell  and  to  pawn  their  goods,  and  I  could  not  help 
promising  them  to  write  to  You  and  induce  Your 
Holiness  to  fully  reimburse  the  sum  spent  by  them 
(60  pounds)"  ("OpusTertium",  III,  p.  16). 

Finally,  Bacon  was  able  to  execute  the  pope's 
desire;  in  thr-  beginning  of  1267  he  sent  by  his  pupil 
John  of  Paris  (Jy^ndon?)  the  "Opus  Majus",  where  he 
puts  tf»gether  in  general  linfts  all  his  leading  idea.s  and 
propfwals;  the  same  friend  was  instructed  to  pr(!.sent 
to  the  pope  a  burning-mirror  and  several  drawings  of 
Baw-in  appertaining  to  physics,  and  to  give  all  ex- 
planatiorLS  renuired  by  His  Holiness.  The  same 
year  (12^37)  he  finished  his  "  Opus  Minus  ",  a  recapitula- 
tion of  the  main  thoughts  of  the  "Opus  Majus", 
to  faeilitaU;  the  pope's  reading  or  to  submit  to  him  an 
epitome  of  the  first  work  if  it  should  be  lost.  With 
the  sajnc  object,  and  because  in  the  first  two  works 
some  idea.s  wf-rf  V»ut  hastily  treated,  he  was  induced 
to  cx)mpose  a  third  work,  the  "Opus  Tertium";  in  this, 
eentU)  the  jK»p<!  bffore  his  death  (1268),  he  treats  in 
a  still  more  fxteriKiv*-  manner  tlie  wholr-  material  he 
had  spoken  of  in  his  preceding  works.  Unfortunately 
his  fnend  Clement  IV  died  too  mon,  without  having 
been  able  to  put  into  pra^;tice  the  counsels  given  by 
Bacon.     About  the  rest  of  Roger's  life  we  are  not  well 


informed.  The  " Chronica  XXIV  Generahum  Ordinis 
Minorum"  says  that  "the  Minister  General  Jerome 
of  .Vscoli  [afterwards  Pope  Nicholas  IV]  on  the  advice 
of  many  brethren  condemned  and  rejected  the  doc- 
trine of  the  English  brother  Roger  Bacon,  Doctor  of 
Divinity,  which  contains  many  suspect  innovations, 
by  reason  of  which  Roger  was  imprisoned"  (see  the 
"Chronica"  printed  in  "Analecta  Franciscana",  III, 
360).  The  assertion  of  modern  -^Titers,  that  Bacon 
was  imprisoned  fourteen  or  fifteen  years,  although  he 
had  proved  his  orthodoxy  by  the  work  "De  nullitate 
magiae",  has  no  foundation  in  ancient  sources. 

Some  authors  connect  the  fact  of  imprisonment  re- 
lated in  the  "Chronica"  with  the  proscription  of 
219  theses  by  Stephen  Tempier,  Bishop  of  Paris, 
which  took  place  7  March,  1277  (Denifle,  "Char- 
tularium  Universitatis  Parisiensis",  I,  543,  560). 
Indeed  it  was  not  verj^  difficult  to  find  some  "sus- 
pect innovation"  in  Bacon's  writings,  especially  with 
regard  to  the  physical  sciences.  As  F.  Mandonnet, 
O.P.,  proves,  one  of  his  incriminated  books  or  pam- 
phlets was  his  "Speculum  Astronomiaj",  written  in 
1277,  hitherto  falsely  ascribed  to  Blessed  Albert  the 
Great  [Ojiera  Omnia,  ed.  Vives,  Paris,  X,  629  sq.; 
cf.  Mandonnet,  "Roger  Bacon  et  le  Speculum 
Astronomiiae  (1277)"  in  "Revue  Neo-Scholastique", 
XVII,  Louvain,  1910,  313-35].  Such  and  other 
questions  are  not  yet  ripe  for  judgment;  but  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  the  newly  awakened  interest  in 
Baconian  studies  and  investigations  will  clear  up 
more  and  more  what  is  still  obscure  in  Roger's  life. 

The  writings  attributed  to  Bacon  by  some  authors 
amount  to  about  eighty;  many  (e.  g.  "Epistola  de 
magnete",  composed  by  Petrus  Peregrinus  de  Mari- 
court)  are  spurious,  while  many  are  only  treatises 
republished  separately  under  new  titles.  Other 
writings  or  parts  of  writings  certainly  composed  by 
him  were  put  in  circulation  under  the  name  of  other 
scholars,  and  his  claim  to  their  authorship  can  be 
established  only  from  internal  reasons  of  style  and 
doctrine.  Other  treatises  still  lie  in  the  dust  of  the 
great  European  libraries,  especially  of  England, 
France,  and  Italy.  Much  remains  to  be  done  before 
we  can  expect  an  edition  of  the  "Opera  Omnia"  of 
Roger  Bacon.  For  the  present  the  following  state- 
ments may  suffice.  Before  Bacon  entered  the  order 
he  had  written  many  essays  and  treatises  on  the  sub- 
jects he  taught  in  the  school,  for  his  pupils  only,  or 
for  friends  who  had  requested  him  to  do  so,  as  he  con- 
fes.ses  in  his  letter  of  dedication  of  the  "Opus  Majus" 
sent  to  the  pope:  "Multa  in  alio  statu  conscripseram 
propter  juvenum  rudimenta"  (the  letter  was  dis- 
covered in  the  Vatican  Library  by  Abbot  Gasquet, 
O.S.B.,  and  first  published  by  him  in  the  "English 
Historical  Review",  1897,  under  the  title  "An  un- 
published fragment  of  a  work  by  Roger  Bacon",  494 
sq.;  for  the  words  above  cited,  see  p.  500).  To  this 
period  seem  to  belong  some  commentaries  on  the 
writings  of  Aristotle  and  jxThaps  th(^  little  treatise 
"De  mirabili  potestate  art  is  el  nalune  et  de  nullitate 
magia;"  (Pans,  1.542;  O.xford,  lt)()4;  London,  1S,59). 
The  same  work  was  printed  under  tlie  litlc  "Epistola 
de  secretis  operihus  art  is  et  iiaturu'"  (llaniburg,  1608, 
1618).  After  joining  tlic  order,  or  more  exact Ij'  from 
about  the  years  1256-57,  hi;  did  not  compose  works 
of  any  great  importance  and  extent,  but  only  occa- 
sional essays  reouested  by  friends,  as  he  says  in  the 
above-mentioned  letter,  "now  about  this  science,  now 
about  another  one",  and  only  more  Iransitorio  (see 
"Eng.  Hist.  Rev.",  1897,  .500).  In  the  earlier  part 
of  his  life  he  probably  composed  also  "De  termino 
pascali"  (see  letter  of  Clement  IV  in  "Bull.  Franc", 
III,  89);  for  it  is  cited  in  another  work,  "Computus 
naturalium",  jissigned  to  1263  by  Charles  ("Roger 
Bacx)n.Savie,etc.",  Paris,  1861,  p.  78;  cf.  pp.334Bqq.). 

TTie  most  important  of  all  his  writmgs  are  the 
"Opus  Majus",  the  "Opus  Minus",  and  the  "Ter- 


ROGER 


113 


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tium".  The  "Opus  Majus"  deals  in  seven  parts 
with  (1)  the  obstacles  to  real  wisdom  and  truth,  viz. 
errors  and  their  sources;  (2)  the  relation  between 
theology  and  philosophy,  taken  in  its  widest  sense 
as  comprising  all  sciences  not  strictly  philosophical: 
here  he  proves  that  all  sciences  are  founded  on  the 
sacred  sciences,  especially  on  Holy  Scripture;  (3) 
the  necessity  of  studying  zealously  the  Biblical 
languages,  as  without  them  it  is  impossible  to  bring 
out  the  treasure  hidden  in  Holy  Writ;  (4)  mathemat- 
ics and  their  relation  and  application  to  the  sacred 
sciences,  particularly  Holy  Scripture;  here  he  seizes 
an  opportunity  to  speak  of  Biblical  geography  and 
of  astronomy  (if  these  parts  really  belong  to  the 
"Opus  Majus");  (5)  optics  or  perspective;  (6)  the 
experimental  sciences;  (7)  moral  philosophy  or 
ethics.  The  "  Opus  Majus  "  was  first  edited  by  Samuel 
Jebb,  London,  1733,  afterwards  at  Venice,  1750, 
by  the  Franciscan  Fathers.  As  both  editions  were 
incomplete,  it  was  edited  recently  by  J.  H.  Bridges, 
Oxford,  1900  ("The  'Opus  Majus' of  Roger  Bacon, 
edited  with  introduction  and  analytical  table, "  in  2 
vols.);  the  first  three  parts  of  it  were  republished 
the  same  year  by  this  author  in  a  supplementary 
volume,  containing  a  more  correct  and  revised  text. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  this  edition  is  not  so  critical 
and  accurate  as  it  might  have  been.  As  already 
noted.  Bacon's  letter  of  dedication  to  the  pope  was 
found  and  published  first  by  Dom  Gasquet;  indeed 
the  dedication  and  introduction  is  wanting  in  the 
hitherto  extant  editions  of  the  "Opus  Majus",  where- 
as the  "Opus  Minus"  and  "Opus  Tertium"  are  ac- 
companied with  a  i)r('face  by  Bacon  (see  "Acta  Ord. 
Min.",  Quaracchi,  1S98,  where  the  letter  is  reprinted). 
Of  the  "Opus  Miinis",  the  relation  of  which  to  the 
"Opus  Majus"  has  been  mentioned,  much  has  been 
lost.  Originally  it  had  nine  parts,  one  of  which  must 
have  been  a  treat  ise  on  alchemy,  both  speculative 
and  practical:  there  was  another  entitled  "The  seven 
sins  in  the  study  of  theology".  All  fragments  hith- 
erto found  have  l)een  jiublished  by  J.  S.  Brewer,  "P>. 
R.  Bacon  opp.  qua;dam  hactenus  inedita",  vol.  I 
(the  only  one)  containing:  (1)  "Opus  Tertium"; 
(2)  "Opus  Minus";  (3)  "Compendium  Philos." 
The  appendix  adds  "De  secretis  arlis  et  natura; 
operibus  et  de  nuUitate  magiie",  London,  1859 
(Rerum  Britann.  med.  a^v.  Script.).  The  aim  of  the 
"Opus  Tertium"  is  clearly  pointed  out  by  Bacon 
himself:  "As  these  reasons  [profoundness  of  truth  and 
its  difficulty]  have  induced  me  to  compose  the  Second 
Writing  as  a  complement  facilitating  the  understand- 
ing of  the  First  Work,  so  on  account  of  them  I  have 
written  this  Third  Work  to  give  understanding  and 
completeness  to  both  works;  for  many  things  are  here 
added  for  the  sake  of  wisdom  which  are  not  found  in 
the  other  writings  ("Opus  Tertium",  I,  ed.  Brewer, 
6).  Consequently  this  work  must  be  considered,  in 
the  author's  own  (jpinion,  as  the  mo.st  perfect  of  all  the 
compositions  sent  to  the  pope;  therefore  it  is  a  real 
misfortune  that  half  of  it  is  lost.  The  parts  we 
possess  contain  many  autobiographical  items.  All 
parts  known  in  1859  were  published  by  Brewer  (see 
above).  One  fragment  dealing  with  natural  sciences 
and  moral  philosophy  has  been  edited  for  the  first 
time  by  Duhem  ("Un  fragment  inedit  de  I'Opus  Ter- 
tium de  Roger  Bacon  pr6c6de  d'une  etude  sur  ce  frag- 
ment", Quaracchi,  1909);  another  (Quarta  pars  com- 
munium  naturalis  philos.)  by  Hover  (Commer's 
"Jahrb.  fiir  Philos.  u.  speculative  Theol.",  XXV,  1911, 
pp.  277-320).  Bacon  often  speaks  of  his  "Scriptum 
principale".  Was  this  a  work  quite  different  from 
the  others  we  know?  In  many  texts  the  expression 
only  means  the  "Opus  Majus",  as  becomes  evident 
by  its  antithesis  to  the  "Opus  Minus"  and  "Opus 
Tertium  ".  But  there  are  some  other  sentences  where 
the  expression  seems  to  denote  a  work  quite  different 
from  the  three  just  mentioned,  viz.  one  which  Bacon 
X111.—S 


had  the  intention  of  writing  and  for  which  these  works 
as  well  as  his  prceambula  were  only  the  preparation. 

If  we  may  conclude  from  some  of  his  expressions 
we  can  reconstruct  the  plan  of  this  grand  encyclo- 
paedia: it  was  conceived  as  comprising  four  volumes, 
the  first  of  which  was  to  deal  with  grammar  (of  the 
several  languages  he  speaks  of)  and  logic;  the  second 
with  mathematics  (arithmetic  and  geometry),  astron- 
omy, and  music;  the  third  with  natural  sciences,  per- 
spective, astrology,  the  laws  of  gravity,  alchemy,  agri- 
culture, medicine,  and  the  experimental  sciences;  the 
fourth  with  metaphysics  and  moral  philosophy  (see 
Delorme  in  "Diet,  de  Theol.",  s.  v.  Bacon,  Roger; 
Brewer,  pp.  1  sq.;  Charles,  370  sq.,  and  particularly 
Bridges,  I,  xliii  sq.).  It  is  even  possible  that  some 
treatises,  the  connexion  of  which  with  the  three  works 
("Opus  Majus",  "Opus  Minus",  "Opus  Tertium") 
or  others  is  not  evident,  were  parts  of  the  "Scriptum 
principale";  see  Bridges,  II,  405  sq.,  to  which  is  added 
"Tractatus  Fr.  Rogeri  Bacon  de  multiplicatione 
specierum",  which  seems  to  have  belonged  originally 
to  a  work  of  greater  extent.  Here  may  be  mentioned 
some  writings  hitherto  unknown,  now  for  the  first 
time  published  by  Robert  Steele:  "Opera  hactenus 
inedita  Rogeri  Baconi.  Fasc.  I:  Metaphysica  Fratris 
Rogeri  ordinis  fratrum  minorum.  De  viciis  con- 
tractis  in  studio  theologiae,  omnia  quse  supersunt  nunc 
primum  edidit  R.St.",  London,  1905;  Fasc.  II:  Liber 
primus  communium  naturalium  Fratris  Rogeri,  partes 
1  et  II",  Oxford,  1909.  Another  writing  of  Bacon, 
"Compendium  studii  philosophise",  was  composed 
during  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  X  who  succeeded 
Clement  IV  (1271-76),  as  Bacon  speaks  of  this  last- 
named  pope  as  the  "predecessor  istius  Papae" 
(chap.  iii).  It  has  been  published,  as  far  as  it  is 
extant,  by  Brewer  in  the  above-mentioned  work. 
He  repeats  there  the  ideas  already  touched  upon  in 
his  former  works,  as  for  instance  the  causes  of  human 
ignorance,  necessity  of  learning  foreign  languages, 
especially  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Greek;  as  a  specimen 
are  given  the  elements  of  Greek  grammar. 

About  the  same  time  (1277)  Bacon  wrote  the 
fatal  "Speculum  Astronomiaj"  mentioned  above. 
And  two  years  before  his  death  he  composed  his 
"compendium  studii  theologise"  (in  our  days  pub- 
lished for  the  first  time  in  "British  Society  of  Francis- 
can Studies",  III,  Aberdeen,  1911),  where  he  set  forth 
as  in  a  last  scientific  confession  of  faith  the  ideas  and 
principles  which  had  animated  him  during  his  long 
life;  he  had  nothing  to  revoke,  nothing  to  change. 
Other  works  and  pamphlets  cannot  be  attributed 
with  certainty  to  any  definite  period  of  his  life.  To 
this  category  belong  the  "Epistola  de  laude  Scrip- 
turarum",  published  in  part  by  Henry  Wharton 
in  the  appendix  (auctarium)  of  "Jacobi  Usserii 
Armachani  Historia  Dogmatica  de  Scripturis  et 
sacris  vernaculis"  (London,  1689),  420  sq.  In  ad- 
dition there  is  both  a  Greek  and  a  Hebrew  grammar, 
the  last  of  which  is  known  only  in  some  fragments: 
' '  The  Greek  grammar  of  Roger  Bacon  and  a  fragment 
of  his  Hebrew  Grammar,  edited  from  the  MSS., 
with  introduction  and  notes",  Cambridge,  1902. 
Some  specimens  of  the  Greek  Grammar,  as  preserved 
in  a  MS.  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  had  been 
published  two  years  before  by  J.  L.  Heiberg  in  "By- 
zantinische  Zeitschrift",  IX,  1900,  479-91.  The 
above-mentioned  edition  of  the  two  grammars  cannot 
be  considered  very  critical  (see  the  severe  criticism 
by  Heiberg,  ibid.,  XII,  1903,  343-47).  Here  we  may 
add  Bacon's  "Speculum  Alchemic",  Nuremberg, 
1614  (Libellus  do  alchimia  cui  titulus :  Spec.  Al- 
chem.);  it  was  translated  into  French  by  Jacques 
Girard  de  Tournus,  under  the  title  "Miroir  d'alqui- 
mie",  Lyons,  1557.  Some  treatises  dealing  with 
chemistry  were  printed  in  1620  together  in  one  volume 
containing:  (1)  "Breve  Breviarium  de  dono  Dei"; 
(2)    "Verbum  abbreviatum   de   Leone  viridi";    (3) 


ROGER 


114 


ROGER 


"Secretum  secret orum  naturae  de  laude  lapidis  philo- 
sophorum";  (4)  "Tractatus  trium  verborum";  (5) 
"Alchimia  major".  But  it  is  possible  that  some  of 
these  and  several  other  treatises  attributed  to  Bacon 
are  parts  of  works  ab-eady  mentioned,  as  are  essays  "De 
situ  orbis",  "De  regionibus  mundi",  "De  situ  Palaes- 
tinae".  "De  locis  sacris",  " Descriptiones  locorum 
mundi",  "Summa  gramma ticalis"  (see  Golubovich, 
"Bibliotecabio-bibliografica  della  Terra  Santa  e  dell' 
Oriente  Francescano",  Quaracchi,  1906,  I,  268  sq.). 

If  we  now  examine  Bacon's  scientific  systems  and 
leading  principles,  his  aims  and  his  hobby,  so  to  say, 
we  find  that  the  burden  not  only  of  the  writings  sent 
to  the  pope,  but  also  of  all  his  writings  was:  ecclesias- 
tical study  must  be  reformed.  All  his  ideas  and  prin- 
ciples must  be  considered  in  the  light  of  this  thesis. 
He  openlv  exiwsos  the  "sins"  of  his  time  in  the  study 
of  theology,  which  are  seven,  as  he  had  proved,  in  the 
"Opus  Majus".  Though  this  part  has  been  lost, 
we  can  reconstruct  his  arrangement  with  the  aid  of 
the  "Opus  Minus"  and  "Opus  Tertium".  The  first 
sin  is  the  preponderance  of  (speculative)  philosophy. 
Theology  is  a  Divine  science,  hence  it  must  be  based 
on  Divine  principles  and  treat  questions  touching 
Divinity,  and  not  exhaust  itself  in  philosophical 
cavils  and  distinctions.  The  second  sin  is  ignorance 
of  the  sciences  most  suitable  and  necessary  to  theo- 
logians; they  study  only  Latin  grammar,  logic,  nat- 
ural philosophy  (very  superficially!)  and  a  part  of 
metaphj'sics :  four  sciences  very  unimportant,  scientifs 
viles.  Other  sciences  more  necessary,  foreign  (Orien- 
tal) languages,  mathematics,  alchemy,  chemistry, 
physics,  experimental  sciences,  and  moral  philosophy, 
they  neglect.  A  third  sin  is  the  defective  knowledge 
of  even  the  four  sciences  which  they  cultivate:  their 
ideas  are  full  of  errors  and  misconceptions,  because 
they  have  no  means  to  get  at  the  real  understanding 
of  the  authors  from  whom  they  draw  all  their 
knowledge,  since  their  writings  abound  in  Greek, 
Hebrew,  and  Arabic  expressions.  Even  the  greatest 
and  most  highly-esteemed  theologians  show  in  their 
works  to  what  an  extent  the  evil  has  spread. 

Another  sin  is  the  preference  for  the  "Liber  Sen- 
tentiarum"  and  the  disregard  of  other  theological 
matters,  especially  Holy  Scriptures;  he  complains: 
"The  one  who  explains  the  'Book  of  the  Sentences' 
is  honoured  by  all,  whereas  the  lector  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture is  neglected ;  for  to  the  expounder  of  the  Sentences 
there  is  granted  a  commodious  hour  for  lecturing  at 
hLs  own  will,  and  if  he  belongs  to  an  order,  a  compan- 
ion and  a  special  room;  whilst  the  lector  of  Holy 
Scripture  Ls  denied  all  this  and  must  beg  the  hour 
for  his  lecture  to  be  given  at  the  pleasure  of  the  ex- 
pounder of  the  Sentences.  Elsewhere  the  lector  of 
the  Sentences  holds  disputations  and  is  called  master, 
whereas  the  lector  of  the  [Biblical)  test  is  not  allowed 
to  di.spute"  ("Opus  Minus",  ed.  Brewer,  .328  sq.). 
Such  a  method,  he  cont  inues,  is  inexplicable  and  very 
injurious  to  the  Sacred  Text  which  contains  the  word 
of  Owl,  and  the  exposition  of  which  wovild  offer 
many  occa.sions  to  speak  about  matters  now  treated 
in  the  s<'veral  "Summa?  Sententiarum".  Still  more 
dlsa-strouH  is  the  fifth  sin:  the  text  of  Holy  Writ  is 
horribly  corrupt/ed,  especially  in  the  "exemplar 
Parifliense".  that  is  to  say  in  the  Biblical  text  used  at 
the  University  of  Paris  and  spread  bv  its  students  over 
the  whole  world.  Confusion  has  been  increased  by 
many  scholars  or  religiovis  orders,  who  in  their  en- 
deavours to  correct  the  Sacred  Text,  in  default  of  a 
sound  methofl,  have  in  reality  only  augmented  the 
fliyergences;  as  every  one  presumes  to  ch;ing(;  any- 
thing "he  doTM  not  understand,  a  thinj^  he  would 
not  dare  to  do  with  the  books  of  the  cla.ssical  poets", 
the  world  is  full  of  "correctors  or  rather  corniptors". 
Tlie  worst  of  all  sins  is  the  consequence  of  the  fore- 
going: the  falsity  or  doubt  fiilness  of  the  literal  sense 
(aemm  liUeraiits)  and  consequently  of  the  spiritual 


meaning  (sensus  spiritualis) ;  for  when  the  literal 
sense  is  wrong,  the  spiritual  sense  cannot  be  right, 
since  it  is  necessarily  based  upon  the  literal  sense. 
The  reasons  of  this  false  exposition  are  the  corruption 
of  the  sacred  text  and  ignorance  of  the  Biblical  lan- 
guages. For  how  can  they  get  the  real  meaning  of 
Holy  Writ  without  this  knowledge,  as  the  Latin  ver- 
sions are  full  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  idioms? 

The  seventh  sin  is  the  radically  false  method  of 
preaching:  instead  of  breaking  to  the  faithful  the 
Bread  of  Life  by  expounding  the  commandments  of 
God  and  inculcating  their  duties,  the  preachers  con- 
tent themselves  with  divisions  of  the  arbor  Por- 
phyriana,  with  the  jingle  of  words  and  quibbles. 
They  are  even  ignorant  of  the  rules  of  eloquence,  and 
often  prelates  who  during  their  course  of  study  were 
not  instructed  in  preaching,  when  obliged  to  speak 
in  church,  beg  the  copy-books  of  the  younger  men, 
which  are  full  of  bomb.ast  and  ridiculous  divisions, 
serving  only  to  "stimulate  the  hearers  to  all  curiosity 
of  mind,  but  do  not  elevate  the  affection  towards 
good"  ("Opus  Tertium",  Brewer,  309  sq.).  Ex- 
ceptions are  very  few,  as  for  instance  Friar  Bertholdus 
Alemannus  (Ratisbon)  who  alone  has  more  effect 
than  all  the  friars  of  both  orders  combined  (Friars 
Minor  and  Preachers).  Eloquence  ought  to  be  ac- 
companied by  science,  and  science  by  eloquence; 
for  "science  without  eloquence  is  like  a  sharp  sword  in 
the  hands  of  a  paralytic,  whilst  eloquence  without 
science  is  a  sharp  sword  in  the  hands  of  a  furious 
man"  ("Sapientia  sine  eloquentia  est  quasi  gladius 
acutus  in  manu  paralytici,  sicut  eloquentia  expers 
sapientiae  est  quasi  gladius  acutus  in  manu  furiosi"; 
"Opus  Tertium",  I,  Brewer,  4).  But  far  from  being 
an  idle  fault-finder  who  only  demolished  without 
being  able  to  build  up,  Bacon  makes  proposals  ex- 
tremely fit  and  efficacious,  the  only  failure  of  which 
was  that  they  never  were  put  into  general  practice, 
by  reason  of  the  premature  death  of  the  pope.  Bacon 
himself  and  his  pupils,  such  as  .John  of  Paris,  whom  he 
praises  highly,  William  of  Mara,  Gerard  Huy,  and 
others  are  a  striking  argument  that  his  proposals 
were  no  Utopian  fancies;  they  showed  m  their  own 
persons  what  in  their  idea  a  theologian  should  be. 
First  of  all,  if  one  wishes  to  get  wisdom,  he  must  take 
care  not  to  fall  into  the  four  errors  which  usually  pre- 
vent even  learned  men  from  attaining  the  summit  of 
wisdom,  viz.  "the  example  of  weak  and  unreliable 
authority,  continuance  of  custom,  regard  to  the 
opinion  of  the  unlearned,  and  concealing  one's  own 
ignorance,  together  with  the  exhibition  of  apparent 
wisdom"  ("Fragilis  et  indignai  autoritatis  exemplum. 
consuetudinis  diuturnitas.  vulgi  sensus  imperiti,  et 
propria}  ignorantiaj  occultatio  cum  ostentatione  sap- 
penti;B  apparentis";  "Opus  Majus",  L  Bridges,  1,2). 

Thus  having  eliminated  "the  four  general  causes  of 
all  human  ignorance",  one  must  be  convinced  that 
all  science  h.as  its  source  in  revelation  both  oral  and 
written.  Holy  Scripture  espr-cially  is  .•in  inexhaiist- 
ible  fountain  of  truth  from  which  all  human  phi- 
losophers, even  the  heathen,  drew  their  knowledge, 
immediately  or  mediately;  therefore  no  science, 
whether  profane  or  sacred,  can  be  true  if  contrary  to 
Holy  Writ  (see  "English  Hist.  Rev.",  1897,  508 'sq.; 
"Opus  Tertium",  XXIV,  Brewer,  87  sq.).  This  con- 
viction having  taken  root ,  we  must  consider  the  means 
of  attaining  to  wisdom.  Among  those  which  lead 
to  the  summit  are  to  be  mentioned  in  the  first  place 
the  languages,  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic. 
Latin  does  not  suffice;,  as  there  are  many  useful  works 
written  in  other  langu.agcH  and  not  yet  tran.slat(Hi, 
or  badly  translated,  into  Latin.  Even  in  the  best 
versions  of  scientific  works,  as  for  instance  of  Greek 
and  Arabic  philosophers,  or  of  the  Scrii)tures,  as  also 
in  the  Liturgy,  there  .are  still  some  foreign  expressions 
retained  purposely  or  by  necessity,  it  being  impossible 
to  express  in  Latin  all  nuances  of  foreign  texts.     It 


ROGER 


115 


ROGER 


would  be  very  interesting  to  review  all  the  other  rea- 
sons adduced  by  Bacon  proving  the  advantage  or 
even  necessity  of  foreign  languages  for  ecclesiastical, 
social,  and  political  purposes,  or  to  follow  his  in- 
vestigations into  the  physiological  conditions  of 
language  or  into  what  might  have  been  the  original 
one  spoken  by  man.  He  distinguishes  three  degrees 
of  linguistic  knowledge;  theologians  are  not  obliged  to 
reach  the  second  degree,  which  would  enable  them  to 
translate  a  foreign  text  into  their  own  language,  or 
the  third  one  which  is  still  more  difficult  of  attain- 
ment and  which  would  enable  them  to  speak  this 
language  as  their  own.  Nevertheless  the  difficulties 
of  reaching  even  the  highest  degree  are  not  as  in- 
surmountable as  is  commonly  supposed;  it  depends 
only  on  the  method  followed  by  the  master,  and 
as  there  are  very  few  scholars  who  follow  a  sound 
method,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  perfect  knowl- 
edge of  foreign  languages  is  so  rarely  found  among 
theologians  (see  "Opus  Tertium",  XX,  Brewer,  64 
eq.;  "Compendium  Studii  phil.",  VI,  Brewer,  433 
sq.).  On  this  point,  and  in  general  of  Roger's  atti- 
tude towards  Biblical  studies,  see  the  present  author's 
article  "De  Fr.  Roger  Bacon  ejusque  sententia  de 
rebus  biblicis"  in  "Archivum  Franciscanum  His- 
toricum".  III,  Quaracchi,  1910,  3-22;    185-213. 

Besides  the  languages  there  are  other  means,  e.  g. 
mathematics,  optics,  the  experimental  sciences,  and 
moral  philosophy,  the  study  of  which  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  every  priest,  as  Bacon  shows  at  length. 
He  takes  spe(;ial  pains  in  applying  these  sciences  to 
Holy  Scripture  and  the  dogmas  of  faith.  These  are 
pages  so  wonderful  and  evincing  by  their  train  of 
thought  and  the  drawings  inserted  here  and  there  such 
a  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter,  that  we  can  easily 
understand  modern  scholars  saj'ing  that  Bacon  was 
born  out  of  due  time,  or,  with  regard  to  the  asserted 
imprisonment,  that  he  belonged  to  that  class  of  men 
who  were  crushed  by  the  wheel  of  their  time  as  they 
endeavoured  to  set  it  going  more  quickly.  It  is  in 
these  treatises  (and  other  works  of  the  same  kind)  that 
Bacon  speaks  of  the  reflection  of  hght,  mirages,  and 
burning-mirrors,  of  the  diameters  of  the  celestial 
bodies  and  their  distances  from  one  another,  of  their 
conjunction  and  eclipses;  that  he  explains  the  laws  of 
ebb  and  flow,  proves  the  Julian  Calendar  to  be  wrong; 
he  explains  the  composition  and  effects  of  gunpowder, 
discusses  and  affirms  the  po.ssibility  of  steam-vessels 
and  aerostats,  of  microscopes  and  telescopes,  and  some 
other  inventions  made  many  centuries  later.  Subse- 
quent ages  have  done  him  more  justice  in  recognizing 
his  merits  in  the  field  of  natural  science.  John  Dee, 
for  instance,  who  addressed  (1.582)  a  memorial  on  the 
reformation  of  the  calendar  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  speak- 
ing of  those  who  had  advocated  this  change,  says: 
"None  hath  done  it  more  earnestly,  neither  with  bet- 
ter reason  and  skill,  than  hath  a  subject  of  this  British 
Sceptre  Royal  done,  named  as  some  think  David  Dee 
of  Radik,  but  otherwise  and  most  commonly  (upon 
his  name  altered  at  the  alteration  of  state  into  friarly 
profession)  called  Roger  Bacon:  who  at  large  wrote 
thereof  divers  treatises  and  discourses  to  Pope  Clem- 
ent the  Fifth  [sic]  about  the  year  of  our  Lord,  1267. 
To  whom  he  wrote  and  sent  also  great  volumes  ex- 
quisitely compiled  of  all  sciences  and  singularities, 
philosophical  and  mathematical,  as  they  might  be 
available  to  the  state  of  Christ  his  Catholic  Church". 
Dee  then  remarks  that  Paul  of  Middleburg,  in  "  Pauhna 
de  recta  Paschae  celebratione",  had  made  great  use 
of  Bacon's  work:  "His  great  volume  is  more  than  half 
thereof  written  (though  not  acknowledged)  by  such 
order  and  method  generally  and  particularly  as  our 
Roger  Bacon  laid  out  for  the  handUng  of  the  matter" 
(cited  by  Bridges,  "Opus  Majus",  I,  p.  xxxiv). 

Longer  time  was  needed  before  Bacon's  merits  in 
the  field  of  theological  and  philosophical  sciences  were 
acknowledged.     Nowadays  it  is  impossible  to  speak 


or  write  about  the  methods  and  course  of  lectures  in 
ecclesiastical  schools  of  the  Middle  Ages,  or  on  the 
efforts  of  revision  and  correction  of  the  Latin  Bible 
made  before  the  Council  of  Trent,  or  on  the  study  of 
Oriental  languages  urged  by  some  scholars  before  the 
Council  of  Vienne,  without  referring  to  the  efforts 
made  by  Bacon.  In  our  own  day,  more  thoroughly 
than  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  measures  are  taken  in 
accordance  with  Bacon's  demand  that  the  further  cor- 
ruption of  the  Latin  text  of  Holy  Scripture  .should  be 
prevented  by  the  pope's  authority,  and  that  the  most 
scientific  method  should  be  applied  to  the  restoration 
of  St.  Jerome's  version  of  the  Vulgate.  Much  may 
be  accomplished  even  now  by  applying  Bacon's  prin- 
ciples, viz.:  (1)  unity  of  action  under  authority;  (2)  a 
thorough  consultation  of  the  most  ancient  manu- 
scripts; (3)  the  study  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  to  help 
where  the  best  Latin  manuscripts  left  room  for  doubt; 
(4)  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Latin  grammar  and  con- 
struction; (5)  great  care  in  distinguishing  between  St. 
Jerome's  readings  and  those  of  the  more  ancient  ver- 
sion (see  "Opus  Tertium",  XXV,  Brewer,  93  sq.; 
Gasquet,  "English  Biblical  Criticism  in  the  Thirteenth 
Century"  in  "The  Dublin  Review",  CXX,  1898,  15). 
But  there  are  still  some  prejudices  among  learned  men, 
especially  with  regard  to  Bacon's  orthodoxy  and  his 
attitude  towards  Scholastic  philosophy.  It  is  true 
that  he  speaks  in  terms  not  very  flattering  of  the 
Scholastics,  and  even  of  their  leaders.  His  style  is 
not  the  ordinary  Scholastic  style  proceeding  by  in- 
ductions and  syllogisms  in  the  strictest  form;  he 
speaks  and  writes  fluently,  clearly  expressing  his 
thoughts  as  a  modern  scholar  treating  the  same  sub- 
jects might  write.  But  no  one  who  studies  his  works 
can  deny  that  Bacon  was  thoroughly  trained  in  Scho- 
lastic philosophy.  Like  the  other  Scholastics,  he 
esteems  Aristotle  highlj^  while  blaming  the  defective 
Latin  versions  of  his  works  and  some  of  his  views  on 
natural  philosophy.  Bacon  is  famihar  with  the  sub- 
jects under  discussion,  and  it  may  be  of  interest  to 
note  that  in  many  cases  he  agrees  with  Duns  Scotus 
against  other  Scholastics,  particularly  regarding  matter 
and  form  and  the  intcllectus  agens  which  he  proves  not 
to  be  distinct  substantially  from  the  inleUectus  possibilis 
("Opus  Majus",  II,  V;  "Opus  Tertium",  XXIII). 

It  would  be  difficult  to  find  any  other  scholar  who 
shows  such  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  Arabic  phi- 
losophers as  Bacon  does.  Here  appears  the  aim  of 
his  philosophical  works,  to  make  Christian  philosophy 
acquainted  with  the  Arabic  philosophers.  He  is  an 
enemy  only  of  the  extravagances  of  Scholasticism,  the 
subtleties  and  fruitless  quarrels,  to  the  neglect  of 
matters  much  more  useful  or  necessary  and  the  exalta- 
tion of  philosophy  over  theology.  Far  from  being 
hostile  to  true  philosophy,  he  bestows  a  lavish  praise 
on  it.  None  could  delineate  more  clearly  and  con- 
vincingly than  he,  what  ought  to  be  the  relation  be- 
tween theology  and  philosophy,  what  profit  they 
yield  and  what  services  they  render  to  each  other, 
how  true  philosophy  is  the  best  apology  of  Christian 
faith  (see  especially  "Opus  Majus",  II  and  VII; 
"Compend.  studii  philos.").  Bacon  is  sometimes 
not  very  correct  in  his  expressions;  there  may  even 
be  some  ideas  that  are  dangerous  or  open  to  suspicion 
(e.  g.  his  conviction  that  a  real  influence  upon  the 
human  mind  and  liberty  and  on  human  fate  is  exerted 
by  the  celestial  bodies  etc.).  But  there  is  no  real 
error  in  matters  of  faith,  and  Bacon  repeatedly  asks 
the  reader  not  to  confound  his  physics  with  divina- 
tion, his  chemistry  with  alchemy,  his  astronomy  with 
astrology;  and  certainly  he  submitted  with  all  wilUng- 
ness  his  writings  to  the  judgment  of  the  Church.  It 
is  mo\'ing  to  note  the  reverence  he  displayed  for  the 
pope.  Likewise  he  shows  always  the  highest  venera- 
tion towards  the  Fathers  of  the  Church;  and  whilst 
his  criticism  often  becomes  violent  when  he  blames 
the  most  eminent  of   his  contemporaries,  he  never 


ROGER 


IIG 


ROGER 


speaks  or  writes  any  word  of  disregard  of  the  Fathers 
or  ancient  Doctors  of  the  Church,  even  when  not  ap- 

E roving  their  opinion;  he  esteemed  them  highly  and 
ad  acquired  such  a  knowledge  of  their  writings  that 
he  was  no  wav  surpassed  by  any  of  his  great  rivals. 
Bacon  was  a  faithful  scholar  of  open  character  who 
frankly  uttered  what  he  thought,  who  was  not  afraid 
to  blame  what6oe\er  and  whomsoever  he  believed  to 
deserve  censure,  a  scholar  who  was  in  advance  of 
his  age  by  centuries.  His  iron  will  surmounted  all 
difficulties  and  enabled  him  to  acquire  a  knowledge 
so  far  surpassing  the  average  science  of  his  age,  that 
he  must  be  reckoned  among  the  most  eminent  scholars 
of  all  times. 

Of  the  vast  Baconian  bibliography  we  can  mention  only  the 
most  important  books  and  articles  in  so  far  as  we  h.ave  made  use 
of  them.  Besides  those  already  cited  we  must  mention:  Bal.eus, 
Script,  illustr.  maioris  Brytann.  Catalogus  (Basle,  1577);  Anecdota 
Oion.  Index  BriUinnicce  SS.  quos  .  .  .  collegtt  Joan.  Balctus, 
ed.  Poole  and  Batesox  (Oxford,  1902—);  Wood,  Hist,  et  antiq. 
Unirers.  Oxon.,  I  (Oxford,  1674);  Idem,  Athena:  Oxon.  (London, 
1721),  new  ed.  bv  Buss  (4  vols.,  London,  1813-20);  Wharton, 
Anglia  sacra  (London,  1691);  Hody,  De  Bibliorum  text,  original., 
versionibus  grac.  et  latina  Vulgata,  III  (Oxford,  1705) ;  Lelandus, 
Comment,  de  Scriptor.  Britannicis,  ed.  Hall  (Oxford,  1709); 
Ocdin,  Comment,  de  Script.  Ecclesirs  antiq.,  1  (Frankfort,  1722), 
II-III  (Leipzig,  1722);  Wadding-Fgnseca,  Aniiales  Ord.  Mm., 
IV-V;  Wadding,  Scriptores  0.  M.  (Rome,  1650,  1806,  1906); 
Tanner,  Bibl.  Britann.-Hibem.  (London,  1748);  Sbaralea, 
Supplement,  ad  SS.  O.  M.  (Rome,  1806) ;  Berger,  De  Vhist.  de 
la  Vulgate  en  France  (Paris,  1887);  Idem,  Quam  notitiam  lingua 
hebr.  habuerunt  christiani  med.  wvi  (Paris,  1893);  cf.  the  criticism 
of  this  book  by  Soury  in  Bibl.  de  I'Ecole  des  Charles,  LIV  (1893), 
733-38;  Denifle,  Die  Handschr.  der  Bibel-Corrcctor.  des  13. 
Jahrh.  in  Archiv  f.  Lit.-  u.  Kirchengesch.  des  Mittelalters,  IV, 
263  sqq.,  471  sqq.;  Doring,  Die  hciden  Bacon  in  Archiv  f.  Gesch. 
d.  Philos.,  XVII  (1904),  3  sqq.;  Feret,  Les  emprisonnements  de 
R.  Bacon  in  Revue  des  quest,  histor.,  L  (1891),  119-42;  Idem,  La 
facuUe  de  theol.  de  Paris  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1894-96);  Flugel,  ft. 
Bacons  Stellung  in  d.  Gesch.  d.  Philologie  in  Philos.  Studien,  XIX 
(1902),  164  sqq.;  Heitz,  Essai  histor.  sur  les  rapports  entre  la 
philos.  et  la  foi,  de  Berenger  de  Tours  d  St.  Thomas  (Paris,  1909), 
117  sqq.;  HiRscn,  Early  English  Hebraists:  ft.  Bacon  and  his  Pre- 
decessors in  The  Jewish  Quarterly  Review  (Oct.,  1890),  reprinted 
in  Idem,  A  Book  of  Essays  (London,  1905),  1-72;  Hist,  de  la 
France,  XX  (Paris,  1842),  227  sqq.;  Hoffmans,  La  synthcse 
doctrinale  de  ft.  B.  in  Archiv  f.  Gesch.  d.  Philos.  (Berne,  1907) ; 
Idem,  L'intuition  mystique  de  la  science  in  Revue  Nio-Scholastique 
(1909),  370  sqq.  (cf.  1906,  371  sqq.;  1908,  474  sqq.;  1909,  33  sqq.) ; 
Jarrett,  a  Thirteenth-Century  Revision  Committee  of  the  Bible  in 
Irish  Theological  Quarterly,  IV  (Maynooth,  1910),  56  sqq.; 
Jourdain,  Discussion  de  quelques  points  de  la  biogr.  de  ft.  B.  in 
Comptes  rendus  Acad.  Inscr.  el  BeUes-Lettres,  I  (1873),  309  sqq.; 
Krembs,  ft.  B.'s  Optik  in  Natur  u.  Offenbarung  (1900);  Langen, 
R.  Bacon  in  Histor.  ZeUschr.,  LI  (1883),  434-50;  Martin,  La 
Vulgate  laline  au  XIII'  siecle  d'apres  ft.  B.  (Paris,  1888) ;  Mon. 
Germ.  Hist.:  SS.,  XXVIII,  569  sqq.;  Narbey,  Le  moine  R.  B.  el 
le  mouvement  scienlifique  au  XIII'  siecle  in  Revue  des  quest,  histor., 
XXXV  (1894),  115  sqq.;  Parrot,  ft.  B.,  sa  personne,  son  genie, 
etc.  (Paris,  1894);  Pesch,  De  inspiratione  S.  Scripturoe  (Freiburg, 
1906),  163  sq.;  Picavet,  Les  Editions  de  ft.  B.  in  Journal  des 
SavarUH  (1905),  .362-69;  Idem,  Deux  directions  de  la  thiol,  et  de 
Vezeykse  au  X III'  tiicle.  Thomas  et  Bacon  in  Revue  de  I'hist.  des 
religions  (1905),  172,  or  printed  separately  (Paris,  1905);  Pohl, 
Das  VerhtiUnis  der  Philos.  zur  Theql.  hei  ft.  B.  (Neustrelitz,  1893) ; 
Saibset,  ft.  B.,  sa  rie  et  eon  aeuvre  in  Revue  des  deux  mondes,  XXXIV 
(1861),  .361-9i;  Idem,  Pricurseurs  el  disciples  de  Descartes  (Paris, 
1862) ;  Salembier,  Une  page  inedite  de  I'hist.  de  la  Vulgate  (Amiens, 
1890);  BcHNEiDEK,  ft.  B.,  eine  Monographie  als  Beitrag  zur  Gesch. 
der  Philos.  des  13.  Jahrh.  aus  den  Quellen  (Augsburg,  1873); 
SlEBERT,  ft.  B.,  sein  Leben  u.  seine  Philos.  (Marburg,  1861); 
Stahhahn,  Das  opus  maius  des  ft.  B.  nach  seinem  Inhalt  u.  seiner 
Bedeutung  f.  d.  WiHScnschtift  betrachlel  in  Kirchl.  MoruUsschr., 
XII  (1H93J,  276-86;  Strunz,  Gesch.  der  Naturwissenschaften  im 
MiUelaUer  fStutt(jart,  1910),  9.3-99;  Ubald,  Franciscan  England 
in  the  Past  in  Franciscan  Annals,  XXXIII  (1908),  369-71; 
XXXIV  fMKW),  11-14;  Valdarnini,  Esperienza  e  ragionamento 
in  ft.  B.  (Rome,  1896);  Vercello.ne,  Disserlazioni  accademiche 
di  vario  argumrrUo  (Rome,  1864);  VooL,  Die  Physik  ft.  B.'s 
(Erlangen,  1906;;  Werner,  Kosmologie  u.  allgem.  Naturlehre 
ft.  B.'s  Psychol.,  Erkenntniss-  u.  Wissenschaftslehre  des  ft.  B.  in 
SUzungnber.  der  k.  k.  Aka>l.  d.  W..  XCIII  (Vienna),  467-576; 
XCIV.  489-fJ12;  Witheford.  Bacon  as  an  Interpreter  of  Holy 
ScrifAure  in  Expositor  (1897),  .349-fiO;  Wulf  (de).  Hist,  de  la 
philoi.  miditvale  (2nd  ed.,  \A>\xvB.\n,  1905),  419-27. 

Theophilds  Witzel. 

Roger  Cadwallador,  Ve.nerable,  English  mar- 
tyr, b.  at  Stretton  lSugwa.s,  near  Ilerefonl,  in  1508; 
executed  at  Iy<'orriiri.ster,  27  Aug.,  1010.  He  was  or- 
dained Kubdea<;on  at  lleirn.s,  21  Sept.,  1591,  and 
deacfjn  the  following  February,  and  in  Aug.,  1.502,  was 
wrnt  to  the  P^nglish  0)llege  at  Valladolid,  where  he 
waa  ordained  priest.  Returning  to  England  in  1594, 
he  laboured  in  HercfordHhire  with  good  success  espe- 


cially among  the  poor  for  about  sixteen  years.  Search 
was  made  for  him  in  June,  1605,  but  it  was  not  till 
Easter,  1610,  that  he  was  arrested  at  the  house  of 
Mrs.  Winefride  Scroope,  widow,  within  eight  miles  of 
Hereford.  He  was  then  brought  before  the  Bishop, 
Dr.  Robert  Bennet,  who  committed  him  to  Hereford 
gaol  where  he  was  loaded  with  irons  night  and  day. 
On  being  transferred  to  Leominster  gaol  he  was  obliged 
to  walk  all  the  way  in  shackles,  though  a  boy  was  per- 
mitted to  go  by  his  side  and  bear  up  by  a  string  the 
weight  of  some  iron  links  which  were  wired  to  the 
shackles.  On  his  arrival  he  was  treated  with  the 
greatest  inhumanity  by  his  gaoler.  He  was  con- 
demned, merely  for  being  a  priest,  some  months  before 
he  suffered.  A  very  full  account  of  his  sufferings  in 
prison  and  of  his  martyrdom  is  given  by  Challoner. 
He  hung  very  long,  suffering  great  pain,  owing  to  the 
unskilfulness  of  the  hangman,  and  was  eventually 
cut  down  and  butchered  alive.  Pits  praises  his  great 
knowledge  of  Greek,  from  which  he  translated  Theo- 
doret's  "Philotheus,  or  the  lives  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
Syrian  deserts";  but  it  does  not  appear  when  or  where 
this  translation  was  published. 

Challoner,  Missionary  Priests,  II,  no.  147;  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng. 
Cath.,  I,  369;  Cooper  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biogr.,  s.  v.  Cadwalladob, 
Roger;  Calendar  State  Papers,  Dom.,  1G03~10  (London,  1857), 
224,  225,  601.  JqhN    B.    WaINEWRIGHT. 

Roger  James,  Blessed.  See  Richard  Whiting, 
Blessed. 

Roger  of  Hoveden,  chronicler,  was  probably  a 
native  of  Hoveden,  or,  as  it  is  now  called,  Howden,  in 
Yorkshire.  From  the  fact  that  his  chronicle  ends 
rather  abruptly  in  1201  it  is  inferred  that  he  must 
have  died  or  been  stricken  with  some  mortal  disease 
in  that  year.  He  was  certainly  a  man  of  importance 
in  his  day.  He  was  a  king's  clerk  {clericus  regis) 
in  the  time  of  Henry  H,  and  seems  to  have  been  at- 
tached to  the  court  as  early  as  1173,  while  he  was  also 
despatched  on  confidential  missions,  as  for  example 
to  the  chiefs  of  Galloway  in  1174.  In  1189  he  served 
as  an  itinerant  justice  in  the  north,  but  he  probably 
retired  from  public  life  after  the  death  of  Henry  11, 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  he  became  parish 
priest  of  his  native  village,  Howden,  devoting  the 
rest  of  his  life  to  the  compilation  of  his  chronicle. 
Like  most  other  historical  writings  of  that  date  the 
earlier  portion  of  his  work  is  little  more  than  a  tran- 
script of  some  one  narrative  to  which  he  had  more 
convenient  access  or  which  he  considered  specially 
worthy  of  (lonfidence.  His  authority  from  732  down 
to  1154  was  an  abstract,  still  extant  in  manuscript, 
"Historia  Saxonum  vel  Anglorum  post  obitum 
Beda)".  From  1154  to  1192  he  uses  his  authorities 
much  more  freely,  basing  his  narrative  upon  the  well- 
known  "Gesta  llcnrici",  commonly  attributed  to 
Benedict  of  Peterborough.  But  from  1192  to  1201 
his  work  is  all  his  own,  and  of  th(i  highc^st  value. 
Hoveden  had  a  great  appreciation  of  the  importance 
of  documentary  evidence,  and  we  should  be  very  ill 
informed  regarding  the  political  history  of  the  last 
quarter  of  the  twelfth  century  if  it  were  not  for  the 
state  papers,  etc.,  which  Hov(;(l(!n  inserts  and  of  which, 
no  doubt,  his  earlier  connexion  with  the  chancery 
and  its  officials  enabled  him  to  obtain  copies. 

As  a  (chronicler,  he  was  impartial  and  accurate. 
His  profoundly  religious  character  made  him  some- 
what cre<lulous,  but  there  is  no  reason,  as  even  his 
editor,  Bishop  Stwbbs,  admits,  to  regard  him  on  that 
account  as  an  untrustworthy  authority. 

The  one  reliable  edition  of  ifoveden  is  that  prepared  by 
Htitiius  for  the  Rolls  Siries  in  four  vols.,  186H-71.  A  full  account 
of  Hoveden  and  his  works  is  given  in  the  preface  to  these  vols. 

Hekbekt  Thurston. 

Roger  of  Wendover,  a  Benedictine  monk,  date  of 
birth  unknown;  d.  12:50,  the  first  of  the  great  chron- 
iclers of  St.  Albans  Abbey.  He  sciems  to  have  been  a 
native  of  Wendover  in  Buckinghamshire  and  must 


ROH 


117 


ROHRBACHER 


have  enjoyed  some  little  consideration  among  his 
brethren  as  he  was  appointed  prior  of  the  cell  of  Bel- 
voir,  but  from  this  ofhce  he  was  deposed  and  retired 
to  St.  Albans,  where  he  probably  wrote  his  chronicle, 
known  as  the  "Flores  Historiarum",  extending  from 
the  Creation  to  1235.  From  the  year  1202  it  is  an 
original  and  valuable  authority,  but  the  whole  mate- 
rial has  been  worked  over  and  in  a  sense  re-edited 
with  editions  by  Matthew  Paris  (q.  v.)  in  his  "Chro- 
nica Majora".  Wendover  is  less  prejudiced  than 
Paris,  but  he  is  also  less  picturesque,  and  whereas 
Paris  in  his  generalizations  and  inferences  as  to  the 
causes  of  events  anticipates  the  scope  of  the  modern 
historian,  Wendover  is  content  to  discharge  the  func- 
tions of  a  simple  chronicler.  The  "Flores  Histori- 
arum" was  edited  for  the  English  Historical  Society 
in  1841  by  H.  O.  Coxe  in  five  volumes,  beginning  with 
the  year  447,  when  Wendover  for  the  first  time  turns 
directly  to  the  history  of  Britain.  But  in  1886-1889 
the  more  valuable  part  of  the  work  (from  1154  to 
1235)  was  re-edited  by  H.  G.  Hewlett  as  part  of  the 
Rolls  Series  in  three  volumes. 

Hunt  in  Dirt.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v.  Wendover;  Lu.a.rd,  prefaces  to 
the  earlier  volumes  of  M.\tthew  Paris,  Chronica  Majora  in  the 
Rolls  Series:  Hardy,  Catalogue  of  Materials  of  Brit.  Ilist.,  Ill 
(London,  1871), and  the  prefaces  to  the  editions  of  Flores  His- 
toriarum. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Roh,  Peter,  b.  at  Conthey  (Gunthis)  in  the  canton 
of  Valais  (French  Switzerland),  14  August,  1811;  d. 
at  Bonn,  17  May,  1872.  Up  to  his  thirteenth  year 
he  spoke  only  French,  so  that  he  had  to  learn  German 
from  a  German  i)riest  in  the  vicinity  before  he  was 
able  to  begin  his  gymnasial  stutlies  in  the  boarding- 
school  kept  by  the  Jesuits  at  Brig  in  Switzerland. 
Later  he  became  a  day-pupil  at  the  gymnasium  kept 
by  the  Jesuits  at  Sittin.  While  here  he  resolved  to 
enter  the  Society  of  Jesus  (1829);  strange  to  say  the 
external  means  of  bringing  him  to  this  decision  was 
the  reading  of  Pascal's  pamphlet  "Monita  Secreta". 
He  taught  the  lower  gymnasial  classes  at  the  lyceum 
at  Fribourg.  During  these  years  of  study  Roh 
showed  two  characteristic  qualities:  the  talent  of 
imparting  knowledge  in  a  clear  and  convincing  man- 
ner, and  an  unusual  gift  for  oratory.  These  abilities 
determined  his  future  work  to  be  that  of  a  teacher 
and  a  preacher.  He  was  first  (1842-5)  professor  of 
dogmatics  at  Fribourg,  then  at  the  academy  at 
Lucerne  which  had  just  been  given  to  the  Jesuits. 
At  the  same  time  he  preached  and  aided  as  oppor- 
tunity occurred  in  missions.  These  labours  were  in- 
terrupted by  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  the  Swiss 
Sonderbund,  during  which  he  was  military  chaplain; 
but  after  its  unfortunate  end  he  was  obliged  to  flee 
into  Piedmont,  from  there  to  Linz  and  Gries,  finally 
finding  a  safe  refuge  at  Rappoltsweiler  in  Alsace  as 
tutor  in  the  family  of  his  countryman  and  friend 
Siegwart-Mviller,  also  expatriated.  Here  he  stayed 
until  1849.  A  professorship  of  dogmatics  at  Lou  vain 
only  lasted  a  year.  When  the  missions  for  the  com- 
mon people  were  opened  in  Germany  in  1850  his 
real  labours  began;  as  he  said  himself,  "Praise  God, 
I  now  come  into  my  element. "  Both  friend  and  foe 
acknowledge  that  the  success  of  these  missions  was 
largely  due  to  Roh,  and  his  powerful  and  homely 
eloquence  received  the  highest  praise.  He  was  an 
extemporaneous  speaker;  the  writing  of  sermons  and 
addresses  was,  as  he  himself  confessed,  "simply  im- 
possible" to  him;  yet,  thoroughly  trained  in  philoso- 
phy and  theology,  he  could  also  write  when  neces- 
sary, as  several  articles  from  him  in  the  "Stimmen 
aus  Maria-Laach"  prove.  His  pamphlet  "Dasalte 
Lied:  der  Zweck  heiligt  die  Mittel,  im  Texte  ver- 
bes.sert  und  auf  neue  Melodie  gesetzt"  has  preserved 
a  certain  reputation  until  the  present  day,  as  Father 
Roh  declared  he  would  give  a  thousand  gulden  to  the 
person  who  could  show  to  the  faculty  of  law  of  Bonn 


or  Heidelberg  a  book  written  by  a  Jesuit  which  taught 
the  principle  that  the  end  justihes  the  means.  The 
prize  is  still  unclaimed.  Some  of  his  sermons  have 
also  been  preserved;  they  were  printed  against  his 
will  from  stenographic  notes.  Father  Roh's  greatest 
strength  lay  in  his  power  of  speech  and  "he  was  the 
most  powerful  and  effective  preacher  of  the  German 
tongue  that  the  Jesuits  have  had  in  this  century". 

Knabe.nbauer,  Erinnerungen  an  P.  Peter  Roh  S.  J.,  reprint  of 
the  biography  in  Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach  (1872). 

N.    SCHEID. 

Rohault  de  Fleury,  a  family  of  French  archi- 
tects and  archaeologists  of  the  nineteenth  century,  of 
which  the  most  distinguished  member  was  Charles 
Rohault  de  Fleury,  b.  in  Paris  23  July,  1801;  d.  there 
11  August,  1875.  After  a  scientific  course  pursued 
at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  at  Paris,  he  studied 
sculpture,  but  abandoned  this  study  for  architecture 
in  1825.  He  designed  several  public  and  private 
buildings  which  adorn  one  of  the  most  artistic  sec- 
tions of  the  present  Paris  and  was  the  author  of  the 
first  edition  of  the  "Manuel  des  lois  du  batiment" 
published  by  the  Central  Society  of  Architects 
(Paris,  1862).  The  last  years  of  his  life  he  devoted 
to  religious  archaeology  and  published  the  important 
results  of  his  studies  in  the  following  magnificently 
illustrated  works:  "Les  instruments  de  la  Passion", 
Paris,  1870  (see  Cross,  IV,  531);  "L'evangile,  etudes 
iconographiques  et  archeologiques".  Tours,  1874; 
"La  Sainte  Vierge",  Paris,  1878;  "Un  Tabernacle 
Chretien  du  V^  siecle".  Arras,  1880;  "La  Messe, 
6tudes  archeologiques  sur  ses  monuments",  Paris, 
1883-98.  Some  of  these  works  were  published  after 
his  death  by  his  son  George  (1835-1905)  who  was 
himself  a  prominent  archaeological  writer.  The 
latter's  works  treat  of  Italian  art-monuments: 
"Monuments  de  Pise  au  moyen  age",  Paris,  1866; 
"La  Toscane  au  moyen  &ge,  lettres  sur  1 'architecture 
civile  et  mihtaire  en  1400",  Paris  1874;  "Le  Latran 
au  moyen  age",  Paris,  1877. 

(Euvres  de  Charles  Rohault  de  Fleury,  architecte  (Paris,  1884). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Rohrbacher,  R6n£  Francois,  ecclesiastical  his- 
torian, b.  at  Langatte  (Langd)  in  the  present  Diocese 
of  Metz,  27  September,  1789;  d.  in  Paris,  17  January, 
1856.  He  studied  for  several  months  at  Sarrebourg 
and  Phalsebourg  (Pfalzburg)  and  at  the  age  of  seven- 
teen had  compl(>ted  his  Cla.ssical  studies.  He  taught 
for  three  years  at  the  college  of  Phalsebourg;  entered 
in  1810  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  at  Nancy,  and  was 
ordained  priest  in  1812.  Appointed  assistant  priest 
at  Insming,  he  was  transferred  after  six  months  to 
Lun^ville.  A  mission  which  he  preached  in  1821  at 
Flavigny  led  to  the  organization  of  a  diocesan  mission 
band.  Several  years  later  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Congregation  of  St.  Peter  founded  by  Felicite  and  Jean 
de  La  ^lennais,  and  from  1827  to  1835  directed  the 
philosophical  and  theological  studies  of  young  eccle- 
siastics who  wished  to  become  the  assistants  of  the 
two  brothers  in  their  religious  undertakings.  When 
Felicite  de  La  Mennais  refused  to  submit  to  the  con- 
demnation pronounced  against  him  by  Rome,  Rohr- 
bacher  separated  from  him  and  became  professor  of 
Church  history  at  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  of 
Nancy.  Later  he  retired  to  Paris  where  he  spent  the 
last  years  of  his  life.  His  principal,  work  is  his  monu- 
mental "Histoire  Universelle  de  I'Eglise  Catholique" 
(Nancy,  1842-49;  2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1849-53).  Several 
other  editions  were  subsequently  published  and  con- 
tinuations added  by  Chantrel  and  Guillaume.  Writ- 
ten from  an  apologetic  point  of  view,  the  work  con- 
tributed enormously  to  the  extirpation  of  Gallicanism 
in  the  Church  of  France.  Though  at  times  uncritical 
and  devoid  of  literary  grace,  it  is  of  considerable  use- 
fulness to  the  student  of  history.  It  was  translated 
into   German   and   partially   recast   by   Hiilskamp, 


ROJAS 


118 


ROLFUS 


Rump,  and  numerous  other  writers.  (For  the  other 
works  of  Rohrbacher,  see  Hurter,  "Nomenclator 
Lit.",  Ill  [Innsbruck,  1895],  1069-71.) 

RoHKB\CHER,  Hist.  L'nxT.  de  rSglise  Cath.,  ed.  by  Guillaume, 
XII  (Paris,  1S85).  122-33;  McCaffhcv,  Hixt.  of  the  Cath.  Ch.  in 
the  XIX  Century.  II  (Dublin,  1909;,  I,  60,  II,  448,  475. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Rojas  yZorrilla,  Francisco  de,  Spanish  dramatic 
poet,  b.  at  Toledo,  4  Oct.,  1607;  d.  1680.  Authentic 
information  regarding  the  events  of  his  Hfe  is 
rather  fragmentary,  but  he  probably  studied  at  the 
Universities  of  Toledo  and  Salamanca,  and  for  a  time 
followed  a  mihtary  career.  When  only  twenty-five 
he  was  well  known  as  a  poet,  for  he  is  highly  spoken  of 
in  Montalbdn's  "Para  todos"  (1632),  a  fact  which 
shows  that  he  enjoyed  popularity,  when  Lope  de 
Vega,  Tirso  de  Molina,  and  Calderon  were  in  the 
height  of  their  fame.  The  announcement  published 
in  1638  of  the  assassination  of  Francisco  de  Rojas  did 
not  refer  to  the  poet,  for  the  first  and  second  parts  of 
his  comedies,  published  by  himself  at  Madrid,  bear 
the  dates  of  1640  and  164.5  respectively.  A  third  part 
was  promised  but  it  never  appeared.  He  was  given 
the  mantle  of  the  Order  of  Santiago  in  1644.  The 
writings  of  Rojas  consist  of  plays  and  autos  sacramen- 
taks  written  alone  and  in  collaboration  with  Calderon, 
Coello,  Vclez,  Montalbdn,  and  others.  No  complete 
edition  of  his  plays  is  available,  but  Mesonero  gives  a 
verj"  good  selection  with  biographical  notes.  Among 
the  best  of  them  are  "Del  Rey  abajo  ninguno", 
"Entre  bobos  anda  el  juego",  "Donde  hay  agravio  no 
hay  celos",  and  "Casarse  por  vengarse",  the  last  of 
which  is  claimed  to  have  been  the  basis  of  Le  Sage's 
novel,  "Gil  Bias  de  Santillane". 

TicKNOB,  History  of  Spanish  Literature  (Boston,  1866); 
Mebonero,  Biblioteca  de  AxUores  Espafioles,  LIV  (Madrid,  1866). 

Ventura  Fuentes. 

Rokewode,  John  Gage,  b.  13  Sept.,  1786;  died  at 
Claughton  Hall,  Lancashire,  14  Oct.,  1842.  He  was 
the  fourth  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Gage  of  Hengrave,  and 
took  the  name  Rokewode  in  1838  when  he  succeeded 
to  the  Rokewode  estates.  He  was  educated  at  Stony- 
hurst,  and  having  studied  law  under  Charles  Butler  he 
was  called  to  the  bar,  but  never  practised,  preferring 
to  devote  himself  to  antiquarian  pursuits.  He  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  in  1818, 
and  was  director  from  1829  till  1842.  He  also  became 
a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1822  he  published 
"The  Hi.storj-  and  Ant  iquit  ies  of  Hengrave  in  Suffolk  " 
and  in  1838  "The  History  and  Antiquities  of  Suffolk". 
His  e<Jition  of  Jocelin  de  Brakelond's  chronicle  pub- 
lished by  the  Camden  Society  in  1840  fumi.shed  Car- 
lyle  with  much  of  his  materials  for  "Past  and  Present" 
(1843).  Many  papers  by  him  appeared  in  "Archa;- 
ologia",  many  of  these  being  republished  as  separate 
pamphlets,  including  the  description  of  the  Bene- 
dictionals  of  St.  >Ethelwold  and  of  Robert  of  Jumieges; 
he  also  printed  the  genealogy  of  the.  Rokewode  family 
with  charters  relating  thereto  in  "Collectanea  Topo- 
gra7)hica  et  Gcnealogica",  II.  He  contributed  to  the 
"Orthodox  Journal'*  and  the  "Catholic  Gentleman's 
Magazine".  Many  of  his  MSS.  were  Hold  after  his 
death  with  his  valuable  library.  The  Society  of  An- 
tiquaries rKjKWiKH  a  bust  of  him  by  R.  C.  Lucaa.  He 
died  suddenly  while  out  shooting. 

Orthodox  Journal.  XV,  276;  Cooper  in  Diet.  Nat.  Bioo.: 
GiLUJW,  Bihl  Diet.  Eng.  Catht. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Roland,  Chanson  de.  See  Legends,  Literary 
or  Profa.ve. 

Roland  de  Lattre.    S<;e  Lassus,  Orlandus  de. 

Rolduc  n<oi>A  DrriK,  aW)  Roda,  Closferroda  or 
Hertogenra'le;,  in  S.  K.  Limburg,  Nefherlands.  It 
became  an  Augusfinian  abbey  in  1104  unrler  Ven. 
AilbertUH,  a  pricHt,  wjn  of  AmmoricuH,  a  nobleman  of 


Antoing,  Flanders.  Ailbertus  is  said  to  have  been 
guided  by  a  vision  towards  this  chosen  spot,  which  was 
in  the  domain  of  Count  Adelbert  of  Saffenberch,  who, 
before  Bishop  Othert  of  Liege,  turned  over  the  property 
destined  for  abbey  and  church  in  1108.  Ailbertus 
was  the  first  abbot  (1104-11).  Later  he  went  to 
France  where  he  founded  the  Abbey  of  Clairfontaine. 
Desiring  once  more  to  see  Rolduc,  he  died  on  the  way, 
at  Sechtem,  near  Bonn,  19  Sep.,  1122  (Acta  SS.). 
Thirty-eight  abbots  succeeded  Ailbertus,  the  last  one 
being  Peter  Joseph  Chaineux  (1779-1800).  The 
abbey  acquired  many  possessions  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  became  the  last  resting-place  of  the  Dukes  of 
Limburg.  It  possesses  the  famous  "Catalogus  Li- 
brorum",  made  a.  d.  1230,  containing  one  hundred 


-^ 

The  Crypt,  Rolduc  Abbey 

and  forty  theological  and  eighty-six  philosophical  and 
classical  works.  The  beautiful  crypt,  built  by  Ail- 
bertus, was  blessed  13  Dec,  1106,  and  in  1108  the 
church  was  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  St. 
Gabriel.  In  1122  Pope  Calixtus  II  confirmed  by  a 
Bull,  preserved  in  the  archives  of  Rolduc,  the  dona- 
tion of  the  property.  The  church,  completed  in  1209, 
was  then  solemnly  dedicated  by  Philip,  Bishop  of 
Ratzeburg.  Dr.  R.  Cortcn  completed  the  restoration 
of  the  church  in  1893,  and  transferred  the  relics  of 
Ven.  Ailbertus  into  a  richly  sculptured  sarcophagus 
in  the  crypt,  1897.  The  church  possesses  a  particle 
of  the  Holy  Cro.ss,  five  inches  long,  reputed  to  be 
authentic  and  miraculous  (Archives  of  Rolduc,  by 
Abbot  Mathias  Amezaga);  al.so  the  body  of  St. 
Daphne,  virgin  and  martyr,  brought  over  from  the 
Catacombs  of  Pra'textatus  in  1847.  Rolduc  became 
the  seminary  of  Li^ge  in  1831,  under  Right  Rev.  Cor- 
nelius Van  Bommel,  and  the  little  seminary  of  Roer- 
mond,  and  academy  in  1841 .  The  present  institution 
has  an  attendance  of  420  pupils. 

Heyendal,  Annales  liodenses  usque  ad  annum  1700;  Diarium 
rerum  memorabilium  abbaiia  Rodensis  in  tlie  archives  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle;  Acta  SS.;  Habets,  (leschiedenis  van  het  Hisdom  Roer- 
mowi.  III  (187.5-92);  Ernst,  Hisloire  du  Limbourg,  (I.i^ge,  1837- 
.52) ;  DaRis,  Notice  Historique  sur  Ies  if/liscs  du  diodse  de  Liige,  XV 
(I.i^Ke,  1894);  Neujean,  Notice  historique  sur  Vabbayr  de  Rolduc 
(Aix-la-Chapelle,  1868);  Helyot,  Histoire  des  ordres  monasliques, 
relif/ieux  et  milUaires,  II  (Paris,  1714-19);  CuYPERS,  Revue  de  I'art 
chrHien  (1892);  Lennartz,  Die  Auqustiner  Abtri  Klosterrath.; 
Kerhten,  Journal  Historique  rt  I Altirairr,  XIV  (Lidge) ;  COBTEN, 
RoUuc  in   Woord  en  Beeld  (Utrecht,  1902). 

Theophile  Stenmans. 

Rolfus,  Hermann,  Catholic  educationist,  b.  at 
Freiburg,  24  May,  1821;  d.  at  Biihl,  near  Offenburg, 
27  October,  1896.  After  attending  the  gymnasium  at 
Freiburg,  he  studicnl  theology  and  philology  at  the 
university  th(!re  from  1840  to  1843,  and  was  ordained 

f)rie8t  on  31  August,  1844.  After  he  had  served  for 
)rief  periods  at  various  places,  he  was  appointed 
curate  at  Thiengen  in  1851,  curat e-in-charge  at  Reisel- 
fingr-n  in  1855,  jiarish  ])rie8t  at  the  last  named  place 
in  1861,  j)!irish  jjriest  at  Reutlir-  ne.'ir  Freil)urg  in  1867, 
at  Sasbadi  in  1875,  and  .-it  liiihl  in  1892.  In  1867  the 
theological  faculty  at  Freiburg  gave  him  the  degree  of 


ROLLS 


119 


ROLLIN 


Doctor  of  Theology.  Rolf  us  did  much  for  practical 
Catholic  pedagogics,  especially  in  southern  Germany, 
by  the  work  which  he  edited  in  conjunction  with 
Adolf  Pfister,  "  Real-Encyclopadie  des  Erziehungs- 
und  Unterrichtswesens  nach  katholischen  Principien" 
(4  vols.,  Mainz,  1863-66;  2nd  ed.,  1872-74).  A  fifth 
volume  ("Erganzungsband",  1884)  was  issued  by 
Rolfus  alone;  a  new  edition  is  in  course  of  prepara- 
tion. Another  influential  publication  was  the  "Siid- 
deutsches  katholisches  Schulwochenblatt",  which  he 
edited,  also  jointly  with  Pfister,  from  1861  to  1867. 
Of  his  other  literary  works,  the  following  may  be 
mentioned:  "Der  Grund  des  katholischen  Glaubens" 
(Mainz,  1862);  "Leitfaden  der  allgemeinen  Welt- 
geschichte"  (Freiburg,  1870;  4th  ed.,  1896);  "Die 
Glaubens-  und  Sittenlehre  der  katholischen  Kirche" 
(Einsiedeln,  1875;  frequently  re-edited),  jointly  with 
F.  J.  Brandle;  "Kirchengeschichtliches  in  chrono- 
logischer  Reihenfolge  von  der  Zeit  des  letzten  Vatican- 
ischen  Concils  bis  auf  unsere  Tage"  (2  vols.,  Mainz, 
1877-82;  3rd  vol.  by  Sickinger,  1882);  "Geschichte 
des  Reiches  Gottes  auf  Erden"  (Freiburg,  1878-80; 
3rd  ed.,  1894-95j;  " Katholischer  Hau.skatechismus " 
(Einsiedeln,  1891-92).  In  addition  to  the  works  men- 
tioned, he  also  wrote  a  large  number  of  pedagogic, 
political,  apologetic,  and  polemical  brochures,  ascetic 
treatises,  and  works  for  the  young. 

Keller,  Festschrift  zum  fiinfzigjahrigen  Priesterjubilaum  des 
hochw.  Herrn  Pfarrers  u.  Geistl.  Rats  Dr.  Hermann  Rolfus  (Frei- 
burg im  Br.,  1894),  with  portrait;  Knecht  in  Badische  Bio- 
graphien,  V  (Heidelberg,  1906),  670  sq. 

Friedrich  Lauchert. 

Rolle  de  Hampole,  Richard,  .solitary  and  writer, 
b.  at  Thornton,  Yorksliire,  about  1300;  d.  at  Ham- 
pole,  29  Sept.,  1349.  The  date  1290,  sometimes  as- 
signed for  his  birth-year,  is  too  early,  as  in  a  work 
written  after  1326  he  alludes  to  himself  as  "juven- 
culus"  and  "puer",  words  applicable  to  a  man  of 
under  thirty,  but  not  to  one  over  that  age.  He 
showed  such  promise  as  a  school-boy,  while  living 
with  his  father  William  Rolle,  that  Thomas  de 
Neville,  Archdeacon  of  Durham,  undertook  to  de- 
fray the  cost  of  his  education  at  Oxford.  At  the  age 
of  nineteen  he  left  the  university  to  devote  himself 
to  a  hfe  of  perfection,  not  desiring  to  enter  any  reli- 
gious order,  but  with  the  intention  of  becoming  a 
hermit.  At  first  he  dwelt  in  a  wood  near  his  home, 
but  fearing  his  family  would  put  him  under  restraint, 
he  fled  from  Thornton  and  wandered  about  till  he 
was  recognized  by  John  de  Dalton,  who  had  been  his 
fellow  student  at  Oxford,  and  who  now  provided  him 
with  a  cell  and  the  necessaries  for  a  hermit's  life. 
At  Dalton  he  made  great  progress  in  the  spiritual  life 
as  described  by  himself  in  his  treati.se  "De  incendio 
amoris".  He  spent  from  three  to  four  years  in  the 
purgative  and  illuminative  way  and  then  attained 
contemplation,  pa.ssing  through  three  phases  which 
he  describes  as  color,  canor,  dulcor.  Tlaey  appeared 
successively,  but  once  attained  they  remained  with 
him  continually,  though  he  did  not  feel  them  all 
alike  or  all  at  the  same  time.  Sometimes  the  color 
prevailed;  sometimes  the  canor,  but  the  dulcor  ac- 
companied both.  The  condition  was  such,  he  says, 
"that  I  did  not  think  anything  like  it  or  anything 
so  holy  could  be  received  in  this  life".  After  this  he 
wandered  from  place  to  place,  at  one  time  visiting  the 
anchoress.  Dame  Margaret  Kyrkby,  at  Anderby, 
and  obtaining  from  God  her  cure.  Finally  he  settled 
at  Hampole  near  the  Cistercian  nunnery,  and  there 
he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  After  his  death  his  tomb 
was  celebrated  for  miracles,  and  preparations  for  his 
canonization,  including  the  composition  of  a  mass  and 
office  in  his  honour,  were  made;  but  the  cause  was 
never  prosecuted.  His  writings  were  extremely 
popular  throughout  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries,  and  very  many  MSS.  copies  of  his  works 
are  still  extant  in  English  libraries.     His  writings 


show  he  was  much  influenced  by  the  teaching  of  St. 
Edmund  of  Canterbury  in  the  "Speculum  Ecclesiae". 
The  Lollards,  realizing  the  power  of  his  influence, 
tampered  with  his  writings,  interpolating  passages 
favouring  their  errors.  To  defeat  this  trickery,  the 
nuns  at  Hampole  kept  genuine  copies  of  his  works 
at  their  house.  His  chief  works  are  "De  emenda- 
tionevitae"  and  "De  incendio  amoris",  both  written 
in  Latin,  of  which  English  versions  by  Richard  Misyn 
(1434-,5)  have  been  published  by  the  Early  English 
Text  Society,  1896;  "Contemplacj'ons  of  the  drede 
and  love  of  God"  and  "Remedy  against  Temp- 
tacyons",  both  printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde  in 
1 506 ;  and  "  The  Pricke  of  Conscience  " ,  a  poem  printed 
for  the  philological  Society  in  1863.  This  was  his 
most  popular  work  and  MSS.  of  it  are  very  common. 
They  have  been  collated  by  Andrese  (Berlin,  1888) 
and  Bulbring  (Transactions  of  Philological  Society, 
1889-1890).  Ten  prose  treatises  found  in  the 
Thornton  MS.  in  Lincoln  Cathedral  Library  were 
pubhshed  by  the  Early  English  Texi,  Society,  1866. 
"The  Form  of  Perfect  Living",  "Meditations  on  the 
Passion",  and  many  shorter  pieces  were  edited  by 
Horstman  (London,  1896).  Rolle  translated  many 
parts  of  Scripture  into  English  but  only  his  version 
of  the  Psalms  has  been  printed.  His  English  para- 
phra.se  of  the  Psalms  and  Canticles  was  published 
in  1884  (Clarendon  Press,  Oxford).  This  work  of 
translation  is  noteworthy  in  face  of  the  persistent 
though  discredited  Protestant  tradition  ascribing  all 
the  credit  of  translating  the  Scriptures  into  English 
to  Wyclif.  Latin  versions  of  Rolle's  works  are  very 
numerous.  They  were  collected  into  one  edition 
(Paris,  1618)  and  again  reprinted  in  the  "Bibliotheca 
Patrum  Maxima "  (Lyons,  1677).  Modernized  Eng- 
lish versions  of  the  Meditations  on  the  Passion  have 
been  published  by  Mgr.  Benson  in  "A  Book  of  the 
Love  of  Jesus"  (London,  1905)  and  by  the  present 
writer  (C.  T.  S.  London,  1906). 

Breriarium  Eccl.  Eboracensis.  The  lessons  in  the  Officium  de 
S.  Ricardo,  II,  are  the  chief  authority  for  the  events  of  his  life. 
Perry,  Introduction  to  Rolle's  English  Prose  Treatises  (London, 
1866);  VON  Ullm.^n,  Sludien  zu  Richard  Rolle  de  Hampole  in 
englische  Studien  (Heilbronn,  1877),  VII;  von  Kribel,  Hampole- 
Studien,  ibidem,  VIII ;  Adler,  Ueber  die  Richard  Rolle  de  Hampole 
zugeschriebene  Paraphrase  der  sieben  Busspsalmen  (1885) ;  Midden- 
DORFF,  Studien  Uber  Richard  Rolle  (Magdeburg,  1888) ;  Horstman, 
Richard  Rolle  of  Hampole  and  his  followers  (London,  1896) ;  Har- 
vey, Introduction  to  the  Fire  of  Love,  E.  E.  T.  S.  (London,  1896); 
Benson,  Short  Life  of  Richard  Rolle  in  A  Book  of  the  Love  of  Jesus 
(London,  1905);  Inge,  Studies  of  English  Mystics  (London,  1906); 
Hodgson,  The  Form  of  Perfect  Living  (London,  1910). 

Edwin  Burton. 

RoUin,  Charles,  b.  in  Paris,  1661;  d.  there,  1741. 
The  son  of  a  cutler,  intended  to  follow  his  father's 
trade,  he  was  remarkable  for  the  piety  with  which  he 
served  Mass  and  which  secured  for  him  a  collegiate 
scholarship.  He  studied  theology  and  received  the 
tonsure,  but  not  Holy  Orders.  He  was  assistant 
professor,  and  then  profes.sor  of  rhetoric  at  the  College 
de  Plessis;  of  Latin  eloquence  at  the  College  Royal 
(1688),  and  at  the  age  of  thirty-three  was  appointed 
rector  of  the  university.  In  1696  he  became  principal 
of  the  College  Beauvais,  from  which  post  he  was  dis- 
missed in  1722  because  of  his  opposition  to  the  Bull 
"Unigenitus".  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  from  1701.  His  works  were  written 
during  his  retirement.  He  was  nearlj-  sixty  when  he 
began  the  "Traite  des  Etudes",  sixty-seven  when  he 
undertook  his  "Histoire  Ancienne",  seventy-seven 
when  he  became  engaged  on  his  "Histoire  Romaine", 
which  death  prevented  him  from  finishing.  The 
"Traite  des  Etudes"  (in  12°,  1726-31)  exiilains  the 
method  of  teaching  and  studying  belles-lettres;  it 
contains  ideas  which  seem  hackneyed,  but  which  then 
were  fairly  new,  e.  g.  the  necessity  of  studying  national 
history  and  of  making  use  of  school-books  wTitten  in 
the  vernacular.  The  "Histoire  Ancienne"  (1730-38) 
consists  of  twelve  volumes  jo  12°.     The  "Histoire  Ro- 


ROLLS 


120 


ROMAN 


maine",  of  which  he  was  able  to  finish  only  five  vol- 
umes out  of  the  nine  composing  the  work,  displays 
facility,  interest,  enthusiasm,  but  lack  of  a  critical 
spirit."  Rollin  was  a  talented  writer,  though  accord- 
ing to  his  own  statement  he  was  sixty  years  old  when 
he    decided  to 

1 


^\Tite  in  French. 
Jlc  was  upright 
:ind  serene,  a  pious 
and  sincere  Chris- 
tian, whom  it  is 
deplorable  to  find 
concerned  in  the 
ridiculous  scenes 
at  the  cemetery 
of  St.  M6dar;d 
near  the  tomb  of 
the  deacon  Paris. 
Without  the  an- 
noyances due  to 
his  Jansenism,  his 
])ure  conscience, 
sweet  gaiety, 
\igorous  health, 
and  the  esteem 
he  enjoyed  should 
liive    made    him 

lie  of  the  most 
Mirtunate  men  of 
his  times. 

T  R  o  G  N  o  N,  Eloge 
(Paris.  1818);  Gui- 
nea u    D  E   M  D  8  8  Y, 

TraiU  des  Etudes  de  Rollin  (Paris,  1805) ;  Sainte-Beuve.  Causeries 
du  lundi,  VI  (Paris,  1851-62)  GeORGES   BeRTRIN. 

Rolls  Series,  a  collection  of  historical  materials 
of  which  tlie  general  scope  is  indicated  by  its  official 
title,  "The  Chronicles  and  Memorials  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  during  the  Middle  Ages".  The 
publication  of  the  series  was  undertaken  by  the 
British  Government  in  accordance  with  a  scheme 
submitted  in  18.57  by  the  Master  of  the  Rolls  (the 
official  Cu.stodian  of  the  Records  of  the  Court  of 
Chancerj'  and  of  the  other  Courts),  then  Sir  John 
Romilly.  A  previous  undertaking  of  the  same  kind, 
the  "Monumenta  Historica  Britannica",  had  come 
to  grief  after  the  publication  of  the  first  volume 
(1036  folio  pages,  London,  1S48)  owing  partly  to  the 
death  of  the  principal  editor,  Henry  Petrie,  partly 
to  its  cumbrous  form  and  other  causes.  Strong  rep- 
resentations were,  however,  made  by  a  very  earnest 
worker  in  the  field  of  historical  research.  Rev.  Joseph 
Stevensf^n  (q.  v.),  and  the  scheme  of  1857  was  the 
direct  outcome  of  this  appeal.  In  the  new  Series 
"preference  was  to  be  given  in  the  first  instance  to 
such  materials  an  were  most  scarce  and  valuable", 
ea<'h  chronicle  was  to  be  edited  as  if  the  editor  were 
engagrnl  upon  an  eflitio  princeps,  a  brief  account  was 
to  be  provided  in  a  suitable  preface  of  the  life  and 
timfss  of  the  author  as  well  as  a  description  of  the 
manuwripts  employed,  and  the  volumes  were  to  be 
issued  in  a  convenient  octavo  form.  In  accordance 
with  this  scheme  25o  volumes,  representing  99 
separate  works,  have  now  hotm  published.  With  the 
exception  of  the  sf;rira  of  h-gal  records  known  as  the 
"Year  BfK>ks"  of  ?>]ward  I  and  Edward  III,  the 
further  issue  of  thf^K<;  materials  has  for  some  time 
pa«t  IxMrn  suspr-ndf^l.  Almost  all  the  great  medieval 
English  chronicles  have  in  turn  been  included,  for 
it  was  found  that  most  of  the  existing  editions  pub- 
lisher! by  the  scholars  of  the  sf!vente<;nth  and  eigh- 
t(«nth  centuri<«  were  unBatisfa<;tory.  It  would  be 
impf>«Hible  here  U)  give  a  catalogue  of  the  materials 
edite<l  in  the  c/)urs«!  of  this  great  undertaking.  It 
must  he  sufficient  t-o  mention  thr;  magnificent  edition 
of  the  "Chronica  Majora"  of  Matthew  Paris  by 
Luard;    the   Hoveden,    Benedict   of    Peterborough, 


Ralph  de  Diceto,  Walter  of  Coventry,  and  others,  all 
edited  by  Bishop  Stubbs;  the  works  of  Giraldus 
Cambrensis  by  Brewer,  and  the  "Materials  for  the 
History  of  St.  Thomas  Becket"  by  Canon  Robert- 
son. But  the  scope  of  the  Series  is  by  no  means 
limited  to  the  ordinary  English  Chroniclers.  Legal 
records  and  tractates,  such  as  the  "Year  Books",  the 
"Black  Book  of  the  Admiralty",  and  Bracton's  great 
work  "De  Legibus  et  Consuetudinibus  Anglia^"; 
materials  of  a  more  or  less  legendary  character  relat- 
ing to  Ireland  and  Scotland,  such  as  Whitley  Stokes's 
edition  of  "the  Tripartite  Life  of  St.  Patrick",  or  the 
Icelandic  Sagas  edited  bj-  Vigfusson  and  Dasent; 
rhymed  chronicles  like  those  of  Robert  of  Gloucester 
and  Robert  of  Brunne  in  English,  and  that  of  Pierre 
de  Langtoft  in  French;  even  quasi-philo.sophical 
works  like  those  of  Friar  Roger  Bacon  and  Alexander 
Neckam,  together  with  folklore  materials  like  the 
three  volumes  of  "Leechdoms,  Worteunning  and  Star- 
craft"  of  Anglo-Saxon  times,  have  all  been  included 
in  the  Series.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  hagiograph- 
ical  documents,  dealing  for  example  with  the  lives 
of  St.  Dunstan,  St.  Edward  the  Confessor,  St.  Hugh 
of  Lincoln,  St.  Thomas,  as  well  as  St.  Wilfrid  and  other 
northern  saints,  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the 
collection.  The  vast  bulk  of  the  texts  thus  edited 
are  in  Latin,  and  these  are  printed  without  transla- 
tion. Those  in  old  P'rench,  Anglo-Saxon,  Irish, 
Gaelic,  Welsh,  old  Norse,  etc.  always  have  a  trans- 
lation annexed. 

The  progress  of  the  Rolls  Series  may  best  be  traced  in  the 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Deputy  Keeper  of  the  Public  Records,  but 
a  general  account  is  also  given  in  Gross,  The  Sources  and  Litera- 
ture of  English  History  (New  York,  1900) ;  Potthast,  Bibliotheca 
Historica   (Berlin,    1896). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Rolph,  Thomas,  surgeon,  b.  1800;  d.  at  Ports- 
mouth, 17  Feb.,  1858.  He  was  a  younger  son  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Rolph  and  Frances  his  wife,  and  brother  of 
John  Rolph,  the  Canadian  insurgent .  Having  quali- 
fied as  a  surgeon,  he  began  to  practice  in  Crutched- 
friars,  where  he  came  into  conflict  with  the  Anglican 
rector  of  St.  Olave,  Hart  Street,  on  the  subject  of 
tithes,  a  dispute  which  led  him  to  petition  the  House 
of  Commons  on  the  subject  and  to  publish  two  pam- 
phlets: "Address  to  the  Citizens  of  London"  and 
"Letter  addressed  to  the  Rev.  H.  B.  Owen,  D.D." 
(1827).  He  also  took  a  prominent  part  in  Catholic 
affairs.  In  1832  he  went  to  the  West  Indies,  the 
United  States,  and  Canada,  where  his  brother  John 
had  become  chairman  of  committee  in  the  Upper 
Canada  House  of  Assembly.  For  a  time  Thomas 
Rolph  settled  in  Canada,  acting  as  Govcrnmeiif  emi- 
gration agent,  hut  he  returned  to  England  in  1S3!)  and 
published  a  series  of  works  on  emigration:  "Compara- 
tive advantages  between  tlie  United  States  and  Can- 
ada for  Britisli  Settlers"  (1<S42);  "Emigrants' 
Manual"  (1843);  "Emigration  and  Colonization" 
(1844).  In  his  earlier  life  he  had  published  two 
pamphlets  on  the  proceedings  of  the  Religious  Tract 
Society,  and  one  against  phrenology.  He  was  also  a 
constant  contributor  to  the  "Truthteller",  a  Catholic 
magazine  published  by  William  Eu.sebius  Andrews. 
He  spent  his  last  years  at  Portsmouth  where  he  died 
of  apoplexy. 

AbLiBONE,  Critical  Did.  of  Eng.  Lit.  (Philadelphia,  1869-71); 
Gil.ixiw,  fiihl.  Did.  Eng.  f'nih.,  s.  v. 

Edwin  Burton 

Roman  Catechism.— This  catechism  differs  from 
o(  her  summaries  of  C'hristian  doctrine  for  the  instruc- 
tioii  of  the  people  in  two  jwints:  it  is  |)rimarily  in- 
t(aided  for  pri(!sts  having  care  of  souls  (ad  parorhos), 
and  it  enjoys  an  authority  ecjualied  by  no  other 
catechism.  The  need  of  a  popular  authoritative 
manual  arose  from  a  lack  of  systematic  knowledge 
among  pre-Reformation  clergy  and  the  concomitant 
neglect  of  religious  instruction  among  the  faithful. 


ROMAN 


121 


ROMAN 


The  Reformers  had  not  been  slow  in  taking  advantage 
of  the  situation;  their  popular  tracts  and  catechisms 
were  flooding  every  country  and  leading  thousands  of 
souls  away  from  the  Church.  The  Fathers  of  Trent, 
therefore,  "wishing  to  apply  a  salutary  remedy  to  this 
great  and  pernicious  evil,  and  thinking  that  the 
definition  of  the  principal  Catholic  doctrines  was  not 
enough  for  the  purpose,  resolved  also  to  publish  a 
formulary  and  method  for  teaching  the  rudiments  of 
the  faith,  to  be  used  by  all  legitimate  pastors  and 
teachers"  (Cat.  pra;f.,  vii).  This  resolution  was  taken 
in  the  eighteenth  session  (26  February,  1562)  on  the 
suggestion  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  who  was  then 
giving  full  scope  to  his  zeal  for  the  reformation  of  the 
clergy.  Pius  IV  entrusted  the  composition  of  the 
Catechism  to  four  distinguished  theologians:  Arch- 
bishops Leonardo  Marino  of  Lanciano  and  Muzio 
Calini  of  Zara,  Egidio  Foscarini,  Bishop  of  Modena, 
and  Francisco  Fureiro,  a  Portuguese  Dominican. 
Three  cardinals  were  appointed  to  supervise  the  work. 
St.  Charles  Borromeo  superintended  the  redaction 
of  the  original  Italian  text,  which,  thanks  to  his 
exertions,  was  finished  in  1564.  Cardinal  William 
Sirletus  then  gave  it  the  final  touches,  and  the  famous 
Humanists,  Julius  Pogianus  and  Paulus  Manutius, 
translated  it  into  classical  Latin.  It  was  then  pub- 
lished in  Latin  and  Italian  as  "Catechismus  ex  decreto 
Concilii  Tridentini  ad  parochos  Pii  V  jussu  editus, 
Romse,  1566"  (in-folio).  Translations  into  the  ver- 
nacular of  every  nation  were  ordered  by  the  Council 
(Sess.  XXIV,  "De  Ref.",  c.  vii). 

The  Council  intended  the  projected  Catechism  to  be 
the  Church's  official  manual  of  popular  instruction. 
The  seventh  canon,    "De  Reformatione",  of  Sess. 

XXIV,  runs:  "That  the  faithful  may  approach  the 
Sacraments  with  greater  reverence  and  devotion,  the 
Holy  Synod  charges  all  the  bishops  about  to  admin- 
ister them  to  explain  their  operation  and  use  in  a  way 
adapted  to  the  understanding  of  the  people;  to  see, 
moreover,  that  their  parish  priests  observe  the  same 
rule  piously  and  prudently,  making  use  for  their  ex- 
planations, where  necessary  and  convenient,  of  the 
vernacular  tongue;  and  conforming  to  the  form  to  be 
prescribed  by  the  Holy  Synod  in  its  instructions 
(calechesis)  for  the  several  Sacraments:  the  bishops 
shall  have  these  instructions  carefully  translated  into 
the  vulgar  tongue  and  explained  by  all  parish  priests 
to  their  flocks  .  .  .".  In  the  mind  of  the  Church 
the  Catechism,  though  primarily  written  for  the  parish 
priests,  was  also  intended  to  give  a  fixed  and  stable 
scheme  of  instruction  to  the  faithful,  especially  with 
regard  to  the  means  of  grace,  so  much  neglected  at  the 
time.  To  attain  this  object  the  work  closely  follows 
the  dogmatic  definitions  of  the  council.  It  is  divided 
in  four  parts:  I.  The  Apostles'  Creed;  II.  The  Sacra- 
ments; III.  The  Decalogue;  IV.  Prayer,  especially 
The  Lord's  Prayer.  It  deals  with  the  papal  primacy 
and  with  Limbo  (q.  v.),  points  which  were  not  dis- 
cussed or  defined  at  Trent;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
silent  on  the  doctrine  of  Indulgences  (q.  v.),  which  is 
set  forth  in  the  "Decretum  de  indulgentiis",  Sess. 

XXV.  The  bishops  urged  in  every  way  the  use  of 
the  new  Catechism;  they  enjoined  its  frequent  read- 
ing, so  that  all  its  contents  would  be  committed  to 
memory;  they  exhorted  the  priests  to  discuss  parts 
of  it  at  their  meetings,  and  insisted  upon  its  being 
used  for  instructing  the  people. 

To  some  editions  of  the  Roman  Catechism  is  pre- 
fixed a  "Praxis  Catechismi",  i.  e.  a  division  of  its 
contents  into  sermons  for  every  Sunday  of  the  year 
adapted  to  the  Gospel  of  the  day.  There  is  no  better 
sermonarj\  The  people  like  to  hear  the  voice  of  the 
Church  speaking  with  no  uncertain  sound;  the  many 
Biblical  texts  and  illustrations  go  straight  to  their 
hearts,  and,  best  of  all,  they  remember  these  simple 
sermons  better  than  they  do  the  oratory  of  famous 
pulpit  orators.     The  Catechism  has  not  of  course  the 


authority  of  conciliary  definitions  or  other  primary 
symbols  of  faith ;  for,  although  decreed  by  the  Council, 
it  was  only  published  a  year  after  the  Fathers  had  dis- 
persed, and  it  consequently  lacks  a  formal  conciliary 
approbation.  During  the  heated  controversies  de 
auxiliis  graiioc  between  the  Thomists  and  Molinists, 
the  Jesuits  refused  to  accept  the  authority  of  the 
Catechism  as  decisive.  Yet  it  possesses  high  authority 
as  an  exposition  of  Catholic  doctrine.  It  was  com- 
posed by  order  of  a  council,  issued  and  approved  by 
the  pope;  its  use  has  been  prescribed  by  numerous 
synods  throughout  the  whole  Church;  Leo  XIII,  in  a 
letter  to  the  French  bishops  (8  Sept.,  1899),  recom- 
mended the  study  of  the  Roman  Catechism  to  all 
seminarians,  and  the  reigning  pontiff,  Pius  X,  has 
signified  his  desire  that  preachers  should  expound  it 
to  the  faithful. 

The  earliest  editions  of  the  Roman  Catechism  are: 
"Roma;  apud  Paulum  Manutium",  1566;  "Venetiis, 
apud  Dominicum  de  Farris",  1567;  "Colonise",  1567 
(by  Henricus  Aquensis);  "Parisiis,  in  adibus  Jac. 
Kerver",  1568;  "Venetiis,  apud  Aldum",  1575; 
Ingolstadt,  1577  (Sartorius).  In  1596  appeared  at 
Antwerp  "Cat.  Romanus  .  .  .  qua;st ionibus  dis- 
tinctus,  brevibusque  exhortatiunculis  studio  Andrese 
Fabricii,  Leodiensis".  (This  editor,  A.  Le  Fevre, 
died  in  1581.  He  probably  made  this  division  of  the 
Roman  Catechi,sm  into  qviestions  and  answers  in 
1570).  George  Eder,  in  1569,  arranged  the  Catechism 
for  the  use  of  schools.  He  distributed  the  main  doc- 
trines into  sections  and  subsections,  and  added  per- 
spicuous tables  of  contents.  This  useful  work  bears 
the  title:  "IMethodus  Catechismi  Catholici".  The 
first  known  English  translation  is  by  Jeremy  Donovan, 
a  professor  at  Maynooth,  published  by  Richard 
Coyne,  Capel  Street,  Dublin,  and  by  Keating  & 
Brown,  London,  and  printed  for  the  translator  by 
W.  Folds  &  Son,  Great  Shand  Street,  1829.  An 
American  edition  appeared  in  the  same  year.  Dono- 
van's translation  was  reprinted  at  Rome  by  the  Prop- 
aganda Press,  in  two  volumes  (1839) ;  it  is  dedicated  to 
Cardinal  Fransoni,  and  signed:  "Jeremias  Donovan, 
sacerdos  hibernus,  cubicularius  Gregorii  XVI,  P.  M." 
There  is  another  Engli.sh  translation  by  R.  A.  Buckley 
(London,  1852),  which  is  more  elegant  than  Donovan's 
and  claims  to  be  more  correct  but  is  spoiled  by  the 
doctrinal  notes  of  the  Anglican  translator.  The  first 
German  translation,  by  Paul  Hoffaeus,  is  dated  Dil- 
lingen,  1568. 

J.    WiLHELM. 

Roman  Catholic,  a  qualification  of  the  name 
Catholic  commonly  used  in  English-speaking  coun- 
tries by  those  unwilling  to  recognize  the  claims  of  the 
One  True  Church.  Out  of  condescension  for  these 
dissidents,  the  members  of  that  Church  are  wont  in 
official  documents  to  be  styled  "Roman  Catholics"  as 
if  the  term  Catholic  represented  a  genus  of  which 
those  who  owned  allegiance  to  the  pope  formed  a  par- 
ticular species.  It  is  in  fact  a  prevalent  conception 
among  Anglicans  to  regard  the  whole  Catholic  Church 
as  made  up  of  three  principal  branches,  the  Roman 
Catholic,  the  Anglo-Catholic  and  the  Greek  Catholic. 
As  the  erroneousness  of  this  point  of  view  has  been 
sufficiently  explained  in  the  articles  Church  and 
CATHOLIC,  it  is  only  needful  here  to  consider  the  his- 
tory of  the  composite  term  with  which  we  are  now 
concerned.  In  the  "Oxford  English  Dictionary", 
the  highest  existing  authoritj^  upon  questions  of  Eng- 
lish philology,  the  following  ex-planation  is  given  under 
the  heading  "Roman  Catholic".  "The  use  of  this 
composite  term  in  place  of  the  simple  Roman,  Ro- 
manist, or  Romish,  which  had  acquired  an  invidious 
sense,  appears  to  have  arisen  in  the  early  years  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  For  conciliatory  reasons  it  was 
employed  in  the  negotiations  connected  with  the 
Spanish  Match  (1618-1624)  and  appears  in  formal 


ROMAN 


122 


ROMAN 


documents  relating  to  this  printed  by  Rushworth 
(I,  85-89).  After  that  date  it  was  generally  adopted 
as  a  non-controversial  term  and  has  long  been  the 
recognised  legal  and  official  designation,  though  in 
ordinary  use  Catholic  alone  is  very  frequently  em- 
ployed '-  (New-  Oxford  Diet .,  VIII,  766) .  Of  the  illus- 
trative quotations  which  follow,  the  earliest  in  date  is 
one  of  1605  from  the  "Europa>  Speculum"  of  Edwin 
Sandys:  "Some  Roman  Catholiques  will  not  say  grace 
when  a  Protestant  is  present";  while  a  passage  from 
Day's  "Festivals"  of  1615,  contrasts  "Roman  Catho- 
liques" with  "good,  true  Catholiques  indeed". 

Although  the  account  thus  given  in  the  Oxford 
Dictionary  is  in  substance  correct,  it  cannot  be  con- 
sidered satisfactory.  To  begin  with  the  word  is  dis- 
tinctly older  than  is  here  suggested.  When  about  the 
year  1580  certain  English  Catliolics,  under  stress  of 
grievous  persecution,  defended  the  lawfulness  of 
attending  Protestant  services  to  escape  the  fines  im- 
posed on  recusants,  the  Jesuit  Father  Persons  pub- 
lished, under  the  pseudonym  of  Howiet,  a  clear  expo- 
sit  ion  of  the  "  Reasons  why  Catholiques  refuse  to  goe  to 
Church".  This  was  answered  in  1801  by  a  writer 
of  Puritan  sjin  pat  hies,  Percival  Wiburn,  who  in  his 
"Checke  or  Reproofe  of  M.  Howiet"  uses  the  term 
"Roman  Catholic"  repeatedly.  For  example  he 
speaks  of  "you  Romane  Catholickes  that  sue  for 
tolleration"  (p.  140)  and  of  the  "parlous  dilemma  or 
streight  which  you  Romane  Catholickes  are  brought 
into"  (p.  44).  Again  Robert  Crowley,  another 
Anglican  controversialist,  in  his  book  called  "A 
Deliberat  Answere",  printed  in  1588,  though  adopt- 
ing by  preference  the  forms  "Romi.sh  Catholike"  or 
"Popish  Catholike",  also  writes  of  those  "who 
wander  with  the  Romane  Catholiques  in  the  uncer- 
taj'ne  hypathes  of  Popish  devises"  (p.  86).  A  study 
of  these  and  other  early  examples  in  their  context 
shows  plainly  enough  that  the  qualification  "Romish 
Catholic"  or  "Roman  Catholic"  was  introduced  by 
Protestant  divines  who  highly  resented  the  Roman 
claim  to  any  monopolj^  of  the  term  Catholic.  In 
Germany,  Luther  had  omitted  the  word  Catholic 
from  the  Creed,  but  this  w'as  not  the  case  in  England. 
Even  men  of  such  Calvinistic  leanings  as  Philpot  (he 
was  burned  under  Mary  in  1555),  and  John  Foxe  the 
martyrologist,  not  to  speak  of  churchmen  like  Newel 
and  Fulke,  insisted  on  the  right  of  the  Reformers  to 
call  them.selves  Catholics  and  professed  to  regard 
their  own  as  the  only  true  Catholic  Church.  Thus 
Philpot  repre.sents  himself  as  answering  his  Catholic 
examiner:  "I  am,  master  doctor,  of  the  unfeigned 
Catholic  Church  and  w-ill  live  and  die  therein, 
and  if  you  can  prove  your  Church  to  be  the  True 
Catholic  Church,  I  will  be  one  of  the  same"  (Philpot, 
"Works",  Parker  Soc,  p.  1.32).  It  would  be  easy  to 
quote  many  similar  passages.  The  term  "Romish 
Catholic"  or  "Roman  Cathohc"  undoubtedly  orig- 
inatwJ  with  the  Protestant  divines  who  shared  this 
fef'Iing  and  who  were  unwilling  to  concede  the  name 
Catholic  to  their  opponents  without  qualification. 
Indw^l  the  writer  Crowley,  just  mentioned,  does  not 
hesitate  throughout  a  long  tract  to  use  the  term 
"Prot^jstant  Catholics"  the  name  which  he  applies 
to  his  antagoniKts.  Thurs  he  says  "We  Protestant 
Catholiqu<!s  are  not  departed  from  the  true  Catho- 
lique  religion"  (p.  '.Hi)  and  he  refers  more  than  once 
to  "Our  Protf^tant  Catholique  Church,"  (p.  74) 

On  the;  other  hand  the  evidence  seems  to  show  that 
the  Catholics  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  and  James  I 
were  by  no  means  willing  to  admit  any  other  desig- 
nation for  them8f;lvf58  than  the  unqualified  name 
Catholic,  father  SouthweH's  "Humble  Supplica- 
tion to  her  Majesty"  (1.591),  though  criticized  by 
fifjmeasover-a/lulatory  in  tone,  always  uses  the  simple 
word.  \Nhat  is  more  surijrising,  the  same  may  be 
said  of  various  a/ldreswis  Uj  the  Crown  draft (h1  under 
the  iriapiration  of  the  "Appellant"  clergy,  who  were 


suspected  by  their  opponents  of  subservience  to  the 
government  and  of  minimizing  in  matters  of  dogma. 
This  feature  is  very  conspicuous,  to  take  a  single 
example,  in  "the  Protestation  of  allegiance"  drawn 
up  by  thirteen  missioners,  31  Jan.,  1603,  in  which 
they  renounce  all  thought  of  "restoring  the  Catholic 
religion  by  the  sword",  profess  their  willingness  "to 
persuade  all  CathoUcs  to  do  the  same"  and  conclude 
by  declaring  themselves  ready  on  the  one  hand  "to 
spend  their  blood  in  the  defence  of  her  Majesty"  but 
on  tlie  other  "rather  to  lose  their  lives  than  infringe 
the  lawful  autliority  of  Christ's  Catholic  Church" 
(Tierney-Dodd,  III,  p.  cxc).  We  find  similar 
language  used  in  Ireland  in  the  negotiations  carried 
on  by  Tyrone  in  behalf  of  his  Catholic  countrymen. 
Certain  apparent  exceptions  to  this  uniformity  of 
practice  can  be  readily  explained.  To  begin  with  we 
do  find  that  Catholics  not  unfrequently  use  the 
inverted  form  of  the  name  "Roman  Catholic"  and 
speak  of  the  "Catholic  Roman  faith"  or  religion. 
An  early  example  is  to  be  found  in  a  little  controver- 
sial tract  of  1575  called  "a  Notable  Discom'se"  where 
we  read  for  example  that  the  heretics  of  old  "preached 
that  the  Pope  w^as  Antichriste,  shewing  themselves 
verye  eloquent  in  detracting  and  rayling  against  the 
Catholique  Romane  Church"  (p.  64).  But  this  was 
simply  a  translation  of  the  phraseology  common  both 
in  Latin  and  in  the  Romance  languages  "Ecclesia 
Catholica  Romana,"  or  in  French  "I'Eglise  catho- 
lique romaine".  It  was  felt  that  this  inverted  form 
contained  no  hint  of  the  Protestant  contention  that 
the  old  religion  was  a  spurious  variety  of  true  Cathol- 
icism or  at  best  the  Roman  species  of  a  wider  genus. 
Again,  when  we  find  Father  Persons  (e.  g.  in  his 
"Three  Conversions,"  III,  408)  using  the  term 
"Roman  Catholic",  the  context  shows  that  he  is 
only  adopting  the  name  for  the  moment  as  con- 
veniently embodying  the  contention  of  his  adver- 
saries. 

Once  more  in  a  very  striking  passage  in  the  exam- 
ination of  one  James  Clayton  in  1591  (see  Cal.  State 
Papers,  Dom.  Ehz.,  add.,  vol.  XXXII,  p.  322)  we 
read  that  the  deponent  "was  persuaded  to  conforme 
himself  to  the  Romaine  Catholique  faith."  But 
there  is  nothing  to  show^  that  these  were  the  actual 
words  of  the  recusant  himself,  or  that,  if  they  were, 
they  were  not  simply  dictated  by  a  desire  to  concil- 
iate his  examiners.  The  "Oxford  Dictionary"  is 
probably  right  in  assigning  the  recognition  of  "Roman 
Catholic"  as  the  official  style  of  the  adherents  of  the 
Papacy  in  England  to  the  negotiations  for  the 
Spanish  Match  (1618-24).  In  the  various  treaties 
etc.,  drafted  in  connexion  with  this  proposal,  the 
religion  of  the  Spanish  princess  is  almost  always 
spoken  of  as  "Roman  Catholic".  Indetnl  in  some 
few  instances  the  word  Catholic  alone  is  used.  This 
feature  does  not  seem  to  o(;cur  in  any  of  the  nego- 
tiations of  earlier  date  which  touched  U])()n  religion, 
e.  g.  those  connected  with  the  jjioposed  (rAlen9on 
marriage  in  Elizabeth's  reign,  wliile  in  A<'ts  of  Par- 
liament, proclamations,  etc.,  before  the  Spanish 
match.  Catholics  are  simply  described  as  Papists  or 
Recusants^  and  their  religion  as  poi)ish,  Romanish, 
or  Romanist.  Indeed  long  after  this  jwiriod,  the  use 
of  the  term  Roman  Catholic;  continued  to  be  a  mark 
of  condescension,  and  language  of  much  more  un- 
complimentary character  was  usually  pref(;rred. 
It  was  perhaps  to  encourage  a  friendlier  attitude  in 
the  authorities  that  Catholics  themselves  hence- 
forth began  to  adopt  the  qualified  term  in  all  official 
relations  with  the  governinc^nt.  Thus  the  "Humble 
Remonstrance,  Acknowledgnu^nt,  Protestation  and 
Petition  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Clergy  of  Ireland" 
in  1661,  began  "We,  your  Majesty's  faithful  subjects 
tli<;  Roman  Catholick  clergy  of  Irelanfl".  The  same 
practice  s(!em8  to  have;  obtained  in  Maryland;  see 
for  example  the  Consultation  entitled  "Objections 


ROMAN 


123 


ROMAN 


answered  touching  Maryland",  drafted  by  Father 
R.  Blount,  S.J.,  in  1632  (B.  Johnston,  "Foundation 
of  Maryland",  etc.,  1883,  29),  and  wills  proved  22 
Sep.,  1630,  and  19  Dec,  1659,  etc.,  (in  Baldwin, 
"Maryland  Cat.  of  Wills",  19  vols.,  vol.  i.  Naturally 
the  wish  to  conciliate  hostile  opinion  only  grew 
greater  as  Catholic  Emancipation  became  a  question 
of  practical  politics,  and  by  that  time  it  would  appear 
that  many  Catholics  themselves  used  the  qualified 
form  not  only  when  addressing  the  outside  public 
but  in  their  domestic  discussions.  A  short-lived 
association,  organized  in  1794  with  the  fullest  ap- 
proval of  the  vicars  Apostolic,  to  counteract  the 
unorthodox  tendencies  of  the  Cisalpine  Club,  was 
officially  known  as  the  "Roman  Catholic  Meeting" 
(Ward,  "Dawn  of  Cath.  Revival  in  England", 
II,  65).  So,  too,  a  meeting  of  the  Irish  bishops 
under  the  presidency  of  Dr.  Troy  at  Dublin  in  1821 
passed  resolutions  approving  of  an  Emancipation 
Bill  then  before  a  Parliament,  in  which  they  uni- 
formly referred  to  members  of  their  own  communion 
as  "Roman  Catholics".  Further,  such  a  represen- 
tative Catholic  as  Charles  Butler  in  his  "Historical 
Memoirs"  (see  e.  g.  vol.  IV,  1821,  pp.  185,  199,  225, 
etc.,)  frequently  uses  the  term  "roman-catholic"  [sic] 
and  seems  to  find  this  expression  as  natural  as  the  un- 
qualified form. 

With  the  strong  Catholic  revival  in  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century  and  the  support  derived 
from  the  uncompromising  zeal  of  many  earnest 
converts,  such  for  exami)le  as  Faber  and  Manning, 
an  inflexible  adherence  to  the  name  Catholic  with- 
out qualification  once  more  became  the  order  of  the 
day.  The  government,  however,  would  not  modify 
the  official  designation  or  suffer  it  to  be  set  aside  in 
addresses  presented  to  the  Sovereign  on  public 
occasions.  In  two  particular  instances  during  the 
archiepiscopate  of  Cardinal  Vaughan  this  point 
was  raised  and  became  the  subject  of  correspondence 
between  the  cardinal  and  the  Home  Secretary.  In 
1897  at  the  Diamond  Jubilee  of  the  accession  of 
Queen  Victoria,  and  again  in  1901  when  Edward  VII 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  the  Catholic  episcopate 
desired  to  present  addresses,  but  on  each  occasion 
it  was  intimated  to  the  cardinal  that  the  only  per- 
missible style  would  be  "the  Roman  Catholic  Arch- 
bishop and  Bishops  in  England".  Even  the  form 
"the  Cardinal  Archbishop  and  Bishops  of  the 
Catholic  and  Roman  Church  in  England"  was  not 
approved.  On  the  first  occasion  no  address  was 
presented,  but  in  1901  the  requirements  of  the 
Home  Secretary  as  to  the  use  of  the  name  "Roman 
Catholics"  were  (lomplied  with,  though  the  cardinal 
reserved  to  himself  the  right  of  explaining  subse- 
quently on  some  public  occasion  the  sense  in  which 
he  used  the  words  (see  Snead-Cox,  "Life  of  Car- 
dinal Vaughan",  II,  231-41).  Accordingly,  at  the 
Newcastle  Conference  of  the  Catholic  Truth  Society 
(Aug.,  1901)  the  cardinal  explained  clearly  to  his 
audience  that  "the  term  Roman  Catholic  has  two 
meanings;  a  meaning  that  we  repudiate  and  a  mean- 
ing that  we  accept."  The  repudiated  sense  wag 
that  dear  to  many  Protestants,  according  to  which 
the  term  Catholic  was  a  genus  which  resolved  itself 
into  the  species  Roman  Catholic,  Anglo-Catholic, 
Greek  Catholic,  etc.  But,  as  the  cardinal  insisted, 
"with  us  the  prefix  Roman  is  not  restrictive  to  a 
species,  or  a  section,  but  simply  declaratory  of 
Catholic."  The  prefix  in  this  sense  draws  attention 
to  the  unity  of  the  Church,  and  "insists  that  the 
central  point  of  Catholicity  is  Roman,  the  Roman 
See  of  St.  Peter." 

_  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  representative  Anglican 
divine.  Bishop  Andrewes,  in  his  "Tortura  Torti" 
(1609)  ridicules  the  phrase  Ecdesia  CathoUca  Romana 
as  a  contradiction  in  terms.  "What,"  he  asks,  "is 
the  object  of  adding  'Roman'?    The  only  purpose 


that  such  an  adjunct  can  serve  is  to  distinguish 
your  Catholic  Church  from  another  Catholic  Church 
which  is  not  Roman"  (p.  368).  It  is  this  very  com- 
mon line  of  argument  which  imposes  upon  Cath- 
olics the  necessity  of  making  no  compromise  in  the 
matter  of  their  own  name.  The  loyal  adherents 
of  the  Holy  See  did  not  begin  in  the  sixteenth  century 
to  call  themselves  "Catholics"  for  controversial 
purposes.  It  is  the  traditional  name  handed  down 
to  us  continuously  from  the  time  of  St.  Augustine. 
We  use  this  name  ourselves  and  ask  those  outside 
the  Church  to  use  it,  without  reference  to  its  sig- 
nification simply  because  it  is  our  customary  name, 
just  as  we  talk  of  the  Russian  Church  as  "the 
Orthodox  Church",  not  because  we  recognize  its 
orthodoxy  but  because  its  members  so  style  them- 
selves, or  again  just  as  we  speak  of  "the  Reforma- 
tion" because  it  is  the  term  established  by  custom, 
though  we  are  far  from  owning  that  it  was  a  refor- 
mation in  either  faith  or  morals.  The  dog-in-the- 
manger  policy  of  so  many  Anglicans  who  cannot 
take  the  name  of  Catholics  for  themselves,  because 
popular  usage  has  never  sanctioned  it  as  such,  but 
who  on  the  other  hand  will  not  concede  it  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Church  of  Rome,  was  conspicuously 
brought  out  in  the  course  of  a  correspondence  on 
this  subject  in  the  London  "Saturday  Review" 
(Dec,  1908  to  March,  1909)  arising  out  of  a  review 
of  some  of  the  earlier  volumes  of  The  Catholic 
Encyclopedia. 

The  historical  facts  summarized  in  this  article  are  given  in  an 
extended  form  in  a  paper  contributed  by  the  present  writer  to 
The  Month  (Sept.  1911).  See  also  "The  Tablet"  (14  Sept.,  1901), 
402,  and  Snead-Cox,  Life  of  Cardinal  Vaughan,  cited  above. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Roman  Catholic  Relief  Bill.— In  England. — 
With  the  accei-.sion  of  (^ueen  Ehzabeth  (1558)  com- 
menced the  series  of  legislative  enactments,  commonly 
known  as  the  Penal  Laws,  under  which  the  profession 
and  practice  of  the  Catholic  religion  were  subjected  to 
severe  penalties  and  disabilities.  By  laws  passed 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  herself,  any  English  sub- 
ject receiving  Holy  Orders  of  the  Church  of  Rome 
and  coming  to  England  was  guilty  of  high  treason, 
and  any  one  who  aided  or  sheltered  him  was  guilty 
of  capital  felony.  It  was  likewise  made  treason  to 
be  reconciled  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  to  procure 
others  to  be  reconciled.  Papists  were  totally  dis- 
abled from  giving  their  children  any  education  in 
their  own  religion.  Should  they  educate  them  at 
horne  under  a  schoolmaster  who  did  not  attend  the 
parish  church,  and  was  not  licenced  by  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese,  the  parents  were  liable  to  forfeit  ten 
pounds  a  month,  and  the  schoolmaster  himself 
forty  shillings  a  day.  Should  the  children  be  sent 
to  Catholic  seminaries  beyond  the  seas,  their  parents 
were  liable  to  forfeit  one  hundred  pounds,  and  the 
children  themselves  were  disabled  from  inheriting, 
purchasing,  or  enjoying  any  species  of  property. 
Saying  Mass  was  punished  by  a  forfeiture  of  200 
marks;  hearing  it  by  one  of  100  marks.  The  statutes 
of  recusancy  punished  nonconformity  with  the  Es- 
tablished Church  by  a  fine  of  twenty  pounds  per 
lunar  month  during  which  the  parish  church  was  not 
attended,  there  being  thirteen  of  such  months  in  the 
year.  Such  non-attendances  constituted  recusancy 
in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term,  and  originally  af- 
fected all,  whether  Catholics,  or  others,  who  did  not 
conform.  In  1593  by  35  Eliz.  c.  2,  the  consequences 
of  such  non-conformity  were  limited  to  Popish  re- 
cusants. A  Papist,  convicted  of  absenting  himself 
from  church,  became  a  Popish  recusant  convict, 
and  besides  the  monthly  fine  of  twenty  pounds,  was 
disabled  from  holding  any  oflfice  or  employment, 
from  keeping  arms  in  his  house,  from  maintaining 
actions  or  suits  at  law  or  in  equity,  from  being  an 
executor  or  a  guardian,  from  presenting  to  an  advow- 


ROMAN 


124 


ROMAN 


son,  from  practising  the  law  or  physic,  and  from 
holding  office  civil  or  military.  He  was  likewise 
subject  to  the  penalties  attaching  to  excommunication, 
was  not  permitted  to  travel  five  miles  from  his  house 
without  licence,  under  pain  of  forfeiting  all  his  goods, 
and  might  not  come  to  Court  under  a  penalty  of 
one  hundred  pounds.  Other  provisions  extended 
similar  penalties  to  married  women.  Popish  re- 
cusants con^•ict  were,  within  three  months  of  con- 
viction, either  to  submit  and  renounce  their  papistry, 
or,  if  required  by  four  justices,  to  abjure  the  realm. 
If  they  did  not  "depart,  or  returned  without  licence, 
thev  were  guilty  of  a  capital  felony.  At  the  outset 
of  Elizabeth's  reign,  an  oath  of  supremacy  containing 
a  denial  of  the  pope's  spiritual  jurisdiction,  which 
therefore  could  not  be  taken  by  Catholics,  was  im- 
posed on  all  officials,  civil  and  ecclesiastical.  The 
"Oath  of  allegiance  and  obedience"  enacted  under 
James  I,  in  1605,  in  consequence  of  the  excitement 
of  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  confirmed  the  same.  By  the 
Corporation  Act  of  16G1,  no  one  could  legally  be 
elected  to  any  municipal  office  unless  he  had  within 
the  vear  received  the  Sacrament  according  to  the 
rite  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  likewise,  taken  the 
Oath  of  Supremacy.  The  first  provision  excluded  all 
non-conformists;  the  second  Catholics  only.  The 
Test  Act  (1672)  imposed  on  all  officers,  civil  and 
mihtarj',  a  "Declaration  against  Transubstantia- 
tion",  whereby  Catholics  were  debarred  from  such 
emploj-ment.  "in  1677  it  was  enacted  that  all  mem- 
bers of  either  House  of  Parliament  should,  before 
taking  their  seats,  make  a  "Declaration  against 
Popery",  denouncing  Transubstantiation,  the  Mass 
and  the  invocation  of  saints,  as  idolatrous. 

With  the  Resolution  of  1688  came  a  new  crop  of 
penal  laws,  less  atrocious  in  character  than  those  of 
previous  times,  but  on  that  very  account  more  likely 
to  be  enforced,  and  so  to  become  effective,  the 
sanguinary'  penalties  of  the  sixteenth  century,  having 
in  great  measure  defeated  their  own  end,  and  being 
now  generally  left  on  the  statute  book  in  terrorem. 
In  1689  (1  William  and  Mary,  i,  c.  9)  a  shorter  form 
of  the  Oath  of  Allegiance  and  Supremacy  was  sub- 
stituted, the  clause  aimed  against  Catholics  being 
carefully  retained.  It  was  likewise  ordered  that  all 
Papists  and  reputed  Papists  should  be  "amoved" 
ten  miles  from  the  cities  of  London  and  Westminster. 
In  1700  (11  and  12  William  III,  c.  4.)  a  reward  of 
one  hundred  poun<ls  was  promised  to  anyone  who 
should  give  information  leading  to  the  conviction 
of  a  Popish  priest  or  bishop,  who  was  made  punish- 
able by  imprisonment  for  life.  Moreover,  any 
Papist  who  within  six  months  of  attaining  the  age  of 
eighteen  failed  to  take  the  Oath  of  Allegiance  and 
Supremacy  and  subscribe  to  the  Declaration  against 
Popery,  wae  disabled  in  respect  to  himself  (but  not 
of  his  heirs  or  posterity)  from  acquiring  or  holding 
land,  and  until  he  submitted,  his  next  of  kin  who  was  a 
Prot(«tant  might  enjoy  his  lands,  without  being 
obligcnl  to  account  for  the  profits.  The  recusant  was 
also  incapable  of  purchasing,  and  all  trusts  on  his 
behalf  were  void.  In  1714  (Oeorge  I,  c.  13)  a  new 
elemc^nt  was  introducerl,  namely  Constnictive  Re- 
cusancy. The  Oath  of  Allegiance  and  Supremacy 
miglit  be  tendered  to  any  susfx-cted  person  by  any 
two  Juki  ices  of  the  Peace,  and  jjcrsons  refusing  it 
were  to  be  a'ljudged  I'opish  rernisants  convict,  and 
to  forfeit,  and  br;  proffcded  against  accordingly. 
Thus  the  refusal  of  the  (Jath  was  j)laced  on  the  same 
fofjting  as  a  legal  conviction,  and  the  person  so  con- 
victe<l  was  renderwl  liable  to  all  penalt  ifis  under  those 
Btatutes.  At  the  same  time  an  obligation  was  im- 
posed on  Catholics  requiring  them  to  register  their 
names  and  e8tat<;8,  and  to  enroll  their  deeds  and 
wills. 

Thr«e  penal  laws  remained  on  the  statute  book 
unmitigated  till  late  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and 


although  there  was  less  and  less  disposition  to  put 
them  in  force,  there  was  ever  the  danger,  which  upon 
occasion  grew  more  acute.  In  1767  a  priest  named 
Malony  was  tried  at  Croydon  for  his  priesthood,  and 
condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment,  which,  at 
the  end  of  two  or  tlu-ee  years,  was  commuted,  "by 
the  mercy  of  the  Government"  to  banishment.  In 
1768  the  Reverend  James  Webb  was  tried  in  the  Court 
of  King's  Bench  for  saying  Mass,  but  was  acquitted, 
the  Chief  Justice,  Lord  Mansfield,  ruling  that  there 
was  no  evidence  sufficient  to  convict.  In  1769  and 
on  other  occasions,  seemingly  as  late  as  1771,  Dr. 
James  Talbot,  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Challoner,  was 
tried  for  his  life  at  the  Old  Bailej',  on  the  charge  of  his 
priesthood  and  of  saying  Mass,  but  was  acquitted 
on  similar  grounds.  Such  instances  were  not  solitary. 
In  1870,  Air.  Charles  Butler  found  that  one  firm  of 
lawyers  had  defended  more  than  twenty  priests  under 
prosecutions  of  this  nature.  In  1778  a  Catholic 
committee  was  formed  to  promote  the  cause  of  relief 
for  their  co-religionists,  and  though  several  times 
elected  afresh,  continued  to  exist  until  1791,  with  a 
short  interval  after  the  Gordon  Riots.  It  was  always 
uniformly  aristocratic  in  composition,  and  until 
1787  included  no  representation  of  the  hierarchy  and 
then  but  three  co-opted  members.  In  the  same 
year,  1778,  was  passed  the  first  Act  for  Catholic 
Relief  (18  George  III,  c.  60).  By  this,  an  oath  was 
imposed,  which  besides  a  declaration  of  loyalty  to 
the  reigning  sovereign,  contained  an  abjuration  of  the 
Pretender,  and  of  certain  doctrines  attributed  to 
Catholics,  as  that  excommunicated  princes  may 
lawfully  be  murdered,  that  no  faith  should  be  kept 
with  heretics,  and  that  the  pope  has  temporal  as  well 
as  spiritual  jurisdiction  in  this  realm.  Those  taking 
this  oath  were  exempted  from  some  of  the  most 
galling  provisions  of  the  Act  of  William  III  passed  in 
1700.  The  section  as  to  taking  and  prosecuting 
priests  were  repealed,  as  also  the  penalty  of  perpetual 
imprisonment  for  keeping  a  school.  Catholics  were 
also  enabled  to  inlterit  and  purchase  land,  nor  was  a 
Protestant  heir  any  longer  empowered  to  enter 
and  enjoy  the  estate  of  his  Catholic  kinsman.  The 
passing  of  this  act  was  the  occasion  of  the  Gordon 
Riots  (1780)  in  which  the  violence  of  the  mob  was 
especially  directed  against  Lord  Mansfield  who  had 
balked  various  prosecutions  under  the  statutes  now 
repealed. 

In  1791  there  followed  another  Act  (31  George 
III,  c.  32)  far  more  extensive  and  far-reaching.  By 
it  there  was  again  an  oath  to  be  taken,  in  character 
much  like  that  of  1778,  but  including  an  engagement 
to  support  the  Protestant  Succession  under  the  Act 
of  Settlement  (12  and  V.i  Williiini  III).  No  Catholic 
taking  the  oath  was  henceforward  to  be  pros(>cuted 
for  being  a  Papist,  or  for  being  educated  in  the 
Popish  religion,  or  for  hearing  Mass  or  saying  it,  or 
for  being  a  priest  or  deacon,  or  for  entering  into,  or 
belonging  to,  any  ecclesiastical  order  or  commimity 
in  the  Church  of  Rome,  or  for  assisting  at,  or  per- 
forming any  Catholic  rites  or  ceremonies.  Catholics 
were  no  longer  to  be  surruiioned  to  take  the  Oath  of 
Supremacy,  or  to  be  removed  from  London;  the 
legislation  of  George  I,  requiring  them  to  register 
their  estates  and  wills,  was  ab.sohitcly  re])ealed; 
while  the  professions  of  couns(!llor  and  barrister  at 
law,  attorney,  solicitor,  and  notary  were  ojiened  to 
them.  It  was  however  providecl  that  all  their  as- 
semblies for  religious  worship  should  be  certified  at 
Quarter  Sessions;  that  no  person  should  officiate  at 
such  assembly  until  his  nanu!  had  been  recorded  by 
the  Clerk  of  the  Peace;:  that  no  such  place  of  as- 
sembly should  l)e  locked  or  barred  during  the  meeting; 
and  that  the  building  in  which  it  was  held,  should  not 
have  a  steeple  or  bell.  The  Relief  Act  of  1791  un- 
doubtedly marked  a  great  step  in  the  removal  of 
Catholic  grievances,  but  the  English  statesmen  felt, 


ROMAN 


125 


ROMAN 


along  with  the  Catholic  body,  that  much  more  was 
required.  Pitt  and  his  rival,  Fox,  were  alike  pledged 
to  a  full  measure  of  Catholic  Emancipation,  but  they 
were  both  thwarted  by  the  obstinacy  of  King  George 
III,  who  insisted  that  to  agree  to  any  such  measure 
would  be  a  violation  of  his  coronation  oath.  There 
were  also  at  this  period  considerable  dissensions 
within  the  Catholic  ranks.  These  concerned  first  the 
question  of  Veto  on  the  appointment  of  bishops  in 
Ireland,  which  it  was  projjosed  to  confer  on  the 
English  Government,  and  belongs  chiefly  to  the  his- 
tory of  Emancipation  in  that  country.  There  was 
another  cause  of  dissension,  more  properly  English, 
which  was  connected  with  the  adjuration  of  the  sup- 
posed Catholic  doctrines  contained  in  the  oath  im- 
posed upon  those  who  wished  to  participate  in  the 
benefits  conferred  by  the  Act  of  1791,  as  previously 
by  that  of  1778.  The  lay  members  of  the  Catholic 
committee  who  had  framed  this  disclaimer  were 
accused  by  the  vicars  Apostolic,  who  then  adminis- 
tered the  Church  in  England,  of  tampering  with 
matters  of  ecclesiastical  discipline;  and  although  the 
bishops  had  their  way  in  the  matter  of  the  oath,  tlie 
feud  survived,  and  was  proclaimed  to  the  world  by 
the  formation  in  1792  of  the  Cisalpine  Club  (q.  v.), 
the  members  whereof  were  pledged  "to  resist  any 
ecclesiastical  interference  which  may  militate  against 
the  freedom  of  English  Catholics". 

Such  internal  dissension,  no  doubt,  did  much  to 
retard  the  course  of  Emancipation.  Its  final  triumph 
was  due  more  than  aught  else  to  the  pressure  which 
the  Catholic  body  in  Ireland  was  able  to  put  upon  the 
Government,  for  it  was  acknowledged  by  the  Duke 
of  Wellington  and  Sir  Robert  Peel  themselves,  who 
carried  the  Hill,  that  their  action  was  due  to  the 
necessity  of  pacifying  Ireland,  which  had  found  so 
powerful  a  leader  in  Daniel  O'Connell  (q.  v.),  and 
of  thus  averting  the  danger  of  a  civil  war.  It  would 
take  too  nmch  space  to  go  into  details  regarding  the 
provisions  of  the  Act  of  Emancipation.  Its  general 
effect  was  to  ojjen  i)ublic  life  to  Catholics  taking  the 
prescribed  oath,  to  enable  them  to  sit  in  Parliament, 
to  vote  at  elections  (as  previously  they  could  not  in 
England  or  Scotland,  though  they  could  in  Ireland) 
to  fill  all  offices  of  State  with  a  few  exceptions,  viz.: 
A  CathoUc  cannot  succeed  to  the  throne,  and  a 
sovereign  becoming  a  Catholic  or  marr>ang  one, 
thereby  forfeits  the  crown,  and  a  Catholic  cannot 
hold  the  office  of  Regent.  It  is  uncertain  whether 
the  English  Chancellorship  and  the  Irish  Vice- 
royalty  are  barred  to  Catholics  or  not.  Like  the 
previous  Relief  Acts,  that  of  1829  still  retained  the 
"Roman  CathoHc  Oath",  to  be  imposed  upon  those 
who  desire  to  enjoy  its  benefits.  It  likewise  added 
something  in  the  way  of  penal  legislation  by  a  clause 
prohibiting  religious  orders  of  men  to  receive  new 
members,  and  subjecting  those  who  should  disobey 
to  banishment  as  mis(lemeanants.  This  prohibi- 
tion is  still  upon  the  statute  book,  and  within  the 
present  century  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  give 
it  effect.  Finally,  in  1871  (M  and  35  Victoria,  c. 
48)  the  invidious  Roman  Catholic  Oath  was  abol- 
ished, as  also  the  still  more  objectionable  declaration 
against  Transubstantiation. 

Butler,  Historical  Account  of  the  Laws  Respecting  the  Roman 
Catholics,  and  of  the  Laws  passed  for  their  Relief,  etc.  (London, 
1795) ;  Idem,  Historical  memoirs  of  the  English,  Irish  and  Scottish 
Catholics  from  the  Reformation  to  the  present  time,  4  volumes  (1812- 
1821);  Amherst,  History  of  Catholic  Emancipation  (London, 
1886);  Lilly  and  Walter,  A  Manual  of  the  Law  especially 
affecting  Catholics  (London,  1893);  BlOtzer,  Die  Katholikcn 
emanzipation  in  Grosabritannien  u.  Irland  (Freiburg,  1905); 
Dain,  Catholic  Emancipation  in  Cambridge  Modern  History,  X, 
c.  19. 

John  Gerard. 

In  Ireland. — When  Elizabeth  became  Queen  of 
England,  her  Irish  deputy  was  ordered  "to  set  up 
the  worship  of  God  in  Ireland  as  it  is  in  England". 


The  Irish  Parliament  soon  enacted  that  all  candidates 
for  office  should  take  the  Oath  of  Supremacy;  and  by 
the  Act  of  Uniformity  the  Protestant  liturgy  was 
prescribed  in  all  churches.  For  a  time,  however,  these 
Acts  were  but  mildly  enforced.  But  when  the  pope 
excommunicated  the  queen,  and  the  Spanish  king 
made  war  on  her,  and  both,  in  attempting  to  dethrone 
her,  found  that  the  Irish  Catholics  were  ready  to  be 
their  instruments  and  allies,  the  latter,  regarded  as 
rebels  and  traitors  by  the  English  sovereign  and  her 
ministers,  were  persecuted  and  hunted  down.  Their 
chiefs  were  outlawed,  their  churches  laid  in  ruins, 
their  clergy  driven  to  exile  or  death.  The  expecta- 
tions of  a  harassed  people  and  an  outlawed  creed — 
that  better  times  had  come  with  the  advent  of  the 
Stuarts — were  falsified  by  the  repeated  proclamations 
against  priests,  by  the  Plantation  of  Ulster,  and, 
later,  by  the  attempted  confiscations  of  Strafford. 
Charles  II  had  special  reasons  for  being  grateful  to 
large  masses  of  Irish  Catholics,  who  fought  his 
battles  at  home  and  supported  him  abroad;  yet  at 
the  Restoration  he  left  them  to  their  fate,  and  con- 
firmed the  gigantic  scheme  of  confiscation  which  had 
been  carried  out  by  Cromwell.  He  was  not  indeed 
much  attached  to  any  religion,  and  disliked  religious 
persecution;  and  more  than  once  during  his  reign 
he  tried  to  interpose  between  the  Catholics  and  the 
Acts  of  Uniformity  and  Supremacy.  But  the  mili- 
tant and  aggressive  Protestantism  of  the  English 
Parliament  would  have  no  Catholic  in  any  office, 
civil  or  military,  and  none  in  the  corporations;  and 
Charles  was  too  politic  to  strain  unduly  the  allegiance 
of  these  intolerant  legislators.  Had  James  II  been 
e(iually  ])olitic  he  would  have  gradually  allayed  Prot- 
estant i)n'ju(iice;  and  i)erliai)s  there  would  have  been 
no  long-drawn-out  penal  code,  and  no  wearisome 
struggle  for  emancijiation.  But  he  insisted  on 
Catholic  predominance,  and  soon  picked  a  quarrel 
with  his  Protestant  subjects  which  resulted  in  the 
lo.ss  of  his  crown. 

The  war  which  followed  in  Ireland  was  terminated 
by  the  Treaty  of  Limerick,  and  had  its  terms  been 
kept,  the  position  of  the  Catholics  would  have  been 
at  least  tolerable.  Granted  such  privileges  as  they 
had  enjoyed  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II,  with  an  Oath 
of  Allegiance  substituted  for  the  Oath  of  Supremacy, 
and  with  a  promise  of  a  further  relaxation  of  the 
penal  enactments  in  force,  they  could  practice  their 
religion  without  hindrance,  sit  in  Parliament  and  vote 
for  its  members,  engage  in  trade  and  in  the  learned 
professions,  and  fill  all  civil  and  military  offices;  and 
they  were  protected  in  the  possession  of  t  he  lands  they 
held.  William  III,  whose  name  has  been  made  a 
rallying-cry  for  bigotry,  was  in  favour  of  these,  and 
even  more  generous  terms.  But  the  forces  of  in- 
tolerance on  both  sides  of  the  Channel  were  too 
strong.  A  small  minority  of  Protestants  in  Ireland, 
pampered  by  privileges  and  possessing  confiscated 
lands,  thought  that  their  only  chance  of  security 
was  to  trample  upon  the  Catholic  majority  surround- 
ing them.  Su.stained  and  encouraged  by  England, 
in  defiance  of  the  solemn  obligations  of  public  faith, 
they  tore  the  Treaty  of  Limerick  into  tatters,  re- 
fused to  ratify  its  concessions,  and  elaborated  a  penal 
code  which  every  fair-minded  Englishman  now 
blushes  to  recall.  For  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
century  the  work  of  outlawry  and  proscription  was 
continued  by  an  exclusively  Protestant  Parliament 
at  Dublin;  and  when  the  work  was  completed  the 
position  of  the  vast  majority  of  Iri.shmen  was  that  of 
slaves.  An  Irish  Judge  declared  in  1760  that  the  law 
did  not  recognize  the  existence  of  an  Irish  Catholic, 
and,  assuredly  the  penal  code  had  placed  him  ef- 
fectually beyond  its  pale.  It  branded  Catholics  with 
proscription  and  inferiority,  struck  at  every  form  of 
Catholic  a(;tivity,  and  checked  every  symptom  of 
CathoUc  enterprise.     It  excluded  them  from  Parlia- 


ROMAN 


126 


ROMAN 


ment,  from  the  corporations,  from  the  learned  pro- 
fessions, from  civil  and  military  offices,  from  being  ex- 
ecutors, or  administrators,  or  guardians  of  property, 
from  holding  land  under  lease,  or  from  owning  a  horse 
worth  £5.  They  were  deprived  of  arms  and  of  the 
franchise,  denied  education  at  home  and  punished 
if  they  sought  it  abroad,  forbidden  to  observe  Catho- 
lic Holy  Days,  to  make  pilgrimages,  or  to  continue  to 
use  the  old  "monasteries  as  the  burial  places  of  their 
dead.  For  the  clergy  there  was  no  mercy,  nothing 
but  prison,  exile,  or  death. 

After  the  Cathohcs  had  vainly  protested  against 
the  Bill  "To  Prevent  the  Further  Growth  of  Popery" 
of  1704.  their  protests  ceased.  The  more  energetic 
of  them  went  abroad;  those  at  home  ware  torpid 
and  inert,  the  peasantry  steeped  in  poverty  and  igno- 
rance, the  clergy  and  gentry  sunk  in  servitude,  and 
all  of  them  afraid  even  to  complain  of  their  condition 
lest  the  anger  of  their  t>Tants  might  be  provoked.  At 
last  the  tide  turned.  'The  Irish  Parliament  became 
less  bigoted,  and  after  1750  or  thereabouts  no  more 
penal  laws  were  passed.  Indeed  the  work  of  crush- 
ing and  debasing  the  Catholics  had  been  so  well 
done  that  they  were  paupers  and  slaves,  and  to  crush 
them  still  further  would  give  the  Protestants  no  ad- 
ditional security.  Some  Catholics  had  made  money 
in  trade  and  lent  it  to  needy  Protestant  landlords, 
and  these  and  their  friends  in  Parliament  would 
naturally  favour  toleration;  the  fact  that  the  Catho- 
lics had"  so  long  been  peaceable,  and  had  given  no 
support  to  the  Pretenders  showed  that  they  no  longer 
clung  to  the  Stuarts;  and  this  greatly  strengthened 
their  position  both  in  England  and  Ireland.  The 
growth  of  a  strong  sentiment  of  nationality  among 
Irish  Protestants  also  helped  their  cause.  Claiming 
powers  which  it  did  not  pos.sess,  the  British  Parlia- 
ment asserted  and  exercised  the  right  to  legislate  for 
Ireland,  treated  the  Irish  Parliament  with  disdain, 
and  in  the  interests  of  Enghsh  manufacturers  im- 

e>sed  ruinous  commercial  restrictions  on  Irish  trade, 
issatisfied  with  their  English  friends,  the  Irish 
Protestants  turned  to  their  own  Catholic  country- 
men, and  the  more  Catholics  and  Protestants  came 
together,  the  better  for  the  cause  of  religious  tolera- 
tion. This  turn  of  affairs  in.spired  the  Catholics 
with  hope  and  courage,  and  three  of  them,  Dr. 
Curn,',  a  Dublin  physician,  Mr.  Wyse  of  Waterford, 
and  Mr.  Charles  O'Connor,  formed,  in  17.59.  a  Catho- 
lic As.sociation,  which  was  to  meet  at  Dublin,  cor- 
respond with  representative  Catholics  in  the  countrj', 
and  watch  over  Catholic  interests.  But  such  was 
the  spiritless  condition  of  the  Catholics  that  the 
gentn."  and  clerg>'  held  aloof,  and  the  new  a.ssociation 
was  chiefly  manned  by  Dublin  merchants.  Under 
its  auspices  a  loyal  addre.ss  was  presented  to  the 
viceroy,  and  another  to  George  III  on  his  accession 
to  the  throne,  and  the  Catholics  rejoiced  that  both 
addresses  were  grafdously  received. 

These  friendlier  dispositions,  however,  were  slow  to 
develop  into  legi.slative  enactments,  and  not  until 
1771  did  the  first  instalment  of  emancipation  come. 
By  the  Act  of  that  year  Catholics  were  allowed  to 
reclaim  and  hold  imder  lease  for  sixty-one  years  fifty 
acrf«  of  bog,  but  it  should  not  be  within  a  mile  of  any 
city  or  market  town.  Three  years  later  an  oath  of 
allegiance  was  Hubstituted  for  that  of  supremacy. 
A  further  concession  was  granted  in  1778  when 
Cat  holies  were  allowwl  to  hoUl  leases  of  lanfl  for  999 
years,  and  might  inherit  land  in  the  same  way  as 
Protf;stantH,  the  jireamble  of  the  Ar-t  deelaring  that 
the  law  was  naswrl  to  reward  Catholics  for  their 
long-continued  y>e:tceable  behaviour,  anrl  for  the 
purpfjse  of  allowing  thr-m  to  enjoy  "the  blessings  of 
our  frctf;  constitution ".  Distnist  of  them,  however, 
continued,  and  thf>ugh  they  subscribed  money  to 
equip  the  volunteers,  they  would  not  be  admitted 
within  the  rauka.     Nor  was  the  Irish  Parliament  of 


1782  wnlhng  to  do  more  than  to  repeal  the  law  com- 
pelling bishops  to  quit  the  kingdom,  and  the  law 
bmding  those  who  had  assisted  at  Mass  to  give  the 
celebrant's  name.  Further,  Catholics  were  no  longer 
prohibited  from  owning  a  horse  worth  £5,  and 
Catholic  schools  might  be  opened  with  the  consent 
of  the  Protestant  bisnop  of  the  diocese.  These  small 
concessions  were  not  supplemented  by  others  for 
ten  years. 

Dissensions  and  jealousies  were  largely  responsible 
for  this  slow  progress.  Between  the  Catholic  landed 
gentry  and  the  Catholic  merchants  there  was  little 
in  common  except  their  religion.  The  timidity  and 
submission  to  authority  of  the  former,  and  the  bolder 
and  freer  spirit  of  the  latter  were  difficult  to  blend, 
and  in  1763  the  Catholic  Association  fell  to  pieces. 
After  ten  years  of  inactivitj^  a  Catholic  committee 
was  formed  partly  out  of  the  debris  of  the  defunct 
association.  Its  chairman  was  the  Earl  of  Kenmare, 
and  again  it  was  sought  to  have  all  Catholics  act  to- 
gether. But  Kenmare  was  not  the  man  to  reconcile 
divergent  views  and  methods,  to  form  a  homogeneous 
party  out  of  discordant  elements,  and  then  with  such 
a  part}'  to  adopt  a  vigorous  policy.  His  manner  was 
cold,  his  tone  one  of  patronage  and  superiority;  he 
disliked  agitation  as  savouring  of  vulgarity  and  sedi- 
tion, and  preferred  to  seek  redress  by  submissive 
petitions,  slavish  protestations  of  loyalty,  and  secret 
intrigue;  and  when  an  overwhelming  majority  of  the 
Catholic  Committee  favoured  manlier  measures,  he 
and  si.\ty-eight  others  who  sympathized  with  him 
seceded  from  its  ranks.  This  was  in  1791.  The 
committee  then  chose  for  its  leader  John  Keogh,  a 
Dublin  merchant  of  great  ability,  strong,  manly, 
fearless,  prudent  btit  firm,  a  man  who  favoured 
bolder  measures  and  a  decisive  tone.  Instead  of 
begging  for  small  concessions  he  demanded  the  re- 
peal of  the  whole  penal  code,  a  demand  considered 
so  extravagant  that  it  had  few  friends  in  Parliament. 
When  that  assemblj^  was  made  independent  it  had 
not  been  reformed;  and  Grattan  had  foolishly  allowed 
the  volunteers  to  lay  aside  their  swords  before  the 
battle  of  reform  had  been  won. 

Unrepresentative  and  corrupt.  Parliament  con- 
tinued to  be  dominated  by  pensioners  and  placemen, 
and  under  the  influence  of  Fitzgibbon  and  Foster, 
two  Irishmen  and  two  bigots,  it  refused  to  advance 
further  on  the  path  of  concession.  Even  Charlemont 
and  Flood  would  not  join  emancipation  with  parlia- 
mentary reform,  and  while  willing  to  safeguard 
Catholic  liberty  and  property  would  give  Catholics 
no  political  power.  But  this  attitude  of  intolerance 
and  exclusion  could  not  be  indefinitely  maintained. 
The  French  Revolution  was  in  progress,  and  a  young 
and  powerful  republic  had  arisen  |ireaching  the  rights 
of  man,  the  iniquity  of  cla.ss  dii^tinctions  and  re- 
ligious persecution,  and  proclaiming  its  readiness  to 
aid  all  nations  who  were  oppressed  and  desired  to  be 
free.  The.se  attractive  doctrines  rapidly  seized  on 
men's  minds,  and  Ireland  did  not  escape  the  con- 
tagion. The  Ulster  Presbyterians  celebrated  with  en- 
thu.siasm  the  fall  of  the  Bastille,  and  in  1791  founded 
the  Society  of  United  Irishmen,  having  as  the  two 
chief  planks  in  its  prf)gramme  Parliamentary  reform 
and  Catholic  EmiUi(ii):Ui<)n.  The  Catholics  and 
Di.ssenters,  so  long  dividi'd  by  religious  antagonism, 
were  corning  togctlicr,  and  if  they  made  a  tinited  de- 
mand for  ('({\i:i\  rights  for  all  Irislmien,  witliout  dis- 
tinction of  creed,  tlie  jiscendency  of  the  ]';i)iscopalian 
Protestants,  wlio  were  but  a  tenth  of  the  population, 
must  neee.ssarily  disappear.  Yet  the  selfish  and  cor- 
rupt junta  wlio"  ruled  the  Parliament,  and  ruled  Ire- 
land, would  not  yield  an  inch  f>f  ground,  and  only 
under  the  strongest  pressure  from  lOngland  was  an 
act  passed  in  1792  admitting  Catholics  to  the  Bar, 
legalizing  marriages  between  Catholics  and  Protes- 
tants, and  allowing  Catholic  schools  to  be  set  up 


ROMAN 


127 


ROMAN 


without  the  necessity  of  obtaining  the  permission 
of  a  Protestant  bishop. 

Such  grudging  concessions  irritated  rather  than 
appeased  in  the  existing  temper  of  the  Catholic  body. 
To  consider  their  position  and  take  measures  for  the 
future  the  Catholic  Committee  had  delegates  ap- 
pointed by  the  different  parishes  in  Ireland,  and  in 
December,  1792,  a  Catholic  convention  commenced 
its  sittings  in  Dublin.  By  the  Protestant  bigots  it 
was  derisively  called  the  Back  Lane  Parliament,  and 
every  effort  was  made  to  discredit  its  proceedings  and 
identify  it  with  sedition.  Fitzgibbon  excited  the 
fears  of  the  Protestant  landlords  by  declaring  that 
the  repeal  of  the  penal  code  would  involve  the  repeal 
of  the  Act  of  Settlement,  and  invalidate  the  titles  by 
which  they  held  their  lands.  The  Catholic  con- 
vention, however,  went  on  unheeding,  and  turning 
with  contempt  from  the  Dublin  Parliament  sent  dele- 
gates with  a  petition  to  London.  The  relations  be- 
tween Catholics  and  Dissenters  were  then  so  friendly 
that  Keogh  became  a  United  Irishman,  and  a  Prot- 
estant barrister  named  Theobald  Wolfe  Tone,  the 
ablest  of  the  United  Irishmen,  became  secretary  to 
the  Catholic  Committee.  And  when  the  Catholic 
delegates  on  their  way  to  London  passed  through 
Belfast,  their  carriage  was  drawn  through  the  streets 
by  Presbyterians  amid  thunders  of  applause.  Had 
the  Prime  Minister,  Pitt,  advised  the  king  to  receive 
the  Catholics  coldly,  he  would  certainly  have  earned 
the  goodwill  of  a  small  clique  in  Ireland,  to  whom 
their  own  interests  were  everything  and  the  interests 
of  England  little.  But  he  would  have  intensified 
disaffection  among  nine-tenths  of  the  Irish  people, 
and  this  at  a  time  when  the  French  had  beheaded 
their  king,  hurled  back  the  Prussian  attack  at  Valmy, 
conquered  Belgium,  and,  maddened  with  enthusiasm 
for  liberty  and  with  hatred  of  monarchy,  were  about 
to  declare  war  on  England.  The  king  graciously  re- 
ceived the  Catholics,  and  Pitt  and  Dundus,  tlic  Ilome 
Secretary,  warned  the  Irish  junta  that  the  time  for 
concessions  had  come,  and  that  if  rebellion  broke  out 
in  Ireland,  Protestant  ascendency  would  not  be  sup- 
ported by  British  arms.  And  then  these  Protestants, 
whom  Fitzgibbon  anfl  the  viceroy  j^ainted  as  ready 
to  die  rather  than  yield  (juietly,  gave  way;  and  in 
1793  a  bill  was  pa.ssed  giving  the  Catholics  the  par- 
liamentary and  municipal  franchise,  and  admitting 
them  to  the  university  and  to  office.  They  were 
still  excluded  from  Parliament  and  from  the  higher 
offices,  and  from  being  king's  counsel,  but  in  all  other 
respects  they  were  placed  on  a  level  with  Protestants. 
In  the  Commons  Foster  spoke  and  voted  against 
the  Bill.  In  the  Lords,  though  not  opposing  it, 
Fitzgibbon  spoiled  the  effect  of  the  concession  by  a 
bitter  speech,  and  by  having  an  Act  passed  declaring 
the  Catholic  convention  illegal,  ancl  prohibiting  all 
such  conventions,  Catholic  or  otherwise,  in  the  future. 
Relief  from  so  many  disabilities  left  the  Catholics 
almost  free.  Few  of  them  were  affected  by  exclusion 
from  the  higher  offices,  fewer  still  by  exclusion  from 
the  inner  Bar;  and  Liberal  Protestants  would  always 
be  found  ready  to  voice  Catholic  interests  in  Parlia- 
ment if  they  owed  their  seats  to  Catholic  votes.  Be- 
sides, in  the  better  temper  of  the  times,  it  was  certain 
that  these  last  relics  of  the  penal  code  would  soon 
disappear.  Meantime  what  was  needed  was  a  sym- 
pathetic and  impartial  administration  of  the  law. 
But  with  Fitzgibbon  the  guiding  spirit  of  Irish  govern- 
ment this  was  impo.ssible.  The  grandson  of  a  Cath- 
olic pea.sant,  he  hated  Catholics  and  seized  upon 
every  occasion  to  cover  them  and  their  religion  with 
insults.  Autocratic  and  overbearing,  he  commanded 
rather  than  persuaded,  and  since  he  became  attorney- 
general  in  1783,  his  influence  in  Irish  government  was 
immense.  His  action  on  the  regency  question  in  1789 
procured  him  the  special  favour  of  the  king  and  of 
Pitt,  and  he  became  a  peer  and  Lord  Chancellor.     It 


was  one  of  the  anomalies  of  the  Irish  constitution  that 
a  change  of  measures  did  not  involve  a  change  of 
men,  and  hence  the  viceroy  and  the  chief  secretary, 
who  had  opposed  all  concessions  to  Catholics,  were 
retained  in  office,  and  Fitzgibbon  was  still  left  as  if 
to  prevent  further  concessions  and  to  nullify  what 
had  been  done. 

For  a  brief  period,  however,  it  seemed  as  if  men  as 
well  as  measures  were  to  be  changed.  At  the  end  of 
1794  a  section  of  the  English  Whigs  joined  Pitt's 
administration.  The  Duke  of  Portland  became  Home 
Secretary,  with  Irish  affairs  in  his  department,  and 
Earl  Fitzwilliam  became  Lord  Lieutenant.  He  came 
to  Ireland  early  in  1795.  His  sympathy  with  the 
Catholics  was  well  known;  he  was  the  friend  of  Grat- 
tan  and  the  Ponsonbys,  the  champions  of  Emancipa- 
tion, and  in  coming  to  Ireland  he  believed  he  had  the 
full  sanction  of  Pitt  to  popularize  Irish  Government 
and  finally  settle  the  Catholic  question.  At  once  he 
dismissed  Cooke,  the  Under  Secretary,  a  determined 
foe  of  concession  and  reform,  and  also  John  Beresford 
who,  with  his  relatives  filled  so  many  offices  that  he 
was  called  the  "King"  of  Ireland.  Fitzgibbon  and 
Foster  he  seldom  consulted.  Further,  when  Grattan 
at  the  opening  of  Parliament  introduced  an  Eman- 
cipation Bill,  Fitzwilliam  determined  to  support  it. 
Of  all  that  he  ditl  or  intended  to  do  he  informed  the 
English  Ministry,  and  got  no  word  of  i)r()test  in  reply, 
and  tlien  when  the  hopes  of  the  Catholics  ran  high, 
Pitt  turned  back  and  Fitzwilliam  was  recalled.  Why 
he  was  thus  repudiated,  after  being  allowed  to  go  so 
far,  has  never  been  satisfactorily  explahied.  It  may 
be  because  Pitt  changed  his  mind,  and  meditating  a 
union  wished  to  leave  the  Catholic  question  open. 
It  may  be  because  of  the  dismissal  of  Beresford,  who 
had  powerful  friends.  It  may  be  that  Fitzwilliam, 
misunderstanding  Pitt,  went  further  than  he  wished 
him  to  go;  and  it  seems  evident  that  he  managed  the 
question  badly  and  irritated  interests  he  ought  to 
have  appeased.  Lastly,  it  is  certain  that  Fitzgibbon 
poisoned  the  king's  mind  by  pointing  out  that  to  ad- 
mit Catholics  to  Parliament  would  be  to  violate  hia 
coronation  oath. 

However  the  change  be  explained,  it  was  certainly 
complete.  The  new  viceroy  was  instructed  to  con- 
ciliate the  Catholic  clergy  by  establishing  a  seminary 
for  the  education  of  Irish  priests,  and  he  established 
Maynooth  College.  But  all  further  concessions  to 
Catholics  and  every  attempt  to  reform  Parliament 
he  was  firmly  to  oppose.  He  was  to  encourage  the 
enemies  of  the  people  and  frown  upon  their  friends, 
and  he  was  to  rekindle  the  dying  fires  of  sectarian 
hate.  And  all  this  he  did.  Beresford  and  Cooke 
were  restored  to  office,  Foster  favoured  more  than 
ever,  Fitzgibbon  made  Earl  of  Clare,  Grattan  and 
Ponsonby  regarded  with  suspicion,  and  the  corrupt 
majority  in  Parliament  petted  and  caressed.  The 
religious  factions  of  the  "Defenders"  and  the  "Peep 
o'  Day  Boys"  in  Ulster  became  embittered  with  a 
change  of  names.  The  Defenders  became  United 
Irishmen,  and  these,  despairing  of  Parliament,  became 
republicans  and  revolutionists,  and  after  Fitzwilliam's 
recall  were  largely  recruited  by  Catholics.  Their 
opponents  became  identified  with  the  Orange  society 
recently  formed  in  Ulster,  with  William  of  Orange  as 
its  patron  saint,  and  intolerance  of  Catholicism  as  the 
chief  article  in  its  creed.  These  rival  societies  spread 
to  the  other  provinces,  and  while  every  outrage  done 
by  Catholics  was  punished  by  Government,  those 
done  by  Orangemen  were  condoned.  In  rapid  succes- 
sion Parliament  passed  an  Arms  Act,  an  Insurrection 
Act,  an  Indemnity  Act,  and  a  suspension  of  the 
Habeas  Corpus  Act,  and  these  placed  the  Catholics 
beyond  the  protection  of  law.  An  undisciplined 
soldiery  recruited  from  the  Orangemen  were  let  loose 
among  them;  destruction  of  Catholic  property,  free 
quarters,  flogging,  picketing,  half-hanging,  outrages 


ROMAN 


128 


ROMAN 


on  women  followed,  until  at  last  Catholic  patience 
was  exhausted.  Grattan  and  his  friends,  vainly  pro- 
testing, withdrew  from  Parliament,  and  Clare  and 
Foster  had  then  a  free  hand.  They  were  joined  by 
Viscount  Castlereagh,  and  under  their  management 
the  rebellion  of  1798  broke  out  with  all  its  attendant 
horrors. 

When  it  was  suppressed  Pitt's  policy  of  a  legislative 
union  gradually  unfolded  itself,  and  Foster  and  Clare, 
who  had  so  long  acted  together,  had  reached  the  part- 
ing of  the  ways.  The  latter,  with  Castlereagh,  was 
ready  to  go  oii  and  support  the  proposed  union;  but 
Foster  drew  back,  and  in  the  union  debates  his  voice 
and  influence  were  the  most  potent  on  the  opposition 
side.  His  defection  was  considered  a  serious  blow  by 
Pitt,  who  vainly  offered  him  offices  and  honours. 
Others  followed  the  leati  of  Foster,  incorruptible 
amidst  corruption;  Grattan  and  his  friends  returned 
to  Parliament ;  and  the  opposition  became  so  formid- 
able that  Castlereagh  was  defeated  in  1799,  and  had 
to  postpone  the  question  of  a  union  to  the  following 
year.  During  this  interval,  with  the  aid  of  Cornwallis 
who  succeeded  Camden  as  viceroy  in  1798,  he  left 
nothing  undone  to  ensure  success,  and  threats  and 
terrors,  bribery  and  corruption  were  freely  employed. 
Cornwallis  was  strongly  in  favour  of  emancipation  as 
part  of  the  union  arrangement,  and  Castlereagh  was 
not  averse;  and  Pitt  would  probably  have  agreed  with 
them  had  not  Clare  visited  him  in  England  and 
p)oisoned  his  mind.  That  bitter  anti-Catholic  boasted 
of  his  success;  and  when  Pitt  in  1799  brought  forward 
his  union  resolutions  in  the  British  Parliament,  he 
would  only  promise  that  at  some  future  time  some- 
thing might  be  done  for  the  Catholics,  dependent, 
however  on  their  good  conduct,  and  on  the  temper  of 
the  times. 

But  something  more  than  this  was  required.  The 
anti-Unionists  were  making  overtures  to  the  Catholics, 
knowing  that  the  county  members  elected  by  Catholic 
votes  could  be  decisively  influenced  by  Catholic 
voters.  In  these  circumstances  Castlereagh  was 
authorized  to  assure  the  leading  Irish  Catholics  that 
Pitt  and  his  colleagues  only  waited  for  a  favourable 
opportunity  to  bring  forward  emancipation,  but 
that  this  should  remain  a  secret,  lest  Protestant 
prejudice  be  excited  and  Protestant  support  lost. 
These  assurances  obtained  Catholic  support  for  the 
union.  Not  all  of  the  Catholics,  however,  favoured  it, 
and  many  of  them  opposed  it  to  the  last.  Many  more 
would  have  been  on  the  same  side  had  they  not  been 
repelle<i  by  the  bigotrj'  of  Foster,  who  stubbornly  re- 
fused to  advocate  emancipation,  and  in  doing  so  failed 
to  make  the  fight  against  the  union  a  national  struggle. 
As  for  the  uneducated  Catholics,  they  did  not  under- 
stand political  questions,  and  viewed  the  union  con- 
test with  indifference.  The  gentry  had  no  sympathy 
with  a  Parliament  from  which  they  were  excluded,  nor 
the  clerg>'  for  one  which  encouraged  the  atrocities  of 
the  recent  rebellion.  Gratitude  for  the  establishment 
of  Mayncxjth  College  inclined  some  of  the  bishops  to 
support  the  Government;  and  Pitt's  assurances  that 
concessions  would  come  in  the  United  Parliament  in- 
clined them  still  more.  From  the  first,  indeed.  Dr. 
Moylan,  Bishop  of  Cork,  was  a  Unioni.st,  as  was  Dr. 
Troy,  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  In  1798  the  latter 
favours!  a  union  provided  there  was  no  clause  against 
future  emancipation,  and,  early  in  the  following  year, 
he  induced  nine  of  his  brcjther  bishojjs  to  conc(,'de  to 
the  Government  a  veto  on  episcopal  apiKjinlments  in 
return  for  a  provision  for  the  clergy.  The;  hc-nt  of  liis 
mind  was  to  support  authority,  even  when  authority 
and  tyranny  were  identified,  and  through  the  terrible 
weeks  of  the  rebellion  his  friendly  relations  with  Dub- 
lin Castle  were  unbroken.  lie  was  foremost  in  every 
negofiatif)n  bftween  the  rjovernment  and  the  Catli- 
olicH,  and  he  and  wjine  of  his  colleagues  went  so  far  in 
advocating  the  union,  that  Grattan  angrily  described 


them  as  a  "band  of  prostituted  men  engaged  in  the 
service  of  Government".  This  language  is  unduly 
severe,  for  they  were  clearly  not  actuated  by  merce- 
nary motives;  but  they  certainly  advanced  the  cause 
of  the  union. 

Remembering  this,  and  the  assurances  given  by 
Castlereagh,  they  looked  for  an  early  measure  of 
emancipation,  and  when  in  1801  the  United  Parlia- 
ment first  opened  its  doors,  their  hopes  ran  high. 
The  omission  of  all  reference  to  emancipation  in  the 
King's  Speech  disappointed  them;  but  when  Pitt 
resigned  and  was  succeeded  by  Addington,  an  aggres- 
sive anti-Catholic,  they  saw  that  they  had  been 
shamefully  betrayed.  In  Parliament  Pitt  explained 
that  he  and  his  colleagues  wished  to  supplement  the 
Act  of  Union  by  concessions  to  the  Catholics,  and 
that,  having  encountered  insurmountable  obstacles, 
they  resigned,  feeling  that  they  could  no  longer  hold 
office  consistently  with  their  duty  and  their  honour. 
Cornwallis,  on  his  own  behalf  and  on  behalf  of  the 
retiring  ministers,  assured  the  Irish  Catholic  leaders, 
and  in  language  which  was  free  from  every  shade  of 
ambiguity,  that  the  blame  rested  with  George  III, 
whose  stubborn  bigotry  nothing  could  overcome. 
He  promised  that  Pitt  would  do  everything  to  estab- 
lish the  Catholic  cause  in  public  favour,  and  would 
never  again  take  office  unless  emancipation  were  con- 
ceded; and  he  advised  the  Catholics  to  be  patient  and 
loyal,  knowing  that  with  Pitt  working  on  their  behalf 
the  triumph  of  their  cause  was  near.  Cornwallis 
noted  with  satisfaction  that  this  advice  was  well  re- 
ceived by  Dr.  Troy  and  his  friends.  But  those  who 
knew  Pitt  better  had  no  faith  in  his  sincerity,  and 
their  estimate  of  him  was  proved  to  be  correct,  when 
he  again  became  Prime  Minister  in  1804,  no  longer  the 
friend  of  the  Catholics  but  their  opponent. 

The  fact  was  that  he  had  played  them  false  through- 
out. He  knew  that  the  king  was  violently  opposed 
to  them;  that  he  had  assented  to  the  Union  in  the 
hope  that  it  would  "shut  the  door  to  any  further 
measures  with  respect  to  the  Roman  Catholics"; 
that  he  believed  that  to  assent  to  such  measures  would 
be  a  violation  of  his  coronation  oath.  Had  Pitt  been 
sincere  he  would  have  endeavoured  to  change  the 
king's  views,  and  failing  to  persuade  he  would  have 
resigned  office,  and  opposed  his  successor.  And  if  he 
had  acted  thus  the  king  must  have  yielded,  for  no 
government  to  which  the  great  minister  was  opposed 
could  have  lived.  Pitt's  real  reason  for  resigning  in 
1801  was,  that  the  nation  wanted  peace,  and  he  was 
too  proud  to  make  terms  with  Nai)()lc()n.  He  sup- 
ported Addington's  measures;  nor  did  he  lift  a  finger 
on  behalf  of  the  Catholics;  and  when  the  Treat}'  of 
Amiens  was  })r()kcn  and  the  great  struggle  with  France 
was  being  renewed,  he  hruslied  .Kddiiigton  asuW  with 
disdain.  In  ISOl  t  lie  king  had  one  of  his  fits  of  insanity, 
and  when  he  recovered  comijlained  that  Pitt's  agita- 
tion of  the  Catholic  question  was  the  chief  cause  of 
his  illness;  in  consequence  of  which,  when  Pitt  returned 
to  power,  in  1804,  he  bound  himself  never  again  to 
agitate  the  question  during  the  lifetime  of  the  king. 

In  the  meantime,  one  bitter  enemy  of  the  Catholics 
disappeared,  in  1802,  with  the  death  of  Lord  Clare. 
Hating  Ireland  and  Catholicism  to  the  last,  he  strove 
in  the  British  House  of  Lords  to  arouse  anti-Irish 
I)rejudice  by  representing  Ireland  as  filled  with  dis- 
affection and  hatred  of  I'^ngland;  he  defended  all  the 
Government  atrocities  of  1798,  and  advocated  for 
Ireland  peritetual  martial  law.  Once  he  had  declared 
that  he  wo\ild  have  the  Irish  as  tame  as  cats;  and  a 
Dublin  mob  retorted  by  groaning  and  hooting  before 
his  house  as  he  lay  dying,  by  creating  disorder  at  his 
funeral,  and  at  the  graveside  they  poured  a  shower  of 
dead  cats  upon  his  coffin.  Pitt  himself  died  in  1806, 
aftcT  having  opi)osed  the  Catholic  claims  in  the  i)re- 
eeding  year.  A  brief  period  of  hope  supervened  when 
the  "Ministry  of  all   the  Talents"  took  office;  but 


ROMAN 


129 


ROMAN 


hope  was  soon  dissipated  by  the  death  of  Fox,  and  by 
the  dismissal  of  Grenville  and  his  colleagues.  They 
had  brought  into  Parliament  a  bill  assimilating  the 
English  law  to  the  Irish  by  allowing  Catholics  in 
England  to  get  commissions  in  the  army.  But  the 
king  not  only  insisted  on  having  the  measure  dropped, 
but  also  that  ministers  should  pledge  themselves 
against  all  such  concessions  in  the  future;  and  when 
they  indignantly  refused  he  dismissed  them.  The 
Duke  of  Portland  then  became  premier,  with  Mr. 
Perceval  leader  in  the  Commons;  and  the  ministry 
going  to  the  country  in  1807  on  a  No  Popery  cry,  were 
returned  with  an  enormous  majority. 

Grattan  was  then  in  Parliament.  He  had  entered 
it  in  1S05  with  reluctance,  partly  at  the  request  of 
Lord  Fitzwilliam,  chiefly  in  the  hope  of  being  able  to 
serve  the  Catholics.  He  supported  the  petition  pre- 
sented by  P^ox;  he  presented  Catholic  petitions  him- 
self in  1808  and  ISIO;  and  he  supported  Parnell's 
motion  for  a  commutation  of  tithes;  but  each  time 
he  was  defeated,  and  it  was  plain  that  the  Catholic 
cause  was  not  advancing.  The  Catholic  Committee, 
broken  up  by  the  rebellion,  had  been  revived  in  1805. 
But  its  members  were  few,  its  meetings  irregularly 
held,  its  spirit  one  of  diffidence  and  fear,  its  activity 
confined  to  preparing  petitions  to  Parliament.  Nor 
were  its  leaders  the  stamp  of  men  to  conduct  a  popular 
movement  to  success.  Keogh  was  old,  and  age  and 
the  memory  of  the  events  he  had  passed  through 
chilled  his  enthusiasm  for  active  work.  Lord  Fin- 
gall  was  suave  and  conciliatory,  and  not  without 
courage,  but  was  unable  to  grapple  with  great  diffi- 
culties and  powerful  opponents.  Lords  Gormanston 
and  Triml)l('ston  were  out  of  touch  with  the  people; 
Lord  French,  Mr.  Husscy,  and  Mr.  Clinch  were  men 
of  little  ability;  Mr.  Scully  was  a  clever  lawyer  who 
had  written  a  book  on  the  penal  laws;  and  Dr.  Drom- 
goole  was  a  lawyer  with  a  taste  for  theology  and 
Church  history,  a  Catholic  bigot  ill-suited  to  soften 
Protestant  prejudice  or  win  Protestant  support.  As 
for  Dr.  Troy,  he  was  still  the  courtly  ecclesiastic,  and 
neither  Pitt's  treachery  nor  the  contempt  with  which 
the  Catholics  were  treated  could  weaken  his  attach- 
ment to  Dublin  Castle.  He  still  favoured  the  Veto, 
but  an  event  which  occurred  in  1808  showed  that  he 
was  no  longer  supported  by  his  brethren  of  the 
epis(!opacy.  An  Engli.sh  bishop.  Dr.  Milner,  who 
had  sometimes  acted  as  Ihiglish  agent  for  the  Irish 
bishops,  thought  it  right  to  declare  to  Grattan  in  their 
name  that  they  were  willing  to  concede  the  Veto;  and 
Lord  Fingall  took  a  similar  liberty  with  the  Catholic 
Committee.  The  former,  as  having  exceeded  his 
powers,  was  promptly  repudiated  by  the  Irish  bishops, 
the  latter  by  the  Catholic  Committee,  and  this  repudi- 
ation of  the  Veto  was  hailed  with  enthusiasm  through- 
out Ireland. 

By  this  time  it  was  clear  that  the  old  method  of 
presenting  loyal  petitions  was  out  of  date,  that  the 
time  had  come  for  more  vigourous  action,  for  a  united 
nation  to  demand  its  rights.  For  this  a  leader  was  re- 
quired, and  he  was  found  in  the  person  of  Daniel 
O'Connell.  Called  to  the  Bar  in  1800,  he  had  already 
acquired  a  lucrative  practice,  and  had  given  valuable 
assistance  in  the  work  of  the  Catholic  Committee. 
Having  seen  the  horrors  of  the  French  Revolution 
and  those  of  179S,  he  abhorred  revolution  and  rebel- 
lion, and  believed  that  Catholic  grievances  might  be 
redressed  by  peaceful  agitation,  unstained  either  by 
violence  or  crime.  And  nature  itself  seemed  to  have 
destined  him  for  an  agitator.  Capable  of  extreme 
endurance,  mental  and  physical,  he  had  great  courage, 
great  resource,  great  perseverance,  a  readiness  in  de- 
bate, an  eloquence  of  speech,  and  a  power  of  invective 
rarely  combined  in  a  single  man.  He  spoke  with  a 
voice  of  singular  volume  and  sweetness,  and  under  the 
influence  of  his  words  his  audience  were  sad  or  gay, 
vengeful  or  forgiving,  determined  or  depressed;  and 
XIII.— 9 


when  he  cowed  the  Orange  lawyer,  or  ridiculed  the 
chief  secretary  or  viceroj',  the  exultation  of  the  Cath- 
olics knew  no  bounds.  From  1810  his  position  was 
that  of  leader,  and  the  fight  for  emancipation  was  the 
fight  made  by  O'Connell.  It  was  an  uphill  fight. 
Anxious  to  attract  the  Catholic  masses,  and  at  the 
same  time  not  to  infringe  on  the  Convention  Act,  he 
had  drawn  up  the  constitution  of  the  Catholic  Com- 
mittee in  1809  with  great  care;  but  it  went  down  before 
a  viceregal  proclamation,  and  the  same  fate  befell  its 
succes.sor,  the  Catholic  Board.  The  fact  was  that  the 
viceroys  of  the  time  were  advised  by  the  Orangemen, 
and  governed  by  coercion  acts.  O'Connell's  diffi- 
culties were  increased  by  the  continued  agitation  of 
the  Veto.  In  opposing  it  he  was  aided  by  the  bishops 
and  the  clergy;  but  Dr.  Troy  and  Lord  Fingall,  aided 
by  the  English  Catholics,  procured  a  rescript  from 
Rome  in  their  favour.  It  was  sent  by  Quarantotti, 
Prefect  of  the  Propaganda,  in  1814,  while  Pius  VII 
was  a  prisoner  of  Napoleon.  When  the  pope  re- 
turned to  Rome  he  disavowed  it,  though  not  at  once; 
and  the  agitation  of  the  question  for  years  weakened 
all  Catholic  efforts  for  emancipation.  In  1813,  Grat- 
tan, supported  by  Canning  and  Castlereagh,  passed 
through  its  second  reading  a  Catholic  Relief  Bill, 
which  however  was  lost  in  Committee.  Nothing 
daunted,  he  continued  his  efforts.  To  allay  the 
groundless  fears  of  unreasoning  bigotry  he  conceded 
the  Veto,  and  yet  each  year  the  motion  he  brought 
forward  was  rejected.  When  he  died  in  1820  another 
great  Irishman,  Plunket,  took  the  matter  in  hand, 
and  in  1821  succeeded  in  passing  a  Bill  through  the 
House  of  Commons.  Even  the  concession  of  the  Veto 
could  not  buy  off'  the  hostility  of  the  House  of  Lords, 
who  threw  out  the  bill;  and  it  seemed  as  if  emancipa- 
tion would  never  come. 

The  visit  of  George  IV  to  Ireland  in  1821  brought  a 
brief  period  of  hope.  The  king  had  once  been  the 
declared  friend  of  the  Cathofics,  and  if  he  had  op- 
posed them  since  he  became  regent,  in  1810,  it  might 
be  because  he  disliked  opposing  his  father's  views 
while  his  father  lived.  The  Catholics  by  public 
resolution  in  1812  blamed  the  witchery  of  his  mis- 
tress, and  the  regent  was  known  to  be  very  wroth 
with  what  came  to  be  called  "The  Witchery  Resolu- 
tion". But  the  Catholics  in  a  forgiving  mood  felt 
sure  that  their  resolution  was  forgotten;  that  the 
king  was  returning  to  his  fir.st  and  more  enliglitened 
opinions;  and  that  his  visit  meant  friendship  and  con- 
cession. Thus  disposed,  they  welcomed  him  with 
enthusiasm.  The  king  before  leaving  Ireland  ex- 
pressed his  gratitude  to  his  subjects,  and  counselled 
the  different  classes  to  cultivate  moderation  and  for- 
bearance. But  he  had  no  rebuke  for  Orange  in- 
solence and  no  message  of  hope  for  the  Catholics,  and 
to  the  end  of  his  reign  continued  to  oppose  their 
claims.  Depression  settled  down  heavily  on  the 
whole  Catholic  body.  Agitation  ceased,  outrages 
commenced,  coercion  followed  and  continued;  and 
in  1823,  while  the  Catholics  were  apathetic  and  dis- 
pirited and  the  Orangemen  more  than  usually  ag- 
gressive, O'Connell  founded  the  Catholic  Association. 
His  chief  assistant  was  a  young  barrister  named 
Shell.  They  were  old  friends,  but  had  quarrelled 
about  the  Veto,  and  now  composed  their  quarrels  and 
became  friends  again.  To  evade  the  Convention  Act 
the  new  association,  specially  formed  to  obtain 
emancipation  "by  legal  and  constitutional  means", 
was  merely  a  club,  its  members  paying  a  subscrip- 
tion, its  meetings  open  to  the  Press.  At  first  its 
progress  was  slow,  and  not  infrequently  it  was  diffi- 
cult to  get  a  sufficient  number  together  to  form  a 
quorum.  But  it  gradually  made  headway.  Dr. 
Doyle,  Bishop  of  Kildare,  joined  it  at  an  early  stage, 
as  did  Dr.  Murraj^  Coadjutor  Archbishop  of  Dublin, 
and  many  hundreds  of  the  clergy.  Subsidiary  clubs 
arose  throughout  the  country,  the  members  paying 


ROMAN 


130 


ROMAN 


a  penny  a  month,  the  "Catholic  Rent".  They  met 
under  the  presidency  of  the  priests,  and  discussed 
all  public  questions,  transmitted  the  rent  to  the  cen- 
tral association,  and  received  in  return  advice  and 
assistance.  The  Government  became  so  alarmed 
at  the  strength  of  an  organization  which  had  30,000 
collectors  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  members, 
that  it  was  suppressed  in  1825.  At  the  same  time 
a  Catholic  Relief  Bill  passed  the  House  of  Commons, 
but  was  thrown  out  in  the  Lords,  and  all  that  Ireland 
got  from  Parliament  was  the  act  sui)iiressing  the 
Association,  or  the  Algerine  Act,  as  it  was  often 
called. 

It  was  easily  evaded.  Its  provisions  did  not  affect 
an}'  religious  society,  nor  any  formed  for  purposes 
of  charity,  science,  agriculture,  or  commerce;  and 
for  these  purposes  the  Catholic  Association,  changing 
its  name  into  the  New  Catholic  Association  and  re- 
modelling its  constitution,  continued  its  work.  It 
was  to  build  churches,  obtain  cemeteries,  defend 
Catholic  interests,  take  a  census  of  the  different  re- 
ligions, and  for  these  the  "New  Catholic  Rent"  was 
subscribed,  and  meetings  were  held  in  Dublin,  where 
Catholic  grievances  were  discussed.  Aggregate  meet- 
ings nominally  independent  of  the  association,  but 
reallj-  organized  by  it,  were  also  held  in  different 
parishes,  and  larger  assemblies  took  the  form  of 
county  and  provincial  meetings.  Attended  by  the 
local  gentry,  by  the  priests,  by  friendly  Protestants, 
sometimes  by  O'Connell  and  Sheil,  the  boldness  and 
eloquence  of  speech  used  gave  courage  to  the  Catho- 
lics and  struck  terror  into  their  foes.  Nor  was  this 
aU.  The  Relief  Act  of  1793  had  conferred  the  fran- 
chise on  the  forty-shilling  freeholders,  and  landlords, 
to  increase  their  own  political  influence,  had  largely 
created  such  freeholds.  These  freeholders  living 
in  constant  poverty,  frequently  in  arrears  of  rent, 
always  dependent  on  the  forbearance  of  their  land- 
lords, had  hitherto  been  driven  to  the  polls  like  cattle 
to  vote  for  their  landlords'  nominee.  A  new  spirit 
appeared  at  the  General  Election  of  1826.  Relying 
on  these  freeholders,  the  Catholic  Association  nomi- 
nated Mr.  Stewart  against  Lord  Beresford  for 
Waterford.  The  threats  employed  by  a  powerful 
family  were  met  on  the  other  side  by  appeals  to  re- 
ligion, to  conscience,  to  the  sacredness  of  the  voter's 
oath;  the  priests  craved  of  the  voters  to  strike  a 
blow  for  country  and  creed;  and  O'Connell  reminded 
them  that  a  Beresford  had  caused  the  recall  of  Lord 
Fitzwilliam,  that  another  flogged  Catholics  to  death 
in  1798,  and  that  wherever  the  enemies  of  Ireland 
were  gathered  together  a  Beresford  was  in  their  midst. 
The  (-(jntest  was  soon  decided  by  the  return  of  the 
Catholic  nominee;  and  Monaghan,  Louth,  and 
Westmeath  followed  the  lead  of  Waterford. 

The  next  year  Canning  became  premier.  His 
consistent  advocacy  of  the  Catholic  claims  brought 
him  the  enmity  of  the  king  and  exclusion  from  office 
for  many  years.  When  h(!  joined  Lord  Liverpool's 
government  in  1823,  he  insisted  that  emancipation 
should  be  an  open  question  in  the  Cabinet,  and  on 
the  Catholic  Relief  Bill  of  182.5  the  strange;  spectacle 
was  seen  of  Peel,  the  home  secretary,  voting  on  one 
aide  while  Canning,  the  foreign  secretary,  was  on 
the  opposite  side.  As  premier  the  latter  was  power- 
less in  consf;quence  of  the  hostility  of  the  king,  but 
ha'i  he  lived  he  might  probably  have  forced  the  king's 
hand.  He  died,  however,  in  August,  1827,  and  by  his 
death  the  Catholics  lost  one  of  their  stoutest  cham- 
pions. His  successor,  Goderich,  held  office  only  for 
a  few  months,  and  then,  early  in  1828,  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  became  premier,  with  Peel  as  his  leader  in 
the  House  of  Commons.  These  two  were  dedarecl 
enemif«  of  reform  and  emanf^ipation,  and  instead  of 
being  willing  to  r-oncr-de  they  would  have  wished  to 
put  down  the  Catholic  Association  by  force.  But 
such  an  undertaking  waa  one  from  which  even  the 


strongest  Goverrmient  might  have  recoiled.  The 
forty-shilling  freeholders,  efTectually  protected  by 
the  "New  Rent  "  which  was  specially  levied  for  their 
benefit,  laughed  at  the  threats  of  the  landlords;  the 
Catholic  forces  organized  into  parish  and  county 
Liberal  Clubs,  and  in  correspondence  with  the  Cath- 
olic Association  at  Dublin  as  head  club,  sought  out 
and  published  every  local  grievance;  Catholic 
churchwardens  in  each  parish  collected  subscriptions 
and  sent  the  money  to  Dublin,  getting  in  return  ad- 
vice in  all  their  difficulties  and  legal  assistance  when- 
ever it  was  necessary. 

So  disciplined  were  the  Catholic  masses  that 
800,000  of  them  petitioned  Parhament  for  the  repeal 
of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts,  which  were  re- 
pealed in  1828;  and  the  same  year  in  1500  parishes 
throughout  Ireland  meetings  were  held  on  the  same 
day  to  petition  for  emancijiation,  and  a  million  and 
a  half  Catholic  signatures  were  obtained.  Foreign 
writers  came  to  Ireland  to  see  for  themselves,  and 
published  in  foreign  papers  and  reviews  what  they 
saw,  and  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy  England 
was  held  up  to  public  odium  because  of  her  treatment 
of  Ireland.  Across  the  Atlantic  the  Irish  element 
was  already  strong,  and  all  over  America  meetings 
were  held  to  demand  justice  for  Ireland.  At  these 
meetings  money  was  subscribed  liberallj'  and  sent  to 
Ireland  to  swell  the  coffers  of  the  Catholic  Associa- 
tion, and  language  of  menace  and  defiance  was  used 
towards  England.  Yet  Wellington  and  Peel  were 
still  unyielding,  and  in  the  session  of  1828  the  latter 
opposed  Sir  Francis  Burdett's  motion  in  favour  of 
emancipation,  and  Wellington  helped  to  defeat  it 
in  the  Lords.  The  Catholic  Association  answered 
these  unfriendly  acts  by  a  resolution  to  oppose  all 
Government  candidates;  and  when  Mr.  Vesey  Fitz 
Gerald,  on  being  promoted  to  the  Cabinet,  sought 
re-election  for  Clare,  a  Catholic  Association  candidate 
was  nominated  against  him.  As  no  Catholic  could 
sit  in  Parliament  if  elected,  it  was  at  first  resolved 
to  nominate  Major  Macnamara,  a  jjojjular  Protestant 
landlord  of  Clare;  but  after  some  hesitation  he  de- 
clined the  contest.  Then  was  remembered  what 
John  Keogh  had  once  said:  "John  Bull  thinks  that 
to  grant  emancipation  would  rekindle  the  fires  of 
Smithficld.  But  he  is  jealous  of  a  subject's  con- 
stitutional privileges,  and  if  a  Catholic  M.P.  be  de- 
barred from  taking  iiis  seat  on  account  of  objection- 
able oaths  he  will  have  such  oaths  modified,  so  that 
the  constituency  shall  not  be  put  outside  the  con- 
stitution. "  In  all  this  there  was  wisdom,  and  O'Con- 
nell himself  determined  to  stand  for  Parliament  and 
issued  his  address  to  the  electors  of  Clare. 

The  historic  contest  opened  in  July.  Dr.  Doyle 
sent  O'Connell  a  letter  of  recommendation  praying 
that  the  God  of  truth  and  justice  might  jn-osper  him; 
Father  Tom  Maguire,  a  noted  ijolciuic,  came  all  the 
way  from  Leitrim  to  lend  his  aid;  Jack  Lawless  came 
from  Ulster;  O'Gorman,  Malion,  and  Steele  from 
Clare  itself  worked  with  a  will;  the  eloquent  Sheil 
came  from  Dublin;  above  all  the  priests  of  Clare 
strained  every  nerve;  and  with  the  aid  of  all  these 
O'Conmsll  had  a  noted  triumph.  The  gentry  and  the 
larger  fn^eholders  were  all  with  Fitz  Gerald;  the 
forty-shilling  freeholders  were  with  O'Connell,  and 
influenced  by  the  priests  bade  defiance  to  their  land- 
lords; and  the  enthusiasm  displayed  was  not  more 
remarkable  than  the  discipline  and  self-restraint. 
During  the  six  days  of  th(!  polling,  30,000  from  all 
parts  of  Clare  bivouacked  in  the  streets  of  Ennis, 
and  yet  there  was  no  disorder,  no  riot,  no  violence, 
no  drunkenness,  nothing  to  call  for  the  interference 
of  soldiers  or  police.  lOven  the  blindest  could  see 
that  a  crisis  had  come.  The  Orangemen  becarne  res- 
tive and  aggressive.  In  coini)liuient  io  the  reigning 
family  they  formed  clubs,  modelled  on  the  Liberal 
clubs  of  the  Catholics,  and  in  language  of  menace 


ROMAN 


131 


ROMAN 


proclaimed  their  determination  to  resist  the  Catholic 
claims  even  by  force.  The  Catholics  were  equally 
defiant,  and  all  the  efforts  of  O'Connell  on  the  one 
side  and  of  the  Lord  Lieutenant,  the  Marquess  of 
Anglesey,  on  the  other,  were  scarcely  sufficient  to 
prevent  Catholics  and  Orangemen  from  coming  to 
blows.  Anglesey  privately  warned  the  prime  minis- 
ter that  even  the  soldiers  were  not  to  be  relied  on, 
and  were  cheering  for  O'Connell;  and  Dr.  Curtis, 
an  old  friend  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  implored  of 
him  to  yield.  His  reply  was  that  if  the  Catholics 
ceased  to  agitate,  and  if  a  period  of  quiet  supervened, 
something  might  be  done;  and  when  Anglesey  ad- 
vised the  Catholics  to  continue  their  agitation  he  was 
instantly  removed  from  office.  Excitement  grew, 
party  passions  were  further  inflamed,  men's  minds 
were  constantly  agitated  by  hopes  and  fears;  and  as 
the  gloomy  days  of  winter  passed  and  a  new  year  was 
ushered  in,  the  conviction  was  general  that  peace 
could  not  be  maintained,  and  that  there  must  be 
concession  or  civil  war. 

At  last  WeUington  and  Peel  surrendered.  The 
former  worked  upon  the  fears  of  the  king  and  com- 
pelled him  to  yield;  the  latter  managed  the  House 
of  Commons  with  consummate  ability,  and  in  March 
a  CathoUc  Relief  Bill  was  introduced,  and  in  the 
following  month  passed  into  law.  Under  its  pro- 
visions Catholics  were  admitted  to  Parhament  and 
to  the  corporations;  but  they  were  still  excluded  from 
some  of  the  higher  offices,  civil  and  military,  such  as 
those  of  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  Commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Army,  and  Lord  Chancellor  both  in 
England  and  Ireland.;  priests  were  forbidden  to  wear 
vestments  outside  their  churches,  and  bishops  to 
assume  the  titles  of  their  dioceses;  Jesuits  were  to 
leave  the  kingdom,  and  other  religious  orders  were 
to  he  rendered  incapable  of  receiving  charitable  be- 
quests. Further,  the  franchise  being  raised  to  ten 
pounds,  the  forty-shilling  freeholders  were  dis- 
franchised; and  the  Act  not  being  retrospective, 
O'Connell  on  coming  to  take  his  seat  was  tendered 
the  old  oath,  which  he  refused  and  then  had  to  seek 
re-election  for  Clare.  These  concessions  to  bigotry — 
they  were  said  to  be  made  especially  to  placate  the 
king— helped  to  spoil  the  healing  effect  of  the  measure. 
The  provisions  regarding  priests  and  bishops  were 
indeed  of  little  value,  and  were  either  evaded  or  de- 
spised; but  th(!  disfranchisement  of  the  forty-shilling 
freeholders  was  a  grievous  wrong;  and  the  denial  of 
his  seat  to  O'Connell  was  a  personal  insult,  and  was 
felt  to  be  an  insult  to  all  Ireland. 

Journals  uf  the  Irish  /louse  of  Commons;  Irish  Parliamentary 
Debates  {1781-07):  Annual  Register  (1800-29);  Lecky,  History 
of  Ireland  in  the  Eidhleenth  Century  (London,  1897);  Mitchei,. 
History  of  Ireland  (Glasgow,  1869) ;  D'Alton,  History  of  Ireland 
(London,  1910);  Plowden,  History  of  Ireland,  1800-1810  (Dub- 
lin, 1811);  Castlereagh  Correspondence  (London,  1848);  Cornwallis 
Corresporidence  (London,  1859);  Ingram,  History  of  the  Legislative 
Union  (London,  1887);  MacNeill,  How  the  Union  was  carried 
(London,  1887);  Grattan's  Memoirs  (London.  18.39);  Grattan's 
Speeches  (liOndon,  1822);  Stanhope,  Life  of  Pitt  (London,  1861); 
Plunkel's  Speeches  (Dublin);  Wyse,  History  of  the  Catholic 
Association  (London,  1829) ;  Walpolb,  History  of  England  (Lon- 
don, 1879);  Greville's  Memoirs  (London,  1904);  Fitzpatrick, 
Correspondence  of  O'Connell  (London,  1888);  O'Connell' s  Speeches, 
ed.O'CoNNELL(Dublin);SHEiL,  Speeches  (Dublin);  MacDonagh, 
Life  of  O'Connell  (London,  1903);  Dunlop,  Daniel  O'Connell 
(London  and  New  York,  1900) ;  Shaw  Lefevre,  Peel  and 
O'Connell  (London,  1887);  Lecky,  Leaders  of  Public  Opinion  in 
Ireland  (London,  1903);  Colchester's  Diary  (London,  1861); 
Pellew,  Life  of  Lord  Sidmouth  (London,  1847) ;  Canning's 
Con  espondence,  ed.  Stapleton  (London,  1887) ;  Creevey  Papers 
(London,  1903);  Peel's  Memoirs  (London,  1856). 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

Roman  Colleges. — This  article  treats  of  the  vari- 
ous coll('y:cs  in  Iloiiie  which  have  been  founded  under 
ecclesiastical  auspices  and  are  under  ecclesiastical  di- 
rection, with  the  exception  of  those  that  are  treated 
separately  under  their  respective  titles  throughout 
The  Catholic  Encyclopedia.  The  word  "college" 
is  used  here  to  designate  institutions  established  and 
maintained  in  Rome  for  the  education  of  ecclesias- 


tics; it  is  equivalent  to  "seminary".  While  the 
word  seminario  is  applied  occasionally,  e.  g.  the 
Seminario  Romano  (S.  ApoUinare),  the  majority  of 
these  institutions,  and  those  especially  which  have 
a  national  character,  are  known  as  "colleges".  The 
training  of  priests  in  general  is  described  in  the 
article  Seminary;  here  it  suffices  to  note  that  the 
Roman  colleges,  in  addition  to  the  obvious  advan- 
tages for  study  which  Rome  offers,  also  serve  in 
a  certain  measure  to  keep  up  in  the  various  coun- 
tries of  the  world  that  spirit  of  loyal  attachment  to 
the  Holy  See  which  is  the  basis  of  unity.  With  this 
end  in  view  the  popes  have  encouraged  the  founding  of 
colleges  in  which  young  men  of  the  same  nationality 
might  reside  and  at  the  same  time  profit  by  the 
opportunities  which  the  city  affords.  So  too  it  is 
significant  that  within  the  last  half  century  several 
colleges  have  developed  as  offshoots  of  the  Propaganda 
(Urban  College)  in  which  the  students  from  various 
countries  were  received  until  each  nationality  became 
numerous  enough  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  distinct 
institution.  The  colleges  thus  established  are  halls 
of  residence  in  which  the  students  follow  the  usual 
seminary  exercises  of  piety,  study  in  private,  and 
review  the  subjects  treated  in  class.  In  some  colleges 
there  are  special  courses  of  instruction  (languages, 
music,  archajology  etc.),  but  the  regular  courses  in 
philosophy  and  theology  are  given  in  a  few  large 
central  institutions,  such  as  the  Propaganda,  the 
Gregorian  University,  the  Roman  Seminary,  and  the 
Minerva,  i.  e.  the  school  of  the  Dominicans.  The 
Roman  colleges  are  thus  grouped  in  several  clusters, 
each  of  which  includes  a  centre  for  purposes  of  instruc- 
tion  and  a  number  of  affiliated  institutions.  Each 
college  has  at  its  head  a  rector  designated  by  the  epis- 
copate of  the  country  to  which  the  college  belongs  and 
apijointed  by  the  pope.  He  is  assisted  by  a  vice- 
rector  and  a  spiritual  director.  Discipline  is  main- 
tained by  means  of  the  camerala  system  in  which  the 
students  are  divided  into  groups  each  in  charge  of  a 
prefect  who  is  responsible  for  the  observance  of  rule. 
Each  camerata  occupies  its  own  section  of  the  college 
building,  has  its  own  quarters  for  recreation,  and  goes 
its  own  way  about  the  city  on  the  daily  walk  pres- 
cribed by  the  regulations.  Meals  and  chapel  exer- 
cises are  in  common  for  all  students  of  the  college. 
While  indoors,  the  student  wears  the  cassock  with  a 
broad  cincture;  outside  the  college,  the  low-crowned 
three-cornered  clerical  hat  and  a  cloak  or  soprana  are 
added. 

The  scholastic  year  begins  in  the  first  week  of 
November  and  ends  about  the  middle  of  July.  In 
most  of  the  courses  the  lecture  system  is  followed  and 
at  stated  times  formal  disputations  are  held  in  accor- 
dance with  scholastic  methods.  The  course  of  studies, 
whether  leading  to  a  degree  or  not,  is  prescribed  and 
it  extends,  generally  speaking,  through  six  years,  two 
of  which  are  devoted  to  philo.sophy  and  four  to 
theology.  To  philosophy  in  the  stricter  sense  are 
added  courses  in  mathematics,  languages,  and  natural 
sciences.  Theology  includes,  besides  dogmatic  and 
moral  theology,  courses  in  liturgy,  archaeology, 
Church  history,  canon  law  and  Scripture.  An  oral 
examination  is  held  in  the  middle  of  the  year  and  a 
written  examination  (concursus)  at  the  close.  The 
usual  degrees  (baccalaureate,  licentiate,  and  doctor- 
ate) are  conferred  in  philosophy,  theology,  and  canon 
law;  since  1909  degrees  in  Sacred  Scripture  are  con- 
ferred upon  students  who  fulfil  the  requirements  of  the 
Biblical  Institute.  Each  college  spends  the  summer 
vacation  at  its  mllegiatura  or  country  house  located 
outside  the  city  and  generally  in  or  near  one  of  the 
numerous  towns  on  the  slopes  of  the  neighbouring  hills. 
Student  life  in  the  "villa"  is  quite  similar  to  the 
routine  of  the  academic  year  in  regard  to  discipline  and 
religious  exercises;  but  a  larger  allowance  is  made  for 
recreation    and    for    occasional    trips    through    the 


ROMAN 


132 


ROMAN 


surrounding  country.  And  while  each  student  has 
more  time  for  reading  along  lines  of  his  own  choice,  he 
is  required  to  give  some  portion  of  each  day  to  the 
subjects  explained  in  the  class-room  during  the  year. 

What  has  been  said  outlines  fairh'  well  the  work  of 
the  Roman  colleges.  In  matters  of  detail  some 
variations  will  be  found,  and  these  are  due  chiefly  to 
natural  characteristics  or  to  the  special  purpose  for 
which  the  college  was  established. 

Almo  Collegio  C.a^praxicexse  (Capranica). — This 
is  the  oldest  Roman  college,  founded  in  1417  by 
Carchnal  Domenico  Capranica  in  his  own  palace  for 
31  young  clerics,  who  received  an  education  suitable 
for  the  formation  of  good  priests.  Capranica  himself 
drew  up  their  rules  and  presented  the  college  with  his 
own  librarv',  the  more  valuable  portion  of  which  was 
later  transferred  tx5  the  Vatican.  The  cardinal's 
brother,  Angelo,  erected  opix)site  his  own  palace  a 
suitable  house  for  the  students.  When  the  Con- 
stable de  Bourbon  laid  siege  to  Rome  in  1.527  the  Ca- 
pranica students  were  among  the  few  defenders  of  the 
Porta  di  S.  Spirito,  and  all  of  them  with  their  rector 
fell  at  the  breach.  The  rector  according  to  the  uni- 
versit}'  custom  of  those  days  was  elected  by  the  stu- 
dents'and  was  always  one  of  themselves.  Alexander 
VII  decided  that  the  rector  should  be  appointed  by  the 
protectors  of  the  college.  After  the  Revolution  the 
college  was  re-established  in  1807;  the  number  of  free 
students  was  reduced  to  13,  but  pa>ang  students  were 
admitted.  Those  entering  must  have  completed  their 
seventeenth  j'ear;  they  attend  the  lectures  at  the 
Gregorian  University.  The  college  counts  among  its 
graduates  many  cardinals  and  bishops;  not  a  few  of 
the  students  have  passed  into  the  diplomatic  service. 
The  country'  seat  is  a  villa  at  Monte  Mario. 

Seminario  Romano. — Hardly  had  the  Council  of 
Trent  in  its  23d  session  decreed  the  establishment  of 
diocesan  seminaries,  when  Pius  IV  decided  to  set  a 
good  example,  and  on  1  Feb.,  1565,  the  seminary  was 
solemnly  opened  with  60  students.  The  rules  were 
drawn  up  by  P.  Lainez,  General  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  and  to  this  order  Pius  IV  entrusted  the  man- 
agement of  the  college.  Up  to  1773  the  students  at- 
tended the  lecturas  in  the  Collcgio  Romano;  the  resi- 
dence was  changed  several  times  before  1608,  when 
they  settled  in  the  Palazzo  Borromeo  in  the  Via  del 
Seminario  (now  the  Gregorian  University).  A  coun- 
try seat  was  erected  for  the  students  in  a  portion  of 
the  baths  of  Caravalla.  Each  year,  at  Pentecost,  a 
student  dehvered  a  discourse  on  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the 
papal  chapel.  In  1773  the  .seminary  was  installed  in 
the  Collegio  Romano  of  the  Jesuits.  After  the 
changes  in  1798  the  number  of  the  students,  gener- 
ally about  100,  was  reduced  to  9.  Pius  VII  restored 
the  seminarj'  which  continued  to  occupy  the  Collegio 
Romano  until  1824,  when  Leo  XII  gave  back  this 
builfling  to  the  Jesuits  and  transferred  the  seminary 
to  S.  Apollinare,  formerly  occupied  by  the  Collegio 
Germanico;  the  seminary,  however,  retained  its  own 
schools  comprising  a  clas.sical  course,  and  a  faculty  of 
philosophy  and  thcKilogy,  to  which  in  1856  a  course 
of  canon  law  was  added.  The  direction  of  the  semi- 
nary and,  as  a  rule,  the  chairs  were  reserved  to  the  secu- 
lar clerg>'.  Aft^T  the  departure  of  the  Jesuits  in  1848 
the  w;minary  again  removed  to  the  Collegio  Romano. 
In  the  8<;mi nary  there  arc  30  frw;  plac<!S  for  studcsnts 
belonging  U)  Rfjme;  the  remaining  students,  who 
may  be  from  other  <lioce.ses,  pay  a  small  pension. 
The  Cfjllegio  O-rawjli  with  four  burses  for  students 
of  the  Diocr^f;  of  Bergitino  endowed  by  Cardinal  Cer- 
aflfjli,  is  wjnnw;t^'d  with  tlx-  seminary.  The  students 
take  part  in  th«  cerf;inoni<'K  in  the  church  of  the  Se- 
minario Pio.  Their  cjissoek  is  violet.  The  seminary 
possesses  an  excellf-nt  library.  At  the  present  tim(;, 
py  order  of  Pius  X,  a  new  btiilding  for  the  seminary  is 
in  process  of  constniction  near  the  Lateran  Ba.silica. 
The  schools  of  the  seminary  are  attended  by  students 


from  other  colleges  and  religious  communities.  Gre- 
gory XV,  Clement  IX,  Innocent  XIII,  and  Clement 
XII  were  educated  in  this  seminar3^ 

Seminario  Pio,  also  situated  in  the  Palazzo  di  S. 
Apollinare,  was  founded  in  1853  by  Pius  IX  for  the 
dioceses  of  the  Pontifical  States.  Each  diocese  is  en- 
titled to  send  a  student  who  has  completed  his  human- 
ities; SinigagUa  may  send  two;  the  number  of  pupils 
is  limited  to  62.  All  must  spend  nine  years  in  the 
study  of  philosophy,  theology,  canon  law,  and  liter- 
ature; they  are  supported  by  the  revenues  of  the  sem- 
inary and  are  distinguished  by  their  violet  sash.  The 
seminary  has  a  villa  outside  the  Porta  Portese.  The 
students  bind  themselves  by  oath  to  return  to  their 
dioceses  on  the  completion  of  their  studies. 

Seminario  Vaticano,  founded  in  1636  by  Urban 

VIII  for  the  convenience  of  the  clerics  serving  in  the 
Vatican  Basilica  (St.  Peter's).  Its  government  was 
entrusted  to  the  Vatican  Chapter  which  appointed  the 
rector.  Shortly  afterward  a  course  of  grammar  and, 
somewhat  later,  courses  of  philosophy  and  theology 
were  added.  Paj-ing  students  were  also  admitted. 
In  1730  the  seminarj'  was  transferred  from  the  Piazza 
Rusticucci  to  its  present  location  behind  the  apse  of 
St.  Peter's.  From  1797  till  1805  it  remained  closed; 
on  its  reopening  only  6  free  students  could  be  received, 
but  the  number  rose  to  30  or  40.  After  the  events  of 
1870  the  seminary  dwindled.  Leo  XIII  endeavoured 
to  restore  it,  re-establishing  the  former  courses  and 
granting  it  a  country  residence  in  the  Sabine  hills. 
In  1897  it  was  authorized  to  confer  degrees.  In  1905 
Pius  X  suppressed  the  faculties  of  philosophy  and 
theology,  the  students  of  the  former  subject  going  to 
S.  ApoUinare,  and  of  the  latter  to  the  Gregorian. 
They  wear  a  purple  cassock  with  the  pontifical  coat- 
of-arms  on  the  end  of  their  sash. 

Seminario  dei  SS.  Pietro  e  Paolo,  established  in 
1867  by  Pietro  Avanzani,  a  secular  priest,  to  prepare 
young  secular  priests  for  the  foreign  missions.     Pius 

IX  approved  it  in  1874  and  had  a  college  erected,  but 
this  was  later  pulled  down  and  since  then  the  semi- 
nary has  changed  its  location  several  times;  at  present 
it  is  in  the  Armenian  College.  The  students  follow 
the  courses  at  the  Propaganda;  at  home  they  have 
lectures  on  foreign  languages,  including  Chinese. 
They  number  12.  The  college  has  a  country  residence 
at  Montopoli  in  the  Sabine  hills.  On  finishing  their 
studies  the  students  go  to  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
Southern  Shen-si  or  to  Lower  California. 

Seminario  Lombardo  dei  SS.  A.mhrogio  e  Carlo, 
founded  in  1854  chiefly  through  tlic  generosity  of 
Cardinal  Borromeo  and  Duke  Scotti  of  Milan,  was 
located  in  the  palace  of  the  confraternity  of  S.  Carlo 
al  Corso.  Owing  to  the  insufliciency  of  its  revenues 
it  remained  closed  from  1869  to  1878.  Leo  XIII  al- 
lowed the  other  bishops  of  L^pper  Italy  as  well  as  of 
Modena,  Parma,  and  Placenta  to  send  their  subjects 
who,  numbering  over  60,  pay  for  their  maintenance 
and  follow  the  lectures  at  the  Gregorian  University; 
not  a  few  of  the.se  students  are  already  priests  when 
they  enter  the  seminary.  They  may  be  known  by 
their  black  sashes  with  red  borders.  Since  1888  the 
seminary  has  had  its  own  residence  in  the  Prati  di 
Castello. 

Collegio  Germanico-Ungarico,  after  the  Collegio 
Capranica,  the  oldest  college  in  Rome.  The  initi- 
ative t^jwards  its  foundation  was  taken  by  Cardinal 
(Jiovanni  Morone  and  St .  Ignatius  of  Ivoyola,  and  by 
th(!  energetic  labour  of  the  saint  tlie  plan  was  carried 
into  effect.  Julius  III  approved  of  the  idea  and 
promised  his  aid,  but  for  a  long  time  the  college  had 
to  struggle  against  finan{-ial  difficulties.  The  first 
students  were  rec((ived  in  Xov<;niber,  15.52.  The  ad- 
ministration was  confided  to  a  commitU^e  of  six  car- 
dinal protectors,  who  decided  that  the  collegians 
should  wear  a  red  cassock,  in  con.sequence  of  which 
they  have  since  been  i)opularly  known  as  the  gamberi 


ROMAN 


133 


ROMAN 


cotti  (boiled  lobsters).  During  the  first  year  the 
higher  courses  were  given  in  the  college  itself;  but  in 
the  autumn  of  1553  St.  Ignatius  succeeded  in  estab- 
hshing  the  schools  of  philosophy  and  theology  in  the 
Collegio  Romano  of  his  Society.  He  also  drew  up  the 
first  rules  for  the  college,  which  served  as  models  for 
similar  institutions.  During  the  pontificate  of  Paul 
IV  the  financial  conditions  became  such  that  the  stu- 
dents had  to  be  distributed  among  the  various  col- 
leges of  the  Society  in  Italy.  To  place  the  institution 
on  a  firmer  basis  it  was  decided  to  admit  paying 
boarders  regardless  of  their  nationality,  and  without 
the  obligation  of  embracing  the  ecclesiastical  state; 
German  clerics  to  the  number  of  20  or  more  were  re- 
ceived free  and  formed  a  separate  body.  In  a  short 
time  200  boardmg  students,  all  belonging  to  the  flower 
of  European  nobility,  were  received.  This  state  of 
affairs  lasted  till  1573.  Under  Pius  V,  who  had 
placed  20  of  his  nephews  in  the  college,  there  was  some 
idea  of  suppressing  the  camerala  of  the  poveri  tedeschi. 
Gregory  XIII,  however,  may  be  considered  the  real 
founder  of  the  college.  He  transferred  the  secular 
department  to  the  Seminario  Romano,  and  endowed 
the  college  with  the  Abbey  of  S.  Saba  all'  Aventino 
and  all  its  possessions,  both  on  the  Via  Portuense  and 
on  the  Lake  of  Bracciano;  moreover  he  incorporated 
with  it  the  Abbeys  of  Fonto  Avellana  in  the  ^Iarches, 
S.  Cristina,  and  Lodivecchio  in  Lombardy.  The  new 
rector,  P.  Lauretano,  drew  up  another  set  of  regula- 
tions. 

The  college  had  already  changed  its  location  five 
times.  In  1574  Gregory  XIII  assigned  it  the  Palace 
of  S.  Apollinare  and  in  1575  gave  it  charge  of  the  ser- 
vices in  the  adjoining  church.  The  splendour  and 
majesty  of  the  functions  as  well  as  the  music  executed 
by  the  students  under  the  direction  of  the  Spaniard 
Ludovico  da  Vittoria  and  other  celebrated  masters 
(Stabile,  Orgas,  Carissimi,  Pittoni,  and  others)  con- 
stantly drew  large  crowds  to  the  church.  Too  much 
attention  indeed  was  given  to  mu.sic  under  P.  Laure- 
tano, so  that  regulations  had  to  be  made  at  various 
times  to  prevent  the  studies  from  suffering.  The 
courses  were  still  given  in  the  Collegio  Romano;  but 
when  Bellarmine  terminated  his  lectures  on  contro- 
versy, a  chair  for  this  important  branch  of  learning 
was  established  in  the  Collegio  Germanico  and  some- 
what later  a  chair  of  canon  law.  As  a  special  mark 
of  his  favour,  Gregory  XIII  ordered  that  each  year  on 
the  Feast  of  All  Saints  a  student  of  the  college  should 
deliver  a  panegyric  in  presence  of  the  pope.  Mean- 
while in  1578  the  Collegio  Ungherese  had  been  founded 
through  the  efforts  of  another  Jesuit,  P.  Szdnt6  who 
obtained  for  it  the  church  and  convent  of  S.  Stefano 
Rotondo  on  the  Ca;lian  Hill,  and  of  S.  Stefanino  be- 
hind the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter,  the  former  belonging  to 
the  Hungarian  Pauline  monks,  and  the  latter  to  the 
Hungarian  pilgrims'  hospice.  In  15S0  the  union  of 
the  two  colleges  was  decreed,  a  step  which  at  first  gave 
rise  to  difficulties.  The  students  generally  numbered 
about  100,  sometimes,  however,  there  were  but  54,  at 
other  tunes  as  many  as  150.  During  the  seventeenth 
century  several  changes  occurred,  in  particular  the 
new  form  of  oath  exacted  from  all  the  students  of  for- 
eign colleges.  Mention  must  be  made  of  the  work  of 
P.  Galeno,thc  business  manager  who  succeeded  in  con- 
solidating the  finances  of  the  college  so  as  to  raise  the 
revenue  to  25,000  scudi  per  annum.  A  country  resi- 
dence was  acquired  at  Parioli.  In  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  college  became  gradually  more  aristocratic. 
Benedict  XIV  performed  the  ceremony  of  laying  the 
corner  stone  of  the  new  church  of  S.  Apollinare  in 
1742,  on  the  completion  of  which  a  new  Palace  of  S. 
Apollinare  was  erected.  At  the  suppression  of  the  So- 
ciety (1773)  the  direction  was  entrusted  to  secular 
priests;  lectures  were  delivered  in  the  college  itself, 
and  the  professors  were  Dominicans.  DivSciphne  and 
studies  declined  rapidly.     Moreover,  Joseph  II  se- 


questrated the  property  situated  in  Lombardy  and 
forbade  his  subjects  to  attend  the  college.  The  build- 
ings, however,  were  increased  by  the  addition  of  the 
palace  opposite  to  S.  Agostino. 

On  the  proclamation  of  the  Roman  Republic  the 
property  of  the  foreign  national  colleges  was  declared 
escheated  to  the  Government  and  was  sold  for  an 
absurdly  small  sum.  On  that  occasion  the  library 
and  the  precious  archives  of  sacred  music  possessed  by 
the  college  were  scattered.  Pius  VII  restored  what- 
ever remained  unsold  and  ordered  the  rest  to  be  re- 
purchased as  far  as  possible.  In  the  first  years  the 
revenues  were  employed  to  pay  off  the  debts  con- 
tracted in  this  repurchase.  In  1824  the  palace  of  S. 
Apollinare  as  well  as  the  villa  at  Parioli  was  reunited 
to  the  Seminario  Romano.  The  first  students  were 
received  in  1818  and  lived  in  the  professed  house  of 
the  Jesuits  at  the  Gesil,  and  there  the  college  re- 
mained till  1851.  From  that  time  the  administration 
was  entrusted  to  the  general  of  the  Jesuits,  who  ap- 
pointed the  rector  and  other  fathers  in  charge  of  the 
college.  In  1845  the  estate  of  S.  Pastore  near  Zaga- 
rolo  was  acquired.  In  1851  the  residence  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Palazzo  Borromeo  in  the  Via  del  Semi- 
nario where  it  remained  till  1886.  In  1873  when  the 
Collegio  Romano  was  taken  away  from  the  Jesuits, 
the  Collegio  Germanico  found  a  home  in  the  Grego- 
rian University.  In  1886  owing  to  the  necessity  of 
having  more  extensive  quarters,  the  Collegio  Ger- 
manico was  transferred  to  the  Hotel  Costanzi  in  the 
Via  S.  Nicola  da  Tolentino.  The  college  receives  Ger- 
man students  from  the  old  German  Empire  and  from 
Hungary;  places  are  free,  but  there  are  some  stu- 
dents who  pay  (cf.  Steinhuber,  "Geschichte  des  Col- 
legium Germanicum-Hungaricum  in  Rom",  Frei- 
burg, 1896;  Hettinger,  "Aus  Welt  and  Kirche,"  I, 
Freiburg,  1897). 

Collegio  Teutonico  di  S.  Maria  dell'  Anima. — 
In  1399  Theodoric  of  Niem  founded  a  hospice  for  Ger- 
man pilgrims.  A  confraternity  in  aid  of  the  suffering 
souls  in  purgatory  was  soon  after  formed,  and  in  1499 
the  first  stone  of  the  beautiful  church  was  laid,  near 
the  Church  of  S.  Maria  dclla  Pace.  In  1859  this  jna 
opera  was  reorganized;  a  college  of  chaplains  to  offi- 
ciate in  the  church  was  established;  the  chaplains 
were  to  remain  only  two  or  at  the  most  three  years, 
and  at  the  same  time  were  to  continue  their  studies. 
They  devote  themselves  chiefly  to  canon  law  with  a 
view  to  employing  their  knowledge  in  the  service  of 
their  respective  dioceses;  and  they  receive  living  and 
tuition  gratis.  Other  priests  also  are  admitted  who 
come  to  Rome  at  their  own  expense  for  the  purpose 
of  study.  At  present  there  are  8  chaplains  and  about 
10  other  priests  residing  there.  The  college  continues 
to  assist  poor  Germans  who  come  to  Rome,  either  to 
visit  the  holy  places  or  in  search  of  occupation. 

Collegio  Teutonico  del  Campo  Santo,  estab- 
lished in  1876  to  receive  priests  belonging  to  the  Ger- 
man Empire  or  German  provinces  of  Austria,  who  re- 
main there  for  two  or,  at  the  most,  three  years  pursuing 
their  studies  and  officiating  in  the  Church  of  S.  Maria 
della  Piet^  near  St.  Peter's.  The  revenues  of  the 
Campo  Santo  and  the  chaplaincies  that  have  been 
founded  help  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  chaplains. 
Other  priests  may  be  received  as  boarders.  As  a  rule, 
the  chaplains  devote  themselves  to  the  study  of  Chris- 
tian archaeology  or  Church  historj^;  they  publish  a 
quarterly  review,  the  "Romische  Quartalschrift  flir 
christliche  archaeologie  und  Kirchengeschichte  ".  The 
site  of  the  Campo  Santo  dei  Tedeschi  goes  back  to  the 
days  of  Charlemagne  and  was  then  called  the  Schola 
Francorum.  In  the  course  of  time  the  German  resi- 
dents in  Rome  were  buried  in  the  church  of  the  Schola, 
then  called  S.  Salvatore  in  Turri.  In  1454  a  confra- 
ternity was  established,  and  in  addition  the  guilds  of 
German  bakers  and  cobblers  had  their  quarters  there. 
In  1876  owing  to  the  altered  conditions  of  modern 


ROMAN 


134 


ROMAN 


times  the  institute  was  put  to  its  present  purpose  (cf. 
de  Waal,  "  Der  Campo  Santo  der  Deutschen  zu  Rom". 
Freiburg.  1S97.) 

COLLEGIO    POXTIFICIO    GrECO    (ThE    GrEEK    PoX- 

TiFic.vL  College)  is  also  a  foundation  of  Gregory 
XIII,  who  e^tablislicd  it  to  receive  young  Greeks  be- 
longing to  any  nation  in  which  the  Greek  Rite  was 
used,  and  consequently  for  Greek  refugees  in  Italj'.  as 
well  a^:  the  Ruthenians  and  INIalchites  of  Egypt  and 
SjTia.  These  young  men  had  to  study  the  sacred 
sciences,  in  order  to  spread  later  sacred  and  profane 
learning  among  their  fellow-count rj-men  and  facilitate 
the  reunion  of  the  schismatical  Churches.  The  con- 
struction of  the  College  and  Church  of  S.  Atanasio, 
joined  by  a  bridge  over  the  Via  dei  Greci,  was  begun 
at  once.'  The  same  year  (1577)  the  first  students  ar- 
rived, and  until  the  completion  of  the  college  were 
housed  elsewhere.  Gregor\-  XIII  endowed  the  college. 
The  direction  was  entrusted  to  five  cardinal  protectors; 
the  rector  was  selected  at  first  either  from  the  secu- 
lar clergy  or  from  the  regulars.  Under  Sixtus  V,  but 
for  the  energetic  resistance  of  Cardinal  di  S.  Severina, 
this  promising  college  would  have  been  suppressed. 
Gregory  XIV  on  the  suggestion  of  the  learned  Pietro 
Arendius,  a  former  student  of  the  college,  entnisted 
the  direction  to  the  Jesuits  (1591),  who  introduced  a 
new  method  of  government  and  a  new  disciplinary 
spirit.  Within  a  short  time  the  number  of  collegians 
rose  to  56;  some  paj-ing  students  were  admitted  as 
boarders.  Studies  were  pursued  in  the  college  itself; 
some  of  the  professors  were  Jesuits,  some  secular 
priests,  and  some  laymen. 

In  1602  when  Cardinal  Giustiniani  became  cardinal 
protector,  so  many  changes  were  introduced  that  the 
Jesuits  withdrew  from  the  care  of  the  college  which 
was  entrusted  first  to  the  Somaschians  and  then  to  the 
Dominicans;  but  in  1622,  at  the  request  of  the  stu- 
dents, the  Jesuits  returned.  Urban  VIII  ordered  all 
the  alumni  to  bind  themselves  by  oath  to  remain  in 
the  Greek  Rite,  and  this  applied  to  Latins  who  en- 
tered the  college  surreptitiously;  the  regulation,  how- 
ever, was  frequently  disregarded  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  After  1773  secular  priests  took  charge.  The 
college  was  closed  during  the  Revolution  and  not  re- 
opened till  1849;  in  the  meantime  the  Greeks  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  College  of  the  Propaganda.  The  direc- 
tion was  entrusted  first  to  secular  priests,  then  to  the 
Resurrectionists  (1886),  and  finally  to  the  Jesuits 
(1889).  In  1897  Leo  XIII  reorganized  the  college. 
Owing  to  the  generosity  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria  and 
to  the  Ruthenian  episcopacy  a  college  was  provided 
especially  for  the  Ruthenians,  while  the  Rumanians 
were  sent  to  the  College  of  the  Propaganda.  The  di- 
rection of  the  College  of  8.  Atanasio  was  entrusted  to 
the  Benedictines,  who  a<lopted  the  Greek  Rite.  The 
students  jjerform  the  .sacred  functions  of  their  rite 
with  the  great^'st  pos.sible  splendour  in  the  Church  of 
S.  Atanasio.  Formerly  the  Latin  Rite  also  was  cele- 
brated in  the  churcli,  but  Lw  XIII  reserved  it  en- 
tirely for  th(!  Gre«-k  Rite.  The  sttidents  are  all  main- 
tained gratuitiously  f)ut  of  the  revenues  of  the  college. 
They  number  about  '.iO  to  :i5  and  follow  courses  in  the 
Pnjpaganda,  Ix'sides  having  l(H:tures  at  home  in  Greek 
language  and  literature.  They  wear  a  blue  cassock 
with  a  red  sash,  and  an  Oriental  cloak  with  large 
sleeves  (cf.  De  Mee^t<ir,  "Le  College  Pontifical  Grec 
de  Rome",  Rome,  1910). 

Pontificio-Rlteno  Colleoio  (The  Ruthenian 
Po.NTiFiCAL  0>LLEf;E),  was  founded,  as  said  above,  in 
1897,  and  the  Church  of  SS.  Sergio  e  Biu-co  was  a.s- 
signed  U)  it.  At  first  it  was  in  chargf!  of  the  Jesuit-s 
but  HDinc  years  lat<T  it  was  entrusted  to  th<-  Ruthenian 
Basilian  monks.  There  are  affout  20  students,  who 
an;  Kupp^jrted  partly  by  the  lintlicnian  bishops  and 
partly  by  paying  a  small  fee.  They  follow  the  lec- 
turf«  at  the  Propaganrla,  anrl  wear  a  blue  cassock 
and  Boprana  (cloakj  with  a  yellow  sash. 


COLLEGIO  InGLESE  (^'EXERABILE  COLLEGIUM  AnG- 

LORUii).     See  English  College,  The,  i\  Rome. 

CoLLEGio  Beda  is  United  to  the  Engli.sh  College 
and  intended  for  con^•erted  Anglican  clergymen  wish- 
ing to  prepare  for  tlie  priesthood.  It  was  founded  in 
1852  by  Pius  IX;  and  increased  under  Leo  XIII. 
Cardinal  Howard  bequeathed  to  the  two  colleges  his 
valuable  librarj'.  The  country  seat  of  the  two  col- 
leges is  at  ]\Ionte  Porzio. 

CoLLEGio  ScozzESE  (The  Scots  College),  estab- 
lished in  1600  by  Clement  VIII  for  the  education  of 
Scottish  priests  for  the  preservation  of  Catholicism  in 
their  Fatherland;  it  was  assigned  the  revenues  of  the 
old  Scots  hospice,  which  were  increased  by  the  mu- 
nificence of  the  pope  and  other  benefactors.  In  1604 
the  college  was  transferred  to  its  present  situation  and 
in  1649  the  Countess  of  Huntley  constructed  a  church 
dedicated  to  Saint  Andrew  and  Saint  Margaret, 
Queen  of  Scotland.  From  1615  till  1773  it  was  under 
the  direction  of  the  Jesuits.  The  students,  number- 
ing about  20,  are  supported  partly  by  the  revenues  of 
the  college  and  partly  by  the  Scottish  bishops  and  by 
their  own  money.  They  attend  the  Gregorian  Uni- 
versity and  have  a  villa  at  Marino.  Thcj^  wear  a  pur- 
ple cassock,  with  a  crimson  sash  and  black  soprano. 

CoLLEGio  Irlandese. — See  Irish  College,  in 
Rome. 

COLLEGIO  UrBANO  DI  PROPAGANDA  (ThE  UrBAN 

College). — The  foundation  of  this  college  is  due  to 
the  zeal  of  P.  Ghislieri,  a  Theatine,  and  to  the  gen- 
erosity of  Mgr.  G.  Batta  Vives,  a  Spaniard,  consultor 
of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda,  then 
established  by  Gregory  XV.  Urban  VIII  approved 
of  the  plan  of  erecting  a  college  for  the  evangelization 
of  the  East  and  enlarged  the  palace  given  by  Mgr 
Vives;  and  under  Alexander  VII  the  Church  of  the 
Three  Magi  was  added.  Vives  established  in  addi- 
tion six  free  scholarships;  foundations  were  made  by 
other  pontiffs  and  prelates,  especially  by  Innocent  XII, 
Clement  XII,  and  the  brother  of  Urban  Mil,  Car- 
dinal Antonio  Barberini.  The  college^  deiiends  on  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda,  which  ap- 
points the  rector,  who  at  first  was  a  Theatine  but  for 
centuries  has  always  been  a  secular  prelate,  who  is  the 
parish  priest  of  all  who  live  in  the  Palace  of  the 
Propaganda;  there  are  also  a  vice-rector,  a  bursar, 
and  an  assistant.  Alexander  VII  imposed  on  all  the 
students  an  oath  binding  them  to  remain  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Propaganda,  not  to  enter  a  religious 
order  without  special  permission,  and  to  return  after 
ordination  to  the  priesthood  to  their  dioceses  or  prov- 
inces to  engage  in  the  sacred  ministry,  and  to  send 
each  year  if  in  Europe,  or  every  second  year  other- 
wise, a  report  of  their  apostolic  work.  Students  are 
recommended  by  the  bishops  subject  to  the  Propa- 
ganda, and  the  governing  body  select  the  students  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  vacancies,  the  places  always 
being  free.  In  179S  the  college  was  dosed;  some  of 
the  .students  were  receivecl  hv  the  Lazarists  at  Mon- 
tccitorio.  This  lasted  till  ISO',)  when  all  that  remained 
of  the  college  was  suppressed.  In  1814  som<!  of  the 
Propaganda  students  were  again  received  by  the  Laz- 
arists,  and  in  1817  the  college  was  reopened.  From 
1836  till  1848  it  was  under  the  direction  of  the  Jesuits. 
The  number  of  students  is  about  120.  From  the 
foundation  of  the  college  there  have  been  courses  of 
classics,  philosophy,  and  theology,  in  which  academic 
degrees  are  granted.  The  classical  course  lasts  four 
years;  the  course  of  philosophy,  including  physics,  and 
chemi.stry,  and  the  history  of  philosojihy,  two  years; 
the  course  of  theology,  four  years.  On  the  feast  of  the 
Epiphany  the  schools  hold  a  solemn  academy  in  vari- 
ous languages.  The  colh^ge  possesses  a  vahiabh^  li- 
brary. In  addition  to  the  many  ecclesia-stical  digni- 
taries among  the  ))ast  students  Xhv.rv  were  four 
martyrs:  the  Belgian  Jactjues  Foelech  (1643);  Pietro 
Ccsy  (1680,  in  Ethiojjia);    the  Armenian  Mclchior 


ROMAN 


135 


ROMAN 


Tasbag  (1716,  at  Constantinople);    Nicholas  Bosco- 
vich  (1731). 

COLLEGIO  DEI  MaRONITI  (ThE  MaRONITE  COL- 
LEGE), founded  by  Gregory  X II I ,  li  ;id  its  first  site  near 
the  Church  of  S.  Maria  dclhi  iMcoccia  near  the  Piazza 
di  Trevi.  It  was  richly  endowed  by  Sixtus  V  and  Car- 
dinal Antonio  Caraffa,  and  also  by  other  popes,  and 
was  entrusted  to  the  Jesuits;  the  pupils  attended  the 
Gregorian  University.  During  the  Revolution  of 
1798  the  College  was  suppressed,  and  the  Maronites 
who  wished  to  study  at  Rome  went  to  the  Collegio 
Urbano.  In  1893  Mgr.  Khayat,  the  Maronite 
Patriarch,  obtained  the  restoration  of  the  college 
from  Leo  XIII.  The  Holy  See  gave  part  of  the  funds, 
the  remainder  was  collected  in  France,  and  in  1894 
the  new  college  was  inaugurated.  In  1904  it  acquired 
its  own  residence,  and  is  now  under  the  charge  of 
Maronite  secular  priests.  The  students  numbered  8 
at  the  beginning,  there  are  now  19;  the  greatest 
number  that  can  be  received  is  24. 

Collegio  Belga  (Tue  Belgian  College),  estab- 
lished in  1844  through  the  initiative  of  Mgr  Aerts, 
aided  by  the  nuncio  in  Belgium,  then  Mgr.  Pecci,  and 
by  the  Belgian  bishops.  At  first  it  was  located  in  the 
home  of  Mgr  Aerts,  rector  of  the  Belgian  national 
Church  of  S.  Giuliano.  In  1845  the  ancient  monas- 
tery of  Gioacchino  ed  Anna  at  the  Quattro  Fontane 
was  purchased.  The  Belgian  episcopate  supports  the 
students  and  proposes  the  president.  The  students, 
20  and  more  in  number,  attend  the  Gregorian;  their 
dress  is  distinguished  by  two  red  stripes  at  the  ends  of 
the  sash. 

Collegio  degli  Stati  Uniti  dell'  A.merica  del 
NoRD.     See  American  College,  The,  in  Ro.me. 

Collegio  Pio  Latino-Americano. — -See  American 
College,  The  South,  in  Rome. 

Collegio  Polacco  (The  Polish  College). — In 
1583,  St.  Philip  Neri,  and  in  alxmt  1600,  King  John 
Casimir  had  begun  the  foundation  of  a  college  for 
Poles,  but  their  institute;  was  short-lived.  In  1866  a 
college  was  finally  opened  du(;  to  the  efforts  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Resurrection,  which  raised  the 
first  funds  to  which  Princess  Odescalclii,  Pius  IX,  and 
others  contributcnl  later.  In  1878  the  college  was 
transferred  to  its  present  location,  the  former  Mar- 
onite College,  and  the  adjoining  church  was  dedicated 
to  St.  John  Cantius.  The  students,  some  of  whom 
pay  a  small  pension,  number  30  and  are  distinguished 
by  their  green  sashes;  they  attend  the  lectures  in  the 
Gregorian.  The  college  is  under  the  care  of  the  Res- 
urrectionists and  possesses  a  villa  at  Albano. 

Collegio  Illirico  (The  Illyrian  College),  es- 
tablished in  1863  by  Pius  IX  to  prepare  priests  for 
Dalmatia,  Croatia,  Bosnia,  and  Slavonia,  and  was  lo- 
cated in  the  Illyrian  hospice  near  the  Church  of  S. 
Girolamo  degli  Schiavoni ;  but  after  a  few  years^  no 
more  students  were  received.  In  1900,  Leo  XIII 
reorganized  the  Illyrian  hospice  and  decided  to  form 
a  college  of  priests  of  the  above-mentioned  provinces, 
who  would  attend  to  the  services  in  the  church  and 
at  the  same  time  pursue  ecclesiastical  studies. 

Seminario  Francese  (The  French  Seminary). 
— The  French  bishops  at  the  Council  of  La  Rochelle 
(1853)  petitioned  Pius  IX  to  approve  of  their  plan  of 
founding  a  French  Seminary  in  Rome  for  the  special 
purpose  of  training  a  body  of  priests  strongly  attached 
to  the  Holy  See  and  prepared  to  counteract  the  influ- 
ence of  Gallican  ideas.  The  seminary  was  opened  the 
same  year  with  12  students  under  the  direction  of  P. 
Lamurien  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
which  order  still  directs  it,  while  the  students  attend 
the  lectures  at  the  Gregorian.  The  students  are  in 
part  priests  who  wish  to  perfect  their  knowledge,  and 
partly  seminarists  preparing  for  the  priesthood.  The 
seminary  is  located  in  the  Via  del  Seminario;  its  first 
site  was  the  old  Irish  College  near  the  Trajan  Forum. 
In  1856  Pius  IX  assigned  to  the  seminary  the  Church 


of  S.  Chiara  with  the  adjoining  Poor  Clare  convent, 
founded  in  1560  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo  on  the  ruins 
of  the  Baths  of  Agrippa.  The  (church  was  rebuilt  on 
the  plan  of  Notre-Dame-des-Victoires  in  Paris;  in 
1883  the  monastery  was  entirely  remodelled  to  suit  its 
present  purpose.  Leo  XIII  declared  it  a  pontifical 
seminary  in  1902.  The  students  pay  a  pension, 
though  in  some  cases  it  is  paid  from  the  funds  of  their 
diocese;  students  not  belonging  to  France  are  also  ad- 
mitted. The  seminarists  generally  number  between 
100  and  120  (cf.  Eschbach,  "Le  s^minaire  pontifical 
fran^ais  de  Rome",  Rome,  1903). 

Collegio  dei  Cappellani  di  S.  Luigi  dei  Fran- 
CEsi. — This  is  another  French  institution.  The 
church  dating  from  1496  served  as  a  parish  for  the 
French  residents  at  Rome.  In  1840  on  the  proposal 
of  Cardinal  Bonnechose  the  parish  was  suppressed 
and  the  revenue  applied  to  create  chaplaincies  for 
young  students,  French  priests,  who  wished  to  spe- 
cialize at  Rome  in  canon  law,  archaeology,  or  ecclesiasti- 
cal history.  Until  1906  the  chaplains  publislued  the 
"  Annales  de  St.  Louis  des  Fran^ais",  devoted  specially 
to  history.  After  the  decease  of  Mgr  Cadenc,  they 
undertook  the  continuation  of  the  "Analccta  Eccle- 
siastica"  containing  the  Acts  of  the  Holy  See,  as  well 
as  moral  and  canonical  dissertations. 

Collegio  Boemo  (The  Bohemian  College),  estab- 
lished in  1884  partly  with  the  revenues  of  the  ancient 
Bohemian  hospice  founded  by  Emperor  Charles  IV, 
and  with  contributions  of  Leo  XIII  and  the  Bohemian 
bishops.  The  site  was  transferred  several  times,  but 
in  1888  the  old  monastery  of  S.  Francesca  Romana  in 
the  Via  Sistina  was  purchased.  The  rector  is  always 
one  of  the  professors  in  the  Propaganda,  which  the 
students  attend.  They  number  from  24  to  28  and 
are  distinguished  by  their  black  sashes  with  two  yel- 
low stripes  at  the  extremities.  They  have  a  villa  at 
Trevi  in  Urnbria. 

Collegio  Armeno  (The  Armenian  College). — 
Gregory  XIII  in  1584  had  decreed  the  erection  of  a 
college  for  tlie  Armenians  (Bull  "Romana  Ecdesia"), 
but  tlie  plan  fell  through.  When  the  Collegio  Ur- 
bano (A  the  Propaganda  was  founded  later  there  were 
always  some  places  for  students  of  this  nation.  Fi- 
nally, in  1885,  Gregory's  proposal  was  carried  into 
efTect,  thanks  to  the  generosity  of  some  wealthy  Ar- 
menians and  of  Leo  XIII.  The  college  was  granted 
the  Church  of  S.  Nicola  da  Tolentino  in  the  street  of 
that  name.  The  president  is  an  Armenian  prelate; 
the  students  numbering  from  20  to  25  attend  the  lec- 
tures at  the  Propaganda,  and  wear  red  sashes  and 
large-sleeved  Oriental  cloaks. 

Collegio  Spagnuolo  (The  Spanish  College), 
founded  in  1892  through  the  initiative  of  Leo  XIII 
and  the  generosity  of  the  episcopacy,  the  royal  family, 
and  otlicr  benefactors  in  Spain.  Installed  at  first  in 
the  national  hospice  of  S.  Maria  in  Monserrato,  it  was 
transferred  later  to  the  Palazzo  Altemps  near  S.  Apol- 
linare.  The  students  numbering  70  are  for  the  most 
part  supported  by  their  bishops;  they  attend  the 
Gregorian,  and  are  distinguished  by  a  pelerine  and  a 
sky-blue  sash.  The  direction  is  entrusted  to  the  pious 
Spanish  Congregation  of  the  Operarii  Dia-cesani. 

Collegio  Canadese  (The  Canadian  College). — 
Cardinal  Howard  took  the  first  steps  towards  the  erec- 
tion of  this  institute.  The  Canadian  Congregation  of 
St.  Sulpice  undertook  to  defray  the  expenses.  The 
building  was  soon  erected  (1887)  in  the  Via  delle 
Quattro  Fontane,  and  in  1888  the  first  pupils  were 
enrolled.  Some  of  the  students  are  priests  and  fol- 
low the  lectures  in  the  Propaganda,  and  those  who 
have  already  completed  their  studies  in  Canada  are 
privileged  to  receive  a  degree  after  two  years  in  Rome. 
The  Sulpicians  are  in  charge  of  the  college. 

PoNTiFico  Collegio  Portoghese  (The  Portu- 
guese Pontifical  College),  founded  in  1901  by  Leo 
XIII;  its  direction  is  entrusted  to  Italian  secular 


ROMAN 


136 


ROMAN 


priests,  and  the  students  attend  the  lectures  at  S. 
Apollinare. 

CoLLEGio  Apostolico  Leoniano  owes  its  origin  to 
P.  Valentini,  a  Lazarist,  who,  aided  by  a  pious  lady, 
received  in  a  private  house  the  students  who  could  not 
gain  admittance  to  the  other  colleges.  This  college 
and  the  re\enue  left  by  the  lady  were  taken  over  later 
by  the  Holv  See  and  a  large  building  was  erected  in 
the  Prati  dl  Castello.  The  direction  was  committed 
to  the  Jesuits.  The  students,  mainly  of  the  southern 
pro\-inces  that  have  no  special  college  at  Rome,  at- 
tend the  lectures  in  the  Gregorian  University. 

L'organisaiion  el  administration  centrale  de  Veglise  (Paris, 
1900),  600  sqq.  D.^xiel;  Baumgartex;  de  Waau  Rome.  Le 
chef  supreme;  MoROXi,  Dizionario,  XIII   (Venice,   1S42),   LXIV 


(ibid.,  1S53^ 


U.  Benigni. 


Roman  Congregations,  The. — Certain  depart- 
ments have  been  organized  by  the  Holy  See  at  various 
times  to  assist  it  in  the  transaction  of  those  affairs 
which  canonical  disciphne  and  the  individual  interests 
of  the  faithful  bring  to  Rome.  Of  these  the  most 
important  are,  without  doubt,  the  Roman  Congrega- 
tions {Sacrce  Cardinalimn  Congregationes),  as  is  evi- 
dent from  the  mere  consideration  of  the  dignity  of 
their  membership,  consisting,  as  it  does,  of  cardinals 
who  are  officially  the  chief  collaborators  of  the  sover- 
eign pontiff  in  the  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the 
Universal  Church.  Nevertheless  it  should  be  noted 
that  cardinals  have  not  always  participated  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  the  same  way. 
A  research  on  the  various  usages  that  have  obtained 
in  this  connexion  would  lead  us  too  far  from  our  pres- 
ent subject,  but  is  taken  up  imder  Cakdinal;  Con- 
sistory, Papal. 

The  Roman  Congregations  originated  in  the  neces- 
sity, felt  from  the  beginning,  of  studying  the  questions 
submitted  for  pontifical  decision,  in  order  to  sift  the 
legal  questions  arising  and  to  establish  matters  of 
fact  duly.  This  work,  at  first  entrusted  to  the  papal 
chaplains,  was  afterwards  divided  between  the  pxni- 
tenliarii  and  the  auditores,  according  as  questions  of 
the  internal  or  the  external  forum  (i.  e.,  jurisdiction) 
were  to  be  considered.  Thereafter,  cardinals  in  greater 
or  less  number  were  associated  with  them.  Often, 
however,  they  were  not  merely  entrusted  with  the 
preparation  of  the  ca.se,  but  were  given  authority  to 
decide  it.  As,  on  the  other  hand,  the  increased  num- 
bers of  cases  to  be  pa.s.sed  upon  occupied  a  great  num- 
ber of  persons,  while  the  proper  administration  of 
justice  required  that  those  persons  should  be  of  the 
most  experienced,  it  appeared  to  be  advisable,  if  not 
nece.s.sarj',  to  divide  this  business  into  various  and  dis- 
tinct groups.  This  division  would  evidently  facilitate 
the  selection  of  wi.se  and  experienced  men  in  all 
branches  of  ecclesia-stical  affairs.  Hence  also  a  nat- 
ural division  into  executive  ca.ses,  assigned  to  the 
officf^  (officifi),  judicial  cases,  reserved  to  the  tribu- 
nals, and  a<lministrative  cases,  committed  to  the 
Roman  Congregations. 

Sixtus  V  was  the  first  to  dLstribute  this  adminis- 
trative business  among  different  congregations  of 
cardinals;  and  in  his  Constitution  "Immensa"  (22 
Jan.,  1.588)  he  generalized  the  id(!a,  already  conceived 
and  partly  rwluced  to  practice  by  some  of  his  prede- 
cessors, of  committing  one  or  another  ca.se  or  a  group 
of  cases  to  the  examination,  or  to  the  decision,  of 
wjveral  cardinals.  By  a  judicious  division  of  admin- 
istrative matters,  he  estaj^lished  that  p(!rman(!nt 
organization  of  thf«e  departments  of  the  Curia, 
which  since  then  have  n-ndcred  such  great  services 
to  the  Church.  The  c()ngrcgatif)ns  at  first  establislied 
by  Sixtus  V  were  ofTicially  designated  as:  (1)  for  Holy 
Inquisition;  (2)  for  the  Signature  of  Grace;  Ci)  for  the 
erection  of  churches  and  fonsiKtorial  provisions;  (4) 
for  the  abundanf*-  of  supplifs  and  prosperity  of  the 
Church's  temporal  dominions;  (Ty)  for  sacred  rites 
and  ceremonies;  ((>)  for  equipping  the  fleet  and  main- 


taining it  for  the  defence  of  the  Church's  dominions; 
(7)  for  an  index  of  forbidden  books;  (8)  for  the  execu- 
tion  and   interpretation   of   the   Council   of   Trent; 

(9)  for  relieving  the  ills  of  the  States  of  the  Church; 

(10)  for  the  University  of  the  Roman  study  (or 
school);  (11)  for  regulations  of  religious  orders;  (12) 
for  regulations  of  bishops  and  other  prelates;  (13)  for 
taking  care  of  roads,  bridges,  and  waters;  (14)  for  the 
Vatican  printing-press;  (15)  for  regulations  of  the  af- 
fairs of  the  Church's  temporal  dominions. — From  this 
it  will  be  seen  that,  while  the  chi(>f  end  of  the  Con- 
gregations of  Cardinals  was  to  assist  the  sovereign 
pontiff  in  the  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  Church, 
some  of  these  congregations  were  created  to  assist  in 
the  administration  of  the  temjwral  States  of  the  Holy 
See.  The  number  of  these  varied  according  to  cir- 
cumstances and  the  requirements  of  the  moment. 
In  the  time  of  Cardinal  De  Luca  there  were  about 
nineteen  of  them,  as  he  himself  tells  us  in  his  admi- 
rable work  "Relatio  Romana;  Curiae  forensis",  with- 
out counting  other  congregations  of  a  lower  order, 
consisting  of  prelates,  as  were,  for  example,  the 
"Congregatio  baronum  et  montium"  and  the  "Con- 
gregatio  computorum ' ' . 

Other  congregations  were  added  by  different  popes, 
until  the  present  organization  was  estabhshed  by 
Pius  X  in  his  Constitution  "Sapienti  consilio"  of  29 
June,  1908,  according  to  which  there  are  thirteen  con- 
gregations, counting  that  of  the  Propaganda  as  only 
one.  As,  however,  the  last-named  congregation  is 
divided  into  two  parts:  Congregation  of  the  Propa- 
ganda for  Affairs  of  the  Latin  Rite,  and  Congregation 
of  the  Propaganda  for  Affairs  of  the  Oriental  Rites,  it 
may  well  be  considered  as  two  congregations;  so  that 
the  total  number  of  the  congregations  is  fourteen. 
Sixtus  V  granted  ordinary  jurisdiction  to  each  of  the 
congregations  which  he  instituted  within  the  hmits 
of  the  cases  assigned  to  it,  reserving  to  himself  and  to 
his  successors  the  presidency  of  some  of  the  more  im- 
portant congregations,  such  as  the  Congregation  of  the 
Holy  Inquisition  and  that  of  the  Signature  of  Grace. 
As  time  went  on,  the  congregations  of  cardinals, 
which  at  first  dealt  exclusively  with  administrative 
matters,  came  to  pass  upon  the  legal  points  of  the 
cases  submitted  to  them,  until  the  congregations  over- 
shadowed the  ecclesiastical  tribunals  and  even  the 
Roman  Rota  in  fact  almost  took  their  places.  In 
time  the  transaction  of  business  was  impeded  by  the 
cumulation  of  jurisdictions,  different  congregations 
exercising  jurisdiction  rendering  decisions,  and  enact- 
ing laws  in  the  same  matters.  Pius  X  resolved  to 
define  the  competency  of  each  congregation  more 
precisely  and  to  provide  otherwise  for  the  better  exer- 
cise of  its  functions.  It  would  not  bo  possible  to  re- 
late here  all  the  changes  effected  in  this  connexion. 
The  reader  seeking  detailed  information  may  consult 
the  commentaries  that  have  already  appeared  on  the 
Constitution  "Sapienti  consilio"  (see  Cieiieral  Bibli- 
ography at  the  end  of  this  article).  Mention  will  be 
made  here  of  only  the  chief  among  tho.se  innovation.s 
which,  besides  the  principal  one  of  the  demarcation  of 
competency,  are  to  hv.  found  in  t  he  following  j)rovisions. 

All  decisions  of  the  sacred  congregations  require 
pontifical  approval,  unless  special  powers  have  been 
given  previou.sly  by  the  pope.  The  officials  of  the 
congregations  are  divided  into  two  classes:  minor 
officers  who  are  to  be  chosen  by  competitive  exam- 
ination and  named  by  a  letter  of  the  cardinal  pre- 
fect, and  major  officers,  freely  selected  by  the  pope, 
and  named  by  a  not(!  of  the  cardinal  secretary  of 
State.  Th(Te  is  to  b(!  henc(>forth  no  cumulation  of 
oflfices  in  the  hands  of  one;  individual,  not  only  to 
satisfy  the  requiremcints  of  distributive  justice,  but 
also  because  the  tenun;  of  several  offices  by  the  .same 
person  often  results  in  detriment  to  the  service. 
Wherefore,  it  is  forbidden  for  an  officer  of  one  of  the 
congregations  to  s(!rve  in  any  way  as  an  agent,  or  as  a 


ROMAN 


137 


ROMAN 


procurator  or  advocate,  in  liis  own  department  or  in 
any  other  ecclesiastical  tribunal.  The  competency 
of  the  congresso  in  each  congregation  is  determined. 
The  congresso  consists  of  the  major  officers  under  the 
presidency  of  the  cardinal  who  presides  over  the  con- 
gregation. It  deals  with  the  matters  of  less  impor- 
tance among  those  that  are  before  the  congregation, 
while  those  of  greater  moment  must  be  referred  to  the 
full  congregations  of  cardinals.  It  is  also  the  business 
of  the  congresso  to  prepare  for  their  discussion  those 
matters  that  are  to  be  considered  by  the  full  congre- 
gation. On  the  other  hand,  the  congresso  is  charged 
with  the  execution  of  the  orders  of  the  full  congrega- 
tion that  have  received  the  approval  of  the  pope.  As 
examples  of  matters  of  greater  importance  which  must 
be  considered  by  the  full  congregation,  the  special 
rules  {normce  peculiares)  mention  the  solution  of 
doubts  or  of  questions  that  may  arise  in  regard  to  the 
interpretation  of  ecclesiastical  laws,  the  examination 
of  important  administrative  controversies,  and  kin- 
dred matters.  The  norrrue  peculiares  and  the  normce. 
communes,  together  with  the  Constitution  "Sapienti 
consilio  ",  constitute  the  entire  code  of  the  new  organi- 
zation of  the  Roman  ecclesiastical  departments. 

I.  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office. — As 
the  Roman  Inquisition  {Romana  InquisUio)  this  con- 
gregation is  of  very  ancient  origin,  dating  from  Inno- 
cent III  (1194-1216),  although  some  authorities  at- 
tribute its  establishment  to  Lucius  III  (1181-85). 
In  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  Innocent 
III  established  at  Rome  an  inquisitorial  tribunal 
against  the  Albigenses  and  other  innovators  of  the 
south  of  France.  From  its  first  title  of  Romana  In- 
quisUio was  derived  the  usage  of  calling  this  body 
Congregation  of  the  Holy  Roman  Universal  Inquisi- 
tion. Sixtus  V,  in  the  Bull  "Immensa",  calls  it  Con- 
gregatio  pro  S.  inquisilione  and  also  Congregatio  sancta; 
inquisilionis  h(rreticce  pravitalis.  Benedict  XIV  calls 
it  Romance  Universalis  Inquisilionis  Congregatio 
(Const.  "Sollicita").  Later  it  had  the  official  title 
Suprema  Congregatio  sanctce  romance  et  universalis 
inquisilionis.  Pius  X  in  his  recent  Constitution  calls 
it,  simply,  Congregatio  S.  Officii.  The  qualification 
of  Supreuia  was  omitted,  jjossibly  to  avoid  the  ap- 
pearance of  an  iiic(iu:ility  of  dignity  among  the  con- 
gregations, they  being  all  of  the  same  rank  and  dignity, 
since  they  an;  corny)os(Hl  of  cardinals.  According  to 
Leitner,  the  name  Inquisition  was  suppressed  in  order 
to  shield  this  congregation  from  the  hatred  inspired 
by  that  name.  It  retains,  therefore,  the  title  of  Holy 
Office,  so  well  suited  to  the  most  holy  office  to  which 
it  is  assigned,  namely,  that  of  removing  the  faithful 
from  the  danger  of  deviation  from  the  Faith  through 
the  influence  of  false  doctrine.  In  12.51  Innocent  IV 
gave  the  Dominicans  charge  of  this  tribunal.  In  view 
of  the  progress  of  the  Reformation,  Paul  III,  by  the 
Bull  "Licet  ab  initio",  of  21  July,  1542,  declared  the 
Roman  Inquisition  to  be  the  supreme  tribunal  for  the 
whole  world;  and  he  assigned  to  it  six  cardinals. 
Simier  (La  curie  romaine,  cf.  S.  n.  I)  is  of  opinion  that 
Paul  III  appointed  the  six  cardinals  of  S.  Clemente, 
S.  Sisto,  S.  Balbina,  S.  Cecilia,  S.  Marcello,  and  S. 
Silvestro  general  inquisitors,  with  universal  powers, 
not,  however,  to  act  collegialiter,  as  a  tribunal,  but 
individually  and  independently  of  one  another.  The 
Constitution  "Licet  ab  initio"  lends  itself  to  that 
interpretation.  But  the  Holy  Office  did  not  begin 
its  existence  as  a  congregation  until  1558,  in  the 
reign  of  Paul  IV.  As  time  went  on,  the  number  of 
cardinals  assigned  to  the  Holy  Office  was  increased, 
and  the  tribunal  took  a  form  like  that  of  the  other 
congregations.  Formerly  a  cardinal  used  to  be  se- 
lected to  preside  over  the  Holy  Office  with  the  title 
of  prefect;  the  first  to  be  appointed  to  this  charge  was 
Cardinal  Michele  Ghislieri,  afterwards  Pius  V.  The 
prefecture  of  the  congregation,  however,  has  long  been 
reserved  by  the  pope  to  himself. 


Like  all  the  other  congregations,  the  Holy  Office 
has  officials  of  the  second  order.  The  first  of  these  is 
the  assessor,  one  of  the  highest  officers  of  the  Curia; 
next  comes  the  commissary,  always  a  Dominican. 
Sometimes,  as  an  exception,  these  two  officials  are 
invested  with  the  episcopal  character.  Among  the 
other  officers  who  complete  the  personnel  of  the  Holy 
Office  are  a  vice-commissary,  a  first  associate  (socius), 
and  a  second  associate,  all  Dominicans,  also  a  som- 
mista,  a  fiscal  advocate,  an  advocatus  reorum  and  some 
notaries. 

It  may  appear  strange  that  so  many  positions  in 
this  congregation  are  filled  by  Dominicans.  The 
reason  is  to  be  found  in  the  great  solicitude  of  Pius  V 
for  the  Holy  Office,  which  solicitude  led  him  to  re- 
serve all  these  functions  for  his  fellow-Dominicans, 
especially  those  of  the  Province  of  Lombardy,  to 
which  he  himself  had  belonged,  and  in  whose  members 
he  reposed  great  confidence.  It  is  to  be  observed 
that,  whereas  the  assessor  now  takes  precedence  of 
the  commissary,  the  contrary  order  obtained  in  for- 
mer times,  even  in  the  days  of  Cardinal  De  Luca 
(Relatio  curia;  forensis  disc,  14,  n.  6),  for  the  com- 
missary had  the  faculties  of  a  true  judge  in  ordinary, 
while  the  assessor  was  merely  an  assessor  or  consultor, 
as  in  other  tribunals.  According  to  Simier  (La  curie 
romaine,  ch.  i,  n.  I)  this  change  occurred  towards  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Besides  the 
officers  already  mentioned,  the  Holy  Office,  like  most 
other  congregations,  has  a  number  of  consultors, 
chosen  from  among  the  most  esteemed  and  learned 
prelates  and  religious.  Some  are  ex  officio  consultors 
by  \nrtue  of  a  right  anciently  granted ;  these  are  called 
natural  consultors  {cotisullori  nail).  They  are  the 
Master  General  of  the  Order  of  Preachers,  the  Master 
of  the  Sacred  Palace  (of  the  same  order  by  a  pri\nlege 
granted  by  Pius  V),  and  a  religious  of  the  Order  of 
Friars  Minor  added  by  Sixtus  V,  himself  a  Friar  Minor. 

This  congregation  also  has  certain  officers  peculiar 
to  itself,  required  by  the  nature  of  its  attributes. 
They  are  the  qualifiers  {qualifica tores),  exT^laincd  by 
the  function  of  these  officials,  theologians  whose  duty 
it  is  to  propose  to  the  cardinals  the  particular  note  or 
censure  by  which  objectionable  propositions  are  to  be 
condemned,  since  all  such  propositions  do  not  affect 
the  Faith  in  the  same  degree,  and  therefore  are  con- 
demned by  the  Holy  Office  not  in  a  general,  but  in  a 
specific  way,  being  termed  heretical,  erroneous,  teme- 
rarious, false,  injurious,  calumnious,  scandalous,  or 
qualified  by  the  ancient  special  phrase  piarum  aurium 
offensivce,  "offensive  to  pious  ears".  Since  the  prom- 
ulgation of  the  recent  Constitution  by  the  reigning 
pope,  giving  a  new  organization  to  the  Curia,  while  all 
that  has  been  referred  to  in  regard  to  the  internal 
status  of  this  congregation  has  remained,  a  new  divi- 
sion, to  deal  with  indulgences,  has  been  added  to  the 
Holy  Office.  For  this  division  a  congresso  h;is  also 
been  established.  Although  no  mention  is  made  in 
the  basic  constitution  of  a  congress  (congresso)  for  the 
main  part  of  this  congregation,  the  Holy  Office  itself, 
the  fact  that  it  is  said  in  the  "Norma3  pecuHares"  that 
the  Holy  Office  shall  retain  its  former  methods  of  pro- 
cedure insures  to  it  a  kind  of  congress  analogous  to 
that  of  the  other  congregations  and  consisting  of  the 
assessor,  the  commissary,  the  first  associate,  and  a  few 
other  officers.  Its  duties  are  to  examine  the  various 
cases,  and  to  decide  which  of  them  must  be  submitted 
to  the  congregation  of  the  consultors  and  which  others 
may  be  disposed  of  without  further  proceedings,  as 
is  the  case  in  matters  of  minor  importance  or  of  well- 
established  precedent.  The  Decree  often  makes  it 
clear  that  the  case  has  been  determined  in  this  way,  as 
when  use  is  made  of  the  formula:  "D.  N.  .  .Papa  .  . 
per  f acultates  R.  P.  D.  Assessori  S.  Off.  impertitas  ..." 
The  ongresso  of  the  new  division  consists  of  the 
cardinal,  secretary,  the  assessor,  the  commissary,  and 
the  surrogate  for  indulgences. 


ROMAN 


138 


ROMAN 


The  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office  defends  Catho- 
lic teaching  in  matters  of  faith  and  morals:  "Haec  S. 
Congregatio  .  .  .doetrinam  fidei  et  morum  tutatur. " 
Whence  it  follows,  and  is  exphcitly  affirmed  in  the 
"Sapienti  consilio",  that  the  Holy  Office  deals  with 
all  matters  which,  directly  or  indirectly,  concern  faith 
and  morals;  it  judges  heresy,  and  the  offences  that 
lead  to  suspicion  of  heresy;  it  applies  the  canonical 
punishments  incurred  by  heretics,  schismatics,  and 
the  hke.  In  this  the  Holy  Office  differs  from  all  the 
other  congregations,  which  arc  without  judicial  power, 
or,  at  least,  may  exercise  it  only  at  the  request  of  the 
parties  interested,  while  the  Holy  Office  has  both 
judicial  and  administrative  power,  since  the  legislator 
rightly  beheved  that  the  congregation  exclusively 
empowered  to  pass  upon  a  doctrine,  and  qualify  and 
condenm  it  as  heretical,  should  also  be  the  judge  in 
heretical  and  kindred  cases.  From  the  fact  that  the 
purpose  of  this  congregation  is  to  defend  the  Faith, 
it  follows  that  dispensation  from  the  iinpediments 
of  disparity  of  worship  and  of  mixed  religion  (which 
by  their  nature  imperil  faith,  and  which,  by  Divine 
law  itself,  is  granted  only  upon  guarantees  given  by 
the  non-Catholic  party)  pertains  to  the  Holy  Office. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  Pauline  privilege.  And  as 
the  judicial  causes  connected  with  this  privilege  and 
with  impediments  of  disparity  of  worship  and  mixed 
rehgion  have  a  remote  connexion  with  the  Faith,  it 
was  declared  that  these  causes  belonged  to  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Holy  Office  (see  decision  of  the  Cong. 
of  the  Consistory,  January,  1910).  With  regard,  how- 
ever, to  the  substantial  form  of  the  celebration  of 
mixed  marriages,  the  pope  withdrew  all  authority 
from  this  congregation,  wishing  article  11  of  the 
Decree  "Ne  temere"  to  remain  in  force. 

The  Holy  Office  formerly  had  a  more  ample  juris- 
diction, acquired  by  spontaneous  development  as 
time  went  on.  Thus  it  dispensed  from  abstinence, 
from  fasting,  and  from  the  observance  of  feasts  (all 
of  which  now  pertains  to  the  Congregation  of  the 
Council);  it  dispensed  from  vows  made  in  religious 
in.stitutions,  a  function  now  exercised  by  the  Con- 
gregation of  Religious,  and  it  dealt  with  the  nomina- 
tion of  bishops,  according  to  the  Motu  Proprio  of  Pius 
X  (17  December,  190.3),  which  business  now  belongs 
to  the  Congregation  of  the  Consistory.  In  former 
times  the  Holy  Office  even  dealt  with  causes  of  can- 
onization, a  matter  which  is  now  assigned  to  the  Con- 
gregation of  Rites.  Grimaldi  (op.  cit.  infra  in  general 
bibliography)  gives  as  an  example  of  such  cases  the 
Decree  of  the  Holy  Office  in  confirmation  of  the  cult 
of  the  Blessed  Colomba  of  Rieti,  who  died  in  the 
odour  of  sanctity  at  Perugia  in  1507;  and  he  adds: 
"Ce  genre  de  causes  est  devenu  ensuite  I'apanage  de 
la  congr6gation  des  Rites;  mais  si  la  vraie  saintet6 
6chappe  actuellement  k  la  juridiction  de  I'inquisition, 
ce  tribunal  a  conserve  le  privilege  de  juger  la  faus.se 
8aintet6.  Dans  cet  ordre  d'idec^s  nous  trouvons  les 
proems,  oui  se  font  en  cour  de  Rome  pour  examiner 
les  proprieties  et  revelations"  (Causes  of  this  kind 
afterwarfls  became  the  province  of  the  Congregation 
of  Rit(!H.  Hut  if  true  sanctity  is  no  longer  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Incjuisition,  that  tribunal  has  kept  the 
privilege  of  judgmg  questions  <jf  spurious  sanctity. 
Of  this  order  are  the  proces-ses  carried  on  in  the  Roman 
Curia  to  examine  prophesir-s  and  revelations).  All 
perwjnH  an-  subject  to  the  IIolv  Office  except  cardi- 
nals, who  rnay  be  judged  only  fjy  the  pope. 

Mention  should  be  ma/le  of  th(;  strict  secrecy  which 
charact<'rizeH  the  procofdings  of  this  congregation — 
a  most  prudent  measure  indeed,  Utr  the  protection  of 
the  good  name  of  individuals  in  a  congregation  which 
must  deal  with  most  grievous  offences  against  the 
Faith.  Grirnaldi  fop.  cit.)  rightly  says,  speaking  of 
the  secrecy  of  the  Holy  Office:  "Ix;  saint-office  ayant 
k  s'occup<!r  des  d^lits  commis  non  seulement  contre  la 
foi,  main  encore  d'autrea  qui  ne  reinvent  que  de  trds 


loin  de  Fintelligence,  il  s'ensuit  qu'^tre  cite  h  ce  tri- 
bunal n'est  pas  une  recommendation,  et  en  sortir, 
meme  par  la  porte  d'un  acquitement,  ne  sera  jamais 
un  titre  de  gloire.  Aussi  doit-on  b^nir  ce  mystere 
qui  protege  celui  qui  comparait  devant  ce  tribunal, 
et  dont  le  proces  se  d^roule  sans  qu'aucune  phase  n'en 
ait  transpire  dans  le  public"  (As  the  Holy  Office  has 
to  deal  not  only  with  offences  against  the  Faith,  but 
also  with  others  which  are  very  remotely  connected 
with  the  intelligence,  it  follows  (hat  to  be  ciled  before 
this  tribunal  is  no  rccomtnentlation,  and  to  leave  it, 
even  by  the  door  of  accjuiltal,  will  never  be  a  title  to 
glory.  We  should  bless  that  mystery  which  protects 
him  who  apjjears  before  the  tribunal  and  whose  trial 
proceeds  without  any  phase  of  it  becoming  public). 

For  the  discussion  of  matters  before  the  Holy  Office 
there  are  three  kinds  of  reunions,  or,  as  they  are 
called,  congregations.  The  first  is  the  so-called  con- 
gregation of  the  consultors  at  which  the  consultors 
and  the  greater  officials  of  the  congregation  are  pres- 
ent under  the  presidency  of  the  assessor.  This  meet- 
ing is  held  on  Monday  of  each  week  in  the  Palace  of 
the  Holy  Office  behind  the  colonnade  of  St.  Peter's. 
The  most  important  matters  are  discussed  at  this 
meeting,  and  the  views  of  the  consultors  are  given  for 
the  enlightenment  of  the  cardinals  of  the  Holy  Office, 
who,  on  the  following  Wednesday,  consider  the  same 
matters  and  pass  judgment  upon  them  at  the  congre- 
gation of  cardinals  wliich  used  to  be  held  at  the  resi- 
dence of  the  general  of  the  Dominicans  near  Santa 
Maria  sopra  Alinerva,  but  since  1870  has  been  held 
at  the  Palace  of  the  Holy  Office.  The  third  congre- 
gation is  held  in  the  presence  of  the  pope,  w^ho  ap- 
proves or  modifies  the  decisions  rendered  by  the  car- 
dinals on  the  previous  day.  This  third  congregation, 
formerly  held  every  Thursday,  is  now  held  only  on 
occasion  of  the  most  exceptional  cases.  Instead  of 
the  congregation,  the  assessor  refers  the  decisions  of 
the  cardinals  to  the  Holy  Father  on  Wednesday 
evenings,  after  which  the  pope  gives  the  final  decision. 
It  was  formerly  customary,  both  at  the  congregation 
of  cardinals  and  at  that  of  Thursdays  in  the  presence 
of  the  pope  {coram  Sanclissimo),  for  the  consultors  to 
wait  in  the  antechamber  in  case  they  might  be  called 
upon  by  the  cardinals  or  tin;  11()1>-  Father  for  explana- 
tions.    This  custom  has  been  al)()li.shed. 

As  regards  the  doctriiuil  value  of  Decrees  of  the 
Holy  Office  it  should  be  observed  that  canonists  dis- 
tinguish two  kinds  of  ajjjjrohation  of  an  act  of  an  in- 
ferior by  a  superior:  first,  approbation  in  common 
form  (in  forma  communi),  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
which  does  not  take  from  the  act  its  nature  and  qual- 
ity as  an  act  of  the  inferior.  Thus,  for  example,  the 
decrees  of  a  provincial  council,  although  approved  by 
the  Congregation  of  the  Counciil  or  by  the  Holy  See, 
always  remain  provincial  conciliar  decrees.  Secondly, 
specific  approbation  {in  forma  spccifica),  which  takes 
from  the  act  approved  its  character  of  an  act  of 
the  inferior  and  makes  it  the  act  of  the  superior 
who  approves  it.  This  approbation  is  vmderstood 
when,  f<jr  example,  the  pope  ai)i)roves  a  Decree  of 
the  Holy  Officer;  ex  cerla  scientia,  motu  proprio,  or 
plenitudinc  sucb  polvMdlis.  Even  when  sj)ecifically  ap- 
proved by  the  pojx-,  decrees  of  tlu;  Holy  Office  are  not 
infallibh;.  They  call  for  a  true  assent,  internal  and 
sinc(!r(!,  bul^  they  do  not  imf)()se  an  absolute  assent, 
like  the  dogmatic  definitions  given  by  the  poi)e  as  in- 
fallible teacher  of  flu;  laith.  The  reason  is  that,  al- 
though an  act  of  this  congregation,  when  approved  by 
the  pope  spcicifically,  becom(!S  an  act  of  the  sovereign 
pontiff,  that  act  is  not  ncu-essarily  clothed  with  the 
infallible  autliority  inherent  in  t,h(!  Holy  See,  since 
the  pope  is  fre(^  to  rnak(!  th(!  act  of  an  inferior  his  own 
without  applying  his  j)ontifical  prerogative  to  its  per- 
formance. Similarly,  when  he  acts  of  his  own  voli- 
tion, he  may  teach  ex  cat  h<!dra  or  he  may  teach  in  a 
leas  decisive  and  solemn  way.  Examples  of  specific  ap- 


ROMAN 


139 


ROMAN 


probation  of  the  Decrees  of  the  Holy  Office  which  yet 
lack  the  force  of  ex  cathedra  definitions  are  given  by 
Choupin  ("Valeur  des  decisions  doctrinales  et  disci- 
plinairesdu  Saint-Siege",  Paris,  1907,  ch.  ix,  ^9).  The 
disciplinary  Decrees  of  the  Holy  Office  have  the  same 
force  as  those  of  the  other  congregations,  that  is,  they 
arc  binding  upon  all  the  faithful  if  they  be  formally 
universal ;  and  they  are  binding  only  upon  the  parties 
interested  if  they  be  merely  personal,  e.  g.,  judicial 
sentences,  which  are  law  for  the  parties  in  the  case. 
If,  however,  they  be  personal  and  at  the  same  time 
equivalently  universal,  canonists  are  not  fully  agreed 
as  to  their  force.  For  a  discussion  of  this  point  see 
Choupin,  op.  cit.,  ch.  iv,  §  33,  and  the  authors  cited 
by  him. 

A  QuEMADA,  Tract,  de  fisco  inquisilionis  (Toledo,  1564); 
LocATi,  Opus  judiciale  inquisilorum  (Rome,  1572) ;  Vanderani, 
Enchiridion  inquisilionis  (Venice,  1575);  Eymericus,  Directorium 
inquisilorum  (Home,  1578);  Bernardus  de  Como,  Lucerna 
inquisilorum  hwreticcs  pracitatis  (Rome,  1584) ;  Mendez  de 
Vasconcellos,  De  sentenliis  inquisilionis  (Rome,  1596) ;  De 
Paramo,  De  origine  el  progressu  sanctce  inquisilionis  et  de  delegata 
inquisilorum  poleslale  (Madrid,  1598) ;  Idem,  Pro  defensione 
jurisdictionis  sanctce  inquisilionis  (Madrid,  1,598);  Farinacci, 
Decisiones  criminates  de  judiciis  et  lorlura  (Vicenza,  1607); 
Garcia,  Processus  s.  inquisilionis  (Madrid,  1007) ;  Pena,  In- 
quirendorum  hcereticorum  lucerna  (Milan,  1610);  Masini,  Sacro 
arsenale,  ovvero  prallica  delV  Officio  delta  S.  Inquisilione  (Genoa, 
1625) ;  Carena,  Tract,  de  officio  S.  Inquisilionis  et  modo  proce- 
dendi  in  causis  fidei  (Cremona,  1641);  Alberghini,  Manuale 
qualificalorum  S.  Inquisilionis,  in  quo  omnia,  qu-s  ad  itlud  tri- 
bunal ac  hccresium  censuram  pertinent,  brevi  melhodo  adducuntur 
(Palermo,  1642) ;  Sallelles,  De  materiis  Iribunalium  s.  inquisi- 
lionis seu  de  regutis  mulliplicibus  pro  formando  quotis  eorum 
miiiislro,  prceserlim  consullore;  prwmissis  XII  protegomenis  de 
origine  et  progressu  diclorum  tribunatium  (Rome,  1651);  Pena- 
Carena,  Inslructio  seu  praxis  inquisilorum  (Cremona,  1655); 
Rodriguez,  Atlegaliones  fiscales,  seu  de  confiscatione  bonorum 
in  officio  sanctce  inquisilionis  (Lyons,  1663) ;  Bordoni,  Sacrum 
tribunal  judicum  in  causis  sanctce  fidei  (Lyons,  1665);  Sadssay, 
Aphorismi  inquisilorum  (Lyons,  1669);  Del  Bene,  De  officio  S. 
Inquisilionis  (Rome,  1672) ;  Macedo,  Schema  S.  Congregationis 
S.  Officii  romani  cum  elogiis  cardinalium  (Padua.  1676) ;  De  Luca, 
//  Cardinate  pralico  (Rome,  1680),  xxv;  Albizi,  De  inconstanlii 
in  fide  (Amsterdam,  168.3);  Neri,  De  judice  s.  inquisilionis 
(Florence,  1685);  Menghini,  Regote  del  tribunate  di  S.  Offizio 
(Ferrara,  1687) ;  Albizi,  De  inconstanlia  in  judiciis  (Rome,  1698) ; 
Masini,  Sacro  arsenale,  ovvero  pralica  dell'  offizio  delta  s.  inquisi- 
lione (Rome,  1730) ;  Danieli,  Recenlior  praxis  curice  romanw,  IV 
(Rome,  1759),  tit.  28;  De  Luca,  Relatio  curice  romance  (Venice, 
1759),  dissert.  14;  Camacho  Guerriero  de  Aboym,  De  privi- 
legiis  familiarum  officiatiumque  s.  inquisilionis  (Lisbon,  18.59); 
SiMOR,  De  sacris  congregationibus  romanis  et  itlarum  aucloritale 
in  ArchiiK  f.  k.  KR.,  XI  (Mainz,  1864).  410-23;  .Simor,  De  s.  Con- 
greg.  romanis  s.  officii  el  concitii  in  Archiv.  f.  k.  KR.,  XV  (1866), 
133-40;  Cad^-NE,  De  secrelo  s.  officii  in  Anal.  eccl.  (Rome),  V, 
498;  Cauzons,  Hist,  de  I'inquisition  en  France:  I.  Les  origines  de 
I'inquisilion  (Paris,  1909);  Antonius  Cordubensis,  Opus  de 
indulgentiis  (Alcald,  1554);  Theodorus  a  .Sp.  Sancto,  Tract, 
dogm.  moratis  de  indulgentiis  (Rome,  174.3);  Falise,  S.  Congre- 
gationis indutgentiarum  resotuliones  authenlicm,  pt.  I  (Louvain, 
1862) ;  Prinzivalli,  Resotuliones  seu  decrela  authentica  S.  Con- 
gregationis indulgentiis  sacrisque  retiquiis  pr(Eposit(€  ab  anno  1860 
ad  ann.  1861  accurate  coltecta  (Rome,  1862) ;  Decrela  authentica 
S.  Congregationis  Indutgentiarum  edita  jussu  et  auctoritale  Leonis 
XIII  (Ratisbon,  18S3) ;  Schneider  (ed.),  Rescripla  authentica 
S.  Congr.  Indutgentiarum,  nee  non  summaria  indutgentiarum 
(Ratisbon,  1885) ;  Melata,  Manuale  de  indulgentiis  (Rome, 
1892);  Mocchegiani,  Collectio  indutgentiarum  Iheologice,  cano- 
nice  ac  historice  digesta  (Quaracchi,  1897);  Lbpicier,  Le  in- 
dulgenze,  toro  origine,  natura  e  svotgimento.  Opera  tradotlo  dalV 
originate  inglese  del  sac.  Luigi  Cappetli  (Siena,  1897) ;  Gottlob, 
Kreuzablass  und  Almosenablass  (1905). 

II.  Congregation  of  the  Consistory. — This 
congregation  was  established  by  Sixtus  V  under  the 
title  of  Congregation  for  the  Erection  of  Churches  and 
for  Consistorial  Provisions  (pro  erectione  ecclesia- 
rum  et  provisionibus  consistorialibus).  Its  original 
organization  was  somewhat  different  from  that  of  the 
modern  congregations  of  cardinals.  It  was  a  mixed 
congregation  composed  of  cardinals  and  of  prelates, 
similar  to  the  original  Congregation  of  Propaganda 
(De  Luca,  op.  cit.,  dis.  23).  It  had  also  a  secretary 
who,  as  a  rule,  was  not  a  prelate  but  an  advocate 
(peritus  togatus).  As  time  went  on  it  took  the  form 
of  the  other  congregations,  which  consisted  entirely 
of  cardinals,  to  whom,  in  this  congregation,  two  sub- 
altern officers  were  added,  one  who  filled  the  office  of 
secretary  and  another  who  acted  as  surrogate  (sosti- 
luto).  These  two  prelates  filled  the  same  offices  for 
the  College  of  Cardinals.     Originally,   the  cardinal 


dean  was  the  prefect  of  this  congregation,  but  later, 
the  prefecture  was  reserved  by  the  pope  to  himself. 
The  recent  Constitution  of  Pius  X  has  in  part  changed 
the  organization  of  this  congregation.  The  prefec- 
ture is  still  retained  by  the  sovereign  pontiff,  and  the 
congregation  is  formed  exclusively  of  cardinals,  se- 
lected by  the  pope ;  the  secretary,  however,  is  no  longer 
a  prelate  but  a  cardinal  priest,  who  is  appointed  by 
the  Holy  Father  himself  and  who,  as  will  be  seen,  has 
become  one  of  the  most  important  officers  of  the 
Curia.  To  the  cardinal  in  control  of  the  congrega- 
tion is  attached  a  prelate  who  has  the  title  of  assessor, 
and  who,  at  the  present  time  also,  is  the  secretary  of 
the  Sacred  College.  There  is,  likewise,  a  surrogate. 
These  are  major  officials,  and  therefore,  together  with 
the  cardinal  secretary,  form  the  congresso.  This 
congregation  has  numerous  inferior  officers.  At 
present,  its  personnel  is  completed  by  several  consult- 
ors,  as  had  been  the  case  in  former  times,  before  that 
office  was  suppressed.  These  consultors,  with  the 
exception  of  two,  are  selected  by  the  pope;  the  ex- 
ceptions are  the  assessor  of  the  Holy  Office,  and  the 
secretary  of  the  Congregation  of  Extraordinary  Ec- 
clesiastical Affairs,  who  are  ex-officio  consultors  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Consistory. 

The  work  of  the  congregation  formerly  was  to  pre- 
pare the  matters  to  be  proposed  and  examined  in  the 
Consistory,  and  to  bestow  such  honours  on  ecclesias- 
tics who  sought  them  as  it  might  seem  fit  to  grant. 
The  new  constitution,  however,  has  greatly  extended 
the  scope  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Consistory,  to 
the  degree  that,  although  in  that  Constitution  the  lat- 
ter is  named  second  among  the  congregations,  it 
might  be  considered  the  first  in  importance,  on  account 
of  the  great  number  of  matters  which  have  been  as- 
signed to  it,  and  its  great  influence  in  the  affairs  of  the 
Church  from  both  the  disciplinary  and  the  adminis- 
trative point  of  view.  The  Holy  Office,  however, 
retains  its  priority,  whether  by  reason  of  ancient  cus- 
tom or  because  it  deals  with  matters  concerning  the 
Faith.  The  great  volume  of  the  business  which  now 
falls  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Consistory  and  the 
great  importance  of  the  matters  with  which  it  has  to 
deal  have  necessitated  a  division  of  the  congregation 
into  two  very  distinct  parts,  corresponding  to  two 
distinct  classes  of  business.  One  section  of  the  con- 
gregation has  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of 
preparing  the  business  to  be  brought  before  the 
Consistory;  to  establish  in  places,  not  subject  to 
Propaganda,  new  dioceses  and  collegiate  as  well 
as  cathedral  chapters;  to  elect  bishops,  ApostoUc 
administrators,  suffragans  or  assistants  of  other 
bishops;  to  prepare  the  processes  in  such  cases 
and  to  examine  the  candidates  in  doctrine.  As  re- 
gards these  processes,  it  may  be  observed  that  when 
the  appointment  is  to  be  made  in  a  place  where  the 
Holy  See  has  a  diplomatic  representative,  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  necessary  documents  is  left  to  the  office  of 
the  cardinal  secretary  of  State,  which  is  in  a  position 
more  easily  to  obtain  the  necessary  information  and 
to  collect  the  necessary  documents.  These  docu- 
ments and  information  are  transmitted  to  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Consistory,  which  prepares  the  report, 
or  official  sheet,  on  the  matter  to  be  distributed 
among  the  cardinals.  The  other  section  of  this  con- 
gregation transacts  all  the  business  that  relates  to  the 
government  of  dioceses  not  under  Propaganda :  within 
its  scope  is  the  supervision  of  bishops  in  regard  to 
the  fulfilment  of  their  duties,  the  review  of  reports 
on  the  state  of  their  Churches  presented  by  bishops, 
announcements  of  apostolic  visitations,  the  review 
of  those  previously  made,  and,  with  the  approval  of 
the  sovereign  pontiff,  the  prescription  of  necessary 
or  opportune  remedies;  finally,  the  supervision  of  all 
that  concerns  the  government,  discipline,  temporal 
administration,  and  studies  in  seminaries. 

It  is  clear  that  the  legislator  intended  to  give  to  the 


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140 


ROMAN 


Congregation  of  the  Consistorj'  complete  authoritj' 
in  all  that  relates  to  a  diocese  as  a  juridical  institu- 
tion, including  its  establishment  and  its  conservation; 
whence  the  power  of  electing  bishops,  of  supervising 
them  in  the  performance  of  their  duties,  and  of  con- 
trolhng  the  seminaries  so  intimately  connected  with 
the  future  of  the  dioceses.  For  the  same  reason  it 
would  appear  that  the  Congregation  of  the  Consis- 
tory has  authority  in  all  that  pertains  to  the  creation 
of  diocesan  societies  or  committees,  rural  banks,  and 
kincb-ed  establishments  within  a  diocese.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  ven,'  high  function  was  given  to  this 
congregation  in  the  new  organization  of  the  Curia, 
namely,  the  power  of  settling  any  doubts  in  relation 
to  the'  competencj'  of  the  other  congregations,  excep- 
tion being  made  for  the  Holy  Office,  which  is  em- 
powered to  determine  for  itself  all  such  doubts. 
Nevertheless,  the  Holy  Office  did  not  disdain  to 
submit  to  the  judgment  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Consistory  a  question  that  arose  in  regard  to  the  com- 
petency of  the  former,  after  the  promulgation  of  the 
Constitution  ' '  Sapienti  consilio  " .  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Consistory  to  send  to  bishops  the 
invitations  to  assist  at  solemn  canonizations  or  other 
solemn  pontifical  ceremonies,  according  to  ancient 
custom. 

Its  proceedings  are  characterized  by  the  same  strict 
secrecy  that  marks  the  dehberationsof  the  Holy  Office. 
As  to  the  division  of  business  between  the  congresso 
and  the  full  congregation  of  cardinals,  the  same  ar- 
rangement obtains  as  in  the  other  congregations, 
which  is  to  leave  to  the  congresso  the  matters  of  minor 
importance  while  matters  of  greater  interest  are  con- 
sidered in  the  full  congregation.  Among  such  mat- 
ters are  the  nomination  of  bishops  or  of  Apostolic 
administrators  (except,  in  regard  to  the  latter,  in 
cases  of  urgency,  in  which  the  congresso  acts  alone), 
the  creation  of  new  dioceses,  or  the  unification  of 
existing  ones,  the  erection  of  chapters,  the  drafting 
of  general  rules  for  the  direction  of  seminaries,  and 
other  similar  matters  the  enumeration  of  which  would 
take  us  beyond  the  necessary  limits  of  this  article. 

Marcelli,  De  sticris  coerem.  sire  rilib.  eccl.  S.  R.  E.  (Rome, 
1.560J;  Paleotti,  De  Sacri  consistorii  consultationibus  (Rome, 
1592);  Gabrielli,  Tract,  de  sacri  consistorii  consuUationibus  (Ven- 
ice, 1.594);  CoHELUCB,  Xolitia  cardinalatus  .  .  .  Congr.  VII  pro 
erectione  ecclesiarum  et  provision,  consistorial.  (Rome,  1653) ;  Luna- 
DOBO,  Relazione  della  corte  di  Roma  (Venice,  1664),  cap.  vi,  Delia 
eonoreg.  concist.;  Plettenberg,  Notilia  congregationum  et  tribu- 
nalium  curiw  romance  (Hildesheim,  1593) ;  De  Matta,  De 
conHilorialibus  causis  (Naples,  1694) ;  Flatus,  Tract,  de  cantinalis 
dignilate  et  officio  (Rome,  1746),  cap.  xxviii;  App.  un.  de  Consis- 
torio  et  de  S.  R.  E.  cardin.  Congreg.  ac  de  aliis  Papw  magistral.; 
Dameu,  Reeentior  praxis  curice  romance  (Venice,  1759) ;  De  Luca, 
Rel.  cur.  rom.  'Cologne,  1683),  il  cardinale  pratico,  cap.  xxx 
ddla  Congreg.  Concist. 

III.  Congregation  of  the  Sacraments. — This 
congregation,  which  owes  its  existence  to  the  recent 
Constitution  "Sapienti  consilio",  exercises  a  great 
influence  upon  ecclesiastical  discipline  through  the 
authority  given  to  it  in  its  establishment,  to  regulate 
all  Ba^;ramental  discipline.  Its  numerous  and  impor- 
tant dutir^s  were  formerly  divided  among  the  other 
crjngregations  and  offices.  As  regards  matrimony,  for 
example,  causes  of  matrimony  ratified  and  not  con- 
summated were  referred  to  the  Congregation  of  the 
Council,  dispensations  for  the  external  forum  were 
grantf^i  by  the  Dataria  or,  in  certain  cases,  the  Pfjcni- 
tentiaria;  many  matters  relating  to  the  Sacrament  of 
the  Eucharist  bfloriged  Uj  the  Omgregation  of  Rites. 
Many  other  examjjlcs  could  be  cited;  now,  how(!ver, 
all  such  matters  pertain  U)  the  Congregation  of  th(! 
Sacraments,  excepting  the  rights  of  the  Holy  Office, 
an  said  alxjve,  and  the  power  of  the  Congregation  of 
Ritfrs  to  deU-rmine  all  that  concerns  the  ceremonies 
to  be  obwrved  in  the  aflministration  of  the  sacra- 
ments. With  w»  wide  and  important  a  field  of  afitiv- 
ities,  this  congregatifm  required  a  special  organiza- 
tion. Accordingly,  besides  its  cardinals,  one  of  whom 
is  its  prefect,  it  has  a  secretary,  who  deals  with  all  the 


matters  referred  to  it,  and  who  was  later  given  three 
sub-secretaries — a  feature  in  which  it  differs  from  all 
other  congregations.  Each  one  of  these  sub-secre- 
taries is  the  director  of  one  of  the  folloNsang  sections 
of  the  congregation. 

A.  The  first  section  deals  with  all  matrimonial  dis- 
pensations, except  those  that  imply  disparity  of  re- 
ligion, which  pertain  to  the  Holy  Office.  With  regard 
to  these  dispensations  it  is  important  to  note  the  dis- 
tinction introduced  by  the  Special  Rules  between 
impediments  in  the  major  degree  and  impediments  in 
minor  degree,  and  correspondingly  between  major  and 
minor  dispensations.  Minor  dispensations  concern 
impediments  of  relationship  or  affinity  of  the  third 
and  the  fourth  degrees  in  the  collateral  line,  whether 
of  equal  degrees,  or  of  unequal  degrees — i.  e.,  of  the 
fourth  degree  with  the  third  or  of  the  third  degree 
with  the  second.  Minor  dispensations  are  also  given 
from  impediments  of  affinity  in  the  first  degree, 
or  in  the  second  degree,  whether  simple  or  mixed — 
i.  e.,  of  the  first  with  the  second  degree — when  this 
impediment  arises  from  illicit  relations,  or  from  spirit- 
ual kinship  of  whatever  nature,  or  from  impedi- 
ments of  public  decorum,  whether  arising  out  of  es- 
pousals or  out  of  ratified  marriage  already  dissolved 
by  pontifical  dispensation.  Dispensations  from  these 
minor  impediments  are  now  granted  ex  rationalibus 
causis  a  S.  Sede  probatis,  which  means  that  none  of  the 
reasons  formerly  required,  called  canonical,  are  now 
necessary  for  obtaining  the  dispensations  in  question. 
Moreover,  the.se  dispensations  are  supposed  to  be 
given  motii  proprio  and  with  certain  knowledge,  from 
which  it  follows  that  tliey  are  not  vitiated  by  obreption 
or  by  subreption.  The  other  impediments,  and  there- 
fore the  other  dispensations,  are  considered  as  of  the 
major  order,  and  the  Special  Rules  show  that  the  dis- 
pensations of  this  order  more  frequently  granted  are 
those  relating  to  the  impediment  of  consanguinity 
in  the  second  collateral  degree,  or  the  mixed  second 
or  third  degree  with  the  first ;  those  relating  to  affinity 
of  the  first  or  of  the  second  equal  collateral  degree,  or 
of  the  second  or  third  with  the  first;  finally,  those  re- 
lating to  crime  arising  from  adultery  with  a  promise 
of  future  marriage. 

B.  The  second  section  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Sacraments  also  deals  exclusively  with  matrimony, 
and  exercises  its  functions  in  all  matters  concerning 
that  sacrament,  except  dispensations  from  impedi- 
ments. Of  its  competency,  therefore,  are  the 
concessions  of  .'^analio  in  radice,  the  legitimation  of 
illegitimate  cliildrcn,  (lisi)en.sationsfrom  marriage  rati- 
fied and  not  consuimnatcd,  the  solution  of  doubts  con- 
cerning matrimonial  law,  and  the  hearing  of  causes 
concerning  the  validity  of  marriages.  In  regard  to 
the  latter,  however,  it  is  to  be  noted  that,  the  new 
Constitution  on  the  Curia  having  established  a  com- 
plete separation  between  those  departments  which 
exerci.se  judicial  power  and  those  which  are  adminis- 
trative, and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  very  nature  of 
matrimonial  cau.ses  making  it  impo.ssible  to  deter- 
mine them  administratively,  this  power  granted  to 
the  Congregation  of  the  Sacraments  should  be  inter- 
preted reasonably,  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  be  at  vari- 
ance with  the  spirit  of  the  new  Constitution.  It 
seems,  therefore,  that  this  faculty  should  be  held  to 
signify  only  that,  in  special  cases,  in  which  the  sover- 
eign poni'iff,  for  si)e('ial  reasons,  might  consider  it 
desirable  to  withdraw  a  matrimonial  cause  from  the 
Rota,  and  submit  it  to  the  judgment  of  a  congrega- 
tion, the  Congregation  of  the  Sacraments  should  be 
considered  the  competent  congregation  under  such 
circumstances.  It  must  be  admitted,  further,  that  if 
a  matrimonial  cause  be  brought  before  this  congre- 
gation, the  congregation  may,  if  it  please,  hastily  re- 
view any  matrimonial  cause  brought  before  it  and 
reject  it,  if  found  futile,  ah  i])so  limirve.  If,  however, 
the  cause  be  found  admissible,  the  congregation  should 


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141 


ROMAN 


refer  it  to  the  Rota  (unless  there  be  a  special  commis- 
sion of  the  pope  to  the  contrary),  seeing  that  the  very 
nature  of  causes  concerning  the  matrimonial  bond,  in 
which  not  private  interests  are  at  issue,  but  the  pub- 
lic welfare,  demands  that  those  causes  be  determined 
judicially,  and  not  administratively. 

None  of  this,  however,  appUes  to  dispensation  from 
a  ratified,  but  not  consummated,  marriage,  because  the 
nature  of  such  a  case  requires  that  it  be  determined 
administratively,  since  it  relates  to  the  concession 
of  a  grace.  This  does  not  do  away  with  the  neces- 
sity of  establishing  beyond  doubt  the  non-consumma- 
tion, or  the  existence  of  the  requisite  conditions  for 
the  dispensation,  since  these  conditions  constitute 
the  proof  that  the  sovereign  pontiff  has  power,  in  the 
concrete  case  under  consideration,  to  grant  the  dispen- 
sation validly  and  licitly,  and  therefore  come  within 
the  domain  of  administrative  power.  On  the  other 
hand  the  congregation  is  always  free  to  refer  to  the 
Rota  the  establishment  of  the  fact  of  non-consumma- 
tion. 

C.  The  third  section  of  this  congregation  deals  with 
all  matters  concerning  the  other  six  sacraments  than 
matrimony.  It  has  authority  in  all  matters  touching 
the  validity  of  ordinations,  in  all  matters  of  discipUne 
that  concern  these  six  sacraments  and  also  the  dis- 
pensations in  such  matters.  In  the  Special  Rules,  as 
examples  to  illustrate  the  competency  of  this  congre- 
gation, specification  is  made  of  some  of  the  dispensa- 
tions or  graces  reserved  to  it ;  these  may  be  mentioned 
here  for  the  guidance  of  those  who  may  wish  to  apply 
to  the  Holy  See.  This  section  grants  permission  to 
preserve  the  Bles.sed  Sacrament  in  churches  or  chapels 
which  are  not  so  authorized  by  common  law;  to  cele- 
brate Mass  in  private  chapels,  exercising  over  them 
due  supervision;  to  celebrate  Mass  before  dawn,  after 
midday,  or  in  the  open  air;  to  celebrate  Mass  on  Holy 
Thursday,  or  the  three  Masses  of  Christmas,  at  night, 
in  private  chapels;  to  wear  a  skull-cap  or  a  wig  either 
while  celebrating  Mass  or  in  the  exposition  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament;  to  blind  and  partially  blind  priests 
to  celebrate  the  Votive  Mass  of  the  Blessed  Virgin; 
to  celebrate  Mass  aboard  ship;  to  consecrate  a  bishop 
on  a  day  other  than  those  established  by  the  Pontifi- 
cal, or  to  confer  Holy  orders  extra  tempora,  that  is,  on 
other  days  than  those  appointed  by  law;  finally,  to 
dispense  the  faithful — even  members  of  religious  or- 
ders— from  the  Eucharistic  fast  in  cases  of  necessity. 

The  competency  of  this  congregation  is  limited  in 
relation  both  to  persons  and  to  places;  its  authority 
does  not  extend  to  places  subject  to  Propaganda,  or 
to  members  of  religious  orders,  who  for  dispensa- 
tions, relating  even  to  the  sacraments,  must  go  to  the 
Congregation  of  Religious  (an  exception  being  made 
in  regard  to  the  Eucharistic  fast,  as  stated  above). 
As  to  the  sacrament  of  matrimony,  however,  the  com- 
petency of  the  Congregation  of  the  Sacraments  is 
universal  in  relation  to  place;  objectively,  however, 
all  that  concerns  the  impediments  of  mixed  religion 
or  of  disparity  of  worship  and  the  Pauline  privilege 
pertains  exclusively  to  the  Holy  Office. 

IV.  Congregation  of  the  Council. — When  the 
Council  of  Trent  had  brought  its  gigantic  work  to  an 
end,  the  Fathers  were  greatly  concerned  for  the  prac- 
tical application  of  their  disciplinary  decrees.  The 
council  therefore  made  a  strong  appeal  to  the  sovereign 
pontiff  to  make  provision  for  this  important  end,  as 
is  shown  by  the  last  (the  twenty-fifth)  session  of  the 
council,  entitled  De  recipiendis  et  observandis  decretis. 
Pius  IV,  in  his  zeal  for  the  execution  of  the  Decrees  of 
the  Council  of  Trent,  besides  other  measures  taken 
by  him  to  this  end  (see  the  Constitution  "Benedictus 
Deus"  of  26  January,  1.563),  by  a  Motu  Proprio  of 
2  August,  1564,  commissioned  eight  cardinals  to  su- 
pervise the  execution  of  the  Tridentine  Decrees  and 
gave  them  ample  faculties  to  that  end,  providing, 
however,  that  cases  of  doubt  or  of  difficulty,  as  he  had 


already  decreed  in  the  Constitution  "Benedictus 
Deus",  should  be  referred  to  him.  In  this  Motu 
Proprio,  Pius  IV  referred  to  the  congregation  of  cardi- 
nals thus  created  as  "Congregatio  super  exsecutione 
et  observatione  S.  Concilii  Tridentini".  As  time 
went  on,  and  in  view  of  the  interpretation  of  frequent 
doubts,  the  congregation  received  from  the  succes- 
sors of  Pius  IV  the  power  also  to  interpret  the  De- 
crees of  the  Council  of  Trent,  so  that  Sixtus  V,  in  his 
Constitution  "Immensa",  already  calls  it  "Congre- 
gatio pro  exsecutione  et  interpretatione  Concilii  Tri- 
dentini", a  title  given  to  it  before  his  time.  Gregory 
XIV  afterwards  conferred  upon  it  authority  to  reply 
to  questions  in  the  name  of  the  pope. 

The  number  of  cardinals  composing  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Council  was  never  restricted  to  eight, 
for  to  that  number,  which  had  been  assigned  by  Pius 
IV,  four  more  were  soon  added.  The  number  was 
generally  greater  than  the  original  eight,  and  always 
variable,  depending  upon  circumstances  and  upon 
the  wishes  of  the  Holy  Father.  One  of  its  cardinals 
has  the  office  of  prefect,  it  also  has  a  secretary,  and 
that  office  has  always  been  filled  by  eminent  men, 
some  of  them  famous — to  take  a  few  examples, 
Fagnano,  Petra,  and  Prospero  Lambertini,  afterwards 
Benedict  XIV.  A  sub-secretary  and  other  minor 
officials  complete  the  personnel  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  Council.  In  its  origin,  and  indeed  until  the 
new  Constitution  on  the  Curia,  this  congregation  was 
without  consultors,  although  a  special  congregation 
created  by  Pius  IX  for  the  revision  of  provincial 
councils  had  consultors  from  1849,  and  these  con- 
sultors in  course  of  time  were  employed  in  the  trans- 
action of  the  business  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Council.  The  recent  Constitution,  which  suppressed 
the  special  congregation  for  the  synods,  endowed  the 
Congregation  of  the  Council  with  consultors,  to  be 
selected  by  the  pope,  some  of  whom  must  be  conver- 
sant with  matters  of  administration. 

The  competency  of  this  congregation,  extending 
to  the  interpretation  and  to  the  execution  of  the 
Decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  relate  to 
almost  all  the  branches  of  canon  law,  was  very  great. 
When  the  Rota  cea.sed  to  exercise  judicial  functions, 
matrimonial  causes  were  referred  to  the  Congregation 
of  the  Council.  There  were  also  add(!d  to  this  con- 
gregation a  Commission  of  prelates,  established  by 
Benedict  XIV,  for  the  examination  of  the  reports 
of  bishops  on  the  state  of  their  dioceses  (which  was 
commonly  called  "the  Little  Council"),  and  the 
special  congregation,  mentioned  above,  created  by 
Pius  IX,  for  the  revision  of  provincial  councils. 
At  present,  the  interpretation  of  the  Decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  is  no  longer  of  the  exclusive  compe- 
tency of  the  Congregation  of  the  Council,  but  is  shared 
by  each  congregation  within  the  limits  of  its  partic- 
ular jurisdiction.  On  the  other  hand,  the  tribunals 
of  the  Curia  may,  upon  occasion,  interpret  those 
Decrees  judicially,  in  their  application  to  concrete 
cases.  The  present  competency  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  Council,  although  differing  a  good  deal  from 
what  it  formerly  was,  is  nevertheless  extensive.  In 
general  this  congregation  has  the  supervision  of 
discipline  of  the  secular  clergy  and  of  the  Christian 
people.  From  which  it  may  be  seen  that,  while  this 
congregation  has  lost  jurisdiction  in  many  matters 
that  formerly  pertained  to  it — the  sacraments,  the 
rehgious  orders,  matrimonial  causes,  and  other 
matters— it  has  almost  absorbed  the  business  of  the 
former  Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars — in  so 
far  as  relates  to  bishops.  It  has  charge  of  the  observ- 
ance of  ecclesiastical  precepts;  consequently,  fasting, 
abstinence,  tithes,  and  the  ob.servance  of  feast  days 
are  within  its  jurisdiction,  and  to  it  recourse  must 
be  had  for  dispensations  in  those  matters.  Parish 
priests  and  canons,  pious  sodalities,  pious  unions, 
beneficent  societies,  stipends  for  Masses,  rural  banks, 


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142 


ROMAN 


diocesan  tributes,  ecclesiastical  benefices,  and  kindred 
interests  are  also  under  its  jurisdiction.  In  brief, 
it  exerciser  jurisdiction  over  diocesan  activities  in 
regard  to  both  clergy  and  laity,  as  the  Congregation 
of  the  Consistory  exercises  authority  over  the  diocese 
in  relation  to  its  constitution,  its  conservation,  and 
its  development. 

In  this  congregation,  as  in  others,  matters  of 
greater  importance  are  considered  by  the  full  congre- 
gation of  the  cardinals;  among  these  matters  are  the 
interpretation  of  laws  in  doubtful  cases,  the  granting 
of  unusual  dispensations,  the  revision  of  provincial 
councils,  and  the  Uke.  blatters  of  less  moment  are 
determined  by  the  congresso.  To  give  an  idea  of  the 
methods  of  procedure,  it  may  be  said,  for  example, 
that  in  the  revision  of  a  provincial  council,  all  the 
records  of  the  council  are  referred  to  a  consultor,  who 
is  required  to  give  a  written  opinion  upon  them. 
This  report  is  printed,  and  is  distributed  to  at  least 
five  other  consultors,  if  not  to  all  of  the  consultors, 
together  with  the  records  of  the  council.  After  the 
private  preparation  which  each  is  bound  to  make, 
the  chosen  consultors,  or  the  entire  college  of  consult- 
ors, meet  and,  in  as  many  sessions  as  the  case  may 
require,  discuss  all  the  Acts  of  the  council.  The 
written  opinion  above  referred  to,  with  a  report  of 
the  discussion  of  the  consultors  and  of  the  proposed 
corrections  and  modifications,  is  then  submitted  to 
the  full  congregation  of  the  cardinals,  who,  in  turn, 
examine  all  the  records  of  the  matter,  order  the  cor- 
rections to  be  made,  and  approve  the  council. 

Thesaurtis  resoliUionum  S.  Congr.  Concilii  {ab  anno  17 tS); 
CoHELLics,  op.  cit.,  Congr.  VI  super  eiecutione  et  interpretatione 
Sacri  Concilii  Tridentini;  Lunadoro,  op.  cit.,  x,  Delia  con- 
gregatione  del  concilia  a  della  congregazione  particolare  sullo 
atato  delle  chiese,  del  secreiario  e  di  aUri  ministri  di  dette  congrega- 
tioni:  Fagnanus,  Coram,  in  quinque  libros  Decretalium,  in  cap. 
Qxioniam  de  constitutionibus  (Venice,  1674);  De  Luca,  II  Car- 
dinale  pratico;  cap.  della  congr.  del  Concilio  di  Trento;  Danieli, 
op.  cit..  8.  v.;  MUHLBAUER,  Tkesaurus  resolutionum  S.  Congr. 
Concilii  usque  ad  annum  1871  (Munich,  1872 — ) ;  Zamboni,  Collectio 
declarationum,  S.  Congr.  Card.  Cone.  Trid.  interpretum  (Rome, 
1816) ;  Gamberini,  Resolutiones  seleclw  S.  Congr.  Concilii,  quce 
consenlanee  ad  Trid.  PP.  decreta  aliasque  juris  canonici  sancliones 
jrrodierunt  in  causis  proposilis  per  summaria  precum,  ann. 
1823-1825  (1842);  Stremler,  Traites  des  peines  eccl.  de  I'appel 
et  des  Congrig.  rom.  (Paris,  1860);  Richter-Schulte,  Canones 
et  decreta  Concilii  Tridentini  (Leipzig,  1853) ;  Pallottini,  Coll. 
omnium  conclusionum  et  resolutionum  quae  in  causis  proposilis 
apud  S.  Congreg.  Cardinalium  prodierunt  ab  anno  1564  ad  annum 
1860  (Rome,  1868 — );  Li.noen-Reuss,  Causa:  selectee  in  S.  Congr. 
Card.  Cone.  Trid.  interpr.  propositce  per  summaria  precum  ab 
anno  1823  usque  ad  annum  1869  (Ratisbon,  1871);  Parayrb, 
La  I.  congregation  du  concile  (1897);  Sagmuller,  Die  Geschichie 
der  Congr.  Cone.  Trid.  tor  d.  Motuproprio  "Alias  nos"  v.  2  aug., 
1564.  in  Arch.  f.  k.  KR.,  LXXX  (1900);  Idem.  Die  visitatio 
limtnum  SS.  Apostolorumbis  Bonifaz  Vlllin  Theol.  Quartalschr., 
LXXXII  (19fX)),  69  sqq. 

V.  Congregation  of  Religious. — Sixtus  V  first 
erected  by  a  Brief  of  17  May,  1586,  and  afterwards, 
by  the  Constitution  "Immensa",  confirmed,  a  con- 
gregation "super  fonsultationibus  regularium"  dis- 
tinct from  the  congregation  "super  consultationibus 
episcoporum  et  aliorum  pra^latorum"  mentioned  in 
the  same  Constitution.  In  1601  these  two  congre- 
gations were  already  combined  in  the  Congregation 
of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  to  which,  in  course  of  time, 
were  united  three  other  congregations  whose  functions 
were  closely  relatwl.  These  three  were:  the  Congre- 
gation on  the  State  of  Religious  (super  statu  regula- 
rium), created  by  Innocent  X  on  15  August,  1652, 
for  the  reformation  of  regulars  in  Italy,  and  sup- 
pressed by  Innocent  XII  on  4  August,  1698;  the  Congre- 
gation on  Regular  Discipline  (super  discAplina  regu- 
tari),  instituted  by  Innocent  XII  on  18  .July,  1695, 
for  the  reformation  of  n^gulars  not  only  in  Italy 
but  throughout  the  whole  worhl;  the  Congregation  on 
the  State  of  the  Regular  f  )rderH  (super  statu  regularium 
ordinum),  created  by  Vmn  IX  on  17  .June,  1847. 
The  last-named  and  the  one  on  regular  discipline 
were  suppressed  })y  Pius  X,  by  the  Motii  T'roprio  of 
26  M,'iy,  VMWt,  which  united  thf«e  congregations  with 
that  of  Bishops  and  Regulars.     The  new  (>>nstitution 


of  Pius  X  abolishes  the  Congregation  of  Regulars  and 
Bishops  and  transfers  that  part  of  its  business  which 
concerns  bishops  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Council, 
and  that  part  of  it  which  concerns  regulars  to  a 
congregation  (congregatio  negotiis  religiosorum  so- 
dalium  prajposita)  created  by  the  new  Constitution, 
and  which,  by  common  usage  sanctioned  bj^  the  legend 
on  the  official  seal  of  the  congregation,  has  received 
the  name  of  Congregation  of  Religious. 

This  body  has  the  usual  arganization  of  the  Roman 
Congregations.  It  is  formed  of  several  cardinals, 
who  are  chosen  by  the  pope,  and  one  of  whom  is  the 
prefect  of  the  congregation;  these  cardinals  are 
assisted  by  a  secretary  and  a  sub-secretary,  who  are 
the  major  officials  of  the  congregation,  and  by  several 
minor  officials.  In  regard  to  the  latter  it  is  to  be 
noted  that,  as  the  amount  of  its  business  necessitates 
a  division  of  the  congregation  into  three  parts  (as  in 
the  case  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Sacraments), 
the  highest  dignitaries  among  the  minor  officials  are 
the  three  assistants  who  are  placed  over  the  three  sec- 
tions. One  of  these  sections  has  to  deal  with  matters 
relating  to  religious  orders;  another,  with  the  busi- 
ness of  religious  congregations  or  associations  of 
men,  of  whatever  nature  those  associations  may 
be;  the  third,  with  business  relating  to  congregations 
of  women.  This  congregation  also  has  a  college  of 
consultors. 

The  Constitution  of  Pius  X  clearly  defines  the 
competency  of  this  congregation,  which  is  to  pass 
judgment  upon  all  matters  relating  to  religious  per- 
sons of  either  sex,  whether  bound  by  solemn  or  by 
simple  vows,  or  to  those  persons  who,  although  they 
be  not  religious  in  the  canonical  sense  of  the  word, 
live  as  religious — such  as  the  oblates  of  certain  com- 
munities of  men  or  of  women,  who,  without  being 
bound  by  vows,  live  a  common  life  under  an  approved 
rule.  The  third  orders,  consisting  of  seculars,  are 
also  under  this  congregation.  It  decides  in  litiga- 
tions between  members  of  religious  orders,  or  between 
religious  and  bishops,  and  it  is  the  competent  tribunal 
in  cases  which  have  to  be  dealt  with  in  the  way  of 
discipline  (in  via  disciplinari)  where  a  religious  ap- 
pears either  as  plaintiff  or  as  defendant.  Hence  it  is 
to  be  inferred,  and  indeed  is  expressly  stated  in  the 
Constitution,  that  causes  which  have  to  be  dealt  with 
in  the  judicial  way  must  be  referred  to  the  Rota,  the 
rights  of  the  Holy  Office  being  always  safeguarded. 
Finally,  all  common  law  dispensations  to  regulars 
pertain  to  this  congregation,  excepting  dispensa- 
tion from  the  Eucharistic  fast,  which,  as  said  above, 
pertains  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Sacraments. 
The  Congregation  of  Religious  is  alone  competent 
to  approve  new  religious  institutes  and  their  con- 
stitutions, as  well  as  to  modify  institutes  already 
approved,  and  these  being  matters  of  grave  impor- 
tance, the  full  congregation  deals  with  them. 

ConEi.i.ins,  op.  cit.,  Congr.  VIII  pro  consultationibus  episco- 
porum et  aliorum  prelatorum;  Congr.  IX  pro  co7isultationibus 
regularium:  IjI'nadoro,  op.  cit.,  cap.  xi,  Della  congregazione 
dei  vescovi  e  dei  regolari,  del  segretario  e  di  altri  ministri  di  delta 
congregazione;  cap.  xiii,  Della  congregazione  della  disciplina 
regolnre;  De  Luca,  Rel.  rom.  curvr  for.,  disc.  16;  Idem,  II 
cardinale  pratico,  cap.  xxvii,  Delia  congregazione  aopra  i  negozi 
dei  vescovi  s  dei  regolari  dell'  uno  e  dell'  altro  sesso;  Danielu, 
op.  cit.,  8.  v.;  BizzARRi,  Collectanea  in  usum  aecretaria;  S.  Congr. 
episcoporum  el  regularium  (Rome,  1885);  Bastien,  Directoire 
ainonique  d  I'usage  des  congregations  d  vaeux  simples  (Marcdsous, 
1904);  Battandier,  Guide  canonique  pour  les  constitutions  del 
instiluts  A  v(pux  simples  (2n<l  ed.,  Paris.  190.5);  Arndt,  Rechts- 
bexlimmungen  fUr  Orden  und  Kongregationen  (Paderborn,  1908). 

VI.  Congregation  of  Propaganda. — This  is  the 
abbreviated  title  of  the  congregation  officially  known 
as  Sacra  Congregatio  de  pro/xiganda  fide,  or  c'firisliano 
ntiinini  pro/iagando,  the  chief  functions  of  which  con- 
cern tlic  regul.'itioii  of  (■(■clcsijisticril  .-dTairs  in  what  are 
eornrnoidy  known  .'is  "missionury  countries".  It  had 
its  origin  in  a  commission  of  cardin;ds  established  un- 
der f  Jregory  XIII  (1572-85),  which  became  a  congre- 
gation properly  so  called  under  Gregory  XV  (1621- 


ROMAN 


143 


ROMAN 


I 


23).  Before  the  Constitution  "Sapienti  consilio" 
(29  June,  1908)  came  into  force,  the  Congregation  of 
Propaganda  had  jurisdiction  over  several  countries 
in  which  normal  CathoUc  hierarchies  of  the  Latin 
Rite  were  estabhshed,  but  the  Constitution  adopted, 
in  general,  the  plan  of  leaving  to  Propaganda  only 
those  countries  or  districts  (excepting  for  the  Orien- 
tal rites  mentioned  below)  where  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority is  vested  in  vicars  or  prefects  Apostohc. 
Thus,  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  Canada,  Hol- 
land, and  the  Duchy  of  Luxemburg  were  removed 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  Propaganda,  although,  as  an 
exception  to  the  general  rule,  Australia,  where  a  nor- 
mal hierarchy  exists,  was  allowed  to  remain  under 
that  jurisdiction.  Besides  its  territorial  jurisdiction, 
however,  the  congregation  is  invested  with  a  personal 
jurisdiction  over  the  spiritual  affairs  of  all  Catholics, 
in  any  part  of  the  world,  who  belong  to  any  of  the 
Oriental  rites.  (A  fuU  account  of  the  history, 
scope,  methods,  and  work  of  this  congregation  will  be 
found  in  the  separate  article  Propaganda,  Sacred 
Congregation  of.) 

VII.  Congregation  of  the  Index. — There  has 
always  been  felt  in  the  Church,  especially  since  the 
invention  of  printing,  the  necessity  of  preventing 
the  faithful  from  reading  books  that  might  ruin  either 
faith  or  morals.  As  early  as  1501  a  Constitution  of 
Alexander  VI,  addressed  to  the  four  ecclesiastical 
provinces  of  Germany,  contains  very  wise  prescrip- 
tions, later  confirmed  and  extended  to  the  whole 
world  by  Leo  X  in  the  Fifth  Council  of  the  Lateran 
(1515).  In  keeping  with  these  laws,  catalogues  of 
the  books  prohibited  were  published  by  private  enter- 
prise, and  sometimes  with  ecclesiastical  authority, 
not,  however,  the  supreme  authority  of  the  Church. 
Among  these  mention  should  be  made  of  the  three 
of  Louvain,  154()  (approved  by  the  emperor  and  pub- 
hshed  by  the  university),  1550,  and  1558;  that  of 
Spain;  that  of  Paris,  puhlislied  by  the  Sorbonne  in 
1542;  that  of  Cologne,  ])ublish(Hl  by  the  university 
in  1549;  that  of  Venice,  {)ublislied  by  Casa,  the  Apos- 
tolic nuncio,  in  1549,  and  another,  publi.shed  in  1554 
by  the  Inquisition;  that  of  Florence,  1552,  also  pub- 
lished by  the  Inquisition;  that  of  Milan,  published 
in  1554  by  the  archbishop. 

The  custom  of  forming  these  indexes  having  been 
established  (the  catalogues  being  sometimes  arranged 
alphabetically)  there  soon  asserted  itself  the  necessity 
for  a  general  index  under  the  supreme  authority  of 
the  Church,  and  Paul  IV  commissioned  the  Holy 
Office  to  prepare  such  an  index,  which  was  accord- 
ingly published  in  1557,  and  again,  more  accurately, 
in  1559.  Later  appeared  the  Tridentine  Index,  so 
called  because  its  publication  was  ordered  by  the 
great  council.  It  was  approved  and  published  by 
Pius  IV  in  1564.  This  index  was  often  reprinted, 
always  with  new  additions,  and  it  is  now  followed, 
having  been  modified  and  corrected  by  Leo  XIII 
who,  in  1900,  pubhshed  it  with  his  Constitution 
"Officiorum  ac  munerum",  in  which  he  abolished  the 
old  laws  and  established  new  ones  for  the  condemna- 
tion and  for  the  preliminary  censure  of  books. 

In  1571  Pius  V  created  the  Congregation  for  the 
Reform  of  the  Index  and  for  the  Correction  of  Books 
(de  reformando  indice  et  corrigendis  lihris).  In  the 
following  year  Gregory  XIV  gave  a  better  form  to 
this  congregation,  which  Sixtus  V  confirmed  by  his 
Constitution  "Immensa".  It  retains  its  primitive 
organization  to  the  present  day,  the  Constitution  of 
Pius  X  having  introduced  no  notable  alterations. 
Like  all  the  other  congregations  it  consists  of  a 
number  of  cardinals,  one  of  whom  is  its  prefect;  the 
master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  (a  Dominican)  is  ex  officio 
its  assistant.  Pius  V,  by  a  Motu  Proprio  of  1570, 
had  already  amply  authorized  that  functionary  to 
correct  pubhshed  books.  Another  Dominican  is 
the    secretary  of    the    Congregation    of    the  Index, 


which  has  a  college  of  consultors  whose  oflSce  is  to 
deliver  written  opinions  on  the  books  submitted  to 
their  judgment  by  the  congregation.  The  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Index  censures  and  condemns  books  which 
it  considers  dangerous  to  faith  or  morals.  Its  juris- 
diction is  universal,  extending  to  all  Catholics.  It 
can  therefore  grant  permission  for  the  reading  of  a 
book  that  has  been  condemned,  or  for  the  pubhca- 
tion  of  corrected  editions  of  books  that  have  been 
proscribed.  Its  functions  are  naturally  related  to 
those  of  the  Holy  Office,  of  which  it  may  with  some 
reason  be  considered  an  appendix  or  auxihary  con- 
gregation. The  Constitution  of  Pius  X  provides 
that,  notwithstanding  the  strict  secrecy  to  which  the 
oflScers  of  both  congregations  are  held,  thej'  may 
communicate  to  each  other,  upon  occasion,  those 
proceedings  which  relate  to  the  prohibition  of  books, 
though  they  may  communicate  nothing  else.  One 
change  made  by  Pius  X  in  the  functions  of  this  con- 
gregation considerably  widens  the  scope  of  its  activi- 
ties: the  traditional  rule  was  that  the  Index  did  not 
condemn  any  book  which  had  not  been  denounced 
to  it;  now,  on  the  contrary,  the  congregation  is 
charged  with  the  work  of  seeking  out  pernicious  pub- 
lications, and,  after  mature  examination,  condemning 
and  proscribing  them. 

The  procedure  of  the  congregation  was  accurately 
determined  by  an  instruction  of  Clement  VIII  and 
by  a  Constitution  (9  July,  1753)  of  Benedict  XIV. 
The  consultor  or  consultors  selected  for  the  examina- 
tion of  a  book  to  be  judged,  having  made  their  writ- 
ten report,  if  it  appears  that  the  book  should  be  con- 
demned, a  preparatory  congregation  is  held,  which 
consists  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace,  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Index,  and  six  consultors,  versed  in 
the  matter  of  which  the  book  treats  and  selected  by 
the  cardinal  prefect.  At  this  meeting,  the  passages 
of  the  publication  of  which  complaint  is  made  are 
diligently  examined,  and  the  question  whether  or 
not  they  contain  errors  is  discussed.  The  secretary 
prepares  an  accurate  report  of  the  views  of  the  pre- 
paratory congregation,  and  then  refers  it  to  the  full 
congregation  of  the  cardinals,  at  which  the  cause  is 
carefully  examined  and  final  judgment  is  rendered. 
Benedict  XIV  required  great  consideration  to  be 
shown  to  any  distinguished  Catholic  writer  who  en- 
joyed a  good  name.  Not  only  did  this  pope  pre- 
scribe that  the  work  of  such  a  writer  should  not  be 
condemned  without  some  formula  calculated  to  miti- 
gate the  severity  of  the  condemnation,  such  as  dotiec 
corrigatur,  or  donee  expurgetur  ("until  it  be  corrected," 
"until  it  be  expurgated"),  but,  he  provided  that  the 
matter  should  first  be  referred  to  the  author  himself, 
and  his  attention  called  to  the  objectionable  passages. 
If  the  author  then  refused  to  deal  with  the  congre- 
gation, or  rejected  the  corrections  that  were  required, 
the  decree  of  condemnation  was  to  be  published.  If, 
however,  the  author  prepared  a  new  edition,  the 
decree  of  condemnation  was  not  to  be  pubhshed, 
unless  a  great  number  of  the  copies  containing  the 
errors  had  been  circulated,  in  which  case,  of  course, 
the  public  welfare  would  require  the  publication  of 
the  decree;  but  the  pope  provided  that  it  should  be 
made  clear  that  only  the  first  edition  was  comprised 
in  the  condemnation. 

CoHELLius,  op.  cit.;  Congr.  X  pro  indice  librorum  prohibi- 
torum;  Gretser,  Dejure  et  more  prohibendi  expurgandi  et  abolendi 
libros  hmreticos  et  noxios  (Ingoldstadt,  1653);  Raynaudus, 
Erotemata  de  malis  ac  bonis  libris  deque  jusla  aut  injusta  eorum 
confixione  (Lyons,  1653) ;  Lunadoro,  op.  cit.,  cap.  ix,  Delia  congre- 
gazione  dell'  indice  e  del  segretario  della  medesima;  De  Luca,  Rel. 
ram.  Curia:  for.,  disc.  19;  Francus,  Disquisitio  academica  de 
papistarum  indicibus  librorum  prohibendorum  et  expurgandorum 
(Leipzig,  1684) ;  Ortlob,  Diss.  phil.  de  Ephesinorum  libris  curiosis 
combustis  (Leipzig,  1708);  Bokhmkr,  Dissert,  jurid.  de  jure  circa 
libros  improbalcB  leclionis  (Magdeburg,  1726);  Schottoen,  De 
indicibus  librorum  prohibit,  et  expurg.  eorumque  ncevis  (DresdjSi, 
1733);  Ruble,  Saggio  deW  istoria  dell'  indice  romano  (Rome, 
1739);  Catalani,  De  secretario  S.  Congregationis  Indicia  (Rome, 
1751);  ScHENEiDT,  Jus  et  obligatio  prohibendi  libros  (Wurzburg, 
1768) ;    Fritsch,  Dissertationes  de  censura  librorum  et  proposi' 


ROMAN 


144 


ROMAN 


tionum  in  negotiis  religionis  (Breslau,  1775) ;  Zaccaria,  Storia 
poUmica  deUa  proibizione  dei  libri  (Rome,  1777) ;  Peignot,  Dic- 
tionrmire  critique,  litUraire  et  bibliographique  des  principaux 
litres  condanmis  au  feu,  supprimis  ou  censuris  (Paris,  1806) ; 
Mexdham,  The  Literary  Policy  of  the  Church  of  Rome  exhibited 
iri  ari  Account  of  Her  DamruUory  Catalogues  or  Indices  (London, 
1826);  Erxesti,  Ueber  das  rechi  bes.  der  Hierarchic  auf 
Censur  und  Biicherverbote  (1829);  Heymaxs,  De  ecclesiastica 
librorum  aliorumque  scriptorum  in  Belgio  prohibilione  (Brussels, 
1849);  Fessler,  £)a-s  kirchliche  BUcherverbot  (Vienna,  1858); 
Die  romisehe  Indexcongregation  und  ihr  Wirken  (Munich, 
1863);  BALiiis,  La  s.  congregation  de  Vindex  mieux  connue  et 
tengce  (1866);  Sachse,  Die  Anfange  der  BUchercensur  in  Deutsch- 
land  (1870);  ZiguaR-v.  II  dimiUatur  e  la  spiegazione  datane 
daUa  s.  congr.  deli  indice  ed  il  cardinal  Zigliara  (Rome, 
1882);  Reusch,  Der  Index  d.  rerbotenen  Backer  (Bonn,  1883); 
PocLAlx,  L'index;  son  origine,  son  but  et  so  taleur  (Dieppe, 
1884);  Petit,  L'index;  son  histoire,  ses  lois,  sa  force  obligatoire 
(Paris,  1888);  Paries,  Du  droit  de  I'Eglise  de  prohiber  les  livres 
dangereux  in  Journal  du  droit  canon.  (1892);  Arxdt,  Delibris 
prohibitis  commentarii  (Ratisbon,  1895);  IDilgskron,  De  reiisione 
et  approbatione  librorum  typis  describendorum  in  Anal.  eccl. 
(1891-97);  HoLLWECK,  Das  kirchliche  Biicherverbot  (Mainz, 
1897);  Plaxchard,  L'index  in  Rev.  theol.  franc.  (March-June, 
1897);  Desjardixs,  La  nouvelle  constitution  apostolique  sur 
l'index  in  Etudes  (March-May,  1897);  Pexnacchi,  In  conts. 
ap.  " Officiorum  ac  munerum"  de  prohibilione  et  censura  librorum 
a  Leone  d.  pr.  PP.  XIII  latam  breris  commentatio  (Rome,  1898); 
Pi^ries,  L'index,  comment,  de  la  constitution  apostolique  "  Offi- 
ciorum"  (Paris,  1898);  Moureau,  La  nouvelle  legislation  de 
l'index  (Lille,  1898);  Boudixhox,  La  nouvelle  legislation  de 
l'index  (Paris,  1899) ;  Hilgers,  Zur  kirch.  Gesetzgebung  iiber 
verbot.  Bucher  in  Stimmen  aus  Maria  Laach,  I  (1899),  258  sqq.; 
Schxeider,  Die  neucn  Buchergesetze  der  katholischen  Kirche 
(Mainz,  1899) ;  Arxdt,  Die  Vorschriften  iiber  das  Verbot  und  die 
Censur  der  Bucher  (Trier,  1900) ;  Hilgenreiner,  D.  kirchl. 
Vorzensur  u.  d.  Particularrechi  (Vienna,  1901) ;  Schxeider,  D. 
neue  Index  in  Arch.  f.  k.  KR.,  LXXXI  (1901),  291,  302;  Hilgex- 
reixer,  Der  Index  der  vorbolenen  Biicher  in  Th.  prat.  Qrtschr., 
pt.  II  (1901);  Sleutjes,  De  prohibilione  et  censura  librorum 
(Gulpen,  1903) ;  Hilgers,  Der  Index  der  verbotenen  Biicher  in 
seiner  neuen  Fassung  dargelegt  und  rechtlich-historisch  gewiirdigt 
(Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1904);  Gexxari,  La  costituzione  "Officiorum" 
breremente  commentata  (Rome,  1905) ;  Ciolli,  Comm.  breve  delta 
costituzione  leonina  riguardo  ai  libri  proibiti  (Rome,  1906) ; 
Vebmeersch,  De  prohibilione  et  censura  librorum  dissertatio 
canonico-moralis  (RJome,  1906);  Hilgers,  Die  Biicherverbote  in 
Pabstbriefen  (Freiburg,  1907);  Arexdt,  De  quibusdam  dubiis 
Quce  occurrunt  in  doctrinali  interpretatione  leoninm  constitutionis 
de  prohibilione  librorum  breris  disceptatio  (Rome,  1907) ;  Hurley, 
Comment,  on  the  Present  Index  Legislation  (Dublin,  1908). 

VIII.  Congregation  of  Rites. — This  congregation 
was  established  by  Sixtus  V  in  his  Constitution 
"Immensa",  to  which  frequent  reference  has  already 
been  made.  The  organization  of  the  Congregation 
of  Rit«s  does  not  differ  from  that  of  other  Roman 
congregations,  there  being  a  certain  number  of  cardi- 
nals, assisted  by  a  secretary  and  a  surrogate  {sosti- 
iuloj,  and  also  by  an  adequate  number  of  minor 
officials.  Besides  these,  the  Congregation  of  Rites, 
in  view  of  special  functions  to  which  reference  will 
be  ma^ie  further  on,  has  a  great  number  of  prelates, 
officials,  and  consultors.  The  order  of  precedence 
among  the  consultors  is  determined  by  length  of 
service  in  their  office.  The  prelate-officials  sit  in 
the  following  order:  first,  after  the  secretary  of  the 
congregation,  is  the  sacristan  to  His  Hohness,  after 
whom  comes  one  of  the  Apostolic  prothonotaries 
permanently  attached  to  this  office,  next  is  the  dean 
of  the  Rota,  with  the  two  oldest  auditors,  after  these 
the  master  of  the  Sacred  Palace,  the  promotor  of  the 
Faith,  and  the  a«se.ssor,  or  sub-promotor.  .Although 
there  are  no  ex-officio  consultors,  that  is,  no  consultors 
who  by  reason  of  their  office  in  the  Curia  are  entitled 
to  sit  among  the  consultors  of  this  congregation, 
there  are,  nevertheless,  certain  religious  orders— the 
Fnars  Minor,  the  Servitcs,  th(;  Harnabites,  the  .Jesuits 
—which  have  obtained  from  difff  rent  popes  the  privi- 
I^e  of  being  repn'.s<nted  by  one  member  each  in 
this  wllfge  of  consultors. 

The  C<;ngn-gatif)n  of  Rites  has  a  double  function. 
It  JH  charged  with  the  direetion  of  the  J/iturgy  of  the 
Latin  Church,  anri  therfforc,  with  the  supervision 
of  the  pfrformarice  f)f  thf  rites  prescribed  by  the 
Church  ff)r  th*-  cclrbration  of  the  saered  mysteries 
and  othfT  ecclfsi:tHtic:i|  functions  and  offices,  and 
also,  with  the  granting  of  all  privileges,  personal 
or  local,  temporary  or  perpetual,  which  rcljite  to  the 
ntes  or  ceremonies  of  the  Church.     It  is  manifest  that 


the  duties  of  this  congregation  are  of  the  highest 
importance:  they  are  concerned  wath  the  solemnity 
of  the  worship  offered  to  God,  the  maintcTiance  of 
the  Faith,  and  the  development  of  devotion  and  of 
Christian  sentiment  among  the  faithful.  1  lie  same 
congregation  has  another  charge  of  no  less  import 
tance:  the  decision  of  causes  of  beatification  and 
canonization  of  servants  of  God,  and  of  the  venera^- 
tion  of  their  relics. 

In  the  process  of  beatification  and  canonization 
the  most  important  official  is  the  promotor  of  the 
Faith,  whose  chief  duty  it  is  to  diligently  examine  the 
local  investigations  carried  out  by  the  authority  of 
the  bishops,  or,  at  Rome,  of  the  pope,  and  to  bring 
out  in  them  all  that  maj'  in  any  way  cast  doubt  upon 
the  heroic  virtue  of  the  servant  of  God  whose  cause 
is  under  consideration.  It  is  on  account  of  this  duty, 
w^hich  implies  a  sj^stematic  opposition  to  the  proofs 
of  sanctity,  that  the  official  in  question  has  come 
to  be  popularly  called  "the  devil's  advocate".  It  is 
easy  to  see,  however,  that  this  office  conduces  to  the 
splendour  of  the  Church  and  to  the  honour  of  the 
Faith;  for  to  declare  a  servant  of  God  to  be  a  saint 
is  to  propose  him  as  a  model  to  the  faithful,  and  one 
cannot  fail  to  see  how  necessary  it  is  that  this  be  done 
only  in  the  case  of  one  truly  heroic,  of  whose  virtue 
in  the  heroic  degree  the  pontiff  has  acquired  the  great- 
est moral  certainty  that  human  means  can  establish. 
It  is  true  that  the  assistance  of  the  Holy  Ghost  can- 
not fail  the  head  of  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  in  a 
matter  of  this  kind;  but  the  sovereign  pontiff  is  not 
on  that  account  exempt  from  the  obligation  of  acting 
in  the  premises  with  all  the  circumspection  that 
human  prudence  requires.  And  in  this  effort  to 
attain  human  certainty  the  pope  is  greatlj^  assisted 
by  the  promotor  of  the  Faith,  who,  after  a  prelim- 
inary study  of  the  cause,  has  to  propose  objections 
in  regard  to  the  validity  of  the  proceedings  and  the 
credibility  of  the  testimony  as  well  as  all  the  ob- 
jections possibly  to  be  found  in  the  life  of  the  servant 
of  God  whose  cause  is  being  examined,  and  in  the 
miracles  alleged  to  have  been  performed  by  God  at 
the  intercession  of  that  servant.  These  objections 
are  presented  in  the  three  congregations,  or  meetings, 
held  to  consider  the  question  of  virtue,  and  in  the 
other  three  which  are  held  to  consider  the  question 
of  the  miracles.  The  promotor  of  the  Faith  is  al- 
ways selected  from  among  the  Consistorial  advocates, 
and  always  has  the  assistance  of  a  sub-advocate  who 
takes  his  place,  upon  occasion,  and  who  in  every 
instance  acts  in  the  name  of  the  promotor.  The 
latter  official  formerly  had  the  power  to  appoint,  and 
to  remove,  his  assistant.  Besides  these  two  chief 
oflficials,  the  congregation  has  a  special  notary  for 
that  part  of  its  functions  which  concerns  canonizar 
tion. 

The  congregations,  or  meetings  held  to  consider 
the  question  of  virtue,  like  those  at  which  the  ques- 
tion of  miracles  is  considered,  are  generally  three  in 
number.  The  first  of  them  is  called  the  ante-prepara- 
tory, and  is  attended  by  the  prelate-officials  and  the 
consultors,  under  the  presidency  of  the  cardinal 
relator  of  the  cause,  who  does  not  vote,  but  who, 
upon  the  votes  of  the  others  who  are  present,  deter- 
mines whether  the  case  deserves  to  go  beyond  this 
hearing.  The  second  meeting,  called  the  preparatory, 
is  attend('d  by  all  the  cardinals  of  the  congregation, 
by  the  prelate-offif^ials,  and  by  the  consultors.  At 
this  meeting  the  cardinals  do  not  vote,  but,  after 
hearing  the  votes  of  the  oth(;rs  present,  determine 
wh«'ther  the  cause;  may  be  carried  to  a  discussion 
before  the  pojjc,  whi(;h  is  done  only  when  there  is 
moral  certamty  of  a  sucf;essful  is.sue.  This  meeting 
is  the  most  interesting  of  all;  in  it  the  cause  not  infre- 
qur'ntly  falls  to  th*-  ground.  Assuming,  however, 
that  the  cardinals  do  not  throw  out  the  case  defini- 
tively, it  very  often  happens  that  another  preparaixjry 


ROMAN 


145 


ROM\N 


meeting  called  nova  praeparatoria  is  required,  to 
elucidate  some  point  relating  to  the  virtue  of  tlie 
servant  of  God  or  to  the  miracles  in  question.  Some- 
times there  is  even  a  third  meeting  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. The  regular  third  meeting  is  called  the  gen- 
eral congregation.  It  is  held  under  the  presidency 
of  the  sovereign  pontiff  himself  and  is  attended  by 
all  the  cardinals  who  form  the  Congregation  of 
Rites,  the  prelate-officials,  and  the  consultors,  all  of 
whom  vote — the  consultors  and  the  prelate-officials 
first,  and  then,  when  the  consultors  have  withdrawn, 
the  cardinals.  The  pope  decides  definitively;  as  a 
rule,  however,  he  does  not  pronounce  his  judgment 
at  once,  but  takes  time  to  deliberate  and  to  implore 
Divine  light  upon  the  question.  Besides  the  above 
meetings,  others,  called  ordinary  and  special  ordinary', 
are  held  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  proceed- 
ings and  the  proof  of  the  fame  of  sanctity  which  is 
necessary  for  the  introduction  of  a  cause  of  beati- 
fication. (See  also  Beatification  and  Canoniza- 
tion.) 

Returning  to  the  first  duty  of  this  congregation, 
which  is  the  supervision  and  direction  of  the  Liturgy, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  inspection,  correction,  and 
condemnation  of  liturgical  books  of  whatever  kind 
pertain  to  the  Congregation  of  Rites  (saving  always 
the  prerogatives  of  the  Holy  Office  in  matters  of 
faith),  as  well  as  the  approbation  of  new  liturgical 
Offices  and  calendars,  and  especially  the  authorita- 
tive solution  of  all  doubts  which  may  arise  on  htur- 
gical  matters.  Recourse  must  be  had,  therefore, 
to  this  congregation  for  all  faculties,  indulgences, 
and  dispensations  relating  to  liturgical  functions. 
Thus,  for  example,  it  is  for  the  Congregation  of  Rites 
to  grant  the  faculty  to  bless  sacred  vestments,  the 
authorization  to  expose  upon  the  altar  the  image  of 
one  who  has  been  beatified,  or  to  dedicate  an  altar 
to  such  a  servant  of  God,  the  right  to  wear  special 
insignia  during  choral  offices,  etc.  In  th(;  performance 
of  these  functions,  the  Congregation  of  Rites  is  assisted 
by  three  commissions,  established  within  its  own 
body.  The  first  of  these  is  the  Liturgical  Commission, 
created  for  the  revision  of  Decrees  concerning  rites. 
This  work  was  begun  and  finished  by  Leo  XIII, 
the  congregation  publishing  an  authentic  edition  of 
its  Decrees  (1898-1900).  Although  the  work  for 
which  it  was  created  has  been  done,  this  commission 
remains,  and  is  now  consulted  on  more  important 
questions  which  may  arise  concerning  the  sacred  rites. 
The  second  commission,  also  instituted  by  Leo  XIII, 
in  1902,  is  the  Hi,storico-Liturgical  Commission,  which 
has  the  function  of  judging  historical  questions  con- 
cerning the  sacred  rites.  The  third  is  the  Commis- 
sion on  Sacred  Music,  created  by  Pius  X,  in  1904, 
the  functions  of  which  are  connected  with  the  Motu 
Proprio  on  sacred  music  of  1903  and  with  otlier  acts 
of  Pius  X  on  the  same  subject.  (See  the  letter  of 
8  December,  1903,  to  Cardinal  Respighi,  the  Decree 
of  8  January,  1904,  the  Motu  Proprio  of  the  2n 
April,  1904,  on  the  Vatican  edition  of  the  liturgical 
books,  and  the  other  two  Decrees  of  1 1  and  14  August, 
1905.) 

C0HELUU8,  op.  cit.,  Congr.  V  pro  sacris  ritibus  et  cwremoniia; 
LuNADORO,  op.  cit.,  cap.  xiv,  Delia  congregazione  de'  sagri  riti, 
del  promotore  della  fede  e  di  altri  personaggi  di  delta  congregazione; 
De  Luca,  Rel.  rom.  curiae  for.,  disc.  18;  Danieli,  op.  cit.,  s.  v.; 
Benedict  XIV,  De  servorum  Dei  bealificcUione  et  beatorum  cano- 
nizatione  (Rome,  1747-49);  Acta  canonizationis  SS.  Fidelis  a 
Sigmaringa,  Camilli  de  Lellis,  Petri  Regalati,  losephi  a  Leonissa, 
et  Catharime  de  Riciis  una  cum  apostolicis  litl.  SS.  D.  N.  Benedicti 
XIV  et  vaticancB  basilicw  ornatus  descriptione  (Rome,  1749); 
Benedict  XIV,  Appendices  ad  quatuor  libros  de  servorum  Dei 
beatificatione  et  beatorum  canonizatione  (Rome,  1749);  SS.  D.  N. 
Benedicti  XIV  P.  O.  M.  acta  et  decreta  in  causis  beatificationum 
et  canonizationum  aliisque  ait  -lacrorum  rituum  materiam  perti- 
nentibus  ad  annum  pontificatus  sui  decimum  (Rome,  1751); 
De  Azevedo,  SS.  D.  N.  Bene/licti  PP.  XIV doctrina  de  servorum 
Dei  beatificatione  et  beatorum  canonizatione  in  synopsim  redacta 
(Naples,  1854) ;  Decreta  auihenlica  Congr.  Sacrorum  Rituum  ex 
actis  ejusdem  collecta,  ejusque  auctoritate  promulgata  (Rome, 
1898—). 

XIII.-lO 


IX.  Congregation  of  Ceremonies. — It  is  not 
quite  certain  who  created  this  congregation.  Many 
attribute  its  establishment  to  Sixtus  V,  others  to 
his  immediate  predecessor,  Gregory  XIII.  Haine 
says  that  the  latter  opmion  is  proved  to  be  correct 
by  the  records  of  the  congregation  itself.  Supposing 
this  to  be  the  case,  the  error  of  certain  authors  is 
apparent,  when  they  consider  this  congregation  to 
be  little  more  than  a  branch  of  the  Congregation  of 
Rites  or  to  have  derived  its  existence  from  the  latter. 
It  is,  on  the  contrary,  more  ancient  than  the  last- 
named  congregation,  and  deals  directly  with  the 
highest  division  of  the  Liturgy,  considering  the  ijerson- 
ages  whom  it  concerns.  For  this  congregation  is 
charged  with  the  direction  of  all  the  papal  ceremonies, 
as  well  as  of  the  ceremonial  of  cartlinals,  whether  in 
the  pontifical  court  (aula)  or  chapel  {cappclla  ponti- 
ficia),  or  elsewhere.  It  is  reasonable  that  a  special 
congregation  should  have  under  its  care  ceremonies 
so  august  and  solemn,  since  it  is  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance that  when  the  supreme  head  of  the  Church 
participates  in  ecclesiastical  functions  attended  by 
the  most  illustrious  dignitaries  of  the  Church,  all 
should  be  in  keeping  with  that  decorum  which  befits 
their  exalted  character.  As  in  all  courts  there  is  a 
grand  master  of  ceremonies,  charged  with  the  direc- 
tion of  the  sovereign's  acts  on  occasions  of  State, 
so  it  was  necessary  that  at  the  pontifical  Court  there 
should  be  an  authority  to  preside  over  such  functions. 
This  requirement  is  supplied  by  the  Congregation 
of  Ceremonies,  which,  besides  the  direction  of  Htur- 
gical  functions,  is  charged  with  the  direction  of  the 
pontifical  court  ceremonial  for  the  reception  of  sov- 
ereigns or  of  ambassadors.  It  also  communicates 
instructions  to  the  legates  of  the  Holy  See  for  the 
maintenance  of  due  decorum  in  transacting  the 
affairs  of  their  missions.  This  congregation  also 
instructs  the  members  of  the  Noble  Guard  and  the 
ablegate  who  are  sent  to  convey  to  new  cardinals, 
living  in  Catholic  states  outside  of  Rome,  the  news  of 
their  promotion,  together  with  the  cardinal's  hat  and 
the  red  biretta.  It  instructs  newly-promoted  cardinals, 
too,  on  the  etiquette  to  be  followed  conformably  with 
their  new  dignity.  Finally,  it  solves  the  questions 
of  precedence  which  arise  among  cardinals  or  among 
ambassadors  to  the  Holy  See. 

LuNADORO,  op.  cit.,  cap.  xiv,  Della  congregazione  del  cere- 
moniale  e  dei  maestri  delle  ceremonie. 

X.  Congregation  of  Extraordinary  Ecclesi- 
astical Affair.s. — In  former  times,  when  questions 
of  exceptional  interest  to  the  Church  presented  them- 
selves, and  circumstances  required  that  they  should 
in  prudence  be  treated  with  secrecy,  the  popes  were 
wont  to  establish  special  congregations  of  cardinals 
for  the  consideration  of  those  matters.  These  con- 
gregations were  called  congregations  of  State.  Pius 
\'I,  following  this  custom,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
revolutionary  conditions  of  France  in  1793,  estab- 
lished a  congregation  of  this  kind,  which  he  called 
the  Congregation  for  the  Ecclesiastical  Affairs  of 
France  (Congregatio  super  negotiis  ecclesiasticis 
regni  GalUarum),  a  title  which  Pius  VII,  in  1805, 
changed  to  Congregation  for  Extraordinary  Ecclesi- 
astical Affairs  (Congregatio  de  negotiis  ecclesiasticis 
extraordinariis).  This  congregation  remained  in  ex- 
istence until  1809,  when  the  exile  of  Pius  VII  brought 
it  to  an  end.  In  1814,  when  Pius  VII  returned  to 
Rome,  the  needs  of  the  Church  being  still  exceptional, 
the  pope  re-established  this  congregation  under  the 
title  of  Extraordinary  Congregation  for  the  Eccle- 
siastical Affairs  of  the  Cathohc  World  (Congregatio 
extraordinaria  praeposita  negotiis  ecclesiasticis  orbis 
catholici).  In  1827,  however,  the  congregation  re- 
assumed  its  former  name  of  Congregation  for  E.x- 
traordinary  Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  which  it  retains  to 
the  present  time.     At  the  head  of  this  congregation 


ROMAN 


146 


ROMAN 


is  the  secretarj'  of  State,  who  presides  over  it  not  as 
prefect,  but  in  virtue  of  his  office;  and  although  it 
has  a  secretary  and  a  sub-secretary,  the  congrega- 
tion nevertheless  has  no  secretary's  office  of  its  own, 
the  first  section  of  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  State 
6er\-ing  the  purpose.  The  scope  of  the  powers  of 
this  congregation  is  not  fixed.  It  was  created  for 
extraordinary'  affairs,  and  deals  only  with  such 
matters  as  the  sovereign  pontiff,  through  his  secre- 
tary of  State,  may  submit  to  its  study  and  judg- 
ment. 

XI.  CONGREGATIOK     OF    STUDIES. SixtUS     V,     by 

his  Constitution  "Immensa",  established  a  special 
congregation  for  the  Roman  University  (Congrega- 
tio  pro  universitate  studii  romani).  This  estabhsh- 
ment  of  learning  was  founded  by  Boniface  VIII  in 
1303;  it  was  later  known  by  the  name  of  Sapienza, 
and  in  time  became  extinct.  In  1S24,  Leo  XII 
created  a  new  congregation  to  preside  over  the  studies 
not  only  of  Rome,  but  of  all  the  Pontifical  States. 
After  the  events  of  1870,  this  congregation  remained 
intact,  and  acquired  new  importance.  Consisting, 
like  ail  the  others,  of  an  adequate  number  of  cardinals, 
the  Congregation  of  Studies  has  a  secretary  of  its 
own,  under  whom  are  several  officials,  and  a  college 
of  consultors.  Pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  the  new 
Constitution  of  Pius  X,  the  jurisdiction  of  this  con- 
gregation is  no  longer  limited  to  the  Pontifical  States, 
much  less  to  Rome.  On  the  contrary,  the  Congre- 
gation of  Studies  exercises  its  influence  throughout 
the  CathoUc  world;  for  it  directs  the  studies  of  all 
the  greater  universities  or  faculties  under  the  author- 
ity of  the  Church,  not  excepting  those  under  reli- 
gious orders  or  congregations.  It  grants  the  faculty 
of  conferring  academic  degrees,  which  it  may  also 
confer  itself,  in  which  case  they  have  the  same  value 
as  those  conferred  by  an  ecclesiastical  university. 
It  authorizes  the  estabUshment  of  new  universities 
as  well  as  changes  in  the  conditions  of  universities 
already  established,  the  authorization  in  either  case 
being  given  by  means  of  a  pontifical  Brief.  As  in  other 
congregations,  all  graver  matters  must  be  referred 
to  the  full  congregation  of  cardinals,  which  therefore 
determines  the  establishment  of  new  universities, 
the  more  important  changes  in  universities  already 
existing,  and  the  graver  questions  which  may  present 
them.selves  for  solution  in  such  institutions,  the  gen- 
eral conduct  of  which  it  also  directs.  Matters  of 
minor  importance  are  determined  by  its  congresso. 

CoHELUCs,  op.  cit.,  Congregatio  XIX  pro  universitate  studii 
Tomani;  Caterini,  CoUeclio  legum  et  ordinationum  de  recta 
tlxtdiorum  ratione  iussu  Emi.  ac  Rmi.  Domini  Cardinalis  Aloysii 
LambruKchini  SS.  D.  N.  Oregorii  XVI  P.  M.  a  Secretis  Status, 
SaCTii:  Congregalionis  sludiis  moderandis  prafecti  (Rome,  1841); 
Capalti.  Colleciio  legum  et  ordinationum  de  recta  studiorum 
ratione  ab  anno  I8.',2  usque  ad  annum  1862  jussu  Card.  Raphaelis 
Fomari  praefecti  .  .  .  continuala  (Rome,  1852). 

XII.  CoNGBEGATioN  OF  LoRETO. — From  the  time 
of  Sixtus  IV,  the  care  of  the  famous  sanctuary  of 
Loreto  has  been  reserved  exclusively  to  the  Holy  See, 
the  arrangement  having  been  confirmed  by  many 
Buccf!88ive  prjntiffs  and  especially  by  Julius  II  and 
Paul  V.  Innocent  XII,  in  1698,  established  a  con- 
gregation of  cardinals  to  preside  over  the  affairs  of 
the  Sanctuary  of  Ixjreto;  and  this  (;f)ngregation  was 
not  abfilishf'd  by  the  recent  Constitution  of  Pius  X, 
which,  on  the  contrary,  provid(!S  that  the  Congnv 
gation  of  IxjreUj  shall  remain  distinct  from  the 
others,  although  united  to  the  Qmgrexation  of  fh(i 
Council.  Until  the  time  of  Gregory  XVI,  the  Con- 
gregation of  Ixjrelo,  which  consists  of  a  suitable  num- 
ber of  cardinals,  ha<l  the  cardinal  sf!cretary  of  State  for 
its  j>refef;t ;  nf>w,  however,  this  office  is  filled  by  the 
prefect  of  tlie  C>jngr<'gation  of  the  Council;  while 
the  secretary  of  the  latter  congregation  is  also 
secretary  of  the  C>>ngr(!gation  of  Ix>reto,  an  office 
formerly  belonging  to  the  sub-datary.  The  compe- 
tency of  this  congregation,  until  the  reign  of  Pius 


VII,  was  extensive,  since  it  included  jurisdiction  not 
only  over  the  Holy  House  of  Loreto  and  its  property, 
but  also  over  civil  and  criminal  matters  connected 
with  that  sanctuary.  This  jurisdiction  was  restricted 
by  Pius  VII,  but  was  again  extended  by  Leo  XII. 
The  new  Constitution  of  Pius  X  does  not  define  the 
powers  of  the  Congregation  of  Loreto;  they  are  cer- 
tainly much  diminished,  however,  by  the  events  of 
the  last  fifty  years  in  Italy,  and  now  relate  chiefly 
to  the  restorations  of  the  basilica  and  supervision 
of  the  numerous  pilgrimages  to  the  shrine.  The 
Congregation  of  the  Council  transacts  the  business 
of  the  Congregation  of  Loreto  according  to  the 
rules  of  procedure  in  all  other  matters  of  its  compe- 
tency. 

XIII.  Congregation  of  the  Fabric  of  St. 
Peter's. — When  the  ancient  Basilica  of  St.  Peter 
was  crumbling  througii  age,  Julius  II  conceived  the 
grand  project  of  building  a  new  temple  in  the  place 
of  the  old  one,  after  the  plans  of  Bramante;  and  on 
the  Saturday  next  after  Easter,  1506,  he  laid  its 
foundation  stone.  He  realized  tlie  enormous  expense 
that  must  be  entailed  by  the  realization  of  his  proj- 
ect, which  was  to  be  accomplished  by  the  charity 
of  the  faithful,  convinced  of  the  glory  that  would 
accrue  to  Jesus  Christ  and  to  His  Church  through 
the  completion  of  so  majestic  a  work.  If  in  the  Old 
Testament,  God  had  wished  a  most  sumptuous  temple 
to  stand  in  Jerusalem,  it  was  right  that  in  the  New 
Testament  another,  most  majestic,  temple  should 
rise  to  the  glory  of  His  Christ,  the  Man  God.  And,  to 
encourage  the  faithful  to  contribute  to  so  holy  a  work, 
the  popes  were  bountiful  in  the  concession  of  privi- 
leges and  of  indulgences  in  favour  of  the  generous 
contributors  to  the  great  work.  Clement  VII,  in 
1523,  established  a  college  of  sixty  members  which 
was  charged  with  providing  for  the  building  of  the 
basihca.  This  college  having  been  suppressed, 
Clement  VIII  replaced  it  with  a  special  congregation 
which  he  named  the  Congregation  of  the  Fabric  of 
St.  Peter's.  From  the  time  of  Sixtus  V,  the  cardinal 
archpriest  of  the  basilica  itself  was  the  prefect  of 
this  congregation.  Benedict  XIV  introduced  con- 
siderable changes:  he  left  to  the  congregation  the 
constitution  given  it  by  Clement  VIII,  with  its  cardi- 
nal prefect,  its  numerous  prelates  and  officials,  such 
as  the  auditor  and  the  treasurer  of  the  ApostoHc 
Camera,  and  others,  but  to  this  congregation  he 
added  a  special  one  consisting  of  the  cardinal  prefect 
and  three  other  cardinals,  which  was  to  have  prece- 
dence in  everything  and  to  exercise  and  have  the  ex- 
clusive economical  control  <>{  the  basilica.  The  general 
congregation  was  to  occupy  itself  thereafter  only  with 
contentious  causes,  since  the  Congregation  of  the 
Fabric  still  had  jurisdiction  in  such  cases,  and  in  fact 
was  the  only  competent  tribunal  for  causes  eoTmected 
with  the  building.  Pius  IX,  having  abolished  special 
tribunals,  including  that  of  the  Fabric;,  saw  that  the 
general  congregation  was  left  without  any  province. 
He  thereupon  al)olished  the  two  congregations  of 
Benedict  XIV  and  established  a  single  one,  consist- 
ing not  of  three,  but  of  more  than  three,  cardinals, 
to  which  he  confided  the  economical  administration 
and  the  con.servation  of  the  basili(!a,  adding  to  this 
charge  that  of  the  administration  of  many  pious 
legacies  and  of  Ma.ss  stipends,  with  authority  to 
modify  them  aecording  to  circumstances.  This  con- 
gregation, thercfon',  was  ciiipowcrcd  to  grant  reduc- 
tions of  the  ohligafions  of  Masses  and  permi.ssion 
to  defer  th*;  celebraf  I  )ii  of  these  Masses  for  a  longer 
time  than  that  allowed  by  the  ruh;;  to  allow  the 
executors  of  pious  legacies  to  make  adjustments  for 
past  omissions,  to  delegafe  this  power  more  or  less 
ext«'nHively  to  bishops,  and  so  forth. 

Pius  X,  by  his  new  Constitution,  has  restricted 
the  competency  of  this  congregation  to  tlie  adminis- 
tration of  the  property,  and  to  the  maintenance  of 


ROMAN 


147 


ROMAN 


the  basilica,  a  task  by  no  means  light,  seeing  that 
immense  sums  are  expended  upon  it.  Grimaldi 
(Les  congregations  romaines,  xxii)  asserts  that  the 
ex-pense  amounts  to  190,000  Ure  (nearly  $38,000)  each 
year,  which  is  not  surprising,  when  it  is  considered 
that  the  lay  employees  of  the  basihca  and  those  of 
the  second  class,  called  Snn  Pietrini,  alone  amount  to 
nearly  300  in  number.  Under  the  authority  of  this 
congregation  is  also  the  Studio  del  mosaico  established 
by  Sixtus  V,  and  famous  throughout  the  world  for 
the  perfection  of  its  work  and  for  the  exquisite  beauty 
of  its  art. 

Vespig.vani,  Compendium  privilegiorum  rev.  fabricm  S.  Petri 
(Rome,  1674);  Cancellieri,  De  secretariis  basilicce  VaticancB 
veteris  el  novcc  (Rome,  1786);  de  Nicglais,  De  Vaticana  basilica 
S.  Petri  ac  de  ejusdem  p'rivilegiis  (Rome,  1817). 

General  Bibliography. — Aubery,  Histoire  genirale  des 
cardinaux  (Paris,  1642);  Cohellius,  Notilia  cardinalatus  in  qua 
nedum  de  S.  R.  E.  cardinalium  origine  dignitate  prweminenlia 
et  privilegiis  sed  de  prwcipuis  romance  aulce  officialibus  pertraclatur 
(Rome,  16.53) ;  Lunadoro,  Relatione  della  corte  di  Roma  (Venice, 
1664);  De  Luca,  //  cardinale  pratico  (Rome,  1680);  Pletten- 
BERG,  Notilia  congregalionum  el  tribunalium  curice  romance 
(Hildesheim,  1693);  De  Luca,  Relatio  curia:  romance  forensis 
eiusque  tribunalium  el  congregalionum  (Venice,  17,59);  Pl.\tu8, 
Tract,  de  cardinalis  dignitate  et  officio  (Rome,  1746),  cap.  xxviii, 
app.;  Bangen,  Die  romische  Kurie,  ihre  gegenwdrt.  Zusam- 
mensetzung  und  ihr  Geschaftsgang  (Miinster,  1854) ;  Haine, 
Synopsin  S.  R.  E.  Cardinalium  Congregalionum  (Ix)uvain,  1857); 
Idem,  De  la  cour  romaine  sous  le  ponlificat  de  Pie  IX  (Louvain, 
1859);  Phillips,  Kirchenrechl,  VI  (Ratisbon,  1864);  Simor, 
De  sacr.  congr.  et  illarum  auctorilate  in  Arch.  f.  k.  KR.,  XI  (18()4), 
410  sqq.;  Grimaldi,  Les  congregations  romaines  (Siena,  1890), 
this  work  is  on  the  Index;  Sag.mijller,  Die  Tdtigkeit  und 
Stellung  der  Kardinale  bis  P.  Boni/az  VIII  (Freiburg,  1896) ;  Lega, 
Prwlecl.  in  lextum  jur.  can.  de  jwliciis  ecclesiasticis ,  II  (Rome, 
1896),  0  stjq.;  Idem,  De  origine  el  jiatura  sacr.  roman.  congre- 
galionum in  Anal,  eccl.,  IV  (1896),  45  sqq.;  Idem,  De  modo 
procedendi  congregalionibus  romanis  communi  in  .Anal,  eccl.,  IV, 
277  sqq.;  Wernz,  Jus  decrelalium,  II  (Rome,  1906),  619  sqq.; 
HiLLi.NG,  Die  romische  Kurie  (Paderborn,  1906);  Hofman.v, 
Die  Neuregelung  der  r6m.  Kurie  durch  Pius  X  in  Zeitschr.  f.  k. 
Theol.,  XXXIII,  198  sqq.;  ParaYRE,  La  noutelle  organisation 
du  gouvernement  central  de  VEglise  (Lyons,  1908);  Focr.veret, 
La  riforme  de  la  curie  rom.  in  Le  canoniste  cont.,  33,  16,  65; 
Choupi.n  in  Etudes  (1908).  308.  604;  Ojetti,  De  romana  curia 
(Rome,  1910);  Simier.  La  curie  romaine  (Paris,  1909);  Cap- 
pello,  De  curia  romana  juxla  reform,  a  Pio.X  sapient,  induclam 
(Rome,  1911). 

Benedetto  Ojetti. 

Roman  Curia,  strictly  speaking,  the  en.semble  of 
departments  or  ministries  which  assist  the  sovereign 
pontiff  in  the  government  of  the  Universal  Church. 
These  are  the  Roman  Congregations,  the  tribunals, 
and  the  offices  of  Curia  (Ujjicii  di  Curia).  The  Con- 
gregations, being  the  highest  and  most  extensive  de- 
partments of  the  Pontifical  CJovernment,  are  treated 
elsewhere  under  Roman  Congregations.  This  arti- 
cle deals  in  particular  with  the  tribunals  and  the 
offices  of  Curia  (Uficii  di  Curia),  in  addition  to  which 
something  will  be  said  of  the  commissions  of  cardinals 
and  the  pontifical  family. 

I.  Tribunals. — According  to  the  Constitution 
"Sapienti  consilio"  of  Pius  X,  the  tribunals  of  the 
Curia  are  three:  the  Sacred  Penitentiaria,  the  Sacred 
Roman  Rota,  and  the  Apostolic  Signatura. 

A.  The  Sacred  Penitenlinria. — The  origin  of  this 
tribunal  cannot  be  assigned  with  any  rea.sonable  cer- 
tainty. Some  authors,  like  Cardinal  De  Luca  (Re- 
latio curia;  rom.  forensis,  diss,  xii),  think  that  the 
office  of  penitentiary  dates  from  the  primitive  Church; 
Lega  (Pra>l.  de  judiciis  eccl.,  II,  263,  not.)  refers  it  to 
the  time  of  Pope  Cornelius  (204),  who  is  said  to  have 
appointed  penitentiaries  pro  lapsis.  Penitentiaries 
are  certainly  more  ancient  in  the  East  than  in  the 
West.  The  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215)  ordained 
the  establishment  of  a  penitentiary  in  each  cathedral. 
The  Roman  Church,  if  not  the  first,  was  at  least  one 
of  the  first  in  the  West  to  establish  penitentiaries. 
According  to  some  authorities,  from  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, that  is  from  tlie  pontificate  of  Benedict  II,  the 
penitentiary  of  the  Roman  Church  was  a  cardinal 
priest;  this  was  certainly  the  case  before  Gregory  X 
(d.  1276).  Gregory  IX  calls  Cardinal  Nicola  de 
Romanis  "poenitentiarius  felicis  recordationis  Hon- 


p£ 
Cambrensis  mentions  Giovanni  di  S.  Paolo,  of  the 
title  of  St.  Priscilla,  as  one  who  heard  confessions  in 
the  place  of  the  pope;  he  was  probably  a  cardinal  of 
that  title.  The  office  of  penitentiary  assumed  greater 
importance  when  the  reservation  of  cases  to  the  pope 
or  the  bishops  began  (see  Reserved  C.\ses).  At  the 
end  of  the  sixth  century  (592)  St.  Gregory  the  Great 
reserved  to  himself  the  excommunication  with  which 
he  threatened  Archbishop  John  of  Larissa  for  unjustly 
deposing  Adrian,  Bishop  of  Thebes.  The  first  uni- 
versally recognized  case  of  a  general  papal  reservation 
of  an  offence  is  that  of  Innocent  II,  who,  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Clermont  (1130),  reserved  to  himself  in  every 
case  absolution  from  the  crime  of  striking  a  cleric. 
This  reservation  was  confirmed  by  him  in  the  follow- 
ing year  at  the  Council  of  Reimg,  where  he  also 
reserved  to  himself  the  absolution  of  incendiaries 
and  their  accompUces.  Thenceforth  reservations  in- 
creased in  number,  and  an  office  became  necessary  to 
answer  those  who,  guilty  of  some  offence,  asked  of  the 
sovereign  pontiff  absolution  from  the  censure  incurred, 
and  reserved  to  the  Holy  See,  or,  being  unable  to  re- 
pair to  Rome,  asked  to  be  absolved  from  some  sin  re- 
.served  to  the  pope  by  a  priest  of  their  own  land,  who 
would  of  course  require  a  special  delegation.  In  the 
time  of  Cardinal  Berenger  Fredol,  penitentiary  from 
1309  to  1323,  the  office  of  the  Penitentiaria  was  in 
existence,  with  various  subordinates  and  employees, 
under  the  direction  of  a  cardinal  penitentiary,  whom 
Clement  V  called  pcenitentiarius  major  [c.  ii.  de 
elect,  etc.  (I.  3)  in  Clem.].  Under  Alexander  IV  and 
Urban  IV,  Cardinal  Hugo  of  St-Cher  (or  of  San  Caro) 
was  called  poenitentiarius  summus,  or  sedis  apostolicce 
pcenilentiarius  generalis.  For  the  earlier  history  of 
this  tribunal  see  the  excellent  work  of  P.  Chouet, 
"La  .sacree  penitencerie  apostohque"  (Lyons,  1908), 
in  which  may  be  found  the  details  of  its  original  con- 
stitution. The  present  article  deals  only  with  the  re- 
cent constitution  of  this  tribunal. 

The  Sacred  Penitentiary  consists  in  the  first  place 
of  the  cardinal  chief  penitentiary  {pcenilentiarius 
jnajor)  appointed  by  a  Brief  of  the  sovereign  pontiff. 
Pius  V,  followed  by  Benedict  XIV,  decreed  that  this 
functionary  should  be  chosen  from  among  the  car- 
dinal priests,  and  must  be  a  master  in  theology  or 
doctor  of  canon  law  {tnagister  in  Iheologia  sen  decre- 
toruin  doctor).  He  must  transact  the  business  of  his 
office  personally,  or  if  prevented  from  so  doing,  he 
must  provide  a  substitute  in  another  cardinal  qualified 
as  above  stated,  and  who  takes  the  title  of  pro-chief 
penitentiary.  During  his  term  of  office  he  acts  in  his 
own  name,  and  not  in  that  of  the  cardinal  by  whom  he 
is  delegated.  To  the  cardinal  chief  penitentiary  is  as- 
signed a  regent  of  the  Penitentiaria.  This  officer,  like 
the  others  of  whom  we  shall  speak,  is  selected  by  the 
cardinal  penitentiary  and  presented  to  the  pope;  and 
if  approved  by  him  is  appointed  by  a  letter  of  the  car- 
dinal himself.  After  the  regent  comes  the  theologian, 
whom  it  has  long  been  usual  to  select  from  th(>  Society 
of  Jesus;  then  come  the  datary,  the  canonist,  the 
corrector,  the  sealer  (sigillatore) ,  and  some  copyists, 
besides  a  secretary,  a  surrogate  (sostituto),  and  an 
archivist.  The  signatura  {Segnatura)  of  the  Peniten- 
tiaria (its  congress)  is  the  meeting  at  which  the  most 
important  cases  are  considered.  It  is  formed  of  the 
cardinal  penitentiary,  the  theologian,  the  datary, 
the  corrector,  the  sealer  {sigillalore),  and  the  canonist, 
the  secretary  also  taking  part  in  it,  but  without  a  vote. 
The  other  members  of  the  meeting  are  only  consulted, 
the  decision  of  the  case  being  left  entirely  to  the  cardi- 
nal penitentiary,  who,  if  in  doubt  as  to  the  extent  of 
his  faculties,  refers  the  matter  to  the  Holy  Father. 

The  minor  penitentiaries  of  certain  Roman  churches 
and  of  the  Holy  House  of  Loreto  must  be  mentioned 
as  in  some  way  related  to  the  Sacred  Penitentiaria. 
At  Rome,  they  are  attached  to  the  three  Basihcas  of 


ROMAN 


148 


ROMAN 


St.  John  Lateran.  St.  Peter,  and  St.  Mary  Major.  At 
St.  John  Lateran  the  office  is  filled  by  the  Friars  Minor. 
At  St.  Peter's  it  was  formerly  filled  by  Jesuits,  but,  at 
the  suppression  of  the  Society  by  Clement  XIV,  their 
place  \v;is  taken  by  Minor  Conventuals,  who  still  re- 
tain it ;  these  are  thirteen  in  number,  but  there  are  also 
at  St.  Peter's  fourteen  other  "adjunct"  penitentiaries 
—Carmelites,  Friars  Minor,  Augustinians,  Servites. 
At  St.  ^Ia^^^  Major  the  penitentiaries  are  Dominicans. 
At  Loreto  the  Jesuits  served  as  penitentiaries  until 
their  suppression,  when  they  were  succeeded  by  the 
Minor  Conventuals,  who  still  hold  the  office.  The 
minor  penitentiaries  may  not  be  removed  by  their 
superiors,  either  from  Rome  or  from  Loreto,  without 
the  permission  of  the  Holy  See.  They  are  authorized 
to  hear  the  confessions  of  all  the  faithful,  not  excepting 
reUgious,  who  maj'  come  to  the  minor  penitentiaries 
without  the  permission  of  their  religious  superiors. 
The  faculties  of  these  penitentiaries  are  very  ample; 
and  care  is  taken,  as  a  rule,  that  there  may  be  priests 
of  different  languages  among  them,  to  hear  the  con- 
fessions of  pilgrims  or  other  foreigners  who  do  not 
speak  Itahan. 

The  cardinal  penitentiary  assists  the  pope  at  the 
hour  of  death,  reciting  the  customary  praj^ers  for  the 
dying,  etc.  It  is  he,  also,  who  at  the  beginning  of  a 
jubilee,  offers  to  the  pope  the  golden  hammer,  to  give 
the  first  three  knocks  at  the  Holy  Door  {Porta  Santa) 
of  St.  Peter's,  which  door  is  opened  only  during  the 
Holy  Year,  or  j'ear  of  the  jubilee.  After  the  pope, 
the  cardinal  penitentiary  himself  knocks  twice  with 
the  hammer.  It  is  also  the  office  of  the  cardinal  peni- 
tentiarj^  at  the  end  of  the  jubilee  year,  when  the  Holy 
Door  is  to  be  closed,  to  present  to  the  pope  the  trowel 
and  the  mortar,  to  begin  the  walling  up  of  the  door. 
In  Holy  Week,  the  cardinal  penitentiary^,  surrounded 
by  those  officers  w^ho  constitute  the  signatura,  or 
congress  of  the  Penitentiaria,  sits  four  times — Palm 
Sunday,  Wednesday,  Good  Friday,  and  Holy  Satur- 
day— in  the  penitential  cathedra,  or  chair,  set  in  each 
of  the  three  above-mentioned  Roman  basilicas,  and 
awaits  for  some  time  those  who  may  wish  to  confess 
to  him,  striking  lightly  upon  the  head  with  his  tra- 
ditional rod  (also  used  by  the  minor  penitentiaries) 
those  who  may  kneel  before  him  with  that  intention, 
beginning  with  the  officers  of  the  Sacred  Penitentiaria. 
On  the  part  of  the  faithful  this  ceremony  is  public  con- 
fession of  having  sinned  against  God,  and  a  request 
for  forgiveness  by  ecclesiastical  authority  of  sins  com- 
mitted. 

The  Sacred  Penitentiaria  was  always  provided  with 
great  powers,  formerly  of  internal  jurisdiction  only, 
but  as  time  went  on,  of  external  jurisdiction  al.so. 
Under  the  latter  head  its  work  so  increased  that  the 
administration  of  this  tribunal  was  greatly  hampered. 
Several  pofx-s  disapproved  of  this,  especially  Pius  IV, 
who  planned  a  reform  both  of  its  constitution  and  of 
its  field  of  action,  or  competency.  Death  prevented 
him  from  carrying  this  into  effect:  it  was  realized  by 
St.  Pius  V,  who,  in  1569,  by  his  Constitution  "In 
omnibu.s",  reformed  the  organization  of  the  Peniten- 
tiaria, while  he  modified  its  competency  by  his  other 
Constitution  "Ut  bonus  paterfamilias  ,  both  dated 
IS  May  of  that  year.  The  compcitency  of  the  Peni- 
Umtiaria  wa.s  confined  to  matters  of  internal  jurisdic- 
tion. Little  by  little,  the  succe.ssors  of  Pius  V  in- 
creased the  faculties  of  this  tribunal;  and,  as  many  of 
these  new  concessions  were  made  by  word  of  mouth 
(tnvtB  Vfjcis  oraculo) ,  there  arow;  new  doubts  to  be  solvcsd ; 
wherefore,  U)  remove  uncertaintir-s  Innocent  XII,  in 
16H2,  formulatftd  a  new  list  of  f;w;ulti««  for  the  Peni- 
t/'ntiaria;  but,  the  wjvereign  pontiff  having  delayed  the 
wjlution  of  w>me  doubis,  and  diffifiilties  having  arisen 
in  rc-gard  to  the  inteq)rctation  of  liis  Constitution,  the 
dfjsired  end  was  not  attained  wliiie,  on  the  other  hanfl, 
new  fariulties  were  granted  U)  the  Sacred  Penitentiaria 
by  succeeding  popes.     Consfjquently,  Benedict  XIV 


was  constrained  to  define  better  the  faculties  of  this 
tribunal,  which  that  learned  pontiff  did  by  his  famous 
Constitution,  "Pastor  bonus",  of  April,  1744,  wherein 
he  enumerated  the  faculties  of  the  Sacred  Penitentiaria 
more  or  less  as  they  had  been  granted  b}^  Pius  V,  al- 
though broader  in  some  respects.  It  is  more  remark- 
able that  he  granted  some  powers  of  external  jurisdic- 
tion; hence  until  now  the  Penitentiaria  has  had,  as  an 
exceptional  faculty,  the  power  of  dispensing  destitute 
or  needy  persons  from  public  matrimonial  impedi- 
ments. 

The  Constitution  "Sapienti  consilio"  of  Pius  X 
has  confined  the  competency  of  the  Penitentiaria  to 
its  former  scope,  limiting  it  to  internal  jurisdiction. 
The  power  to  dispense  from  matrimonial  impediments 
in  relation  to  external  jurisdiction,  for  all  classes  of 
people,  having  been  granted  to  the  Congregation  of 
the  Sacraments,  the  tribunal  of  the  Penitentiaria  re- 
ceived jurisdiction  in  all  internal  matters,  in  relation 
to  which  it  is  empowered  to  grant  graces  of  all  kinds — 
absolutions,  dispensations,  commutations,  ratifications 
in  matter  of  impediments,  condonations.  This  tri- 
bunal also  deals  with  questions  of  conscience  submitted 
to  the  judgment  of  the  Holy  See.  It  should  be  ob- 
served here  that  the  chief  penitentiary's  powers  of  in- 
ternal jurisdiction,  even  before  the  recent  Constitu- 
tion, held  during  the  vacancy  of  the  Holy  See,  while 
his  power  of  external  jurisdiction,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, was  suspended. 

As  to  the  procedure  of  the  Penitentiaria,  it  follows 
the  rules  set  down  in  the  Constitution  "In  aposto- 
licae"  of  Benedict  XIV,  in  all  that  is  not  at  variance 
with  the  new  Constitution  of  Pius  X.  It  transacts  its 
business  under  the  greatest  secrecy,  and  gratuitously 
{omnino  secrelo  et  gratis).  It  is  chiefly  a  tribunal  of 
mercy,  as  Benedict  XIV  asserts  in  his  Constitution 
"Pastor  bonus";  wherefore  it  is  appropriate  that  its 
seal  should  bear,  as  is  the  case,  an  image  of  the  Virgin 
Mother  with  the  Child  in  her  arms.  Recourse  is  had 
to  the  Penitentiaria  by  means  of  a  letter  (written  by 
the  party  interested  or  by  that  party's  confessor)  ex- 
posing the  case,  without,  however,  naming  the  person 
concerned.  The  letter  is  addressed  to  the  cardinal 
penitentiary,  and  may  be  written  in  any  language. 
The  name  and  address  of  the  person  to  whom  the 
answer  is  to  be  sent  must  be  clearly  given.  The  fol- 
lowing may  serve  as  an  example  of  applications  to  be 
made  to  the  Penitentiaria:  "Your  Eminence:  Tizio 
and  Caia  [which  must  be  fictitious  names]  wishing  to 
be  united  in  the  bonds  of  holy  matrimony  ask  Your 
Eminence  for  dispensation  from  the  following  impedi- 
ments: (1)  an  impediment  of  the  first  degree  in  the 
direct  line,  that  now  is,  and  most  probably  will  re- 
main, concealed,  originating  in  illicit  relations  between 
Tizio  and  the  mother  of  Caia,  after  the  latter's  birth; 
(2)  an  impediment  of  crime,  which  is  also  concealed, 
originating  in  adultery  between  the  petitioners  while 
the  first  wife  of  Tizio  still  lived,  with  a  mutual  prom- 
ise of  marriage  in  ca.se  of  the  first  wife's  death.  The 
rea.sons  for  this  petition  are  .  .  .  [here  the  facts  are 
given].  Theanswer  may  be  addressed  as  follows.  .  .  ." 
Fictitious  names  may  be  given,  with  the  request  that 
the  answer  be  sent  to  the  General  Delivery,  or,  if  pre- 
ferred, to  the  confessor  of  the  interested  party.  The 
letter  containing  the  petition  should  be  addressed: 
"To  His  Eminence  the  Cardinal  Chief  Penitentiary, 
Palace  of  the  Holy  Office,  Rome". 

We  give  this  (rxainple  of  petitions  to  the  Sacred 
Penitentiary  as  the  faithful  .are  in  frequent  need  of 
recourse  to  that  tribunal.  The  grace  that  is  sought 
and  the  reasons  why  it  should  be  granted  vary,  of 
course,  in  different  cases. 

Gomez,  Tract,  rle  potentate  paenitentiari(B  (Venice,  1557); 
LEr)Ni,  Pr/iiiK  ml  lilterrin  el  bulCan  majorin  Panitentiarii  et  officii 
S.  Pirniti'nlinruB  in  iiiiatiwr  pnrten  dinlrihuta.in  quibun  dec.larantur 
Kinipil'iriim  Jormularum  rUiuxuhr  el  traililur  moiluH  prcrfalnn  lilteras 
eiftiueruli  (Il<»me,  1044);  Cokkaduh,  Praxix  dispensalionum 
aposlolicarum  ex  solidissimo  Romance  curi<B  stylo  inconcusse  servato 


ROMAN 


149 


ROMAN 


excerpta,  praxim  quogue  officii  S.  Paenitentiariw  Urbis  iuxla  illius 
ordinationem  novi  status  complectens  (Venice,  1669);  Syrus, 
Dilucidalio  facultatum  minorum  poenitentiariorum  basilicarum 
Urbis  et  praxis  executionum  ad  litteras  et  rescripta  S.  poenitentiarire 
(Rome,  1699) ;  Petra,  Tractatus  de  pcenitentiaria  apostolica 
(Rome,  1717);  Gibbings,  The  Tax  of  the  Apostolic  Penitentiary 
(Dublin,  1872) ;  Ddpin  de  St-Andr£,  Taxe  de  la  Penitencerie 
apostolique  d'apres  V edition  publiee  d  Paris  en  1620  (Paris,  1879) ; 
Denifle,  Die  dlteste  Taxrolle  d.  apostol.  Ponitentiarie  v.  Jahre 
1338  in  Arch.  f.  Litt.  u.  Kirchengesch.  d.  MA.,  IV,  201  sqq.  (1888); 
Eubel,  Der  Registerband  d.  Kardinal-Grossponitentiars  Bentevenga 
in  A.  f.  k.  KR.,  LXIV,  3  sqq.  (Mamz,  1890) ;  Lea  (ed.),  A  Formu- 
lary of  the  Papal  Penitentiary  in  the  Thirteenth  Century  (Philadel- 
phia, 1892) ;  Batiffol,  Les  pritres  penitentiers  romains  au  Ve 
siicle,  Compte-rendu  du  Congrks  internat.  des  catholiques  a  Bruxelles, 
II  (1894),  277  sqq.;  Lecacheux,  Un  formulaire  de  la  penitencerie 
apostolique  au  temps  du  cardinal  Albornoz  (1357-8),  in  Melanges 
Arch.  Hist.  Ecole  Franc,  Rome,  XVIII  (1898),  37  sqq.;  Lang, 
Beitr&ge  zur  Geschichte  der  apostol.  Ponitenciers  in  Mitt.  d. 
Instil,  f.  Oesterr.  Geachichtsf.,  VII,  Supplementary  Number,  1904; 
Haskins,  The  Sources  for  the  History  of  the  Papal  Penitentiary 
in  American  Journal  of  Theol.,  LIX  (1905),  422  sqq.;  Tarani  a 
Spalannis,  Manuale  theorico-practicum  pro  minoribus  pceniten- 
tiariis  (Rome,  1906) ;  Goller,  Die  papslliche  Ponitentiarie  von 
ihrem  Ursprung  bis  zu  ihrer  Umgestallung  durch  Pius  V  (Rome, 
1907);  Chouet,  La  sacree  penitencerie  Apostolique  (Lyons,  1904). 

B.  The  Sacred  Roman  Rota. — See  Rota,  Sacra  Ro- 
man a. 

C.  The  Apostolic  Signatura. — In  former  times,  there 
was  only  one  Signatura,  i.  e.  there  were  a  few  assist- 
ants who  were  commi.ssioned  by  the  sovereign  pontiff 
to  investigate  the  petitions  addressed  to  the  Holy  See, 
and  to  report  concerning  them.  These  functionaries 
were  called  Referendnrii  apostolici.  Vitale,  in  his 
"Comm.  deiuro  signature  justitiaj",  says  that  there  is 
record  of  the  referendaries  as  such  in  1243.  Innocent 
IV  mentions  them.  As  time  went  on,  recourse  to  the 
Holy  See  bcHioming  more  and  more  frequent,  whether 
to  obtain  graces  or  to  submit  cases  to  the  decision  of 
the  pope,  the  number  of  the  referendaries  increased 
considerably.  Alexander  VI  deemed  it  expedient  to 
define  their  office  better,  which  he  did  by  creating  a 
double  Signatura — the  Signatura  of  Grace,  and  the 
Signatura  of  Justice — to  which  the  referendaries  were 
severally  assigned.  As  the  office  of  rcfcrcndar>'  wa,s  a 
very  honourable  one,  it  came  to  be  conferred  fre- 
quently as  a  merely  honorary*  title,  so  that  the  number 
of  the  referendaries  was  unduly  increased ;  and  Sixtus  V 
was  constrained,  in  1586,  to  limit  the  referendaries  of 
the  Signatura  of  Justice  to  KM),  and  those  of  the  Sig- 
natura of  (irace  to  70.  AlcxandcT  VII  combined  the 
referendaries  of  both  Signaturas  into  a  college,  with  a 
dean.  These  were  called  "voting  referendaries",  and 
actually  exercised  their  ofTice.  The  others  remained 
as  "supernumerary  referendaries"  {extra  numerum). 
In  1834  Gregory  XVI  gave  a  new  organization  to  the 
Signatura  of  Justice.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Signa- 
tura of  Grace  gradually  disappeared:  no  mention  is 
made  of  it  after  1847  in  the  catalogues  of  the  tribunals 
and  officials  of  the  Curia. 

The  Signatura  of  Grace,  also  called  Signatura  of  the 
Hol}^  Father  (Signatura  Sanclissimi) ,  was  held  in  the 
presence  of  the  sovereign  pontiff,  and  there  were  pres- 
ent at  it  some  cardinals  and  many  prelates,  chief 
among  the  latter  being  the  voters  of  this  Signatura. 
At  the  invitation  of  the  Holy  Father,  the  voters  voted 
upon  the  matters  under  consideration,  but  that  vote 
was  merely  consultative.  The  Holy  Father  reserved 
to  himself  the  decision  in  each  case,  announcing  it 
then  and  there,  or  later,  if  he  chose,  through  his  "do- 
mestic auditor",  as  Do  Luca  calls  him,  or  "auditor  of 
the  Holy  Father ' '  (a  iiditor  sanctissimi) ,  as  he  was  called 
later.  The  Signatura  of  Justice  was  a  genuine  tribu- 
nal, presided  over  in  the  name  of  the  pope  by  a  cardinal 
prefect.  The  voters  of  this  Signatura  were  present  at 
it,  and  their  vote  was  not  consultative,  but  definitive. 
As  a  rule,  the  cardinal  prefect  voted  only  when  his 
vote  was  necessary  for  a  decision. 

Pius  X,  in  the  Constitution  by  which  he  reor- 
ganized the  Curia,  abolished  the  two  ancient  Signa- 
turas, and  created  a  new  one  that  has  nothing  in 
common  with  the  other  two.  The  Signatura  now  con- 
sists of  six  cardinals,  appointed  by  the  pope,  one  of 


whom  is  its  prefect.  It  has  a  secretary,  a  notary,  who 
must  be  a  priest,  some  consultors,  and  a  few  subor- 
dinate officers.  The  present  Signatura  is  a  genuine 
tribunal  which  ordinarily  has  jurisdiction  in  four 
kinds  of  cases,  namely:  accusations  of  suspicions 
against  an  auditor  of  the  Rota;  accusations  of  viola- 
tion of  secrecy  by  an  auditor  of  the  Rota;  appeals 
against  a  sentence  of  the  Rota;  petitions  for  the  nulli- 
fication of  a  decision  of  the  Rota  that  has  already  be- 
come res  judicata.  As  a  temporary  commission,  the 
pope  gave  to  the  Signatura  the  mandate  and  the 
power  to  review  the  sentences  passed  by  the  Roman 
Congregations  before  the  Constitution  "Sapienti  Con- 
silio".  This  commission  was  given  to  the  Signatura 
through  an  answer  by  the  Consistorial  Congregation 
on  the  subject  of  a  doubt  relating  to  a  case  of  this 
kind.  Of  course  the  Holy  Father  may  on  special  oc- 
casions give  other  commissions  of  this  nature  to  the 
ApostoUc  Signatura. 

Gomes,  Compendium  utriusqum  signatures  (Paris,  1547);  Sta- 
PHlL.eus,  De  litteris  gratia:,  de  signatura  gratice  et  litteris  apostolicis 
in  forma  brevis  (Paris,  1558);  Mandosius,  Praxis  signaturce 
gratice  (Rome,  1559);  Marchesani,  Commissionum  ac  rescrip- 
torum  utriusqite  signaturce  S.  D.  N.  Papce  praxis  (Rome,  1615); 
De  Matienzo,  Tract,  de  referendariorum,  advocatorum,  iudicum 
officio,  requisitis,  dignitate  et  eminentia  (Frankfort,  1618);  De 
Fatinelus,  De  referendariorum  votantium  signatura;  iustitice  col- 
legia (Rome,  1696) ;  Vitale,  Comm.  de  iure  signaturm  iustitice 
(Rome,  1756). 

II.  Offices  op  Curia. — These  are  five  in  number: 
The  ApostoUc  Chancery;  Apostolic  Dataria;  Apos- 
tolic Camera;  Secretariate  of  State;  Secretariate  of 
Briefs. 

A.  The  Apostolic  Chancery  (Cancelleria  Apostolica). 
— This  office  takes  its  name  from  civil  law  and  from 
the  imperial  chanceries,  and  is  certainly  of  very  an- 
cient origin  in  its  essence.  The  primacy  of  the  Ro- 
man See  made  it  necessary  that  the  sovereign  pontiff 
should  have  in  his  service  officers  to  write  and  to  trans- 
mit his  answers  to  the  numerous  petitions  for  favours 
and  to  the  numerous  consultations  addressed  to  him. 
This  office,  in  course  of  time,  underwent  many  trans- 
formations, to  the  most  important  of  which  only  we 
shall  refer.  After  Martin  V  had  instituted  a  large 
number  of  offices  in  the  Chancery,  Sixtus  V  placed 
many  of  them  in  the  class  of  vacabili,  as  they  were 
then  called.  The  origin  of  this  institution  was  as  fol- 
lows: The  pope  was  often  compelled,  in  defence  of 
Christendom,  to  wage  war,  to  fit  out  expeditions,  or  at 
least  to  give  financial  assistance  to  the  princes  who 
waged  such  wars  at  his  exhortation.  But  the  pontifi- 
cal treasury,  on  the  other  hand,  was  often  without 
means  to  defray  even  the  expenses  of  the  Pontifical 
States,  and  it  became  imperative  to  raise  funds.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  popes  resorted  to  the  expedient  of  sell- 
ing several  lucrative  offices  of  the  Curia,  and,  as  a 
rule,  to  the  highest  bidder.  It  should  be  observed, 
however,  that  what  was  sold  was  not  the  office  itself, 
but  the  receipts  of  the  office,  e.  g.,  the  taxes  for  the 
favours  granted  through  the  office  in  question.  Some 
offices  were  sold  with  the  right  of  succession  by  the 
heirs  of  the  purchaser.  This,  however,  could  be  done 
only  in  the  case  of  an  office  of  minor  importance,  in 
the  exercise  of  which  no  special  ability  was  required. 
Those  offices  which  entailed  grave  responsibilities,  and 
which  could  be  filled  only  by  pious  and  learned  men, 
were  sold  on  the  condition  that  they  should  revert  to 
the  Curia  at  the  death  of  the  purchaser.  An  aleatory 
contract,  therefore,  was  made,  the  uncertainty  being, 
on  the  one  side,  the  amount  of  the  income  of  the 
office  and,  on  the  other,  the  length  of  life  of  the  pur- 
chaser. The  prices  of  the  offices,  especially  of  the 
more  desirable  ones,  were  considerable:  Lorenzo  Cor- 
sini,  afterwards  Clement  XII,  bought  the  office  of  re- 
gent of  the  Chancery  for  30,000  Roman  scudi — a  large 
fortune  for  those  times.  The  hazard  was  not  neces- 
sarity  confined  to  the  life  of  the  purchaser;  he  was  free 
to  establish  it  upon  the  life  of  another  person,  pro- 
vided the  latter  (called  the  intestatary)  were  expressly 


ROMAN 


150 


ROMAN 


The   Papal  Cancelleria,    Rome 
Formerly  the  Palazzo  Riario 

Pius  VII,  after 


designated.  The  purchaser  Wiis  also  allowed  to 
change  the  life  hazard  from  one  person  to  another, 
providing  this  were  done  forty  days  before  the  death 
of  the  hist  i)receding  intestatary. 

The  othcesof  tlie  Chancery- which  were  transformed 
into  vaMhili  by  Sixtus  V  were  those  of  the  regent,  of  the 
twenty-five  sohcitors,  of  the  twelve  notaries,  auditors 
of  the'causes  of  the  Holy  Palace,  and  others.  Sixtus  V 
assigned  the  pro- 
ceeds of  these  sales 
to  the  vice-chan- 
cellor (see  below) 
as  part  of  the  lat- 
ter's  emoluments; 
but  this  too  liberal 
prescription  in  fa- 
vour of  the  cardinal 
who  presided  over 
the  Chancery  was 
revoked  by  Inno- 
cent XI,  who  as- 
signed the  revenue 
in  question  to  the 
Apostolic  Camera. 
Alexander  VIII  re- 
stored these  rev- 
enues to  the  vice- 
chancellor,  who,  at 
that  time,  was  the 
pope's  nephew, 
Pietro  Ottoboni. 
Under  Napoleon  I 
the  Government  re- 
deemed many  of 
the  vacabili,  and  but  few  remained. 
his  return  to  Rome,  undertook  a  reform  of  the  Chan- 
cery, and  wisely  reduced  the  number  of  the  offices. 
But,  as  he  himself  granted  to  the  vacabili  the  priv- 
ilege that,  by  a  legal  fiction,  time  should  be  regarded 
as  not  having  traas[)ired  (quod  tempus  et  tempera  non 
currant),  and  many 
proprietors  of  vaca- 
bili having  obtained 
grants  of  what  was 
called  sopravvivenza 
by  which  deceased 
intestataries  were 
considered  to  be 
living,  it  came  to 
pass  that  certain  of- 
fices remained  vaca- 
bili in  name,  but 
not  in  fact.  Fi- 
nally, Leo  XIII 
(1901)  suppressed 
all  the  vaaibili  of- 
fices, ordering  hia 
pro-datary  to  re- 
deem them,  when 
necfsisary,  the  da- 
tary's  office  being 
Bubstituted  for  the 
proprietors. 

Since  the  Consti- 
tution of  Pius  X,  the 

Chancery  has  been  reducod  to  a  forsvarfling  <)lii(;c 
{Uffici/j  di  Spedizione)  with  a  small  personnel;  there 
are,  bf^idf*  the  cardinal  who  presidfs  over  the  Chan- 
cery, the  regent,  with  the  college  of  A  post  olir  j)r()tliono- 
tanes,  a  notary,  secretary  and  archivist,  m  j>n)tof()]iHt, 
and  four  amanuensfw.  The  presiding  canlinal,  j)rior 
to  the  recent  O^jnstitution,  was  e.iiled  viee-elianeellor. 
The  authors  who  wrote  on  the  Chancery  gave  many 
ingpniouH  reawms  why  that  dignitary  Khonid  not  have 
received  thr-  more  obvious  title  of  chancellor.  Car- 
dinal De  Luca  regarded  thr-.se  exi)Ianati()nH  as  sc-nse- 


tion  of  his  own,  without,  however,  insisting  on  its 
correctness.  According  to  him,  it  was  probable  that  the 
title  of  vice-chancellor  arose  in  the  same  way  as  the 
title  of  pro-datary,  the  custom  having  been  to  call  the 
head  of  the  datary  office  {dalaria)  the  datary  (dalario), 
if  he  were  not  a  cardinal,  and  the  pro-datary  {pro 
datario),  if  he  were  a  cardinal.  The  reason  for  this 
must  be  souglit  in  the  fact  that  the  office  of  datary  was 
really  not,  that"  of  a 
cardinal,  but  rather 
of  minor  dignity; 
wheiefore  it  did  not 
seem  well  to  give 
the  title  of  datary 
to  a  cardinal.  The 
same  custom  still 
obtains  in  the  case 
of  a  nuncio  who  is 
elevated  to  the  car- 
dinalate:  he  retains 
liis  position  for  a 
time,  but  with  the 
title  of  pro-nuncio. 
Ihis  theory  of  De 
I.uca's,  if  not  alto- 
fi(>ther  certain,  is  at 
least  probable.  The 
n  e  w  Constitution, 
liowcvcr,  establishes 
that  the  head  of  the 
Chancery  shall 
hereafter  be  called 
chancellor,  a  very 
reasonable  pro- 
vision, seeing  that  this  office  has  been  filled  for  cen- 
turies by  cardinals.  For  the  rest,  the  office  in  question 
was  always  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  honourable 
and  most  important  of  the  Curia,  as  may  be  seen  from 
Moroni's  account  of  the  funeral  of  Cardinal  Alexander 
Farnese,  vice-chancellor,  and  arch-priest  of  the  Vati- 
can Basifica.  The 
authority  of  the 
vice-chancellor  was 
increased  when,  un- 
der Alexander  VIII 
in  1(390,  there  was 
added  to  his  office, 
in  perpetuity,  that 
of  compiler  {som- 
mista). 

At  present  the 
chancellor  retains 
little  of  his  former 
influence  and  attri- 
butes. He  acts  as 
notary  in  the  con- 
sistories and  directs 
the  office  of  the 
c  h  a  n  c  e  r  y .  The 
greatest  splendour 
of  the  chancellor  was 
under  Leo  X,  from 
whese  successor, 
Clement  VII,  this 
f  1  1  ctionary  re- 
as  residence  the  Palazzo  Riario,  long  known 
the  Cancelleria  Apostolica,  where  he  resides 
at  the  present  day.  His  former  residence  was 
in  the  Palazzo  Borgia,  from  which  he  moved 
to  the  Palazzo  Sforza  Cesarini,  the  latter  palace 
being,  on  this  account,  known  for  a  long  time  as 
the  Cancelleria  Vecchia.  The  removal  of  the  vice- 
chancellor's  residence  and  office  to  the  majestic 
Palazzo  Riario,  in  the  Campo  di  Fiori,  was  due 
to  the  confiscation  of  the  property  of  Cartlinal 
RafTaele  Riario  for  his  share,  with  Cardinals  Petniccd, 


less  («m/>^icito(e«c</a6eite),  and  proposed  an  explanar     Sacchi,    Soderini,    and   Castellesi,    in    a    conspiracy 


ROMAN 


151 


ROMAN 


against  the  life  of  Leo  X.  Contiguous  to  the  Can- 
celleria,  in  fact  forming  a  part  of  it,  is  the  Church 
of  San  Lorenzo  in  Damaso.  When  Clement  VII  as- 
signed this  palace  as  the  perpetual  residence  of  the 
vice-chancellor,  he  provided  that  the  vice-chancellor 
should  always  have  the  title  of  that  church;  and,  as  it 
happens  that  the  chancellors  are  not  always  of  the 
same  order  in  the  Sacred  College,  being  sometimes 
cardinal-deacons,  sometimes  cardinal-priests,  and 
sometimes  cardinal-bishops,  this  church  does  not  fol- 
low the  rule  of  the  other  cardinalitial  churches,  which 
have  a  fixed  grade,  being  titular — that  is  churches 
over  which  cardinals  of  the  order  of  priests  are 
placed — or  deaconries — churches  over  which  are 
placed  cardinal-deacons.  San  Lorenzo,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  a  titular  when  the  chancellor  is  of  the  order 
of  priests,  and  a  deaconry  when  he  is  a  cardinal- 
deacon.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  he  is  a  sub- 
urbicarian  bishop,  the  chancellor  retains  this  church 
in  comryiendam. 

The  Regency,  which  is  the  next  office  in  the  order 
of  precedence  in  the  Chancery  after  the  chancellor- 
ship, was  created  in  1377,  when  Gregory  XI  returned 
from  France  to  his  see.  Cardinal  Pierre  de  Mon- 
t^ruc,  who  was  the  chancellor  at  that  time,  refused  to 
follow  the  pope  from  Avignon  to  Rome;  and,  as  it  was 
necessary  that  someone  should  direct  the  office  of  the 
Chancery,  the  pope,  leaving  the  title  of  vice-chancel- 
lor to  Monteruc,  appointed  the  Archbishop  of  Bari, 
Bartolommeo  Prignano,  regent  of  this  important 
office.  At  the  death  of  (hegory  XI,  in  137S,  Pri- 
gnano was  elected  pope,  and  he  appointed  a  successor 
to  himself  in  the  office  of  regent  of  the  Chancery, 
which  was  thereafter  maintained,  even  when  the  vice- 
chancellor  re-establislied  his  residence  at  Rome. 

There  is  not  space  here  to  refer  in  detail  to  the  other 
offices  of  the  Chancery,  and  the  subject  is  the  less  im- 
portant, since  the  greater  number  of  those  offices 
have  now  disappeared  for  good. 

At  present  the  Chancer^'  is  charged  only  with  the  ex- 
pedition of  Bulls  for  consistorial  benefices,  the  estab- 
lishment of  new  dioceses  and  new  chapters,  and  other 
more  important  affairs  of  the  Church.  (For  the  vari- 
ous forms  of  Apostolic  Letters,  see  Bull-s  and  Briefs.) 
One  fact  concerning  the  ex-pedition  of  Bulls  should  be 
mentioned.  Formerly,  there  were  four  different  ways 
of  issuing  these  documents,  namely,  by  way  of  the 
Curia  {per  viam  curice),  by  way  of  the  Chancery  {per 
cancellarium) ,  secretly  {per  viam  secretam),  and  by 
way  of  the  Apostolic  Camera  {per  viam  camerce).  The 
reason  for  this  is  that,  while  some  Bulls  were  taxed, 
there  was  no  taxation  on  others,  and  it  was  necessary 
to  determine  upon  what  Bulls  the  proprietors  of  the 
vacabili  offices  had  a  right  to  receive  taxes.  Bulls, 
therefore,  which  concerned  the  government  of  the 
Catholic  world,  being  exempt  from  all  taxation,  were 
said  to  be  issued  by  way  of  the  Curia.  Those  Bulls 
of  which  the  ex-pedition  was  by  way  of  the  Chancery 
were  the  common  Bulls,  which,  after  being  reviewed 
by  the  abbreviators  of  the  greater  presidency  (see 
Abbrevi.'VTOrs),  were  signed  by  them  and  by  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  vacabili,  the  latter  of  whom  received  the 
estabhshed  taxes.  The  Bulls  said  to  be  issued  secretly 
were  those  in  favour  of  some  privileged  persons — as 
the  palatine  prelates,  the  auditors  of  the  Rota,  and  the 
relatives  of  cardinals.  They  were  signed  by  the  vice- 
chancellor,  and  they,  too,  were  exempt  from  taxation. 
Finally,  the  Bulls  of  which  the  expedition  was  said  to 
be  by  way  of  the  Camera  were  those  that  concerned 
the  Apostolic  Camera.  Since  the  style  and  the  rules 
of  the  Chancery  could  not  be  adapted  to  these  Bulls, 
they  were  issued  by  the  sommista,  whose  office  was 
created  by  Alexander  VI  and  later,  as  was  said  above, 
united  by  Alexander  VIII  with  that  of  the  vice- 
chancellor. 

At  the  present  time,  all  the  vacabili  having  been 
abolished,  these  various  forms  of  expedition  have  been 


suppressed,  the  new  Constitution  providing  that  all 
Bulls  be  issued  by  way  of  the  Chancery,  on  order  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Consistory  for  all  matters  of 
the  competency  of  that  body,  and  by  order  of  the 
pope  for  all  others.  This  is  in  keeping  with  the  new 
organization  of  the  Chancery  as  a  merely  issuing 
office.  The  Constitution  "Sapienti  consilio"  pro- 
vided that  the  ancient  formulse  of  Bulls  should  be 
changed,  and  the  duty  of  preparing  new  ones  was 
given  to  a  commission  of  cardinals  composed  of  the 
chancellor,  the  datary,  and  the  secretary  of  the  Con- 
sistorial Congregation.  This  commission  has  already 
reformed  the  Bulls  for  the  Consistorial  benefices,  and 
Pius  X,  by  his  Motu  Proprio  of  8  December,  1910,  ap- 
proved the  new  formulae  and  ordered  them  to  be  used 
exclusively  after  1  January,  1911.  The  college  of  the 
abbreviators  of  the  greater  presidency  having  been 
suppressed,  and  the  abbreviators  of  the  lesser  presi- 
dency having  become  extinct  in  fact,  the  Apostolic 
prothonotaries  in  actual  office  have  been  appointed  to 
sign  the  Bulls.  A  very  reasonable  change  has  also 
been  made  in  regard  to  the  dating  of  Bulls.  For- 
merly Bulls  were  dated  according  to  the  year  of  the 
Incarnation,  which  begins  on  25  March.  This  me- 
dieval style  of  dating  remained  pecuhar  to  papal 
Bulls,  and  in  time  gave  rise  to  much  confusion.  Pius 
X  ordered  these  documents  to  be  dated  in  future  ac- 
cording to  common  custom,  by  the  year  which  begins 
on  1  Januaiy. 

Mention  should  here  be  made  of  what  are  known  as 
the  Rules  of  the  Chancery.  This  name  was  given  to 
certain  Apostolic  Constitutions  which  the  popes  were 
in  the  habit  of  promulgating  at  the  beginning  of  their 
pontificate,  in  regard  to  judicial  causes  and  those  con- 
cerning benefices.  In  many  cases  the  pope  merely 
confirmed  the  provisions  of  his  predecessor;  in  others 
he  made  additions  or  suppressions.  The  result  has 
been  an  ancient  collection  of  standing  rules  which  re- 
mained unmodified  even  in  the  recent  reorganization 
of  the  Curia.  These  Rules  are  usually  divided  into 
three  classes:  rules  of  direction  or  expedition,  which 
concern  the  expedition  of  Bulls;  beneficial  or  re- 
servatory  rules,  relating  to  benefices  and  reserv^ations; 
lastly,  judicial  rules,  concerning  certain  prescriptions 
to  be  observed  in  judicial  matters,  especially  with  re- 
lation to  appeals.  The  Rules  of  the  Chancer^' have  the 
force  of  law,  and  are  binding  wherever  exceptions  have 
not  been  made  to  them  by  a  concordat.  In  ancient 
times,  these  rules  ceased  to  be  in  force  at  the  death  of 
the  sovereign  pontiff,  and  were  revived  only  upon  the 
express  confirmation  of  the  succeeding  pope.  Urban 
VIII,  however,  declared  that,  without  an  express  con- 
firmation, the  Rules  of  the  Chancery  should  be  in  force 
on  the  day  after  the  creation  of  the  new  pope.  It 
would  be  outside  of  the  scope  of  this  article  to  enter 
into  a  minute  examination  of  these  rules,  all  the  more 
because  the  commission  of  cardinals  charged  with  the 
reformation  of  the  formulae  of  Bulls  has  also  charge  of 
revising  the  Rules  of  the  Chancery. 

Cassiodorus,  Super  XIV  reg.  Cancellerice  (Paris,  1.545); 
Barchin,  Pratica  Gancellarice  apostolicce  cum  stylo  et  formu  in 
curia  romana  usitatis  (Lyons,  1549) ;  Mandosius,  Comm.  in 
regulas  CancellariiB  lulii  III  (Venice,  1554);  Mill^eus,  Annota- 
tiones  in  regulas  Gomesii  Cancellerice  apostolicw  (Lyons,  1557); 
M.VNDOSIU8,  In  regulas  C'ancellerice  apostolicce  commentar.  (Rome, 
1558);  Molina,  Comm.  in  regulas  Cancellerice  apostolicce  (Lyons, 
1560) ;  Gomes,  In  Cancellerice  apost.  regulas  iudiciales  (Venice, 
1575);  Rebuffus,  Addit.  in  reg.  Cancellerice  (Paris,  1579); 
But-Dius,  Constitut.  Pii  IV,  V  et  Gregor.  XIII  cum  regulis 
Cancellerice  (1583);  Gonzalez,  Ad  regulam  VIII  Cancell.  de 
reservatione  mensium  (Geneva,  1605);  Buthilleri,  Tract,  ad 
regul.  Cancellarice  de  infirmis  resignationibus  (Paris,  1612); 
Peleus,  In  regulas  Cancellarice  (Paris,  1615) ;  a  Chockier,  Comm. 
in  reg.  Cancellarice  apostolicce  sive  in  glossemata  Alphonsi  Soto 
nuncupati  Glossatoris  (Cologne,  1619) ;  De  Quesada,  ReguUe 
CancellariiB  apostolicce  Gregorii  XV  cum  notis  et  indicibus  (Rome, 
1621);  Louetics,  Notce  ad  comm.  Caroli  Molinai  in  regulas  Can- 
cellarice apostolicce  (Paris,  1656) ;  Sperenqerus,  Roma  nova  cum 
regulis  Cancellarice  apostolicce  et  de  privilegiis  clericorum  (Frank- 
fort. 1667) ;  Ciampini,  De  abbreviatoribus  de  parco  maiori  sive 
assistent.  S.  R.  E.  Vicecancellario  in  litterarum  apostolicarum  ex- 
peditionibus     .     .     .     dissertatio    historica    (Rome,     1669);    Le 


ROMAN 


152 


ROMAN 


Pelletier,  Instructions  pour  Ics  ejcpdditions  de  la  cour  de  Rome 
(Paris,  1680);  Castel  P]fiR.vRD,  Paraphrase  du  commentatre  de 
M  Ch.  Du  Mouiin  sur  les  r^les  de  la  Chancellerie  romaine  (Paris, 
16S5);  CiAMPixi,  De  S.  R.  E.  Vicecancellarui  (Rome,  1697); 
Anon,  Compendiaria  notilia  abbreriatoris  de  curia  (Rome,  1696); 
OCZEXVSSEK,  Pral.  iur.  can.  seu  comm.  in  regulas  Cancellariv 
dementis  XI  (Vienna,  1712);  Bovio,  La  pietd  trionfante  sulle 
distrutte  grande::e  del  gentilismo  .  .  .  e  degh  uffi.ci%  deUa 
CanceUeria  Apostolica  e  dei  Cancellieri  delta  6.  R.  Chiesa 
(Rome,  1729);  Riganti,  Commentaria  in  regulas,  constitutiones  et 
ordinationes  Cancellarim  apostolicw,  opus  posthumum  (Geneva, 
1571);  Hedderich,  Dispuiatio  ad  regulam  Cancdlarim  de  non 
toUendo  ius  gua-situm  in  Germania,  diss.  XVII  (Bonn,  1783); 
Erler,  Der  Liber  CanceUeriw  apostolica:  v.  J.  1380  (Leipzig,  1880) ; 
V  Ottenth^l,  Die  papstlichen  Kanzleiregeln  von  Johann 
XXII  bis  Xikolaus  V  (1888);  Tangl,  Die  p&pstlichen  Kanzlei- 
ordungen  ron  leOO-lSOO  (Innsbruck,  1894);  Kehr,  Scrinium  und 
Palatium.  Zur  Geschichte  des  papstlichen  Kamleiwessens  im  11 
Jahrh.  in  Mitt,  des  Instit.  fur  dsterr.  Geschichtsf.,  suppl.  VI; 
Goller,  Miiteilungen  und  Untersuchungen  iiber  das  pdpstliche 
Register-  und  Kamleiwessen  im  14.  Jahrh.,  besonders  unter 
Johann  XXII  und  Benedikt  XII  in  Quellen  und  Forschungen 
des  Preuss.  histor.  Instiluis  in  Rom.,  VI,  272  sqq.;  Chiari, 
Memoria  giuridieo-storica  sulla  Dataria  Cancellaria,  rev.  Camera 
apostolica,  Compenso  di  Spagna,  vacabili  e  vacabilisti  (Rome, 
1900)  •  Anon.,  Die  Vacabilia  d.  papstl.  Kanzlei  u.  d.  Datarie  in 
Arch.  f.  k.  KR.,  LXXXII  (1902),  163-165;  vox  Hofmann, 
Zur  Geschichte  der  papstl.  Kanzlei  vornehmlich  in  der  2.  Hdlfte 
des  15.  Jahrh.  (Berlin,  1904);  Schmitz-Kallbnberg,  Pmctica 
CancMarice  apostolicw  seculi  xv  exeuntis  (Miinster,  1904);  Baum- 
GARTEN,  Aus  Kanzlei  u.  Kammer  (Freiburg,  1905) ;  Goller,  Die 
Kommenlatoren  der  papstlichen  Kanzleiregeln  von  Ende  des  15. 
bis  zum  Beginn  des  17.  Jahrhunderts  in  Arch.  f.  k.  KR.,  LXXXV 
(1905),  441  sqq.;  LXXXVI  (1906),  20  sqq.,  259  sqq.;  Idem, 
Von  d.  apostol.  Kanzlei  (Cologne,  1908). 

B.  The  Apostolic  Dataria. — According  to  some 
authorities,  among  them  Amydenus  (De  officio  et  ju- 
risdictione  datarii  necnon  de  stylo  Datariae),  this  office 
is  of  verj'  ancient  origin.  It  is  not  so,  however,  as  ap- 
pears from  the  fact  that  the  business  which  eventually 
fell  to  it  was  originally  transacted  elsewhere.  The 
Dataria  was  entrusted,  chiefly,  with  the  concession  of 
matrimonial  dispensations  of  external  jurisdiction, 
and  with  the  collation  of  benefices  reserved  to  the 
Holy  See.  To  this  double  faculty  was  added  that  of 
granting  many  other  indults  and  graces,  but  these 
additions  were  made  later.  Until  the  time  of  Pius  IV 
matrimonial  dispensations  were  granted  through  the 
Penitentiaria;  and  as  to  the  collation  of  reserved  bene- 
fices, that  authority  could  not  have  been  granted  in 
very  remote  times,  since  the  establishment  of  those 
reservations  is  comparatively  recent:  although  some 
vestige  of  reser\^ations  is  found  even  prior  to  the 
twelfth  century,  the  custom  was  not  frequent  before 
Innocent  II,  and  it  was  only  from  the  time  of  Clement 
IV  that  the  reserA'^ation  of  benefices  was  adopted  as  a 
general  rule  [c.  ii,  "De  pract.  etdignit."  (Ill,  4)  in  6°]. 
It  may  be  said  that,  while  this  office  certainly  existed 
in  the  fourteenth  centur>',  as  an  independent  bureau, 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  precise  time  of  its 
creation. 

The  Dataria  consists,  first,  of  a  cardinal  who  is  its 
chief  and  who.  until  the  recent  Constitution,  was 
called  the  pro-datary,  but  now  has  the  official  title  of 
datary.  There  was  formerly  as  much  discussion 
about  the  title  of  pro-datary  as  about  that  of  vice- 
chancellor  (see  above).  Some  are  of  ojjiiiion  that  it  is 
derived  from  the  fact  that  this  ofncc  dated  the  re- 
scripts or  graces  of  the  soverfign  pontifT,  while  others 
hold  it  to  be  derived  from  tlio  riglit  to  grant  and  give 
(dare)  the  graces  and  indults  for  which  petition  is 
made  to  the  pope.  It  is  certain  that,  on  account  of 
these  functifjns  the  datary  enjoyed  great  prestige  in 
former  tirnfs,  whf-n  he  was  called  the  eye  of  the  pope 
(ficuluH  jhijxf).  After  the  cardinal  comes  the  sub- 
datary,  a  prelate  of  the  Curia  who  assists  the  datary, 
and  takf«  the  latter's  place,  upon  occasion,  in  almost 
all  of  his  functions.  In  the  old  organization  of  the 
Dataria  there  came  after  the  sub-datary  a  number  of 
Bubcjrdinate  officials  who,  as  De  Luca  says,  bore  titles 
that  were  enigmatical  and  sibyllic,  as,  for  example, 
the  prefect  of  the  per  ohilum,  the  prefect  of  the 
cono'ssum,  the  cashier  of  th(r  componerula,  an  officer  of 
the  miHHVi,  and  the  like. 

Leo  XIII  had  already  introduced  reforms  into  the 


organization  of  the  Dataria,  to  make  it  harmonize 
with  modern  requirements,  and  Pius  X,  reducing  the 
competency  of  the  office,  gave  it  an  entirely  new 
organization  in  his  Constitution  "Sapienti  consilio", 
according  to  which  the  Dataria  consists  of  the  cardi- 
nal datary,  the  sub-datarj^,  the  prefect  and  his  surro- 
gate {snstituto),  a  few  officers,  a  cashier,  who  has  also 
the  office  of  distributor,  a  reviser,  and  two  writers  of 
Bulls.  The  new  Constitution  retains  the  theological 
examiners  for  the  competitions  for  parishes.  Among 
the  Datary  offices  that  have  been  abolished  mention 
should  be  made  of  that  of  the  Apostolic  disjititcliers, 
which,  in  the  new  organization  of  the  Curia,  has  no 
longer  a  reason  for  being.  Formerly  these  officials 
were  necessary,  because  private  persons  could  not 
refer  directly  to  the  Dataria,  which  dealt  only  with 
persons  known  to,  and  approved  by,  itself.  Now, 
however,  anyone  may  deal  directly  with  the  Dataria, 
as  with  any  of  the  other  pontifical  departments. 
The  Dataria,  which,  as  noted  above,  was  commis- 
sioned to  grant  many  papal  indults  and  graces,  has 
now  only  to  investigate  the  fitness  of  candidates  for 
Consistorial  benefices,  which  are  reserved  to  the  Holy 
See,  to  write  and  to  dispatch  the  Apostolic  Letters  for 
the  collation  of  those  benefices,  to  dispense  from  the 
conditions  required  in  regard  to  them,  and  to  provide 
for  the  pensions,  or  for  the  execution  of  the  charges 
imposed  by  the  pope  when  conferring  those  benefices. 
It  would  be  both  length}'  and  difficult  to  retrace  the 
former  modes  of  procedure  of  this  office,  all  the  more 
as  it  was  mainly  regulated  by  tradition,  wliile  this 
tradition  was  jealously  guarded  by  the  officers  of  the 
Datary,  who  were  generally  laymen,  and  who  had  in 
that  way  established  a  species  of  monopoly  as  detri- 
mental to  the  Holy  See  as  profitable  to  themselves; 
thus  it  happened  that  these  offices  often  passed  from 
father  to  son,  while  the  ecclesiastical  superiors  of  the 
officials  were  to  a  great  extent  blindly  dependent  upon 
them.  Leo  XIII  began  the  reform  of  this  condition 
of  things  so  unfavourable  to  good  administration, 
and  Pius  X  has  totally  abohshed  it. 

Amydexus,  De  officio  et  jurisdiclione  Datarii  nee  non  de  stylo 
Dalarioe;  Macaxar,  Pedimento  sobre  abusos  de  la  Dataria  (Madrid, 
1841);  Axon.,  Die  Vacabilia  d.  papstl.  Kanzlei  u.  d.  Datarie  in 
Arch.  f.  k.  KR,  82,  163  (1902). 

C.  The  Apostolic  Camera. — In  the  Constitution 
"Sapienti  consilio"  Pius  X  provided  that  during 
vacancies  of  the  Holy  See  its  property  should  be  ad- 
ministered by  this  office.  The  cardinal-cainerlengo 
(see  Camerlengo)  presides  over  the  Camera,  and  is 
governed  in  the  exercise  of  his  office  by  the  rules 
established  in  the  Constitution,  "Vacante  sede 
apostolica",  of  25  December,  1906.  (For  history  and 
general  treatment  see  Apostolic  Camera.) 

D.  The  Secretariate  of  State. — After  the  promulga- 
tion of  the  Constitution  of  Innocent  XII,  in  1692,  the 
cardinal  nephews  were  succeeded  by  the  secretaries  of 
State.  Of  the  cardinal  nephews  many  authors  have 
written  with  grejitcr  severity  than  is  justified  by  the 
facts,  although  the  dignitaries  in  question  may  on 
more  than  one  otrcasion  have  given  cause  of  complaint. 
In  times  when  the  life  of  the  jjope  was  in  jeopardy 
from  conspira(!ies  formed  in  his  own  court  (such,  for 
instance,  as  that  against  Leo  X  mentioned  above, 
under  A.  The  Apoxtolir  Chancery),  it  was  a  necessity 
for  the  sovereign  pontiff  tf)  have  as  his  chief  assistant 
one  in  whom  Ik;  might  repose  implicit  confidence,  and 
such  h(>  could  nowhere  more  surely  find  than  in  his 
own  family.  The  cardinal  nephew  was  called  ' '  Sccre- 
tarius  Paptc  et  superintendens  status  ecclesiastic!". 
The  cardinal  secretary  of  State,  who  fills  the  place  of  the 
nephew,  has  been,  and  is,  in  the  present  day,  the  con- 
fidential assistant  of  the  pope.  Hence  the  office  is 
vacated  upon  the  death  of  the  reigning  pontiff.  Be- 
fore; the  promulgation  of  the  recent  Constitution  of 
Pius  X,  this  office  of  Curia  comprised,  besides  the 
cardinal  secretary  himself,  a  surrogate,   also  called 


ROMAN 


153 


ROMAN 


I 


secretary  of  the  cipher,  and  some  clerks  and  subaltern 
officials.  Now,  however,  there  have  been  amalga- 
mated with  it  certain  other  offices  which  were  formerly 
independent.  The  Secretariate  of  State,  therefore,  is 
at  present  divided  into  three  sections,  the  first  of  which 
deals  with  certain  extraordinary  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
the  second  with  ordinary  affairs,  including  grants  of 
honours,  titles,  and  decorations  by  the  Holy  See  other- 
wise than  through  the  majordomo,  the  third  with  the 
expediting  of  pontifical  Briefs. 

For  the  work  of  the  first  section,  see  what  is  said  on 
the  subject  of  the  Congregation  of  Extraordinary 
Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  under  Roman  Congregations. 

The  second  section  deals  with  the  relations  of  the 
Holy  See  with  secular  princes,  whether  through  Apos- 
tolic nuncios  or  legates  or  through  the  ambassadors 
accredited  to  the  Vatican.  This  section  of  the  office 
of  the  secretary  of  State  has  charge  of  the  distribution 
of  offices  of  the  Curia,  and  of  the  election  of  the  various 
officers.  Through  this  section  titles  of  nobility — 
as  prince,  marquis,  count  palatine,  etc. — are  granted 
and  the  decorations  of  the  Holy  See,  which,  besides 
the  golden  cross  pro  Ecclesia  et  Pontifice,  instituted  by 
Leo  Xin,  include  such  distinctions  as  the  Supreme 
Order  of  Christ  (or  Order  of  the  Militia  of  Jesus 
Christ,  as  it  is  called  by  Pius  X  in  his  brief  of  7  Febru- 
ary, 1905),  the  Order  of  Pius  IX,  established  by  that 
pontiff  in  1847,  the  Order  of  Saint  Gregory  the  Great, 
created  by  Gregory  X\T  in  1S31;  the  Order  of  Saint 
Sylvester;  the  Order  of  the  Golden  Militia,  or  of  the 
Golden  Spur,  restored  by  Pius  X,  and  the  Order  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  of  wliicli  Pius  X  has  reserved  to  him- 
self the  supreme  inastcrshi]). 

As  has  already  been  said,  the  third  section  of  the 
Secretariate  of  State  is  exclusively  concerned  with  the 
expediting  of  Briefs. 

E.  The  Secretariate  of  Briefs  to  Princes  and  of  Latin 
Letters. — The  Secretariate  of  Briefs  to  Princes  con- 
sists of  the  secretary  and  two  office  assistants.  The 
secretary  is  a  prelate  whose  duty  it  is  to  write  the 
pontifical  Briefs  addressed  to  emperors,  kings,  civil 
princes,  or  other  exalted  personages.  He  also  pre- 
pares the  allocutions  which  the  i)ope  pronounces  at 
Consistories,  and  the  Encyclicals  or  Apostolic  Letters 
addressed  to  the  bishops  and  to  the  faitliful.  All  this 
he  does  according  to  tlie  instructions  of  the  pope. 
He  must  b(>  a  proficient  Latinist,  since  Latin  is  the 
language  in  which  these  documents  are  written.  The 
secretary  for  Latin  lett(»rs  is  also  a  prelatx;  or  private 
chamberlain  {cameriere  segreto),  his  duties  being  to 
write  the  letters  of  less  solemnity  which  the  sovereign 
pontiff  addresses  to  different  personages.  He  has  an 
office  assistant. 

HL  Commissions  of  Cardinals  and  the  Pontif- 
ical P'amily. — Certain  commissions  of  cardinals 
which  still  exist  are  the  Commissions  for  Biblical 
Studies,  for  Historical  Studies,  for  the  Administration 
of  the  Funds  of  the  Holy  See  or  of  the  Pcterspence, 
for  the  Conservation  of  the  Faith  in  Rome,  and  for  the 
Codification  of  the  Canon  Law. 

In  the  wider  sense  of  the  term,  the  Curia  includes 
not  only  the  departments  already  mentioned,  but  also 
what  is  officially  known  as  the  Pontifical  Family. 
The  chief  members  of  this  body  are  the  two  palatine 
cardinals — cardinal  dalary  and  tlie  cardinal  secretary 
of  State.  Formerly  the  cardinal  datary  always  lived 
with  the  pope;  tlie  secretary  of  State,  even  now,  lives 
in  the  Vatican  Palace  and  is  the  pontiff 's  confidential 
officer.  After  these  follow  the  palatine  prelates:  ma- 
jordomo, the  maestro  di  camera,  the  master  of  the 
Sacred  Palace,  and  the  camerieri  segreti  partecipanti 
(the  private  almoner,  the  secretary  of  Briefs  to 
Princes,  the  surrogate  for  ordinary  affairs  of  the  Sec- 
retariate of  State  and  secretary  of  the  Cipher,  the  sub- 
datary,  the  secretary  for  Latin  Letters,  the  copyist, 
the  embassy  secretary,  and  the  master  of  the  robes), 
to  whom  are  added,  as  palatine  prelates,  the  sacristan 


and  the  secretary  of  Ceremonies.  Nearly  all  these 
prelates  live  in  the  Vatican.  It  would  be  impossible 
to  refer,  here,  to  each  one  of  them  in  particular.  The 
history  of  their  offices  is  the  same  for  each,  connected 
with  that  of  the  Apostolic  Palace,  and  with  the  lives 
of  the  popes.  (See  Maestro  di  Camera  del  Papa; 
Majordomo.) 

The  majordomo  and  maestro  di  camera  are  followed 
in  order  in  the  Pontifical  Family  by  the  domestic  prel- 
ates of  His  Holiness.  These  are  divided  into  colleges, 
the  first  of  which  is  the  College  of  the  Patriarchs, 
Archbishops,  and  Bishops,  Assistants  to  the  Pontif- 
ical Throne;  the  second  is  the  College  of  ApostoUc 
Prothonotaries,  active  and  supernumerary.  After 
these  come  the  Colleges,  respectively,  of  the  Prelate 
Auditors  of  the  Rota,  of  the  Prelate  Clerics  of  the 
Apostolic  Camera,  and  of  the  Domestic  Prelates,  sim- 
ply so  called.  Bishops  assistants  to  the  Throne  {as- 
sistentes  solio  ponlificio)  are  named  by  a  Brief  of  the 
Secretariate  of  State,  and  in  virtue  of  their  office  are 
members  of  the  Pontifical  Chapel  (Cappella  Pontifi- 
cia);  they  wear  the  cappa  magna  and  wait  on  the 
pope,  assisting  him  with  the  book,  and  holding  the 
candle  (bugia).  Moreover,  they  may  wear  sillc  robes 
— an  exclusive  privilege  of  the  Pontifical  Family,  al- 
though many  bishops,  in  ignorance  of  this  rule,  act  at 
variance  with  it. 

For  the  College  of  Apostolic  Prothonotaries  see 
Prothonotary  Apostolic.  For  the  College  of  Prel- 
ate Auditors  of  the  Rota  see  Rota,  Sacra  Romana. 
Of  the  clerics  of  the  Apostolic  Camera,  enough  has 
already  been  said  in  the  present  article. 

The  domestic  prelates  are  appointed  as  a  rule  by  a 
Motu  Proprio  of  the  pope,  occasionally  at  the  petition 
of  their  bishops,  and  they  enjoy  several  privileges, 
among  which  are  the  use  of  the  violet  dress,  which  is 
that  of  a  bishop  (without  the  cross) ,  the  ring,  the  violet 
biretta,  and  the  cappa  magna.  These  domestic  prel- 
ates are  appointed  for  life,  and  retain  their  dignity 
at  the  death  of  the  pope.  After  them  in  the  Pontifical 
Family  come  the  camerieri  segreti  di  spada  e  cappa  par- 
tecipanti, all  of  whom  are  laymen,  the  staff  and  the 
higher  officers  of  the  Pontifical  Noble  Guard,  the  su- 
pernumerary camerieri  segreti  or  private  chamberlains 
(ecclesiastics),  the  active  and  the  supernumerary  came- 
rieri di  spada  e  cappa  (laymen),  the  camerieri  d'onore 
in  abito  paonazzo  (ecclesiastics),  the  camerieri  d'onore 
extra  Urbem  (ecclesiastics),  the  camerieri  d'onore  di 
spada  e  cappa,  active  and  supernumerary  (laymen), 
the  staff  and  the  higher  officers  of  the  Swiss  Guard 
and  of  the  Palatine  Guard  of  Honour,  the  master  of 
pontifical  ceremonies,  the  private  chaplains,  the  hon- 
orary private  chaplains,  the  honorary  private  chaplains 
extra  Urbem,  the  chierici  segreti,  the  College  of  Or- 
dinary Pontifical  Chaplains.  It  would  be  impossible 
to  refer,  here,  to  each  of  these  ranks  in  particular.  It 
may  be  said,  however,  of  the  supernumerary  camer- 
ieri segreti  that,  like  the  active  and  the  partecipanti 
camerieri  segreti,  their  office  ceases  at  the  death  of  the 
pope;  while  it  lasts  they  have  the  right  to  use  the  vio- 
let dress,  of  a  cut  slightly  differing,  however,  from  that 
of  the  prelates;  on  account  of  which  difference,  they 
are  called  monsignori  di  rnantellone,  while  the  prelates 
are  called  monsignori  di  mantelletta. 

Sestini,  II  Maestro  di  Camera  (Florence,  1623);  Catalanus, 
De  Mayistros.  Palalii  Apostolici  (Rome,  1751);  Makini,  Memorie 
iatoriche  degli  archivi  delta  S.  Sede  (Rome,  1825);  Rasponi,  De 
Basilica  et  Patriarchio  lateranensi  (Rome,  165G) ;  Galletti,  Del 
Primicero  delta  S.  Sede  Apostolica  e  di  altri  ufficiali  maggiori  del 
Sagro  Palagio  lateranense  (Rome,  1776) ;  Galletti,  Del  vestarario 
delta  S.  Romana  Chiesa  (Rome,  1758);  Conti,  Origini  fasti  e 
privilcgi  degli  amocati  concistoriali  (Rome,  1898) ;  Renazi,  Notizie 
storiche  degli  antichi  Vicedomini  del  Patriarchio  lateranense  e  dei 
moderni  Prefetti  del  Sagro  Palazzo  Apostolico  ovvero  maggiordomi 
pontefici  (Rome,  1787);  Cancellieri,  Notizie  sopra  I'anello 
pescatorio  (Rome,  1823);  Maubach,  D.  Kardinale  u.  ihre  Polit. 
umd.  Milled.  XIII.  Jahrh.  (Bonn,  1902);  Sagmuller,  Geschichte 
d.  Kardinalales  (Rome,  1893);  Sacchetti,  Privilegia  protonota- 
riorum  apostolicorum  (Cologne,  1689);  Andreucci,  Tr.  de  prch- 
tonolariis  apostolicis  (Rome,  1742);  Riqanti,  De  protonotariis 
apostolicis  (Rome,   1751);  Buonaccorsi,  Antichitd  del  protono- 


ROMANESQUE 


154 


ROMANOS 


tariaio  aposU>lico  partecipantf  (.Faenza,  1751);  Brunet,  Le  parfait 
notaire  apostolique  et  procureur  des  officialMs  et  formules  ecclis- 
iastiques  (Lyons,  1775);  Mickk,  De  protonotariis  apostohcxs 
dissertatio  (Breslau.  1S6G);  RenaVD,  Dcs  protonotaires  aposto- 
liques  in  Rer.  des  Sciences  cccUs.  (1807);  Trombetta,  De  juribus 
et  prinlegiis  prceUUorum  Romance  Cutut  (Sorrento,  19061. 

Benedetto  Ojetti. 
Romanesque  Architecture.      See  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Architecturk. 
Roman  Inquisition.     See  Inquisition;  Roman 

COXGREGATIOXS. 

Roman  Law.     See  Law. 

Rom£tnos,  Saint,  surnamed  6  fi€\t^b6%  and  o  Oeop- 
p-flTiJip.  poet  of  the  sixth  century.  The  only  authority 
for  the  hfe  and  date  of  this  greatest  of  Greek  hymn- 
writers  is  the  account  in  the  Menaion  for  October; 
his  feast  is  1  October.  According  to  this  account  he 
was  by  birth  a  Syrian,  served  as  deacon  in  the  church 
at  Berytus,  and  came  to  Constantinople  in  the  reign 
of  Anastasios.  It  was  in  the  Church  of  the  Most 
Holy  Theotokos  (e/s  t4  Kvpov)  that  he  received  the 
charisma  of  sacred  poetry.  "After  a  religious  re- 
treat at  Blachernaj  he  returned  to  his  church,  and  one 
night  in  his  sleep  saw  a  vision  of  the  Most  Holy 
Theotokos,  who  gave  him  a  volume  of  paper,  saying, 
'Take  the  paper  and  eat  it'."  The  saint,  in  his 
dream,  opened  his  mouth  and  swallowed  the  paper. 
It  was  Christmas  Day,  and  immediately  he  awakened 
and  marvelled  and  glorified  God.  Then,  mounting 
the  ambo,  he  began  the  strains  of  his 

7)  irapdevos  ffrjfjiepov  rbv  VTripo'ufflov  rlKrei. 
He  wrote  also  about  one  thousand  kontakia  for  other 
feasts  before  he  died. 

Beyond  this  passage,  there  are  only  two  mentions 
of  Romanos's  name,  one  in  the  eighth-century  poet 
St.  Germanos,  and  once  in  Suidas  (s.  v.  avaKkdifievov), 
who  calls  him  "Romanos  the  melode".  None  of  the 
Byzantine  writers  on  hymnology  allude  to  him: 
his  fame  was  practically  extinguished  by  the  newer 
school  of  hymn-writers  which  flourished  in  the 
eighth  and  ninth  centuries.  Krumbacher  has  made 
it  fairly  certain,  b}'  a  number  of  critical  arguments, 
that  the  emperor  named  in  the  Menaion  as  reigning 
when  Romanos  came  to  the  capital  is  Anastasius 
I  (a.  d.  491-518),  not  Anastasius  II  (a.  d.  713-16); 
Pitra  and  Stevenson  are  of  the  same  opinion.  Prob- 
ably, then,  he  lived  through  the  reign  of  Justinian 
(a.  d.  527-6.5),  who  was  himself  a  hymn-writer;  this 
would  make  him  contemporary  with  two  other 
Byzantine  melodes,  Anastasios  and  Kyriakos.  "In 
poetic  talent,  fire  of  inspiration,  depth  of  feeling,  and 
elevation  of  language,  he  far  surpasses  all  the  other 
melodes.  The  literary  history  of  the  future  will 
perhaps  acclaim  Romanos  for  the  greatest  ecclesias- 
tical poet  of  all  ages",  says  Krumbacher,  and  all  the 
other  critics  of  IJyzantine  poetry  subscribe  to  this 
enthusiastic  praise.  Some  have  called  him  the 
Christian  Pindar.  Down  till  the  twelfth  century  his 
ChrLstmas  hymn  was  performed  by  a  double  choir 
(from  S.  Sophia  and  the  Holy  Ajrostles)  at  the  im- 
perial banquet  on  that  feast  day.  Of  most  of  the 
others  only  a  few  strophes  survive.  The  long  hymns 
(kont/ikm)  consist  of  twenty-five  strophes  (Iroparia), 
usually  of  twenty-fine  verses  each,  with  a  refraiiL 
Besides  the  Christmas  hymn  we  may  cite  the  follow- 
ing titles  to  exemplify  St.  Romanos's  choice  of  sub- 
jects: "Canticum  Paschale",  "de  CrucisTriumpho", 
"de  lufla  Proditore",  "de  Petri  Negatione",  "de  Vir- 
gine  iuxta  crucem  ".  Dramatic  and  pathetic  dialogue 
plays  a  great  part  in  the  structure.  The  simple  sin- 
cerity of  tone  wimetimes  puts  the  readier  in  mind  of 
the  Latin  medieval  hymns,  or  the  earliest  Italian 
religious  verse;.  Romanos,  like  the  other  melodes, 
obeys  a  purely  accentual  or  rhythmic  law;  the 
quantitative  scansions  are  obsolete  for  those  to  whom 
he  sings  (see  Byzanti.ne  Literatitrk,  IV).  Edi- 
tions: Twenty-nine  hymns  in  Pitra,  "Analecta  Sacra", 


I,  1876;  three  more  in  Pitra,  "Sanctus  Romanus 
veterum  melodorum  princeps"  (1888);  Krumbacher 
long  ago  promised  a  complete  critical  edition  accord- 
ing to  the  Patmian  codices,  but  has  not  yet  achieved 
it. 

Pitra,  Hymnographie  de  VEglise  grecque  (Rome,  18G7) ;  BouvY, 
Poiles  et  Melodes  (Nlmes,  1886);  Krumbacher,  Gescli.  d.  byz. 
Literatur,  Munich,  312-18;  Idem,  Studien  zii  Romanos  (Munich, 
1899);  Idem,  Umarbeitungen  bei  Romanos  (Munich,  1899); 
Jacobi,  Zur  Geschichte  des  gricchischen  Kirchenliedes  in  Bri&- 
gers  Zeilschrift  fur  Kirchengeschichte  (1882),  V,  177-250. 

J.  S.  Phillimore. 

Romanos  Pontifices,  Constitutio. — The  res- 
toration by  Pius  IX,  29  Sept.,  18.50,  by  letters 
Apostolic  "Universalis  e(;('lesi;c"  of  the  hierarchy  in 
England,  and  the  consequent  transition  to  the  new 
order  of  things,  necessarily  gave  rise  to  misunder- 
standings and  discussion  in  various  matters  of  juris- 
diction and  discipline,  particularly  between  the 
episcopate  and  rehgious  orders.  Bishops,  as  was  in- 
cumbent upon  them,  strenuously  maintained  the 
rights  of  the  hierarchy,  while  religious  superiors  were 
loath  to  surrender  prerogatives  previously  exercised. 
The  chief  points  of  controversy  related  to  the  ex- 
emption of  regulars  from  the  jurisdiction  of  bishops; 
the  right  of  bishops  to  divide  parishes  or  missions  con- 
ducted by  regulars,  and  to  place  secular  priests  in 
charge  of  these  newly-created  missions;  the  obliga- 
tion of  regulars  engaged  in  parish  work  to  attend 
conferences  of  the  clergy  and  diocesan  synods;  the 
force  of  their  appeal  from  synodal  statutes;  their 
liberty  to  found  new  houses,  colleges  and  schools, 
or  to  convert  existing  institutions  to  other  purposes; 
the  right  of  bishops  to  visit  canonical^  institutions  in 
charge  of  regulars;  and  certain  financial  matters. 
Individual  bishops  sought  to  cope  with  the  situation 
until  finally  a  proposition  of  Cardinal  Manning, 
made  in  an  annual  meeting  of  the  English  hierarchy  in 

1877,  to  submit  these  difficulties  to  Rome  for  definite 
settlement,  met  with  unanimous  approval.     In  July, 

1878,  the  bishops  of  Scotland  formally  associated 
themselves  with  their  English  brethren  in  the  con- 
troversy. Negotiations  were  opened  with  Propa- 
ganda, but  Cardinal  Manning  later  suggested  to 
Pope  Leo  XIII  the  appointment  of  a  special  com- 
mission to  examine  the  claims  of  the  contestants  and 
to  prepare  a  constitution.  Repeated  delays  ensued, 
so  that  it  was  not  until  20  Sept.,  1880,  that  a  special 
commission  of  nine  cardinals  chosen  to  consider  the 
question  had  its  first  sitting.  Four  other  sessions 
followed,  and  in  Jan.,  1881,  a  report  was  made  to  the 
pope.  Finally  the  constitution  "Romanos  Ponti- 
fices" of  Leo  XIII  was  issued  8  May  of  the  same  year, 
defining  the  relations  in  England  and  Scotland  be- 
tween bishops  and  religious.  This  constitution  has 
been  extended  to  the  United  States  (2.5  Sept.,  1885), 
to  Canada  (14  March,  1911),  to  South  America  (1 
Jan.,  1900),  to  the  Philippine  Islands  (1  Jan.,  1910), 
and  quite  generally  to  missionary  countries.  The  pro- 
visions of  the  "Romanos  Pontifices"  may  be  grouped 
into  three  heads:  the  exemption  of  religious  from 
episcopal  jurisdiction;  relations  to  bi.shops  of  re- 
ligious engaged  in  parochial  duties;  and  matters 
pertaining  to  temporal  goods.  The  constitution 
makes  clear  the  following:  though  regulars  according 
to  canon  law  are  subject  immediately  to  the  Holy 
See,  bishops  are  given  jurisdiction  over  small  com- 
munities. The  constitution  "Romanos  Pontifices" 
makes  a  further  concession  exempting  regulars  as 
such,  living  in  parochial  residences  in  small  numbers 
or  even  alone,  almost  entirely  from  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  ordinary.  "Wo  hesitate  not  to  declare",  it 
states,  "that  regulars  dwelling  in  residences  on  the 
mission,  no  less  than  regulars  living  in  their  own 
mon.'isteries,  are  exc^rnpt  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
ordinary,  exc(!pt  in  cjises  exjircssly  inentioruMl  in  law, 
and  generally  speaking  in  matters  pertaining  to  the 


ROMAN 


155 


ROMAN 


cure  of  souls  and  the  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments." 

In  parochial  ministrations,  then,  regulars  are  sub- 
ject in  all  things  to  episcopal  supervision,  visitation, 
jurisdiction,  and  correction.  If  engaged  in  parochial 
work,  religious  are  obliged  to  assist  at  conferences 
of  the  clergy  as  well  as  at  diocesan  synods.  "We 
declare",  says  the  constitution,  "that  all  rectors  of 
missions  are  bound  by  their  office  to  attend  the  con- 
ferences of  the  clergy;  and  moreover  we  ordain  and 
command  that  vicars  also  and  other  religious  en- 
joying ordinary  missionary  faculties,  Hving  in  resi- 
dences and  small  missions,  do  the  same."  The 
Council  of  Trent  prescribes  that  all  having  the  cure 
of  souls  be  present  at  diocesan  synods.  The  con- 
stitution says  in  regard  to  this  question:  Let  the 
Council  of  Trent  be  observed.  Another  point  of 
controversy  related  to  appeals  from  synodal  decrees. 
Regulars  are  not  denied  this  right.  Their  appeal 
from  the  ordinary's  interpretation  of  synodal  statutes 
in  matters  pertaining  to  common  law  has  a  devolutive 
effect  only;  in  matters  pertaining  to  regulars  as  such, 
owing  to  their  exemption,  an  appeal  begets  a  sus- 
pensive effect.  The  bishop's  right  to  divide  parishes, 
even  though  under  the  management  of  regulars,  is 
maintained,  providing  the  formalities  prescribed  in 
law  be  observed.  The  opinion  of  the  rector  of  the 
mission  to  be  divided  must  be  sought;  while  a  bishop 
is  not  free  to  divide  a  mission  in  charge  of  religious 
without  consulting  their  superior.  An  appeal,  dev- 
olutive in  character,  to  the  Holy  See,  should  the 
case  require  it,  is  granted  from  the  bi-shop's  de- 
cision to  divide  a  parish  or  mission.  The  ordinary 
is  free  to  follow  his  own  judgment  in  appointing  rec- 
tors of  new  missions,  even  when  formed  from  parishes 
in  charge  of  regulars.  The  claim  of  regulars  to  pref- 
erence in  these  appointments  is  thus  denied.  It  is 
unlawful  for  religious  to  establish  new  monasteries, 
churches,  colleges,  or  schools  without  the  previous 
consent  of  the  ordinary  and  of  the  Apostolic  See. 
Similar  permission  is  required  to  convert  existing 
institutions  to  other  purposes,  except  where  such 
change,  affecting  merely  the  domestic  arrangements 
or  discipline  of  regulars  themselves,  is  not  contrary 
to  the  conditions  of  the  foundation.  The  bishop 
may  exercise  the  right  of  canonical  visitation  in  re- 
gard to  churches  and  parochial  or  elementary  schools, 
though  they  be  in  cliarge  of  regulars.  Tliis  right  does 
not  extend  to  ('enieteries  or  institutions  for  the  use 
of  religious  only;  nor  to  colleges  in  which  religious, 
according  to  their  rule,  devote  thcMuselves  to  the 
education  of  youth.  The  temporal  affairs  of  a 
parish  or  mission  are  determined  by  a  decree  of 
Propaganda,  published  19  April,  1869.  All  goods 
given  to  parishes  or  missions  must  be  accounted  for 
according  to  diocesan  statutes;  not,  however,  dona- 
tions made  to  regulars  for  themselves.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  ordinary  to  see  that  parochial  goods  are  devoted 
to  the  purposes  designated  by  the  donors.  Inven- 
tories (Propaganda,  10  May,  1867)  will  distinguish 
paro(!hial  belongings  from  those  of  regulars.  These 
regulations  of  former  decrees  are  embodied  in  "Ro- 
manes Pontifices". 

The  conatitution  may  be  found  in  Cone.  Plen.  Bait.  Ill,  pp. 
212  sq.;  Ada  Apos.  Sedis,  II,  pp.  254  sq.,  where  it  is  officially 
republished.  For  the  English  controversy  see  Snead-Cox,  Life 
of  Cardinal  Vaughan  (London,  1910),  xiv;  Taunton,  The  Law 
of  the  Church,  s.  v.  Regulars. 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Roman  Patriaxchate.  See  Patriarch  and  Pa- 
triarchate. 

Roman  Rite  {ritus  romanus),  The,  is  the  manner 
of  celebrating  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  administering  Sacra- 
ments, reciting  the  Divine  Office,  and  performing  other 
ecclesiastical  functions  (blessings,  all  kinds  of  Sacra- 
mentals,  etc.)  as  used  in  the  city  and  Diocese  of  Rome. 
The  Roman  Rite  is  the  most  wide-spread  in  Christen- 


dom. That  it  has  advantages  possessed  by  no  other, 
the  most  archaic  antiquity,  unequalled  dignity, 
beauty,  and  the  practical  convenience  of  being  com- 
paratively short  in  its  services  will  not  be  denied  by 
any  one  who  knows  it  and  the  other  ancient  liturgies. 
But  it  was  not  the  consideration  of  these  advantages 
that  led  to  its  extensive  use;  it  was  the  exalted  po- 
sition of  the  see  that  used  it.  The  Roman  Rite  was 
adopted  throughout  the  West  because  the  local 
bishops,  sometimes  kings  or  emperors,  felt  that  they 
could  not  do  better  than  use  the  rite  of  the  chief 
bishop  of  all,  at  Rome  And  this  imitation  of  Roman 
liturgical  practice  brought  about  in  the  West  the 
application  of  the  principle  (long  admitted  in  the 
East)  that  rite  should  follow  patriarchate.  Apart 
from  his  universal  primacy,  the  pope  has  always  been 
unquestioned  Patriarch  of  the  West.  It  was  then  the 
right  and  normal  thing  that  the  West  should  use  his 
liturgy.  The  irregular  and  anomalous  incident  of 
liturgical  history  is  not  that  the  Roman  Rite  has  been 
used,  practically  exclusively,  in  the  West  since 
about  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century,  but  that  before 
that  there  were  other  rites  in  the  pope's  patriarchate. 
Not  the  disappearance  but  the  existence  and  long 
toleration  of  the  Galilean  and  Spanish  rites  is  the 
difficulty  (see  Rites).  Like  all  others,  the  Roman 
Rite  bears  clear  marks  of  its  local  origin.  Wherever 
it  may  be  used,  it  is  still  Roman  in  the  local  sense, 
obviously  composed  for  u.se  in  Rome.  Our  Missal 
marks  the  Roman  stations,  contains  the  Roman 
saints  in  the  Canon  (see  Canon  of  the  Mass),  hon- 
ours with  special  solemnity  the  Roman  martyrs  and 
popes.  Our  feasts  are  constantly  anniversaries  of 
local  Roman  events,  of  the  dedication  of  Roman 
churches  (All  Saints,  St.  Michael,  S.  Maria  ad  Nives, 
etc.).  The  Collect  for  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  (29  June) 
supposes  that  it  is  said  at  Rome  (the  Church  which 
"received  the  beginnings  of  her  Faith"  from  these 
saints  is  that  of  Rome),  and  so  on  continually.  This 
is  quite  right  and  fitting;  it  agrees  with  all  liturgical 
history.  No  rite  has  ever  been  composed  consciously 
for  general  use.  In  the  East  there  are  still  stronger 
examples  of  the  same  thing.  The  Orthodox  all  over 
the  world  use  a  rite  full  of  local  allusions  to  the  city 
of  Constantinople. 

The  Roman  Rite  evolved  out  of  the  (presumed) 
universal,  but  quite  fluid,  rite  of  the  first  three  cen- 
turies during  the  (liturgically)  almost  unknown  time 
from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth.  In  the  sixth  we  have  it 
fully  developed  in  the  Leonine,  later  in  the  Gelasian, 
Sacnunciitiiries.  How  and  exactly  when  the  specifi- 
ctilly  Roman  qualities  were  formed  during  that  time 
will,  no  doubt,  always  be  a  matter  of  conjecture  (see 
Liturgy;  Mass,  Liturgy  of  the).  At  first  its  use 
was  very  restrained.  It  was  followed  only  in  the 
Roman  province.  North  Italy  was  Galilean,  the 
South,  Byzantine,  but  Africa  was  always  closely  akin 
to  Rome  liturgically.  From  the  eighth  century  grad- 
ually the  Roman  usage  began  its  career  of  conquest  in 
the  West.  By  the  twelfth  century  at  latest  it  was  used 
wherever  Latin  obtained,  having  displaced  all  others 
except  at  Milan  and  in  retreating  parts  of  Spain.  That 
has  been  its  position  ever  since.  As  the  rite  of  the 
Latin  Church  it  is  used  exclusively  in  the  Latin 
Patriarchate,  with  three  small  exceptions  at  Milan, 
Toledo,  and  in  the  still  Byzantine  churches  of  South- 
ern Italy,  Sicily,  and  Corsica.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  it  developed  into  a  vast  number  of  dorived  rites, 
differing  from  the  pure  form  only  in  unimportant  de- 
tails and  in  exuberant  additions.  Most  of  these  were 
abolished  by  the  decree  of  Pius  V  in  1570  (see  Mass, 
Liturgy  of  the).  Meanwhile,  the  Roman  Rite  had 
itself  been  affected  by,  and  had  received  additions 
from,  the  Galilean  and  Spani.sh  uses  it  displaced.  The 
Roman  Rite  is  now  used  by  every  one  who  is  subject 
to  the  pope's  patriarchal  jurisdiction  (with  the  three 
exceptions  noted  above) ;  that  is,  it  is  used  in  Western 


ROMANS 


156 


ROMANS 


Europe,  including  Poland,  in  all  countries  colonized 
from  Western  Europe:  America,  Australia,  etc.,  by 
Western  (Latin)  missionaries  all  over  the  world,  in- 
cluding the  Eastern  lands  where  other  Catholic  rites 
also  obtain.  No  one  may  change  his  rite  without  a 
legal  authorization,  which  is  not  ejisily  obtained.  So 
the  Western  priest  in  Syria,  Egypt,  and  so  on  uses 
his  own  Roman  Rite,  just  as  at  home.  On  the  same 
principle  Catholics  of  Ei\stern  rites  in  Western 
Europe,  America,  etc.,  keep  their  rites;  so  that  rites 
now  cross  each  other  wherever  such  people  live  to- 
gether. The  language  of  the  Roman  Rite  is  Latin 
ever>-where  except  that  in  some  churches  along  the 
Western  Adriatic  coast  it  is  said  in  Slavonic  and  on 
rare  occasions  in  Greek  at  Rome  (see  Rites).  In 
derived  forms  the  Roman  Rite  is  used  in  some  few 
dioceses  (Lyons)  and  by  several  religious  orders  (Bene- 
dictines, Carthusians,  Carmelites,  Dominicans).  In 
these  their  fundamentally  Roman  character  is  ex- 
pressed by  a  compound  name.  They  are  the  "Ritus 
Romano-Lugdunensis",  "Romano-monasticus",  and 
80  on. 

For  further  details  and  bibliography  see  Breviary;  Canon 
OF  THE  Mass;  Liturgy;  Mass,  Lititrgy  of  the;  Rites. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Romans,  Epistle  to  the. — This  subject  will  be 
treated  under  the  follo^\-ing  heads:  I.  The  Roman 
Church  and  St.  Paul;  II.  Character,  Contents,  and 
Arrangement  of  the  Epistle;  III.  Authenticity;  IV. 
Integrity;  V.  Date  and  Circumstances  of  Composi- 
tion; VI.  Historical  Importance;  VII.  Theological 
Contents:  Faith  and  Works  (Paul  and  James). 

I.  The  Roman  Church  and  St.  Paul. — Among 
the  Epistles  of  the  New  Testament  which  bear  the 
name  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  that  written  to  the  Roman 
Church  occupies  the  finst  place  in  the  manuscripts 
which  have  come  down  to  us,  although  in  very  early 
times  the  order  was  probably  otherwise.  The  Epistle 
is  intended  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to  a  community 
with  which  the  author,  though  he  has  not  founded  it, 
desires  to  form  connexions  (i,  10-15;  xv,  22-24,  28-29). 
For  years  his  thoughts  have  been  directed  towards 
Rome  (xv,  23).  The  Church  there  had  not  been  re- 
cently established;  but  its  faith  had  already  become 
known  everj'where  (i,  8)  and  it  is  represented  as  a  firmly 
established  and  comparatively  old  institution,  which 
Paul  regards  with  reverence,  almo.st  with  awe.  Con- 
cerning its  foundation,  unfortunately,  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans  gives  us  no  information.  To  interpret 
this  silence  as  decisive  against  its  foundation  by  Peter 
is  inafimissible.  It  cannot  indeed  be  ascertained  with 
complete  certainty  when  Peter  first  came  to  Rome; 
there  may  have  been  Christians  in  the  capital  before 
any  Apostle  set  foot  there,  but  it  is  simply  inconceiv- 
able that  this  Church  should  have  attained  to  such 
firm  faith  and  such  a  high  standard  of  religious  life 
without  one  of  the  prominent  authorities  of  nascent 
Christianity  having  laifi  its  foundation  and  directed 
its  growth.  This  Church  did  not  owe  its  Faith  solely 
to  some  unknown  members  of  the  primitive  Christian 
community  who  chanced  to  come  to  Rome.  Its  Chris- 
tianity was,  as  the  Kpistlr;  tfUs  us,  free  from  the 
Law;  this  conviction  Paul  certainly  shared  with  the 
majority  of  the  community,  and  his  wish  is  simply 
Ui  de<.'p<;n  this  conviction.  This  condition  is  en- 
tirely incomprehensible  if  the  Roman  Church  traced 
its  origin  only  to  some  Jewish  Christian  of  the  com- 
munity in  Jerusalem,  for  wc;  know  how  far  the  fight 
for  frwidom  was  from  being  crndrrd  about  a.  d.  50.  Nor 
can  the  founda,tion  of  th(!  R4^)man  Church  be  traced 
to  the  Gentile  Christian  Churches,  who  named  Paul 
their  Apf>8tle:  their  own  establishment  was  Uk) 
rr^^mt,  and  Paul  wouW  have  worded  his  Epistle 
otherwiw;,  if  the  community  addressfid  were  even 
rnediat/'ly  indebtfid  U>  his  ajKJst^jlate.  The  cf)mplet(' 
silence  as  U>  St.  PeU;r  is  most  c-asily  ex[)lained  by  sup- 
posing that  he  waa  then  absent  from  Rome;  Paul  may 


well  have  been  aware  of  this  fact,  for  the  community 
was  not  entirely  foreign  to  him.  An  epistle  like  the 
present  would  hardly  have  been  sent  while  the  Prince 
of  the  Apostles  was  in  Rome,  and  the  reference  to  the 
ruler  (xii,  8)  would  then  be  difficult  to  explain.  Paul 
probably  supposes  that,  during  the  months  between  the 
composition  and  the  arrival  of  the  Epistle,  the  com- 
munity would  be  more  or  less  thrown  on  its  own  re- 
sources. This  does  not  however  indicate  a  want  of 
organization  in  the  Roman  commimity;  such  organi- 
zation existed  in  every  Church  founded  by  Paul,  and 
its  existence  in  Rome  can  be  demonstrated  from  this 
very  Epistle. 

The  inquiry  into  the  condition  of  the  community 
is  important  for  the  understanding  of  the  Epistle. 
Complete  unanimity  concerning  the  elements  form- 
ing the  community  has  not  yet  been  attained.  Baur 
and  others  (especially,  at  the  present  day,  Theodore 
Zahn)  regard  the  Roman  community  as  chiefly  Jewish 
Christian,  pointing  to  vi,  15-17;  vii,  1-6;  viii,  15. 
But  the  great  majority  of  exegetes  incline  to  the 
opposite  view,  basing  their  contention,  not  only  on 
individual  texts,  but  also  on  the  general  character 
of  the  Epistle.  At  the  very  beginning  Paul  introduces 
him.self  as  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles.  Assuredly, 
i,  5,  cannot  be  applied  to  all  mankind,  for  Paul  cer- 
tainly wished  to  express  something  more  than  that  the 
Romans  belonged  to  the  human  race;  in  corroboration 
of  this  view  we  may  point  to  i,  1.3,  where  the  writer 
declares  that  he  had  long  meditated  coming  to 
Rome  that  he  might  have  some  fruit  there  as  among 
the  other  "Gentiles".  He  then  continues:  "To  the 
Greeks  and  to  the  barbarians,  to  the  wise  and  to  the 
unwise,  I  am  a  debtor;  so  (as  much  as  is  in  me)  I  am 
ready  to  preach  the  gospel  to  you  also  that  are  at 
Rome"  (i,  14  sq.);  he  names  himself  the  Apostle  of 
the  Gentiles  (xi,  13),  and  cites  his  call  to  the  apostolate 
of  the  Gentiles  as  the  j  ustification  for  his  Epistle  and  his 
language  (xv,  16-18).  These  considerations  eliminate 
all  doubt  as  to  the  extraction  of  the  Roman  Christians. 
The  address  and  application  in  xi,  13  sqq.,  likewise 
presuppose  a  great  majority  of  Gentile  Christians, 
while  vi,  1  sqq.,  shows  an  effort  to  familiarize  the 
Gentile  Christians  with  tlic  dealings  of  God  towards 
the  Jews.  The  whole  clKiractcr  of  the  composition 
forces  one  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Apostle  supposes 
a  Gentile  majority  in  the  Christian  community,  and 
that  in  Rome  as  elsewhere  the  statement  about  the 
fewness  of  the  elect  (from  among  the  Jews)  finds  ap- 
pUcation  (xi,  5-7;  cf.  xv,  4). 

However,  the  Roman  community  was  not  without 
a  Jewish  Christian  element,  probably  an  important 
section.  Such  passages  as  iv,  1  (Abraham,  our  father 
according  to  the  flesh);  vii,  i  (I  speak  to  them  that 
know  the  law);  vii,  4;  viii,  2;  15,  etc.,  can  scarcely 
be  explained  otherwise  than  by  supposing  the  existence 
of  a  Jewish  Christian  section  of  the  community.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  must  be  remembered  that  Paul 
was  out  and  out  a  Jew,  and  that  his  whole  train- 
ing accustomed  him  to  adopt  the  standpoint  of  the 
Law — the  more  so  as  the  revelation  of  the  Old 
Testament  is  in  the  last  instance  the  basis  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  Paul  regards  Christianity  as  the  heir 
of  God's  promises,  as  the  true  "Israel  of  God"  (Gal., 
vi,  16).  St.  Paul  often  adopts  this  same  standpoint 
in  the  ?4)istle  to  the  Galatian.s — an  Epistle  un- 
doubtedly addresscid  to  Christians  who  are  on  the  point 
of  submitting  to  circumci.sion.  Even  if  the  Epistle 
U)  the  Romans  repeatedly  addresses  (e.  g.,  ii,  17  sqq.) 
Jews,  we  may  deduce  nothing  from  this  fact  concerning 
the  composition  of  the  community,  since  Paul  is  deal- 
ing, not  with  the  Jewish  Christians,  but  with  the  Jews 
still  subj(!ct  to  the  Law  and  not  yet  freed  by  the  grace 
of  Christ.  The  Apostle  wishes  to  show  the  role  and 
efficacy  of  the  Law — what  it  cannot  and  should  not — 
anfl  what  it  was  meant  <,o  effect. 

II.  CUAKACTER,  CONTENTS,  AND  AkUANOEMENT  OF 


ROMANS 


157 


ROMANS 


THE  Epistle. — A.  Character. — The  chief  portion  of 
this  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (i-xi)  is  evidently  a  theo- 
logical discussion.  It  would  however  be  inaccurate 
to  regard  it  not  as  a  real  letter,  but  as  a  literary  epistle. 
It  must  be  considered  as  a  personal  communication  to 
a  special  community,  and,  like  that  sent  to  the  Corin- 
thians or  the  cognate  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  must 
be  judged  according  to  the  concrete  position  and  the 
concrete  conditions  of  that  community.  What  the 
Apostle  says,  he  says  with  a  view  to  his  readers  in  the 
Roman  community  and  his  own  relations  to  them. 

Language  and  style  reveal  the  writer  of  the  Epi- 
stles to  the  Corinthians  and  the  Galatians.  Its  em- 
phatic agreement  with  the  latter  in  subject-matter 
is  also  unmistakable.  The  difference  in  the  parties 
addressed  and  between  the  circumstances,  however, 
impresses  on  either  Epistle  its  distinctive  stamp.  The 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians  is  a  polemical  work,  and  is  com- 
posed in  a  polemical  spirit  with  the  object  of  averting 
an  imminent  evil;  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  writ- 
ten in  a  time  of  quiet  peace,  and  directed  to  a  Church 
with  which  the  author  desires  to  enter  into  closer 
relations.  We  thus  miss  in  the  latter  those  details 
and  references  to  earlier  experiences  and  occurrences, 
with  which  the  former  Epistle  is  so  instinct.  Not 
that  Romans  is  a  purely  abstract  theological  treatise; 
even  here  Paul,  with  his  whole  fiery  and  vigorous 
personality,  throws  himself  into  his  subject,  sets  be- 
fore himself  his  opponent,  and  argues  with  him.  This 
characteristic  of  the  Apostle  is  clearly  seen.  Hence 
arise  unevenness  and  hanshness  in  language  and  ex- 
pression noticeable  in  the  other  Epistles.  This  does 
not  prevent  the  Epistle  as  a  whole  from  revealing  an 
elaborately  thought  out  plan,  which  often  extends 
to  the  smallest  details  in  magnificent  arrangement 
and  expression.  We  might  recall  the  exordium,  to 
which,  in  thought  and  to  some  extent  in  language, 
the  great  concluding  doxology  corresponds,  while 
the  two  sections  of  the  first  part  deal  quite  appro- 
priately with  the  impressive  words  on  the  certainty 
of  salvation  and  on  God's  exercise  of  provddence  and 
wisdom  (viii,  31-39;   xi,  33-36). 

The  immediate  external  occasion  for  the  composi- 
tion of  the  Epistle  is  given  by  the  author  himself; 
he  wishes  to  announce  his  arrival  to  the  community 
and  to  prepare  them  for  the  event.  The  real  object 
of  this  comprehensive  work,  and  the  necessity  for 
a  theological  Epistle  are  not  thought  out.  The  sup- 
position that  St.  Paul  desired  to  give  the  Romans  a 
proof  of  his  intellectual  gifts  (i,  11;  xv,  29)  is  ex- 
cluded by  its  pettiness.  We  must  therefore  conclude 
that  the  reason  for  the  Epistle  is  to  be  sought  in  the 
conditions  of  the  Roman  community.  The  earliest 
interpreters  (Ambrosiaster,  Augustine,  Theodoret) 
and  a  great  number  of  later  exegetes  see  the  occasion 
for  the  Epistle  in  the  conflict  concerning  Judaistic 
ideas,  some  supposing  an  antagonism  between  the 
Gentile  and  Jewish  Christians  (Hug,  Delitzsch)  and 
others  the  existence  of  some  typically  Jewish  errors  or 
at  least  of  an  outspoken  anti-Paulinism.  This  view 
does  not  accord  with  the  character  of  the  Epistle:  of 
errors  and  division  in  the  Church  the  author  makes  no 
mention,  nor  was  there  any  difference  of  opinion  con- 
cerning the  fundamental  conception  of  Christianity 
between  Paul  and  the  Roman  Church.  The  polem- 
ics in  the  Epistle  are  directed,  not  against  the 
Jewish  Christians,  but  against  unbelieving  Judaism. 
It  is  true  that  there  are  certain  contrasts  in  the  com- 
munity: we  hear  of  the  strong  and  the  weak;  of 
those  who  have  acquired  the  complete  understanding 
and  use  of  Christian  freedom,  and  who  emphasize  and 
exercise  it  perhaps  regardlessly;  we  hear  of  others 
who  have  not  yet  attained  to  the  full  possession  of 
freedom.  The.se  contrasts  are  as  little  based  on  the 
standpoint  of  the  Law  and  a  false  dogmatic  outlook 
as  the  "weak"  of  I  Corinthians.  Paul  would  other- 
wise not  have  treated  them  with  the  mild  considera- 


tion which  he  employs  and  demands  of  the  strong 
(xiv,  5-10;  xiv,  13-xv,  7).  In  judging  there  was 
always  a  danger,  and  mistakes  had  occurred  (xiv, 
13:  "Let  us  not  therefore  judge  one  another  any 
more").  According  to  the  nature  of  the  mistake 
divisions  might  easily  gain  a  footing;  from  what 
direction  these  were  to  be  expected,  is  not  declared 
by  the  Apostle,  but  the  cases  of  Corinth  and  Galatia 
indicate  it  sufficiently.  And  even  though  Paul  had 
no  reason  to  anticipate  the  gro.ss  Jewi.sh  errors,  it 
sufficed  for  him  that  divisions  destroyed  the  unanimity 
of  the  community,  rendered  his  labours  more  difficult, 
made  co-operation  with  Rome  impossible,  and  seri- 
ously impaired  the  community  itself.  He  therefore 
desires  to  send  beforehand  this  earnest  exhortation 
(xvi,  17  sq.),  and  does  all  he  can  to  di.spel  the  miscon- 
ception that  he  despised  and  fought  against  Israel 
and  the  Law.  That  there  was  good  ground  for  these 
fears,  he  learned  from  experience  in  Jerusalem 
during  his  last  visit  (Acts,  xxi,  20-1). 

From  this  twofold  consideration  the  object  of 
Rornans  may  be  determined.  The  exhortations  to 
charity  and  unity  (xii  sqq.)  have  the  same  purpose 
as  those  addressed  to  the  weak  and  the  strong.  In 
both  cases  there  is  the  vigorous  reference  to  the  single 
foundation  of  the  faith,  the  unmerited  call  to  grace, 
with  which  man  can  correspond  only  by  humble  and 
steadfast  faith  working  in  charity,  and  also  the  most 
express,  though  not  obtrusive  exliortation  to  complete 
unity  in  charity  and  faith.  For  Paul  these  con- 
siderations are  the  best  means  of  securing  the  con- 
fidence of  the  whole  community  and  its  assistance 
in  his  future  activities.  The  thoughts  which  he  here 
expresses  are  those  which  ever  guide  him,  and  we 
can  easily  understand  how  they  must  have  forced 
themselves  upon  his  attention,  when  he  resolved  to 
seek  a  new,  great  field  of  activity  in  the  West.  They 
correspond  to  his  desire  to  secure  the  co-operation 
of  the  Roman  community,  and  especially  with  the 
state  and  needs  of  the  Church.  They  were  the  best 
intellectual  gift  that  the  Apostle  could  offer;  thereby 
he  set  the  Church  on  the  right  path,  created  internal 
solidity,  and  shed  light  on  the  darkness  of  the 
doubts  which  certainly  must  have  overcast  the 
souls  of  the  contemplative  Christians  in  face  of  the 
attitude  of  incredulity  which  characterized  the  Chosen 
People. 

B.  Contents  and  Arrangement. — Introduction  and 
Reason  for  writing  the  Epistle  arising  from  the  obliga- 
tions of  his  calling  and  plans  (i,  1-15) :  (1)  The  Theo- 
retic Part  (i,  16-xi,  36).  Main  Proposition:  The 
Gospel,  in  whose  service  Paul  stands,  is  the  power  of 
God  and  works  justification  in  every  man  who  be- 
lieves (i,  16-17).  This  proposition  is  discussed  and 
proved  (i,  18-viii,  39),  and  then  defended  in  the 
light  of  the  history  of  the  Chosen  People  (ix,  1-xi. 
36). 

(a)  The  justice  of  God  is  acquired  only  through 
faith  in  Christ  (1,  18-viii,  39).  (i)  The  proof  of  the 
necessity  of  justifying  grace  through  faith  (1,  18- 
iv,  25):  without  faith  there  is  no  justice,  proved 
from  the  case  of  the  pagans  (i,  18-32)  and  the  Jews 
(ii,  1-iii,  20);  (b)  justice  is  acquired  through  faith 
in  and  redemption  by  Christ  (the  Gospel,  iii,  21-31). 
Holy  Writ  supplies  the  proof:  Abraham's  faith 
(iv,  1-25).  (ii)  The  greatness  and  blessing  of 
justification  through  faith  (v,  1-viii,  39),  reconcilia- 
tion with  God  through  Christ,  and  certain  hope  of 
eternal  salvation  (v,  1-11).  This  is  illustrated  by 
contrasting  the  sin  of  Adam  and  its  consequences  for 
all  mankind,  which  were  not  removed  by  the  Law, 
with  the  superabundant  fruits  of  redemjition  merited 
by  Chri.st  (v,  12-21).  Conclusion:  Redemption  by 
Christ  (communicated  to  the  individual  through 
baptism)  requires  death  to  sin  and  life  with  Christ 
(vi,  1-23).  To  accomplish  this  the  Law  is  ineffectual, 
for  by  the  death  of  Christ  it  has  lost  its  binding  power 


ROMANS 


158 


ROMANS 


(\ni,  1-6),  and,  although  holy  and  good  in  itself,  it 
possesses  onh'  educative  and  not  sanctifying  po\yer, 
and  is  thus  impotent  in  man's  dire  combat  against 
sinful  nature  (vii,  7-25).  In  contrast  to  this  im- 
potence, communion  with  Christ  imparts  freedom 
from  sin  and  from  death  (viii,  l-U),  establishes 
the  Divine  kinship,  and  raises  mankind  above  all 
earthly  trouble  to  the  certain  hope  of  an  indescribable 
happiness  (viii,  12-39). 

(b)  Defence  of  the  first  part  from  the  history  of 
the  people  of  Israel  (ix,  1-xi,  36).  The  consoling 
certainty  of  salvation  may  appear  threatened  by  the 
rejection  or  obduracy  of  Israel.  How  could  God  for- 
get His  promises  and  reject  the  people  so  favoured? 
The  Apostle  must  thus  explain  the  providence  of 
God.  He  begins  with  a  touching  survey  of  God's 
deeds  of  love  and  power  towards  the  Chosen  People 
(ix,  1-5),  proceeding  then  to  prove  that  God's  promise 
has  not  failed.  For  (i)  God  acts  within  His  right 
when  He  grants  grace  according  to  His  free  pleasure, 
since  God's  promises  did  not  apply  to  Israel  accord- 
ing to  the  flesh,  as  early  history  shows  (Isaac  and  Is- 
mael,  Jacob  and  Esau)  (ix,  1-13);  God's  word  to 
Moses  and  His  conduct  towards  Pharao  call  into  req- 
uisition this  right  (ix,  14-17);  God's  position  (as 
Creator  and  Lord)  is  the  basis  of  this  right  (ix,  19- 
24) ;  God's  express  prophecy  announced  through  the 
Prophets  the  exercise  of  this  right  towards  Jews  and 
pagans  (ix,  24-29) ;  (ii)  God's  attitude  was  in  a  certain 
sense  demanded  by  the  foolish  reliance  of  Israel  on 
its  origin  and  justification  in  the  Law  (ix,  30-x,  4)  and 
by  its  refusal  of  and  disobedience  to  the  message  of 
faith  announced  everj-where  among  the  Jews  (x, 
5-21);  (iii)  In  this  is  revealed  the  wisdom  and  good- 
ness of  God,  for:  Israel's  rejection  is  not  complete; 
a  chosen  number  have  attained  to  the  faith  (xi, 
1-10);  (iv)  Israel's  unbelief  is  the  salvation  of  the 
pagan  world,  and  likewise  a  solemn  exhortation  to 
fidelity  in  the  faith  (xi,  11-22);  (v)  Israel's  re- 
jection is  not  irrevocable.  The  people  will  find 
mercy  and  salvation  (xi,  23-32).  Thence  the  praise 
of  the  wisdom  and  the  inscrutable  providence  of  God 
(xi,  33-36). 

(2)  The  Practical  Part  (xii,  1-xv,  13).— (a)  The  gen- 
eral exhortation  to  the  faithful  service  of  God  and  the 
avoidance  of  the  spirit  of  the  world  (xii,  1-2).  (b) 
Admonition  to  unity  and  charity  (modest,  active  char- 
ity, peacefulness,  and  love  of  enemies  (xii,  3-21).  (c) 
Obligations  towards  superiors;  fundamental  establish- 
ment and  pra<:tical  proof  (xiii,  1-7).  Conclusion:  A 
second  inculcation  of  the  commandment  of  love  (xiii, 
8-10)  and  an  incitement  to  zeal  in  view  of  the  proximity 
of  salvation  (xiii,  ll-14j.  (dj  Toleration  and  forbear- 
ance betwwn  the  strong  and  the  weak  (treated  with 
special  application  to  the  Roman  community  on  ac- 
ajunt  of  the  importance  and  practical  significance  of 
the  question;  it  falls  under  (b):  (i)  fundamental  criti- 
cism of  the  standpoint  of  both  classes  (xiv,  1-12); 
(ii)  practical  inferences  for  both  (xiv,  13-xv,  6);  (iii) 
estabiiishment  through  the  example  of  Christ  and  the 
inUentions  of  Gfxi  (xv,  7-13).  Conclusion:  Defence  of 
the  Epiwtle:  (1)  in  view  of  Paul's  calling;  (2)  in  view 
of  his  inUmdwl  relations  with  the  community  (xv, 
22-23);  (3)  recommendations,  greetings  (warning), 
doxology  (xvi,  1-27). 

III.  Authenticity.— Is  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans 
a  work  of  the  gn!at  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  St.  Paul? 
UnrioubU^liy  it  ha«  the  same  authorship  as  the 
Epistlf^  Uj  the  Corinthians  and  the  Epistle  to  the 
Gaiatians;  consequently,  if  the  authenticity  of  these 
be  provwi,  that  of  Rfjmans  is  likewise  established. 
We  shall  however  treat  the  question  quite  indepen- 
dently. The  «-xUTnal  evidenc«r  of  tlu^  authenticity  of 
Rfjmans  is  uncommonly  strong.  Even  though  no 
dirwt  UMtimony  as  to  the  authorship  is  forthcoming 
b<;fore  Marcion  and  Irenarus,  still  the  oldest  writings 
betray  an  acquaintance  with  the  Epistle.    One  might 


with  some  degree  of  probability  include  the  First 
Epistle  of  St.  Peter  in  the  series  of  testimonies:  con- 
cerning the  relation  between  Romans  and  the  Epistle 
of  St.  James  we  shall  speak  below.  Precise  informa- 
tion is  furnished  by  Clement  of  Rome,  Ignatius  of 
Antioch.  Polycarp,  and  Justin:  Marcion  admitted 
Romans  into  his  canon,  and  the  earliest  Gnostics 
were  acquainted  with  it. 

The  internal  evidence  is  equally  convincing.  Mod- 
em critics  (van  Manen  and  others)  have  indeed  asserted 
that  no  attempt  was  ever  made  to  prove  its  authentic- 
ity; they  have  even  gone  further,  and  declared  the 
Epistle  an  invention  of  the  second  century.  Evanson 
(1792)  first  attempted  to  maintain  this  view;  he  was 
followed  by  Br.  Bauer  (1852,  1877),  and  later  by 
Loman,  Steck,  van  Manen  (1891,  1903),  and  others. 
A  less  negative  standpoint  was  adopted  by  Picrson- 
Naber,  Michelsen,  Volter,  etc.,  who  regarded  Romans 
as  the  result  of  repeated  revisions  of  genuine  Pauline 
fragments,  e.  g.,  that  one  Kcnviine  Epistle,  interpolated 
five  times  and  coml)ine(l  fintdly  with  an  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians,  gave  rise  to  Romans  (Volter) .  These  critics 
find  their  ground  for  denying  the  authenticity  of  the 
Epistle  in  the  following  considerations:  Romans  is  a 
theological  treatise  rather  than  an  epistle;  the  begin- 
ning and  conclusion  do  not  correspond ;  the  addresses 
cannot  be  determined  with  certainty ;  despite  a  certain 
unity  of  thought  and  style,  there  are  perceptible  traces 
of  compilation  and  di.scordance,  difficult  transitions, 
periods,  connexions  of  ideas,  which  reveal  the  work  of 
the  reviser;  the  second  part  (ix-xii)  abandons  the  sub- 
ject of  the  first  (justification  by  faith),  and  introduces 
an  entirely  foreign  idea;  there  is  much  that  cannot  be 
the  composition  of  St.  Paul  (the  texts  dealing  with 
the  rejection  of  Israel  lead  one  to  the  period  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem;  the  Christians  of  Rome  ap- 
pear as  Pauline  Christians;  the  conception  of  freedom 
from  the  law,  of  sin  and  justification,  of  life  in  Christ, 
etc.,  are  signs  of  a  later  development);  finally  there 
are,  according  to  Van  Manen,  traces  of  second-century 
Gnosticism  in  the  Epistle. 

We  have  here  a  classical  example  of  the  arbitrariness 
of  this  type  of  critics.  They  first  declare  all  the  writ- 
ings of  the  first  and  of  the  early  second  century  forgeries, 
and,  having  thus  destroyed  all  the  sources,  con- 
struct a  purely  subjective  picture  of  the  period,  and 
revise  the  sources  accordingly. 

That  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  written  at  least 
before  the  last  decades  of  the  first  century  is  established; 
even  by  external  evidence  taken  alone;  consequently  all 
theories  advocating  a  later  origin  are  thereby  exploded. 
The  treatment  of  a. scientific;  (theological)  problem  in  an 
epistle  can  constitute  a  difficulty  only  for  such  as  are 
unacquainted  with  the  lit(!rature  of  the  age.  Doubts 
as  to  the  unity  of  the  Epistle  vanish  of  themselves  on  a 
closer  examination.  The  introduction  is  most  closely 
connected  with  the  theme  (i,  4,  5,  8,  12,  etc.) ;  the  same 
is  true  of  the  conclusion.  An  analysis  of  the  Epistle 
reveals  incontestably  the  coherence  of  the  finst  and 
second  parts;  from  chapter  ix  an  answer  is  given  to  a 
question  which  h:i.s  obtruded  itself  in  the  earlier  por- 
tion. In  this  fact  Chr.  Baur  sees  the  important  point 
of  the  whole  Epistle.  B(«i(l(!s,  the  interrelation  be- 
tween the  parts  finds  express  mention  (ix,  30-32;  x, 
3-6;  xi,  6;  xi,  20-23;  etc.).  The  author's  attitude 
towards  Israel  will  be  treatcfl  below  (VI).  The  rejec- 
tion of  the  Chosen  Peoi)le  could  have  become  abundantly 
clear  to  the  author  after  the  uniform  exp(>riences  of  a 
wide  missionary  activity  extxiiiding  over  more  than  ten 
years.  The  unevennjwses  and  difficulty  of  the  language 
show  at  most  that  the;  t(!Xt  has  not  been  perfectly  pre- 
served. Much  becomes  clear  when  we  remember  the 
personality  of  St.  Paul  and  his  custom  of  dictating  his 
Epistles. 

Were  the  Epistle  a  forgery,  the  expressions  concern- 
ing th(^  y)erson  and  views  of  the  author  would  be  in- 
explicable and  completely  enigmatic.  Who  in  the  second 


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159 


ROMANS 


century  would  have  made  St.  Paul  declare  that  he  had 
not  founded  the  Roman  community,  that  previously 
he  had  had  no  connexions  with  it,  since  at  a  very  early 
date  the  same  Apostle  becomes  with  St.  Peter  its  co- 
founder?  How  could  a  man  of  the  second  century  have 
conceived  the  idea  of  attributing  to  St.  Paul  the  inten- 
tion of  paying  merely  a  passing  visit  to  Rome,  when  (as 
would  have  been  palpable  to  every  reader  of  Acts,  xxviii, 
30-31)  the  Apostle  had  worked  there  for  two  successive 
years?  The  Acts  could  not  have  supplied  the  sugges- 
t'ion,  since  it  merely  says:  "I  must  sec  Rome  also" 
(xix,  21) .  Of  Paul's  plan  of  proceeding  thence  to  Spain, 
the  author  of  Acts  says  nothing;  in  recording  the 
nocturnal  apparition  of  the  Lord  to  St.  Paul,  mention 
is  made  only  of  his  giving  testimony  at  Rome  (Acts, 
xxiii,  11).  The  arrival  at  Rome  is  recorded  with  the 
words:  "And  so  we  went  to  [the  wished  for]  Rome" 
(Acts,  xxviii,  14).  Acts  closes  with  a  reference  to 
Paul's  residence  and  activity  in  Rome,  without  even 
hinting  at  anything  further.  Again,  it  would  have 
occurred  to  a  forger  to  mention  Peter  also  in  a  forged 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  even  though  it  were  only  in  a 
greeting  or  a  reference  to  the  foundation  of  the  Church. 
Other  arguments  could  be  drawn  from  the  concluding 
chapters.  Whoever  studies  Romans  closely  will  be 
convinced  that  here  the  true  Paul  speaks,  and  will 
acknowledge  that  "the  authenticity  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans  can  be  contested  only  bj'  those  who  venture 
to  banish  the  personality  of  Paul  from  the  pages  of 
history"  (Jiilicher). 

IV.  Integrity. — Apart  from  individual  uncertain 
texts,  which  occur  also  in  the  other  Epistles  and  call 
for  the  attention  of  the  textual  investigator,  the  last 
two  chapters  have  given  rise  to  some  doubts  among 
critics.  Not  only  did  Marcion  omit  x\'i,  25-27,  but,  as 
Origen-Rufinus  express  it,  "cuncta  dissecuit"  from 
xiv,  23.  Concerning  the  interpretation  of  these  words 
there  is  indeed  no  agreement,  for  while  the  majority  of 
exegetes  see  in  them  the  complete  rejection  of  the  two 
concluding  chapters,  others  translate  "dissecuit"  as 
"disintegrated",  which  is  more  in  accordance  with  the 
Latin  expression  Under  Chr.  Baur's  leadership,  the 
Tubingen  School  has  rejected  both  chapters;  others 
have  inclined  to  the  theory  of  the  disintegration  work 
of  Marcion. 

Against  chapter  xv  no  reasonable  doubt  can  be  main- 
tained. Verses  1-13  follow  as  a  natural  conclusion 
from  ch.  xiv.  The  general  extent  of  the  consideration 
recommended  in  ch.  xiv  is  in  the  highest  degree  Pauline. 
Furthermore  xv,  7-13  are  so  clearly  connected  with 
the  theme  of  the  Epistle  that  they  are  on  this  ground 
also  quite  beyond  su.spicion.  Though  Christ  is  called 
the  "minister  of  the  circumcision"  in  xv,  8,  this  is  in 
entire  agreement  with  all  that  the  Gospels  say  of  Him 
and  His  mission,  and  with  what  St.  Paul  himself 
always  declares  elsewhere.  Thus  also,  according  to 
the  Papistic,  salvation  is  offered  first  to  Israel  con- 
formably to  Divine  Providence  (i,  16) ;  and  the  writer 
of  ix,  3-5,  could  also  write  xv,  8. 

The  personal  remarks  and  information  (xv,  14- 
33)  are  in  entire  agreement  with  the  opening  of  the 
Epistle,  both  in  thought  and  tone.  His  travelling 
plans  and  his  personal  uneasiness  concerning  his 
reception  in  Jerusalem  are,  as  already  indicated,  sure 
proofs  of  the  genuineness  of  the  verses.  The  ob- 
jection to  ch.  XV  has  thus  found  little  acceptance; 
of  it  "not  a  sentence  may  be  referred  to  a  forger" 
(Jiilicher). 

Stronger  objections  are  urged  against  ch.  xvi. 
In  the  first  7)lace  the  concluding  doxology  is  not 
universally  recognized  as  genuine.  The  MSS.  in- 
deed afford  some  grounds  for  doubt,  although  only 
a  negligibly  small  number  of  witnesses  have  with 
Marcion  ignored  the  whole  doxology.  The  old 
MSS.,  in  other  respects  regarded  as  authoritative, 
insert  it  after  xvi,  24;  a  small  number  of  MSS.  place 
it  at  the  end  of  xiv;  some  have  it  after  both  xiv  and 


xvi.  In  view  of  this  uncertainty  and  of  some  ex- 
pressions not  found  elsewhere  in  the  writings  of  St. 
Paul  (e.  g.,  the  only  wise  God,  the  scriptures  of  the 
prophets),  the  doxology  has  been  declared  a  later 
addition  (H.  J.  Holtzmann,  Jiilicher,  and  others), 
a  very  unlikely  view  in  the  face  of  the  almost  un- 
exceptional testimony,  especially  since  the  thought 
is  most  closely  connected  with  the  opening  of  Romans, 
without  however  betraying  any  dependence  in  its 
language.  The  fullness  of  the  expression  corre- 
sponds completely  with  the  solemnity  of  the  whole 
Epistle.  The  high-spirited  temperament  of  the 
author  powerfully  shows  itself  on  repeated  occasions. 
The  object  with  which  the  Apostle  writes  the  Epistle, 
and  the  circumstances  under  which  it  is  written, 
offer  a  perfect  explanation  of  both  attitude  and  tone. 
The  addressees,  the  impending  journey  to  Jerusalem 
with  its  problematic  outcome  (St.  Paul  speaks  later 
of  his  anxiety  in  connexion  therewith— Acts,  xx,  22), 
the  acceptance  of  his  propaganda  at  Rome,  on  which, 
according  to  his  own  admission,  his  Apostolic  future 
so  much  depended — all  these  were  factors  which 
must  have  combined  once  more  at  the  conclusion  of 
such  an  Epistle  to  issue  in  these  impressively  solemn 
thoughts.  In  view  of  this  consideration,  the  removal 
of  the  doxology  would  resemble  the  extraction  of  the 
most  precious  stone  in  a  jewel-case. 

The  critical  references  to  xvi,  1-24,  of  to-day  are  con- 
cerned less  with  their  Pauline  origin  than  with  their 
inclusion  in  Romans.  The  doubt  entertained  regard- 
ing them  is  of  a  twofold  character.  In  the  first  place  it 
has  been  considered  difficult  to  explain  how  the  Apostle 
had  so  many  personal  friends  in  Rome  (which  he  had 
not  yet  visited),  as  is  indicated  by  the  series  of  greetings 
in  this  chapter;  one  must  suppose  a  real  tide  of  emi- 
gration from  the  Eastern  Pauline  communities  to 
Rome,  and  that  within  the  few  years  which  the 
Apostle  had  devoted  to  his  missions  to  the  Gentiles. 
Certain  names  occasion  especial  doubt:  Epenetua, 
the  "first  fruits  of  Asia",  one  would  not  expect  to  see 
in  Rome;  Aquila  and  Prisca,  who  according  to  I 
Corinthians  have  assembled  about  them  a  household 
community  in  Ephesus,  are  represented  as  having  a 
little  later  a  similar  community  in  Rome.  Further, 
it  is  surprising  that  the  Apostle  in  an  Epistle  to  Rome, 
should  emphasize  the  services  of  these  friends.  But 
the  chief  objection  is  that  this  last  chapter  gives  the 
Epistle  a  new  character;  it  must  have  been  written, 
not  as  an  introduction,  but  as  a  warning  to  the  com- 
munity. One  does  not  write  in  so  stern  and  authorita- 
tive a  tone  as  that  displayed  in  xvi,  17-20,  to  an 
unknown  community;  and  the  words  "I  would" 
(xvi,  19)  are  not  in  keeping  with  the  restraint  evinced 
by  St.  Paul  elsewhere  in  the  Epistle.  In  consequence 
of  these  considerations  numerous  critics  have,  with 
David  Schulz  (1829),  separated  all  or  the  greater 
portion  of  chapter  xvi  from  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans 
(without  however  denying  the  Pauline  authorship), 
and  declared  it  an  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians^whether 
a  complete  epistle  or  only  a  portion  of  such  is  not 
determined.  Verses  17-20  are  not  ascribed  by  some 
critics  to  this  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians;  other  critics 
are  more  liberal,  and  refer  ch.  ix-xi  or  xii-xiv  to  the 
imaginary  Epistle. 

We  agree  with  the  result  of  criticism  in  holding 
as  certain  that  xvi  belongs  to  St.  Paul.  Not  only  the 
language,  but  also  the  names  render  its  Pauline 
origin  certain.  For  the  greater  part  the  names  are 
not  of  those  who  played  any  role  in  the  history  of 
primitive  Christianity  or  in  legend,  so  that  there  was 
no  reason  for  bringing  them  into  connexion  with  St. 
Paul.  Certainly  the  idea  could  not  have  occurred 
to  anyone  in  the  second  century,  not  merely  to  name 
the  unknown  Andronicus  and  Junias  as  Apostles,  but 
to  assign  them  a  prominent  position  among  the 
Apostles,  and  to  place  them  on  an  eminence  above 
St.  Paul  as  having  been  in  Christ  before  him.     These 


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considerations  are  supplemented  by  external  evidence. 
Finally,  the  situation  exhibited  by  historical  research 
is  precisely  that  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  as  is 
almost  unanimously  admitted. 

The  "di^•ision  h>-pothesis"  encounters  a  great  dif- 
ficulty in  the  MSS.  Deissmann  endeavoured  to  ex- 
plain' the  fusion  of  the  two  Epistles  (Roman  and 
Ephesian)  on  the  supposition  of  collections  of  epistles 
existing  among  the  ancients  (duplicate-books  of  the 
sender  and  collections  of  originals  of  the  receivers). 
Even  if  a  possible  exi)lanation  be  thus  obtained,  its 
application  to  the  present  case  is  hedged  in  with  im- 
probabihties;  the  assumption  of  an  Epistle  consisting 
merely  of  greetings  is  open  to  grave  suspicion,  and, 
if  one  supposes  this  chapter  to  be  the  remnant  of 
a  lost  epistle,  this  hj-pothesis  merely  creates  fresh 
problems. 

\Miile  St.  Paul's  wide  circle  of  friends  in  Rome 
at  first  awakens  surprise,  it  raises  no  insuperable 
difficulty.  We  should  not  attempt  to  base  our  de- 
cision on  the  names  alone;  the  Roman  names  prove 
nothing  in  favour  of  Rome,  and  the  Greek  still  less 
against  Rome.  Names  like  Narcissus,  Junias, 
Rufus,  especially  Aristobulus,  and  Herodian  remind 
one  of  Rome  rather  than  Asia  Minor,  although  some 
persons  with  these  names  may  have  settled  in  the 
latter  place.  But  what  of  the  "emigration  to  Rome"? 
The  very  critics  who  find  therein  a  difficulty  must  be 
well  aware  of  the  great  stream  of  Orientals  which 
flowed  to  the  capital  even  under  Emperor  Augustus 
(Jiilicher).  'Why  should  not  the  Christians  have 
followed  this  movement?  For  the  second  century 
the  historical  fact  is  certain;  how  many  Eastern 
names  do  we  not  find  in  Rome  (Polycarp,  Justin, 
Marcion,  Tatian,  Irenaeus,  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
and  others)?  Again  for  years  Paul  had  turned  his 
mind  towards  Rome  (xv,  23;  i,  13).  Would  not  his 
friends  have  known  of  this,  and  would  he  not  have  dis- 
cussed it  with  Aquila  and  Prisca  who  were  from 
Rome?  Besides,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  emi- 
gration was  not  entirely  the  result  of  chance,  but 
took  place  in  accordance  with  the  ^^ews,  and  perhaps 
to  some  extent  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Apostle; 
for  nothing  is  more  likely  than  that  his  friends  hurried 
before  him  to  prepare  the  way.  Three  years  later 
indeed  he  Ls  met  by  "the  brethren"  on  his  arrival 
in  Rome  (Acts,  xxviii,  1.5).  The  long  delay  was  not 
the  fault  of  St.  Paul  and  had  not,  by  any  means,  been 
foreseen  by  him. 

The  emphasizing  of  the  services  of  his  friends  is 
easy  to  understand  in  an  Epistle  to  the  Romans; 
if  only  a  portion  of  the  restless  charity  and  self- 
Ba^:rificing  zeal  of  the  Apostle  for  the  Gentiles  be- 
comes known  in  Rome,  his  active  helpers  may  feel 
assurwi  of  a  kind  reception  in  the  great  community  of 
Gentile  Christians.  The  exhortation  in  xvi,  17-20,  is 
indeed  delivered  in  a  solemn  and  almost  severe  tone, 
but  in  the  case  of  St.  Paul  we  are  accustomed  to  sudden 
and  sharp  transitions  of  this  kind.  One  feels  that  the 
writer  has  become  suddenly  affected  with  a  deep 
anxiety,  which  in  a  moment  gets  tlie  upper  hand. 
And  why  should  not  St.  Paul  rcrnernber  the  well- 
known  submi.ssiveness  of  the  Roman  Church?  Still 
less  07K-n  io  objection  is  the  "I  would"  (xvi,  19), 
since  the  Grwk  often  means  in  the  writings  of  St. 
Paul  merely  "I  wish".  The  position  of  verse  4 
hcAwftcn  the  grr-efings  i.s  unusual,  but  would  not  be 
more  inUiIligible  in  an  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  than 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

V.  Datk  and  Cikci;.mhtances  of  Compcsition. — 
The  contents  of  the  Epistle  show  that  the  author  has 
acquired  a  ripe  exr)eri(!nce  in  the  apostolate.  Paul 
behevf^  hi.s  task  in  the  East  to  be  practically  finished; 
he  has  preached  the  P'aith  as  far  as  Illyricum,  prob- 
ably to  the  bounrlaries  of  the  province  (xv,  18-24); 
he  is  about  to  bring  biuik  to  Palestine  the  alms  con- 
tributed in   Galatia,   Achaia,   and   Macedonia    (xv, 


25-28;  of.  I  Cor.,  xvi,  1-4;  II  Cor.,  viii,  1-9,  15; 
Acts,  XX,  3-4;  xxiv,  17).  The  time  of  composition 
is  thus  exactly  determined;  the  Epistle  was  written 
at  the  end  of  the  third  missionary  journey,  which 
brought  the  Apostle  back  from  Ephesus  finally  to 
Corinth.  The  mention  of  the  Christian  Phebe  of 
Cenchnr  (xvi,  1)  and  the  greeting  on  the  part  of  his 
host  Caius  (xvi,  23)  very  likely  the  one  whom  Paul 
had  baptized  (I  Cor.,  i,  14) — conduct  us  to  Corinth, 
where  the  Epistle  was  written  shortly  before  Paul's 
departure  for  Macedonia.  Its  composition  at  the 
port  of  Cenchrae  would  be  possible  only  on  the  sup- 
position that  the  Apostle  had  made  a  long  stay  there; 
the  E])istle  is  too  elaborate  and  evinces  too  much 
intellectual  labour  for  one  to  suppose  that  it  was  writ- 
ten at  an  intermediate  station. 

The  year  of  composition  can  only  be  decided  ap- 
proximately. According  to  Acts,  xxiv,  27,  St.  Paul's 
imprisonment  in  Caesarea  lasted  two  full  years  until 
the  removal  of  the  procurator  Felix.  The  year  of 
this  change  lies  between  58  and  61.  At  the  earliest 
58,  because  Felix  was  already  many  years  in  office 
at  the  beginning  of  Paul's  imprisonment  (Acts, 
xxiv,  10);  Felix  scarcely  came  to  Judea  before  52, 
and  less  than  four  or  five  years  cannot  well  be 
called  "many".  At  the  latest  61,  although  this  date 
is  very  improbable,  as  Festus,  the  successor  of  Felix, 
died  in  62  after  an  eventful  administration.  Ac- 
cordingly the  arrival  of  St.  Paul  in  Jerusalem  and 
the  composition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  which 
occurred  in  the  preceding  few  months,  must  be  re- 
ferred to  the  years  56-59,  or  better  57-58.  The 
chronology  of  St.  Paul's  missionary  activity  does  not 
exclude  the  suggestion  of  the  years  56-57,  since  the 
Apostle  began  his  third  missionary  journey  perhaps 
as  early  as  52-53  (Gallio,  proconsul  of  Achaia — Acts, 
xviii,  12-17 — was,  according  to  an  inscription  in 
Delphi,  probably  in  office  about  52). 

VI.  Historical  Importance. — The  Epistle  gives 
us  important  information  concerning  the  Roman 
Church  and  St.  Paul's  early  relations  with  it.  We 
may  recall  the  dangers  and  strained  relations  and 
the  various  groupings  of  the  community  referred  to 
in  xvi,  5,  14,  15,  and  perhaps  in  xvi,  10,  11.  That 
Paul's  gaze  was  turned  towards  Rome  for  years, 
and  that  Rome  was  to  be  merely  a  stopping  place 
on  his  way  to  Spain,  we  learn  only  from  this  Epistle. 
Did  he  ever  reach  Spain?  All  tradition  affords  only 
one  useful  piece  of  information  on  this  point:  "he 
went  to  the  extremest  west"  (Clement  of  Rome, 
vi,  7);  the  Muratorian  Fragment,  38  sq.,  is  not  suf- 
ficiently clear. 

An  interesting  conception  of  the  apostolate  is 
contained  in  the  words:  "But  now  having  no  more 
place  in  these  countries"  (xv,  23).  Paul  thus  limited 
his  task  to  laying  the  foundation  of  the  Gospel  in 
large  centres,  leaving  to  others  the  development  of 
the  communities.  The  meaning  of  the  words  "unto 
IlljTicum"  (xv,  19)  will  always  remain  uncertain. 
Probably  the  Apostle  had  at  this  period  not  yet 
crossed  the  borders  of  the  j)rovin(!e.  Whether  the 
remark  in  Titus,  iii,  12,  concerning  a  proposed  resi- 
dence during  the  winter  in  Nicopolis  (the  Illyrian 
town  is  meant),  is  to  be  connected  with  a  missionary 
journey,  must  remain  un.scttled. 

The  Epistle  is  instructive  for  its  revelation  of 
the  personal  feelings  of  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles 
towards  his  fellow-Jews.  Some  have  tried  to  represent 
these  feelings  as  hard  to  exi)lain  and  contradictory. 
But  a  true  conception  of  the  great  Apostle  renders 
every  word  intelligible.  On  the  one  hand  he  main- 
tains in  this  Epistle  the  position  of  faith  and  grace 
as  distinc;t  from  the  Law,  and,  addressing  a  people 
who  aj)p('ale(l  to  their  natural  lineage  and  their  ob- 
servance of  the  Law  to  establish  a  8Ui)i)Osed  right 
(to  salvation),  he  insists  unswervingly  on  the  Divine 
election   to  grace.     But  Paul   emphasizes   not  less 


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firmly  that,  according  to  God's  word,  Israel  is  first 
culled  to  salvation  (i,  IG;  ii,  10),  explicitly  proclaim- 
ing the  preference  shown  to  it  (iii,  1-2;  ix,  4-5 — the 
Divine  promises.  Divine  sonship,  the  Covenant  and 
the  Law,  and,  greatest  privilege  of  all,  the  origin  of 
the  Messias,  the  true  God,  in  Israel  according  to  the 
flesh — XV,  8).  Paul  willingly  recognizes  the  zeal 
of  the  people  for  the  things  of  God,  although  their 
zeal  is  misdirected  (ix,  31  sq.;  x,  2). 

Such  being  his  feelings  towards  the  Chosen  People, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  Paul's  heart  is  filled  with  bitter 
grief  at  the  blindness  of  the  Jews,  that  he  besieges  God 
with  prayer,  that  he  is  guided  throughout  his  life  of  self- 
sacrificing  apostolic  labours  by  the  hope  that  thereby 
his  brethren  may  be  won  for  the  Faith  (ix,  1-2;  x,  1; 
xi,  13-14),  that  he  would  be  prepared — were  it  possible 
— to  forego  in  his  own  case  the  happiness  of  union  with 
Christ,  if  by  such  a  renunciation  he  could  secure  for  his 
brethren  a  place  in  the  heart  of  the  Saviour. 

These  utterances  can  offer  a  stumbling-block  only  to 
those  who  do  not  understand  St.  Paul,  who  cannot 
fathom  the  depths  of  his  apostolic  charity.  If  we  study 
closely  the  character  of  tlie  Apostle,  realize  the  fervour 
of  his  feelings,  the  warmtli  of  his  love  and  devotion 
to  Christ's  work  and  Per.son,  we  shall  recognize  how 
spontaneously  these  feelings  flow  from  such  a  heart, 
how  natural  they  are  to  such  a  noble,  unselfish  nature. 
The  more  recognition  and  confidence  Paul  won  from 
the  Gentiles  in  the  course  of  his  apostolate,  the  more 
bitter  must  have  been  the  thought  that  Israel  refused 
to  understand  its  God,  stood  aloof  peevish  and  hos- 
tile, and  in  its  hatred  and  blindness  even  persecuted 
the  Messias  in  His  Church  and  oppo.sed  as  far  as 
possible  th(^  work  of  His  Apostles.  These  were  the 
hardest  things  for  love  to  bear,  they  explain  the  abrupt, 
determined  break  with  and  the  ruthk^ss  warfare  against 
the  (Icstiuctix'c  s])irit  of  uiihcHcf,  wIkmi  Paul  sees  tliat 
he  can  [jrotcct  the  Cliurcli  of  Christ  in  no  other  way. 
Hence  he  has  no  toleration  for  insistence  on  the 
practice  of  the  Law  within  the  Christian  fold,  since 
such  insistence  is  in  the  last  analysis  the  spirit  of  Juda- 
ism, which  is  inconipatil)le  with  the  spirit  of  Christ 
and  the  Divine  election  to  grace,  for  such  assistance 
would  by  practice  of  the  law  supplement  or  set  a  seal 
on  Faith.  But  from  the  same  apostolic  love  springs  also 
the  truly  practical  spirit  of  consideration  which  Paul 
preaches  and  exercises  (I  Cor.,  ix,  20-22),  and  which  he 
demands  from  others  everywhere,  so  long  as  the  Gosfjcl 
is  not  thereby  jeopardized.  One  can  easily  understand 
how  such  a  man  can  at  one  moment  become  inflamed 
with  bitter  resentment  and  holy  anger,  showing  no 
indulgence  when  his  life's  work  is  threatened,  antl  can 
later  in  a  lu-accfu!  hour  forget  all,  recognizing  in  the 
offender  only  a  misguided  lirother,  wliose  fault  arises, 
not  from  malice,  but  from  ignorance.  In  a  soul  which 
loves  deeply  anil  keenly  one  might  expect  the  co- 
existence of  such  contrasts;  tliey  s])ring  from  a  single 
root,  a  powerful,  zealous,  all-compelling  charity — that 
certainty  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles. 

VII.  Theological  Contents:  Faith  and  Works. 
— The  theological  importance  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans  lies  in  its  treatment  of  the  great  fundamental 
problem  of  justification;  other  important  questions 
(e.  g.,  original  sin — v,  12-21)  are  treated  in  connexion 
with  and  from  the  standjjoint  of  justification  In  the 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians  Paul  had  already  defended  his 
teaching  against  the  attacks  of  the  extreme  Jewish 
Christians ;  in  contrast  with  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians, 
that  to  the  Romans  was  not  evoked  by  the  excitement 
of  a  polemical  warfare.  The  discussion  of  the  ques- 
tion in  it  is  deeper  and  wider.  The  fundamental  doc- 
trine which  Paul  proclaims  to  all  desirous  of  salvation 
is  as  follows:  In  the  case  of  all  men  the  call  to  the 
Messianic  salvation  is  absolutely  dependent  on  the  free 
election  of  God;  no  merit  or  ability  of  the  individ- 
ual, neither  inclusion  among  the  descendants  of  Abra- 
ham nor  the  practice  of  the  Law,  gives  a  title  to  this 
XIII.— 11 


grace.  God  zealously  watches  over  the  recognition  of 
this  truth;  hence  the  emphasizing  of  faith  (i,  16  sq.; 
iii,  32,  24-30;  iv,  2  sqq.,  13-25;  v,  1,  etc.);  hence 
the  stress  laid  upon  the  redemptory  act  of  Christ, 
which  benefits  us,  the  enemies  of  God  (iii,  24  sq.;  iv, 
24  sq.;  v,  G-10,  15-21;  vii,  25;  viii,  29  sqq.);  we  owe 
our  whole  salvation  and  the  inalienable  certainty  of 
salvation  to  the  propitiatory  and  sanctifying  power  of 
the  Blood  of  Christ  (viii,  35-39). 

From  this  standpoint  the  second  part  (ix-xi)  de- 
scribes the  action  of  Divine  providence,  which  is 
more  than  once  revealed  under  the  Old  Dispensation, 
and  which  alone  corresponds  with  the  grandeur  and 
sovereign  authority  of  God.  Hence  the  irresponsive 
attitude  of  Israel  becomes  intelligible;  the  Jews 
blocked  their  own  path  by  considering  themselves  en- 
titled to  claim  the  Messianic  Kingdom  on  the  grounds 
of  their  personal  justice  In  view  of  this  repugnant 
spirit,  God  was  compelled  to  leave  Israel  to  its  own 
resources,  until  it  should  stretch  out  its  hand  after  the 
merciful  love  of  its  Creator;  then  would  the  hour  of 
salvation  also  strike  for  the  People  of  the  Covenant 
(ix,  30  sqq.;   x,  3-21;   xi,  32) 

Securing  of  Salvation. — To  the  question  how  man 
obtains  salvation,  St.  Paul  has  but  one  answer: 
not  by  natural  powers,  not  by  works  of  the  Law, 
but  by  faith,  and  indeed  by  faith  without  the  works 
of  the  Law  (iii,  28).  At  the  very  beginning  of  the 
Epistle  Paul  refers  to  the  complete  failure  of  natural 
powers  (i,  18-32),  and  repeatedly  returns  to  this  idea 
but  he  lays  the  greatest  emphasis  on  the  inadequacy  of 
the  Law.  From  the  Jews  this  statement  met  with 
serious  opposition.  What  does  the  Apostle  mean  then 
when  he  preaches  the  necessity  of  faith? 

Faith  is  for  St.  Paul  often  nothing  else  than  the 
Gosjx'l,  i.  e.,  the  whole  economy  of  salvation  in  Christ 
(Gal.,  i,  23;  iii,  23,  25,  etc.);  often  it  is  the  teaching 
of  faith,  the  {mwlamation  of  the  faith,  and  the  life  of 
faith  (Rom.,  i,  5;  xii,  G;  xvi,  2G;  Gal.,  iii,  2;  Acts, 
vi,  7;  Rom.,  i,  8;  II  Cor.,  i,  23;  xi,  15;  xiii,  5;  Acts, 
xiii,  8;  xiv,  21;  xvi,  5).  That  according  to  all  these 
conceptions  salvation  comes  only  by  faith  without  the 
works  of  the  Law,  needs  no  demonstration.  But  to 
what  faith  was  Abraham  indebted  for  his  justification? 
(iv,  3,  9,  13-22;  Gal.,  iii,  6).  Abraham  had  to  believe 
the  word  of  God,  that  is  hold  it  for  certain.  In  the 
case  of  the  Christian  the  same  faith  is  demanded: 
"to  believe  that  we  shall  live  also  together  with  Christ: 
knowing  that  Christ  rising  again  from  the  dead,  dieth 
now  no  more"  (vi,  8-9);  "If  thou  confess  with  thy 
mouth  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  believe  in  thy  heart  that 
God  hath  raised  him  up  from  the  dead,  thou  shalt  be 
saved"  (x,  9).  This  faith  is  undeniably  belief  on  the 
authority  of  God  (dogmatic  faith).  The  same  concep- 
tion of  faith  underlies  all  the  exhortations  to  submit 
ourselves  in  faith  to  God;  submission  presupposes  the 
conviction  of  faith  (i,  5;  vi,  lG-19;  x,  IG;  xv,  18). 

The  faith  described  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  as 
elsewhere  in  St.  Paul's  writings  and  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  general,  is  furthermore  a  trusting  faith,  e.  g., 
in  the  case  of  Abraham,  whose  trust  is  specially  extolled 
(iv,  17-21;  cf.  iii,  3,  unbelief  and  the  fidelity  of  God). 
So  far  is  this  confidence  in  God's  fidelity  from  excluding 
dogmatic  faith  that  it  is  based  undeniably  on  it  alone 
and  unconditionally  requires  it.  Without  the  unswerv- 
ing acceptance  of  certain  truths  (e.  g.,  the  Messiahship, 
the  Divinity  of  Christ,  the  redemptory  character  of 
Christ's  death,  the  Resurrection,  etc.),  there  is  for  St. 
Paul,  as  he  never  fails  to  make  clear  in  his  Epistles, 
no  Christianity.  Therefore,  justifying  faith  comprises 
dogmatic  faith  as  well  as  hope.  Again,  it  would  never 
have  occurred  to  St.  Paul  to  conceive  baptism  as  other 
than  necessary  for  salvation;  Romans  itself  offers  the 
surest  guarantee  that  baptism  and  faith,  viewed  of 
course  from  different  standpoints,  are  alike  necessary 
for  justification  (vi,  3  sqq.;  Gal.,  iii,  2G  sq.). 
The  turning  away  from  sin  is  also  necessary  for  ius- 


ROMANS 


162 


ROMANS 


tification.  Paul  cannot  proclaim  sufficiently  the  in- 
compatibility of  sin  and  the  Divine  sonship.  If  the 
Christian  must  avoid  sin,  those  who  seek  salvation 
must  also  tiu-n  aside  from  it  \Miile  St.  Paul  never 
speaks  in  his  Epistle  of  penance  and  contrition,  these 
constitute  so  self-e\-ident  a  condition  that  they  do  not 
call  for  any  special  mention.  Besides,  chapters  i-iii 
are  onlv  a  grand  exposition  of  the  truth  that  sin  sepa- 
rates us  from  God.  For  the  nature  of  justification  it  is 
immaterial  whether  Paul  is  displaying  before  the  eyes 
of  the  Christian  the  consequences  of  sin,  or  is  making 
sentunents  of  contrition  and  a  change  to  a  Cliristian 
mode  of  life  a  necessar>'  preliminary  condition  for  the 
obtaining  of  grace  WTiat  sentiments  he  requires,  he 
describes  in  the  words:  "For  in  Jesus  Christ,  neither 
circumcision  availeth  any  thing  nor  uncircumcision; 
but  faith,  which  worketh  by  charity"  (Gal.,  v,  6).  It 
is  merely  a  repetition  of  this  sentence  when  the  Apostle, 
after  proclaiming  freedom  in  Christ,  seeks  to  remove  the 
misconception  that  the  condition  of  Christian  freedom 
might  endure  anything  and  become  sjTionymous  with 
Uberty  to  sin  (Gal.,  v,  13-21;  cf.  Rom.,  xii,  1  sq.;  xiii, 
12  sqq.;   viii,  12  sqq.;   xi,  20  sqq.). 

We  thus  see  what  Paul  would  have  us  understand 
by  justifying  faith.  If  he  does  not  always  describe 
it  from  every  standpoint  as  in  the  present  instance, 
but  designates  it  as  dogmatic  or  trusting  faith,  the 
reason  is  easily  understood.  He  has  no  intention  of 
describing  all  the  stages  along  the  road  to  justification  ; 
he  is  so  far  from  desiring  to  give  a  strict  definition  of 
its  nature,  that  he  wishes  merely  to  indicate  the  fun- 
damental condition  on  the  part  of  man.  This  con- 
dition is,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  supernatural 
character  of  justification,  not  so  much  the  feeling  of 
contrition  or  the  performance  of  penitential  works  as 
the  trusting  acceptance  of  the  promise  of  God.  When 
a  person  has  once  taken  this  first  step,  all  the  rest,  if 
he  be  consistent,  follows  of  itself.  To  regard  justifj^- 
ing  faith  as  the  work  or  outcome  of  natural  man  and 
to  attribute  grace  to  this  work,  is  to  misunderstand 
the  Apostle.  The  free  submission  which  lies  in  faith 
prepares  the  soul  for  the  reception  of  grace.  Provided 
that  the  teaching  of  St.  Paul  be  studied  in  the  context 
in  which  it  is  found  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and 
the  Galatians,  it  cannot  be  misunderstood.  If,  how- 
ever, Paul  in  both  Epistles  forestalls  an  unjustified 
practical  consequence  that  might  be  drawn  therefrom, 
this  is  a  proof  of  his  deep  knowledge  of  mankind,  but 
in  no  way  a  limitation  of  his  doctrine.  The  faith 
which  justifies  without  the  works  of  the  Law  and 
the  Christian  freedom  from  the  Law  continue 
unimpaired.  The  possibility  of  error  would  be 
afforded  if  one  were  to  withdraw  the  words  of  the 
Apostle  from  their  context;  even  shibboleths  for 
libertinism  might  be  extracted  in  that  case  from  his 
teaching.  This  leads  us  to  the  well-known  sentence 
in  the  Epistle  of  St.  James  concerning  faith  without 
works  (ii,  20,  24).  Was  this  written  in  premeditated 
opposition  to  St.  Paul? 

Paul  ami  James. — Two  questions  must  be  dis- 
tinguished in  our  inquiry:  (1)  Is  there  an  historical 
connexion  between  the  statements  in  the  Epistles? 
(2)  How  are  the  antitheses  to  be  explained?  Are 
they  premeditated  or  not? 

(1)  The  possibility  of  a  direct  reference  in  the 
Epistle  of  St.  James  to  St.  Paul  (this  hypothesis  alone 
ifl  tenable)  depends  on  the  question  of  the  priority  of 
the  Epistle.  For  scholars  (e.  g.,  Neander,  Beyschlag, 
Th.  Zahn,  Belser,  Camerlynck,  etc.)  who  hold  that 
the  Epistle  of  St.  James  was  written  before  a.d.  50, 
the  question  is  sfittled.  But  the  grounds  for  the 
aesigning  of  this  date  to  the  Epistle  are  not  entirely 
convincing,  since  the  Epistle  fits  in  better  with  the 
conditions  of  the  8ucc(r<'ding  decades.  An  extreme 
attitude  is  julopted  by  many  moflern  critics  (e.  g.,  Chr. 
Baur,  Hilgenffld,  H.  J.  Holtzmann,  von  Soden,  Jii- 
licher),  who  assign  the  Epistle  to  the  second  century — 


a  scarcely  intelligible  position  in  view  of  the  historical 
conditions.  If  the  Epistle  of  St.  James  were  com- 
posed shortly  after  the  year  60,  it  might,  in  view  of 
the  lively  intercourse  among  the  Christians,  have  been 
influenced  by  the  misunderstood  views  of  the  teach- 
ings of  St.  Paul,  and  James  may  have  combated  the 
misused  formula  of  St.  Paul.  The  almost  verbal  con- 
nexion in  the  passages  might  thus  be  accounted  for. 

(2)  Does  there  exist  any  real  opposition  between 
Paul  and  James?  This  question  is  answered  in  the 
affirmative  in  many  quarters  to-day.  Paul,  it  is  as- 
serted, taught  justification  through  faith  without 
works,  while  James  simply  denied  St.  Paul's  teaching 
(Rom.,  iii,  28),  and  seeks  a  different  explanation  for 
the  chief  passage  quoted  by  St.  Paul  (Gen.,  xv,  6) 
concerning  the  faith  of  Abraham  (Jiilicher  and  others). 
But  does  James  really  treat  of  justification  in  the 
same  sense  as  St.  Paul?  Their  formulation  of  the 
question  is  different  from  the  outset.  James  speaks 
of  true  justice  before  God,  which,  he  declares,  consists 
not  alone  in  a  firm  faith,  but  in  a  faith  supported  and 
enlivened  by  works  (especially  of  charity).  Without 
works  faith  is  useless  and  dead  (ii,  17,  20).  James 
addresses  himself  to  readers  who  are  already  within 
the  fold,  but  who  may  not  lead  a  moral  life  and  may 
appeal  in  justification  of  their  conduct  to  the  word  of 
faith.  To  those  who  adopt  this  attitude,  James  can 
only  answer:  "But  he  that  hath  looked  into  the  per- 
fect law  of  liberty,  and  hath  continued  therein,  not 
becoming  a  forgetful  hearer,  but  a  doer  of  the  work, 
this  man  shall  be  blessed  in  his  deed  "  (i,  25).  Through- 
out his  Epistle  James  aims  at  attaining  the  translation 
of  faith  to  life  and  works;  in  speaking  of  a  faith  that 
worketh  by  charity  (Gal.,  v,  6),  Paul  really  teaches 
exactly  the  same  as  James. 

But  wliat  of  the  argument  of  James  and  his  appeal 
to  Abraham?  "Was  not  Abraham  our  father  justified 
by  works,  offering  up  Isaac  his  son  upon  the  altar? 
Seest  thou,  that  faith  did  co-operate  with  his  works; 
and  by  works  faith  was  made  perfect?  And  the 
scripture  was  fulfilled,  saying:  Abraham  believed  God, 
and  it  was  reputed  to  him  to  justice,  and  he  was  called 
the  friend  of  God"  (ii,  21-23).  Paul,  like  James,  ap- 
pealed to  the  same  Abraham — both  rightly  from  their 
individual  standpoints.  With  entire  right  could  Paul 
declare  that  Abraham  owed  his  justice,  not  to  cir- 
cumcision, but  to  his  faith;  with  comi)lete  right  could 
James  appeal  to  Abraham's  act  of  obedience  and  assert 
that  faith  accompanied  it  and  by  it  faith  was  com- 
pleted. And  if  James  applies  to  this  act  llie  phrase: 
"It  was  rei)nted  to  liini  to  justice",  lie  is  (juite  entitled 
to  do  so,  since  Al)raliain's  obedience  is  rewarded  with 
a  new  and  glorious  promise  of  God  (Gen.,  xxii,  16 
sqq.). 

It  is  clear  from  the  whole  passage  that  James  does 
not  use  the  word  "justify  ",  in  the  sense  in  which  Paul 
speaks  of  the  first  justification,  but  in  the  sense  of  an 
increasing  justification  (cf.  Rom.,  ii,  13;  Apoc,  xxii, 
11),  as  corresponds  to  the  object  of  the  Epistle.  Of 
any  contradiction  between  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans 
and  that  of  St.  James,  therefore,  there  can  be  no 
question. 

Finally,  there  is  a  difference  in  the  use  of  the  term 
faith.  In  the  passage  in  question,  James  uses  the 
term  in  a  narrow  sense.  As  shown  by  the  refer- 
ence to  the  faith  of  th(^  demons  (ii,  19),  nothing  more 
is  here  meant  by  faith  than  a  firm  conviction  and 
undoubting  acceptance,  which  is  shared  even  by  the 
damned,  and  has  therefore  in  itself  no  moral  value. 
Such  a  faith  would  never  have  been  termed  by  St. 
Paul  a  justifying  faith.  That  throughout  the  whole 
course  of  the  Epistle  of  St.  James  St.  Paul's  doctrine 
of  justification  is  never  called  into  question,  and  that 
St.  Paul  on  his  side  shows  nowhere  the  least  opposition 
to  St.  James,  calls  for  no  further  proof.  The  funda- 
mental concc^ptions  and  the  whoh;  treatment  in  the 
two  Epistles  exclude  all  views  to  the  contrary. 


ROMANUS 


163 


ROMANUS 


Consult  the  Introductions  by  Jacquier,  Cornelt,  Belser, 
Kaulen,  Th.  Zahn,  Holtzmann,  Julicher;  Lightfoot,  The 
Structure  and  Destination  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  in  Jour, 
of  Philolog.,  II  (1869),  reprinted  in  Biblical  Essays  (London, 
1893-4),  285-374. 

Commentaries:  ORiGEN-RuFiNns;  Ephraem;  Chrysostom; 
Ambrosiaster;  Pelagius;  Augustine;  Theophylactus; 
CEcuMENius;  Thomas  Aquinas;  Erasmus;  Cajetan;  Tolet; 
EsTius;  A  Lapide;  Calmet;  Reithmayr;  Adalb.  Maier 
(1847);  Bisping  (2nd  ed.,  Munster,  1860),  Mac  Evilly  (3rd  ed., 
Dublin,  1875) ;  Schaefer  (Munster,  1891) ;  Cornely  (Paris,  1896). 

Protestant  Commentaries:  Luther,  Vorlesungen  iiber  den 
Romerhrief  1516-16 .,  ed.  by  Ficlcer  (Leipzig,  1908);  Melanch- 
thon;  Beza;  Calvin;  Zwingli;  Grotius;  Bengel;  Wett- 
btein;  Tholuck  (5th  ed.,  1856);  Olshausen  (2nd  ed.,  1840); 
Fritzsche  (3  vols.,  1836-43) ;  Meyer-Weiss  (9th  ed.,  Gottingen, 
1899,  tr.,  Edinburgh,  1873-4) ;  LiPsius,  Holtzmann,  Handkom- 
mentar  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1892);  Julicher  (J.  Weiss),  Die 
Schriften  des  N.  T.,  II  (2nd  ed.,  Gottingen,  1908) ;  Lietzmann, 
Handbuch  zum  N.  T.,  Ill  (Tubingen,  1906);  Zahn  (Leipzig. 
1910);  Godet  (2nd  ed.,  1883-90,  tr.  Edinburgh,  1881);  Gip- 
FORD,  Speaker's  Commentary  (1881),  separate  (1886);  Sanday- 
Headlam,  The  International  Grit.  Commentary  (5th  ed.,  Edinburgh, 
1905).     For    further  literature  see  Cornely;    Sanday;  Weiss. 

Theological  Questions. — Simar,  Die  Theol.  des  hi.  Paulus  (2nd 
ed.,  Freiburg,  1883);  Prat,  La  thiol,  de  s.  P.,  I  (Paris,  1908); 
Holtzmann,  Lehrbuch  d.  neutest.  Theol.,  II  (Freiburg,  1908; 
new  ed.  being  published);  Weiss,  Lehrbuch  d.  bibl.  Theol.  d.  N. 
T.  (7th  ed.  (.Stuttgart,  1903) ;  Feine,  Theol.  des  N.  T.  (2nd  ed.. 
Leipzig,  1911);  Bartmann,  St.  P.  u.  St.  J.  iiber  die  Rechtfer- 
tigung  in  Bibl.  Studien,  XI  (Freiburg,  1904) ,  i. 

A.  Merk. 

Romanus,  Saints. — (1)  A  Roman  martyr  Ro- 
manus  is  mentioned  in  the  "Liber  Pontificalis"  (ed. 
Duchesne,  I,  155)  with  three  other  ecclesiastics  as 
companions  in  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Lawrence  (10 
August,  258).  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  this 
mention  rests  upon  a  genuine  ancient  tradition.  Like 
St.  Lawrence  Romanus  was  buried  in  the  Catacomb 
of  the  Cyriaca  on  the  Via  Tiburtina.  The  grave  of 
St.  Romanus  is  exphcitly  mentioned  in  the  Itineraries 
of  the  seventh  century  (De  Rossi,  "Roma  sotter- 
ranea",  I,  178-9).  In  the  purely  legendary  Acts  of 
St.  Lawrence,  the  ostiary  Romanus  is  transformed  into 
a  soldier,  and  an  account  in  accordance  with  this  state- 
ment was  inserted  in  the  historical  martyrologies  and 
in  the  present  Roman  Martyrology,  which  latter  places 
his  feast  on  9  August  (cf.  DucMourcq,  "Les  Gesta 
Martyrum  romains",  I,  201).  (2)  In  303  or  304,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Diocletian  persecution,  a  deacon 
called  Romanus  of  Ca;sarea  in  Palestine  suffered 
martyrdom  at  Antioch.  Upon  the  proclamation  of 
Diocletian's  edict  he  strengthened  the  Christians  of 
Antioch  and  openly  exhorted  the  weaker  brethren, 
who  were  willing  to  offer  heathen  sacrifices,  not  to 
waver  in  the  Faith.  He  was  taken  prisoner,  was  con- 
demned to  death  by  fire,  and  was  bound  to  the  stake; 
however,  as  the  Emperor  Galerius  was  then  in  Antioch, 
Romanus  was  brought  before  him.  At  the  emperor's 
command  the  tongue  of  the  courageous  confessor 
was  cut  out.  Tortured  in  various  ways  in  prison  he 
was  finally  strangled.  Eusebius  speaks  of  his  martyr- 
dom in  "De  martyribus  Palestin.",  c.  ii.  Prudentius 
("Peristephanon",  Xin  "P.  L.",  LX,  444 sqq.)  relates 
other  details  and  gives  Romanus  a  companion  in 
martyrdom,  a  Christian  by  name  Barulas.  On  this 
account  several  historians,  among  them  Baronius, 
consider  that  there  were  two  martyrs  named  Romanus 
at  Antioch,  though  more  likely  there  was  but  the  one 
whom  Eusebius  mentions.  Prudentius  has  introduced 
legendary  features  into  his  account,  and  his  connexion 
of  the  martyrdom  of  Barulas  with  that  of  Romanus  is 
probably  arbitrary.  The  feast  of  St.  Romanus  is 
observed  on  18  November  [cf.  Allard,  "Histoire  des 
persecutions",  IV,  173  sq.;  Quentin,  "Les  martyro- 
loges  historiques"  (Paris,  1908),  183-5].  (3)  The 
"  Martyrologium  Hieronymianum "  mentions  mar- 
tyrs of  this  name  at  several  dates,  chiefly  in  large  com- 
panies of  Christians  who  suffered  martyrdom.  No 
further  particulars  are  known  of  any  of  them.  (4) 
A  holy  priest  named  Romanus  laboured  in  the  di.s- 
trict  of  Blaye,  in  the  present  French  department  of 
the  Gironde,  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  Greg- 
ory of  Tours  gives  an  account  of  him  ("De  gloria 


confessorum",  c.  xlv),  and  relates  that  St.  Martin  of 
Tours  made  ready  the  grave  of  the  dead  Romanus. 
An  old  life  of  St.  Romanus  was  published  in  the 
"Analecta  Bollandiana",  V  (1866),  178  sqq.  The 
feast  of  the  saint  is  observed  on  24  November. 

(5)  St.  Romanus,  Abbot  of  Condat,  now  St.  Claude  in 
the  French  Jura,  b.  about  400;  d.  in  463  or  464.  When 
thirty-five  years  old  he  went  into  the  lonely  region  of 
Condat  to  live  as  a  hermit,  where  after  a  while  hia 
younger  brother  Lupicinus  followed  him.  A  large 
number  of  scholars,  among  whom  was  St.  Eugendus, 
placed  themselves  under  the  direction  of  the  two  holy 
brothers  who  founded  several  monasteries:  Condat 
(now  Saint-Claude),  Lauconne  (later  Saint-Lupicin, 
as  Lupicinus  was  buried  there).  La  Balme  (later  Saint- 
Romain-de-Roche),  where  St.  Romanus  was  buried, 
and  Romainmotier  (Romanum  monasterium)  in  the 
canton  of  Vaud  in  Switzerland.  Romanus  was  or- 
dained priest  by  St.  Hilary  of  Aries  in  444,  and  with 
Lupicinus  he  directed  these  monasteries  until  his 
death.  His  feast  is  observed  on  28  February.  Two 
lives  of  him  are  in  existence:  one  by  Gregory  of  Tours 
in  the  "Liber  vitai  patrum"  (Mon.  Germ.  Hist.: 
Script.  Merov.,  I,  663),  and  an  anonymous  "Vita 
Sanctorum  Romani,  Lupicini,  Eugendi"  [ibid..  Ill, 
131  sqq.;  cf.  Benoit,  "Histoire  de  St-Claude",  I 
(Paris,^  1890);  Besson,  "Recherches  sur  les  origines 
des  6veches  de  Geneve,  Lausanne,  et  Sion"  (Fribourg, 
1906),  210  sqq.]  (6)  St.  Romanus,  monk  in  a  monas- 
tery near  Subiaco,  Italy,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
century.  He  aided  St.  Benedict  when  the  latter  with- 
drew into  a  solitary  place  and  regularly  brought  Bene- 
dict bread  to  support  life  (St.  Gregory  the  Great, 
"Dialogi",  II,  i).  Romanus  later  (from  523)  repre- 
sented St.  Benedict  at  Subiaco,  and  is  said  to  have 
afterwards  gone  to  Gaul  and  to  have  founded  a  small 
monastery  at  Dryes-Fontrouge,  where  he  died  about 
550  and  was  venerated  as  a  saint.  His  feast  is  ob- 
served on  22  May.  A  St.  Romanus,  who  is  venerated 
as  Bishop  of  Auxerre  on  8  October,  is  probably  iden- 
tical with  this  Abbot  Romanus  whose  relics  were  sub- 
sequently translated  to  Auxerre  [cf.  "Acta  SS.", 
May,  V,  153  sqq.;  October,  III,  396 sqq.;  Adlhoch  in 
"Studien  und  Alitteilungen  aus  dem  Benedictiner-  und 
Cistcrzienserorden "  (1907),  267  sqq.,  501  sqq.: 
(1908),  103  sqq.,  327  sqq.,  587  sqq.;  Leclerc,  "Vie  do 
St  Romain,  cducateur  de  St  Benoit"  (Paris,  1893)]. 
(7)  St.  Romanus,  Bishop  of  Rouen,  date  of  birth  un- 
known; d.  about  640.  His  feast  is  observed  on  23 
October.  The  legend  of  this  saint  has  little  historical 
value  (Acta  SS.,  October,  X,  91  sqq.),  and  there  is 
but  little  authentic  information  concerning  him  [cf. 
"Analecta  Bollandiana"  (1904),  337  sq.]  (8)  St. 
Romanus,  "the  Singer",  the  most  important  repre- 
sentative of  rhythmic  poetry  in  the  Greek  Church. 
According  to  the  Greek  "Menaia"  he  was  born  in 
Syria,  was  ordained  deacon  at  Berytus,  then  went  to 
Constantinople,  where  he  became  one  of  the  clergy 
at  the  Blachernen  church.  The  era  in  which  he  lived 
is  not  certainly  ascertained;  most  probably,  however, 
his  residence  in  Constantinople  was  from  about  515 
to  556.  His  feast  is  observed  on  1  October.  Several 
of  his  poems  were  edited  by  Pitra,  "Analecta  sacra", 
I  (Paris,  1876),  1-241  [cf.  Maas,  "Die  Chronologie 
der  Hymnen  des  Romanus"  in  "Byzantin.  Zeit- 
schrift"  (1906),  1-44;  Bardenhewer,  "Patrologie" 
(3rd  ed.),  486]. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Romanus,  Pope. — Of  this  pope  very  little  is  known 
with  certainty,  not  even  the  date  of  his  birth  nor  the 
exact  dates  of  his  consecration  as  pope  and  of  his 
death.  He  was  born  at  Gallese  near  Civit^  Castellana, 
and  was  the  son  of  Constantine.  He  became  cardinal 
of  St.  Peter  ad  Vincula  and  pope  about  August,  897. 
He  died  four  months  later.  He  granted  the  pallium 
to  Vitalis,  Patriarch  of  Grado,  and  a  privilege  for  his 


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164 


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church;  and  to  the  Spanish  Bishops  of  Elna  and 
Gerona,  he  confirmed  the  possessions  of  their  sees. 
His  coins  bear  the  name  of  the  Emperor  Lambert,  and 
his  ovra  monogram  vrith  "Scs.  Petrus".  The  con- 
temporary historian  Frodoard  has  three  verses  about 
him  which  argue  him  a  man  of  virtue.  It  is  possible 
he  was  deposed  by  one  of  the  factions  which  then  dis- 
tracted Rome,  for  we  read  that  "he  was  made  a 
monk",  a  phrase  which,  in  the  language  of  the  times, 
often  denoted  deposition. 

J.\FF^,  Regesta  Pont.  Rom..  I  (Leipzig,  1888),  441;  Duchesne, 
Liber  Poniificalis.  II  (Paris,  1892).  230;  Mann,  Aires  of  the  Popes 
in  the  Early  Middle  Ages,  IV  (London,  1910).  86  sq. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Rome. — The  significance  of  Rome  lies  primarily  in 
the  fact  that  it  is  the  city  of  the  pope.  The  Bishop  of 
Rome,  as  the  successor  of  8t.  Peter,  is  the  Vicar  of 
Christ  on  earth  and  the  visible  head  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  Rome  is  consequent Ij^  the  centre  of  unity 
in  belief,  the  source  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  and 
the  seat  of  the  supreme  authority  which  can  bind  by 
its  enactments  the  faithful  throughout  the  world. 
The  Diocese  of  Rome  is  knowTi  as  the  "See  of  Peter", 
the  "Apostolic  See",  the  "Holy  Roman  Church",  the 
"Holy  See" — titles  which  indicate  its  unique  position 
in  Christendom  and  suggest  the  origin  of  its  pre- 
eminence. Rome,  more  than  anj'  other  city,  bears 
witness  both  to  the  past  splendour  of  the  pagan  world 
and  to  the  triumph  of  Christianity.  It  is  here  that 
the  historj'  of  the  Church  can  be  traced  from  the 
earliest  daj's,  from  the  humble  beginnings  in  the 
Catacombs  to  the  majestic  ritual  of  St.  Peter's.  At 
ever>'  turn  one  comes  upon  places  hallowed  by  the 
deaths  of  the  martyrs,  the  lives  of  innumerable  saints, 
the  memoiies  of  wise  and  holy  pontiffs.  From  Rome 
the  bearers  of  the  Gospel  message  went  out  to  the 
peoples  of  Europe  and  eventually  to  the  uttermost 
ends  of  the  earth.  To  Rome,  again,  in  every  age 
countless  pilgrims  have  thronged  from  all  the  nations, 
and  especially  from  English-speaking  countries.  With 
religion  the  missionaries  carried  the  best  elements  of 
ancient  culture  and  civilization  which  Rome  had 
preserved  amid  all  the  vicissitudes  of  barbaric  in- 
vasion. To  the.se  treasures  of  antiquity  have  been 
ax^lded  the  productions  of  a  nobler  art  inspired  by  higher 
ideals,  that  have  filled  Rome  with  masterpieces  in 
architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture.  These  appeal 
indeed  to  every  mind  endowed  with  artistic  percep- 
tion; but  their  full  meaning  only  the  Catholic  believer 
can  appreciate,  because  he  alone,  in  his  deepest  thought 
and  feeling,  is  at  one  with  the  spirit  that  pulsates 
here  in  the  heart  of  the  Christian  world. 

Many  details  concerning  Rome  have  been  set  forth 
in  other  articles  of  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia. 
For  the  prerogatives  of  the  papacy  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Pope;  for  the  ecclesiastical  government  of 
the  city  and  diocese,  to  Cardinal  Vicar;  for  litur- 
gical matters,  to  Roman  Rite;  for  education,  to 
Roman  Colleges;  for  literary  development,  to 
Academies,  Roman;  for  history,  to  the  biographical 
articles  on  the  various  r)f)p(«,  and  the  articles  CoN- 
STANTINE  THE  Great,  Charlemagne,  ctc.  There  is 
a  special  article  on  each  of  the  religious  orders,  saints, 
and  artists  mentioned  in  this  article,  while  the  details 
of  the  papal  administration,  both  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral, will  be  ffiund  treated  under  Apo.stolic  Camera; 
Audiences,  Pontifical;  Examiners,  Apostolic; 
Holy  See;  Rescripts,  Papal;  Roman  Congre(;a- 
tionk;  Roman  Curia;  Rota,  Sacra  Rom  an  a; 
States  ok  the  Church,  etc.  Of  the  great  Christian 
monuments  of  the  Eternal  City,  special  articles  are 
devot*;d  Ui  St.  Peter,  Basilica  of;  St.  Petkr,  'I'o.mh 
of;  Lateran  Basilica;  Vatican;  Chair  ok  1'eter. 

The  pn«ent  artiele  will  be  divided:  I.  Topography 
and  Existing  Conditions;  11.  Oneral  Hislory  of  the 
City;    III.  Churches  and  other  Monunu-nts. 

I.  Topography  and  Existing  Ojnditions.— The 


City  of  Rome  rises  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber  at  a  dis- 
tance of  from  16  to  19  miles  from  the  mouth  of  that 
river,  which  makes  a  deep  furrow  in  the  plain  which 
extends  between  the  Alban  hills,  to  the  south;  the 
hills  of  PalestrinaandTivoli,  and  the  Sabine  hills,  to 
the  east;  and  the  Umbrian  hills  and  Monte  Tolfa,  to 
the  north.  The  city  stands  in  latitude  41°  54'  N.  and 
longitude  12°  30'  E.  of  Greenwich.  It  occupies,  on 
the  left  bank,  not  only  the  plain,  but  al.<o  the  adjacent 
heights,  namely,  portions  of  the  Parioli  hills,  of  the 
Pincian,  the  Quirinal,  the  Viininal,  the  Esquiline 
(which  are  only  the  extremities  of  a  mountain-mass 
of  tufa  extending  to  the  Alban  hills),  the  Capitoline, 
the  Cirlian,  the  Palatine,  and  the  Aventinc — hills 
which  are  now  isolated.  On  the  right  bank  is  the 
valley  lying  beneath  Monte  Mario,  the  Vatican,  and 
the  Janiculan,  the  last-named  of  which  has  now 
become  covered  with  houses  and  gardens.  The  Tiber, 
traversing  the  city,  forms  two  sharp  bends  and  an 
island  (S.  Bartolomeo),  and  within  the  city  its  banks 
are  protected  by  the  strong  and  lofty  walls  which  were 
begun  in  1875.  The  river  is  crossed  by  fourteen 
bridges,  one  of  them  being  only  provisional,  while 
ten  have  been  built  since  1870.  There  is  also  a  rail- 
road drawbridge  near  St.  Paul's.  Navigation  on  the 
river  is  practicable  only  for  vessels  of  light  draught, 
which  anchor  at  Ripa  Grande,  taking  cargoes  of  oil 
and  other  commodities. 

For  the  cure  of  souls,  the  city  is  divided  into  54 
parishes  (including  7  in  the  suburbs),  administered 
partly  by  secular  clergy,  partly  by  r(^gular.  The 
boundaries  of  the  parishes  have  been  radically  changed 
by  Pius  X,  to  meet  new  needs  arising  out  of  topo- 
graphical changes.  Each  parish  has,  besides  its 
parish  priest,  one  or  two  a.ssistant  priests,  a  chief 
sacristan,  and  an  indeterminate  number  of  chaplains. 
The  parish  priests  every  year  elect  a  chamberlain 
of  the  clergy,  whose  position  is  purely  honorary; 
every  month  they  assemble  for  a  conference  to  dis- 
cuss cases  in  moral  theology  and  also  the  practical 
exigencies  of  the  ministry.  In  each  parish  there  is  a 
parochial  committee  for  Catholic  works;  each  has  its 
various  confraternities,  many  of  which  have  their 
own  church  and  oratory.  In  the  vast  extent  of  coun- 
try outside  of  Rome,  along  the  main  liigliways,  there 
are  chapels  for  the  accommodation  of  tlie  few  settled 
inliabitants,  and  the  labourers  and  sliepheids  who 
from  October  to  July  are  engaged  in  the  work  f)f  the 
open  country.  In  former  times  mo.st  of  these  chapels 
had  priests  of  their  own,  who  also  kept  schools;  now- 
adays, througli  the  exertions  of  the  Society  for  the 
Religious  .\id  of  the  Agro  Romano  (i.  e.  the  country 
districts  around  Rome),  priests  are  taken  thither  from 
Rome  every  Sunday  to  say  Mass,  cat(>cliize,  and 
preach  on  the  Gospel.  The  houses  of  male  religious 
number  about  160;  of  female  religious,  205,  for  the 
most  part  devoted  to  teaching,  ministering  to  the 
sick  in  public  and  private  hospitals,  managing  various 
houses  of  retreat,  etc.  liesides  the  three  patriarchal 
chapters  (see  below,  under  Churches),  there  are  at 
Rome  eleven  collegiate  ch.'ipters. 

In  the  patriarelial  l);i,silicas  there  are  confessors 
for  all  the  prineii)al  languages.  Some  nations  have 
their  national  churches  (Germans,  Anima  and  Campo 
Santo;  French,  S.  Luigi  and  S.  Claudio;  Croats,  S. 
Girolamo  dei  Schiavoni  ;  Belgians,  S.  Giuliano; 
Portuguese,  S.  Antonio;  Spaniards,  S.  Maria  in 
Monserrato;  to  all  whic^h  may  be  added  the  churches 
of  the  Oriental  rites).  Moreover,  in  the  churches  and 
chapels  of  many  religif)us  houses,  particularly  the 
gen«'ralates,  as  well  as  in  the  various  national  col- 
leges, it  is  possible  for  foreigners  to  fulfil  their  re- 
ligious obligations.  For  English-speaking  persons 
the  convents  of  the-  Irish  Dominicans  (S.  Ci<'mente) 
anfl  of  the  Irish  Franciscans  (S.  Isidoro),  the  English, 
Irish,  and  American  C>>Ileges,  the  new  Church  of  S. 
Patrizio  in  the  Via  Ludovisi,  that  of  S.  Giorgio  of  the 


ROME 


165 


ROME 


English  Sisters  in  the  Via  S.  Sebastianello,  and  par- 
ticularly S.  Silvestro  in  Capite  (Pallottini)  should  be 
mentioned.  In  these  churches,  too,  there  are,  regu- 
larly, sermons  in  English  on  feast-day  afternoons, 
during  Lent  and  Advent,  and  on  other  occasions. 
Sometimes  there  are  sermons  in  Enghsh  in  other 
churches  also,  notice  being  given  beforehand  by 
bills  posted  outside  the  churches  and  by  advertise- 
ments in  the  papers.  Plrst  Communions  are  mostly 
made  in  the  parish  churches;  many  parents  place 
their  daughters  in  seclusion  during  the  period  of 
immediate  preparation,  in  some  educational  institu- 
tion. There  are  also  two  institutions  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  boys  for  their  First  Communion,  one  of 
them  without  charge  (Ponte  Rotto).  Christian  doc- 
trine is  taught  both  in  the  day  and  night  schools 
which  are  dependent  either  on  the  Holy  See,  or 
on  religious  congregations  or  Cathohc  associations. 
For  those  who  attend  the  public  elementary  schools, 
parochial  catechism  is  provided  on  Sunday  and  feast- 
day  afternoons.  For  intermediate  and  university 
students  suitable  schools  of  religious  instruction 
have  been  formed,  connected  with  the  language 
schools  and  the  scholastic  ripelizioni,  so  as  to  attract 
the  young  men.  The  confraternities,  altogether  92 
in  number,  are  either  professional  (for  memb(>rs  of 
certain  professions  or  trades),  or  national,  or  for  some 
charitable  object  (e.  g.,  for  charity  to  prisoners;  S. 
Lucia  del  Gonfalone  and  others  like  it,  for  giving 
dowries  to  poor  young  women  of  good  character;  the 
Confraternita  della  Morte,  for  burying  those  who  die 
in  the  country  districts,  and  various  confraternities 
for  escorting  funerals,  of  which  the  principal  one  is 
that  of  the  Sacconi;  that  of  S.  Giovanni  Decollato, 
to  assist  persons  conflemned  to  death),  or  again  they 
have  some  purely  devotional  aim,  like  the  Con- 
fraternities of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  of  the  Cliristian 
Doctrine,  of  the  various  mysteries  of  religion,  and  of 
certain  saints. 

For  ecclesiastical  instruction  there  are  in  the  city, 
besides  the  various  Italian  and  foreign  colleges,  three 
great  ecclesiastinil  universities:  the  Cregorian,  under 
the  Jesuits;  the  S(^hools  of  the  Roman  Seminary,  at 
S.  Apollinare;  the  Collegio  Angelico  of  the  Dominicans, 
formerly  known  as  the  Minerva.  Several  religious 
orders  also  liave  schools  of  their  own — the  Benedic- 
tines at  S.  Anselmo,  the  Franciscans  at  S.  Antonio, 
the  Redemptorists  at  S.  Alfonso,  the  Calced  Carme- 
lites at  the  College  of  S.  Alberto,  the  Capuchins,  the 
Minor  Conventuals,  the  Augustinians,  and  others. 
(See  Roman  Colleges.)  For  classical  studies  there 
are,  besides  the  schools  of  S.  Apollinare,  the  Collegio 
Massimo,  under  the  Jesuits,  comprising  also  element- 
ary and  technical  schools;  the  Collegio  Nazareno 
(Piarists),  the  gymnasium  and  intermediate  school 
of  which  take  rank  with  those  of  the  Government; 
the  Istituto  Angt'lo  Mai  (Barnabite).  The  Brotliers 
of  the  Christian  Schools  have  a  flourishing  technical 
institute  (de  Merode)  with  a  boarding-house  (con- 
vitto).  There  are  eight  colleges  for  youths  under  the 
direction  of  ecclesiastics  or  religious.  The  Holy 
See  and  the  Society  for  the  Protection  of  Catholic 
Interests  also  maintain  forty-six  elementary  schools 
for  the  people,  mostly  under  the  care  of  religious  con- 
gregations. For  the  education  of  girls  there  are 
twenty-six  institutions  directed  by  Sisters,  some  of 
which  also  receive  day-pupils.  The  orphanages  are 
nine  in  number,  and  some  of  them  are  connected 
with  technical  and  industrial  schools.  The  Salesians, 
too,  have  a  similar  institution,  and  there  are  two 
agricultural  institutions.  Hospices  are  provided 
for  converts  from  the  Christian  sects  and  for  Hebrew 
neophytes.  Thirty  other  houses  of  refuge,  for  in- 
fants, orphans,  old  people,  etc.,  are  directed  by  re- 
ligious men  or  women. 

As  the  capital  of  Italy,  Rome  is  the  residence  of 
the  reigning  house,  the  ministers,  the  tribunals,  and 


the  other  civil  and  mihtary  officials  of  both  the  na- 
tional Government  and  the  provincial.  For  pubhc 
instruction  there  are  the  university,  two  technical 
institutes,  a  commercial  high  school,  five  gymnasium- 
lyceums,  eight  technical  schools,  a  female  institute 
for  the  preparation  of  secondary  teachers,  a  national 
boarding  school,  and  other  lay  institutions,  besides 
a  military  college.  There  are  also  several  private 
schools  for  languages  etc. — the  Vaticana,  the  Nazion- 
ale  (formed  out  of  the  hbraries  of  the  Roman  College, 
of  the  AracoeU  Convent,  and  other  monastic  libraries 
partially  ruined),  the  Corsiniana  (now  the  School  of 
the  Accademia  dei  Lincei),  the  Casanatense  (see 
Casanatta),  the  Angelica  (formerly  belonging  to  the 
Augustinians),  the  Vallicellana  (Oratorians,  founded 
by  Cardinal  Baronius),  the  Mihtare  Centrale,  the 
Chigiana,  and  others.  (For  the  academies  see 
AcADEAiiES,  Roman.)  Foreign  nations  maintain 
institutions  for  artistic,  historical,  or  archaiological 
study  (America,  Great  Britain,  Austria-Hungary, 
Prussia,  Holland,  Belgium,  France).  There  are  three 
astronomical  and  meteorological  observatories:  the 
Vatican,  the  Capitol  (Campidoglio),  and  the  Roman 
College  (Jesuit),  the  last-named,  situated  on  the 
Janiculan,  has  been  suppressed.  The  museums  and 
galleries  worthy  of  mention  are  the  Vatican  (see 
Vatican),  those  of  Christian  and  of  profane  an- 
tiquities at  the  Lateran  (famous  for  the  "Dancing 
Satyr";  the  "Sophocles",  one  of  the  finest  of  portrait 
statues  in  existence,  found  at  Terracina;  the  "Nep- 
tune", the  pagan  and  Christian  sarcophagi  with  decora- 
tions in  relief,  and  the  statue  of  Hippolytus).  In  the 
gallery  at  the  Lateran  th(>r(>  are  i)aintings  Ijy  Crivelli, 
Gozzoli,  Lippi,  Spagiia,  Francia,  Pahnezzano,  Sasso- 
ferrato,  ancl  Seitz.  The  Capitoline  Museum  contains 
Roman  ])rehist()ric  tombs  and  houseliold  furniture, 
reliefs  from  the  Arch  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  a  head  of 
Ainalusunta,  a  iialf-length  figure  of  the  Emperor 
C'omiiiodus,  the  epitaph  of  the  infant  prodigy  Qumtus 
Sulpicius  Ma.xinms,  the  Esquilhie  and  the  Capito- 
liiH>  Vcnuises,  "Diana  of  the  Ei)lH>sians",  the  Capito- 
line \\'olf  (Ftruscaii  work  of  the  fifth  century  b.  c), 
Marforius,  the  Dying  Gladiator,  busts  of  the  emperors 
and  other  famous  men  of  antiquity,  and  Vespasian's 
"Lex  regia";  the  Gallery  contains  works  by  Spagna, 
Tintoretto,  Caracci,  Caravaggio,  Guercino  (St.  Pct- 
ronilla,  the  original  of  the  mosaic  in  St.  Peter's), 
Guido  Reni,  Titian,  Van  Dyke,  Domenichino,  Paolo 
Veronese,  and  other  masters.  There  are  important 
numismatic  collections  and  collections  of  gold  jewelry. 
The  Villa  Giulia  has  a  collection  of  Etruscan  terra- 
cotta; the  Museo  Romano,  objects  recently  excavated; 
the  Mu.seo  Kirchi'riaiio  has  been  (>iilarged  into  an 
ethnograpiiical  museum.  The  Borgliese  (Jallery  is  in 
the  villa  of  the  same  name.  The  National  Gallery, 
in  the  Exposition  Building  {Paldzzo  ilclT  KsptLsizione), 
is  formed  out  of  the  Corsini,  Sciarra,  and  Torlonia 
collections,  together  with  modern  acquisitions.  There 
are  also  various  private  collections  in  different  parts 
of  the  city. 

The  institutions  of  public  charity  are  all  consoli- 
dated in  the  Congregazione  di  Carita,  under  the  Com- 
munal Administration.  There  are  twenty-seven 
public  hospitals,  the  most  important  of  which  are: 
the  Polyclinic,  which  is  destined  to  absorb  all  the 
others;  S.  Spirito,  to  which  is  annexed  the  lunatic 
asylum  and  the  foundling  hospital;  S.  Salvatore,  a 
ho.spital  for  women,  in  the  Lateran;  S.  Giacomo; 
S.  .Antonio;  the  Consolazione;  two  military  hospitals. 
There  are  also  an  institute  for  the  blind,  two  clinics 
for  diseases  of  the  eye,  twenty-five  asylums  for  aban- 
doned children,  three  lying-in  hospitals,  and  numerous 
])riv;ite  clinics  for  paying  patients.  The  great  public 
])ronien;i(h's  are  the  Pincian,  adjoining  the  \'illa 
Horghese  and  now  known  as  the  Umberlo  Prinio, 
where  a  zoological  garden  has  recently  been  installed, 
and  the  Janiculum.    Several  private  parks  or  gardens, 


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166 


ROME 


as  the  Villa  Pamphili,  are  also  accessible  to  the  pubUc 
even-  dav. 

The  population  of  Rome  in  1901  was  462,783.  Of 
these  5000  were  Protestants,  7000  Jews,  8200  of  other 
religions  and  no  reUgion.  In  the  census  now  (1910) 
being  made  an  increase  of  more  than  100,000  is 
expected.  Rome  is  now  the  most  salubrious  of  all 
the  large  cities  of  Italy,  its  mortality  for  1907  being 
18-8  per  thousand,  against  19-9  at  Milan  and  19-6  at 
Turin.  The  Press  is  represented  by  five  agencies: 
there  are  17  dailj^  papers,  two  of  them  Catholic 
("Osservatore  Romano"  and  "Corriere  d' Italia");  8 
periodicals  are  issued  once  or  oftener  in  the  week 
(.5  Catholic,  4  in  English — "Rome",  "Roman  Her- 
ald", "Roman  Messenger",  "Roman  World");  88 
are  issued  more  than  once  a  month  (7  Catholic); 
there  are  101  monthlies  (19  Catholic);  55  periodicals 
appear  less  frequent Ij-  than  once  a  month. 

Gexer.\^l  History  of  the  City. — Arms  and  imple- 
ments of  the  Pakeolithic  Age,  found  in  the  near  vicin- 
ity of  Rome,  testify  to  the  presence  of  man  here  in 
those  remote  times.  The  most  recent  excavations 
have  established  that  as  early  as  the  eighth  century 
B.  c.  or,  according  to  some,  several  centuries  earlier, 
there  was  a  group  of  human  habitations  on  the  Pala- 
tine Hill,  a  tufaceous  ledge  rising  in  the  midst  of 
marshy  ground  near  the  Tiber.  (That  river,  it  may 
be  obser\ed  here,  was  known  to  the  primitive  peoples 
by  the  name  of  Rumo,  "the  River".)  Thus  is  the 
traditional  account  of  the  origin  of  Rome  substantially 
verified.  At  the  same  time,  or  very  little  later,  a 
colony  of  Sabines  was  formed  on  the  Quirinal,  and 
on  the  Esquiline  an  Etruscan  colon}\  Between  the 
Palatine  and  the  Quirinal  rose  the  Capitoline,  once 
covered  by  two  sacred  groves,  afterwards  occupied 
by  the  temple  of  Jupiter  and  the  Rock.  Within  a 
Bmall  space,  therefore,  were  established  the  advance 
guards  of  three  distinct  peoples  of  different  characters; 
the  Latins,  shepherds;  the  Sabines,  tillers  of  the  soil; 
the  Etruscans,  already  far  advanced  in  civilization, 
and  therefore  in  commerce  and  the  industries.  How 
these  three  villages  became  a  city,  with,  first,  the 
Latin  influence  preponderating,  then  the  Sabine, 
then  the  Etruscan  (the  two  Tarquins),  is  all  enveloped 
in  the  obscurity  of  the  history  of  the  seven  kings 
(753-509  B.  c).  The  same  uncertainty  prevails  as 
to  the  conquests  made  at  the  ex-pensc  of  the  surround- 
ing peoples.  It  is  unquestionable  that  all  those  con- 
quests had  to  be  made  afresh  after  the  expulsion  of 
the  kings. 

But  the  social  organization  of  the  new  city  during 
this  period  stands  out  clearly.  There  were  three 
original  tribes:  the  Ramnians  (Latins),  the  Titians 
(Sabines),  and  the  Luceres  (Etruscans).  Each  tribe 
was  divided  into  ten  curia:,  each  curia  into  ten 
gentes,  eaoli  gens  into  ten  (or  thirty)  families.  Those 
who  belonged  to  these,  the  most  ancient,  tribes  were 
Patricians,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  three  hundred  gentes 
formed  the  Senate.  In  the  course  of  time  and  the 
wars  with  surrounding  peoples,  new  inhabitants 
occupied  the  remaining  hills;  thus,  under  Tullus 
HoBtilius,  the  Cajlian  was  assigned  to  the  population 
of  the  razf^l  Alba  Longa  (Albano);  the  Sabines, 
conquered  by  Ancus  Martius,  had  the  Aventine. 
Later  on,  the  Viminal  was  occupied.  The  new  inhabi- 
tants formed  the  Plebeians  {Plebu),  and  their  civil 
rights  were  ]csh  than  those  of  the  older  citizens.  The 
int<;mal  hi.slorv  of  Rome  down  to  the  Imperial  Period 
is  nothing  but  :i  struggle  of  plebeians  against  patricians 
for  the  a^'quiHitif)n  of  great fr  civil  rights,  and  these 
struggle  n^ulfed  in  the  civil,  political,  and  juridical 
organization  of  liome.  The  king  was  high-priest, 
judge,  lea/ler  in  war,  and  head  of  the  Gov(!rnment; 
the  S<;natf  and  the  0»initia  of  the  People  were  con- 
voked by  him  at  his  pleasure,  and  debated  the 
raesHurf^  7)rop(jwrl  by  him.  Mon^jv(!r,  the  kingly 
dignity  was  hereditary.    Among  the  important  public 


works  in  this  earliest  period  wei  e  the  drains,  or  sewers 
{cloaca),  for  draining  the  marshes  around  the  Pala- 
tine, the  work  of  the  Etruscan  Tarquinius  Priscus; 
the  cit}'  wall  was  built  by  Servius  TuUius,  who  also 
organized  the  Plebeians,  dividing  them  into  thirty 
tribes;  the  Sublician  Bridge  was  constructed  to  unite 
the  Rome  of  that  time  with  the  Janiculan. 

During  the  splendid  reign  of  Tarquinius  Superbus, 
Rome  was  the  mistress  of  Latium  as  far  as  Circeii 
and  Signia.  But,  returning  victorious  from  Ardea, 
the  king  found  the  gates  of  the  city  closed  against  him. 
Rome  took  to  itself  a  repubhcan  form  of  government, 
with  two  consuls,  who  held  office  for  onty  one  year; 
only  in  times  of  difficulty  was  a  dictator  elected,  to 
wield  unlimited  power.  In  the  expulsion  of  Tarquinius 
Superbus  some  historians  have  seen  a  revolt  of  the 
Latin  element  against  Etruscan  domination.  Besides 
wars  and  treaties  with  the  Latins  and  other  peoples, 
the  principal  events,  down  to  the  burning  of  Rome 
by  the  Gauls,  were  the  institution  of  the  tribunes  of 
the  people  {tribuni  plebis),  the  establishment  of  the 
laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  and  the  destruction  of 
Veil.  In  390  the  Romans  were  defeated  by  the  Gauls 
near  the  River  Allia;  a  few  days  later  the  city  was 
taken  and  set  on  fire,  and  after  the  Gauls  had  departed 
it  was  rebuilt  without  plan  or  rule.  Camillus,  the 
dictator,  reorganized  the  army  and.  after  long  re- 
sistance to  the  change,  at  last  consented  that  one  of 
the  consuls  should  be  a  plebeian.  Southern  Etruria 
became  subject  to  Rome,  with  the  capture  of  Nepi 
and  Sutri  in  386.  The  Appian  Way  and  Aqueduct 
were  constructed  at  this  period.  Very  soon  it  was 
possible  to  think  of  conquering  the  whole  peninsula. 
The  principal  stages  of  this  conquest  are  formed  by 
the  three  wars  against  the  Samnites  (victory  of  Sues- 
sula,  343);  the  victory  of  Bovianum,  304;  those  over 
the  Etruscans  and  Umbrians,  in  310  and  308;  lastly, 
the  victory  of  Sentinum,  in  295,  over  the  combined 
Samnites,  Etruscans,  and  Gauls.  The  Tarentine 
(282-272)  and  the  First  and  Second  Punic  Wars 
(264-201)  determined  the  conquest  of  the  rest  of 
Italy,  with  the  adjacent  islands,  as  well  as  the  first 
invasion  of  Spain. 

Soon  after  this,  the  Kingdom  of  Macedonia  (Cynos- 
cephalse,  197;  Pydna,  168)  and  Greece  (capture  of 
Corinth,  146)  were  subdued,  while  the  war  against 
Antiochus  of  Syria  (192-89)  and  against  the  Galatians 
(189)  brought  Roman  supremacy  into  Asia.  In  146 
Carthage  was  destroyed,  and  Africa  reduced  to  sub- 
jection; between  149  and  133  the  conquest  of  Spain 
was  completed.  Everywhere  Roman  colonies  sprang 
up.  With  conquest,  the  luxurious  vices  of  the  con- 
quered peoples  also  came  to  Rome,  and  thus  the 
contrast  between  patricians  and  plebeians  was  accen- 
tuated. To  champion  the  cause  of  tlie  jilcheians  there 
arose  the  brothers  Tiberius  and  Cuius  Gracchus. 
The  Servile  Wars  (132-171)  and  the  Jugurthine  War 
(111-105)  revealed  the  utter  corruption  of  Roman 
society.  Marius  and  Sulla,  both  of  whom  had  won 
glory  in  foreign  wars,  rallied  to  them  the  two  opposing 
parties.  Democratic  and  Aristocratic,  respectively. 
Sulla  firmly  established  his  dictatorship  with  the 
victory  of  the  Colline  Gate  (83),  reorganized  the 
administration,  and  enacted  some  good  laws  to  arrest 
the  moral  decay  of  the  city.  But  the  times  were 
ripe  for  the  oligarchy,  which  was  to  lead  in  the  natural 
course  of  events  to  the  monarchy.  In  the  year  60, 
Ca-sar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus  formed  the  first  Trium- 
virate. While  Caisar  conquered  (Jaul  (58-50),  and 
Crassus  waged  an  unsuccessful  war  against  the  Par- 
thians  (54-53),  Pompey  succeeded  in  gaining  supreme 
control  of  the  capital.  The  war  between  Pompey. 
to  whom  the  nobles  adhered,  and  Ca-sar,  who  had 
the  flemocracy  with  him,  was  inevitable.  The  battle 
of  Pharsalia  (4S)  decided  the  issue;  in  45  Ca-sar 
was  already  thinking  of  (;stablishing  monarchical 
government;  his  asaassination  (44)  could  do  no  more 


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ROME 


167 


ROME 


than  delay  the  movement  towards  monarchy.  An- 
other triumvirate  was  soon  formed  by  Antony, 
Lepidus,  and  Octavian;  Antony  and  Octavian  dis- 
agreed, and  at  Actium  (32)  the  issue  was  decided  in 
Octavian's  favour.  Roman  power  had  meanwhile 
been  consolidated  and  extended  in  Spain,  in  Gaul, 
and  even  as  far  as  Pannonia,  in  Pontus,  in  Palestine, 
and  in  Egypt.  Henceforward  Roman  history  is  no 
longer  the  history  of  the  City  of  Rome,  although  it 
was  only  under  Caracalla  (a.  d.  211)  that  Roman 
citizenship  was  accorded  to  all  free  subjects  of  the 
empire. 

In  the  midst  of  these  poUtical  vicissitudes  the  city 
was  growing  and  being  beautified  with  temples  and 
other  buildings,  public  and  private.  On  the  Campus 
Martius  and  beyond  the  Tiber,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Janiculan,  new  and  populous  quarters  sprang  up, 
with  theatres  (those  of  Pompey  and  of  Marcellus)  and 
circuses  (the  Maximus  and  the  Flaminius,  221  b.  c). 
The  centre  of  political  life  was  the  Forum,  which  had 
been  the  market  before  the  centre  of  buying  and  sell- 
ing was  transferred,  in  .388,  to  the  Campus  Martius 
{Forum  Holitorium),  leaving  the  old  Forum  Romanum 
to  the  business  of  the  State.  Here  were  the  temples 
of  Concord  (366),  Saturn  (497),  the  Di  Consentes, 
Castor  and  Pollux  (484),  the  Basilica  .Emiha  (179), 
the  Basilica  Julia  (45),  the  Curia  Hostilia  (S.  Adriano), 
the  Rostra,  etc.  Scarcely  had  the  empire  been  con- 
solidated when  Augustus  turned  his  attention  to  the 
embellishment  of  Rome,  and  succeeding  emperors 
followed  his  example :  brick-built  Rome  became  marble 
Rome.  After  the  sixth  decade  b.  c.  many  Hebrews  had 
settled  at  Rome,  in  the  Trastevcre  quarter  and  that 
of  the  Porta  Capena,  and  soon  they  became  a  financial 
power.  They  were  inces.santly  making  proselytes, 
especially  among  the  women  of  the  upper  classes. 
The  names  of  thirteen  synagogues  are  known  as 
existing  (though  not  all  at  the  same  time)  at  Rome 
during  the  Imperial  Period.  Thus  was  the  way  pre- 
pared for  the  Gospel,  whereby  Rome,  already  mis- 
tress of  the  world,  was  to  be  given  a  new,  sublimer 
and  more  lasting,  title  to  that  dominion — the  domin- 
ion over  the  souls  of  all  mankind. 

Even  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost,  "Roman  strangers" 
(advencE  Romani,  Acts,  ii,  10)  were  present  at  Jeru- 
salem, and  they  surely  must  have  carried  tiie  good 
news  to  their  fellow-citizens  at  Rome.  Ancient 
tradition  assigns  to  the  year  42  the  first  coming  of  St. 
Peter  to  Rome,  though,  according  to  the  pseudo- 
Clementine  Epistles,  St.  Barnabas  was  the  first 
to  preach  the  Gospel  in  the  Eternal  City.  Under 
Claudius  (c.  a.  d.  50),  the  name  of  Christ  had  become 
such  an  occasion  of  discord  among  the  Hebrews  of 
Rome  that  the  emperor  drove  tiiem  all  out  of  the 
city,  though  they  were  not  long  in  returning.  About 
ten  years  later  Paul  also  arrived,  a  prisoner,  and  ex- 
ercised a  vigorous  apostolate  during  his  sojourn. 
The  Christians  were  numerous  at  that  time,  even  at 
the  imperial  Court.  The  burning  of  the  city — by 
order  of  Nero,  who  wished  to  effect  a  thorough 
renovation — was  the  pretext  for  the  first  official 
persecution  of  the  Christian  name.  Moreover,  it  was 
very  natural  that  persecution,  which  had  been  oc- 
casional, should  in  course  of  time  have  become 
general  and  systematic;  hence  it  is  unnecessary  to 
transfer  the  date  of  the  Apostles'  martyrdom  from 
the  year  67,  assigned  by  tradition,  to  the  year  64 
(see  Peter,  Saint;  Paul,  Saint).  Domitian's  reign 
took  its  victims  both  from  among  the  opponents  of 
absolutism  and  from  the  Christians;  among  them 
some  who  were  of  very  exalted  rank — Titus  Flavius 
Clemens,  Acilius  Glabrio  (Cemetery  of  Priscilla),  and 
Flavia  Domitilla,  a  relative  of  the  emperor.  It  must 
have  been  then,  too,  that  St.  John,  according  to  a 
very  ancient  legend  (Tertullian) ,  was  brought  to  Rome. 

The  reign  of  Trajan  and  Adrian  was  the  culminat- 
ing point  of  the  arts  at  Rome.     The  Roman  martyr- 


doms attributed  to  this  period  are,  with  the  exception 
of  St.  Ignatius's,  somewhat  doubtful.  At  the  same 
time  the  heads  of  various  Gnostic  sects  settled  at 
Rome,  notably  Valentinus,  Cerdon,  and  Marcion; 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  they  had  any  great  fol- 
lowing. Under  Antoninus,  Marcus  Aurehus,  and 
Commodus,  several  Roman  martjTs  are  known — 
Pope  St.  Telesphorus,  Sts.  Lucius,  Ptolemajus,  Justin 
and  companions,  and  the  Senator  ApoUonius.  Under 
Commodus,  thanks  to  Martia,  his  morganatic  wife, 
the  condition  of  the  Christians  improved.  At  the 
same  time  the  schools  of  Rhodon,  St.  Justin,  and 
others  flourished.  But  three  new  heresies  from  the 
East  brought  serious  trouble  to  the  internal  peace  of 
the  Church:  that  of  Theodotus,  the  shoemaker  of 
Byzantium;  that  of  Noetus,  brought  in  by  one 
Epigonus;  and  Montanism.  In  the  struggle  against 
these  heresies,  particularly  the  last-named,  the  priest 
Hippolytus,  a  disciple  of  St.  Irenaeus,  bore  a  dis- 
tinguished part,  but  he,  in  his  turn,  incurred  the  cen- 
sures of  Popes  Zephyrinus  and  CaUistus,  and  became 
the  leader  of  a  schismatical  party.  But  the  con- 
troversies between  Hippolytus  and  Callistus  were  not 
confined  to  theological  questions,  but  also  bore  upon 
discipline,  the  pope  thinking  proper  to  introduce 
certain  restrictions.  Another  sect  transplanted  to 
Rome  at  this  period  was  that  of  the  Elcesaites. 

The  persecution  of  Septiinius  Severus  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  very  acute  at  Rome,  where,  before 
this  time,  many  persons  of  rank — even  of  the  imperial 
household — had  been  Christians.  The  long  period 
of  tranquillity,  hardly  interrupted  by  Maximinus 
(235-38),  fostered  the  growth  of  Roman  church 
organization;  so  much  so  that,  under  Cornelius,  after 
the  first  fury  of  the  Decian  persecution,  the  city  num- 
bered about  50,000  Christians.  The  last-named  per- 
secution produced  many  Roman  martyrs — Pope  St. 
Fabian  among  the  first — and  many  apostates,  and  the 
problem  of  reconcihng  the  latter  resulted  in  the  schism 
of  Xovatian.  The  persecution  of  Valerian,  too,  fell 
first  upon  the  Church  of  Rome.  Under  Aurehan 
(271-76),  the  menace  of  an  invasion  of  the  Germans, 
who  had  already  advanced  as  far  as  Pesaro,  compellea 
the  emperor  to  restore  and  extend  the  walls  of  Rome. 
The  persecution  of  Diocletian  also  had  its  victims  in 
the  city,  although  there  are  no  trustworthy  records 
of  them;  it  did  not  last  long,  however,  in  the  West. 
Maxentius  went  so  far  as  to  restore  to  the  Christians 
their  cemeteries  and  other  landed  property,  and,  if 
we  are  to  believe  Eusebius,  ended  by  showing  them 
favour,  as  a  means  of  winning  popularity.  At  this 
period  several  pretentious  buildings  were  erected — 
baths,  a  circus,  a  basilica,  etc.  In  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries  the  city  began  to  be  embellished  with 
Christian  buildings,  and  the  moribund  art  of  antiquity 
thus  received  a  new  accession  of  vitaUty. 

Of  the  heresies  of  this  period,  Arianism  alone  dis- 
turbed the  religious  peace  for  a  brief  space;  even 
Pelagianism  failed  to  take  root.  The  conflict  between 
triumphant  Christianity  and  dying  Paganism  was 
more  bitter.  Symmachus,  Prajtextatus,  and  Nico- 
machus  were  the  most  zealous  and  most  powerful  de- 
fenders of  the  ancient  religion.  At  Milan,  St.  Am- 
brose kept  watch.  By  the  end  of  the  fourth  century 
the  deserted  temples  were  becoming  filled  with  cob- 
webs; pontiffs  and  vestals  were  demanding  baptism. 
The  statues  of  the  gods  served  as  public  ornaments; 
precious  objects  were  seldom  plundered,  and  until 
the  year  526  not  one  temple  was  converted  to  the 
uses  of  Christian  worship.  In  402  the  necessity 
once  more  arose  of  fortifying  Rome.  The  capital 
of  the  world,  which  had  never  beheld  a  hostile  army 
since  the  days  of  Hannibal,  in  408  withstood  the 
double  siege  of  Alaric.  But  the  Senate,  mainly  at  the 
instigation  of  a  pagan  minority,  treated  with  Alaric, 
deposed  Honorius,  and  enthroned  a  new  emperor, 
Attalus.     Two  years  later,  Alaric  returned,  succeeded 


ROME 


1(58 


ROME 


in  taking  the  city,  and  sacked  it.  It  is  false,  however, 
that  the  destruction  of  Rome  began  then.  Under 
Alarie,  as  in  the  Gothic  war  of  the  sixth  century, 
onlv  so  much  was  destroyed  as  mihtary  exigencies 
rendered  inevitable.  The  inter\ention  of  St.  Leo  the 
Great  saved  the  Eternal  City  from  the  fury  of  Attila, 
but  could  not  prevent  the  Vandals,  in  456,  from 
sacking  it  without  mercy  for  fifteen  days:  statues, 
gold,  silver,  bronze,  brass — whether  the  property  of 
the  State,  or  of  the  Church,  or  of  private  per.sons — 
were  taken  and  shipped  to  Cartilage. 

Rome  still  called  itself  the  capital  of  the  empire, 
but  since  the  second  century  it  had  seen  the  emperors 
only  at  rare  and  fleeting  moments;  even  the  kings  of 
Italy  preferred  Ravenna  as  a  residence.  Theodoric, 
nevertheless,  made  provision  for  the  outward  mag- 
nificence of  the  city,  preserving  its  monuments  so  far 
as  was  possiljle.  Pope  St.  Agapetus  and  the  learned 
Cassiodorus  entertained  the  idea  of  creating  at 
Rome  a  school  of  advanced  Scripture  studies,  on 
the  model  of  that  which  flourished  at  Edessa,  but 
the  Gothic  invasion  made  shipwreck  of  this  design. 
In  that  Titanic  war  Rome  stood  five  sieges.  ^  In 
53G  Belisarius  took  it  without  striking  a  blow.  Next 
year  Vitiges  besieged  it,  cutting  the  aqueducts, 
plundering  the  outlying  villas,  and  even  penetrating 
into  the  catacombs;"  the  city  would  have  been  taken, 
had  not  the  garrison  of  Hadrian's  tomb  defended 
themselves  with  fragments  of  the  statues  of  heroes  and 
gods  which  they  found  in  that  monument.  Soon 
after  the  departure  of  Pope  VigiUus  from  Rome 
(November,  54.5),  King  Totila  invested  it  and  cap- 
tured a  fleet  bearing  supplies  sent  by  Vigilius,  who  by 
that  time  had  passed  over  to  Sicily.  In  December, 
54G,  the  city  was  captured,  through  the  treachery  of 
the  Isaurian  soldierj^  and  once  more  sacked.  Totila, 
obliged  to  set  out  for  the  south,  forced  the  whole 
population  of  Rome  to  leave  the  city,  so  that  it  was 
left  uninhabited;  but  they  returned  with  BeUsarius 
in  .547.  Two  years  later,  another  Isaurian  treachery 
made  Totila  once  more  master  of  the  city,  which  then 
for  the  last  time  saw  the  games  of  the  circus.  After 
the  battle  of  Taginjc  (552),  Rome  opened  its  gates 
to  Nar.ses  and  became  Byzantine.  The  ancient 
Senate  and  the  Roman  nobility  were  extinct.  There 
was  a  breathing-space  of  sixteen  years,  and  then 
the  Lombards  drew  near  to  Rome,  pillaging  and  de- 
stroying the  neighbouring  regions.  St.  Gregory  the 
Great  has  described  the  lamentable  condition  of  the 
city;  the  same  saint  did  his  best  to  remedy  matters. 
The  seventh  century  was  disastrously  marked  by  a 
violent  assault  on  the  Lateran  made  by  Mauricius, 
the  chartularius  of  the  Exarch  of  Ravenna  (640),  by 
the  exile  of  Pope  St.  Martin  (653),  and  by  the  visit 
of  the  Emperor  Constans  I  (663).  The  imprisonment 
of  St.  SrTgius,  which  had  been  ordered  by  Justinian 
II,  was  prevented  by  the  native  troops  of  the  Ex- 
archate. 

In  the  eighth  century  the  Ix)mbards,  with  Liut- 
prand,  were  seized  with  the  old  idea  of  occupying 
all  Italy,  and  Rome  in  particular.  The  popes,  from 
Gregor>'  II  on,  saved  the  city  and  Italy  from  Lom- 
bard domination  by  the  power  of  their  threats,  until 
they  were  finally  rescued  by  the  aid  of  Pepin,  when 
R/jrne  and  the  peninsula  came  under  Prankish 
domination.  Provision  wafi  made  for  the  material 
well-being  of  the  city  by  repairs  on  the  wails  and  the 
ac^iueducts,  and  by  the  establishment  of  agricultural 
Cf)loni(«  idomuH  cuUo')  for  the  cultivation  of  the  wide 
domains  surrounding  the  city.  But  in  Rome  itself 
there  v/ere  various  Tactions — favouring  either  the 
Franks  or  the  Ixjmbards,  or,  later  on.  Prankish  or 
Nationalist — and  these  fac-tions  often  caused  tumults, 
an,  in  particular,  on  the  death  of  Paul  I  (767)  and  at 
the  beginning  of  Ix-o  Ill's  pontificate  (795).  With 
the  coronation  of  Charlfrriugne  (799)  Rome  became 
finally  detached  from  the  Empire  of  the  East.  Though 


the  pope  was  master  of  Rome,  the  power  of  the  Sword 
was  wielded  by  the  imperial  missi,  and  this  arrange- 
ment came  to  be  more  clearly  defined  by  the  Constitu- 
tion of  Lothair  (824).  Thus  the  government  was 
divided.  In  the  ninth  century  the  pope  had  to  defend 
Rome  and  Central  Italy  against  the  Saracens. 
Gregoriopolis,  the  Leonine  City,  placed  outside  the 
walls  for  the  defence  of  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter, 
and  sacked  in  846,  and  Joannipolis,  for  the  defence  of 
St.  Paul's,  were  built  by  Gregory  I\',  Leo  IV,  and 
John  Vlll.  The  latter  two  and  John  X  also  gained 
splendid  victories  over  these  barbarians. 

The  decline  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty  was  not 
without  its  eff"ect  upon  the  papacy  and  upon  Rome, 
which  became  a  mere  lordship  of  the  great  feudal 
families,  especially  those  of  Theodora  and  Marozia. 
When  Hugh  of  Provence  wished  to  marrj^  Marozia, 
so  as  to  become  master  of  Rome,  his  son  Alberic 
rebelled  against  him,  and  was  elected  their  chief  by 
the  Romans,  with  the  title  of  Patrician  {Palricius) 
and  Consul.  The  temporal  power  of  the  pope  might 
then  have  come  to  an  end,  had  not  John,  Alberic's 
son,  reunited  the  two  powers.  But  John's  life  and 
his  conduct  of  the  government  necessitated  the  inter- 
vention of  the  Emperor  Otto  I  (963),  who  instituted 
the  office  of  pripfeclus  nrbis,  to  represent  the  imperial 
authority.  (This  office  became  hereditary  in  the  Vico 
family.)  Order  did  not  reign  for  long:  Crescentius, 
leader  of  the  anti-papal  part}',  deposed  and  murdered 
popes.  It  was  only  for  a  few  brief  intervals  that 
Otto  II  (980)  and  Otto  III  (996-998-1002)  were  able 
to  re-establish  the  imperial  and  pontifical  authority. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  three  pojies 
of  the  family  of  the  counts  of  Tusculum  immediately 
succeeded  each  other,  and  the  last  of  the  three,  Bene- 
dict IX,  led  a  life  so  scandalous  as  made  it  necessary 
for  Henry  III  to  intervene  (1046).  The  schism  of 
Honorius  II  and  the  struggle  between  Gregory  VII 
and  Henry  IV  exasperated  party  passions  at  Rome, 
and  con.spicuous  in  the  struggle  was  another  Crescen- 
tius, a  member  of  the  Imperialist  Party.  Robert 
Guiscard,  called  to  the  rescue  by  Gregory  VII,  sacked 
the  city  and  burned  a  great  part  of  it ,  with  immense 
destruction  of  monuments  and  documents.  The 
struggle  was  revived  under  Henr>'  V,  and  Rome  was 
repeatedly  besieged  by  the  imj)erial  troops. 

Then  followed  the  schism  of  Pier  Leone  (Anacletus 
II),  which  had  hardly  been  ended,  in  1143,  when 
Girolamo  di  Pierlcone,  counselled  by  Arnold  of 
Brescia,  made  Rome  into  a  republic,  modelled  after 
the  Lombard  communes,  under  the  rule  of  fiftj'-six 
senators.  In  vain  did  Lucius  II  attack  the  Capitol, 
attempting  to  drive  out  the  usurpers.  The  commune 
was  in  opposition  no  less  to  the  imperial  than  to  the 
papal  authority.  At  first  the  popes  thought  to  lean 
on  the  emperors,  and  thus  Adrian  IV  induced  Barba- 
rossa  to  burn  Arnold  alive  (11.55).  Still,  just  as  in 
the  preceding  centurj-,  every  coronation  of  an  emperor 
was  accoiiipaiiicd  by  (luiirrcls  and  fights  between  the 
Romans  and  the  inijx'rial  soldiery.  In  1188  a  77iodus 
vircndi  was  establish<'d  between  the  commune  and 
Clement  III,  the  people  n-cognizing  the  pope's 
sovereignty  and  conceding  to  him  the  right  of  coinage, 
the  senators  and  military  cai)tain8  being  obliged  to 
swear  fealty  to  him.  But  the  friction  did  not  ceiise. 
Innocent  111  (1203)  was  obliged  to  flee  from  Rome, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  friendly  disposition  of  the 
mercantile  niidflle  class  facilitated  his  return  and 
secured  to  him  some  influence  in  the  affairs  of  the 
communes,  in  which  he  obtained  the  appointment  of 
a  chief  of  the  Senate,  known  as  "the  senator"  (1207). 
The  Senate,  therefore,  was  reduced  to  the  status  of 
the  Communal  Council  of  Rome;  the  senator  was 
the  syndic,  or  mayor,  and  remained  so  until  1870. 
In  the  conflicts  between  the  popes,  on  the  one  hand, 
and,  on  the  other,  Frederick  II  and  his  heirs,  the 
Senate  waa  mostly  Imperialist,  cherishing  some  sort  of 


ROME 


169 


ROME 


desire  for  the  ancient  independence;  at  times,  how- 
ever, it  was  divided  against  itself  (as  in  1262,  for 
Richard,  brother  of  the  King  of  England,  against  Man- 
fred, King  of  Naples). 

In  1263  Charles  of  Anjou,  returning  from  the  con- 
quest of  Naples,  caused  himself  to  be  elected  senator 
for  life;  but  Urban  IV  obliged  him  to  be  content 
with  a  term  of  ten  years.  Nicholas  III  forbade  that 
any  foreign  prince  should  be  elected  senator,  and  in 
1278  he  himself  held  the  office.  The  election  was 
always  to  be  subject  to  the  pope's  approval.  How- 
ever, these  laws  soon  fell  into  desuetude.  The  absence 
of  the  popes  from  Rome  had  the  most  disastrous 
results  for  the  city:  anarchy  prevailed;  the  powerful 
families  of  Colonna,  Savelli,  Orsini,  Anguillara,  and 
others  lorded  it  with  no  one  to  gainsay  them;  the 
pope's  vicars  were  either  stupid  or  weak;  the  monu- 
ments crumbled  of  themselves  or  were  destroyed; 
sheep  and  cows  were  penned  in  the  Lateran  Basilica; 
no  new  buildings  arose,  except  the  innumerable 
towers,  or  keeps,  of  which  Brancaleone  degli  Andalo, 
the  senator  (1252-56),  caused  more  than  a  hundred 
to  be  pulled  down;  the  revival  of  art,  so  promising 
in  the  thirteenth  centurj^  was  abruptly  cut  ofT.  The 
mad  enterprise  of  Cola  di  Ricnzo  only  added  to  the 
general  confusion.  The  population  was  reduced  to 
about  17,000.  The  Schism  of  the  West,  with  the 
wars  of  King  Ladislaus  (1408  and  1460,  siege  and  sack 
of  Rome),  kept  the  city  from  benefiting  by  the 
popes'  return  as  quickly  as  it  should.  Noteworthy, 
however,  is  the  understanding  between  Boniface  IX 
and  the  Senate  as  to  their  respective  rights  (1393). 
This  pope  and  Innocent  VII  also  made  provision  for 
the  restoration  of  the  city. 

With  Martin  V  the  renascence  of  Rome  began. 
Eugene  IV  again  was  driven  out  by  the  Romans, 
and  Nicholas  V  had  to  punish  the  conspiracy  of 
Stefano  Porcari;  but  the  patronage  of  letters  by  the 
popes  and  the  new  spirit  of  humanism  obliterated  the 
memory  of  these  longings  for  indeiiendence.  Rome 
became  the  city  of  the  arts  and  of  letters,  of  luxury 
and  of  dissoluteness.  The  population,  too,  changed  in 
character  and  dialect,  which  had  before  more  nearly 
approached  the  Neapolitan,  but  now  showed  the 
influence  of  immigration  from  Tuscany,  Umbria,  and 
the  Marches.  The  sack  of  1527  was  a  judgment, 
and  a  salutary  warning  to  begin  that  reformation  of 
manners  to  which  the  Brothers  of  the  Orator^'  of 
Divine  Love  (the  nucleus  of  the  Thcatine  Order) 
and,  later,  the  Jesuits  and  St.  Philip  Neri  devoted 
themselves.  In  the  war  between  Paul  IV  and  Philip 
II  (1556),  the  Colonna  for  the  last  time  disjjluyed  t  heir 
insubordination  to  the  Pont  ifical  Government .  Unt  il 
1799  Rome  was  at  peace  under  the  poj)es,  who  vied 
with  the  cardinals  in  embellishing  the  city  with 
churches,  fountains,  obelisks,  palaces,  statues,  and 
paintings.  Unfortunately,  this  work  of  restoration 
was  accompanied  by  the  destruction  of  ancient  and, 
still  more,  medieval  monuments.  An  attempt  was 
also  made  to  improve  the  ground  plan  of  Rome  by 
straightening  and  widening  the  streets  (Sixtus  IV, 
Sixtus  V — the  Corso,  the  Ripetta,  the  Babuino, 
Giulia,  Paola,  Sistina,  and  other  streets).  The  artists 
who  have  successively  left  their  imprint  on  the  City 
are  Bramante,  Michelangelo,  ^'ignola,  Giacomo  della 
Porta,  Fontana,  Maderna,  Bernini,  Borromini,  and, 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  Fuga.  The  most  important 
popular  risings  of  this  period  were  those  against 
Urban  VIII,  on  account  of  the  mischief  done  by  the 
Barberini,  and  against  Cardinal  Cascia,  after  the 
death  of  Benedict  XIII. 

The  pontificate  of  Pius  VI,  illustrious  for  its  works 
of  public  utility,  ended  with  the  proclamation  of  the 
Republic  of  Rome  (10  February,  1798)  and  the  pope's 
exile.  Pius  VII  was  able  to  return,  but  after  1806 
there  was  a  French  Government  at  Rome  side  by 
side  with  the  papal,  and  in  1809  the  city  was  incor- 


porated in  the  empire.  General  Miollis,  indeed, 
deserved  well  of  Rome  for  the  public  works  he  caused 
to  be  executed  (the  Pincian),  and  the  archaeological 
excavations,  which  were  vigorously  and  systematically 
continued  in  the  succeeding  pontificates,  especially 
that  of  Pius  IX.  Of  the  works  of  art  carried  away  to 
Paris  only  a  part  were  restored  after  the  Congress  of 
Vienna. 

But  the  Revolutionary  germ  still  remained  planted 
at  Rome,  even  though  it  gave  no  signs  of  activity 
either  in  1820  or  in  1830  and  1831.  A  few  political 
murders  were  the  only  indication  of  the  fire  that 
smouldered  beneath  the  ashes.  The  election  of 
Pius  IX,  hailed  as  the  Liberal  pontiff,  electrified  all 
Rome.  The  pope  saw  his  power  slipping  away;  the 
assassination  of  Pellegrino  Rossi  and  the  riots  before 
the  Quirinal  (25  November,  1848)  counselled  his  flight 
to  Gaeta.  The  Triumvirate  was  formed  and,  on  6 
February',  1849,  convoked  the  Constituent  Assembly, 
which  declared  the  papal  power  abolished.  The  mob 
abandoned  itself  to  the  massacre  of  defenceless 
priests,  and  the  -^Tecking  of  churches  and  palaces. 
Oudinot's  French  troops  restored  the  papal  power 
(6  August,  1849),  the  pope  retaining  a  few  French 
regiments.  Secret  plotting  went  on,  though  at  Rome 
none  dared  attempt  anything  (the  Fausti  trial). 
Only  in  1867,  when  Garibaldi,  the  victor  at  Monte- 
rotondo,  defeated  at  Mentana,  invaded  the  Papal 
States,  was  the  revolt  prepared  that  was  to  have 
burst  while  Enrico  Cairoli  was  trying  to  enter  the 
city;  hut  the  coup  de  main  failed;  the  stores  of  arms 
and  ammunition  were  discovered;  the  only  serious 
occurrence  was  the  explosion  of  a  mine,  which  de- 
stroyed the  Serristori  Barracks  in  the  Borgo.  Not  unt  il 
20  September,  1870,  was  Rome  taken  from  the  popes 
and  made  the  actual  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

111.  Churches  and  Other  Monuments. — The 
"Annuario  Ecclesiastico"  enumerates  358  public 
churches  and  oratories  in  Rome  and  its  suburbs. 
Besides,  there  are  the  chapels  of  the  seminaries, 
colleges,  monasteries,  and  other  institutions.  Since 
1870  many  churches  have  been  destroyed,  but  many 
new  ones  have  arisen  in  the  new  quarters.  The 
principal  patriarchal  basilicas  are  St.  Peter's  (the 
Vatican  Basilica),  St.  John  Lateran  (the  Basilica  of 
Constantine),  and  St.  Mary  Major  (the  Liberian 
Basilica).  (For  the  first  and  second  of  these,  see 
Vatican;  Lateran.)  The  Liberian  Basilica  dates 
from  the  fourth  century,  when  it  was  called  the 
Basilica  Sicinini;  in  the  fifth  century,  under  Sixtus 
III,  it  was  adorned  with  interesting  mosaics  of 
Biblical  subjects;  Eugene  III  added  the  portico, 
when  the  mosaics  of  the  apse  and  the  fagade  were 
restored  and,  to  some  extent,  altered.  On  the  two 
sides  are  two  chapels  with  cupolas:  that  of  Sixtus  V, 
containing  the  altar  of  the  I31essed  Sacrament  and 
the  tombs  of  Sixtus  V  and  St.  Pius  V;  the  other,  that 
of  Paul  V,  with  the  Madonna  of  St.  Luke,  which 
existed  as  early  as  the  sixth  century.  Benedict  XIV 
caused  it  to  be  restored  by  Fuga  (1743),  who  designed 
the  facade  which  now  almost  shuts  out  the  view  of  the 
mosaics.  Beneath  the  high  altar,  the  baldacchino  of 
which  is  supported  by  four  porphyry  columns,  are  the 
relics  of  St .  Matthew  and  of  the  Holy  Crib  (hence  the 
name,  S.  Maria  ad  prcesepe).  Here  are  buried  St. 
Jerome,  Nicholas  IV,  Clement  VIII,  IX,  and  X,  and 
Paul  V.     (See  also  Saint  Paul-octside-the-Walls.) 

Among  the  lesser  basilicas  is  S.  Croce  in  Gerusa- 
lemme  (Basilica  Sessoriana),  founded,  it  is  said,  by  St. 
Helena  in  the  place  called  the  Sessorium,  restored  by 
Lucius  II  (1144)  and  by  Benedict  XIV  (1743).  Here, 
in  the  tribune,  is  the  fresco  of  Pinturicchio  represent- 
ing the  Finding  of  the  Cross,  and  here  are  preserved 
the  relics  of  the  Cross  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Title,  one 
of  the  Thorns,  the  finger  of  St.  Thomas,  etc.  The 
church  is  served  by  Cistercians,  whose  convent, 
however,    has   been   converted    into    barracks.    St. 


ROME 


170 


ROME 


Laiprence-Outside-the-Walk,  another  minor  basilica, 
nhich  stands  in  the  Cemeterj'  of  S.  Ciriaco,  where  the 
saint  was;  buried,  was  built  under  Constantine  and, 
next  to  St.  Peter's,  was  the  most  frequented  sanctuarj' 
in  Rome  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  (see  Pruden- 
tius's  description).  Pelagius  II  (57S),  Honorius  III, 
and  Pius  IX  made  thorough  repairs  in  this  basihca, 
the  last-named  adding  frescoes^  by  Fracassini,  rep- 
resenting the  martyrdom  of  St.  Lawrence.  The 
frescoes  of  the  atrium  date  from  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tun,'.  The  high  altar  stands  beneath  a  raised  ambo, 
behmd  which  is  the  simple  tomb  of  Pius  IX.  The 
mosaics  of  the  triumphal  arch  date  from  the  time  of 
Pelagius  II.  Near  this  basilica  is  the  Cemeterj^  of 
Rome,  constructed  in  1S37,  and  surpassed  by  few 
in  Italy  for  the  sumptuousness  of  its  monuments. 
Both  the  church  and  the  cemeterj'  are  served  by 
Capuchins.  St.  Sebasiiwi-Outside-the-Walls,  near  the 
cemeter\'  ad  catacumbas  (see  Catacombs),  built  in 
the  fourth  or  fifth  century  and  altered  in  1612,  con- 
tains Giorgini's  statue  of  the  saint.  The  churches 
so  far  named  are  the  "Seven  Churches"  usually 
visited  by  pilgrims  and  residents  to  gain  the  large 
indulgences  attached  to  them. 

S.  Agnese  fuori  le  Mura,  near  the  catacombs  of 
the  same  name,  was  built  by  Constantine,  decorated  by 
Pope  Symmachus  with  mosaics,  in  which  that  pope's 
portrait  appears,  and  restored  by  Honorius  II (portrait), 
bv  Cardinal  Giuhano  della  Rovere  (1479),  and  by  Pius 
IX.  It  is  served  by  Canons  Regular  of  St.  John 
Lateran.  In  one  of  the  adjacent  buildings  Pius  IX, 
in  1856,  fell  with  the  flooring  of  a  room,  but  without 
suffering  any  injury.  Not  far  off  is  S.  Costanza,  the 
mausoleum  of  Constantine's  daughter,  which  was  made 
into  a  church  in  1256.  S.  Giorgio  in  Velabro,  Cardinal 
Newman's  diaconal  title,  takes  its  name  from  the 
ancient  ^'elab^um,  where  it  stands,  and  dates  from 
the  fourth  century;  it  has  a  fine  tabernacle,  but  the 
church  is  much  damaged  by  damp.  S.  Lorenzo  in 
Damaso,  built  by  Pope  Damasus  (370),  was,  in  the 
time  of  Bramante,  enclosed  in  the  palace  of  the 
Cancelleria;  it  contains  modern  frescoes  and  the 
tombs  of  Annibale  Caro  and  Pellegrino  Rossi.  S. 
Maria  ad  Martyres  (the  Pantheon)  is  a  grandiose  cir- 
cular building  with  a  portico.  It  was  built  in  25 
B.  c.  by  Marcus  Agrippa  and  has  often  been  restored; 
in  662  Constantine  II  caused  the  bronze  which 
covered  its  dome  to  be  taken  away;  it  contains  the 
tombs  of  Raphael,  Cardinal  Consalvi  and  Kings 
Victor  Emmanuel  II  and  Humbert  I.  S.  Maria  in 
Cosmedin,  which  stands  on  the  foundations  of  a  temple 
of  Hercules  and  a  granary,  dates  from  the  sixth  cen- 
tury at  latest;  it  was  a  diaconate  and  the  seat  of  the 
Greek  colony,  and  was  restored  by  Adrian  I,  Nicholas 
I,  and  Cardinal  Albani  (1718),  and  at  last  was  re- 
modelled in  its  original  form.  It  has  a  noteworthy 
ambo  and  tabernacle  (c.  130),  and  its  campanile, 
with  seven  intercolumnars,  is  the  most  graceful  in 
Rome.  This  was  the  title  of  Reginald  Cardinal 
Pole.  S.  Maria  in  Trastevere,  the  title  of  Cardinal 
Gibbons,  Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  dates  from  St. 
Callietus  or,  more  probably,  from  St.  Julius  I,  and 
was  restored  by  Eugene  III,  by  Nicholas  V,  and  by 
Pius  IX,  to  the  last-named  of  whom  are  due  the 
mosaics  of  the  facade,  the  antique  columns,  and  the 
rich  baroque  ceiling.  The  mosaics  of  the  tribune  are 
of  the  twelfth  centurj',  the  others  are  bv  Cavallini 
(1291).  It  contains  the  tombs  of  Stanislaus  Hosius 
and  other  cardinals.  The  four  basilicas  enumerated 
above  have  collegiate  chapters. 

S.  AgoHlino  was  built  (1479-83)  by  Cardinal 
d'Estouteville,  with  Giacomo  di  Pietrasanta  for 
architect.  On  the  high  altar,  by  Bernini,  is  the 
Madonna  of  St.  Luke,  brought  from  Constantinople. 
Its  chapel  of  St.  Augiistine  contains  a  picture  by 
Guercino;  in  its  chapel  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  the 
tomb  of  St.  Monica;  its  altar  of  St.  Peter  haa  a  relief 


by    Cotignola,   and    below    one  of  the    pilasters  is 
Raphael's  Isaias.     In  the  basement  of  this  church 
is  the  Madonna  del  Parto,  the  work  of  Jacopo  Tatto, 
one  of  the  most  highly  venerated  images  in  Rome. 
The  adjoining  convent,   once  the  residence  of  the 
general  of  the  Augustinians,  is  now  the  Ministry  of 
Slarine;  but  the  Angelica  Library,  founded  (1605)  by 
Cardinal  Angelo  Rocca,  an  Augustinian,  is  still  there. 
S.  Alfonso,  built  in  1855  for  the  Redemptorists,  who 
have  their  generalate  there,  has  fine  pictures  by  von 
Rhoden.     Its  high  altar  possesses  a  Byzantine  image 
of  unknown  origin,  called  the  Madonna  del  Pei-petuo 
Soccorso.     S.  Ambrogio  della  Masnima,  in  the  paternal 
mansion  of  St.  Ambrose,  belongs  to  the  Cassinese 
Benedictines.     S.    Andrea    della    Valle    (Theatines), 
notable  for  the  severe  majestj^  of  its  hnes,  was  built 
by  Carlo  Maderna  in  1591;  it  contains  the  chapel  of 
the  Strozzi,  the  tombs  of  Pius  II,  of  Nicol6  della 
Guardia,  and,  opposite,  of  Pius  III,  and  the  frescoes 
of  Domenichino,  his  most  perfect  work,  as  well  as 
other  very  modern  frescoes.     In  this  church,  on  every 
feast  of  the  Epiphany,  solemn  Mass  is  celebrated  in 
every  rite  subject  to  Rome,  and  there  are  sermons  in 
the  various  European  languages — a  festival  instituted 
by  Ven.  Vincent  Gallotta.     S.  Andrea  de  Quirinale  be- 
longs to  the  Jesuits,  who  have  their  novitiate  here,  in 
which  the  cell  of  St.  Stanislaus  Kostka  is  still  to  be  seen. 
S.  Andrea  delle  Fratte,  belonging  to  the  Minims,  was,  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  the  national  church  of  the  Scots; 
it  received  its  present  form  (a  cupola  and  a  fanciful 
Campanile)  from  the  architects  Guerra  and  Borromini 
in   the   seventeenth    centur>',    and   has   two   angels 
by  Bernini.     Before  the  Lady  altar  of  this  church 
took  place   the  conversion  of  Venerable  Marie  Al- 
phonse    Ratisbonne.     S.  Angelo   in   Pescheria,   built 
in  the  eighth  century  and  restored  in  1584,  is  occupied 
by  the  Clerics  Regular  Minor,  who  were  transferred 
to  it  from  S.  Lorenzo  in  Lucina.     S.  Anselmo,  on 
the   Aventine,    is    a    Romanesque   building    (1900), 
annexed  to  the  international  college  of  the  Benedic- 
tines, and  is  the  residence  of  the  abbot  primate  of 
their  order.     Santi  Apostnli,  adjoining  the  generalate 
of  the  Minor  Conventuals,  dates  from  the  fifth  cen- 
tury; it  was  restored  by  Martin  V,  with  frescoes  by 
Melozzo  da  Forli,  remodelled  in  1702  by  Francesco 
Fontana,  and  contains  the  tombs  of  Cardinals  Riario 
and  Bessarion.     The  convent  is  occupied  by  the  head- 
quarters of  a  military  division.     *S.  Bart olomeo  all' 
Isola,  Friars  Minor,  stands  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
temple  of  Ji^sculapius,  and  was  built  by  Otto  III, 
in  1001,  in  honour  of  St.  Adalbert.     The  relics  of 
St.  Bartholomew  were  brought  thither  from  Bene- 
ventum,  those  of  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola  being  given  in 
exchange.     The  church  has  been  several  times  re- 
stored.    S.  Bernardo   alle    Terme,    Cistercians,    is   a 
round  church  built  in  1598,  its  foundations  being  laid 
in  the  calidarium  of  the  baths  (Italian  terme)  of  Dio- 
cletian.    S.   Bonaventura,   on   the    Palatine,    Friars 
Minor,  contains  the  tomb  of  St.  Leonard  of  Port 
Maurice.     S.  Camillo,  a  very  modern  church,  is  the 
residence  of  the  Camilline  Attendants  of  the  Sick, 
and   has   a   hospital    connected    with    it.     S.    Carlo 
(Carlino)  of  the  Spanish  Trinitarians  belongs  to  the 
Borromini.    S.  Carlo  ai  Catinari,  Barnabites,  formerly 
dedicated  to  St.  Biagius,  was  put  into  its  present 
shape  by  Rosati  in  1612,  with  frescoes  and  framed 
pictures  by  Domenichino,  Pietro  da  Cortona,  Guido 
Rcni,  and  Andrea  Sacchi.     Its  convent  is  occupied  by 
a  section  of  the  Ministry  of  War.     S.  Carlo  al  Corso, 
the  church  of  the  Lombards,  was  built  by  the  Lunghi 
for  the  canonization  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  on  the 
site  of  a  little  church  dedicated  to  S.  Niccolo  del 
Tufo.     The  decorations  of  the  cupola  are  by  Pietro 
da  Cortona;  there  is  a  picture  by  Maratta  and  a 
statue  of  Judith  by  Le  Brun.     The  Rosminians  have 
officiated   in   this  church  for  some  years  past.     S. 
Claudio  dei  Borgognoni  is  served  by  the  Congregation 


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171 


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of  the  Most  Holy  Sacrament;  it  has  Exposition  all  the 
year  around. 

S.  Clemente,  the  church  of  the  Irish  Dominicans 
(1643),  and  titular  church  of  William  Cardinal 
O'Connell,  Archbishop  of  Boston,  existed  as  early  as 
the  fourth  century,  dedicated  to  St.  Clement,  pope 
and  martyr.  It  is  characterized  by  the  two  ambos 
which  project  about  half  way  down  the  nave  and  an 
atrium  which  is  also  the  courtyard  of  the  convent 
which  stands  in  front  of  the  basilica.  The  ambos 
date  from  John  VIII  (872);  the  altar  and  tabernacle, 
from  Paschal  II.  The  church  was  destroyed  in  the 
conflagration  kindled  by  Robert  Guiscard  (1084) ;  its 
rebuilding  was  begun  immediately,  but  the  plan 
was  adopted  of  raising  somewhat  the  pavement  of  the 
old  church,  which  was  filled  in  with  debris;  the  new 
church  was  also  less  spacious.  At  this  period  the 
mosaics  of  the  apse  were  executed.  In  the  chapel  of 
St.  Catherine  are  some  frescoes  attributed  to  Masaccio 
(1428);  in  the  chapel  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  the 
tombs  of  Cardinals  Brusati  and  Roverella;  in  that 
of  St.  Cyril,  who  is  buried  in  the  basilica,  modern 
frescoes.  In  1858  the  excavation  of  the  old  basilica 
was  begun,  through  the  efforts  of  the  Dominican 
prior,  Mulhooly.  The  frescoes,  seventh  to  eleventh 
century,  are  important;  in  them  may  be  distinguished 
the  first  indications  of  a  new  birth  of  Christian  art, 
and  particularly  interesting  are  those  relating  to  Sts. 
Cyril  and  Methodius.  The  original  basilica  was 
raised  upon  the  remains  of  a  still  earlier  building, 
in  which,  moreover,  there  was  a  spelwum,  or  grotto, 
of  Mithras;  it  is  probable  that  this  building  was  St. 
Clement's  paternal  home.  Santissima  Concenzione, 
Capuchins,  near  the  Piazza  Barberini,  was  built  by 
the  Capuchin  Cardinal  Barberini,  twin  brother  of 
Urban  VIII  (1624).  Bl.  Crispin  of  Viterbo  is  buried 
here.  The  church  is  noted  for  a  St.  Michael  by  Guido 
Reni,  a  St.  Francis  by  Domenichino,  a  St.  Felix  of 
Cantalico  by  Turchi,  and  other  pictures  by  Sacchi 
and  Pietro  da  Cortona.  Beneath  the  church  is  the 
ossarium  of  the  friars.  Sts.  Cosmos  and  Damian, 
Franciscan  Tertiaries,  is  made  up  of  two  ancient 
buildings,  the  temples  of  Romulus,  son  of  Maxentius, 
and  of  the  Sacra  Urbs,  which  were  given  to  the 
Church  by  Theodoric  and  converted  into  a  basilica 
by  Felix  IV  (528),  to  whom  are  due  the  mosaics  of 
the  ap.se  and  the  arch,  retouched  in  the  ninth  and 
sixteenth  centuries.  Urban  VIII  caused  its  pavement 
to  be  raised  ten  feet.  In  the  crypt  are  the  tomb 
of  Felix  II  and  some  objects  belonging  to  the  old 
church. 

St.  Crisogono,  Trinitarians,  dates  at  least  as  far 
back  as  the  fifth  century,  and  was  restored  by 
Cardinal  Scipione  Borghese  (1623).  It  has  a  fine 
tabernacle  and,  in  the  apse,  mosaics  by  Cavillini 
(1290).  Excavations  have  recently  been  made  under 
this  church,  which  is  associated  with  English  hi.story 
as  having  been  the  titular  church  of  Cardinal  Langton 
(see  Langton,  Stephen).  *S'.  Cuore  al  Castro  Fntorio, 
Salesians,  a  fine  church  built  in  1887  by  Vespegniani, 
is  due  to  the  zeal  of  Don  Bosco.  Connected  with 
it  is  a  boarding-school  of  arts  and  industries.  S. 
Francesco  Romano  (S.  Maria  Nova),  Olivetans,  was 
erected  by  Leo  IV  in  place  of  S.  Maria  Antiqua, 
which  was  in  danger  of  being  injured  by  the  ruins 
of  the  Palatine,  on  a  portion  of  the  ruined  temple  of 
Venus  and  Rome,  where  once  stood  a  chapel  com- 
memorating tne  x'all  of  Simon  Magus.  It  was  restored 
by  Honorius  III  and  under  Paul  V.  In  the  apse  are 
mosaics  of  1161;  in  the  confession,  the  tomb  of  St. 
Frances  of  Rome  (1440).  There  is  a  group  by  Meli, 
also  the  tombs  of  Gregory  XI  (1574),  Cardinal 
Vulcani,  and  Francesco  Rido.  S.  Francesco  a  Ripa, 
the  provincialate  of  the  Friars  Minor  (1229),  has 
pictures  by  the  Cavaliere  d'Arpino  and  by  Sabiati 
(Annunciation),  and  the  tomb  of  Lodovico  Albertoni, 
one  of  Bernini's  best  works.    S.  Francesco  di  Paola 


belongs  to  the  Minims,  the  convent  being  now  occu- 
by  a  technical  institute. 

The  Gesii,  connected  with  the  professed  house  and 
general's  residence  of  the  Jesuits,  is  the  work  of 
Vignola  (1568-73),  completed  by  Giacomo  della 
Porta,  through  the  nmnificence  of  Cardinal  Alessandro 
Farnese.  It  became  the  model  of  the  style  known  as 
"Jesuit".  Its  altar  of  St.  Ignatius,  who  is  buried 
there,  has  a  silver  statue  of  the  saint  which  is  ordi- 
narily covered  by  a  picture  painted  by  the  Jesuit 
Pozzo;  the  globe  and  four  columns  are  of  lapis 
lazuli.  Opposite  is  the  altar  of  St.  Francis  Xavier, 
where  an  arm  of  that  saint  is  preserved,  and  a  picture 
by  Maratta.  The  ceiling  is  painted  by  Gaulli  with 
the  Triumph  of  the  Name  of  Jesus.  The  Madonna 
della  Strada  is  venerated  in  one  of  the  chapels.  In 
this  church  are  the  tombs  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine  and 
Ven.  Giuseppe  Maria  Pignatelli.  Gesii  e  Maria, 
Calced  Augustinians,  with  its  magnificent  high  altar, 
is  in  the  Corso.  S.  Gioacchino,  Redemptorists,  was 
erected  for  the  sacerdotal  jubilee  of  Leo  XIII,  its 
side  chapels  being  subscribed  for  by  the  various 
nations.  S.  Giovanni  Calibita,  on  the  Island  of  S. 
Bartolomeo,  belongs  to  the  Fatebenefratelli,  who  have 
a  ho.spital.  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo,  on  the  Cajlian, 
Passionists,  was  built  by  Pammachius  in  the  house 
of  these  two  saints,  who  were  officials  in  the  palace 
of  Constantia,  daughter  of  Constantine,  and  were 
slain  by  order  of  Julian.  In  1154  the  church  was 
enlarged  and  adorned  with  frescoes,  some  of  which  are 
preserved  in  the  chapel  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 
The  chapel  of  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross  is  modern.  Under 
the  church  are  still  to  be  seen  thirteen  interstices 
of  the  house  of  the  saints  with  other  saints.  This 
wixs  the  titular  church  of  Edward  Cardinal  Howard, 
afterwards  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Frascati  (d.  1892). 
S.  Gregorio  al  Celio,  Camadolese,  was  built  by 
Gregory  II  in  the  paternal  home  of  St.  Gregory  the 
Great,  and  was  modernized  by  Soria  (1633)  and 
Ferravi  (1734).  It  contains  an  altar  of  the  saint, 
with  his  stone  bed  and  his  marble  chair,  and  there 
is  an  ancient  image  of  the  Madonna.  In  the  monks' 
garden  there  are  also  three  chapels;  those  of  St. 
Silvia,  mother  of  St.  Gregory,  with  her  statue  by 
Cordieri  and  frescoes  by  Guido  Reni,  of  St.  Andrew, 
decorated  by  Reni  and  Domenichino,  and  of  St. 
Barbara,  with  a  statue  of  St.  Gregory  by  Cordieri. 
The  title  of  this  church  was  borne  successively  by 
Henry  Edward  Cardinal  Manning  and  Herbert 
Cardinal  Vaughan,  Archbishops  of  Westminster. 

S.  Ignazio,  Jesuits,  was  built  in  1626  by  Cardinal 
Ludovisi,  under  the  direction  of  the  Jesuit  Grassi. 
The  frescoes  of  the  vault,  representing  the  apotheosis 
of  St.  Ignatius,  were  painted  by  the  Jesuit  lay  brother 
Pozzo,  whose  are  also  some  of  the  pictures  on  the 
altars.  Sts.  Aloysius  Gonzaga  and  John  Berchmans, 
buried  here,  have  splendid  altars;  in  the  adjoining 
Roman  College  (now  the  Ginnasio-Liceo  and  National 
Library)  there  are  still  other  chapels  with  souvenirs 
of  these  two  saints.  On  the  highest  point  of  the  fagade 
Father  Secchi  caused  to  be  erected  a  pole  with  a  ball 
which,  by  a  mechanical  contrivance,  drops  precisely 
at  noon  every  day.  S.  Isidoro  belongs  to  the  Irish 
Franciscans.  In  the  adjoining  convent  the  famous 
Luke  Wadding  wrote  his  history  of  the  Franciscan 
Order.  S.  Marcello,  Servites,  is  believed  to  be  built 
over  the  stable  in  which  Pope  St.  Marcellus  was 
compelled  to  serve.  It  was  restored  in  1519  by  order 
of  Giuliano  de'  Medici  (Clement  VII),  completed  in 
1708  by  Carlo  Fontana,  and  contains  paintings  by 
Pierin  del  Vaga  and  Federico  Zuccaro.  It  was  the 
titular  church  of  Thomas  Cardinal  Weld  (see  Weld, 
Family  of).  S.  Maria  in  Ara  Coeli,  on  the  Capitol, 
once  the  general's  residence  of  the  Franciscans 
(beginning  from  1250),  is  (1911)  the  titular  church 
of  Cardinal  Falconio.  It  stands  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  citadel  of  Rome  and   the   temple  of  Juno 


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172 


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Monet  a,  and  is  approached  by  a  flight  of  124  steps. 
The  facade  is  still  of  brick,  and  the  church  contains 
antique  columns  and  capitals;  in  the  Buffalini  chajiel 
are  frescoes  (Life  of  St.  Bernardino)  by  Pinturicchio, 
and  on  the  high  altar  is  a  Madonna  attributed  to 
8t.  Luke,  where  was  formerly  the  Madonna  of 
Foligno.  To  the  left  a  small  building,  known  as  the 
Cai)pella  Santa  di  Sant'  Elena  (Holy  Chajiel  of  St. 
Helena),  marks  the  spot  where,  at-cortling  to  a  legend 
which  can  be  traced  to  the  ninth  century,  the  Emperor 
Augustus  saw  the  Blessed  Virgin  upon  an  altar  of 
heaven  (Lat.  ara  call).  To  this  legend  something 
was  contributed  by  A'irgil's  fourth  eclogue,  in  which 
he  speaks  of  the  ''nova  progenies"  descending  from 
heaven,  and  which  was  interpreted  in  Christian 
antiquity  as  a  prophecy'  of  the  coming  of  Christ 
(thus  Ccnstantine  in  the  sermon  "Ad  sanctorum 
coetum").  In  the  sacristy  is  venerated  the  "Santo 
Bambino",  a  little  figure  of  olive  wood  from  the 
Mount  of  Olives  (sixteenth  century)  for  which  the 
Romans  have  a  great  devotion.  The  sepulchral 
monuments  of  this  church  are  numerous  and  im- 
jiortant,  including  those  of  Cardinal  Louis  d' Albert, 
with  figures  of  St.  Michael  and  St.  Francis;  Michel- 
angelo Marche.se  di  Saluzzo,  by  Dosio;  Pietro  de' 
\'incenti,  by  Sansovino;  Honorius  IV  and  others  of 
the  Savelli  family  in  the  Savelli  chapel,  which  dates 
from  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries;  Card- 
inal Matthew  of  Acquasparta;  Catherine,  Queen  of 
Bosnia  (1478).  The  Crib,  built  every  year  in  the 
second  chapel  on  the  left,  is  famous;  at  Christmas 
and  Epiphany  children  recite  dialogues  and  little 
discourses  near  it. 

.S'.  Maria  in  Traspontina,  in  the  Borgo,  Calced 
Carmelites,  was  erected  by  Sixtus  IV  on  the  site  of  a 
chapel  that  had  been  built  there,  in  1099,  to  drive 
away  the  demons  which  haunted  the  ashes  of  Nero. 
The"  architect  was  Meo  del  Caprina;  Bramante  and 
Bernini  modified  the  building.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  monuments  of  the  Renaissance,  its  cupola 
being  the  first  of  its  kind  buih  in  Rome.  It  contains 
paintings  by  Pinturicchio — the  Adoration  of  the 
Shepherds,  all  the  paintings  of  the  Lady  Chapel  and 
the  chapel  of  St.  Augu.stine,  the  frescoes  of  the  vault, 
etc. — Raphael  designed  the  mosaics  of  the  Chigi 
chapel,  and  there  are  paintings  by  Caracci,  Caravaggio 
and  Sebastiano  del  Piombo  (the  Birth  of  the  Blessed 
\irKin).  The  sepulchral  monuments  are  costly, 
including  tho.se  of  Giovanni  della  Rovere,  Cardinal 
Costa,  Cardinal  Podocatharo,  Cardinal  Girolamo 
Basso,  by  San.sovino,  and  Cardinal  Sforza,  by  the 
same  sculptor,  Agostnio  Chigi,  in  the  Chigi  chapel, 
afl<'r  suggestions,  and  decorated,  by  Raphael,  and 
Cardinal  Pallavicino.  The  painted  windows,  the 
most  beautiful  in  Rome,  are  by  Guillaume  de  Mar- 
cillot  (15(W) .  S.  Maria  del  Priorato,  Knights  of  Malta, 
on  the  Aventine,  was  built  in  939,  when  Alberic 
II  gave  his  pala^;e  to  St.  Odo  of  Cluny.  The  present 
form  of  the  church,  however,  is  due  to  Piranesi 
(17fK>).  Some  of  the  tombs  of  the  grand  masters  of 
the  Order  of  Malta — Caraffa,  Caracciolo,  and  others — 
are  interesting.  The  a<ljoining  residence  commands 
a  syjlendid  panorama.  .S.  Maria  del  Rosario,  on 
Monte  Mario,  belongs  to  the  Dominicans.  »S'. 
Marifi  ddla  SmUi,  Discalced  Carmelites,  built  by 
Francesco  da  Volterra,  is  so  callcfl  from  an  image  of 
the  Madonna  found  under  the  stairs  of  a  neighbour- 
ing house,  and  contains  paintings  by  Saraceni  and 
Gerhard  Honlhorst.  In  the  a<ljoining  convent,  a 
great  part  of  which  is  o<;cupied  by  the  Guardie  di 
Pubbhca  Sicurezza,  the  friars  have  a  pharmacy  where 
they  make  the  "Acqua  della  Scala".  S.  Maria 
della  ViUoria,  Carmelilf*,  was  erected  by  Paul  V 
in  memory  oi  the  victory  of  the  Imperialists  over  the 
Protestants  at  Prague  (102.'i),  and  contains  pictures 
by  Domenichino,  Guercino,  and  Serra  (1884),  also 
a  famous  group  by  Bernini,  of  St.  Teresa  transfixed 


by  an  angel,  and  Turkish  standards  captured  at  the 
siege  of  Vienna  (1683).  S.  Maria  in  Aquiro,  the 
ancient  diaconate  titulus  Equitii,  was  restored  in 
1590.  It  was  formerly'  an  asylum  for  the  destitute; 
Clement  VIII  gave  it  to  the  Somaschi  Brothei-s,  who 
still  have  an  orphanage  there  under  the  supervision 
of  the  municipality.  S.  Maria  in  Campitdli  wiis  built 
in  160.5  to  receive  the  image  of  S.  Maria  in  Portica 
(now  S.  Galla)  in  thanksgiving  for  Rome's  deliverance 
from  the  plague  (1658).  It  contains  a  picture  of  St. 
Anne,  by  Luca  Giordano,  and  the  tomb  of  Cardinal 
Pacca.  It  is  served  by  the  Clerics  Regular  of  the 
Mother  of  God. 

S.  Maria  in  Vallicella  (the  Chiesa  Nuova,  or  "New 
Church"),  Oratorians  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  is  associated 
with  the  spiritual  renewal  of  the  City  by  the  labours 
of  St.  Philip,  who  founded  it.  The  frescoes  of  the 
vaulting  and  of  the  cupola  are  by  Pietro  da  Cortona, 
the  three  pictures  of  the  high  altar  by  Rubens,  and 
others  by  Scipione  Gaetano,  Cavaliere  d'Arpino, 
Maratta,  Guido  Reni  (St.  Philip),  Ronocelli,  and 
Baroccio.  The  chapel  of  the  saint  is  rich  in  votive 
offerings;  in  the  adjoining  house,  until  now  almost 
entirely  occupied  by  the  Assize  Court,  is  his  cell, 
with  relics  and  souvenirs  of  him.  The  library 
(Vallicelliana)  now  belongs  to  the  State.  S.  Maria 
in  Via,  Servites,  is  a  fine  church  of  the  late  Renais- 
sance (1549).  (S.  Maria  M(Hld<dena,  Servants  of  the 
Sick  (formerlj-  their  gencialate),  is  now  occupied  by 
the  elementary  communal  schools.  Here  the  cell 
of  St.  Camillus  of  Lellis  is  preserved,  with  the  cruci- 
fix which  encouraged  him  to  found  his  order.  S. 
Maria  Sopra  Minerva,  the  only  authentic  Gothic 
church  in  Rome,  belongs  to  the  Dominicans,  who  had 
their  general  staff  and  their  higher  schools  in  the 
adjoining  convent,  now  the  Ministry  of  Instruction, 
as  well  as  the  Casanatense  Library,  now  in  the 
hands  of  the  State.  This  was  the  titular  church  of 
the  Cardinal  of  Norfolk  (see  Howard,  Thomas 
Philip),  Cardinal  McCloskey,  Archbishop  of  New 
York,  and  Cardinal  Taschereau,  Archbishop  of  Que- 
bec (see  McCloskey  John;  Taschereau,  Elz^ar 
Alexandre);  its  title  is  now  (1911)  held  by  Cardinal 
Farley,  .\rchbi.shop  of  New  York.  The  church 
stands  on  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Miner\-a,  one  of 
those  built  by  Pompey.  In  the  eighth  century  there 
was  a  Greek  monastery  here.  In  1280  Fra  Sisto 
and  Fra  RLstoro,  Dominicans,  began  the  new  church 
by  order  of  Nicholas  III,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
Caetani,  Savelli,  and  Orsini.  It  was  completed  in 
1453.  The  pillars  of  the  nave  are  clustered  columns; 
the  side  chapels  are  in  Renaissance  or  baroque  style. 
Beneath  the  high  altar  rests  the  body  of  St.  Catherine 
of  Siena,  The  chapel  of  the  Annunziata  has  a  con- 
fraternity, founded  by  Cardinal  Torquemada,  which 
every  year  distributes  dowries  to  400  poor  young 
women,  and  there  is  a  picture  by  Antoniazzo  Romano 
dealing  with  the  subject.  The  Caraffa  family  chapel 
of  St.  Thomas  contains  frescoes  by  Pllippo  Lippi 
(1487-93);  that  of  St.  Dominic,  pictures  by  Maratta; 
of  the  Rosary,  by  Venusti.  There  are  also  paintings 
by  Baronio  and  others.  The  statue  of  the  Risen 
Christ  is  by  Michelangelo.  Here,  also,  are  the  tombs 
of  Giovanni  Alberini  (1490),  Urban  VII,  by  Buon- 
vicino,  the  Aldobrandini  family,  by  Giacomo  della 
Porta,  Paul  IV,  by  Sigorio  and  Casignola,  Gulielmus 
Durandus,  by  Giovanni  di  Cosma  (1296),  Cardinal 
Domenico  Capranica  (1458),  Clement  VII  and  Leo 
X,  by  Baccio  Bandienelli,  Bles.sed  Angelico  of 
Fiesole,  with  an  epitaph  by  Nicholas  V,  and  Cardinal 
Schonberg  (1.5.37). 

S.  Marlino  ai  Monti,  Carmelites,  probably  dates 
from  the  time  of  Constantine,  when  the  priest 
Equitius  built  an  orator>'  on  his  own  land.  Sym- 
machus  rebuilt  it,  dedicating  it  to  St.  Silvester  and 
St.  Martin  of  Tours,  and  then  again  to  St.  Martin, 
Pope.     In  1559  it  was  given  to  the  Carmelites,  who 


ROME 


ITS 


ROME 


in  1650  remodelled  it.  It  is  notable  for  its  landscapes 
by  Poussin.  Under  the  more  modern  church  is  the 
old  church  of  St.  Silvester,  with  remains  of  mosaics, 
frescoes,  etc.  Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus 
(formerly  S.  Giacomo  degli  Spagnuoli),  in  the  Piazza 
Navona,  belongs  to  the  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  who  have  an  apostolic  school  there.  S. 
Onofrio  on  the  Janiculum,  Hieronymites,  was  built 
in  1439  by  the  de  Cupis  family  and  Nicold  da  Forca 
Palena.  The  frescoes  of  the  portico  are  by  Domeni- 
chino,  three  scenes  from  the  life  of  St.  Jerome;  within 
are  frescoes  by  Baldassarre  Peruzzi,  and  the  tombs 
of  Cardinal  Mezzofanti  and  the  poet  Tasso,  who  died 
in  the  convent,  where  his  cell  contains  a  small  museum 
of  objects  that  belonged  to  him.  S.  Pancrazio 
fuori  le  Mura  was  built  by  Pope  Symmachus  (c. 
504)  near  the  Coemeterium  Calepodii;  in  1849  it 
was  wrecked  by  the  Garibaldians;  the  government 
caused  it  to  be  freshly  decorated.  Near  .S'.  Pancrazio 
degli  Scolopii  is  the  generalate  of  the  Piarist8(«S'co/opii) . 
S.  Paolo  alle  Tre  Fontaiic  belongs  to  the  Trappists, 
who  have  put  the;  surrounding  land  under  cultivation 
The  abbey  contains  three  churches.  The  oldest,  .S.S. 
Vincenzo  e  Aruislasio,  founded  by  Honorius  I,  came 
into  the  hands  of  Greek  monks;  Innocent  II  restored 
and  assigned  it,  with  the  abbey,  to  the;  Cistercians. 
There  is  a  fine  cloister  adjacent  to  this  church,  the 
earliest  example  of  its  kind.  S.  Maria  Scala  Cceli, 
ninth  centuiy,  was  rebuilt  in  1590  by  Giacomo  della 
Porta,  and  contains  a  mosaic  by  P'rancesco  Zucca. 
*S.  Paolo  alle  Tre  Fontana  was  built  by  the  same 
Giacomo  della  Porta  (1599)  on  the  three  springs 
which  appeared,  as  the  legend  says,  on  the  three 
places  successively  touched  by  the  head  of  St.  Paul, 
who  was  beheaded  here.  The  springs,  however, 
existed  before  St.  Paul's  martyrdom  as  the  Aqua} 
Salviie,  and  in  1869  some  ancient  mosaic  pavements 
were  dug  up  here.  S.  Pietro  in  Montorio,  Friars 
Minor,  was  in  earlier  days  known  as  S.  Maria  in 
Castro  Aureo,  and  had  connected  with  it  a  monastery 
which  passed  into  the  hands  of  various  orders  until, 
in  1472,  it  was  given  to  the  Franciscans  for  the  train- 
ing of  subjects  for  the  foreign  missions.  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic  had  the  church  and  convent  rebuilt, 
and  they  were  dedicated  to  St.  Peter,  following  a 
belief  which  had  gained  acceptance  owing  to  a  some- 
what unfortunate  conjecture  hazarded  by  Maffeo 
Vegio,  and  which  is  even  yet  keenly  debated.  The 
rose-window  of  the  fagade  is  very  fine,  and  there  are 
frescoes  and  other  paintings  by  Sebastiano  del 
Piombo  (the  Flagellation),  Vasari,  Daniele  da 
Volterra,  Baluren  (the  Entombment),  and  others; 
Raphael's  Transfiguration  is  on  the  high  altar,  and 
there  is  a  beautiful  balustrade.  Here,  too,  are  the 
tombs  of  Cardinals  Fabiano  and  Antonio  del  Monte 
(Ammannati),  and  of  Giuliano,  Archbishop  of 
Ragusa  (Dosio).  In  the  courtyard  of  the  convent, 
on  the  spot  where  St.  Peter  is  supposed  by  some  to 
have  been  crucified,  stands  Bramante's  tempietto, 
the  most  graceful  work  of  that  genius.  A  splendid 
view  of  Rome  may  be  had  from  the  piazza  in  front 
of  the  church.  It  was  the  titular  church  of  Paul 
Cardinal  Cullen,  Archbishop  of  Dublin. 

S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  Canons  Regular  of  St.  John 
Lateran,  (>xisted  as  the  titulus  Apostolorum  as  early 
as  431.  Sixtus  III  made  alterations  in  the  church 
with  funds  given  him  by  the  Empress  Eudoxia,  who 
also  presented  the  Jerusalem  chain  of  St.  Peter 
together  with  his  Roman  chain.  These  relics  had 
been  venerated  here  long  before  Sixtus  III,  but  the 
title,  a  vinculis  S.  Petri,  occurs  for  the  first  time  only 
in  530.  FiUngs  from  the  chains  were  given  as  relics— 
like  tho.se  taken  to  Spoleto  by  Bishop  Achilles  in  419. 
The  chains  themselves  are  kept  in  a  precious  reliquary 
attributed  to  PoUaiulo.  The  church  was  restored  by 
Sixtus  IV  and  Juhus  II.  Its  twenty  monolithic  col- 
umns are  antique,  and  it  contains  pictures  by  Guer- 


cino  and  Domenichino  (The  Deliverance  of  St.  Peter), 
a  mosaic  (St.  Sebastian)  of  about  the  year  680,  and 
the  tombs  of  Julius  II,  with  the  celebrated  statue  of 
Moses,  and  of  Cardinal  Nicholas  of  Cusa,  with  a 
portrait  in  relief.  In  the  adjoining  monastery  the 
scuola  di  applicazione  of  the  Engineers  is  established. 
S.  Prassede,  Vallombrosans,  was  built  by  Paschal  II 
(822)  at  some  distance  from  the  older  S.  Prassede, 
which,  then  in  ruins,  was  restored  by  Nicholas  V  and 
St.  Charles  Borromeo.  Its  twenty-two  antique  col- 
umns are  still  standing,  and  there  are  interesting 
mosaics  of  the  ninth  century  (the  chapel  of  St.  Zeno 
and  the  apse)  and  the  thirteenth  century  (the  crypt). 
In  the  crypt  are  antique  sarcophagi  with  the  relics  of 
Sts.  Pra.xedes,  Pudentiana,  and  others,  and  Paschal 
caused  the  bones  of  2300  (?)  martyrs,  brought  by  hira 
from  the  catacombs,  to  be  laid  in  an  enclosed  cem- 
eterj'.  There  are  pictures  by  Giulio  Romano,  Federico 
Zuccaro,  and  the  Cavaliere  d'Arpino.  Santi  Quaranta 
in  Trastevere  belongs  to  the  Spanish  Franciscans. 
Santi  Quattro  Coronati,  Capuchins,  was  the  Titulus 
/Emiliance  as  early  as  the  fourth  century,  and  is 
dedicated  to  four  soldiers  (cornicularii)  who  were 
martyred  on  the  Via  Labicana,  with  whom  were 
afterwards  associated  five  martyrs,  stonecutters  of 
Pannonia.  Honorius  built  a  vast  basilica,  which,  how- 
ever. Paschal  II  reduced  to  the  proportions  of  what 
had  been  the  nave.  There  are  remains  of  the  older 
basilica  in  the  two  atria  and,  in  the  church,  frescoes 
by  Giovanni  Manozzi  and  a  ciborium  by  Capponi 
(1493).  Annexed  to  this  church  is  the  chapel  of  the 
Corporation  of  Stonecutters,  with  pictures  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  Augustinian  Sisters  have  a 
refuge  for  young  women  adjoining  the  church.  S. 
SabinaaW  Aventino,  Dominicans,  built  under  Clement 
I  by  the  lUyrian  priest  Petrus  (424),  is  remark- 
able for  a  half-door  decorated  with  wood-carving 
of  the  fifth  centur>',  while  its  columns  of  Parian 
marble  were  taken  from  the  temple  of  Diana  on  the 
Aventine.  In  the  apse  and  above  the  door  are  mo- 
saics, and  the  picture  by  Sassoferrato  (the  Madonna 
of  the  Rosar>')  is  famous.  In  the  adjoining  convent, 
formerly  the  Savelli  palace,  are  shown  the  cells  of 
St.  Dominic  and  St.  Pius  V. 

S.  Salvatore  della  Scala  Santa,  Passionists,  contains, 
according  to  the  legend,  the  stairs  of  Pilate's  prajtor- 
ium,  which  were  bathed  with  the  Blood  of  Christ, 
but  of  which  there  is  no  mention  earlier  than  845. 
By  these  stairs,  which  were  restored  by  Nicholas  III 
and  by  Cosmas  II,  pilgrims  ascend  on  their  knees 
(ginocchioni)  to  tlie  Capjjella  Sancta  Sanctorum,  in 
which  the  most  famous  relics  of  the  pontifical  palace 
of  the  Lateran  are  preserved  (see  Scala  Sancta). 
There  is  a  ninth-century  mosaic  picture  and  a  very 
ancient  picture  of  the  Saviour,  on  cedarwood,  believed 
to  have  been  made  not  by  human  hands.  S.  Silvestro 
in  Capite,  Pallottini  (see  Pious  Society  of  Missions), 
built  by  Paul  I  (761)  in  his  paternal  home,  was  given 
to  some  Greek  monks  and  subsequently  passed  into 
the  possession  of  various  orders.  It  was  restored  by 
Domenico  de  Rossi  in  1681,  and  has  a  high  altar  by 
Rinaldo.  This  is,  in  a  sense,  the  national  church  of 
the  English  Catholics.  Its  monastery  has  now  become 
the  Postal  Department.  S.  Stefano  degli  Abissini, 
Trinitarians,  with  an  interesting  doorway,  was 
erected  by  St.  Leo  the  Great,  and  was  one  of  the 
churches  surrounding  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter's. 
S.  Stefano  del  Cacco,  Sylvestrines,  was  erected  by 
Honorius  I  (630)  on  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Isis, 
of  which  it  contains  twelve  columns.  S.  Teresa,  with 
the  generalate  of  the  Discalced  Carmelites,  in  the 
Lombard  style,  is  one  of  the  recently  erected  churches 
(1900).  Santissima  Trinitd,  in  the  Via  Condotti, 
Dominicans  of  the  Philippines  Province,  was  erected 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  has  fine  pictures  on  its 
altars.  Santissima  Trinita  in  the  Via  della  Missione 
belongs  to  the  Lazarists,  who  have  a  house  of  retreat 


ROME 


174 


ROME 


for  the  clerg3'  there.  5.  Venar^.zio,  Minor  Conventuals, 
is  at  the  foot  of  the  Capitol.  Santi  Vincenzo  ed 
Atatiasio.  in  the  Piazza  di  Trevi,  ministers  of  the 
sick,  was  buih  by  Cardinal  Mazarin  (1650).  Here  are 
kept  the  urns  containing  the  viscera  of  deceased 
popes. 

Other  notable  churches  are  the  following:  S.  Agata 
dei  Goti,  or  in  Suburra,  built  in  460  for  the  Arians 
(Goths  and  other  Germans),  by  Ricimerus,  who 
caused  a  mosaic  to  be  made  there  (destroj'ed  in  1633), 
and  who  was  buried  there.  In  591  St.  Gregory  the 
Great  dedicated  it  to  Catholic  worship,  and  it  is 
connected  with  the  Irish  College.  In  it  is  the  tomb  of 
John  Lascaris,  the  famous  Greek  humanist  (1535). 
S.  Agnesc  al  Circo  Agonale  stands  on  a  part  of  the 
site  of  Domitian's  stadium,  where  St.  Agnes  was  ex- 
posed to  shame  (the  vaults  of  the  church),  and  where 
she  was  put  to  death.  The  older  church  is  not  men- 
tioned in  any  records  earlier  than  the  ninth  centur}^; 
the  present  one,  in  baroque  style,  is  the  work  of 
Carlo  Rinaldi  (1652);  its  turrets  are  by  Borromini. 
On  the  high  altar  is  a  tabernacle  of  1123;  there  is  an 
antique  statue  transformed  into  a  St.  Sebastian  by 
Paolo  Campi  and  a  monument  of  Innocent  X.  S. 
Alessio  suir  Aventino  was  originally  dedicated  to  the 
Roman  martyr  Boniface.  S.  A7wstasia,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Palatine,  built  in  the  fourth  century  and  modern- 
ized in  1721,  contains  the  tomb  of  Cardinal  Angelo 
Mai.  Here  is  preserved  a  chahce  which  was  probably 
used  by  St.  Jerome.  S.  Apollinare,  the  church  of  the 
Roman  Seminarj^,  formerly  of  the  German  College, 
was  restored  by  Benedict  XIV  and  contains  a  picture 
of  the  school  of  Perugino.  S.  Balbina,  on  the  Aven- 
tine,  consecrated  by  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  has  a 
house  of  correction  for  boys  adjoining  it.  It  was  the 
titular  church  of  Cardinal  Kemp,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terburj-  (see  Kemp,  John).  S.  Benedetto  i?i  Piscinula 
(Trastevere)  stands  on  the  site  of  the  mansion  of  the 
Anicii,  St.  Benedict's  family,  and  contains  a  picture 
of  the  saint.  S.  Caterina  dei  Funari,  on  the  ruins  of 
the  Circus  Flaminius,  was  begun  in  1549.  Its  facade 
is  by  Giacomo  della  Porta,  and  it  contains  pictures 
by  Caracci,  P'ederico  Zuccari,  and  others.  Connected 
with  it  is  a  refuge  for  penitent  women  founded  by 
St.  Ignatius. 

S.  Cecilia,  a  very  ancient  church,  stands  on  the  site 
of  that  saint's  house.  Paschal  I,  admonished  by  a 
vision,  restored  it  and  transferred  the  body  of  the 
saint  thither  from  the  Catacombs  (821).  Cardinal 
Rampolla  had  its  ancient  character  partly  restored. 
In  the  apse  are  some  mosaics  dating  from  Paschal. 
The  tabernacle  of  the  high  altar  is  by  Arnolfo  di 
Cambio  (1283);  there  are  some  ancient  frescoes  and 
some  by  Pietro  Cavallini;  in  the  confession  is  a 
recumbent  statue  of  the  saint  by  Maderno,  showing 
her  as  she  was  found  when  the  sarcophagus  was 
opened  in  1 599 ;  also  the  tomb  of  the  English  cardinal, 
Adam  of  Hertford  (d.  1398).  It  was  the  titular  church 
of  Cardinal  \N'olsey.  .S'.  Cesareo,  on  the  Appian  Way, 
erroneously  identified  with  S.  Cesareo  m  Palatio 
(which  has  recently  been  discovered  on  the  Palatine), 
is  older  than  the  days  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  and 
has  an  interesting  ambo  of  the  thirteenth  century  and 
mosaics  of  about  the  year  1600.  S.  Cosimato  in 
Trastevere,  built  in  the  ninth  century  and  completely 
transformed  under  Sixtus  IV,  is  notable  for  pamtin^s 
by  Pinturicchio  and  a  tabernacle  taken  from  S.  Maria 
del  PoyKjlo.  In  the  adjoining  monastery,  originally 
Benedictine  and  then  Clarissan  (12:M),  is  a  fine 
cloister  with  coupled  columns  (twelfth  century). 
This  monastery  is  now  used  as  a  home  for  old  women. 
8anti  Domenicho  e  Sisto,  Dominican  Sisters,  thirteenth 
century,  was  restored  in  1040,  with  a  fine  fa<;ade. 
S.  Eligio  dei  Ferrari  contains  a  fine  picture  by  Sermon- 
eta;  .S'.  Euxehio,  frf!8COf«  by  Mengs.  S.  Euatacchio 
is  an  ancient  diaconate  and  possesses  the  relics  of  the 
saint.    S.  Giacomo  in  Augusta,  in  the  Corso,  is  con- 


nected with  the  hospital  for  incurables  (1338).  S. 
Giovanni  dei  Fiorentini  is  the  work  of  Sansovino 
(1521)  and  contains  a  picture  by  Salvator  Rosa. 
S.  Girolamo  dei  Schiavoni  was  built  by  Sixtus  IV 
for  the  Dalmatians,  Croatians,  and  Albanians  who 
had  fled  from  the  Turks;  Sixtus  V  restored  it;  it 
contains  fine  frescoes  by  Gagliardi  (1852).  S.  Giu- 
seppe a  Capo  le  Case,  with  its  paintings  by  Andrea 
Sacchi  (St.  Teresa)  and  Doraenichino  (St.'  Joseph), 
has  a  convent  of  the  Carmelite  Sisters  which  is  now 
used  as  a  museum  of  the  industrial  arts.  S.  Giuseppe 
dei  Falegnami  is  built  upon  the  ancient  Tullian 
Dungeon,  where,  according  to  tradition,  St.  Peter 
was  imprisoned. 

S.  Lorenzo  in  Lucina  preserves  the  gridiron  on 
which  St.  Lawrence  suffered  martyrdom.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  here  was  the  house  of  the  matron,  Lucina, 
so  often  mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  Roman  martyrs; 
this  house  was  transformed  by  Sixtus  III  into  a 
basilica  which  was  repeatedly  restored.  It  has  a 
fine  campanile,  a  picture  by  Guido  Reni  (ThelCruci- 
fixion),  and  the  tomb  of  Poussin.  S.  Lorenzo  in 
Miranda  was  built  over  the  temple  of  Faustina  (141) 
in  the  Forum.  In  S.  Lorenzo  in  Fonte,  it  is  believed, 
was  the  saint's  prison.  S.  Marco,  enclosed  within 
the  Palazzo  di  Venezia,  is  attributed  to  the  pope  of 
that  name  (336).  The  Rogation  procession  (25 
April),  instituted  by  St.  Leo  the  Great,  used  to  set 
out  from  this  church.  It  was  restored  in  the  ninth 
century,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  by  Cardinal 
Quirini  in  1727.  In  the  tribune  are  mosaics  of  the 
time  of  Gregory  IV;  there  are  also  pictures  by  Palma 
il  Giovane  and  Melozzo  da  Forli;  two  ciboria,  in 
the  sacristy,  one  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  other  by 
Mino  da  Fiesole;  the  tombs  of  Pesaro,  by  Canova,  and 
of  Cardinal  Gregorio  Barbarigo.  S.  Maria  degli 
Angeli  was  built  by  Michelangelo,  at  the  command  of 
Pius  IV,  within  the  baths  of  Diocletian.  The  church 
was  given  to  the  Carthusians.  Here  are  to  be  seen 
many  of  the  original  designs  for  the  mosaics  now  in 
St.  Peter's;  also  Houdon's  famous  statue  of  St. 
Bruno,  and  the  tombs  of  Pius  IV  and  Cardinal  Ser- 
belloni.  The  adjoining  monastery  now  contains  the 
Museo  Nazionale  delle  Terme. 

S.  Maria  della  Pace,  the  titular  church  of  Michael 
Cardinal  Logue,  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  commem- 
orates the  peace  concluded  in  1482  between  the  pope, 
Florence,  Milan,  and  Naples.  It  was  built  for  Sixtus 
IV  by  Pietro  da  Cortona,  who  added  a  beautiful 
semicircular  portico  in  front.  In  the  Chigi  chapel 
are  the  famous  Sibyls  of  Raphael;  there  are  also 
frescoes  by  Peruzzi.  The  adjoining  monastery 
(Canons  Regular  of  the  Lateran)  contains  a  court- 
yard by  Bramante  and  the  chapel  of  the  St.  Paul's 
Association  of  the  Clergy  of  Rome.  S.  Maria  in 
Campo  Marzio  belongs  to  the  Benedictine  Sisters. 
S.  Maria  di  Lorelo,  an  octagonal  church  with  a  cupola, 
is  the  work  of  Antonio  da  Sangallo  il  Giovane  (1507), 
and  has  a  statue  of  St.  Susanna  by  Duquesnoy.  The 
Churches  of  S.  Maria  de'  Miracoli  and  *S.  Maria  di 
Monte  Santo  were  built  in  1662  by  Cardinal  Gastaldo, 
and  form  the  termination  of  three  streets— the 
Ripetta,  the  Corso  Umberto,  and  the  Babuino — 
which  lead  from  the  Piazza  del  Popolo.  S.  Maria 
dell'  Orto  (1489)  is  the  fruit-vendors'  church.  S. 
Maria  in  Trivio,  in  the  Piazza  di  Trevi,  has  a  beauti- 
ful fagade  of  the  fifteenth  century.  S.  Maria  in 
Lata,  a  very  ancient  diaconate,  stood  near  the  Arch 
of  Diocletian,  but  was  destroyed  in  1485;  its  present 
Bul)t('rran('an  form  is  due  to  Pietro  da  Cortona. 
H(T(>,  according  to  the  legend,  St.  Paul  and  St.  Mark 
were  imprisoned,  and  here  are  the  remains  of  the 
S(£pta  Julia  and  of  the  ancient  basilica,  with  some 
frescoes.  Santi  Martina  e  Lvca,  in  the  Forum,  oc- 
cupies the  site  of  the  Secretarium  Senatus;  it  existed 
before  the  seventh  century  and  contained  the  body 
of  St.  Martina  the  Roman  martyr;  in  1640  the  new 


ROME 


175 


ROME 


church  was  built  above  the  old  by  Pietro  da  Cortona 
(who  made  a  statue  of  St.  Martina),  and  was  dedicated 
to  St.  Luke,  being  the  church  of  the  Academy  of  St. 
Luke.  Sanli  Nereo  e  Achilleo,  on  the  Appian  Way, 
a  very  ancient  church,  contains  mosaics  of  the  time 
of  Leo  III  and  an  ambo  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
S.  Nicola  in  Carcere  stands  on  the  ruins  of  the  three 
temples  of  Pietas,  Juno  Sospita,  and  Spes.  Sati- 
tissimo  Nome  di  Maria,  in  Trajan's  Forum,  was  built 
to  commemorate  the  deliverance  of  Vienna  from  the 
Turks  (1683) .  One  Church  of  SS.  Pietro  e  Marcellino 
stands  in  the  Via  Merulana;  the  other  is  outside 
the  walls,  on  the  Labicana,  near  the  mausoleum  of 
St.  Helena.  S.  Prisca,  on  the  Aventine,  occupies  the 
site  of  the  temple  of  Diana  Aventina.  The  legend 
has  it  that  Priscilla,  the  wife  of  Aquila,  mentioned  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  as  entertaining  St.  Peter, 
Uved  here. 

S.  Pudenziana,  again,  is  associated  with  memories  of 
St.  Peter:  it  was  the  mansion  of  the  senator,  Pudens, 
whose  daughters,  Pudentiana  and  Praxedes,  gave  it 
to  St.  Pius  I,  and  from  that  time  it  became  a  church. 
Since  the  time  of  Siricius  (384)  it  has  had  the  form  of  a 
basilica,  and  its  apse  has  been  adorned  with  the  most 
beautiful  mosaics  in  Rome.  It  was  restored  in 
1598,  and  a  cupola  wa.s  added  with  frescoes  by 
Roncalli.  At  the  altar  of  St.  Peter  is  venerated  the 
wooden  table  which  St.  Peter  used  for  the  celebration 
of  the  Eucharist.  There  is  a  marble  group  of  Christ 
giving  the  keys  to  St.  Peter,  by  Giacomo  della 
Porta.  The  title  of  S.  Pudenziana  was  borne  bj^ 
Nicholas  Cardinal  Wiseman,  first  Archbishop  of 
Westminster.  S.  Saba,  on  the  Aventine,  existed  in 
the  time  of  St.  Gregory,  whose  mother  retired  to  a 
spot  near  by.  To  her  were  dedicated  some  ancient 
frescoes  recently  brought  to  light.  That  it  was  even 
then  the  abode  of  monks  is  indicated  by  the  name 
cella  and  by  an  ancient  burial-place  of  an  earlier  date 
(c.  649).  Here  a  community  of  Greek  monks  was 
installed  until  the  ninth  century.  After  that  it 
passed  to  the  Benedictines,  and  then  to  the  German 
College,  which  still  possesses  it.  S.  Salvatore  in 
Lauro,  the  church  of  the  Sodality  of  the  Piceni, 
earlier  than  the  thirteenth  century,  was  restored  in 
1450  and  in  1591 .  It  has  a  fine  cloister  and  the  tombs 
of  Maddalena  Orsini  and  of  Eugene  IV  (transferred 
hither  from  St.  Peter's),  the  work  of  Isaia  da  Pisa. 
S.  Sisto  Vecchio,  earlier  than  the  sixth  century,  has 
a  fine  campanile  and  frescoes  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Here  was  the  first  house  of  the  Dominicans  in  Rome 
The  title  was  borne  by  Cardinal  Langham,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  (see  Langham,  Simon).  S 
Spirito  in  Sassia  is  so  called  because  in  this  quarter 
(the  Borgo)  an  Anglo-Saxon  colony,  led  by  King 
Ina,  was  established,  with  a  church  called  S.  Maria  in 
Saxia.  In  1201  Innocent  III  built  a  hospital  and 
foundling  institute  which  was  entrusted  to  the  Hos- 
pitallers of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Sixtus  IV  removed  the 
hospital,  and  Paul  III  had  the  present  church  built 
by  Antonio  da  Sangallo  il  Giovane  (1544);  but  the 
campanile  dates  from  Callistus  III.  The  residence 
of  the  superior  (Palazzo  del  Commendatore  dello 
Spedale)  is  adjacent  to  the  church,  but  about  half 
of  it  has  been  pulled  down  for  the  construction  of  the 
Victor  Emmanuel  Bridge.  S.  Slefano  Rotondo, 
built  by  Pope  Simplicius  on  the  foundations  of  an 
ancient  building  consisting  of  three  concentric  cir- 
cles divided  by  two  rings  of  twenty  columns  in  all, 
is  decorated  with  frescoes  by  Pomarancio  and 
Tempesta.  It  was  the  titular  church  of  Cardinal 
Beaton,  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews  (see  Beaton, 
David),  and  now  belongs  to  the  German  College. 
S.  Susanna,  dedicated  to  the  Roman  martyr  of  that 
name,  dates  back  to  the  fourth  century.  In  its 
restoration  by  Maderno  (1600)  the  mosaics  of  796 
perished,  and  it  was  decorated  with  frescoes  by  Croce. 
It  was  the  titular  church  of  Cardinal  Moran,  Arch- 


bishop of  Sydney.  S.  Teodoro,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Palatine,  also  stands  on  a  circular  structure,  an 
ancient  diaconate.  It  has  a  mosaic  of  the  time  of 
Adrian  I.  Santissima  Trinita  dei  Monti  is  said  to 
have  been  built  through  the  munificence  of  Charles 
VIII  of  France.  Its  great  flight  of  stairs,  leading  from 
the  Piazza  di  Spagna,  was  built  by  order  of  Louis 
XIV.  It  contains  fine  pictures  of  the  school  of 
Perugino,  also  by  Raphael,  Pierin  del  Vaga,  Veit, 
Daniele  da  Volterra  (Taking  down  from  the  Cross). 
The  church  belongs  to  the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
who  have  an  institution  (1827)  in  the  chapel  of  which 
is  venerated  the  Ter  Admirabilis  (Thrice  Admirable) 
Madonna.  Of  the  churches  outside  the  City  special 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  sanctuary  of  the 
Madonna  del  Divino  Amore  (of  the  Divine  Love)  on 
the  Via  Ardeatina,  near  an  old  castle  of  the  Orsini, 
which  is  visited  by  a  great  concourse  of  people  on 
Whit-Monday. 

National  Churches. — S.  Antonio  (Portuguese); 
S.  Luigi  (French — 1496);  S.  Maria  dell'  Anima 
(German),  with  a  hospice  for  pilgrims  founded  in 
1399;  the  present  church  was  built  in  1500;  pictures 
by  Saraceni,  Seitz,  and  Giulio  Romano  (high  altar); 
tombs  of  Adrian  VI  and  Duke  Charles  Frederick  of 
Cleves  by  Lucas  Holstenius  (see  Roman  Colleges)  ; 
S.  Maria  della  Pieta,  with  the  German  Burial  Ground, 
dating  from  the  time  of  Charlemagne;  S.  Maria  di 
Monserrato  (Spanish).  Also  the  churches  of  various 
cities — Florence,  Naples,  Siena,  Venice,  Bergamo, 
Bologna,  the  Marches — of  Italy. — Churches  of  the 
Oriental  rites. — Besides  the  churches  of  the  various 
colleges  (see  Roman  Colleges),  the  following  should 
be  mentioned:  the  Armenian  Church  of  St.  Mary 
of  Egypt,  occupying  the  site  of  the  ancient  temple 
of  Fortuna  Virilis;  the  Gra;co-Melchite  Basilian 
Church  of  S.  Maria  in  Domnica  (mosaics  of  the  eighth 
century);  S.  Lorenzo  ai  Monti,  for  Graeco-Ruthenian 
Uniats.  Moreover  there  are  eight  Protestant 
churches  intended  for  propaganda  work,  each  having 
one  or  two  halls,  known  as  sale  crisliane,  connected 
with  it,  while  five  others  are  principally  for  the  bene- 
fit of  foreigners,  and  the  Germans  have  decidedl  to 
build  one  more.  The  Orthodox  Russians,  too,  have 
a  church,  where  the  Bishop  of  Kronstadt  officiates. 
The  Hebrews  have  a  large  new  synagogue  and  an 
oratory,  besides  a  school  of  religious  learning  and 
various  benevolent  organizations. 

Non-religious  Buildings. — The  Palace  of  the 
Cancclleria,  by  Bramante;  the  Curia  of  Innocent  X, 
now  occupied  by  the  Italian  Parliament ;  the  Quirinal 
Palace,  the  king's  residence,  built  by  Gregory  XIII 
and  enlarged  by  Paul  V  and  Pius  VI,  where  the  popes 
formerly  resided,  and  the  conclaves  were  held;  the 
Palazzo  di  Giustizia,  built  by  Calderari  entirely  of 
travertine;  the  Bank  of  Italy  (Koch)  and  the  Palazzo 
Buoncompagni,  the  residence  of  the  queen-mother; 
the  Palazzo  Braschi  (offices  of  the  Ministry  of  In- 
ternal Affairs),  Palazzi  Capitolini  (Michelangelo), 
Palazzo  del  Consulta  (Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs), 
Villa  Medici  (French  Academy),  Palazzo  Venezia 
(Austrian  Embassy),  built  by  Paul  II,  Palazzo 
Corsini  (Accademia  dei  Lincei),  Palazzo  Farnese 
(Michelangelo),  now  the  property  of  France  and  oc- 
cupied by  the  French  Embassy.  Among  the  private 
palaces  are  the  Altieri  (Clement  X),  Barberini 
(Bernini),  Borghese  (Paul  V),  Caetani  (Ammannati), 
Pamfili,  Esedra,  Giraud  (Bramante — now  belonging 
to  the  Torlonia  family),  Massimo,  Odescalchi, 
Farnesina  (Sangallo),  and  Ruspoli.  The  chief  private 
villas  are  the  Doria  Pamfili  and  the  Massimo  (fres- 
coes by  Overbeck).  Of  all  the  public  monuments 
we  need  mention  only  that  recently  inaugurated  to 
the  memory  of  Victor  Emmanuel  II  at  the  back  of 
the  Capitoline  Hill,  consisting  of  a  gilded  equestrian 
statue,  with  a  semicircular  colonnade  behind  it.  The 
principal  fountains  are:  the  Acqua  Paola,  on  the 


ROME 


176 


ROME 


Janiculum  (Paul  V^:  the  Piazza  S.  Pictro  fountain, 
the  Tartarughc  vRaphaol^  the  Fontana  del  Tntone 
(.Bemini\  and.  most  magnificent  of  all.  the  Trevi 
(Clement  XII.  Nicola  Salvi). 

Principal  ancient  Edifices  and  Monuments.— The 
Flavian  Amphitheatre,  or  Coloj^seum,  begun  by  \'es- 
pasian.  Much  of  its  material,  particularly  on  the 
south  side,  has  been  pilfered,  this  destructive  practice 
having  been  cfTectivelv  stopped  only  in  the  eighteenth 
centurj-.  The  Arch  of  Const  ant  ine  was  erected  in 
312  to  commemorate  the  victory-  over  Maxentius, 
the  decorations  being,  in  part,  taken  from  the  Arch 
of  Trajan.  That  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  on  the  Flamin- 
ian  Way  (Corso),  was  removed  by  Alexander  MI; 
its  decorations  are  preserved  in  the  Capitol.  That  of 
Septimius  Severus  (203)  is  richly  decorated  with 
Btatues  and  bas-rehefs;  that  of  Titus,  commemorating 
his  victory-  over  the  Jews,  has  the  celebrated  bas- 
rehef  representing  objects  taken  from  the  Temple 
of  Jerusalem;  that  of  Dnisus  (Trajan?)  is  near  the 
Porta  S.  Sebastiano.  The  Arch  of  Dolabella  (a. 
D.  10)  is  surmounted  by  three  conduits  taken  from  a 
branch  of  the  Aqua  Claudia.  The  Arch  of  Gallienus 
dates  from  a.  d.  262.  The  secular  basilicas  are  the 
iEmilian,  or  Fulvian  (167  b.  c),  the  Julian  (54  b.  c), 
the  Basilica  of  Constantine  (a.  d.  306-10),  and  the 
Ulpian,  on  the  Forum  of  Trajan,  with  which  a  library 
was  once  connected. 

For  Christian  catacombs  see  Catacombs,  Roman. 
The  most  important  catacombs  of  the  Hebrews  are 
those  of  \'igna  Randanini,  on  the  Appian  Way. 

The  Circuses  are:  that  of  Domitian,  now  the 
Piazza  Navona;  the  Flaminian  (the  Palazzo  Mattei); 
the  Circus  Maximus,  the  oldest  of  all,  erected  in  the 
Murcian  Valley,  between  the  Palatine  and  the  Aven- 
tine,  where,  even  in  the  days  of  Romulus,  races  and 
other  pubhc  amu.sements  used  to  be  held  (as  on  the 
occasion  of  the  Rape  of  the  Sabines);  that  of  Nero, 
near  St.  Peter's,  where  the  Apostle  was  martyred; 
that  of  Maxentius,  outside  the  citj^  near  the  Via 
Appia.  Trajan's  Cr'umn,  on  the  forum  of  the  same 
name,  with  a  spiral  design  of  the  emperor's  warlike 
exploits,  is  100  Roman  feet  (about  97  English  feet) 
in  height,  erected  by  the  senate  and  people  a.  d. 
113.  That  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  with  reliefs  showing 
the  wars  with  the  Marcomanni,  Quadi,  Sarmati,  etc. 
(172-75),  is  interesting  for  its  representation  of  the 
miraculous  rainfall  which,  as  earlj'  as  TertuUian's 
time,  was  attributed  to  the  prayers  of  the  Christian 
Bfjldiers.  This  column  bears  a  bronze  statue  of  St. 
Paul,  as  Trajan's  Ls  crowned  with  a  statue  of  St. 
Pet«r  (Sixtus  \',  1589).  That  of  Phocas  was  erected 
in  608  by  the  exarch  Smaragdus.  The  Roman 
pVjrum  was  originally  the  swampy  valley  between  the 
Palatine,  Capitoline,  and  Esquiline,  which  became 
a  market  and  a  meeting-place  for  the  transaction  of 
public  buKiness.  Sfxin  it  was  surrounded  with 
fihops  and  public  buildings — basilicas,  the  Curia 
HoHtilia,  the  R/Jstra,  or  platform  for  public  speakers, 
and  various  tempU^.  Other  forums  were  those  of 
Augustus,  of  I'eace,  of  Nero,  the  JuHan,  and  Trajan's, 
all  in  the  HUTnc.  neighbourhfK)d. 

The  Mauwileum  of  Augustus,  between  the  Corso  and 
the  \'ia  Rip<'tta,  is  now  a  concert  hall.  The  Mauso- 
leum of  Harlrian  (Castle  of  S.  Angelo)  was  used  as  a 
forlrfjHH  by  fioths  and  Romans  as  early  as  the  sixth 
cx;ntur>';  in  the  t^-nth  and  following  centuries  it  often 
Hf-rve/l  a«  a  urmm,  voluntary'  or  compulsory,  for  the 
pt)j>(*\  li^jnilacf;  IX,  Alexander  VI,  and  Urban  \'I1I 
were  the  popes  who  did  most  U)  restore  and  trans- 
form it.  The  Tomb  of  Ca-cilia  Metella,  on  the  Via 
Appia,  still  fairly  well  prfKer\ed,  was  a  stronghfild 
of^  the  Caxjtani  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  from  them 
pnuMf]  to  fheRavelli  and  theC'olonna.  The  Pyramid 
f»f  C'aiuH  f'a-Htius  (\\m<-  of  Augustus)  is  more  than  120 
fi->-\  in  h'-ight.  The  tomb  of  Eurysac/'S,  outside  lhf> 
Porta  Maggiorc,  hae  interesting  bas-reliefs  showing 


the  various  operations  of  baking  bread.  That  of  the 
Scipios.  near  the  Gate  of  St.  Sebastian,  was  discovered 
in  1780,  with  the  sarcophagus  of  Scipio  Barbatus, 
consul  in  298,  which  is  now  in  the  Vatican  Mu.'^eum. 
The  Appian  Way  was  lined  with  numbers  of  sepul- 
chral monuments;  among  these  mention  may  be  made 
here  cf  the  columhario,  or  grottoes  where'  a  family 
or  an  association  was  wont  to  deposit  in  niches  the 
cinerarj'  urns  of  its  members.  The  most  important 
of  these  arc  in  the  ^■igna  Codini  and  near  S.  Giovanni 
in  Oleo. 

With  Septimius  Severus  a  new  architectural  period 
was  inaugurated,  which  was  continued  by  Ilelioga- 
balus  and  .\lexander  Severus.  The  house  of  Augustus, 
that  of  Tiberius,  the  hippodrome,  the  library,  the 
house  of  Livia,  the  pcrdagogium,  or  quarters  of  the 
imperial  pages  (where  the  celebrated  drawing  of  a 
certain  Alexamenos  adoring  a  crucified  ass  was  dis- 
covered)— all  these  are  still  clearly  distinguishable. 
There  were  also  a  temple  of  the  Great  Mother 
(205  B.  c),  one  of  Jupiter  Victor  (295  b.  c. — com- 
memorating the  victory  of  Sentinum),  and  one  of 
Apollo,  surrounded  by  a  great  portico  in  the  enclosure 
of  which  now  stands  the  Church  of  S.  Sebastiano 
in  Palladio.  In  the  substructures  of  the  palace  of 
Caligula  was  discovered  some  years  ago  the  ancient 
basilica  of  S.  Maria  Antiqua,  probably  dating  from 
the  fourth  centurj-,  in  which  frescoes  of  the  eighth 
and  ninth  centuries  (including  a  portrait  of  Po]h'  St. 
Zacharias,  then  living)  were  found.  It  is  evident  at 
certain  points,  where  the  paintings  have  been  broken, 
that  two  other  layers  of  painting  lie  beneath.  Gther 
temples  are  those  of  Concordia,  three  columns  of 
which  are  still  standing  in  the  Roman  Forum,  built  in 
388  b.  c.  for  the  ])eace  between  the  Patricians  and  the 
Plebeians,  and  in  which  the  Senate  often  assembled; 
of  the  Deus  Rediculus,  outside  the  city,  near  the 
Appian  Way,  on  the  spot  where'  Hannibal,  alarmed 
by  a  vision,  resolved  to  retire  without  besieging  Rome; 
of  Castor  and  Pollux,  built  in  484  b.  c.  to  com- 
memorate the  victory  of  Lake  Regillus,  over  the  Lat- 
ins, and  restored  in  117  (three  columns  remaining); 
of  Faustina  and  Antoninus  (S.  Lorenzo  in  Miranda); 
of  Fortuna  Virilis  (second  century  b.  c;  now  the 
Church  of  St.  Marj'  of  Egypt);  of  Julius  Casar, 
erected  by  Augustus  in  the  Forum,  on  the  spot  where 
Ca?sar's  body  was  burned;  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus, 
now  the  German  Emba.'^sy;  of  Mars  I'ltor  (the 
Avenger)  erected  in  the  Forum  of  Augustus  to  ful- 
fil his  vow  made  at  the  battle  of  Philippi.  where  he 
avenged  the  assassination  of  Caesar;  of  Minerva 
Medica,  which  is,  indeeil,  rather  a  nympha-um,  or  re- 
servoir for  distributing  the  water  su])ply;  of  Neptune, 
with  its  stone  piazza,  now  the  Exchange;  of  Peace, 
b)iilt  by  Vespasian  after  his  victory  over  the  Jews; 
of  Romulus  (the  son  of  Maxentius),  which  now,  like 
Sacrse  Urbis  temple  (of  the  Holy  City),  forms  part 
of  Santi  Cosmo  c  Damiano;  of  Saturn,  in  theFonmi. 
The  two  temples  of  \'enus  and  Rome  ha\e  their 
apses  touching  each  other,  and  were  surrounded  by 
a  common  peristyle,  a  i)lan  designed  by  the  Emperor 
Hadrian  hnnself;  to  the  temple  of  \'esta,  below  the 
Palatine,  is  annexed  the  house  of  the  Vestals:  the 
small  round  temjile  of  the  Mater  Matuba,  in  the 
Forum  Boarium,  h;is  been  commonly  called  Vesta's. 

Characteristic  of  Rome  are  the  lofty  brick  towers, 
generally  square,  with  few  windows,  which  may  still 
be  seen  here  and  tlicre  throughout,  the  city.  They 
were  built,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centurifs,  and  are  monuments  of  the  discard 
between  the  most  powerful  families  of  Rome.  'Ihe 
most  important  of  them  are:  the  Torre  .\nguill;ira 
in  Tnifitevere,  adjoining  the  piilace  of  the  Anguillara 
family,  reconstructed  and  iised  as  a  medieval  museum; 
the  two  Capocci  towers,  in  the  Via  Giovanni  Lanz.-i; 
th:it  of  the  Conti,  onrc  the  largest  and  strongest, 
built  by  Riccardo,  brother  of  Innocent  III;  that  of 


ROME 


177 


ROME 


the  Scimmia,  or  of  the  Frangipani,  near  S.  Antonio  dci 
Portoghcsi,  surmounted  by  a  statue  of  the  Madonna; 
the  Torre  Millina,  in  the  Via  dell'  Anima;  the  Torre 
Sanguigna.  The  Torre  delle  Milizie  has  been 
erroneously  called  "Nero's  Tower",  that  emperor 
being  supposed  to  have  watched  from  it  the  burning 
of  Rome;  it  was  built,  however,  under  Innocent  III, 
by  his  sons  Piero  and  Alessio,  partisans  of  the  senator 
Pandolfo,  who  opposed  the  pope's  brother  Riccardo. 

Guida  Commerciale  di  Roma  e  Provincia  (annual) ;  Monografia 
della  cilia  di  Roma  (publ.  of  the  Italian  Ministry  of  Agriculture, 
Rome,  1881). 

History. — Mommsen,  tr.  Dickson,  The  History  of  Rome 
(London,  1886) ;  Dyer,  A  History  of  the  City  of  Rome  (London, 
1865) ;  Gregorovius,  History  of  the  City  of  Rome  in  the  Middle 
Ages  (London,  1894-1902);  Gris.\R,  Geschichte  Roms  und  der 
Papste  im  Mittelaller  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1901);  Reumont,  Gesch. 
Roms  im  Mittelalter  (Stuttgart,  1905);  Adinolfi,  Roma  nelV  eta 
di  mezzo  (Rome,  1881) ;  Tommassetti,  La  Campagna  di  Roma 
1879-1910;  Ehrle,  Roma  prima  di  Sisto  V  (Rome,  1908); 
Pompili-Olivieri,  II  Senalo  Romano  {1143-1870)  (Rome,  1886); 
Calvi,  Bibliografia  di  Roma  nel  Medio  Evo  (476-1499)  (Rome, 
1906);    Appendix  (more  complete)  (1908). 

Monuments,  Antiquities,  etc. — Chandlery,  Pilgrim  Walks 
in  Rome  (St.  Louis  and  London,  1905);  Crawford,  Ave,  Roma 
Immortalis  (London,  1905) ;  de  Waal,  Roma  Sacra  (Munich, 
1905);  Stettiner,  Roma  nei  suoi  monumenti  (Rome,  1911); 
Angeli,  Roma,  in  Italia  A rtistica,  XXXVH,  XL  (Bergamo,  1908); 
Petersen,  Das  alte  Rom  (Leipzig,  s.  d.);  Steinmann,  Rom  in  der 
Renaissance  (Leipzig,  1902);  Lanciani,  Pagan  and  Christian 
Rome  (Boston,  1893);  Idem,  Ancient  Rome  (New  York,  1889); 
Idem,  Forum  e  Palatino;  Boissier,  Promenades  archeologiques 
(Paris,  1881);  Richter,  Topographic  der  Stadt  Rom  (Nordlinger, 
1889);  NiBBY,  Roma  e  suoi  dintorni  (Rome,  1829);  Helbig, 
Guide  to  the  Public  Collections  of  Classical  Antiquities  in  Rome 
(Leipzig,  1895-96);  Armellini,  Le  chiese  di  Roma  (Rome,  1891); 
Angeu,  Le  chiese  di  Roma  (Milan,  1906). 

Arch^ological  Reviews. — Bulletino  d' Arch.  Crist.  (1863 — ): 
Nuovo  Bulletino  d'Arch.  crist.  (1895 — );  Bulletino  della  Comis- 
sione  arch,  comunnle  di  Roma  (1873 — );  Archivo  della  Societa 
Romana  di  Storia  Patria  (Rome,  1877 — );  Notizie  degli  scavi  di 
antichitd  (Rome,  1876 — );   Ann.  Ecclesiaslico  (Rome,  1911). 

U.  Benigni. 

University  op  Rome. — The  University  of  Rome 
must  be  distinguished  from  the  "Studium  Generale 
apud  Curiam",  established  by  Innocent  IV  in  1244-5 
at  Lyons  for  the  convenience  of  the  members  of  the 
pontifical  Court  and  of  the  persons  who  flocked  from 
all  over  the  world  to  the  Holy  Sec.  The  Studium  com- 
prised the  faculties  of  theology  and  of  canon  and  civil 
law.  Clerics  and  priests  could  not  only  attend  the 
lectures  in  the  latter  branch,  but  were  allowed  to 
teach  it,  despite  the  prohibition  of  Honorius  III.  The 
Studium  accompanifMl  the  popes  on  all  their  journeys 
and  was  thus  transferred  to  Avignon.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  Decree  of  the  Council  of  Viennc,  the 
Studium  Curise  was  the  first,  owing  to  the  generosity 
of  John  XXII,  to  establish  chairs  of  Arabic,  Hebrew, 
and  Chaldaic;  there  was,  moreover,  a  professor  of 
Armenian.  At  Avignon  profes.sorships  of  medicine 
were  also  instituted.  During  the  Schism  both  the 
popes  at  Avignon  and  those  at  Rome  had  a  Studium 
Generale;  but  in  the  former  theology  alone  w;is  taught. 
In  the  fifteenth  century  the  Studium  Generale  was 
abolished  in  favour  of  the  University  of  Rome.  Pre- 
viously King  Charles  of  Anjou,  out  of  gratitude  for 
his  election  as  senator  of  Rome,  had  decided,  14 
October,  1265,  to  erect  a  Studium  Generale  "tam 
utriusque  juris  quam  artium"  (of  civil  and  canon  law 
and  of  arts),  but  his  plan  was  not  carried  into  execu- 
tion. The  real  founder  of  the  University  of  Rome  was 
Boniface  VIII  (Bull  "Insupremie"  of  20  April,  1303), 
who  established  it  in  order  that  Rome,  the  recipient 
of  so  many  Divine  favours,  might  become  the  fruitful 
mother  of  science.  The  chief  source  of  revenue  of  the 
university  was  the  tribute  which  Tivoli  and  Ris- 
pampano  paid  the  City  of  Rome.  It  is  worthy  of 
note  that  a  school  of  law  already  existed  in  Rome  in 
the  thirteenth  century. 

The  transference  of  the  papal  Court  to  Avignon  did 
not  at  first  injure  the  Studium  Generale.  John  XXI I 
took  a  deep  interest  in  it,  but  limited  the  granting  of 
degrees  to  the  two  faculties  of  law.  The  Vicar  of 
Rome  was  to  preside  at  the  examinations;  to  obtain  a 
degree  the  candidate  had  to  study  six  years  (five  for 
XIII— 12 


canon  law)  and  profess  the  same  for  two  years.  There 
exist  documents  from  the  year  1369  showing  that  de- 
grees were  then  granted.  But  later,  in  the  days  of 
anarchy  that  overtook  the  city,  the  Studium  gradually 
decayed.  In  1363  the  statutes  were  reformed;  among 
other  changes,  provision  was  made  for  obtaining  for- 
eign professors,  who  would  be  independent  of  the 
various  factions  in  the  city.  In  1370,  however,  or  a 
little  later,  the  Studium  was  entirely  closed.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  century  the  Roman  Commune  tried  to 
restore  the  university  by  offering  very  large  salaries 
to  the  professors.  Innocent  VII  in  1406  gave  it  new 
statutes  and  arranged  with  Manuel  Chrysoloras  to 
accept  the  chair  of  Greek  literature.  But  the  death 
of  Innocent  and  the  subsequent  political  and  eccle- 
siastical troubles  frustrated  this  plan.  The  real  re- 
storer of  the  university  was  Eugene  IV  (10  October, 
1431).  He  drew  up  regulations  for  the  liberty  ancl 
immunity  of  the  professors  and  students,  and  in- 
creased the  revenues  by  adding  to  them  the  duties 
imposed  on  wnes  imported  from  abroad.  For  the 
purpose  of  government,  four  rcformaiores,  Roman 
citizens,  were  appointed  to  assist  the  rector.  The 
position  of  chancellor  was  given  to  the  cardinal- 
camerlengo.  The  university  was  located  near  the 
Chun-h  of  Sant'  Eustachio,  where  it  had  first  been 
established.  The  first  college  for  poor  students  was 
the  Collegium  Capranica  (1458,  see  Roman  Col- 
leges) ;  but  the  later  plan  of  establishing  another  was 
not  re.-ilized.  The  Studium  of  law  soon  flourished; 
but  the  theological  faculty,  on  account  of  the  com- 
petition of  the  Studium  Curi;r,  was  not  so  successful. 
Under  Nicholas  V  the  classical  studies  developed 
rapidly  owing  to  the  labours  of  Lorenzo  Valla,  Poggio 
Bracciolini,  Bnmi,  Francesco  Filelfo,  Pomi)oni()  Leto, 
and  the  Greeks,  Lascaris,  Chalcocondylas,  and  Mu- 
suros.  But  the  process  against  the  Academia  Romana 
under  Paul  II  reacted  on  the  university.  Sixtus  IV 
intended  to  suppress  it  and  reduced  the  salaries 
of  the  professors.  Better  days  returned  with  Alex- 
ander VI,  who  began  the  present  building  of  the 
Sapienza,  which  was  remodelled  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  It  seems,  however,  that  it  was  Leo  X  who 
suppressed  the  Studium  Curise  in  favour  of  the 
University  of  Rome.  In  1514  the  latter  had  88  pro- 
fessors: 4  of  theology,  11  of  canon  law,  20  of  civil  law, 
15  of  medicine,  the  remainder  teaching  philosophy, 
mathematics,  rhetoric,  grammar,  and  botany.  Lec- 
tures were  given  even  on  feast  days.  The  number  of 
students  was  very  small,  being  frequently  less  than 
the  number  of  professors.  The  blame  is  to  be  laid 
on  the  latter,  whose  other  official  and  professional 
duties  interfered  with  their  lectures.  Leo  X  estab- 
lished in  the  Campidoglio  a  chair  of  Roman  history, 
the  lectures  to  be  open  to  the  pubhc;  the  finst  to  fill 
the  position  was  EvangeUsta  Maddaleni  Capodiferro. 
Leo  also  granted  a  new  constitution  to  the  university, 
obliged  the  professors  to  hold  a  "circle"  with  the 
students  after  their  lectures,  forbade  them  to  exercise 
any  other  profession,  and  imposed  a  penalty  for 
lectures  omitted.  He  appointed  three  cardinals  pro- 
tectors of  the  university. 

As  a  result  of  the  occurrences  of  1527,  the  university 
remained  closed  during  the  entire  pontificate  of  Clem- 
ent VII.  Paul  III  immediately  after  his  accession 
reopened  it,  obtaining  distinguished  professors,  such 
as  Lainez,  S.J.,  for  theology,  Faber,  S.J.,  for  Scrip- 
ture, Copernicus  for  astronomy,  and  Accorambono 
for  medicine.  It  is  from  this  date  that  the  university 
assumed  the  name  of  the  Sapienza  (a  name  used 
previously  elsewhere,  as  at  Perugia).  In  1539  the 
professors  numbered  24;  2  of  theology,  8  of  canon  and 
civil  law,  5  of  medicine  (one  teaching  anatomy  and 
one  botany),  5  of  philosophy,  3  of  Latin,  and  1  of 
Greek  literature.  Julius  III  entrusted  the  administra- 
tion to  a  congregation  of  cardinals.  Pius  V  enlarged 
the  botanical  garden  of  medical  herbs  pre\aously  estab- 


ROME 


178 


ROME 


lished  near  the  Vatican  by  Nicholas  V,  and  allowed 
the  bodies  of  Jews  and  condemned  infidels  to  be  used 
for  the  purposes  of  anatomical  study.  He  also 
established  chairs  of  Hebrew  and  mathematics.  A 
mineralogical  museum  (the  "Metalloteca",  which 
was  after  abandoned)  was  founded  in  the  Vatican. 
Under  Gregory  XIII  adjunct  chairs  with  salary  at- 
tached were  established  for  the  young  doctors  of 
Rome,  who  might  later  become  ordinary  professors. 
In  that  and  the  following  centuries  the  professors  of 
theolog>'  were  generally  the  procurators  general  of 
the  various  religious  orders.  Sixtus  V  granted  22,000 
scudi  to  extinguish  the  debt  encumbering  the  univer- 
sity. He  gave  to  the  college  of  consistorial  advocates 
the  exclusive  right  of  electing  the  rector  who,  until 
then,  had  been  elected  by  the  professors  and  the 
students,  and  he  instituted  a  congregation  of  car- 
dinals, "Pro  Universitate  Studii  Romani".  At  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  university  began  to 
dechne,  especially  in  the  faculties  of  theology,  philos- 
ophy, and  hterature.  This  was  due  in  part  to  the 
forrnidable  concurrence  of  the  Jesuits  in  their  Col- 
legio  Romano,  where  the  flower  of  the  intellect  of 
the  Society  was  engaged  in  teaching.  Moreover, 
Plato  was  the  favoured  master  in  the  Sapienza,  while 
Aristotle  was  more  generally  followed  elsewhere. 
Among  the  distinguished  professors  in  this  century 
besides  those  alreadv  mentioned  were  Tommaso  de 
Vio,  O.P.,  later  the  celebrated  Cardinal  Gaetano; 
Domenico  Jacovazzi ;  Felice  Peretti  (Sixtus  V) ;  Marco 
Antonio  Muret,  professor  of  law  and  elegant  Latinist; 
Bartolomeo  Eustacchio,  the  famous  anatomist. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  decline  was  rapid. 
Many  of  the  professors  had  the  privilege  of  lecturing 
only  when  they  pleased;  most  of  them  were  foreigners. 
The  medical  school  alone  continued  to  prosper  owing 
to  the  labours  of  Cesalpino  and  Lancisi.  The  Ac- 
cademia  dei  Lincei  promoted  the  study  of  the  natural 
sciences  and  was  honoured  by  Benedettino  CastelU, 
the  disciple  and  friend  of  Gahlei,  and  Andrea  Argoli; 
later  Vito  Giordani  the  mathematician  attracted  many 
students.  Only  two  jurisconsults  of  note  are  found 
during  this  century,  Farinacci  and  Grav-ina.  Giu.seppe 
Carpani  brought  the  students  together  at  his  home  to 
familiarize  them  with  the  practice  of  law.  The  most 
important  event  of  the  century  occurred  in  1660, 
under  Alexander  VII  (1655-67),  when  the  university 
buildings  begun  by  Alexander  VI  (1492-1503)  were 
complet<jd.  Alexander  VII  established  moreover  the 
university  library  (the  Alexandrine  Library)  by  ob- 
taining from  the  Clerks  Regular  Minors  of  Urbania, 
whom  he  compensated  by  giving  them  permanently 
the  chair  of  ethics,  the  pnnted  books  from  the  library 
of  the  Dukes  of  Urbino.  In  addition  he  founded  six 
new  chairs,  among  which  was  that  of  controversial 
church  history,  first  filled  by  the  Portuguese  Fran- 
cesco Macedo.  Innocent  XI  erected  a  fine  anatomical 
hall.  The  most  celebrated  and  relatively  speaking 
most  frequented  schools  were  those  of  the  Oriental 
languages.  Under  Innocent  XII  a  move  was  made 
to  suppress  the  university  and  assign  the  buildings  to 
the  Piarists  for  the  free  education  of  young  boys. 
Fortunately  the  plan  was  not  only  not  executed  but 
rf«ult<^Ki  in  a  radical  reform  and  the  introduction 
(1700)  of  a  new  regime  which  benefited  in  particular 
the  faculty  of  law. 

Clement  XI  purchased  (170.3)  with  his  private 
funds  some  fields  on  the  Janiculum,  where  he  estab- 
lishe<i  a  botanical  garden,  which  soon  became  the 
most  celebratfd  in  Europe  through  the  labours  of 
the  brothers  Trionfetti.  Benedict  XIV,  who  had 
bef;n  a  professfjr  and  rector  of  th(!  university  (1706- 
V.i),  promulgaUid  in  1744  n<'w  regulations  concerning 
especially  the  vacations,  the  order  of  examinations, 
and  the  sf;lection  of  fjrofessors,  which  was  to  be  by 
competitive  examination,  whereas  from  the  time  f)f 
Innocent  XII  they  were  ordinarily  appointed  by  the 


pope.  Another  Edict  (1748)  dealt  with  the  rights 
and  duties  of  the  professors  and  established  chairs  of 
chemistry,  botany,  and  experimental  physics.  The 
following  chairs  were  then  in  existence:  6  of  juris- 
prudence; 6  of  medicine;  15  of  arts  (including  theol- 
ogy). In  1778  the  sciences  were  divided  into  five 
classes:  theology,  5  chairs;  jurisprudence,  6;  medicine, 
9;  philosophy  and  arts,  5;  languages  (Latin,  Greek, 
Arabic,  Hebrew,  Syriac).  But  a  rector  of  that  time 
deplored  the  inertia  of  the  professors  and  the  laziness 
of  the  students.  Pius  VII  (1804)  founded  the  min- 
eralogical and  natural  history  museum,  and  in  1806 
a  chair  of  veterinary  science.  From  1809  till  1813 
the  French  system  was  in  force.  Leo  XIII  in  1824 
established  the  Congregation  of  Studies,  and  gave  it 


CORTILK    OF    THE    SaPIENZA 

control  of  the  universities  in  the  pontifical  state. 
Many  professors  at  Rome  as  at  Bologna  had  to  resign 
their  chairs  on  account  of  their  political  opinions, 
which  resulted  in  the  university  failing  to  keep  pace 
with  the  universities  in  other  states,  for  instance,  the 
chairs  of  public  and  commercial  law  were  not  founded 
till  1848;  and  that  of  political  economy  still  later. 
Among  the  distinguished  professors  of  the  eighteenth 
century  were  the  jurists,  Fagnano,  Renazzi  (also  the 
historian  of  the  university),  Petrocchi;  the  professors 
of  medicine,  Baglivi,  Tozzi,  Pascoli;  the  mathema- 
tician, Quartaroni ;  the  Syrian  scholar,  Assemani ;  and 
Menzini  and  Fontanini  the  Htt6rateurs;  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  Abbate  Tortolini  and  Chelini, 
mathematicians.  In  1870  there  were  6  profcs.sors  of 
theology,  8  of  law,  2  of  notarial  art,  13  of  medicine, 
4  of  pharmacy,  11  of  surgery,  3  of  veterinary  science, 
15  of  philo.sophy  and  mathematics,  8  of  Italian  and 
classical  philology,  and  4  of  Oriental  languages.  Under 
the  new  Government  all  the  professors  who  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance!  were  dismissed,  among 
those  refusing  being  the  entire  theological  staff. 
These  alone  then  formed  th((  pontifical  university, 
which  came  to  an  end  in  1S76. 

The  university  is  now  under  the  control  of  the 
Italian  Government  and  is  called  the  Royal  Univer- 


ROMERO 


179 


ROMULUS 


sity.  Its  present  state  is  as  follows:  philosophy  and 
letters,  chairs  ordinary,  23,  extraordinary,  3;  tutors, 
13;  physics  and  mathematics,  chairs  ordinary,  23, 
extraordinary,  7;  tutors,  16;  law,  chairs  ordinary, 
16;  tutors,  8;  medicine,  chairs  ordinary,  20,  extraor- 
dinary, 2;  tutors,  15;  philosophy  and  letters, 
prof  essors,  33 ;  docents,  33;  physics  and  mathematics, 
professors,  34  (with  4  assistants);  docents,  41;  law 
professors,  17;  docents,  36;  medicine,  professors,  35; 
docents,  98.  Annexed  to  the  university  are  schools 
of  philosophy,  literature,  and  natural  science,  ar- 
chaeology, medieval  and  modern  art.  Oriental  lan- 
guages, pharmacy,  and  applied  engineering.  There 
are  also  institutes  of  pedagogy,  chemistry,  physics, 
mineralogy,  zoology,  botany,  anatomy,  anthropology, 
geology,  physiology,  the  astronomical  observatory 
of  the  Campidoglio,  many  medical  institutes  and 
clinics,  and  finally  the  Alexandrine  library.  The 
number  of  students  in  1909-10  was  3686.  Owing  to 
the  growth  of  the  university  after  1870,  the  building 
of  the  Sapienza  was  insufficient,  consequently  the 
schools  of  physical  and  natural  sciences  had  to  be 
located  elsewhere. 

See  the  Annuario  della  Reale  Universitd  degli  studi  di  Roma 
(1870-71  to  1909-10);  Renazzi,  Storia  dell'  Universitd  degli 
Studi  di  Roma  (Rome,  1803-6);  Carafa,  De  Gymnasia  Romano 
eiusque  professoribus  ab  Urbe  condita  (Rome,  1751);  Den'ifle, 
Die  Universitdten  des  Mittelallers,  I  (Berlin,  188.5) ;  Relazione  e 
notizie  intorno  alia  Regia  Universitd  di  Roma  (Rome,  1873); 

U.  Beniqni. 

Romero,  Juan,  missionary  and  Indian  linguist,  b. 
in  the  village  of  Machena,  Andalusia,  Spain,  1559; 
d.  at  Santiago,  Chile,  31  Alarch,  1630.  He  entered 
the  Society  of  Je.sus  in  1580,  was  assigned  to  the  South 
American  mission  in  1588,  and  arrived  in  Peru  in 
January,  1590,  to  take  up  his  work  among  the  Indians. 
From  1593  to  1598  he  was  superior  of  the  missions  of 
Tucuman,  the  missionary  centre  for  the  wild  tribes 
of  what  is  now  northern  Argentina.  After  a  term  as 
procurator  in  Rome,  he  returned  to  South  America  in 
1610  and  was  successively  superior  of  the  Jesuit  college 
at  Buenos  Aires,  rector  of  the  colleges  of  Santiago  del 
Estero,  Argentina,  and  Santiago,  Chile,  and  first  vice- 

?)rovincial  of  Chile.  In  his  long  service  of  nearly 
orty  years  as  active  or  directing  missionary  Father 
Romero  acquired  a  more  or  Iciss  fluent  knowknlge  of 
several  Indian  languages,  particularly  of  the  Guarani 
(q.  V.)  of  Paraguay,  on  which  he  was  an  authority. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  numerous  letters  and 
shorter  papers  and  of  an  important  manuscript  work, 
"De  Praedestinatione." 

SoMMERVOGEL,  BibUolhkque  de  la  C.  de  J.,  pt.  I  (Brusisels  and 
Paris,  1896),  bibliogr.  vii;  sketch  in  Lozano,  Historia  de  la  Com- 
paflia  de  Jesus  de  la  Provincia  del  Paraguay  (2  vols.,  Madrid, 

1754-5).  James  Mooney. 

Romuald,  Saint,  b.  at  Ravenna,  probably  about 
950;  d.  at  Val-di-Castro,  19  June,  1027.  St.  Peter 
Damian,  his  first  biographer,  and  almost  all  the 
Camaldolese  writers  assert  that  St.  Romuald's  age  at 
his  death  was  one  hundred  and  twenty,  and  that 
therefore  he  was  bom  about  907.  This  is  disputed  by 
most  modern  writers.  Such  a  date  not  only  results  in 
a  series  of  improbabilities  with  regard  to  events  in  the 
saint's  life,  but  is  al.so  irreconcilable  with  known  dates, 
and  probably  was  determined  from  some  mistaken  in- 
ference by  St.  Peter  Damian  In  his  youth  Romuald 
indulged  in  the  usual  thoughtless  and  even  vicious 
life  of  the  tenth-century  noble,  yet  felt  greatly  drawn 
to  the  eremetical  life.  At  the  age  of  twenty,  struck 
with  horror  because  his  father  had  killed  an  enemy  in  a 
duel,  he  fled  to  the  Abbey  of  San  Apollinare-in-Olasse 
and  after  some  hesitation  entered  religion.  San 
Apollinare  had  recently  been  reformed  by  St.  Maieul 
of  Cluny,  but  still  was  not  strict  enough  in  its  observ- 
ance to  satisfy  Romuald.  His  injudicious  correction 
of  the  less  zealous  aroused  such  enmity  against  him 
that  he  applied  for,  and  was  readily  granted,  permis- 
sion to  retire  to  Venice,  where  he  placed  himself  under 


the  direction  of  a  hermit  named  Marinus  and  lived  a 
life  of  extraordinary  severity.  About  978,  Pietro 
Orseolo  I,  Doge  of  Venice,  who  had  obtained  his  office 
by  acquiescence  in  the  murder  of  his  predecessor, 
began  to  suffer  remorse  for  his  crime.  On  the  advice 
of  Guarinus,  Abbot  of  San  Miguel-de-Cuxa,  in  Cata- 
lonia, and  of  Marinus  and  Romuald,  he  abandoned  his 
office  and  relations,  and  fled  to  Cuxa,  where  he  took 
the  habit  of  St.  Benedict,  while  Romuald  and  Marinus 
erected  a  hermitage  close  to  the  monastery.  For  five 
years  the  saint  lived  a  life  of  great  austerity,  gather- 
ing round  him  a  band  of  disciples.  Then,  hearing  that 
his  father,  Sergius,  who  had  be- 
come a  monk,  was  tormented 
with  doubts  as  to  his  vocation, 
he  returned  in  haste  to  Italy, 
subjected  Sergius  to  severe  dis- 
cipline, and  so  resolved  his 
doubts.  For  the  next  thirty  years 
St.  Romuald  seems  to  have 
wandered  about  Italy,  founding 
many  monasteries  and  hermi- 
tages. For  some  time  he  made 
Pereum  his  favourite  resting 
place.  In  1005  he  went  to  Val- 
di-Castro  for  about  two  years, 
and  left  it,  prophesying  that  he 
would  return  to  die  there  alone 
and  unaided.  Again  he  wan- 
dered about  Italy:  then  at- 
tempted to  go  to  Hungary,  but 
was  prevented  by  persistent  ill- 
ness. In  1012  he  appeared  at 
Vallombrosa,  whence  he  moved 
into  the  Diocese  of  Arezzo. 
Here,  according  to  the  legend,  a 
certain  Maldolus,  who  had  seen 
a  vision  of  monks  in  white  gar- 
ments ascending  into  Heaven, 
gave  him  some  land,  afterwards  ^ 
known  as  the  Campus  Maldoli,  ^^''^'  'Z  ""n  r^T 

/^  111-      Oi    11  111      -i!     The  Brothers  Della  Rob- 

or  tamaldoli.  St.  Romuald  built  bia.  Cathedral  of  San- 
on  this  land  five  cells  for  hermits,  sepolcro 

which,  with  the  monastery  at  Fontebuono,  built  two 
years  later,  became  the  famous  mother-house  of  the 
Camaldolese  Order  (q.  v.).  In  1013  he  retired  to 
Monte-Sitria.  In  1021  he  went  to  Bifolco.  Five 
years  later  he  returned  to  Val-di-Castro  where  he 
died,  as  he  had  prophesied,  alone  in  his  cell.  Many 
miracles  were  wrought  at  his  tomb,  over  which  an 
altar  was  allowed  to  be  erected  in  1032.  In  1466 
his  body  was  found  still  incorrupt;  it  was  translated 
to  Fabriano  in  1481.  In  1595  Clement  VII  fixed  his 
feast  on  7  Feb.,  the  day  of  the  translation  of  his  relics, 
and  extended  its  celebration  to  the  whole  Church. 
He  is  represented  in  art  pointing  to  a  ladder  on  which 
are  monks  ascending  to  Heaven. 

Acta  SS.,  Feb.,  II  (Venice,  1735),  101-46;  CAaXANlZA.  Historia 
de  S.  Romvaldo  (Madrid,  1597);  Collina,  Vita  di  S.  Romualdo 
(Bologna,  1748);  Grando,  Dissertationes  Camaldulenses  (Lucca, 
1707),  II,  1-144;  III,  1-160;  Mabillon,  Acta  SS.  O.  S.  B.,  ssec. 
VI,  par.  I  (Venice,  1733),  246-78;  Mittarelli  and  Costadoni, 
Annates  Camaldulenses,  I  (Venice,  1755);  St.  Peter  Damian  in 
P.  L.,  CXLIV  (Paris,  1867),  953-1008;  Trichaud,  Vie  de  Saint 
Romuald  (Amiens,  1879);  Waitz  in  Pertz,  Mon.  Germ.  Hist: 
Script.,  IV  (Hanover,  1841),  846-7. 

Leslie  A.  St.  L.  Toke. 

Romulus  Augustulus,  deposed  in  the  year  476, 
the  last  emperor  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire. 
His  reign  was  purely  nominal.  After  the  murder 
of  Valentinian  III  (455)  the  Theodosian  dynasty 
was  extinct  in  Western  Europe  and  the  Suevian 
Ricimer,  a  grandson  of  Wallia,  a  king  of  the  West 
Goths,  governed  the  Western  Empire  for  sixteen 
years  as  its  real  ruler.  Like  Stilicho  and  Aetius  he 
raised  five  shadowy  emperors  to  the  throne  and  then 
deposed  them,  partly  in  agreement  with  the  Eastern 
Empire.     After  his  death  in  472  his  nephew  Gun- 


RONAN 


180 


RONSARD 


dobad  succeeded.  At  Ra^•enna  Gundobad  appointed 
the  soUiier  Glyeerius  a^  emperor,  but  Leo,  the  Etistern 
Roman  Emperor,  chose  Julius  Xepos,  a  relative  of 
Empress  Verina,  who  had  succeedeil  his  uncle  Mar- 
cellinus  as  Governor  of  Dalmatia.  Nepos  advanced 
with  the  fleet  to  Ravenna  and  forced  Glyeerius  to 
become  Bishop  of  Salona.  Leo's  successor,  Zeno 
the  Isaurian,  wthdrew  the  fleet  which  Nepos  had  had, 
and  thus  the  latter  was  forced  to  depend  upon  his 
own  resources,  while  the  turmoil  in  Rome  and  Gaul 
constantly  increased.  Nepos  appointed  Orestes 
"magister  militum"  and  made  him  a  patrician. 
Orestes  had  been  minister  of  Attila,  after  whose 
death  he  had  come  to  Rome.  Nepos  commissioned 
Orestes  to  advance  into  Gaul  to  restore  order  with 
the  troops  still  available.  Orestes  however  prevailed 
upon  the  mercenaries  to  march  against  Ravenna  in- 
stead of  going  to  Gaul.  Nepos  fled  to  Dalniatia  while 
Orestes  entered  Ravenna  on  28  August,  475. 

Orestes  allowed  two  months  to  pass  without  ap- 
pointing a  new  emperor,  and  the  troops  growing  im- 
jjatient  proclaimed  his  son.  On  account  of  the  boy's 
youth  (he  was  only  thirteen  years  old)  he  was  called 
Augustulus,  the  little  emperor.  The  administration 
was  carried  on  cautiously  and  shrewdly  by  Orestes. 
He  obtained  the  recognition  of  his  son  by  the  emperor 
of  the  Eastern  Empire,  made  treaties  for  the  protec- 
tion of  Italv  with  the  German  princes  in  Africa,  Gaul, 
and  Spain,"  and  thus  gained  a  few  years  of  peace  for 
the  country.  However,  the  German  warriors  in  his 
army,  who  had  driven  out  the  Emperor  Nepos  in  the 
belief  that  they  would  receive  grants  of  land,  now 
demanded  a  third  of  the  territory  of  Italy,  according 
to  the  custom  existing  in  the  Roman  army.  When 
Orestes  refused  the  troops  mutinied  under  the  leader- 
shij)  of  the  Skyrian  Odoacer.  Orestes  advanced 
against  them,  but  was  obliged  to  fall  back  on  Pavia, 
which  city  was  stormed  by  Odoacer;  Orestes  was 
taken  prisoner  and  beheaded  at  Piacenza  in  476. 
Odoacer  was  proclaimed  king  by  his  troops  and 
inarched  against  Ravenna  where  Romulus  waited 
in  fear.  Odoacer  spared  his  life,  gave  him  a  year's 
income,  and  sent  him  wdth  his  relatives  to  Cape 
Miscnum  opposite  Baia.  Odoacer  now  reigned  as 
first  King  of  Italy,  while  three  deposed  emperors 
•Iragged  out  inglorious  an<l  powerless  Uves:  Romulus 
.\ugu.stulus  in  jirivate  life  on  his  estate  in  Campania, 
(ilyccrius  as  Bisliop  of  Salona,  and  Julius  Nepos  as 
commander  in  Dalmatia.  The  Roman  Empire  of 
the  West  had  ceased,  and  the  conception  of  imperial 
power  was  henceforth  exclusively  connected  with  the 
person  of  the  Eastern  emperor. 

NiT/.HfH,  iJeulsrhe  Gesch.,  I;  VON  Ranke,  Weltgeschichte, 
IV;  Pkeii>chipter,  Theodorich  der  Grosse  in  Weltgesch.  in 
KaratUerljMern   (.Mainz,   1910). 

Karl  Hoeber. 

Ronan,  Saint. — There  are  twelve  Irish  saints 
bearing  the  name  of  Ronan  commemorated  in  the 
"Martyrologj'  of  Donegal";  of  these  the  most 
celfbrated  are:  St.  Ronan  of  Ulster,  brother  of  St. 
Carneeh,  and  grandson  of  Loarn,  d.  11  January,  5:i5; 
St.  Itonan,  mn  of  Berach,  a  disciple  of  the  great 
St.  Eecliin  of  Fore.  He  became  first  Abbot  of  Drum- 
fihallon,  and  d.  IH  November,  665.  St.  Ronan 
Fionn  is  honoured  as  patron  of  Lan  Ronan 
(Kelminiog)  in  Iveagh.  His  feast  is  celebrated  on  22 
May,  both  in  Ireland  and  Scotland.  St.  Ronan  of 
lona  is  explicitly  refern;d  to  by  St.  Bede  as  one  of  the 

ErotagoniHts  of  the  Roman  custom  of  celebrating 
laater  an  against  the  Irish  tradition,  and  he  had  a 
warm  controversy  on  the  subject  with  his  country- 
man St.  Finan,  Bishop  of  Lindisfarne,  in  660.  This 
controversy  was  ended  at  the  Synod  of  Whitby,  in 
664,  when  St.  Ronan's  views  were  upheld.  St. 
Rfjnan  of  Lisrnore  was  a  distinguished  successor  of 
St.  Carthage,  and  several  .Munst<;r  churches  were 
built  in  his  honour.     His  feaat  is  celebrated  on  9 


February,  763.  Anoth(>r  saint  of  this  name  is  best 
known  by  the  ruined  church  of  Kilronan,  Co.  Ros- 
common, where  Turlogh  O'Carolan  and  Bishop 
O'Rourke  are  buried. 

Acta  SS.;  Colgan,  Acta  Sanct.  Hib.  (Louvain,  1645);  Lanigan, 
Eccl.  Hist,  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1S29);  O'Hanlon,  Lives  of  the 
Irish  Saints  (Dublin,  s.  d.). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Ronsard,  Pierre  de,  French  poet,  b.  2  (or   11) 
Sept.,  1524,  at  the  Chateau  de  la  Poissonniere,  near 
Vendome;  d.  27  Dec,  1585,  at  the  priory  of  Saint- 
Cosme-en  I'lsle,  near  Tours.     He  was  first  educated 
at  home  by  a  jirivate  tutor,  and  at  the  age  of  nine 
was  sent  to  the  College  of  Navarre,  in  Paris.     Hav- 
ing left  the  college  before  graduating  he  was  ap- 
pointed page  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  son  of  Francis  I, 
and  soon  afterwards  to  James  V,  King  of  Scotland. 
After  a  sojourn  of  three  years  in  Scotland  and  Eng- 
land, during  which  he  became  thoroughly  proficient 
in  the  English  language,  he  travelled  in  Germany, 
Piedmont,    and    other    countries.     In    1541,    being 
afflicted  with  an  in- 
curable deafness,  he 
retired    from    pub- 
lic life  and  for  seven 
years    devoted    his 
entire  time  to  study. 
He   studied    Greek 
under   the    famous 
scholar  Dor  at,  at 
the  College  de  Co- 
queret.     His  ambi- 
tion was  to  find  new 
paths  for   French 
poetry,  and  he  was 
soon  recognized  as 
the    "Prince    of 
Poets",  a  title  he 
merited    by    his 
"Odes"     (1550), 
"Amours    de    Cas- 
sandre",   etc.      He 
was  a  great  favour- 
ite with  Charles  IX ; 
Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  sent  him  a  diamond; 
Mary  Stuart    found    relief  in  her  imprisonment  in 
reading  his  poems ;  the  City  of  Toulouse  presented  him 
with  a  .solid  silver  Minerva;  and  the  literary  men  of 
that  time  acknowledged   him   as   ihoir  leader.     His 
last  ten  years  were  saddened  by  ill-health.     He  re- 
tired to  Croix-Val-en-Vciidoniois,  in  the  forest  of  Gas- 
tine,  and  then  to  the  i)riory  of  Saint-Cosme-en  I'Lsle, 
where  he  died.     The  works  of  Ronsard  are  numerous 
and  their  chronology  is  very  intricate.     In  twenty- 
four  years  (1560-84)  six  editions  of  his  works  were 
published,  and  the  number  of  occasional  pieces  is 
almost  incalculable.     The  following  are  the  most  im- 
portant: "Les  Amours  de  Cassandre"   (2  books  of 
sonnets,  Paris,  1.5.50),  "Odes"  (5  books,  Paris,  1551- 
1552),  "Le  bocage royal"  (Paris,  1.554),  "LesHymnes" 
(2  books,  Paris,  1556),   "Poemes"    (2  books,  Paris, 
1.560-73),  "  Discours  .sur  les  miseres  du  temps"  (1560), 
"La  Franciade"  (Paris,  1572).     His  influence  and  his 
reforms  were  far-reaching.     He  enriched  the  French 
vocabulary  with  a  multitude  of  words  borrowed  not 
only  from  Greek  and  Latin,  but  from  the  old  romance 
dialects  as  well  as  from  the  technical  languages  of 
trades,  sports,  and  sciences.     His  many  rules  con- 
cerning vense-making  were  as  influential  as  numer- 
ous.    He  invented  a  larg(!  variety  of  metres,  adopted 
the  regular  intertwining  of  masculine  and  feminine 
rhymes,  proscribed  the  hiatus,  and  introduced  har- 
mony in  French  verse.     He  was  perhaps  the  gr(>at- 
est    French    lyrical    poet    prior   to    the    nineteenth 
(century.     His  themes  are  as  varied  as  their  forms. 
simi)I(!  and  sublime,  ironical  and  tender,  solemn  and 
fairiiliar. 


ROOD 


181 


ROOD 


BiNET,  La  vie  de  Pierre,  de  Ronsard  (Paris,  158G),  re-edited, 
with  notes  and  commentaries  by  liAUMONiER  (Paris,  I'JIO);  Brune- 
TlfeRE,  llisl.  de  la  litt.  rlass.,  I  (Paris,  1908) ;  Laumonier,  L'oemrc 
de  Ronsard  {Psirifi,  IIUO),  wtiieh  work  contains  a  full  and  complete 
bihliograpliy. 

Louis  N.  Delamarre. 

Rood  (Anglo-Saxon  Rod,  or  Rode,  "cross"),  a 
term,  often  used  to  signify  the  True  Cross  itself, 
which,  with  the  prefix  Holy,  occurs  as  the  dedication 
of  some  churches — e.  g.  Holyrood  Abbey,  in  Scot- 
land. But  more  generally  it  means  a  large  crucifix, 
with  statues  of  Our  Lady  and  St.  John,  usually 
placed  over  the  entrance  to  the  choir  in  medieval 
churches.  These  roods  were  frequently  very  large, 
so  as  to  be  seen  from  all  parts  of  the  church,  and  were 


Rood  Loft  in  the  Chirch  of  St-Etienne,  Paris 

placed  either  on  a  gallery,  or  screen,  or  on  a  beam 
spanning  the  chancel  arch.  Roods  are  al.so  occasion- 
ally found  sculptured  outside  churches,  as  at  Sher- 
borne and  Romsey,  and  on  churchyard  and  wayside 
crosses.  As  to  the  antiquity  of  the  rood  in  the  church, 
there  is  no  certain  evidence.  The  silver  crucifix 
set  up  in  the  middle  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  by  Leo 
III,  in  795,  is  sometimes  claimed  as  an  early  example, 
but  there  is  nothing  to  prove  that  this  was  a  rood 
in  the  medieval  sense.  By  the  thirteenth  or  four- 
teenth century,  however,  the  great  rood  or  crucifix 
had  become  a  common  feature  in  almost  every  church 
of  Western  Christendom,  and  the  addition  of  the 
figures  of  Sts.  Mary  and  John,  in  allusion  to  John, 
xix,  25,  came  in  about  the  fifteenth.  Numerous  ex- 
amples still  remain,  both  in  England  and  elsewhere. 
They  were  usually  of  wood,  richly  carved,  painted  or 
gilded,  with  foliated  or  crocketed  sides,  and  with 
the  arms  of  the  cross  terminating  either  in  fleur.s-de- 
lys  or  in  emblazoned  medallions  of  the  symbols  of 
the  four  evangelists. 

Rood-lights  were  kept  burning  before  the  rood 
in  medieval  times,  consisting  either  of  a  wick  and  oil 
in  a  cresset,  or  rood-bowl,  or  of  a  taper  on  a  pricket 
in  the  centre  of  a  mortar  of  brass,  lattern,  or  copper. 
During  the  whole  of  Lent,  except  at  the  procession  of 
Palm  Sunday,  the  Rood  was  covered  with  a  veil 
(rood-cloth),  which  in  England  was  either  violet  or 


black,  and  often  was  marked  with  a  white  crosa. 
When  the  rood  was  ('xcc])tionally  large  or  heavy,  its 
weight  was  sometimes  taken  partly  by  wrought- 
iron  rood-chains  depending  from  the  chancel  arch, 
which  were  generally  of  elaborate  design ;  the  staples 
to  which  they  were  fixed  may  still  be  seen  in  some 
churches  from  which  the  rood  itself  has  been  removed 
— e.  g.  at  Cullompton,  England.  The  rood,  however, 
striking  and  prominent  as  it  was  intended  to  be,  was 
often  eclipsed  by  the  rood-screen  over  which  it  was 
placed.  The  precise  origin  of  the  screen  and  its 
connexion  with  the  rood  is  somewhat  obscure,  and  ap- 
parently varied  in  different  churches.  The  custom 
of  screening  off  the  altar  is  very  ancient,  and 
emphasizing,  as  it  did,  the  air  of  mystery  surrounding 
the  place  of  sacrifice,  was  possibly  a  survival  of 
Judaism;  but  the  placing  of  a  screen,  more  or  less 
solid,  between  the  chancel  and  nave — i.  e.  between 
clergy  and  people — must  have  originated  from  prac- 
tical rather  than  from  symbolic  reasons,  and  was 
probably  an  attempt  to  secure  privacy  and  com- 
fort for  those  engaged  in  the  work  of  the  choir,  more 
especially  at  times  when  there  was  no  congregation 
present.  This  was  certainly  the  case  with  the  heavy 
closed  screens,  usually  of  stone,  in  the  large  conventual 
and  collegiate  churches,  where  the  long  night  offic^es 
would  have  been  impossible  in  winter  without  some 
such  protection. 

Over  such  screens  was  a  loft  or  gallery  (rood-loft), 
which,  according  to  some  authorities,  was  used  for 
the  reading  of  the  Epistle  and  Gospel,  certain  lec- 
tions, the  pastorals  of  bishops,  the  Acts  of  councils, 
and  other  like  purjjoses.  The  episcojial  l)en('diction 
was  also  soincf iuics  pronounced,  and  penitents  ab- 
solved, from  the  loft,  and  in  .some  clunches  of  France 
the  i)aschal  candle  stood  there.  The  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment was  exposed  on  the  loft  in  Lyons  cathedral  and, 
according  to  De  Moleon,  similarly  also  at  Rouen  in 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  loft  likewise  frequently 
provided  convenient  accommodation  for  the  organs 
and  singers.  In  large  monastic  churches  it  was 
called  the  pulpilum  and  was  separate  from  the  rood- 
screen  supporting  the  rood,  the  latter  being  placed 
westward  of  the  pulpitum;  but  in  secular  cathedrals 
and  parish  churches  there  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
usually  a  separate  rood-screen,  the  rood,  in  such 
cases,  being  either  on  or  over  the  pulpilum  itself. 
In  France  the  rood-loft  was  called  the  ju}>c,  which 
seems  to  imply  that  it  was  used  liturgically  for  the 
reading  of  lessons  and  the  like.  A  gallery  or  loft 
corresponding  to  the  medieval  juhe  was  not  unknown 
in  the  early  Church,  but  there  is  no  satisfactory 
evidence  to  show  that  it  was  surmounted  by  a  roo(l. 
Thiers,  taking  Sens  cathedral  as  his  example,  suggests 
that  the  loft  began  merely  as  a  sort  of  bridge 
connecting  the  two  ambos  on  either  side  of  the 
chancel  arch,  and  that  it  was  gradually  made  more 
spacious  as  it  proved  useful  for  other  purposes. 
This  could  only  have  been  so,  however,  in  the 
smaller  churches  where  there  was  no  puljntum, 
unless  perhaps  it  was  itself  the  origin  of  the 
pulpitum. 

In  smaller  parish  churches  it  seems  probable  that 
the  loft  was  originally  only  a  convenience  for  reach- 
ing the  rood-lights,  and  that  its  obvious  suitability 
for  other  uses  caused  its  enlargement  and  elaboration. 
Nothing,  however,  can  be  stated  with  absolute  cer- 
tainty. Many  of  these  medieval  screens,  both  with 
and  without  lofts,  remain  to  the  present  day,  in 
spite  of  the  iconoclasm  of  the  Reformation  period. 
Notable  screens  that  may  be  mentioned  as  typical 
examples  are  at  Cawston,  Ranworth,  Southwold, 
Dunster,  and  Staverton  in  England;  at  Troyes, 
Albi,  St-Fiacre-le-Faouet,  and  St-Etienne-du-Mont, 
Paris,  in  France;  at  Louvain  and  Dixmude  in  Bel- 
gium; at  Lubeck  in  Germany.  Some  are  constructed 
of  stone,  and  some  of  the  later  ones  of  metal-work, 


R00NE7 


182 


ROOTHAAN 


but  they  are  mostly  of  wood  and  usually  consist  of 
close  panelling  below — often  decorated  with  painted 
figures  of  saints — and  open  screenwork  above, 
supporting  tracery  and  richly  carved  cornices  and 
crestings.  In  England  they  were  generally  lavishly 
coloured  and  gilded.  In  some  instances  they  ex- 
tend across  the  aisles  of  the  church  as  well.  In  Eng- 
land, also,  the  rood  frequently  stood  not  on  or  near 
the  screen  and  loft,  but  on  a  separate  transverse  beam 
called  the  rood-beam,  which  was  similarly  carved 
and  gilded.  There  were  sometimes  other  beams  also, 
besides  that  supporting  the  rood,  like  those  at  St. 
David's,  between  the  choir  and  sanctuary,  and  Lincoln 
beyond  the  liigh  altar,  on  which  stood  lights  and 
reliquaries.  Corbels,  or  stone  brackets  in  English 
churches — e.  g.,  Worcester  cathedral — often  indicate 
the  position  of  the  rood-beam  before  its  removal  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  Leading  up  to  the  rood-loft  were 
the  rood-stairs,  many  of  which  still  remain  even  where 
the  loft  itself  has  been  destroyed.  In  England  these 
stairs  were  generally  enclosed  in  the  wall  separating 
chancel  from  nave,  but  in  other  countries  they  often 
constituted  an  architectural  feature  with  elaborate 
tracer}',  as  at  Rouen  (since  destroj^ed),  Strasburg, 
St-Etienne-du-Mont,  and  La  Madeleine  at  Troyes. 

In  churches  where  there  were  both  pulpiium  and 
rood-screen  the  latter  usually  had  two  doors,  and  be- 
tween them  was  placed,  on  the  western  side,  the  rood- 
altar,  which,  in  monastic  churches,  often  served  as  the 
parish  altar,  the  parishioners  being  accommodated  in 
the  nave.  This  was  the  case  in  almost  all  the  monastic 
cathedrals  and  greater  abbeys  of  England,  and  the 
altar,  being  immediately  under  the  great  rood,  was 
dedicated  to  the  Holy  Cross,  except  at  Durham, 
where  it  was  called  the  Jesus  altar,  and  at  St.  Albans, 
where  the  dedication  was  to  St.  Cuthbert.  The  latter 
still  remains  in  situ  as  the  parish  altar.  In  Miinster 
cathedral  and  at  Llibeck,  in  the  hospital  church,  there 
were  three  altars,  with  the  two  doors  of  the  screen 
between  them.  In  smaller  churches,  with  no  separate 
pidpitum,  but  only  a  rood-screen  with  a  central  door- 
way, there  was  usually  an  altar  on  either  side  of  the 
door,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  these  can  strictly  be 
termed  rood-altars.  It  seems  probable  that  in  some 
cases  the  rood-altar  was  on  the  loft  itself,  instead  of 
beneath — e.  g.,  at  Lichfield,  Lyons,  and  St-Maurice, 
Vienne.  In  some  old  lofts  drains  have  been  found 
which  may  possibly  be  the  remains  of  the  piscinas  for 
such  altars.  The  daily  parish  Mass  said  at  the  altar 
on  or  under  the  rood-screen,  was  called  the  rood  Mass, 
though  occasionally  this  term  is  used  to  signify  merely 
the  Massof  oneorother  of  the  feasts  of  the  Holy  Cross. 

A  few  other  terms  used  in  connexion  with  the  rood 
may  here  be  briefly  explained.  The  rood-arch  was 
the  arch  separating  chancel  from  nave,  under  which 
the  rood  and  rood-screen  were  usually  situated.  A 
rood-door  was  either  the  central  door  of  a  rood-screen 
or  one  of  the  two  doors  on  either  side  of  the  rood- 
altar.  Rood-gallery  was  another  term  for  rood-loft. 
The  rood-gap  was  the  space  under  the  chancel  arch, 
partially  occupied  by  the  rood.  The  rood-saints  were 
the  figures  of  Sts.  Mary  and  John  on  either  side  of  the 
rood;  rood-steps,  the  steps  leading  up  from  the  nave 
into  the  chancel,  under  or  immediately  before  the 
rood-screen.  Rood-steeple,  or  rood-tower,  was  a  name 
sometimes  given  to  the  central  tower  of  a  church  at 
the  intersection  of  nave  and  chancel  with  the  tran- 
septs, as  at  Durham,  Xotre-Dame,  Paris,  and  Lincoln. 
At  the  last-named  place  the  name  has  since  been  cor- 
rupted into  "Broa^i  Tower." 

Puoiv,  TrealUe  on  Cfi/incd  Screenii  and  Roodlofts  (London, 
18.51):  WAlx;mT,  Hacretl  Archtnoloyy  (Ixjndon,  180S);  Armfiei.d, 
in  Did.  of  ChrUlinn  Antifjuities,  h.  v.  Rood  (London,  1880); 
Bond,  Scretnn  and  OaUerien  in  Englixh  Churchen  (London,  190H); 
Thieiw,  TraiU  nur  let  jubit  (Paris,  1688).  Aluo  numerous  papers 
and  articles  in  Trannactionji  of  the  various  EnKlish  Archseological 
Hocteties.  A  list  of  the  chief  of  these  is  givf;n  in  Bond,  op.  cit. 
aupra. 

G.  Cypeian  Alston. 


Rooney,  John.     See  Good  Hope,  Western  Vica- 

lUATE  OF  THE  CaPE  OF. 

Roothaan,  Johann  Philipp,  twenty-first  General 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  b.  at  Amsterdam,  23  Novem- 
ber, 1785;  d.  at  Rome,  8  May,  1853.  Originally 
Protestant,  the  Roothaan  family  emigrated  from 
Frankfort  to  Amsterdam,  where  it  became  CathoUc. 
Johann  Philipp,  the  youngest  of  three  brothers,  was 
on  account  of  his  special  talent  destined  for  study, 
and,  before  he  was  sixteen,  graduated  from  the  g>'m- 
nasium  of  his  native  town.  Thence  passing  to  the 
athenoBum  illustre  (high  school),  he  continued  for 
four  years  his  classical  studies  under  the  celebrated 
Professor  Jakob  van  Lennep  with  the  greatest  suc- 
cess. Confronted  with  the  necessity  of  choosing 
his  vocation,  he  determined  to  join  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  which  still  survived  in  White  Russia  and  had 
been  officially  recognized  by  Pius  VII.  In  1804  he 
set  out  for  the  novitiate  in  Diinaburg;  the  descrip- 
tions of  his  month's  journey  thither  are  very  interest- 
ing. On  the  conclusion  of  his  novitiate,  he  was,  on 
account  of  his  great  knowledge  of  the  classics,  ap- 
pointed teacher  at  the  Jesuit  gymnasium  at  Diina- 
burg (1806-9),  and  completely  satisfied  the  expecta- 
tions of  his  superiors.  He  had  already  mastered 
Polish;  as  a  native  of  Holland,  he  naturally  spoke 
also  French,  while  the  two  classical  languages  and 
Hebrew  were  among  his  favourite  studies.  He  sub- 
sequently began  the  higher  study  of  philosophy  and 
theology  at  Polotsk,  and  in  1812  was  ordained  priest. 
The  following  four  years  were  spent  as  professor  of 
rhetoric  at  Pusza — this  was  the  stormy  era  of  the 
Franco-Russian  War.  The  joyous  incident  of  the 
restoration  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  by  Pius  VII  also 
belongs  to  this  period  (1814).  The  other  four  years 
which  preceded  the  banishment  of  the  Jesuits  from 
Russia  (1820)  were  passed  by  Roothaan  partly  as 
teacher  and  partly  in  pastoral  duties  in  Orsa.  Dur- 
ing this  interval  he  took  the  final  solemn  vows,  and 
could  thus  enter  courageously  on  his  journey  into 
exile.  This  journey  lasted  three  months,  and  ended 
in  Brieg  (Canton  of  Wallis,  Switzerland).  Here  he 
again  taught  rhetoric  for  three  years,  besides  taking 
zealous  part  in  popular  missions.  He  thrice  accom- 
panied, on  his  tour  of  visitation,  the  provincial  of  the 
vice-province  of  Switzerland,  to  which  also  belonged 
the  Jesuit  houses  in  Germany,  Belgium,  and  Hol- 
land, and  learned  the  conditions  from  personal 
examination.  He  was  able,  after  a  seventeen  years' 
absence,  to  revisit  his  kindred  at  Amsterdam.  Root- 
haan's  subsequent  appointment  to  the  rectorship 
of  the  newly-founded  college  at  Turin  brought  him 
to  his  real  life's  task.  On  the  death  of  A.  Fortis. 
General  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  Roothaan  was  named 
his  successor 

His  labours  as  General  were  most  fruitful  in  every 
domain  for  the  newly-restored  order.  His  first  care 
was  for  the  preservation  and  strengthening  of  the 
internal  spirit  of  the  Society.  To  this  object  he 
devoted  nine  of  his  eleven  general  letters.  Of  still 
greater  fundamental  importance  than  these  valuable 
encyclicals  were  his  labours  on  the  new  edition  of  the 
Exercises  of  St.  Ignatius  according  to  the  original 
text;  this  edition  he  provided  with  an  introduction 
and  explanatory  notes.  The  enlightened  and  re- 
newed use  of  this  precious  work  is  his  chief  ser- 
vice, which  alone  must  have  rendered  his  name  im- 
mortal in  the  Society.  He  also  displayed  great  zeal 
in  raising  the  standard  of  studies;  having  himself 
enjoyed  such  a  splendid  classical  education,  he  was 
able  to  appreciate  the  valu(!  of  the  classics  for  a 
mental  training.  After  careful  investigation  and 
counsel,  he  published  in  1832  the  Revised  Order  of 
Studies,  (!XC(!llently  adapterl  to  tlie  conditions  of  the 
time.  Having  thus  providofl  for  their  spiritual  and 
intellectual  armour,  he  was  also  able  to  open  up  the 


ROPER 


183 


ROSA 


richest  fields  for  the  activity  of  his  brethren  in  the 
Society,  namely  the  home  and  foreign  missions. 
During  his  administration,  the  order  increased  two- 
fold in  the  number  of  its  members  (5000)  and  in  its 
apostolic  activity,  although  it  had  meanwhile  to 
suffer  banishment  and  persecution  in  many  places, 
especially  in  the  year  of  revolution,  1848.  The  Gen- 
eral himself  had  to  quit  Rome  for  two  years.  On  his 
return  his  health  was  broken,  his  strength  began  to 
fail,  and  fits  of  weakness  announced  his  approaching 
end.  The  characteristics  of  Roothaan  are  well  ex- 
pressed in  the  words  which  he  himself  declared  the 
principle  of  his  administration:  "fortiter  et  suaviter". 
The  same  idea  is  expressed  in  the  words  of  his  bio- 
grapher: "Impetuous  by  nature,  he  governed  all 
passions  by  the  exercise  of  Christian  self-denial,  so 
that  a  most  measured  moderation  in  all  things  forms 
his  distinctive  characteristic." 

Thym,  Levenschets  Van  P.  Joannes  Philippus  Roothaan,  General 
der  Societeit  van  Jesus  (Amsterdam.  188,5),  German  tr.  Martin 
(Ravensburg,  1898) ;  Terwecoren,  Esquisse  hislorique  sur  le  T.  R. 
P.  Roothaan  (Brussels,  1857). 

N.    SCHEID. 

Roper,  Margaret.     See  Thomas  More,  Blessed. 

Roper,  William,  biographer  of  the  Blessed 
Thomas  More,  b.  1496;  d.  4  Jan.,  1578.  Both  his 
father  and  mother  belonged  to  distinguished  legal 
families.  He  was  educated  at  one  of  the  English 
universities,  and  received  his  father's  office  of  clerk 
of  the  pleas  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench.  He  held 
this  post  till  shortly  before  his  death.  When  he  was 
about  twenty-three  ho  seems  to  have  been  taken  into 
Sir  Thomas  More's  household,  and  he  married  Mar- 
garet, Sir  Thomas's  eldest  daughter,  in  1.521.  Envs- 
mus  who  saw  much  of  the  More  family  describes  him 
as  a  young  man  "who  is  wealthy,  of  excellent  and 
modest  character  and  not  unacquainted  with  litera- 
ture". He  became  fascinated,  however,  by  the 
Lutheran  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  and  pro- 
fessed his  heresy  so  openly  as  to  be  summoned  before 
Wolsey.  Sir  Thomas  frequently  reasoned  with  his 
son-in-law:  "Meg",  he  said  to  his  daughter,  "I  have 
borne  a  long  time  with  thy  husband;  I  have  reasoned 
and  argued  with  him  in  these  points  of  religion,  and 
still  given  to  him  my  poor  fatherly  counsel,  but  I 
perceive  none  of  all  this  able  to  call  him  home;  and 
therefore,  Meg,  I  will  no  longer  dispute  with  him, 
but  will  clean  give  him  over  and  get  me  to  God  and 
pray  for  him".  To  these  prayers  Roper  attributed 
his  return  to  the  Faith ;  henceforth  he  was  an  ardent 
Catholic.  He  sat  in  four  of  Mary's  parliaments, 
twice  as  member  for  Rochester  and  twice  as  member 
for  Canterbury.  His  Catholicism  got  him  into  dif- 
ficulties with  the  Government  under  Elizabeth  and 
he  was  summoned  before  the  Council  in  1568;  in 
the  following  year  he  was  bound  over  to  be  of  good 
behaviour  and  to  appear  before  the  Council  when 
summoned.  He  does  not  seem  to  have  been  troubled 
further.  His  reminiscences  of  Sir  Thomas  More 
were  written  in  the  time  of  Queen  Mary  nearly 
twenty  years  after  the  events  with  which  they  deal, 
but  his  relations  with  his  father-in-law  had  been  so 
close  and  the  impressions  he  received  in  that  delight- 
ful household  so  vivid,  that  these  rather  disjointed 
notes  form  a  most  attractive  biography.  Roper's 
"Life"  was  not  printed  till  1626,  but  it  was  used  by 
the  earlier  biographers  of  More,  and  is  the  chief 
authority  for  his  personal  history. 

Bridgett,  Life  and  Writings  of  Sir  Thomas  More  (London, 
1891),  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.;  Gillow,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.;  Wood's 
Athence  Oxon,  ed.  Bliss  (London,  1820). 

F.  F.  Urquhart. 

Rorate  Coeli  (Vulgate,  text),  the  opening  words 
of  Is.,  xlv,  8.  The  text  is  used  frequently  both  at 
Mass  and  in  the  Divine  Office  during  Advent,  as  it 
gives  exquisite  poetical  expression  to  the  longings 
of  Patriarchs  and  Prophets,  and  symbolically  of  the 


Church,  for  the  coming  of  the  Messias.  Throughout 
Advent  it  occurs  daily  as  the  versicle  and  response  at 
Vespers.  For  this  purpose  the  verse  is  divided  into 
the  versicle,  "Rorate  coeli  desuper  et  nubes  pluant 
justum"  (Drop  down  dew,  ye  heavens,  from  above, 
and  let  the  clouds  rain  the  just),  and  the  response: 
"Aperiatur  terra  et  germinet  salvatorem"  (Let  the 
earth  be  opened  and  send  forth  a  Saviour").  The 
text  is  also  used:  (a)  as  the  Introit  for  the  Fourth 
Sunday  in  Advent,  for  Wednesday  in  Ember  Week, 
for  the  feast  of  the  Expectation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
and  for  votive  Masses  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  during 
Advent;  (b)  as  a  versicle  in  the  first  responsory  of 
Tuesday  in  the  first  week  of  Advent;  (c)  as  the  first 
antiphon  at  Lauds  for  the  Tuesday  preceding  Christ- 
mas and  the  second  antiphon  at  Matins  of  the  Ex- 
pectation of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  (d)  in  the  second  re- 
sponsory for  Friday  of  the  third  week  of  Advent  and 
in  the  fifth  responsory  in  Matins  of  the  Expectation 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  In  the  "Book  of  Hymns" 
(Edinburgh,  1910),  p.  4,  W.  Rooke-Ley  translates 
the  text  in  connexion  with  the  O  Antiphons  (q.  v.): 
"Mystic  dew  from  heaven 
Unto  earth  is  given: 

Break,  O  earth,  a  Saviour  yield — 

Fairest  flower  of  the  field". 
The  exquisite  Introit  plain-song  may  be  found  in 
in  the  various  editions  of  the  Vatican  Graduale  and 
the  Solesmes  "Liber  Usualis",  1908,  p.  125.  Under 
the  heading,  "Prayer  of  the  Churches  of  France 
during  Advent",  Dom  Gueranger  (Liturgical  Year, 
Advent  tr.,  Dublin,  1870,  pp.  155-6)  gives  it  as  an 
antiphon  to  each  of  a  series  of  prayers  ("  Nc  irascaris", 
"Peccavimus",  "Vide  Domine",  "Consolamini") 
expressive  of  penitence,  expectation,  comfort,  and 
furnishes  the  Latin  text  and  an  English  rendering  of 
the  Prayer.  The  Latin  text  and. a  different  lOnglish 
rendering  are  also  given  in  the  Baltimore  "  Manual  of 
Prayers"  (pp.  603-4).  A  plain-song  setting  of  the 
"Prayer",  or  series  of  prayers,  is  given  in  the  So- 
lesmes "  Manual  of  Gregorian  Chant "  (Rome-Tournai, 
1903, 313-5)  in  plain-song  notation,  and  in  a  slightly 
simpler  form  in  modern  notation  in  the  "Roman 
Hymnal"  (New  York,  1884,  pp.  140-3),  as  also  in 
"Les  principaux  chants  hturgiques"  (Paris,  1875, 
pp.  111-2)  and  "Recueil  d'anciens  et  de  nouveaux 
cantiques  notds"  (Paris,  1886,  pp.  218-9). 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Rosa,  Salvatore,  or  Salvator  (otherwise  known 
as  Renella,  or  Arenella,  from  the  place  of  his 
birth),  Neapolitan  artist,  b.  at  Renella,  a  little 
village  near  Naples,  1615;  d.  at  Rome  15  March, 
1673.  He  was  the  son  of  poor  parents;  his  father, 
Vita  Antonio,  was  trained  as  an  architect ;  his  mother, 
Giulia  Greca  Rosa,  belonged  to  one  of  the  Greek 
families  of  Sicily.  The  boy  was  intended  first  of  all 
for  the  Church,  and  by  the  assistance  of  a  relative  of 
his  mother's  was  sent  to  a  college  in  Naples  to  be 
trained,  but  his  excitable  and  impulsive  nature  started 
all  kincls  of  difficulties,  and  he  had  to  leave  before  his 
education  was  completed.  His  mother  had  come  of  a 
family  of  painters,  and  a  Sicilian  uncle  had  early  in 
his  life  given  him  some  lessons  in  drawing,  while  his 
sister's  husband  was  an  artist  who  had  been  trained 
by  Spagnoletto,  therefore  there  were  divers  reasons 
why  the  young  lad  should  take  up  painting.  He  threw 
his  whole  heart  into  his  work,  but  succeeded  so  poorly 
that  presently  he  left  home,  joined  a  band  of  robbers 
who  infested  the  southern  part  of  Italy,  and  wandered 
about  with  them,  meanwhile  making  all  kinds  of 
sketches,  which  were  eventually  very  useful  in  his 
larger  pictures.  His  father  died  when  Salvatore  was 
seventeen;  the  income  for  the  family  ceased,  and 
young  Rosa  as  its  head,  was  regarded  as  its  sole 
supi)ort.  He  again  took  to  painting,  and  worked  ex- 
ceedingly hard,  exposing  his  pictures  for  sale  in  the 


ROSALIA 


184 


ROSARY 


street,  and  iti  that  way,  by  a  fortunate  accident,  came 
under  the  attention  of  Lanfranco.  and  through  him 
got  to  know  Falcone.  Both  of  these  artists  were  of 
the  greatest  possible  assistance  to  him.  His  progress, 
however,  was  exceedingly  slow,  and  the  members  of 
his  family  took  almost  everything  that  he  earned  for 
their  own  support;  meantime  he  was  laid  up  almost 
periodically  with  a  malignant  fever,  the  seeds  of  which 
had  been  sown  in  his  journeys  with  the  robbers. 

In  1634,  he  came  to  Rome,  but  fell  very  ill,  and  had 
to  return  again  to  Naples  more  dead  than  alive. 
After  a  little  while,  however,  he  went  back  to  Rome, 
and  there  gained  a  patron  in  Cardinal  Brancaccio, 
who   gave   him    various   commissions   both    in    the 


.Saiaator  Rosa 
Self-portrait,  Palazzo  Saracini  Chigi,  Siena 

Eternal  City  and  in  Viterbo.  In  some  of  these  works 
he  was  assisted  by  a  fellow-pupil  named  Mercuri. 
From  this  point  he  began  to  make  progress,  but 
presently  discovered  that  he  had  a  genius  for  com- 
posing witty  poems,  sparkling  and  epignunmatic, 
which  gained  for  him  a  sudden  reputation  in  Rome; 
this  he  turned  to  good  account;  then  suddenly  drop- 
ping his  poetic  work  as  quickly  as  he  had  taken  it  up, 
turned  again  to  his  favourite  profession  of  painting. 
He  worked  very  hard,  and  was  a  i)ainter  of  consider- 
able power,  and  of  marked  personality.  His  pictures 
as  a  rule  are  distinguished  by  gloom  and  mystery, 
rich  colouring,  magnificent  shadows,  and  broad,  free, 
easy  work,  nervous  and  emotional.  There  is  a  gen- 
eral air  of  melancholy  over  almost  all  his  works,  and 
they  appear  to  have  been  turned  out  at  top  speed, 
but  there  is  an  impressiveness  about  his  pictures 
which  can  never  be  mistaken.  For  a  while  they  were 
regardful  far  too  highly  at  a  time  when  the  Academic 
School  was  the  only  one  in  repute;  they  then  passed 
under  a  cloud  when  the  Primitives  came  into  their 
own,  but  now  ihfir  genius  is  again  asserting  itself,  and 
the  landscapr-.s  of  Rosa  with  their  marvellous  draughts- 
manship and  extraordinary,  melancholy  magnificence 
are  bemg  appreciated  by  persons  able  to  under- 
stand the  merits  of  a  poetic  interpretation.  The 
last  few  years  of  the  artist's  life  were  passed  be- 
tween Naples  and  Rome,  with  one  temporary  visit 
to  Florence,  where  he  remained  three  or  four  years. 
It  was  in  Rome  that  he  died;  but  the  best  part  "of  his 
life  was  passed  in  his  native  town,  where  he  was  held 
in  high  repute,  and  regarded  as  one  of  its  glories.  His 
works  are  to  V)e  found  in  almost  all  the  galleries  of 
Europe,  notably  in  the  Pitti,  the  National  Clallerv  f)f 
London,  the  Hermitage,  the  galleries  of  Dulwich  and 


Edinburgh,  and  in  almost  every  important  palace  in 
Rome.  He  was  a  skilful  etcher,  leaving  behind  him 
some  thirty-five  or  forty  well-etched  iilat(>s,  and  was 
a  very  powerful  draughtsman  in  black  and  sanguine. 
Many  of  his  pictures  arc  signed  by  his  conjoined 
initials  arrangf^d  in  at  least  a  dozen  different  ways, 
and  always  skilfully  combined. 

Most  of  the  information  concerning  him  is  obtained  from 
Passeri,  Vile  di  pitlori,  scuUori  6  architetli  che  hanno  lavorato  in 
Roma   (Rome,   1772). 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Rosalia,  Saint,  hermitess,  greatly  venerated  at 
Palermo  and  in  the  whole  of  Sicily  of  which  she  is 
patroness.  Her  feast  is  celebrated  on  4  September. 
A  special  feast  of  the  translation  of  her  relics  is  kept 
in  Sicily  15  June.  There  is  no  account  of  her  before 
\'alerius  Rossi  (about  1590),  though  churches  were 
flcdicated  in  her  honour  in  1237.  Her  Vita  (Acta 
SS.,  11  Sept.,  278)  which,  according  to  the  BoUandist 
J.  Stilting,  is  compiled  from  local  traditions,  paintings, 
and  inscriptions,  says:  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Sinibald,  Lord  of  Quisquina  and  of  Rosa,  descended 
from  the  family  of  Charlemagne;  in  youthful  days 
she  left  home  and  hid  herself  in  a  cave  near  Bivona 
and  later  in  another  of  Monte  Pellegrino  near  Palermo, 
in  which  she  died  and  was  buried.  In  1624  her  re- 
mains were  discovered  and  brought  to  the  Cathedral 
of  Palermo.  Urban  VIII  put  her  name  into  the 
Roman  Martyrology.  Whether  before  her  retire- 
ment she  belonged  to  a  religious  community,  is  not 
known.  The  Basilians,  in  their  Martyrology,  claim 
her  as  a  member.  She  is  often  represented  as  a 
Basilian  nun  with  a  Greek  cross  in  her  hand.  Many 
of  her  pictures  may  be  found  in  the  Acta  SS. 

DuNBAH,  Lii-e.i  of  Saintly  Women  (London,  190.5);  Baring- 
Gould,  Lives  uf  the  Saints  (London,  1.S77);  Stadler  in  Ileiligen- 
leiicon.  FrANCIS    MeRSHMAN. 

Rosary,  The. — I,  In  the  Western  Church. — 
"The  Rosary",  says  the  Roman  Breviary,  "is  a 
certain  form  of  prayer  wherein  we  say  fifteen  decades 
or  tens  of  Hail  Marys  with  an  Our  Father  between 
each  ten,  while  at  each  of  these  fifteen  decades  we 
recall  successively  in  pious  meditation  one  of  the 
m.vsteries  of  our  Redemption."  The  same  lesson 
for  the  Feast  of  the  Holy  Rosary  informs  us  that 
when  the  Albigensian  heresy  was  devastating  the 
country  of  Toulouse,  St.  Dominic  earnestly  besought 
the  help  of  Our  Lady  and  was  instructed  by  her, 
"so  tradition  asserts",  to  preach  the  Rosary  among 
the  peopl(!  as  an  antidote  to  heresy  and  sin.  From 
that  time  forward  this  maimer  of  prayer  was  "most 
wonderfully  published  abroad  and  developed  \prom- 
idgari  augerique  acpit]  by  St.  Dominic  whom  difTer- 
ent  Supreme  Pontiffs  have  in  various  passages  of 
their  apostoHc  letters  declared  to  be  the  institutor 
and  author  of  the  same  devotion."  That  many 
popes  have  so  spoken  is  undoubtedly  true,  and 
amongst  the  rest  we  have  a  .series  of  encyclicals, 
beginning  in  1SS3,  is.sucd  by  Pope  Leo  XIII,  which, 
while  commending  this  devotion  to  the  faithful  in 
the  most  earnest  terms,  assumes  the  institution  of 
the  Rosary  by  St.  Dominic  to  be  a  fact  historically 
established.  Of  the  remarkable  fruits  of  this  devo- 
tion anfl  of  the  extraordinary  favours  which  have 
been  granted  to  the  world,  as  is  piously  believed, 
through  this  means,  something  \viU  be  said  under 
the  headings  Rosary,  Fe.^st  of,  and  Rorary,  Con- 
frater.mties  of.  We  will  confine  ourselves  here 
to  the  controverted  question  of  its  history,  a  matter 
which  both  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  and 
again  in  recent  years  hjis  attracted  much  attention. 

Let  us  begin  with  certain  facts  which  will  not  be 
contested.  It  is  tolerably  obvious  that  whenever 
any  prayer  has  to  be  repeated  a  large  number  of  titnes 
recourse  is  likely  to  be  had  to  some  mechanical 
apparatus  less  troublesome  than  counting  upon  the 
fingers.     In  almost  all  countries,  then,  we  meet  with 


ROSARY 


185 


ROSARY 


something  in  the  nature  of  prayer-counters  or  rosary- 
beads.  Even  in  ancient  Nineveh  a  sculpture  has 
been  found  thus  described  by  Layard  in  liis  "Alon- 
uments"  (I,  plate  7):  "Two  winged  females  sttmding 
before  the  sacred  tree  in  the  attitude  of  prayer;  they 
lift  the  extended  right  hand  and  hold  in  the  left 
a  garland  or  rosary."  However  this  may  be,  it  is 
certain  that  among  the  Mohammedans  the  Tasbih 
or  bead-string,  consisting  of  33,  66,  or  99  beads,  and 
used  for  counting  devotionally  the  names  of  Allah, 
has  been  in  use  for  many  centuries.  Marco  Polo, 
visiting  the  King  of  Malabar  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, found  to  his  surprise  that  that  monarch  employed 
a  rosary  of  104  (?  108)  precious  stones  to  count  his 
prayers.  St.  Francis  Xavier  and  his  companions 
were  equally  astonished  to  see  that  rosaries  were 
universally  familiar  to  the  Buddhists  of  Japan. 
Among  the  monks  of  the  Greek  Church  we  hear  of  the 
kombologion,  or  komboschoinion,  a  cord  with  a  hundred 
knots  used  to  count  genuflexions  and  signs  of  the 
cross.  Similarly,  beside  the  mummy  of  a  Christian 
ascetic,  Thaias,  of  the  fourth  century,  recently  dis- 
interred at  Antinoe  in  Egypt,  was  found  a  sort  of 
cribbage-board  with  holes,  which  has  generally  been 
thought  to  be  an  apparatus  for  counting  prayers. 
Still  more  primitive  is  the  device  of  which  Palladius 
and  other  ancient  authorities  have  left  us  an  account. 
A  certain  Paul  the  Hermit,  in  the  fourth  century, 
had  imposed  upon  himself  the  task  of  repeating  three 
hundred  prayers,  according  to  a  set  form,  every  day. 
To  do  this,  he  gathered  up  three  hundred  pebbles  and 
threw  one  away  as  each  prayer  was  finished  (Palla- 
dius, "Hist.  Laus.",  xx;  Butler,  II,  63).  It  is  probable 
that  other  ascetics  who  also  numbered  their  prayers 
by  hundreds  adopted  some  similar  expedient.  (Cf. 
"Vita  S.  Godrici",  cviii.)  Indeed  when  we  find  a 
papal  privilege  addressed  to  the  monks  of  St.  Apolli- 
naris  in  Classe  requiring  them,  in  gratitude  for  the 
pope's  benefactions,  tosayKyrie  eleison  three  hundred 
times  twice  a  day  (sec  tlic  i)rivil('gc  of  Hadrian  I, 
A.  D.  782,  in  Jaffi'-Lowcnfeld,  n.  2437),  one  would 
infer  that  some  counting  apparatus  must  almost 
necessarily  have  been  used  for  the  purpose. 

But  there  were  other  prayers  to  be  counted  more 
nearly  connected  with  the  Rosary  than  Kyrie  elei- 
sons.  At  an  early  date  among  the  monastic  orders 
the  practice  had  established  itself  not  only  of  offering 
Masses,  but  of  saying  vocal  prayers  as  a  suffrage 
for  their  deceased  brethren.  For  this  purpo.sc  the 
private  recitation  of  the  150  psalms,  or  of  5()  psalms, 
the  third  part,  was  constantly  enjoined.  Already  in 
A.  D.  800  we  learn  from  the  compact  between  St. 
Gall  and  Reichenau  ("Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Ccmfrat.", 
Piper,  140)  that  for  each  decea.sed  brother  all  the 
priests  should  say  one  Mass  and  also  fifty  psalms. 
A  charter  in  Kemble  (Cod.  Dipl.,  I,  290)  prescribes 
that  each  monk  is  to  sing  two  fifties  (hni  JiJ'li(j}  for 
the  souls  of  certain  benefactors,  while  each  priest 
is  to  sing  two  Masses  and  each  deacon  to  read  two 
Passions.  But  as  time  went  on,  and  the  convcrsi, 
or  lay  brothers,  most  of  them  quite  illiterate,  became 
distinct  from  the  choir  monks,  it  was  felt  that  th(>y 
also  should  be  required  to  substitute  some  simple 
form  of  prayer  in  place  of  the  psalms  to  which  their 
more  educated  brethren  were  bound  by  rule.  Thus 
we  read  in  the  "Ancient  Customs  of  Cluny",  col- 
lected by  Udalrio  in  1096,  that  when  the  death  of  any 
brother  at  a  distance  was  announced,  every  priest 
was  to  offer  Mass,  and  every  non-priest  was  either  to 
say  fifty  psalms  or  to  repeat  fifty  times  the  Pater- 
noster ("quicunque  sacerdos  est  cantet  missam  pro 
eo,  et  qui  non  est  sacerdos  quinquaginta  psalmos  aut 
toties  orationem  dominicam".  P.  L.,  CXLIX,  776). 
Similarly  among  the  Knights  Templars,  whose  rule 
dates  from  about  1128,  the  knights  who  could  not 
attend  choir  were  required  to  say  the  Lord's  Prayer 
57  times  in  all  and  on  the  death  of  any  of  the  brethren 


they  had  to  say  the  Pater  Noster  a  hundred  times  a 
day  for  a  week. 

To  count  these  accurately  there  is  every  reason 
to  beUeve  that  already  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries  a  practice  had  come  in  of  using  pebbles, 
berries,  or  discs  of  bone  threaded  on  a  string.  It 
is  in  any  case  certain  that  the  Countess  Godiva  of 
Coventry  (c.  1075)  left  by  will  to  the  statue  of  Our 
Lady  in  a  certain  monastery  "the  circlet  of  precious 
stones  which  she  had  threaded  on  a  cord  in  order  that 
by  fingering  them  one  after  another  she  might  count 
her  prayers  exactly"  (Malmesbury,  "Gesta  Pont.", 
Rolls  Series  311).  Another  example  seems  to  occur 
in  the  case  of  St.  Rosalia  (a.  d.  1160),  in  whose  tomb 
similar  strings  of  beads  were  discovered.  Even  more 
important  is  the  fact  that  such  strings  of  beads  were 
known  throughout  the  Middle  Ages — and  in  some 
Continental  tongues  are  known  to  this  day — as 
"Paternosters".  The  evidence  for  this  is  over- 
whelming and  comes  from  every  part  of  Europe. 
Already  in  the  thirteenth  century  the  manufacturers 
of  these  articles,  who  were  know  as  "paternosterers", 
almost  e\-erywhere  formed  a  recognized  craft  guilil 
of  considerable  importance.  The  "  Livre  des  metiers" 
of  Stephen  Boyleau,  for  example,  supphes  full  infor- 
mation regarding  the  four  guilds  of  patenotriers  in 
Paris  in  the  year  1268,  while  Paternoster  Row  in 
London  still  preserves  the  memory  of  the  street 
in  which  their  English  craft-fellows  congregatetl. 
Now  the  obvious  inference  is  that  an  appliance  which 
was  persistently  called  a  "paternoster",  or  in  Latin 
fila  de  paternoster,  numeralia  de  paternoster,  and  so 
on,  had,  at  least  originally,  been  designed  for  counting 
Our  Fathers.  This  inference,  drawn  out  and  illus- 
trated with  much  learning  by  Father  T.  Esser,  O.P., 
in  1897,  becomes  a  practical  certainty  when  we  re- 
member that  it  was  only  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century  that  the  Hail  Mary  came  at  all  generally 
into  use  as  a  formula  of  devotion.  It  is  morally 
impossible  that  Lady  Godiva's  circlet  of  jewels  could 
have  been  intended  to  count  Ave  Marias.  Hencx; 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  strings  of  prayer- 
beads  were  called  "paternosters"  because  for  a  long 
time  they  were  principally  employed  to  number 
repetitions  of  the  Lord's  Prayer. 

When,  however,  the  Hail  Mary  came  into  use,  it 
appears  that  from  the  first  the  consciousness  that  it 
was  in  its  own  nature  a  salutation  rather  than  a  prayer 
induced  a  fashion  of  repeating  it  many  times  in  suc- 
cession, accompanied  by  genuflexions  or  some  other 
external  act  of  reverence.  Just  as  happens  nowadays 
in  the  firing  of  salutes,  or  in  the  applause  given  to  a 
public  performer,  or  in  the  rounds  of  cheers  evoked 
among  school-boys  by  an  arrival  or  departur(>,  so 
also  then  the  honour  paid  by  such  salutations  was 
measured  by  numbers  and  coiitiTUKuice.  Further, 
since  the  recitation  of  tlie  Psalms  divided  into  fifties 
was,  as  innumerable  documents  attest,  the  favourite 
form  of  devotion  for  religious  and  learned  persons, 
so  those  who  were  simple  or  much  occupied  loved, 
by  the  repetition  of  fifty,  a  hundred,  or  a  hundred  and 
fifty  salutations  of  Our  Lady,  to  feel  that  they  were 
imitating  the  practice  of  God's  more  exalted  servants. 
In  any  case  it  is  certain  that  in  the  course  of  the 
twelfth  century  and  before  the  birth  of  St.  Dominic, 
the  practice  of  reciting  50  or  150  Ave  Marias  had 
become  generally  familiar.  The  most  conclusive 
evidence  of  this  is  furnished  by  the  "Mary-legends", 
or  stories  of  Our  Lady,  which  obtained  wide  circula- 
tion at  this  epoch.  The  story  of  Eulalia,  in  parti- 
cular, according  to  which  a  client  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin who  had  been  wont  to  say  a  hundred  and  fifty 
Aves  was  bidden  by  her  to  say  only  fifty,  but  more 
slowly,  has  been  shown  by  Mussafia  (Marien-legen- 
den,  Pts  I,  II)  to  be  unquestionably  of  early  (late. 
Not  less  conclusive  is  the  account  given  of  St.  Albert 
(d.  1140)  by  his  contemporary  biographer,  who  tells 


ROSARY 


186 


ROSART 


us:  A  hundred  times  a  day  he  bent  his  knees,  and 
fifty  times  he  prostrated  himself  raising  his  body 
again  by  his  fingers  and  toes,  while  he  repeated  at 
every  genuflexion:  'Hail  Mary,  full  of  grace,  the 
Lord  is  with  thee,  blessed  art  thou  amongst  women 
and  blessed  is  the  fruit  of  thy  womb'.  "  This  was  the 
whole  of  the  Hail  Mary  as  then  said,  and  the  fact 
of  all  the  words  being  set  down  rather  implies  that 
the  formula  had  not  vet  become  universally  famiUar. 
Not  less  remarkable  is  the  account  of  a  similar  devo- 
tional exercise  occurring  in  the  Corpus  Christi  MS. 
of  the  Ancren  Riwle  (q.  v.).  This  text,  declared  by 
Kolbing  to  have  been  written  in  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  centurv  (Englische  Studien,  1885,  p.  116), 
can  in  anv  case  be  hardly  later  than  1200.  The 
passage  in  question  gives  directions  how  fifty  Aves 
are  to  be  said  divided  into  sets  of  ten,  with  prostra- 
tions and  other  marks  of  reverence.  (See  The  Month, 
July,  1903.)  When  we  find  such  an  exercise  recom- 
mended to  a  httle  group  of  anchoresses  in  a  corner 
of  England,  twenty  years  before  any  Dominican 
foundation  was  made  in  this  country,  it  seems  diffi- 
cult to  resist  the  conclusion  that  the  custom  of  re- 
citing fiftv  or  a  hundred  and  fifty  Aves  had  grown 
familiar,  "independently  of,  and  earlier  than,  the 
preacliing  of  St.  Dominic.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
practice  of  meditating  on  certain  definite  mysteries, 
which  has  been  rightly  described  as  the  very  essence 
of  the  Rosars'  devotion,  seems  to  have  only  arisen 
long  after  the  date  of  St.  Dominic's  death.  It  is 
difficult  to  prove  a  negative,  but  Father  T.  Esser, 
O.P.,  has  shown  (in  the  periodical  "Der  Katholik", 
of  Mainz,  Oct.,  Nov.,  Dec,  1897)  that  the  introduc- 
tion of  this  meditation  during  the  recitation  of  the 
A^■es  was  rightly  attributed  to  a  certain  Carthusian, 
Dominic  the  Prussian.  It  is  in  any  case  certain  that 
at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  utmost  pos- 
sible variety  of  methods  of  meditating  prevailed,  and 
that  the  fifteen  mysteries  now  generally  accepted 
were  not  uniformly  adhered  to  even  by  the  Domini- 
cans themselves.  (See  Schmitz,  "Rosenkranzgebet", 
p.  74;  Esser  in  "Der  Katholik"  for  1904-6.)  To 
sum  up,  we  have  positive  evidence  that  both  the 
invention  of  the  beads  as  a  counting  apparatus  and 
also  the  practice  of  repeating  a  hundred  and  fifty 
Aves  cannot  be  due  to  St.  Dominic,  because  they  are 
both  notably  older  than  his  time.  Further,  we  are 
assured  that  the  meditating  upon  the  mysteries  was 
not  introduced  until  two  hundred  years  after  his 
death.  What  then,  we  are  compelled  to  ask,  is  there 
left  of  which  St.  Dominic  may  be  called  the  author? 
These  positive  reasons  for  distrusting  the  current 
tradition  might  in  a  measure  be  ignored  as  archaeo- 
logical refinements,  if  there  were  any  satisfactory 
evidence  to  show  that  St.  Dominic  had  identified 
himself  with  the  pre-existing  Ro.sary  and  become  its 
ap<jstie.  But  here  we  are  met  with  absolute  silence. 
Of  the  eight  or  nine  early  Lives  of  the  saint,  not 
one  makes  the  faintest  allusion  to  the  Rosary.  The 
witnesses  who  gave  evidence  in  the  cause  of  his 
canonization  are  equally  reticent.  In  the  great 
collection  of  documents  accumulated  by  Fathers 
Balme  and  I^elaidier,  O.P.,  in  their  "Cartulaire  de 
St.  Dominique"  the  question  is  studiously  ignored. 
The  early  c<^)n8titutionH  of  the  different  provinces  of 
the  order  have  been  examined,  and  many  of  them 
printed,  but  no  one  has  found  any  reference  to  this 
devotion.  We  possess  hundreds,  even  thousands,  of 
manuscripts  containing  devotional  treatises,  sermons, 
chronidf*.  Saints'  lives,  etc.,  written  by  the  Friars 
Preachers  between  1220  and  1450;  but  no  single 
verifiable  passage  has  yet  been  produced  which 
speaks  of  the  Rosary  as  instituted  by  St.  Dominic 
or  which  even  makes  much  of  the  devotion  as  one 
spfjciaily  dear  to  his  children.  The  charters  and 
other  deeds  of  the  Dominican  convents  for  men 
and  women,  as  M.  Jean  Guiraud  points  out  with 


emphasis  in  his  edition  of  the  Cartulaire  of  La 
Prouille  (I,  cccxxviii),  are  equally  silent.  Neither 
do  we  find  any  suggestion  of  a  connexion  between 
St.  Dominic  and  the  Rosary  in  the  paintings  and 
sculptures  of  these  two  and  a  half  centuries.  Even 
the  tomb  of  St.  Dominic  at  Bologna  and  the  number- 
less frescoes  by  Fra  Angelico  representing  the  brethren 
of  his  order  ignore  the  Rosary  completely. 

Impressed  by  this  conspiracy  of  silence,  the  Bol- 
landists,  on  trying  to  trace  to  its  source  the  origin 
of  the  current  tradition,  found  that  all  the  clues  con- 
verged upon  one  point,  the  preaching  of  the  Domini- 
can Alan  de  Rupe  about  the  years  1470-75.  He  it 
undoubtedly  was  who  first  suggested  the  idea  that 
the  devotion  of  "Our  Lady's  Psalter"  (a  hundred 
and  fifty  Hail  INIarys)  was  instituted  or  revived  by 
St.  Dominic.  Alan  was  a  very  earnest  and  devout 
man,  but,  as  the  highest  authorities  admit,  he  was 
full  of  delusions,  and  based  his  revelations  on  the 
imaginary  testimony  of  writers  that  never  existed 
(see  Quetif  and  Echard,  "Scriptores  O.P.",  I,  849). 
His  preaching,  however,  was  attended  with  much 
success.  The  Rosary  Confraternities,  organized  by 
him  and  his  colleagues  at  Douai,  Cologne,  and  else- 
where had  great  vogue,  and  led  to  the  printing  of 
many  books,  all  more  or  less  impregnated  with  the 
ideas  of  Alan.  Indulgences  were  granted  for  the  good 
work  that  was  thus  being  done  and  the  documents 
conceding  these  indulgences  accepted  and  repeated, 
as  was  natural  in  that  uncritical  age,  the  historical 
data  which  had  been  inspired  by  Alan's  writings  and 
which  were  submitted  according  to  the  usual  prac- 
tice by  the  promoters  of  the  confraternities  them- 
selves. "  It  was  in  this  way  that  the  tradition  of  Domini- 
can authorship  grew  up.  The  first  Bulls  speak  of 
this  authorship  with  some  reserve:  "Prout  in  historiis 
legitur"  says  Leo  X  in  the  earliest  of  all,  "Pastoris 
ajterni"  1520;  but  many  of  the  later  popes  were  less 
guarded. 

Two  considerations  strongly  support  the  view  of 
the  Rosary  tradition  just  expounded.  The  first  is 
the  gradual  surrender  of  almost  every  notable  piece 
of  evidence  that  has  at  one  time  or  another  been 
relied  upon  to  vindicate  the  supposed  claims  of  St. 
Dominic.  Touron  and  Alban  Butler  appealed  to 
the  Memoirs  of  a  certain  Luminosi  de  Aposa  who  pro- 
fessed to  have  heard  St.  Dominic  preach  at  Bologna, 
but  these  Memoirs  have  long  ago  been  proved  to 
be  a  forgery.  Danzas,  Von  Loe  and  others  attached 
much  importance  to  a  fresco  at  Muret;  but  the  fresco 
is  not  now  in  existence,  and  there  is  good  reason  for 
believing  that  the  rosary  once  seen  in  that  fresco 
was  painted  in  at  a  later  date  ("The  Month"  Feb. 
1901,  p.  179).  Mamachi,  Esser,  Walsh,  and  Von 
Loe  quote  some  alleged  contemporary  verses  about 
St.  Dominic  in  connexion  with  a  crown  of  roses; 
but  the  original  manuscript  has  (lisai)p(>ared,  and  it 
is  certain  that  the  writers  named  have  printed  Domin- 
icus  where  Benoist,  the  only  person  who  has  seen 
the  manuscript,  read  Doyninus.  The  famous  will  of 
Anthony  Sers,  which  professed  to  leave  a  bequest 
to  the  Confraternity  of  the  Rosary  at  Palencia  in 
1221,  was  put  forward  as  a  conclusive  piece  of  testi- 
mony by  Mamachi;  but  it  is  now  admitted  by  Domin- 
ican authorities  to  be  a  forgery  ("The  Irish  Ro- 
sary," Jan.,  1901,  p.  92).  Similarly,  a  supposed  ref- 
erence to  the  subject  by  Thomas  k  Kempis  in  the 
"Chronicle  of  Mount  St.  Agnes"  is  a  pure  blunder 
("The  Month",  PVb.,  1901,  p.  187).  With  this  may 
be  noted  the  change  in  tone  observable  of  late  in 
authoritative  works  of  reference.  In  the  "Kirch- 
liches  Handlexikon"  of  Munich  and  in  the  last  edi- 
tion of  Herder's  "  Konversationslexikon"  no  attempt 
is  made  to  defend  the  tradition  which  connects  St. 
Dominic  personally  with  the  origin  of  the  Rosary. 
Another  consideration  which  cannot  be  developed 
here  is  the  multitude  of  conflicting  legends  concern- 


ROSARY 


187 


ROSARY 


ing  the  origin  of  this  devotion  of  Our  Lady's  Psalter 
which  prevailed  down  to  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  as  well  as  the  early  diversity  of  practice  in 
the  manner  of  its  recitation.  These  facts  agree  ill 
with  the  supposition  that  it  took  its  rise  in  a  definite 
revelation  and  was  jealously  watched  over  from  the 
beginning  by  one  of  the  most  learned  and  influential 
of  the  religious  orders.  No  doubt  can  exist  that  the 
immense  diffusion  of  the  Rosary  and  its  confraterni- 
ties in  modern  times  and  the  vast  influence  it  has 
exercised  for  good  are  mainly  due  to  the  labours  and 
the  prayers  of  the  sons  of  St.  Dominic,  but  the  his- 
torical evidence  serves  plainly  to  show  that  their 
interest  in  the  subject  was  only  awakened  in  the  last 
years  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

That  the  Rosary  is  pre-eminently  the  prayer  of 
the  people  adapted  alike  for  the  use  of  simple  and 
learned  is  proved  not  only  by  the  long  series  of  papal 
utterances  by  which  it  has  been  commended  to  the 
faithful  but  by  the  daily  experience  of  all  who  are 
famiUar  with  it.  The  objection  so  often  made  against 
its  "vain  repetitions"  is  felt  by  none  but  those  who 
have  failed  to  realize  how  entirely  the  spirit  of  the 
exercise  lies  in  the  meditation  upon  the  fundamental 
mysteries  of  our  faith.  To  the  initiated  the  words 
of  the  angelical  salutation  form  only  a  sort  of  half- 
conscious  accompaniment,  a  bourdon  which  we  may 
liken  to  the  "Holy,  H0I3-,  Holy"  of  the  heavenly 
choirs  and  surely  not  in  itself  meaningless.  Neither 
can  it  be  necessary  to  urge  that  the  freest  criticism 
of  the  historical  origin  of  the  devotion,  which  involves 
no  point  of  doctrine,  is  compatible  with  a  full  ap- 
preciation of  the  devotional  treasures  which  this 
pious  exercise  brings  within  the  reach  of  all. 

As  regards  the  origin  of  the  name,  the  word  rosamis 
means  a  garland  or  iDouquet  of  roses,  and  it  was  not 
unfrequently  used  in  a  figurative  sense — e.g.  as  the 
title  of  a  book,  to  denote  an  anthology  or  collection 
of  extracts.  An  early  legend  which  after  travelling 
all  over  Europe  penetrated  even  to  Abyssinia  con- 
nected this  name  with  a  story  of  Our  Lady,  who 
was  seen  to  take  rosebuds  from  the  lips  of  a  young 
monk  when  he  was  reciting  Hail  Marys  and  to  weave 
them  into  a  garland  which  she  placed  upon  her  head. 
A  German  metrical  version  of  this  story  is  still  ex- 
tant dating  from  the  thirteenth  century.  The 
name  "Our  Lady's  Psalter"  can  also  be  traced  back 
to  the  same  period.  Corona  or  chdplct  suggests  the 
same  idea  as  rosarium.  The  old  English  name  found 
in  Chaucer  and  elsewhere  was  a  "pair  of  beads",  in 
which  the  word  heads  (q.v.)  originally  meant  prayers. 

A  vast  literature  has  grown  up  around  the  Rosary  devotion, 
but  from  a  historical  point  of  view  the  older  books  are  almost 
all  quite  uncritical.  The  best  representatives  of  a  devotional 
and  conservative  treatment  are:  Esser,  Unserer  lieben  Frauen 
Rosenkranz  (Paderborn,  1889);  Ch^ry,  Thiologie  du  Rosaire 
(Paris,  1869);  Proctor,  The  Rosary  Guide  (London,  1901); 
De  BcsciiiiRE,  Rosaire  de  Marie  (Lille,  1901);  Mother  Loyola, 
Hail  Full  0/  Grace  (London,  1902);  Meschler,  Rosengarten 
u.  L.  Frauen  (Freiburg,  1902);  Leikes,  Rosa  Aurea  (Dulmen, 
1886). 

The  critical  discussion  of  the  Rosary  tradition  was  first  seri- 
ously undertaken  by  the  Bollandist  Cuypers  in  the  Acta  Sanc- 
torum for  4  August.  In  modern  times  it  has  been  continued  by 
Thurston  in  The  Month  (Oct.,  1900,  to  April,  1901;  Sep.,  1902; 
July,  1903;  May  and  June,  1908,  etc.);  and  Holzapfel,  S.  Do- 
minikus  und  der  Rosenkranz  (Munich,  1903).  Very  valuable  con- 
tributions to  the  history  of  the  subject  have  been  made  by  Esser, 
Zur  Arch&ologie  der  Paternosler-Schnur,  in  Compte  rendu  of  the 
Catholic  International  Congress  (Fribourg,  1897);  Idem  in 
Der  Katholik  (Mainz,  Oct.,  Nov.,  and  Dec,  1897),  and  also  in 
a  series  of  articles  which  appeared  at  intervals  in  the  same  period- 
ical from  1904  to  1906.  An  important  little  historical  essay  is 
that  of  ScHMiTZ,  Das  Rosenkranzgebet  im  15.  und  in  Anfange 
des  16.  Jahrhunderts  (Fribourg,  1903).  See  also  Beissel  in 
Geschxchte  der  Verehrung  Marias  in  Deutschland  wdhrend  des 
Mittelalters  (Freiburg,  1909).  Replies  to  the  criticisms  of  the 
Rosary  tradition  have  been  made  by  Mamachi,  Annates  Ord. 
Prcedicatorum,  I  (Rome,  1756),  317-44.  Danzas,  Etudes  si:r 
les  temps  primififs,  IV  (Paris,  1864),  363  sq.;  Walsh  in  The 
Irish  Rosary  (Dublin,  Dec,  1900,  to  July,  1901).  The  principal 
papal  documents  connected  with  the  Rosary  will  be  found  in  the 
Acta  S.  Sedis  ,  .  .  pro  Societate  SS.  Rosarii  (4  vols.,  Lyons, 
1891). 

Herbert  Thurston. 


IL  In  the  Greek  Church,  Uniat  and  Schis- 
matic.— The  custom  of  reciting  prayers  upon  a  string 
with  knots  or  beads  thereon  at  regular  intervals 
has  come  down  from  the  early  days  of  Christianity, 
and  is  still  practised  in  the  Eastern  as  well  as  in  the 
Western  Church.  It  seems  to  have  originated  among 
the  early  monks  and  hermits  who  used  a  piece  of 
heavy  cord  with  knots  tied  at  intervals  upon  which 
they  recited  their  shorter  prayers.  This  form  of 
rosary  is  still  used  among  the  monks  in  the  various 
Greek  Churches,  although  archimandrites  and  bishops 
use  a  very  ornamental  form  of  rosary  with  costly 
beads.  The  rosary  is  conferred  upon  the  Greek 
monk  as  a  part  of  his  investiture  with  the  viandyaa 
or  full  monastic  habit,  as  the  second  step  in  the  mo- 
nastic life,  and  is  called  his  "spiritual  sword".  This 
Oriental  form  of  rosary  is  known  in  the  Hellenic 
Greek  Church  as  Ko/j.po\6ytop  (chap let),  or  Kofx^oaxoivtov 
(string  of  knots  or  beads),  in  the  Russian  Church  as 
vervitza  (string),  chotki  (chaplet),  or  liestovka  (ladder), 
and  in  the  Rumanian  Church  as  m&tanie  (reverence). 
The  first  use  of  the  rosary  in  any  general  way  was 
among  the  monks  of  the  Orient.  Our  everyday  name 
of  "beads"  for  it  is  simply  the  Old  Saxon  word  bede 
(a  prayer)  which  has  been  transferred  to  the  instru- 
ment used  in  reciting  the  prayer,  while  the  word 
rosary  is  an  equally  modern  term.  The  intercourse 
of  the  Western  peoples  of  the  Latin  Rite  with  those 
of  the  Eastern  Rite  at  the  beginning  of  the  Crusades 
caused  the  practice  of  saying  prayers  upon  knots  or 
beads  to  become  widely  diffused  among  the  monastic 
houses  of  the  Latin  Church,  although  the  practice 
had  been  observed  in  some  instances  before  that 
date.  On  the  other  hand,  the  recitat  ion  of  the  Rosary, 
as  practised  in  the  West,  has  not  become  general  in 
the  Eastern  Churches;  there  it  has  still  retained  its 
original  form  as  a  mona.stic  exercise  of  devotion, 
and  is  but  little  known  or  used  among  the  laity,  while 
even  the  secular  clergy  seldom  use  it  in  their  devo- 
tions. Bishops,  however,  retain  the  rosary,  as  indi- 
cating that  they  have  risen  from  the  monastic  state, 
even  though  they  are  in  the  world  governing  their 
dioceses. 

The  rosary  used  in  the  present  Greek  Orthodox 
Church — whether  in  Russia  or  in  the  East — is  quite 
different  in  form  from  that  used  in  the  Latin  Church. 
The  use  of  the  prayer-knots  or  prayer-beads  origi- 
nated from  the  fact  that  monks,  according  to  the 
rule  of  St.  Basil,  the  only  monastic  rule  known  to 
the  Greek  Rite,  were  enjoined  by  their  founder  to 
"pray  without  cea.sing"  (I  Thess.,  v,  17;  Luke,  xviii, 
1),  and  as  most  of  the  early  monks  were  laymen, 
engaged  often  in  various  forms  of  work  and  in  many 
cases  without  sufficient  education  to  read  the  pre- 
scribed lessons,  psalms,  and  prayers  of  the  daily  oflice, 
the  rosary  was  used  by  them  as  a  means  of  contin- 
ually reciting  their  prayers.  At  the  beginning  and 
at  the  end  of  each  prayer  said  by  the  monk  upon 
each  knot  or  bead  he  makes  the  "great  reverence" 
{■/)  fteydX-n  fierdvoia),  bending  down  to  the  ground, 
so  that  the  recitation  of  the  rosary  is  often  known  as 
a  melania.  The  rosary  used  among  the  Greeks  of 
Greece,  Turkey,  and  the  East  usually  consists  of 
one  hundred  beads  vnthout  any  distin(;tion  of  great 
or  little  ones,  while  the  Old  Slavic,  or  Russian,  rosary 
generally  consists  of  103  beads,  separated  in  irreg- 
ular sections  by  four  large  beads,  so  that  the  first 
large  bead  is  followed  by  17  small  ones,  the  second 
large  bead  by  3.3  small  ones,  the  third  by  40  small 
ones,  and  the  fourth  by  12  small  ones,  with  an  addi- 
tional one  added  at  the  end.  The  two  ends  of  a 
Russian  rosary  are  often  bound  together  for  a  short 
distance,  so  that  the  fines  of  beads  run  i)arallel  (henc(» 
the  name  ladder  used  for  the  rosary),  and  they  finish 
with  a  three-cornered  ornament  often  adorned  with 
a  tassel  or  other  finial,  corresponding  to  the  cross 
or  medal  used  in  a  Latin  rosary. 


ROSARY 


188 


ROSARY 


The  use  of  the  Greek  rosan-  is  prescribed  in  Rule  87 
of  the  "Xomocanon",  which  reads:  "The  rosary 
should  have  one  hundred  [the  Russian  rule  says  103] 
beads;  and  upon  each  bead  the  prescribed  prayer 
should  be  recited."  The  usual  form  of  this  prayer 
prescribed  for  the  rosarj'  runs  as  follows:  "O  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  Son  and  Word  of  the  hving  God,  through 
the  intercessions  of  thy  immaculate  Mother  [rrjs 
iravaxpi-vTov  ffov  Mijrpds]  and  of  all  thy  Saints,  have 
mercy  and  save  us."  If,  however,  the  rosary  be 
said  as  a  penitential  exercise,  the  prayer  then  is: 
"O  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God,  have  mercy 
on  me  a  sinner."  The  Russian  rosary  is  divided  by 
the  four  large  beads  so  as  to  represent  the  different 
parts  of  the  canonical  Office  which  the  recitation  of 
the  rosarj-  replaces,  while  the  four  large  beads  them- 
selves represent  the  four  Evangelists.  In  the  mon- 
asteries of  Mount  Athos,  where  the  severest  rule  is 
observed,  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  rosaries  are  said 
daily  by  each  monk.  In  Russian  monasteries  the 
rosarj'  is  usually  said  five  times  a  day,  while  in  the 
recitation  of  it  "the  "great  reverences"  are  reduced 
to  ten,  the  remainder  being  simply  sixty  "little 
reverences"  (bowing  of  the  head  no  further  than  the 
waist)  and  sixty  recitations  of  the  penitential  form 
of  the  prescribed  prayer. 

Among  the  Greek  Uniats  the  rosary  is  but  little 
used  by  the  \si\ty.  The  Basilian  monks  make  use 
of  it  in  the  Eastern  style  just  described  and  in  many 
cases  use  it  in  the  Roman  fashion  in  some  monasteries. 
The  more  active  life  prescribed  for  them  in  following 
the  example  of  Latin  monks  leaves  less  time  for  the 
recitation  of  the  rosary  according  to  the  Eastern 
form,  whilst  the  reading  and  recitation  of  the  Office 
during  the  canonical  Hours  fulfils  the  original  mo- 
nastic obligation  and  so  does  not  require  the  rosary. 
Latterly  the  Melchites  and  the  Italo-Greeks  have  in 
many  places  adopted  among  their  laity  a  form  of 
rosar>'  similar  to  the  one  used  among  the  laity  of  the 
Roman  Rite,  but  its  use  is  far  from  general.  The 
Ruthenian  and  Rumanian  Greek  Catholics  do  not 
use  it  among  the  laity,  but  reserve  it  chiefly  for  the 
monastic  clergy,  although  lately  in  some  parts  of 
Galicia  its  lay  use  has  been  occasionally  introduced 
and  is  regarded  as  a  latinizing  practice.  It  may  be 
said  that  among  the  Greeks  in  general  the  use  of  the 
rosar>-  is  regarded  as  a  religious  exerci.sc  peculiar 
t*)  the  monastic  life;  and  wherever  among  Greek 
Uniats  its  lay  use  has  been  introduced,  it  is  an  imita- 
tion of  the  Roman  pradice.  On  this  a('(;ount  it  has 
never  bfcn  popularized  among  the  laity  of  the  peoples, 
who  remain  strongly  attached  to  their  venerable 
Eastern  Rite. 

Mai.tzew,  Anilachtshxirh  (Berlin,  1895),  pp.  civ  sqq.;  Dk 
Mlebteb,  Voyage  de  deux  Benidictins  a  I' Alhos  (Paris,  1908),  180. 

Andrew  J.  Shipman. 

BREViAity  Hymns  of  the  Rosary. — The  proper 
office  granted  by  lx!0  XIII  (.5  Aug.,  1888)  to  the  feast 
contains  four  hymns  which,  because  of  the  pontiff's 
great  devotion  to  the  Rosary  and  his  skilful  work  in 
classical  Latin  verse,  were  thought  by  some  critics 
to  be  the  compositions  of  the  Holy  Father  himself. 
They  havf  Ijffn  traced,  however,  to  the  Dominican 
Office  published  in  18.'i4  (see  Chevaii<!r,  "Reperto- 
rium  Hymnologicum",  under  th(!  four  titles  of  the 
hymns)  and  were  afterwards  grant  fid  to  the  Dioceses 
of  Sfjgoviaand  Venice  flS41  anrl  184S).  Their  author 
was  a  pious  client  of  Mary,  Eustace  Sinina.  Exclusive! 
of  the  cjymmon  doxology  fjc^su  tibi  sit  gloria,  etc.) 
each  hymn  wntains  five  four-lined  stanzas  of  chissical 
dimeU.T  iambi(».  In  tin;  hymn  for  First  V(«p(!rs 
(CfjclfJHtJH  aula;  nuntius)  the.  Five  Joyful  Myst«!ri(w 
are  cxilebrated,  a  single  stanza  being  given  to  a  mys- 
tpry.  In  the  same  symnx-trical  manner  the  hymn 
for  Matins  (In  niont^;  olivis  conHito)  deals  with  IIk; 
Five  Sorrowful  Mysteries  and  that  for  Lauds  (Jam 


morte  victor  obruta)  with  the  Five  Glorious  Mysteries. 
The  hymn  for  Second  Vespers  (Te  gestientem  gaudiis) 
maintains  the  symmetrical  form  by  devoting  three 
stanzas  to  a  recapitulation  of  the  three  sets  of  mys- 
teries (Joj'ful,  Sorrowful,  Glorious),  prefacing  them 
with  a  stanza  which  sums  up  all  three  and  devoting 
a  fifth  stanza  to  a  poetical  invitation  to  weave  a 
crown  of  flowers  from  the  "rosary"  for  the  Mother 
of  fair  love.  The  compression  of  a  single  "mystery" 
into  a  single  stanza  may  be  illustrated  by  the  first 
stanza  of  the  first  hymn,  devoted  to  the  First  Joyful 
Mystery: 

Coclestis  aula;  nuntius. 
Arcana  pandens  Numinis, 
Plenam   salutat    gratia 
Dei  Parentem  Virginem. 

"The  envoy  of  the  Heavenly  Court, 
Sent  to  unfold  God's  secret  plan, 
The  Virgin  hails  as  full  of  grace. 
And  Mother  of  the  God  made  Man  " 
(Bagshawe). 
The  first  (or  prefatory)  stanza  of  the  fourth  hymn 
sums  up  the  three  sets  of  mysteries: 

Te  gestientem  gaudiis, 
Te   sauciam   doloribus, 
Te  jugi   amictam  gloria, 
O  Virgo  Mater,  pangimus. 

The  still  greater  compression  of  five  mysteries 
within  a  single  stanza  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
second  stanza  of  this  hymn : 

Ave,     redundans    gaudio 
Dum  concipis,  dum  visitas, 
Et  edis,  off(;rs,  invenis. 
Mater    beata,    Filium. 

"Hail,  filled  with  Joy  in  heart  and  mind. 
Conceiving,    visiting,   or   when 
Thou  didst  bring  forth,  offer,  and  find 
Thy  Child  amidst  the  learned  men." 

Ar('hl>ishop  Bagshawe  translates  the  hymna  in  his 
"Breviary  Hymns  and  Missal  Sequences"  (London, 
s.  (1.,  pp.  114-18).  As  in  the  illustration  quoted  from 
oiu!  of  these,  the  stanza  contains  (in  all  the  hymns) 
only  two  rhymes,  the  author's  aim  being  "as  much 
as  possil)le  to  keep  to  the  sense  of  the  original,  neither 
adding  to  this,  nor  taking  from  it"  (preface).  The 
other  illustration  of  a  fully-rhymed  stanza  is  taken 
from  another  version  of  the  four  hymns  (Henry  in 
{\h\  "Rosary  Magazine",  Oct.,  1891).  Transhitions 
into  Fr(m(;h  verse  are  given  by  Alliin,  "La  I'ocsie 
du  Br^viaire",  with  slight  comment,  pp.  34.5-.'3(i. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Confraternity  of  the  Holy  Rosary. — In  accord- 
ance with  the  conclusion  of  the  article  Rosary  no 
sufficient  evidence  is  forthcoming  to  establish  the 
(!xistence  of  any  Rosary  Confraternity  before  the 
last  quarter  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Dominican 
guilds  or  fraternities  there  were,  but  we  cannot  assume 
without  i)roof  that  they  were  connected  with  the 
Rosary.  W'c  know,  however,  that  through  the 
preaching  of  Alan  dc.  Rupe  such  associations  Ix-gan 
to  be  erected  shortly  bcff)re  1475;  that  (•stal)]islied 
at  Cologne  in  1474  by  Fatli(T  James  Si)n'ng('r  is 
eH|)ecially  famf)us.  People  from  all  parts  of  the  world 
desired  to  b(!  enrolled  in  it..  A  casual  I'^tiglish  example 
occurs  in  the;  Plumpton  Correspondenc(!  (Camden 
Society,  p.  /jO),  where  a  i)ri<'st  in  Lon<lon  writes  in 
1480  to  his  patron  in  Yorkshire:  "I  send  a  jjapcr 
of  {he  Rosary  of  our  Ladie  of  Coleyn  and  I  have 
registered  your  name  with  both  my  Ladis  nanicw, 
as  the  paper  expresses,  and  ye  be  acoplcd  as  brethcr 


ROSATE 


189 


ROSCELIN 


and  sisters."  Even  at  that  time  the  entry  of  the 
name  of  each  associate  on  the  register  was  an  indis- 
pensable condition  of  membership,  and  so  it  remains 
to  this  day.  It  was  undoubtedly  to  this  and  similar 
confraternities,  which  by  degrees  began  to  be  erected 
in  many  other  places  under  Dominican  supervision, 
that  the  great  vogue  of  the  Rosary  as  well  as  the 
acceptance  of  a  more  uniform  system  in  its  recitation 
was  mainly  due.  The  recitation  of  the  Rosary  is 
alone  prescribed  for  the  members — at  present  they 
undertake  to  recite  the  fifteen  mysteries  at  least 
once  in  each  week — but  even  this  does  not  in  any 
way  bind  under  sin.  The  organization  of  these  con- 
fraternities is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Dominican 
Order,  and  no  new  confraternity  can  be  anywhere 
begun  without  the  sanction  of  the  general.  It  is 
to  the  members  of  the  Rosary  confraternities  that 
the  principal  indulgences  have  been  granted,  and 
there  can  be  no  need  to  lay  stress  upon  the  special 
advantages  which  the  confraternity  offers  by  the 
union  of  prayer  and  devotional  exercises  as  well  as 
the  participation  of  merits  in  this  which  is  probably 
the  largest  organization  of  the  kind  within  the  Cath- 
oHc  Church.  Moreover,  in  the  "patent  of  erection", 
which  is  issued  for  each  new  confraternity  by  the 
General  of  the  Dominicans,  a  clause  is  added  granting 
to  all  members  enrolled  therein  "a  participation  in 
all  the  good  works  which  by  the  grace  of  God  arc 
performed  throughout  the  world  by  the  brethren  and 
sisters  of  the  said  [Dominican]  Order."  An  impor- 
tant "Apostolic  Constitution  on  the  Rosary  Con- 
fraternity", which  may  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  new 
charter,  was  issued  by  Leo  XIII  on  2  Oct.,  1898. 

The  "Perpetual  Rosary"  is  an  organization  for 
securing  the  continuous  recitation  of  the  Rosary  by 
day  and  night  among  a  number  of  a-ssociate^s  who 
perform  their  allotted  share  at  stated  times.  This 
is  a  development  of  the  Rosary  Confraternity,  and 
dates  from  the  seventeenth  ccmtury. 

The  "Living  Rosary"  was  begun  in  1826,  and  is 
independent  of  the  confraternity;  it  consists  in  a 
number  of  circles  of  fifteen  members  who  each  agree 
to  recite  a  single  decade  every  day  and  who  thus 
complete  the  whole  Rosary  between  them. 

Nearly  all  the  works  mentioncfl  in  the  last  article  devote  more 
or  less  space  to  the  Confraternity  of  the  Holy  Rosary.  The  gen- 
eral treatises  on  indulgences  by  Berinoer  (in  French  as  well  as 
German),  Mocchegiani  (Latin),  Melata.  etc.,  referred  to  in 
Indulgences,  give  copious  details  concerning  the  special  priv- 
ileges of  the  members  of  the  Rosary  Confraternity.  The  rules 
of  the  Cologne  Rosary  Confraternity  were  printed  in  German 
in  1476,  and,  in  the  same  or  the  following  year,  the  first  edition 
of  the  Quofllibet  de  veritnlr  fnitirniliilin  Rosarii  scu  Pnalterii 
B.  M.  V.  (frequently  reprinted)  by  Michael  Francisci.  A 
number  of  other  booklets  dealing  with  the  confraternity  belong 
to  the  same  period. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Feast  of  the  Holy  Rosahy. — Apart  from  the 
signal  defeat  of  the  Albigeiisiaii  lieretics  at  the  battle 
of  Muret  in  1213  which  l('g(>ii(l  has  attributed  to  the 
recitation  of  the  Rosary  by  iSt.  Dominic,  it  is  believed 
that  Heaven  has  on  many  occasions  rewarded  the 
faith  of  those  who  had  recourse  to  this  devotion 
in  times  of  special  danger.  More  particularly,  the 
naval  victory  of  Lepanto  gained  by  Don  John  of 
Austria  over  the  Turkish  fleet  on  the  first  Sunday 
of  October  in  1571  responded  wonderfully  to  the 
processions  made  at  Rome  on  that  same  day  by 
the  members  of  the  Rosary  confraternity.  St.  Pius 
V  thereupon  ordered  that  a  commemoration  of  the 
Rosary  should  be  made  upon  that  day,  and  at  the 
request  of  the  Dominican  Order  Gregory  XIII  in 
1573  allowed  this  feast  to  be  kept  in  all  churches 
which  possessed  an  altar  dedicatcid  to  the  Holy  Ros- 
ary. In  1671  the  observance  of  this  f(>siival  was 
extended  by  Clement  X  to  the  whole  of  Spain,  and 
somewhat  later  Clement  XI  after  the  important 
victory  over  the  Turks  gained  by  Prince  Eugene  on 
5  Aug.,  1716  (the  feast  of  our  Lady  of  the  Snows), 


at  Peterwardein  in  Hungary,  commanded  the  feast 
of  the  Rosary  to  be  celebrated  by  the  universal 
Church.  A  set  of  "proper"  lessons  in  the  second 
nocturn  were  conceded  by  Benedict  XIII.  Leo 
XIII  has  since  raised  the  feast  to  the  rank  of  a  double 
of  the  second  class  and  has  added  to  the  Litany  of 
Loreto  the  invocation  "Queen  of  the  Most  Holy 
Rosary".  On  this  feast,  in  every  church  in  which 
the  Rosary  confraternity  has  been  duly  erected,  a 
plenary  indulgence  lolies  quolies  is  granted  upon 
certain  conditions  to  all  who  visit  therein  the  Rosary 
chapel  or  statue  of  Our  Lady.  This  has  been  called 
the  "Portiuncula"  of  the  Rosary. 

Kellner,  Heortology  (tr.  London,  190S),  268  sqq.;  see  also 
authorities  mentioned  under  Rosary. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Rosate  (Rosciate),  Alberico  de,  jurist,  date  of 
birth  unknown;  d.  in  1354.  He  was  born  in  the 
village  of  Rosate  (Rosciate)  in  the  district  of  Bergamo, 
and  was  of  humble  parentage.  He  studied  law  at 
Padua  where  he  gained  the  degree  of  Doctor,  without, 
however,  becoming  a  teacher.  He  passed  his  life 
at  Bergamo  where  he  was  a  lawyer  and  took  part  in 
various  public  affairs.  He  was  employed  in  particu- 
lar by  Galeazzo  Visconti  of  Milan,  and  after  Gal- 
eazzo's  death  by  Lucchino  Visconti  and  Lucchino's 
brother  John,  Bishop  of  Novara.  In  1340  he  was 
commissioned  by  the  bishop  to  go  as  his  envoy  in 
important  matters  to  Pope  Benedict  XII  at  Avignon. 
In  his  later  years  Rosate  devoted  himself  cspi'cially 
to  scientific  literary  labours.  The  last  certain  n-ixyrt 
concerning  his  Ufe  belongs  to  the  year  1350,  when  he 
went  with  his  sons  to  Rome  to  attend  the  jubilee. 
His  writings  won  him  a  high  reputation,  esi)ccially 
among  practical  jurists.  Special  mention  should 
be  made  of  his  commentaries  on  the  "Digests"  and 
the  "Codex",  which  were  often  printed  later,  as  at 
Lyons  (1517,  154.5-48);  the  "Opus  Statutorum" 
(Como,  1477;  Milan,  1511);  and  the  "Dictionar- 
ium",  a  collection  of  maxims  of  law  as  well  as  a 
dictionary,  which  was  often  reprinted. 

Salvioni,  Intorno  ad  Alberigo  da  Rosciate  ed  alle  sue  opere 
(Bergamo,  1842);  Schulte,  Gesch.  des  canon.  Rechts,  II.  245  sq.; 
Saviony,  Gesch.  des  rSm.  Rechts  im  Mittelalter,  VI  (Heidelberg, 
1831),  112-21;  Tiraboschi,  Storia  lelteraria  ital.,  V,  pt.  i  (1807), 
312-14. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Rosati,  Joseph.  See  Saint  Louis,  Archdiocese  of. 

Roscelin,  a  monk  of  Compiegne,  was  teaching  as 
early  as  1087.  He  had  intercourse  with  Lanfranc, 
St.  Anselm,  and  Ivo  of  Chartres.  Brought  before 
a  council  at  Soissons  (1093),  where  he  was  accused 
of  Tritheism,  he  denied  the  doctrines  attributed  to 
him;  but  this  was  done  through  fear  of  excommunica- 
tion, for  later  he  returned  to  his  early  theories.  He; 
Wiis  successively  in  England,  at  Rome,  and  finally 
returned  to  France.  Of  his  writings  there  exists 
only  a  letter  addressed  to  Abelard.  Haureau  brings 
forward  his  name  in  connexion  with  a  text:  "Sen- 
tentia  de  universalibus  secundum  magistrum  R." 
("Notices  et  extr.  de  quelques  manuscr.  lat.",  V, 
Paris,  1892,  224),  but  this  is  a  conjecture.  On  the 
other  hand  we  have  as  evidences  of  his  doctrine 
texts  of  St.  Anselm,  Abelard,  John  of  Salisbury,  and 
an  anonymous  epigram.  His  share  in  the  history 
of  ideas  and  especially  the  value  of  his  Nominalism 
have  been  exaggerated,  his  celebrity  being  far  more 
due  to  his  theological  Tritheism.  This  article  will 
study  him  from  both  points  of  view. 

I.  Roscelin's  Nominalism,  or  " sententia  vocum". — 
According  to  Otto  of  Freisingen  Roscelin  "primus 
nostris  temporibus  sententiam  vocum  instituit" 
("Gesta  Frederici  imp",  in  "Mon.  Germ.  Hi.st.: 
Script.",  XX,  376),  but  the  chronicler  of  the  "His- 
toria  Francica"  (cf.  Bouquet,  "Rec.  des  hist,  des 
Gaules  et  de  la  France",  XII,  Paris,  1781,  3,  b,  c) 
mentions  before  him  a  "magister  Johannes",  whose 


ROSCOMMON 


190 


ROSCOMMON 


personalitv  is  much  discussed  and  who  has  not  yet 
been  definitively  identified.  What  constitutes  the 
"sententia  vociim''?  To  judge  of  it  we  have  be- 
sides the  texts  mentioned  above  which  bear  directly 
on  Roscelin  an  exposition  of  the  treatise  "De  generi- 
bus  et  speciebus"  (.thirteenth  cent.),  wrongly  attrib- 
uted to  Abelard  by  Victor  Cousin.  The  "sententia 
vocum"  was  one  of  the  anti-Realist  solutions  of  the 
problem  of  universal  accepted  by  the  early  Middle 
Ages.  Resuming  Porphyr>-'s  alternative  (mox  de 
generibus  et  speciebus  ilJud  quidem  sive  subsistant 
sive  in  nudis  intellectibus  posita  sint)  the  first  medie- 
val philosophers  regarded  genera  and  species  (sub- 
stance, corporeity,  animality,  humanity)  either  as 
things  or  as  having  no  existence  (see  Nominalism). 
and  applying  to  this  alternative  a  terminologj-  of 
Boethius.*  the)'  derived  thence  either  res  (things)  or 
voces  (.words).'  To  the  Nominalists  universals  were 
"voces",  which  means:  (1)  above  all  that  universals 
are  not  "res",  that  is  that  only  the  individual  exists: 
"nam  cum  habeat  eorum  sententia  nihil  esse  prseter 
indi%-iduum  .  .  ."  (De  gener.  et  spec,  524). 
Nominalism  was  essentially  anti-Realist.  (2)  that 
universals  are  merely  words,  "flatus  vocis",  e.  g., 
the  word  "homo",  di'S'isible  into  syllables,  con- 
sonants, and  vowels.  "Fuit  autem,  nemini  magistri 
nostri  RosceUini  tam  insana  sententia  ut  nullam  rem 
partibus  constare  vellet,  sed  sicut  solis  vocibus 
species,  ita  et  partes  ascridebat"  (Abelard,  "Liber 
divisionum",  ed.  Cousin,  471).  "Alius  ergo  con- 
sistit  in  vocibus,  licet  haec  opinio  cum  Rocelino  suo 
fere  omnino  evanuerit"  (John  of  Salisbury, 
"Metalog.",  II,  17).  The  universal  is  reduced  to 
an  emission  of  sound  (flatus  vocis),  in  conformity  with 
Boethius's  definition:  "Nihil  enim  aliud  est  prolatio 
(vocis)  quam  aeris  plectro  Unguae  percussio".  Ros- 
celin's  universal  corresponds  to  what  is  now  called 
the  "universale  in  voce"  in  opposition  to  "universale 
in  re"  and  "universale  in  intellectu". 

But  this  theor>'  of  Roscelin's  had  no  connexion 
with  the  abstract  concept  of  genus  and  species. 
He  did  not  touch  on  this  question.  It  is  certain  that 
he  did  not  deny  the  existence  or  possibility  of  these 
concepts,  and  he  was  therefore  not  a  Nominalist  in 
the  fashion  of  Taine  or  in  the  sense  in  which  Nominal- 
ism is  at  present  understood.  That  is  why,  in  ref- 
erence to  the  modem  sense  of  the  word,  we  have 
called  it  a  pseudo-Nominalism.  John  of  Salisbury, 
speaking  of  "nominalis  secta"  (Metalog.,  II,  10) 
gives  it  quite  another  meaning.  So  Roscelin's 
rudimentar)',  even  childish,  solution  does  not  com- 
promise the  value  of  universal  concepts  and  may 
be  called  a  stage  in  the  development  of  moderate 
Reahsm. 

Roscelin  was  also  taken  to  task  by  St.  Anselm  and 
Abelard  for  the  less  clear  idea  which  he  gave  of  the 
whole  and  of  composite  substance.  According  to  St. 
Anselm  he  maintained  that  colour  does  not  exist 
independently  of  the  horse  which  serves  as  its  sup- 
prjrt  and  that  the  wisdom  of  the  soul  is  not  outside 
of  the  soul  which  is  wise  (De  fide  trinit.,  2).  He 
denies  to  the  whole,  such  as  house,  man,  real  exis- 
tf?nce  of  its  parts.  The  word  alone  had  parts,  "ita 
divinam  paginam  pcrvertit,  ut  eo  loco  quo  Dominus 
part^-m  pisois  assi  comedisse  partem  hujus  vocis, 
qua-  est  pi.scis  assi,  non  partem  rei  intelligere  cogatur" 
(Oju.sin,  "P.  Aba.'lardi  opera",  II.  151).  Roscelin 
was  not  without  his  supporters;  among  them  was 
his  ront<^'mporary  Raimbert  of  Lille,  and  what  the 
monk  IK'-riman  relat/;s  of  his  doctrine  agrees  with  the 
8tat<-ments  of  the  master  of  Compiegne.  Universal 
Bubstanr-es,  says  Hi'iriman,  are  but  a  breath,  which 
means  "eos  de  sapientium  numero  merito  esse  ex- 
Hufflandos".  He  merely  comments  on  the  saying 
of  An.'W'lm  charact*!rized  by  the  same  jesting  tone: 
"a  spiritualium  quacstionum  disputatione  sunt 
exsufflandi"  (P.  L.,  256a),  and  says  that  to  under- 


stand the  windy  loquacity  of  Raimbert  of  Lille  one 
has  but  to  breathe  into  his  hand  (manuque  ori 
admota  exsufilans;  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist.",  XIV,  275). 
II.  Tritheism  of  Roscelin. — Roscelin  considered 
the  three  Divine  Persons  as  three  independent  beings, 
hke  three  angels;  if  usage  permitted,  he  added,  it 
might  truly  be  said  that  there  are  three  Gods.  Other- 
wise, he  continued,  God  the  Father  and  God  the  Holy 
Ghost  would  have  become  incarnate  with  God  the 
Son.  To  retain  the  appearance  of  dogma  he  admit- 
ted that  the  three  DiAnne  Persons  had  but  one  will 
and  power  [Audio  .  .  .  quod  Roscelinus  clericus 
dicit  in  tres  personas  esse  tres  res  ab  invicem  separa- 
tas,  sicut  sunt  tres  angeli,  ita  tamen  ut  una  sit 
voluntas  et  potestas  aut  Patrem  et  Spiritum  sanctum 
esse  incarnatum;  et  tres  deos  vere  posse  dici  si  usus 
admitteret  (letter  of  St.  Anselm  to  Foulques)].  This 
characteristic  Tritheism,  which  St.  Anselm  and 
Abelard  agreed  in  refuting  even  after  its  author's 
conversion,  seems  an  indisputable  application  of 
Roscehn's  anti-Realism.  He  argues  that  if  the  three 
Divine  Persons  form  but  one  God  all  three  have  be- 
come incarnate,  which  is  inadmissible.  There  are 
therefore  three  Divine  substances,  three  Gods,  as 
there  are  three  angels,  because  each  substance  con- 
stitutes an  individual,  which  is  the  fundamental 
assertion  of  anti-Realism.  The  ideas  of  the  theo- 
logian are  closely  linked  with  those  of  the  philosopher. 

Roscelin's  letter  to  Abelard  has  been  re-edited  by  Reiners, 
Der  Numinalismiis  in  der  Friihscholastik  in  Bcilrage  zur  Gesch.  der 
Phil,  der  Mittelalt.  (Munster,  1910);  De  Wulf,  Hist,  of  Medieval 
Phil.  (New  York,  1909),  157-60;  Tatlor,  The  Mediaeval  Mind 
(London,  1911),  I,  303;  II,  339;  Barach,  Zur  Gesch.  des  Nominal, 
tor  Roscelin  (Vienna,  1866) ;  Picavet,  Roscelin,  phil.  et  theologien 
(Paris,  1911);  Reiners,  op.  cit.;  Adlhoch,  Roscelin  und  S. 
Anselm  in  Philos.  Jahrbuch,  XX  (1907). 

M.  De  Wulf. 

Roscommon,  capital  of  County  Roscommon,  Ire- 
land, owes  origin  and  name  to  a  monastery  founded 
by  St.  Coman  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighth  century 
on  a  "ros"  or  wooded  point  amidst  marshes.  Ware 
and  his  copiers  make  Coman  author  of  a  monastic 
rule  observed  throughout  three-fourths  of  Connaught; 
but  this  statement  is  wrongly  deduced  from  annalis- 
tic  records  of  the  collection  of  dues  by  St.  Coman's 
successors,  under  the  title  of  "Lex  Comani",  from 
the  Teora  Connachta,  tribes  occupying  a  portion  of 
the  province.  The  records  indicate,  indeed,  that 
with  support  from  the  King  of  Connaught  St.  Coman's 
foundation  had  some  pre-eminence,  if  not  jurisdic- 
tion. He  himself  may  have  been,  as  Colgan  believed, 
a  bishop;  some  of  his  earliest  successors  certainly 
were.  Whilst  the  tribal  system  prevailed  the 
bishops  at  Roscommon,  as  pastors  over  the  patri- 
monial territory  of  the  provincial  king,  would  hold 
in  the  Church  a  position  analogous  to  his  in  the  state, 
and  through  this  analogy  would  be  the  "high"  or 
"noble  bishops  of  the  Connaughtmen".  Roscom- 
mon became  a  seat  of  learning  as  well  as  of  authority, 
and  had  scholars  and  scribes  celebrated  in  the  na- 
tional annals.  From  the  middle  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, if  not  earlier,  it  was  closely  united  with  Clonmac- 
noise  and  shared  with  that  great  school  the  fame  of 
Cormac  O'Cillene  and  Tighernach  O'Braoin,  the 
annalist.  It  shared  also  in  the  prosperity  of  the 
Connaught  kings,  after  they  had  risen  to  the  mon- 
archy of  Ireland.  'I'oirdhealbhach  O'Conchubhair's 
son,  Maol-Iosa,  was  Abbot  of  Roscommon,  and  he 
himself  was  a  liberal  benefactor;  he  bestowcfl  on  the 
monastery  a  piece  of  the  true  cross  brought  liim  from 
Rome  in  1123,  and  had  it  enshrined  in  the  famous 
Bachal  Buidhe,  lately  named  the  Cross  of  Cong,  a 
masterpiece  of  design  and  workmanship,  now  one 
of  the  greatest  treasures  in  the  collection  of  the 
Royal  Irish  Academy,  Dublin.  When  the  Irish 
monasteries  exchangefl  their  primitive  rules  for  those 
of  the  great  orders  rtf  the  Church,  the  monks  at  Ros- 
common became  Augustinian  canons,  but  remained 


ROSE 


191 


ROSECRANS 


till  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  an  Irish 
community  under  native  superiors  despite  the  Nor- 
man castle  built  within  their  fields  in  1268  and 
the  policy  of  ousting  the  Irish  from  their  monas- 
teries. During  the  great  Western  Schism,  Thomas 
Macheugan  (Mac  Aodhagain)  whom  the  antipope 
Clement  VII  made  prior  of  this  house,  came  from 
Avignon  as  Clement's  agent,  and  convening  the 
prelates,  clergy,  and  laity  of  Connaught  at  Roscom- 
mon, secured  the  adhesion  of  all  except  the  Bishop 
of  Elphin,  who  did  not  attend,  and  the  Bishop  of 
Killala,  who  sent  his  archdeacon  to  uphold  the  right 
of  Urban  VI.  When  the  O'Conors  made  terms  with 
Queen  Elizabeth,  the  abbey  and  its  possessions  were 
attached  to  the  constableship  of  Roscommon  Castle, 
and  subsequently  granted  to  Sir  Nicholas  Malbie; 
even  the  site  is  scarcely  traceable. 

The  Dominican  friary  that  was  situated  at  Ros- 
common was  founded  in  the  year  1253  by  Fedh- 
limidh  O'Conchubhair,  King  of  Connaught,  and 
consecrated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  1257;  in  1265 
the  founder  ended  his  stormy  life  within  its  walls, 
and  was  buried  there.  His  monument,  still  extant, 
represents  him  recumbent  in  long  robes  of  peace  and 
wearing  a  royal  crown.  In  subsequent  centuries  this 
church  was  the  chosen  burial-place  of  several  of  his 
and  other  princely  families.  After  the  confiscation 
this  friary,  like  the  house  of  Augustinian  Canons,  was 
first  attached  to  the  constableship  of  Roscommon, 
and  then  granted  to  Malbie;  but  the  friars  lingered 
around  the  spot.  Under  Cromwell  several  of  them, 
amongst  whom  O'Heyne  mentions  Donald  O'Neagh- 
ten,  Edmund  O'Bern,  Raymund  MacEochaidh,  and 
Bernard  O'Kelly,  were  put  to  death.  Afterwards 
they  obtained  a  small  house  and  land  and  as.sombled 
a  community  numbering  sixteen  in  1791;  but  it  died 
out  in  1844.  Of  the  original  buildings  only  ruins  of 
the  church  remain.  The  Franciscans  also  had  a 
convent  at  Roscommon  for  a  brief  period;  founded 
in  1269,  it  was  burned  down  in  1270,  and  on  account 
of  the  founder's  death  never  rebuilt. 

Archdall,  Monaaticon  Hibernicum  (Dublin,  1786);  Lanioan, 
Eccles.  Hist,  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1829) ;  Ware,  De  Scriploribus 
HibernioB  (Dublin,  1639) ;  Ussher,  Brilannicarum  Ecclesiarum 
Anliquitates  in  Works  (Dublin,  1847);  O'Heyne,  Irish  Dominicans 
ed.  CoLEMA>f  (Dundalk,  1902) ;  De  Burqo,  Ilibernia  Dominicana 
(Cologne,  1762);  Weld,  Statistical  Survey  of  Co.  Roscommon 
(Dublin,  1832). 

Charles  McNeill. 

Rose,  The  Golden.     See  Golden  Rose. 

Rosea,  a  titular  see.  The  official  catalogue  of  the 
Roman  Curia  mentioned  formerly  a  titular  see  of 
Rosea  in  Syria.  The  title  is  borne  at  present  by  Mgr 
Felix  Jourdan  de  la  Passardiere,  of  the  Oratory  of 
France,  who  lives  in  Paris.  The  name  Rosea  being 
only  a  corruption  of  Rhosus  was  replaced  by  the  latter 
in  1884  (see  Rhosus). 

S.    PETRIDts. 

Roseau,  Diocese  of  (Rosensis),  suffragan  of 
Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad,  B.  W.  I.  The  different  isl- 
ands of  the  Carribean  Sea,  which  constitute  the  Dio- 
cese of  Roseau,  belonged  to  the  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  Port  of  Spain  up  to  1850,  when  Pius  IX  by  Brief 
of  30  April,  1850,  erected  the  Diocese  of  Roseau,  with 
the  episcopal  see  at  Roseau,  the  capital  of  Dominica. 
The  Very  Reverend  Father  Michael  Monaghan  was 
elected  first  bishop  of  the  new  diocese  and  consecrated 
16  February,  1851.  He  died  in  St.  Thomas,  14 
August,  1855,  and  was  succeeded  in  1856  by  Rev. 
Father  Michael  Vesque,  who  died  10  August,  1859. 
The  third  bishop  was  Rene  Marie  Charles  Poirier, 
C.J.M.,  who  governed  the  diocese  from  1859  to 
1878.  Next  came  Bishop  Michael  Naughten  from 
1880  till  4  July,  1900.  The  present  occupant  is 
Philip  Schelfhaut,  C.SS.R.,  b.  at  St.  Nicholas, 
Belgium,   27   September,   1850,   ordained  priest   18 


October,  1878,  and  consecrated  bishop,  16  March, 
1902.  The  diocese  comprises  the  Islands  of  Do- 
minica, B.  W.  I.,  with  30,000  Cathohcs,  12  parishes, 
18  priests,  16  churches,  and  4  chapels;  Montserrat,  B. 
W.  I.,  with  600  Catholics,  1  parish,  1  priest,  1  church; 
Antigua,  B.  W.  I.,  with  400  Catholics,  1  parish,  1 
priest,  1  church;  St.  Kitts,  B.  W.  I.,  with  1500  Catho- 
lics, 1  parish,  2  priests,  1  church,  2  chapels;  St. 
Croix,  D.  W.  I.,  with  4100  Catholics,  2  parishes,  4 
priests,  2  churches,  1  chapel;  St.  Thomas,  D.  W.  I., 
with  3000  Catholics,  1  parish,  3  priests,  1  church,  1 
chapel.  The  total  Protestant  population  of  the 
diocese  is  about  100,000.  In  the  smaller  British 
Islands  of  Nevis,  Anguilla,  Barbuda,  Sombrero,  and 
in  the  Virgin  Islands,  Tostola,  Anegada,  and  Virgin 
Gorda,  as  also  in  the  Danish  Island  of  St.  John,  the 
Catholic  Church  has  so  few  adherents  that  no  priest 
has  ever  been  resident  there.  With  the  exception  of 
two  parishes,  which  are  served  by  secular  priests, 
the  whole  diocese  is  under  the  care  of  the  Redemp- 
torist  Fathers  of  the  Belgian  province,  and  the  Fathers 
of  Mary  Immaculate  (Chavagne  en  Paillers,  France). 
There  are  also  14  Redemptorist  Brothers  on  the 
mission.  In  Roseau,  the  Religious  of  the  Faithful 
Virgin  devote  themselves  to  the  education  of  the 
girls  of  both  the  lower  and  higher  classes,  while  the 
Ladies  of  the  Union  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  conduct  a 
high  school  for  girls  in  St.  Thomas.  In  Dominica 
nearly  all  the  schools  are  in  the  hands  of  the  local 
Government;  however,  religious  instruction  is  given 
by  the  priests  during  school  hours.  In  the  other 
islands,  with  the  exception  of  Antigua,  parochial 
schools  are  attached  to  the  mission. 

Ecclesiastical  Bulletin  of  Roseau  (Roseau,  1908-9) ,  MSS. 

J.  Moris. 

Rosecrans,  William  Starke,  b.  at  Kingston, 
Ohio,  U.  S.  A.,  6  Sept.,  1819;  d.  near  Redondo, 
California,  11  March,  1898.  The  family  came  orig- 
inally from  Holland  and  settled  in  Pennsylvania, 
moving  thence  to  Ohio.  His  mother  was  a  daughter 
of  Samuel  Hop- 
kins, a  soldier  of 
the  Revolution 
and  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  D(>c- 
laration  of  Inde- 
pendence. Ill' 
graduated  at  tln' 
U.  S.  Military 
Academy,  West 
Point,  in  July, 
1842,  and  after  a 
brief  service  in  the 
engineer  corps  re- 
turned  to  the 
Academy  as  a  pro- 
fessor, remaining 
there  until  1847. 
It  was  during  this 
period  that  he  be- 
came a  Catholic. 
In  1854  he  resigned  from  the  army,  but  at  the  breaking 
out  of  the  CivilWar  he  was  made  a  colonel  of  volunteers, 
and,  in  June,  1861,  a  brigadier-general  of  regulars. 
During  the  succeeding  years  he  held  various  important 
commands  in  West  Virginia,  Mississippi,  and  Ten- 
nessee, until  19  and  20  Sept.,  1863,  when  he  was  de- 
feated by  Gen.  Bragg,  at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga. 
Then  after  a  short  period  of  service  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Missouri  he  was  relieved  of  all  command. 
Up  to  this  he  had  been  uniformly  successful  as  a  good 
fighter  and  military  strategist.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  he  resigned  from  the  army  and,  in  1868,  served 
as  U.  S.  Minister  to  Mexico,  where  from  1869  to 
1881  he  devoted  himself  to  railroad  and  industrial 
enterprises.     He  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Demo- 


%^^^^^H 


Willi 


AM   Starke   Rosecr.a 
From  a  Photograph 


ROSELINE 


192 


ROSE 


crat,  in  1880,  and  again  in  18S2.  From  1885  to  1893 
he  was  registrar  of  the  XT.  S.  Treasury.  In  1889  Con- 
gress; restorecl  him  to  the  rank  and  pay  of  a  brigadier- 
general  of  the  regular  army  on  the  retired  list. 

His  brother,  Sylvester'  Horton  Rosecrans,  first 
Bishop  of  Columbus,  w:is  also  a  convert,  liorn  at 
Homer,  Ohio,  5  Feb.,  1827,  he  was  sent  to  Kenyon 
College,  the  leading  Episcopalian  institution  of  the 
state.  While  there  in  1S45  he  received  a  letter  from 
his  brother  WiUiam,  then  a  professior  at  West  Point, 
announcing  his  conversion  to  the  Catholic  Faith. 
It  so  impressed  him  that  he  also  sought  instruction 
and  became  a  Catholic.  He  then  went  to  St.  John's 
College,  Fordham,  New  York,  graduating  there  in 
1846.  Electing  to  study  for  the  priesthood  he  was 
sent  by  the  Bishop  of  Cincinnati  as  a  student  to  the 
College  of  Propaganda,  Rome,  where  he  was  ordained 
priest  in  1852.  Returning  to  Concinnati  he  officiated 
at  St.  Thomas's  church,  and  was  a  professor  in  the 
diocesan  seminar\\  In  1859  a  college  was  opened 
in  connexion  with  the  seminar>'  and  he  was  made  its 
president.  In  1S62  he  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop 
of  Pompeiopolis  and  Auxiliary  of  Cincinnati.  When 
the  Diocese  of  Columbus  was  created,  3  March,  1868, 
he  was  transferred  to  that  see  as  its  first  bishop  and 
died  there  21  October,  1878  (see  Columbus,  Diocese 
of).  During  his  residence  in  Cincinnati  he  was  a 
frequent  editorial  contributor  to  the  "Catholic 
Telegraph". 

CuLLUM,  Biog.  Register  of  the  Officers  and  Graduates,  U.  S. 
Military  Academy  (Boston,  1891);  Hocck,  A  Hist,  of  Catholicity 
in  Northern  Ohio  (Cleveland,  1902);  Am.  Cath.  Hist.  Researches 
(Philadelphia,  July,  1896);  The  Catholic  Telegraph  (Cincinnati), 
files;  Howe,  Historical  Collections  of  Ohio  (Cincinnati,  1900); 
BicKHORN,  Rosecrans'  Campaign  with  the  Fourteenth  Armory 
Corps  (Cincinnati,  1863);  Clarke,  Lives  of  the  Deceased  Bishops 
of  Cath.  Ch.  U.  S.,  Ill  (New  York,  1888);  The  Catholic  Directory, 
files.  _  „     ,, 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Roseline  (Rossolina),  Saint,  b.  at  the  Chateau 
of  Arcs  in  eastern  Provence,  1263;  d.  17  January, 
1329.  Having  overcome  her  father's  opposition 
Rosehne  became  a  Carthusian  nun  at  Bertaud  in  the 
Alps  of  Dauphine.  Her  "consecration"  took  place 
in  1288,  and  about  1300  she  succeeded  her  aunt. 
Blessed  Jeanne  or  Diane  de  Villeneuve,  as  Prioress  of 
Celle-Pvobaud  in  the  Diocese  of  Fr6jus  near  her  home. 
In  1320  her  brother  Helion,  Grand  Master  (1319-46) 
of  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  restored  the  monastery, 
and  in  1323  and  1328  John  XXII,  formerly  BLshop  of 
Fr6jus,  increased  its  revenue,  granting  indulgences  for 
the  anniversary  of  the  dedication  of  the  church. 
Roseline  obtained  leave  to  resign  her  office  before 
her  death.  Many  vi-sions  together  with  extraor- 
dinar>'  austerities  and  great  power  over  demons  are 
ascribed  to  her.  Her  feast  is  given  in  the  Acta  SS. 
on  11  June,  the  day  of  the  first  translation  of  her 
remains  in  1334  by  her  brother  Elzear,  Bi.shop  of 
Digne;  but  by  the  Carthusian  Order  it  is  celebrated 
on  16  Oct/jber.  There  has  always  been  a  local 
cultus  and  this  was  confirmed  for  the  Diocese  of 
Fr6juH  by  a  Decree  of  1851,  for  the  Carthu.sian  Order 
in  1857.  The  saint  is  usually  represented  with  a 
reliquary  containing  two  eyes,  recalling  the  fact  that 
her  eyfis  were  removed  and  preserved  aj^art.  This 
relic  was  still  extant  at  Arcs  in  1882.  'lliere  is  no 
ancient  life  of  the  saint,  but  that  given  in  the  Acta 
•SS.,  2  June,  489  sq.,  was  constructed  by  Papebroch 
from  ancient  documents. 

Lb  CoiTKii-x,  AnTifitei  Ord.  Cnrtus.,  IV,  V  (Montreuil.  1888- 
S9r,  .Moi.is.  Ilixt'/rui  Carlun.,  I. 

Raymond  Webster. 

Rosenau  ''Hiing.,  Rozkny^),  Diocese  of  (Rorna- 
viENSJs),  in  Hungary,  suffragan  of  Eger,  established 
by  Maria  Theresa,  in  177.5-76.  In  1636  Cardinal 
Peter  Pdzmdny  pror)Osed  to  establish  a  distinct  set; 
for  this  part  of  Ilungary,  where  the  Catholic  Faith 
was  almost  dea<l.     Pdzmdny's  death  intorvened,  and 


nothing  was  done  until  Maria  Theresa  took  up  the 
l)lan.  In  1776  John  C»alg6czy  was  appointed  first 
Bishop  of  Rosenau,  but  died  before  taking  charge. 
His  successor.  Count  Anthony  Revaj^  (1776-80), 
caused  the  church  to  be  restored  and  the  high  altar 
to  be  renovated.  Of  his  successors  may  be  mentioned : 
John  Scitovszky  (1S27-3S),  later  Bishop  of  Fiinf- 
kirchen  and  Archbi.shop  of  Gran;  Ethelbert  Barta- 
kovics  (184.5-.'30),  later  Archbishop  of  Eger.  Since  1905 
the  see  is  governcul  by  Louis  Balds.  The  diocese  is 
divideil  into  3  arclidoaconries  and  has  2  abbeys  and 
3  provostships.  The  chapter  consists  of  6  active 
members  and  6  titular  canons.  The  ))arishes  number 
99,  and  there  are  154  secular,  28  regular,  priests; 
3  monasteries;  34  nunneries;  190,000  Catholics; 
10,165  Greek  Uniats;  97,071  Lutherans;  44,609  Cal- 
vinists;  11,220  Jews.  The  seminary  was  established 
in  1814. 

A  katolikus  Magyarorszdg  (Catholic  Hungary)  (Budapest, 
1902),  in  Hungarian;  Schematismus  (1910). 

A.  AldXsy. 

Rose  of  Lima,  Saint,  virgin,  patroness  of  America, 
b.  at  Lima,  Peru,  20  April,  1586;  d.  there  30  August, 
1617.  At  her  confirmation  in  1597,  she  took  the  name 
of  Rose,  because,  when  an  infant,  her  face  had  been 
seen  transformed  by  a  mystical  rose.  As  a  child  she 
was  remarkable  for  a  great  reverence,  and  pronounced 
love,  for  all  things  relating  to  God.  This  so  took 
possession  of  her,  that  thenceforth  her  life  was  given 
up  to  prayer  and  mortification.  She  had  an  intense 
devotion  to  the  Infant  Jesus  and  His  Blessed  Mother, 
before  whose  altar  she  spent  hours.  She  was  scru- 
pulously obedient  and  of  untiring  industry,  making 
rapid  progress  by  earnest  attention  to  her  parents' 
instruction,  to  her  studies,  and  to  her  domestic  work, 
especially  with  her  needle.  After  reading  of  St. 
Catherine  she  determined  to  take  that  saint  as  her 
model.  She  began  by  fasting  three  times  a  week, 
adding  secret  severe  penances,  and  when  her  vanity 
was  assailed,  cutting  off  her  beautiful  hair,  wearing 
coarse  clothing,  and  roughening  her  hands  with  toil. 
All  this  time  she  had  to  struggle  against  the  objections 
of  her  friends,  the  ridicule  of  her  family,  and  the 
censure  of  her  parents.  Many  hours  were  spent  before 
the  Blessed  Sacrament,  which  she  received  daily. 
Finally  she  determined  to  take  a  vow  of  virginity, 
and  inspired  by  supernatural  love,  adopted  extraor- 
dinary means  to  fulfill  it.  At  the  outset  she  had  to 
combat  the  opposition  of  her  parents,  who  wished  her 
to  marry.  For  ten  years  th(>  struggle  c'ontinued  before 
she  won,  by  patience  and  j)ray('r,  their  consent  to  con- 
tinue her  mission.  At  the  .same  time  great  tempta- 
tions assailed  her  purity,  faith,  and  constancy,  causing 
her  excruciating  agony  of  mind  and  desolation  of 
spirit,  urging  her  to  more  fre(]ucrif  iiiortificatious;  but 
daily,  also.  Our  Lord  iiiaiiifcslcd  Ilimsclf,  fortifying 
her  with  the  knowledge  of  His  presence  and  consoling 
her  mind  with  evidence  of  His  Divine  love.  Fa.sting 
daily  was  soon  followed  by  perpetual  abstinence  from 
meat,  and  that,  in  turn,  by  use  of  only  the  coarsest 
food  and  just  sufficient  to  support  life.  Her  days  were 
filled  with  acts  of  charity  and  industry,  her  exquisite 
lace  and  embroidery  helping  to  support  her  home, 
while  her  nights  were  devoted  to  prayer  and  penance. 
When  her  work  permitted,  she  n^tinnl  to  a  little  grotto 
whieh  .she  had  built,  with  her  brother's  aid,  in  their 
small  garden,  and  there  pa,ssed  her  nights  in  solitude 
and  prayer.  Overcoming  the  opposition  of  her  par- 
ents, and  with  the  consent  of  her  confessor,  she  was 
allowed  later  to  become  practically  a  recluse  in  this 
cell,  save  for  her  visits  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  In 
her  twentieth  year  she  received  the  habit  of  St. 
Dominic.  Thereafter  she  rerloubled  the  severity  and 
variety  of  her  penances  to  an  heroic  degree,  wearing 
constantly  a  metal  si)iked  crown,  concealed  by  roses, 
and  an  iron  chain  about  her  waist.    Days  passed  with- 


ROSE 


193 


ROSICRUCIANS 


out  food,  save  a  draught  of  gall  mixed  with  bitter 
herbs.  When  she  could  no  longer  stand,  she  sought 
repose  on  a  bed  constructed  by  herself,  of  broken  glass, 
stone,  potsherds,  and  thorns.  She  admitted  that  the 
thought  of  lying  down  on  it  made  her  tremble  with 
dread.  Fourteen  years  this  martyrdom  of  her  body 
continued  without  relaxation,  but  not  without  con- 
solation. Our  Lord  revealed  Himself  to  her  frequently, 
flooding  her  soul  with  such  inexpressible  peace  and 
joy  as  to  leave  her  in  ecstasy  for  hours.  At  these  times 
she  offered  to  Him  all  her  mortifications  and  pen- 
ances in  expiation  for  offences  against  His  Divine 
Majesty,  for  the  idolatry  of  her  country,  for  the  con- 
version of  sinners,  and  for  the  souls  in  Purgatory. 
Many  miracles  followed  her  death.  She  was  beatified 
by  Clement  IX,  in  1G67,  and  canonized  in  1671  by 
Clement  X,  the  first  American  to  be  so  honoured. 
Her  feast  is  celebrated  30  August.  She  is  represented 
wearing  a  crown  of  roses. 

Hansen,  Vila  Mirabilis  (1664),  Spanish  tr.  by  Parra. 

Edw.  L.  Aym£. 

Rose  of  Viterbo,  Saint,  virgin,  b.  at  Viterbo, 
1235;  d.  G  March,  1252.  The  chronology  of  her  hfe 
must  always  remain  uncertain,  as  the  Acts  of  her 
canonization,  the  chief  historical  sources,  record  no 
dates.  Those  given  above  are  accepted  by  the  best 
authorities.  Born  of  poor  and  pious  parents.  Rose  was 
remarkable  for  holiness  and  for  her  miraculous  powers 
from  her  earliest  years.  When  but  three  years  old, 
she  raised  to  life  her  maternal  aunt.  At  the  age  of 
seven,  she  had  already  lived  the  life  of  a  recluse,  de- 
voting herself  to  penances.  Her  health  succumbed, 
but  she  was  miraculously  cured  by  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
who  ordered  her  to  enroll  herself  in  the  Third  Order 
of  St.  Francis,  and  to  preach  penance  to  Viterbo,  at 
that  time  (1247)  hekl  by  Frederick  II  of  Germany  and 
a  prey  to  political  strife  and  heresy.  Her  mission 
seems  to  have  extended  for  about  two  years,  aiid  such 
was  her  success  that  the  prefect  of  the  city  decided 
to  banish  her.  The  imperial  power  was  seriously 
threatened.  Accordingly,  Rose  and  her  parents  were 
expelled  from  Viterbo  in  January,  1250,  and  took 
refuge  in  Sorriano.  On  5  December,  1250,  Rose  fore- 
told the  speedy  death  of  the  emperor,  a  prophecy 
realized  on  13  IDecember.  Soon  afterwards  she  went 
to  Vitorchiano,  whose  inhabitants  had  been  perverted 
by  a  famous  sorceress.  Rose  secured  the  conversion 
of  all,  even  of  the  sorceress,  by  standing  unscathed 
for  three  hours  in  the  flames  of  a  burning  pyre,  a 
miracle  as  striking  as  it  is  well  attested.  With  the 
restoration  of  the  papal  power  in  Viterbo  (1251)  Rose 
returned.  She  wished  to  enter  the  monastery  of  St. 
Marj'  of  the  Roses,  but  was  refused  because  of  her 
poverty.  She  humbly  submitted,  foretelling  her  ad- 
mission to  the  monastery  after  her  death.  The  re- 
mainder of  her  life  was  spent  in  the  cell  in  her 
father's  house,  where  she  died.  The  process  of  her 
canonization  was  opened  in  that  year  by  Innocent  IV, 
but  was  not  definitively  undertaken  until  1457.  Her 
feast  is  celebrated  on  4  September,  when  her  body, 
still  incorrupt,  is  carried  in  procession  through 
Viterbo. 

Bullar.  Franc,  l,  640;  Ada  Proc.  Canonizationis,  arm.  1456  in 
Ada  SS.,  IV  Sept.;  Wadding,  An/iales  Min.  (Rome,  1731),  II, 
423;  III,  280;  Andueucci,  Notizie  criticoistoriche  di  S.  Rosa,  Verg. 
Viterbese  (Rome,  1750) ;  Briganti,  S.  Rosa  ed  il  suo  secolo  (Venice, 
1889) ;  Leon,  Lives  of  the  Saints  of  the  Three  Orders  of  S.  Francis 
(Taunton,  England,  1886).  The  best  modem  life  is  that  by 
DE  Kerval,  Ste  Rose,  sa  vie  et  son  temps  (Vanves,  1896);  Pizzi, 
Storia  della  Cittd  di  Viterbo  (Rome,  1887). 

Gregory  Cleary. 

Rosicmcians,  the  original  appellation  of  the  al- 
leged members  of  the  occult-cabalistic-theosophic 
"Rosicrucian  Brotherhood",  described  in  the  pamph- 
let "Fama  Fraternitatis  R.C."  (Rosce  crucis),  which 
was  circulated  in  MS.  as  early  as  1610  and  first  ap- 
peared in  print  in  1614  at  Cassel.  To  the  first  two 
XIII.— 13 


additions  were  prefixed  the  tract  "Allgemeine  und 
Generah-eformation  der  ganzen  weiten  Welt",  a 
translation  of  Fr.  Boccalini's  "Dei  Ragguagli  di 
Parnasso",  1612.  Beginning  with  the  fourth  edition 
in  1615,  the  third  Ro.sicrucian  rudiment,  "Confessio 
der  Fraternitat",  was  added  to  the  "Fama".  Accord- 
ing to  these,  the  Rosicrucian  brotherhood  was  founded 
in  1408  by  a  German  nobleman,  Christian  Rosenkreuz 
(1378-1484),  formerly  a  monk,  who  while  travelling 
through  Damascus,  Jerusalem,  and  Fez  had  been 
initiated  into  Arabian  learning  (magic),  and  who  con- 
sidered an  antipapal  Christianity,  tinged  with  theos- 
ophy,  his  ideal  of  a  religion.  Concerned  above  all  else 
that  their  names  should  appear  in  the  Book  of  Life, 
the  brothers  were  to  consider  the  making  of  gold  as 
unimportant — although  for  the  true  philosophers 
(Occultists)  this  was  an  easy  matter  and  a  parergon. 
They  must  apply  themselves  zealou.sly  and  in  the 
deepest  secrecy  to  the  study  of  Nature  in  her  hidden 
forces,  and  to  making  their  discoveries  and  inventions 
known  to  the  order  and  profitable  to  the  needs  of 
humanity.  And  to  further  the  object  of  the  said 
order  they  must  assemble  annually  at  the  "Edifice  of 
the  Holy  Spirit",  the  secret  head-quarters  of  the 
order,  cure  the  sick  gratuitously,  and  whilst  each  one 
procured  himself  a  successor  they  must  provide  for 
the  continuance  of  their  order.  Free  from  illness  and 
pain,  these  "Invisibles",  as  they  were  called  in  the 
vernacular,  were  supposed  to  be  yearning  for  the  time 
when  the  Church  should  be  "purified". 

For  two  hundred  years,  while  the  world  never  had 
the  least  suspicion  of  their  existence,  the  brotherhood 
transmitted  by  the.se  means  the  wisdom  of  "Father" 
Rosenkreuz,  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  after  the 
latter's  burial,  until  about  1604  they  finally  became 
knowTi.  The  "Fama",  which  effected  this,  invited 
"all  of  the  scholars  and  rulers  of  Europe"  openly  to 
favour  the  cause,  and  eventually  to  sue  for  entrance 
into  the  fraternity,  to  which,  nevertheless,  only 
chosen  souls  would  be  admitted.  The  morbid  pro- 
pensity of  the  age  for  esoterism,  magic,  and  confed- 
eracies caused  the  "Fama"  to  raise  a  feverish  excite- 
ment in  men's  minds,  expressed  in  a  flood  of  wTitings 
for  and  against  the  brotherhood,  and  in  passionate 
efforts  to  win  admission  to  the  order,  or  at  least  to 
discover  who  were  its  members.  All  of  these  endeav- 
ours, even  by  scholars  of  real  repute  like  Descartes 
and  Leibniz,  were  without  results.  From  the  mani- 
festly fabulous  and  impossible  "History"  of  the 
brotherhood,  it  was  apparent  that  it  depended  upon  a 
"mystification".  This  mj'stification  was  directly  ex- 
plained by  an  investigation  of  the  author,  who  appears 
unquestionably  to  have  been  the  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Wurtemberg,  John  Valentin  Andrea  (1586-1654). 
According  to  his  own  admission,  Andrea  composed  in 
1602  or  1603  the  Rosicrucian  book,  "Chymische 
Hochzeit  Christiani  Rosenkreuz  1459",  which  ap- 
peared in  1616.  This  book,  called  by  .\ndrea  himself 
a  youthful  literary  trifle  in  which^  he  intended  to 
ridicule  the  mania  of  the  times  for  occult  marvels 
(Life,  p.  10),  bears  the  closest  intrinsic  relation  to  the 
"Fama",  which,  in  the  light  of  this,  is  undoubtedly 
a  later  work  of  Andrea's  or  at  leiist  of  one  of  the  circle 
of  friends  inspired  by  him.  Alchemistic  occultism  is 
mocked  at  in  these  works  and  in  the  "General- 
Reformation",  the  follies  of  the  then  untimely  re- 
formers of  the  world  are  openly  ridiculed.  The  fantas- 
tic form  of  the  tracts  is  borrowed  from  contemporary 
romances  of  knighthood  and  travel.  The  "Rosy 
Cross"  was  chosen  for  the  symbol  of  the  order  because, 
first,  the  rose  and  cross  were  ancient  symbols  of  occult- 
ism and,  secondly,  occur  in  the  family  arms  of  Andrea. 
It  recalls  Luther's  motto:  "Des  Christen  Herz  auf 
Rosen  geht,  wenn's  mitten  unter'm  Kreuze  steht" 
(Hossbach,  121).  As  a  result  of  his  satirically  meant 
but  seriously  accepted  works,  which  soon  gave  rise  to 
occult  humisuggery  (opposed  by  him)  in  new  Rosi- 


ROSKOVANYI 


194 


ROSMINI 


crucian  raiment,  Andrea  openly  renounced  Rosicru- 
cianism  and  frequently  referred  to  it  as  a  ridiculous 
comedy  and  folly.  In  spite  of  this,  the  Rosicrucian 
fraud,  which  served  in  many  ways  as  a  model  for  the 
anti-Masonic  Taxil-Schwindel,  has  continued  effec- 
tive until  the  present  day.  In  the  seventeenth  cen- 
turj-  Michael  Maier  and  "Robert  Fludd  were  its  cham- 
pions. Pseudo-Rosicrucian  societies  arose,  falsely 
claiming  descent  from  the  genuine  fraternity  of  the 
"Fama".  After  1750  occult  Rosicrucianism  was 
propagated  bj-  Freemasonry,  where  it  led  to  endless 
extravagant  manifestations'  (St.  Germain,  Cagliostro, 
Schropfer,  WoUner  etc.).  In  the  system  of  high  degrees 
in  "Scottish"  Freemasonry,  especially  in  the  Rosen- 
krcuz  degree,  the  Rosicrucian  symbols  are  still  retained 
with  a  Masonic  interpretation.  Finally,  since  about 
1S6G  there  have  existed  in  England  and  Scotland  (Lon- 
don, Newcastle,  York,  Gla.sgow)  and  in  the  United 
States  (Boston,  Philadelphia)  "colleges"  of  a  Masonic 
Rosicrucian  society,  whose  members  claim  to  be  direct 
descendants  of  the  brotherhood  founded  in  14()8. 
Only  blaster  Masons  are  eligible  for  membership. 
According  to  the  definition  of  the  president  of  the 
London  branch  (Supreme  Magus),  Brother  Dr.  Wm. 
Wynn  Westcott,  M.B.,  P.Z.,  it  is  "the  aim  of  the 
Society  to  afford  mutual  aid  and  encouragement  in 
working  out  the  great  problems  of  life  and  in  searching 
out  the  secrets  of  nature;  to  facilitate  the  study  of 
philosophy  founded  upon  the  Kabbalah  and  the  doc- 
trines of  Hermes  Trismegistus,  which  was  inculcated 
by  the  original  Fratres  RoseoB  Crucis  of  Germany, 
a'  d.  1450;  and  to  investigate  the  meaning  and  sym- 
bolism of  all  that  now  remains  of  the  wisdom,  art, 
ami  hterature  of  the  ancient  world ".  The  view  which 
has  been  lately  revived,  especially  by  Katsch  and  Pike, 
that  Rosicrucianism  definitely  or  even  perceptibly  co- 
operated in  the  foundation  of  modern  Freemasonry 
in  1717,  is  contradicted  by  well-known  historical  facts. 

Arnold,  Unparteiische  Kirchen  u.  Ketzerhistorie,  II  (Frankfort, 
1699),  640  sq.;  Herder,  Sandl.  Werke  (Berlin,  1888),  XV,  82  sq.; 
XVI,  596  sq.;  Bchle,  Ursprung  u.  d.  vornehmsten  Schicksale  der 
Rogenkremer  u.  Freimaurer  (Gottingen,  1804);  Nikolai,  Einige 
Bemerkungen  iiber  den  Ursprung  u.  d.  Gesch.  d.  Rosenkreuzer  u. 
Freimaurer  (Berlin,  1806);  Hossbach,  J.  W.  Andrea  u.  sein 
ZeitaUer  (Berlin,  1819);  Guhrauer,  Zeitschr.  f.  hist.  Theol.  (1852), 
298  sq.;  Sierke,  Schwarmer  u.  Schwinder  zu  Ende  d.  18.  Jahrh. 
(Leipzig,  1874);  Kopp,  Die  Alchemie,  II  (Heidelberg,  1886); 
Waite,  The  real  History  of  the  Rosicrucians  (London,  1887), 
needB  rcNision;  Katsch,  Die  Entstehung  u.  d.  wahre  Endzweck  d. 
Freimaurerei  (Berlin,  1897) ;  Hefele  [Raich]  in  Kirchenlex.,  s.  v. 
Rosenkreuzer;  Hermelink  in  Realencyk.  f.  prat.  Theol.,  s.  v. 
Rosenkreuzer;  AUg.  Uandhuch  d.  Freimaurerei,  II  (3rd  ed.,  1900), 
259-63;  Begemakn,  Monatshefte  d.  Comenius-Gesellschaft  (Ber- 
lin). V  (1896),  212  sq.;  VI  (1897),  204  sq.;  VIII  (1899),  145  sq.; 
Zirkelkorrespondenz  (Berlin,  1896),  212;  Vorgesch.  u.  Anfdnge  d. 
Freimaurerei  in  England,  I  (1909),  II  (1910),  16,  348;  Godld, 
Hist,  of  Freemasonry,  II  (London,  1884),  60  sq.;  Concise  Hist,  of 
Freemasonry  (I^ondon,  1903),  61-93;  Ars  Quaiuor  Coronatorum, 
transaotions  (Ixjndon),  I  (1888),  28,  .54;  V  (1892),  67;  VI  (189.3), 
202  »q.;  VII  (1894),  .36  sq.,  83;  VIII  (189.5),  46;  The  Theosophist 
(Madras.  1886).  VII,  451  sq.,  VIII.  IX,  X;  Rosicrucian  Society  of 
England:  Rules  arul  Ordinances  (London,  1881;  revised  1882); 
Transactions,  etc.  (1879-91);  The  Rosicrucian:  A  Quarterly  Record 
(1S68-79);  Kloss,  Bihliog.  d.  Freimaurerei,  etc.  (Frankfort.  1844), 
174-201.  Kives  274  works  on  the  subject;  Gardner,  Bibliotheca 
Rosicrucifina:  I,  catalogue  (Ix)ndon,  privately  printed,  1903), 
gives  a  VinX.  of  604  works  on  the  subject. 

Hermann  Ghubek. 

Roskovanyi,  A('(;u.st,  Bishop  of  Neutra  in  Hun- 
gary, doctor  of  philo.soj)hyand  theology,  b.  at  Szenna 
in  the  0)ijnty  of  I'ng,  Hungary,  7  Decetiibcr,  1807;  d. 
24  February,  W.)2.  Ho  took  liis  gyrrinasial  course  in 
the  college  of  the  Piarists  at  Kis-Szeben  Irom  1S17-22, 
studied  pliilo.'^jphy  at  Eger,  1822-24,  theology  in  the 
w;minary  for  priests  at  Pesth,  and  comph^tcnl  his  train- 
ing at  the  Augustineum  at  Vienna.  After  his  ordina- 
tion to  the  priesthooil  in  1831  he  was  for  a  short  time 
engaged  in  pastoral  duties,  then  went  to  the  seminary 
at  Eger  as  prefect  of  studies,  became  vice-rector  of  the 
seminary,  and  in  1841  rector.  In  1836  he  wa«  made  a 
cathedral  canon  of  Eger,  in  1830  received  the  Abbey 
of  Sa^r,  in  1847  became  auxiliary  bishop,  in  18.50  caj)it- 
ular  vicar,  in  1851  Bishop  of  Waitzen,  and  in  1859 


Bishop  of  Neutra.  Roskovdnjd  was  also  made  a 
Roman  count,  prelate,  and  assistant  at  the  papal 
throne.  His  charity  is  shown  by  the  foundations  he 
established,  valued  at  several  hundred  thousanil  gulden. 
He  was  distingui.shed  as  an  ecclesiastical  writer.  Among 
his  works,  all  of  which  are  in  Latin,  should  be  men- 
tioned: "De  primatu  Romani  Pontificis  ejusque  juri- 
bus"  (Augsburg,  1839;  2nd  ed.,  Agram,  1841);  "De 
matrimoniis  mixtis"  (5  vols.,  Ftinfkirchen,  1842; 
Pesth,  1854,  1870-1);  "De  matrimoniis  in  ecclesia 
catholica"  (2  vols.,  Augsburg,  1837-40) ;  "Monumenta 
catholica  pro  independentia  potestatis  ecclesiastica;  ab 
imperio  civili"  (14  vols.  Fiinfkirchen,  1847;  Pesth, 
1856, 1865, 1870-71);  "Coelibatus  et  breviarium,  duo 
gravissima  clericorum  officia",  etc.  (7  vols.,  Pesth, 
1867,  1875);  "Romanus  Pontifex  tamquam  primas 
ecclesiae",  etc.  (16  vols.,  Neutra  andComaromii,  1867, 
1878);  "Beata  Virgo  Maria  in  suo  conceptu  immacu- 
lata"  (12  vols.,  Budapest,  1873-4;    Neutra,  1877). 

Vagner,  Adatok  a  nyitrai  vdrosi  plebdnidk  tortenetehez  (Neutra, 
1902),  written  in  Hungarian;  also  in  Hungarian,  Szinnyei,  Mag- 
yar Irak,  XI,  gi^^ng  a  complete  list  of  Roskovdnyi's  works  and 
a  full  bibliography.  A.   AldXsY. 

Rosmini  and  Rosminianism. — Antonio  Rosmini- 
Serbati,  philosopher,  and  founder  of  the  Institute  of 
Charity,  b.  24  March,  1797,  at  Rovereto,  Austrian 
Tyrol;  d.  1  July,  1855,  at  Stresa,  Italy;  was  educated 
at  home  until  his  twentieth  year,  and,  after  a  three 
years'  course  at  the  University  of  Padua,  returned  to 
Rovereto  to  prepare  for  Holy  orders.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  at  Chioggia,  21  April,  1821,  and  in  1822 
received  at  Padua  the  Doctorate  in  Theology  and  Canon 
Law.  In  1823  he  went  to  Rome  with  Mgr.  Pyrker, 
Patriarch  of  Venice,  met  Consalvi  and  other  prominent 
men,  and  was  encouraged  by  Pius  VII  to  undertake 
the  reform  of  philosophy.  The  next  three  years 
(1823-26)  he  spent  in  philosophical  pursuits  at  Rover- 
eto, devoting  himself  especially  to  the  study  of  St. 
Thomas.  He  had  already  adopted  as  principles  of 
conduct:  (1)  never  to  assume  external  works  of 
charity  on  his  own  initiative,  but,  until  summoned  by 
some  positive  outward  manifestation  of  God's  will,  to 
busy  himself  with  his  own  sanctification,  a  thing  al- 
ways pleasing  in  the  Divine  sight  (principle  of  passiv- 
ity) ;  (2)  at  any  clear  sign  from  God,  to  assume  with 
alacrity  any  external  work  of  charity,  without,  so  far 
as  concerned  his  higher  will,  personal  preferences  or 
repugnances  (principle  of  indifference).  On  these 
maxims  he  based  the  rules  of  the  Institute  of  Charity 
which,  at  the  instance  of  M.'uldahma,  Marchioness  of 
Canossa,  and  of  .John  Locwcnljiuck,  a  zealous  priest 
from  German  Lorraine,  he  founded  in  1828  at  Monte 
Calvario  near  Domodossola.  In  1828  he  again  w(>nt 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  encouraged  by  Leo  XII  and 
later  by  Pius  VIII  to  pursue  his  philosoi)hical 
studies  and  con.solidate  his  institute.  During  this 
visit  he  published  his  "  Maxims  of  Christian  Perfec- 
tion" and  his  "Nuovo  saggio  sull'  origine  delle  idee" 
(1829;  tr.  "Origin  of  Idea,s",  London,  1883-84). 
In  the  autumn  of  1830  he  inaugurated  the  observ- 
ance of  the  rule  at  Calvario,  and  from  1834  to  1835 
had  charge  of  a  parish  at  Rovereto.  About  this  time 
the  pope  made  over  to  Rosmini  several  missions  ten- 
dered him  in  iMiglaiid  by  the  vicars  Apostolic,  as  also 
the  Abbey  of  S.  Miclielo  della  Chiusa  in  Piedmont. 
Later  foundations  followed  at  Stresa  and  Domo- 
dossola. The  Constitutions  of  the  institute  wen;  i)re- 
sented  to  fJregory  XVI  and,  after  some  discussion  re- 
garding the  form  of  the  vow  of  religious  poverty,  were 
formally  approved  20  December,  1838.  On  25  March, 
1839,  the  vows  of  the  institute  were  taken  by  twenty 
Fathers  in  Italy  and  by  six  in  England  (Spetisbury  and 
Prior  Park).  The  Letters  Apostolic  ("In  sublimi ",  20 
Sept.,  1839)  formally  recorded  the  approval  of  the  in- 
stitute and  its  rule,  an<l  ;ii)pointed  Rosmini  provost 
general  for  life;.  Th(!  institute  then  sjjread  rajjidly  in 
England  and  Italy,  and  requests  for  foundations  came 


ROSMINI 


195 


ROSMINI 


from  various  countries.  The  publication  of  Rosmini's 
"Trattato  della  coscienza  morale"  (Milan,  1839)  led 
to  a  sharp  controversy.  Against  Rosmini  were  writers 
like  Melia,  Passaglia,  Rozaven,  Antonio  Ballerini,  all 
members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  in  which  Rozaven 
held  the  office  of  assistant  to  the  general.  On  the 
defensive,  along  with  Rosmini,  were  L.  Ea.staldi,  Pes- 
talozza,  Pagamini.  For  fifteen  years  the  wordy  war 
was  protracted,  with  a  truce  from  1843  to  1846,  due 
to  an  injunction  of  Gregory  XVI  enjoining  perpetual 
silence  on  both  sides.  Pius  IX,  who  succeeded 
Gregory  in  1846,  showed  himself  favourable  to  the 
institute,  and  various  new  foundations  in  England 
attested  its  vitality.  In  1848  Rosmini  published 
(Milan)  his ' '  Costituzione  secondo  la  giustizia  socia,le ' ' 
and  "Cinque  piaghe  della  chiesa";  the  latter  against 
Josephism,  especially  in  the  matter  of  Austrian  epis- 
copal appointments  in  Northern 
Italy.  In  August  of  the  same 
year,  he  was  sent  to  Rome  by 
King  Charles  Albert  of  Picnl- 
mont  to  enlist  the  pope  on  the 
side  of  Italy  as  against  Austria. 
Pius  IX  appointed  him  one  of 
the  consultors  to  deliberate  on 
the  definability  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  rev- 
olution asked  Rosmini  to  share 
his  exile  at  Gaeta.  Antonelli's 
influence,  however,  prevailed 
and  Rosmini  left  Gaeta,  19  Juno, 
1849.  His  works,  "Costitu- 
zione" and  "Cinque  piaghe", 
were  condemned  in  August,  a 
sentence  which  he  unhesitat- 
ingly accepted.  A  further  at- 
tack was  made  on  him  in  the 
"Postille"  and  the  "Lettere  di 
un  prete  Bolognese"  (1848). 
Pius  IX  (1850)  referred  the 
"Postille"  to  the  Congregation 
of  the    Index,    which    rejected 

it  as  false.  In  view  of  other  charges  the  pope  ordered 
an  examination  of  all  Rosmini's  works.  The  decision, 
rendered  3  July,  18.")4,  was  that  all  the  works  be 
dismissed   (es.se    diniiUcnda) ,    that   the    investigation 


human  intelligence,  thus  terminating  in  its  object,  is 
intuition — an  attitude  rather  than  an  activity,  in 
which  the  mind  pronounces  no  judgment  on  what 
is  known,  but  merely  receives  the  communication 
of  the  intelligible  object.  All  our  concepts,  when 
analyzed,  reveal  being  (somethingness)  as  their  es- 
sential constituent;  or,  conversely,  human  con- 
cepts are  nothing  but  determinations  more  or  less 
complex  of  the  simple  and  elementary  notion  of 
being.  This  fundamental  idea  is  indeterminate  and 
general,  conveying  to  the  intellect  no  knowledge  of 
particular  things,  but  simply  manifesting  itself  as  the 
essence  of  being.  Our  abstraction  does  not  produce 
it,  but  merely  discovers  it  already  present  in  thought. 
Being,  as  it  appears  within  man's  experience,  has  two 
modes,  each  governed  by  its  owm  conditions  and  laws, 
each  with  well-defined  attributes,  diverse,  but  not 
contradictory.  Manifesting  it- 
self to  the  mind  as  the  intel- 
ligible object,  not  exerting  any 
stimulus  upon  the  intellect,  but 
simply  illuminating  it,  this  is 
being  in  its  ideal  mode.  As  it 
acts  or  is  acted  upon  in  feeling, 
modifying  the  human  subject 
in  sensation,  constituting  the 
sentient  principle  in  action  and 
passion,  this  is  being  in  its  real 
mode.  The  former  is  essen- 
tially objective,  simple,  and  one 
— uni\'(Msal,  nccc^ssary,  immuta- 
ble, eternal;  the  latter  is  sub- 
jective and,  in  our  world,  con- 
tiiificnt,  particular,  temporal, 
manifold,  and  almost  infinitely 
varied  in  aspect.  Ideal  being 
is  not  God,  but  we  may  call  it, 
says  Rosmini,  an  appurtenance 
of  God,  and  even  Divine,  for 
its  characteristics  are  not  those 
of  created  finite  things,  and  its 
ultimate  source  must  be  in  God. 
If  thought  had  in  it  no  element 


implied  nothing  disparaging  to  the  author,  to  the 
institute  founded  by  him,  or  to  his  exceptional  serv- 
ices to  the  Church,  and  that  to  prevent  any  renewal 
and  dissemination  of  charges  and  strife,  silence  was 
for  the  third  time  imposed  on  both  parties.  Within 
a  year  after  this  decision  Rosmini  died.  His  body 
reposes  in  the  Church  of  the  Santissimo  Crocifisso 
built  by  him  at  Stresa.       (See  Rosminians.) 

Anon.,  La  Vila  di  Antonio  Rosmini  (Turin,  1897),  the  standard 
life,  written  by  a  priest  of  the  Institute  of  Charity;  Anon., 
Piccola  Vita  di  Antonio  Rosmini  (Casaie,  1897);  Delia  Missione 
a  Roma  di  Antonio  Rosmini-Serbati,  negli  Anni  1848-49  (Turin, 
1881) ;  Epistolario  completo  di  Antonio  Rosmini-Serbati  (Casaie, 
Turin,  1887-94);  Paoli,  Memorie  della  vita  di  Antonio  Rosmini- 
Serbati  (Turin,  1880-84);  Antonio  Rosmini  e  la  sua  prosapia 
(Rovereto,  1880);  Life  of  Antonio  Rosmini-Serbati,  ed.  Lock- 
hart  (London,  1886);  The  Life  of  Antonio  Rosmini-Serbati,  tr. 
from  tlie  Italian  of  Paqani  (London,  1907). 

George  Cormack. 

The  Rosminian  System. — According  to  Rosmini, 
philosophy  is  "the  science  of  the  ultimate  reasons  or 
grounds  of  human  knowledge".  The  philosopher  at 
the  outset  must  answer  the  questions:  What  is 
knowledge?  What  is  thought?  Can  we  be  certain 
of  what  we  know?  Rosmini's  answer  is  given  in  his 
ideology  and  logic.  Intellect,  he  holds,  is  essentially 
different  from  sense;  thought  is  objective,  sensation 
is  subjective.  The  term  of  the  intellectual  act  is 
seen  in  such  a  way  that  the  seer,  at  the  moment,  is 
conscious  neither  of  himself  nor  of  any  relation  with 
himself  as  seeing.     The  primal  and  essential  act  of 


Antonio  Rosmini-Serbati 
Frmii  a   painting  by   F.  Ilayi'Z 

transccntling  the  contingent  and  finite,  all  knowledge 
of  the  ab.solute  and  infinite  would  be  inexplicable, 
and  truth,  uncertain  and  variable,  would  exist  only 
in  name. 

To  explain  our  knowledge  of  particular  real  en- 
tities, Rosmini  says  that  our  knowledge  of  realities 
reduces  itself  to  a  judgment  whereby  we  predicate 
existence  of  what  is  felt  by  us.  Real  entities  act  upon 
man's  senses,  and  he  immediately  recognizes  them  as 
particular  activities  of  that  essence  of  being  already 
manifested  under  another  mode  in  intuition.  Be- 
cause of  its  simplicity,  the  human  ego,  or  subject- 
principle,  is  constrained  to  bring  together  and  collate 
its  feeling  and  its  knowledge  of  being,  and  thus  it 
perceives  being  energizing  in  the  production  of  feel- 
ing. This  act  of  the  human  subject  whereby  it 
cognizes  real  entities,  Rosmini  calls  reason.  By 
sense  we  are  introduced  to  realities,  but  we  could 
not  know  them  as  beings  unless  we  already  possessed 
the  idea  of  being.  This  is  given  to  our  mind  prior 
to  all  perception  or  individual  cognition;  it  is  not  ac- 
quired by  any  act  of  thought,  but  is  implanted  in  us 
by  the  Creator  from  the  beginning  of  our  existence: 
it  is  innate,  and  constitutes  for  us  the  light  of  reason. 
Furthermore,  it  is  the  very  form  of  the  human  in- 
telligence, a  form  not  multiple,  but  one — not  sub- 
jective, but  objective — i.  e.,  not  a  quality  or  attitude 
or  component  of  the  human  subject,  but  distinct 
from  it  and  superior  to  it,  existing  in  an  absolute 
mode  and  called  the  form  of  the  mind  because,  in 
manifesting  itself  to  man,  it  draws  forth  and  creates, 
so  to  speak,  the  act  of  his  intelligence. 

Logic,  says  Rosmini,  is  "the  science  of  the  art  of 
reasoning".    The  scope  of   reasoning  is  certainty, 


ROSMINI 


196 


ROSMINI 


i.  e.,  a  firm  persuasion  conformable  to  truth.  The 
truth  of  a  thing  is,  in  last  analysis,  its  being,  and  since 
being  is  the  form  of  the  human  intellect,  it  follows 
that  a  criterion  of  truth  and  certainty  lies  at  the 
base  of  all  thought  and  reasoning.  The  principles 
which  govern  reflection  and  argument  are  founded 
on  the  primitive  intuition  of  being.  "Being  is  the 
object  of  thought " ;  this  is  the  principle  of  cognition, 
and  it  is  antecedent  to  the  principle  of  contradiction. 
Error  is  found,  not  in  the  idea  of  being,  which  is 
without  any  determination,  nor  in  the  principles  of 
reasoning,  which  simply  express  the  essential  object 
of  the  mind  in  the  form  of  a  proposition  without 
adding  anything  foreign,  but  in  reflection,  and  hence 
in  the  will,  which  usually  initiates  reflection.  Logic 
shows  us  how  to  use  reflection  so  as  to  attain  truth 
and  avoid  error. 

The  Sciences  of  Perception  are  psychology  and 
cosmology.  The  subject  of  psychology  is  the  ego 
in  its  primal  condition,  i.  e.,  stripped  of  its  acquired 
relations  and  developments.  The  soul  is  felt  by  and 
through  itself;  it  is  essentially  a  principle  of  feeling. 
"The  human  soul  is  an  intellective  and  sensitive 
subject  or  principle,  having  by  nature  the  intuition 
of  being  and  a  feeling  whose  term  is  extended,  besides 
certain  activities  consequent  upon  intelligence  and 
sensitivity."  This  "extended  term"  is  twofold: 
space,  which,  simple  and  immovable,  underlies  all 
sense  phenomena  as  the  idea  of  being  underlies  the 
phenomena  of  thought;  and  body,  a  limited  ex- 
tended force  which  the  sentient  principle  passively 
receives  and  thereby  acquires  individuation.  It  is 
a  favourite  doctrine  of  Rosmini  that  the  extended  can 
exist  only  in  synthesis  with  a  simple,  immaterial 
principle.  Considered  apart  from  this  principle,  the 
material  corporeal  term  lacks  the  unity  and  co- 
herence necessary  for  existence  and  permanence. 
Our  own  body,  the  "subjective  body",  is  felt  directly 
as  the  proper  term  of  the  human  sentient  principle 
and  is  the  seat  of  corporeal  feelings.  Other  (external) 
bodies,  since  they  modify  not  the  soul,  but  the  bodily 
term  in  connexion  with  the  soul,  are  felt  by  an  extra- 
subjective  perception.  We  feel  our  own  bodies  as 
we  feel  external  bodies,  through  vision,  touch  etc.; 
but  we  al.so  feel  them  immediately  with  a  funda- 
mental feeling,  always  identical  and  substantial,  in 
which  no  distinct  limits,  figure,  or  relation  of  parts 
can  be  assigned.  Shape,  hardness,  colour  etc.,  belong 
to  the  extra-subjective  world.  But  the  body  is 
not  merely  felt  by  the  soul;  it  is  also  intellectually 
perceived  by  the  soul  in  a  primordial  and  immanent 
judgment,  whereby  being  is  applied  to  it  (the  body) 
in  the  way  above  described.  In  this  perception  is 
found  the  true  nexus  intimately  uniting  soul  and  body. 
The  body  is  the  felt-understood  term  of  the  human 
principle  which  in  this  intellective  synthesis  performs 
its  first  act  as  a  rational  soul  and  exerts  a  real  physical 
influence  on  its  bodily  term.  Hence  Ro.smini's  defi- 
nition of  life  as  "the  incessant  production  of  all 
those  extra-subjective  phenomena  which  precede,  ac- 
company, and  follow  parallel  with  the  corporeal  and 
material  feeling  (subjective)". 

Every  time  that  by  generation  an  animated  organ- 
ism is  produced,  perfectly  constituted  according  to  the 
human  type,  the  vivifying,  sentient  principle  rises  to 
the  vision  of  the  intelligible  object,  ideal  being.  This 
happens  in  virtue  of  a  primordial  law,  established  by 
Gou  in  the  creative  act.  There  is,  however,  no  chrono- 
logical passing  from  sentience  to  intelligence,  as  if 
one  could  assign  an  instant  in  which  the  human  soul 
was  purely  sentient  and  another  following  in  which  it 
ha/i  become  rational.  All  is  consuiurnitfcd  in  a  single 
pointof  time.  The  soul's  immortality  isdc^duced  from 
its  nature  as  an  intellective  principle  having  for  its 
object-term  thf  eternal  and  necessary  idea  of  being. 
This  is  independent  of  space  and  tim(!,  and  the  act  of 
intuition  continues  even  after  the  bodily  term  has  been 


dissolved  by  death,  and  the  soul's  immanent  percep- 
tion of  its  body  has  been  for  a  period  destroyed. 

Cosmology,  which  considers  the  ordered  universe, 
the  nature  of  contingent  real  being  and  its  cause,  is 
not  a  complete  science  in  itself;  it  must  be  treated  in 
connexion  with  the  sciences  of  reasoning  in  which  re- 
flection, testing  the  observations  of  intuition  and  per- 
ception, discovers  new  truths  and  arrives  at  the  exist- 
ence of  beings  beyond  the  reach  of  intuition  and 
perception. 

The  Sciences  of  Reasoning  are  ontological  and  de- 
ontological.  The  former  comprise  ontology  and  natu- 
ral theology.  Ontology  treats  of  being  in  all  its  extent 
as  known  to  man,  viz.,  ideal  being,  the  necessary  object 
of  the  intellect;  real  being,  i.e.,  subjective  force  and 
feeling;  moral  being,  the  relation  between  real  and 
ideal — a  special  act  of  recognition  and  adherence  on 
the  part  of  the  subject  harmonizing  it  with  the  object. 
Light,  life,  love;  intellect,  sense,  will — -these  are  the 
forms  under  which  the  essence  of  being  manifests 
itself  in  man's  world;  they  are  also  the  foundation 
of  the  categories.  Natural  theology  treats  of  the 
Absolute  Being,  God.  The  existence  of  God  is  known, 
not  through  perception  or  direct  intuition,  but  through 
reasoning.  Ideal  being  is  being  under  only  one  of  its 
forms  and  therefore  incomplete;  in  the  real  world  we 
meet  only  partial  realizations  of  being.  Comparing 
in  reflection  the  products  of  our  perception  with  the 
essence  of  being  manifested  in  intuition,  we  see  that 
they  do  not  exhaust  the  possibilities  of  that  essence; 
yet  this  must  find  its  full  realization  in  some  way  far 
transcending  our  experience;  it  cannot,  in  that  ful- 
ness, be  finite  and  imperfect  as  are  the  things  of  this 
world.  This  knowledge  of  the  Absolute  Being  Ros- 
mini calls  negative-ideal;  it  tells  us  not  so  much 
what  God  is  as  what  God  is  not. 

Definite  proofs  of  God's  existence  are  furnished  by 
being  in  its  essence  and  in  each  of  its  forms.  The 
essence  of  being  is  eternal,  necessary,  infinite;  but 
these  attributes  it  would  not  possess  if  it  did  not  sub- 
sist identical  under  the  other  two  forms  of  reality  and 
morality,  complete  and  perfect.  Where  it  exists  under 
all  these  forms,  it  is  being  in  every  way  infinite  and 
absolute,  i.  e.,  God.  Again,  the  ideal  form  that  creates 
intelligence  is  an  eternal  object  and  hence  demands  an 
eternal  subject  with  infinite  wisdom — God.  The  real 
form  of  being  is  contingent,  and  it  therefore  postulates 
a  First  Cause  in  whose  essence  subsistence  is  included. 
Finally,  the  binding  force  of  the  moral  law  is  eternal, 
necessary,  absolute,  and  its  ultimate  sanction  must  be 
found  in  an  Absolute  Being  in  whom  the  essence  of 
holiness  subsists.  Thus  man  naturally  does  not  per- 
ceive God;  his  knowledge  of  God  is  but  of  a  negative 
kind.  In  the  supernatural  order  of  grace,  the  real 
communication  of  God  to  man,  a  new  light  super- 
added to  that  of  reason  brings  man  into  conjunction 
with  God's  own  realitj^  which  reveals  itself  to  him 
in  an  incipient  and  obscure  manner,  yet  acts  upon  the 
soul  with  positive  cfiicacy.  Thus  the  Christian  be- 
comes a  new  creature,  consors  divimc  naturae. 

The  deontological  sciences  treat  of  the  perfections 
of  beings  and  the  ways  in  which  these  licrfections  may 
be  acquired,  produced,  or  lost.  Amongst  them, 
ethics,  the  science  of  virtue,  is  prominent  (see  "Com- 
pendio  di  Etica",  Rome,  1907).  Each  moral  act  con- 
tains three  elements:  the  law,  the  subject's  free  will, 
and  the  relation  (agreement  or  disagreement)  between 
law  and  will.  Man  is  not  a  law  unto  himself;  the 
moral  imperative  must  come  from  a  higher  source, 
from  the  necessary  and  universal  object  of  the  under- 
standing Being,  manifested  to  the  mind,  has  an 
order  of  its  own,  and  the  various  entities  we  know 
though  it  oc(!upy  different  places  in  the  scale  of 
excellence.  We  cognize  them  by  an  art  of  intellect; 
we  ncognize  them  by  a  practical  act  of  our  will,  ad- 
hering to  the  gr)0(l  we  see  in  them  with  an  intensity 
determined  by  the  moral  exigence  of  the  object.    The 


ROSMINI 


197 


ROSMINI 


idea  of  an  entity,  therefore,  as  the  medium  which 
reveals  its  excellence,  clothes  itself  with  the  authority 
of  law;  and  as  all  ideas  are  but  determinations  of  the 
idea  of  being,  the  first  of  laws  and  the  first  principle 
of  obligation  is:  "Follow  the  light  of  reason",  or 
"Recognize  being".  Besides  the  testimony  of  con- 
sciousness and  the  consent  of  mankind,  the  proofs  for 
free-will,  i.  e.,  the  power  of  choice  between  objective 
good  (duty)  and  subjective  good  (pleasure,  self-in- 
terest), are  closely  bound  up  with  Rosmini's  theory  of 
man  and  the  soul.  Man  is  stimulated  by  sensation 
and  his  subjective  modifi(;ations;  at  the  same  time  he 
is  illumined  by  the  light  of  being  eternal  and  absolute 
whence  he  can  draw  strength  to  overcome  the  allure- 
ments of  sense  and  unite  himself  to  the  absolute  good. 

In  reference  to  the  third  element  Rosmini  used  a 
distinction  which  led  to  sharp  controversy.  By 
peccatum  (sin)  he  means  the  sinful  condition  of  the 
will  in  its  antagonism  to  objective  good;  by  culpa 
(sin  as  fault),  the  same  condition  considered  relatively 
to  its  cause,  free  will.  Ordinarily,  peccatum  is  also 
culpa,  and  every  sin  is  traceable  to  a  free  agent.  But, 
in  abnormal  circumstances,  there  may  be  peccatum 
where  there  is  not,  at  the  moment,  culpa.  The  acts 
of  an  acquired  sinful  habit,  when  performed  without 
advertence  or  deliberation,  are  contrary  to  law, 
though  at  the  moment  the  will  is  not  responsible. 
They  are  culp(e  and  imputable,  but  to  complete  the 
imputability  one  must  link  them  with  the  first  free 
wicked  acts  whence  the  habit  resulted.  Original  sin 
is  a  true  sin  yet  not  a  culpa,  not  imputable  to  the 
person  in  whom  it  is  found  as  to  its  free  cause.  The 
responsible  cause  is  to  be  sought  in  the  free  will  of 
Adam,  whose  sin  was  both  peccatum  and  culpa. 
Rosmini  wrote  voluminously  in  defence  of  the  tradi- 
tional Catholic  doctrine  of  original  sin.  Conscience 
he  defines  as  "a  speculative  judgment  on  the  morality 
of  the  practical  judgment";  and  since  morality, 
he  points  out,  belongs  to  an  order  of  reflection  anterior 
to  the  conscience,  there  may  exist  in  man  moral  or 
immoral  conditions  apart  from  conscience — a  doc- 
trine which  he  also  applied  to  original  sin  and  to 
certain  states  of  virtue  and  vice.  Regarding  probabil- 
ism,  he  distinguishes,  in  the  question  of  the  doubtful 
law,  what  is  intrinsically  evil  from  what  is  evil  only 
on  account  of  some  extrinsic  cause,  for  example,  pro- 
hibition by  positive  law,  and  lays  down  the  rule:  "  If 
there  is  a  doubt  respecting  the  existence  of  the  positive 
law,  and  the  doubt  cannot  be  resolved,  the  law  is  not 
binding;  but  if  there  is  a  doubt  in  a  matter  pertaining 
to  the  natural  law  and  relating  to  an  evil  inherent  in 
action,  the  risk  of  the  evil  must  be  avoided."  This 
theory  provoked  controversy,  but  Rosmini  main- 
tained that  it  accorded  substantially  with  the  teaching 
of  St.  Alphonsus  Ligouri. 

The  science  of  rational  right  arises  from  the  protec- 
tion which  the  moral  law  affords  to  the  useful  good. 
The  classification  of  the  goods  and  rights  which  we 
possess  in  our  relations  with  our  fellow-men,  is  based 
on  freedom  and  property.  Freedom  is  the  power,  which 
each  one  has,  to  use  all  his  faculties  and  resources  so 
long  as  he  does  not  encroach  on  the  rights  of  others. 
Property  is  the  union  of  goods  with  the  human  per- 
sonality by  a  triple  bond,  physical,  intellectual,  and 
moral.  The  moral  bond  guards  the  other  two,  for  the 
moral  law  forbids  one  man  to  wrest  from  another  what 
he  has  united  to  himself  by  affection  and  intelligence. 
The  subject  of  right  may  be  either  the  individual  man 
or  man  in  society.  Concerning  the  three  societies 
necessary  for  the  full  development  of  the  human  race, 
Rosmini  speculates  at  length  in  his  "Filosofia  del 
diritto"  (Milan,  1841-4.3). 

Rosmini  applied  his  philosophical  principles  to  edu- 
cation in  "Delia  educazione  cristiana"  (Milan,  1856) 
and  especially,  "Del  principio  supremo  della  metod- 
ica"  (Turin,  18.57;  tr.  by  Grey,  "The  Ruling  Prin- 
ciple of  Method  Applied  to  Education",  Boston, 


1893).  His  basic  idea  is  that  education  must  follow 
the  natural  order  of  development.  The  mind  of  the 
child  must  be  led  from  the  general  to  the  particular. 
The  natural  and  necessary  order  of  all  human  thoughts 
is  expressed  in  the  law:  "A  thought  is  that  which  be- 
comes the  matter,  or  provides  the  matter  of  another 
thought."  The  whole  sum  of  thoughts  which  can 
occur  to  the  human  mind  is  classified  in  divers  orders 
of  which  Rosmini  enumerates  five.  To  the  first  order 
belong  thoughts  whose  matter  is  not  taken  from  ante- 
cedent thoughts;  each  of  the  successive  orders  is 
characterized  by  its  matter  being  taken  from  the  order 
immediately  preceding  it.  The  ruling  principle  of 
method  is:  Present  to  the  mind  of  the  child  (and  this 
applies  to  man  in  general),  first,  the  objects  which 
belong  to  the  first  order  of  cognitions,  then  those 
which  belong  to  the  second  order,  and  so  on,  taking 
care  never  to  lead  the  child  to  a  cognition  of  the  second 
order  without  having  ascertained  that  his  mind  has 
grasped  those  of  the  first  order  relative  to  it,  and  the 
same  with  regard  to  the  cognitions  of  the  third,  fourth, 
and  other  higher  orders.  In  applying  this  principle 
to  the  different  orders,  Rosmini  explains  the  cognitions 
proper  to  each,  the  corresponding  activities,  the  in- 
struction which  they  require,  the  moral  and  religious 
education  which  the  child  should  receive.  Both  in  his 
general  theory  of  adapting  education  to  the  needs  of 
the  growing  mind  and  in  the  importance  he  attached 
to  instinct,  feeling,  and  play,  Rosmini  anticipated 
much  that  is  now  regarded  as  fundamental  in  educa- 
tion. "The  child",  he  says,  "at  every  age  must  act." 
To  regulate  the  different  kinds  of  activity,  and  to  make 
each  kind  reasonable,  is  really  to  educate.  It  is  in  the 
kindergarten  system  of  Frobel,  the  contemporary  of 
Rosmini,  that  these  principles  are  most  fully  worked 
out. 

The  most  important  of  Rosmini's  posthumous 
works,  the  "Teosofia"  (ontology  and  natural  theol- 
ogy), was  published  in  five  volumes  (Turin,  1859-64; 
Intra,  1864-74).  In  1876  some  Catholic  newspapers 
and  periodicals  in  Italy,  interpreting  the  "Dimittan- 
tur"  decree  of  1854,  declared  that  Rosmini's  works 
were  open  both  to  criticism  and  to  censure.  The 
Rosininian  school  on  the  contrary  maintained  that, 
while  tli(>  dccrco  gave  no  positive  approval,  it  at  least 
guaranteed  that  the  books  examined  contained  noth- 
ing worthy  of  censure  and  could  therefore  be  safely 
read,  and  their  conclusions  accepted  by  Catholics. 
This  view  seemed  to  be  confirmed  by  the  Master 
of  the  Sacred  Palace,  who,  in  a  letter  to  the  "Osserva- 
tore  Romano"  (16  June,  1876),  reminded  the  editor 
of  the  silence  enjoined  on  both  parties  and  stated  that 
no  theological  censure  could  be  inflicted.  A  month 
later,  the  "Osservatore  Cattolico"  of  Milan,  as 
ordered  by  the  Prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Index,  acknowledged  its  interpretation  to  be  erro- 
neous. 

After  the  death  of  Pius  IX,  the  controversy  was 
renewed.  An  answer  of  the  Index  was  given  (21 
June,  1880)  that  "dimittantur  signifies  only  this — a 
work  dismissed  is  not  prohibited" — and  another 
(5  Dec,  1881)  that  a  work  dismissed  is  not  to  be 
held  as  free  from  every  error  against  faith  and  morals 
and  may  be  criticized  both  philosophically  and  theo- 
logically without  incurring  the  note  of  temerity. 
Both  answers  were  taken  by  the  adversaries  of 
Rosmini's  doctrines  to  justify  new  censures,  while 
the  Rosminian  writers  contended  that  these  answers 
in  no  degree  rendered  untenable  the  position  they  had 
always  occupied.  On  14  Dec,  1887,  a  decree  of  the 
Inquisition  condemned  forty  propositions  taken  from 
the  works  of  Rosmini.  The  decree,  published  7 
March,  1888,  lays  special  stress  on  the  posthumous 
works  which,  it  says,  developed  and  explained  doc- 
trines contained  in  germ  in  the  earlier  books;  but 
the  propositions  condemned  have  no  theological 
nota  attached.     About  one-half  of  the  propositions 


ROSMINIANS 


198 


ROSMINIANS 


refer  to  Rosmini's  ontology  and  natural  thcologj'; 
the  remainder,  to  his  teachings  on  the  soul,  the 
Trinity,  the  Eucharist,  the  supernatural  order  and 
the  beatific  vision  (Denzinger,  "Enchir.",  1891  sq.). 
Some  of  the  propositions  were  clearly  taught  in  the 
works  examined  in  1S54;  others  repeated  what 
Rosmini  had  said  over  and  over  again  in  the  principal 
books  published  during  his  lifetime.  The  superior 
general  of  the  Institute  of  Charity  enjoined  obedience 
and  submission  on  the  members.  Leo  XIII  in  a 
letter  to  the  Archbishop  of  Milan  (1  June  1889) 
plainly  stated  that  he  approved  and  confirmed  the 
decree.  Cardinal  Mazella  discussed  the  proposi- 
tions exhaustively  in  "  Rosminianarum  proposi- 
tionum  trutina  thoologica"  (Rome  1892).  This 
brought  out  a  reply  from  an  erudite  layman,  Prof. 
Giuseppe  Morando^  under  the  title  "Esame  critico 
delle  40  proposizioni  Rosminiane"  (Milan,  1905). 

Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  Rosmini 
wTOte  a  large  number  of  treatises  the  more  important 
of  which  are:  "II  Rinnovamento  della  Filosofia  in 
Italia"  (Milan,  1836);  "Psicologia",  (Novara,  1843; 
Turin,  1887;  tr.,  London,  1884-88);  "Logica", 
(Turin,  1853;  Intra,  1868);  "La  Filosofia  della 
Morale"  (Milan,  1831);  "L'Antropologia  in  servizio 
della  Scienza  Morale"  (Milan,  1838);  "Antro- 
pologia  sopranaturale"  (Casale,  1884);  "Teodicea" 
(Milan,  1845);  "Filosofia  della  Politica"  (Milan, 
1858);  "La  societa  e  il  suo  fine"  (Milan,  1839); 
"V.  Gioberti  e  il  Panteismo"  (Milan,  1847);  "In- 
troduzione  alia  Filosofia"  (Casale,  1850);  "Introd. 
al  Vangelo  secondo  S.  Giovanni"  (Turin,  1882). 

Davidson,  Rosmini's  Philosophical  System  (London,  1882) 
contains  a  copious  bibliography  of  the  works  of  Rosmini  and  his 
school. 

Rosminian  School:  Buroni,  DeW  Essere  e  del  Conoscere,  studn 
su  Parmenide  Plaione  e  Rosmini  (Turin,  1878);  Ferre,  Degli 
UniTersali  secondo  la  Teoria  Rosminiana  (Casale,  1880-86); 
Pestalozz.v,  Le  Dottrine  di  A.  Rosmini  difese  (Milan,  1851;  Lodi, 
1853);  Petri,  A.  Rosmini  e  i  Neo-Scolastici  (Rome,  1878); 
BiLLiA,  Quaranla  Proposizioni  atlribuite  ad  A.  Rosmini  (Milan, 
1889);  Per  Ant.  Rosmini  nel  prima  cenlenario  della  nascita  (Milan, 
1897);  MoRANDO,  II  Rosminianismo  e  VEndclica  Pascendi,  and 
Apparenti  Contraddizioni  di  S.  Tommaso,  reprinted  from  the 
Rivista  Rosminiana  (1908) ;  Manzoni,  II  Dialogo  suW  Invenzione 
(Milan,  1879);  Calza  axd  Perez,  Esposizione  della  Filosofia  di 
A.  Rosmini  (Intra,  1878);  Casara,  La  Luce  dell'  occhio  corporeo  e 
guella  deW  Intellelto  (Parabiago,  1879). 

Periodicals:  La  Sapienza  (Turin,  1879-86)  (ed.  Papa);  La 
Rirista  Rosminiana  (Voghera,  1905)  (ed.  Morando). 

Opposing  .Schools:  Pastille  (s.  d.);  Alcune  Affermazioni  del  Sin. 
A.  Rosmini  prete  roveretano  con  un  saggio  di  riflessioni  saritte  da 
Eusebio  Cristiano  (s.  d.) ;  Principj  della  scuola  Rosminiana  esposti 
in  Latere  Famigliari  da  un  Prete  Bolognese  (Milan,  18.50);  Gio- 
berti, Dei/li  Errori  Filosofici  di  A.  Rosmini  (Capologo,  1846); 
CoRNOLDi,  II  Rosminianismo  sirUesi  dell'  Ontologismo  e  del 
ParUeixmo  (Rome,  1881);  Liberatore,  Degli  Universali  (Rome, 
1881-8.3),  tr.  Bering,  On  Universals  (Leamington,  1889); 
Mazzella,  Rosminianarum  propositionum  trutina  theologica 
(Rome,  1892):  Zigliara,  II  Dimiltatur  e  la  spiegazione  dalane 
dalla  S.  Confiregazione  dell'  Indice. 

Independent:  Sheldon,  The  Teachings  of  A.  Rosmini,  in 
Papers  of  the  Amerimn  Society  of  Church  History  1897,  VIII; 
Dtroff.  Rosmini,  in  the  series  KuUur  und  Katholizismus  (Munich 
IdOOj;  Orehtano,  Rosmini,  in  the  series  Biblioteca  Pedagogica 
(Itome,  i;K)Kj;  PALHORifes,  Rosmini,  in  the  scries  Les  Grands 
PhiUjsophes  (Paris.  1908).  D.    HiCKEY. 

Bosminians. — The  Institute  of  Charity,  or,  offi- 
cially, SocieUis  a  charilale  nuncupala,  is  a  religious 
congregation  founded  by  Antonio  Rosmini,  first 
organizM  in  1S28,  formally  approved  by  the  Holy 
.Sf«  in  18.3H,  and  taking  its  name  from  "charity"  as 
the  fullness  of  Chrislian  virtue.  In  English-speaking 
lanris  its  members  are  commonly  called  Fathers  of 
Charity,  but  in  Italj',  R/)Hminians. 

FouruUilion  of  the  hiJililitle. — The  founder  of  this 
society  was,  strictly  speaking,  Rosmini  alone.  Never- 
thek-.SK  there  existed  in  the  age  into  which  he  was 
bfim  many  very  potent  directive  elements  which 
gave  a  br-nt  to  his  thoughts  and  supplied  an  oppor- 
tunity for  their  embodiment  in  wtme  organization. 
Hin  life  was  in  the  immediate  wake  of  the  French 
Revolution,  and  df»ubtless  it  was  Ijy  the  many 
tendencies  anrl  movements,  some  of  them  remote 
enough,  which  culminated  in  that  upheaval,  that  he 


was  graduall}'  and  unconsciously  led  to  consider  the 
intellectual  and  moral  inheritance  of  Christendom 
as  a  whole,  not  in  blind  protest  and  reaction  merely, 
but  with  impartial  contemplation  of  new  ideas  as 
well  as  of  old.  The  one  side  of  truth  was  to  be  cor- 
rected by  its  counterpart,  and  secondary  things 
which  had  usurped  a  primacy  were  to  resume  thcur 
just  order.  Rosmini  not  only  saw  the  Church's 
enemies  roused  to  new  vigour  of  attack,  but  also  a 
growing  danger  among  many  who  still  remained 
within  the  Church  of  a  practical  denial  or  at  least 
a  belittling  of  the  supernatural  in  man.  There  was 
ill-regulated  activity  and  impatience  of  ancient  tra- 
dition, and  by  reaction  from  this  in  other  quarters 
there  was  an  equally  ill-timed  and  fatal  i^assiveness. 
The  world  was  too  wrong,  it  seemed,  ever  to  be  set 
right;  and  nothing  it  could  say  was  worthy  of  being 
even  heeded.  This  was  a  spirit  that  shut  itself  up 
in  the  past  and  anathematized  all  fresh  thought. 
The  Church  was  to  renounce  either  tradition  or 
development,  in  either  case  abandoning  her  Divine 
Guide. 

On  such  a  basis  there  could  easily  be  set  up  a 
spirit  which  looked  on  the  whole  Church  as  a  party, 
and  furthered  her  cause  with  partisan  eagerness, 
or  else  substituted  for  the  great  end  of  the  Church's 
good  the  petty  end  of  the  good  of  some  .society  or 
persons  within  her.  It  tended  to  rejjlace  Catholi- 
cism by  clericalism.  But  Rosmini  judged  these 
domestic  ills  no  less  than  the  relentless  attacks  from 
without  to  be  traceable  to  one  deejily-seated  cause, 
namely,  that  men  were  relaxing  their  grip  on  the 
fundamental  and  general  truths.  What  was  becom- 
ing blurred  was  God's  own  part  in  the  world:  first 
His  creative  part;  then  the  Divine  nature  of  that 
moral  good  which  in  some  sort  stands  before  the 
human  mind  as  truth  itself;  and  again  the  Divine 
action  of  grace,  causing  truth  and  good  to  be  felt  in 
the  depths  of  the  soul  as  having  not  only  infinite 
rightness  and  bindingness  but  also  supreme  driving- 
power.  The  crying  need  then  was  for  a  clearer 
recognition  of  God's  place  in  nature,  in  the  soul,  and 
in  the  Church,  and  hence  for  the  re-establishment  of 
Christian  first  principles  as  a  slow,  indeed,  but  the 
only  radical,  cure  of  the  evils  of  the  day. 

Antonio  Rosmini,  an  Italian  from  Rovereto,  was 
ordained  in  1821.  He  was  already  organizing  hia 
life  on  principles  of  order,  an  order  which  puts  God's 
prompting  first  and  man's  instant  and  swift  action 
second.  His  two  life-principles,  written  down  at 
this  time  for  his  own  guidance,  and  forming  the  true 
harmony  of  humility  with  confidence  and  passivo- 
ness  with  activity,  were:  first,  to  apply  himself  to 
the  amendment  of  his  faults  and  the  purifying  of 
his  soul  without  seeking  other  occui)ations  or  imdcr- 
takings  on  his  neighbour's  behalf,  since  of  himself 
Ije  was  powerless  to  do  anyoiu!  real  service;  and, 
second,  not  to  refuse  oflices  of  cliarity  when  Divine 
Providence  offered  them,  but  in  fulfilling  them  to 
maintain  perfect  indilTerence  ami  do  the  offered 
work  as  zealou.sly  as  he  would  any  other.  The 
formulating  of  this  ruk^  and  the  putting  of  it  into 
practice  by  living  retired  in  prayer  and  study  con- 
stituted the  first  step  towards  founding  the  Institute 
of  Charity;  the  second  was  this:  the  Venerable 
Marchioness  di  Canossa,  foundress  of  a  society  of 
Daughters  of  Charity  for  ]ioor  friendless  girls,  had 
long  desired  a  like  inst  itut  ion  for  boys,  and  no  sooner 
w:iK  Rosmini  a  priest  than  she  b(^gan  to  urg(^  him  to 
establish  one.  On  10  December,  1S25,  he  wrote  to 
her  that  in  accordan(;e  with  his  rules  of  life  he  could 
nf)t  altogetlier  refuse  her  request  if  God  were  to 
provide  means,  but  that  even  then  he  could  form 
such  a  society  only  on  the  basis  of  the  two  aforesaid 
principles. 

The  rough  sketch  of  the  Priests  of  Charity  written 
on  this  date  is  really  only  the  first  brief  form  of  what 


ROSMINIANS 


199 


ROSMINIANS 


was  approved  by  Rome  more  than  twelve  yeara 
later.  But  he  took  no  practical  measures.  He 
still  waited  for  God's  signs.  Led  to  Milan  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1826,  for  a  charitable  work  and  better  con- 
venience for  study,  he  received  there  a  powerful 
stimulus  in  June,  1827,  by  meeting  the  Abbe  Loewen- 
bruck.  This  zealous  and  impetuous  priest  intro- 
duced himself  abruptly  enough  with  the  words: 
"I  am  thinking  of  a  society  directed  to  a  reform 
of  the  clergy,  and  you  must  help  me  to  carry  this 
into  effect."  Rosmini  answered  by  confessing  his 
own  aspirations  and  laying  down  the  principles  on 
which  alone  he  would  build.  They  conferred  further, 
sought  and  received  more  light,  and  at  last  agreed 
to  spend  the  next  year's  Lent  together  in  fasting  and 
prayer  in  an  almost  ruinous  house  on  Monte  Cal- 
vario  above  Domodossola,  a  tov\Ti  near  the  Italian 
end  of  the  Simplon  Pass.  Here  on  20  February, 
1828,  Rosmini  began  his  great  work,  but  alone,  as 
Loewenbruck  did  not  present  himself  again  to  co- 
operate in  the  labour.  Lent  was  passed  by  Rosmini 
in  practising  austerities  and  writing  the  constitutions 
of  the  institute. 

Still,  this  was  no  more  than  a  plan.  For  forming 
a  religious  society  a  number  of  like-minded  men  are 
needed.  Rosmini  sought  none,  encouraged  none. 
Two  or  three  who  knew  his  thoughts  joined  him; 
their  very  principles  made  them  at  once  into  a  com- 
munity practising  many  of  the  religious  virtues. 
These  principles  urged  him  to  betake  himself  forth- 
with to  the  Holy  See  and  lay  his  society  before  it. 
He  arrived  at  Rome  in  November,  1828,  but  would 
not  do  anything  there  to  further  his  cause.  Pius 
Vni,  who  was  elected  pope  in  the  following  March, 
called  him  to  an  audience  a  few  weeks  after.  "If 
you  think",  said  the  Pope,  "of  beginning  with  some- 
thing small,  and  leaving  all  the  rest  to  God,  yfe  gladly 
approve;  not  so  if  you  thought  of  starting  on  a  large 
scale."  Rosmini  answered  that  he  had  always  pro- 
posed a  very  humble  beginning.  His  was  no  extra- 
ordinary vocation,  he  said,  like  that  of  St.  Ignatius, 
but  quite  ordinary.  In  the  autumn  of  1830  he  gave 
the  institute  something  of  its  regular  form,  and  all 
the  community  began  to  pass  through  their  stages 
of  religious  training.  Such  was  the  state  of  affairs 
when  on  2  I'ebruary,  1831,  Rosmini's  friend  and 
protector  at  Rome,  Cardinal  Cappellari,  was  chosen 
pope  and  took  the  name  of  Gregory  XVI. 

The  new  pope  became  from  the  outset  the  foster- 
father  of  the  institute,  and  Rosmini  shunned  all 
initiative  more  than  ever.  An  unsolicited  papal 
Brief  came  forth  in  March,  calling  the  new  society 
by  its  name  and  rejoicing  in  its  progress  under  the 
approval  of  the  bishops.  Special  spiritual  graces 
were  granted  by  a  later  Brief,  and  in  1835  the  pope 
made  known  his  wish  that,  since  solemn  episcopal 
approval  had  been  given  the  society  in  the  Dioceses 
of  Novara  and  Trent,  Rosmini  should  no  longer 
delay,  but  submit  the  constitutions  of  the  society 
to  the  formal  examination  of  the  Holy  See.  It  was 
not,  however,  till  March,  1837,  that  these  were  at 
length  submitted,  with  a  short  letter  in  which  Ros- 
mini petitioned  the  pope  to  approve  and  confirm 
them  and  to  grant  to  the  institute  the  privileges  of 
regulars,  adding  only  that  these  seemed  necessary 
to  the  well-being  of  a  society  which  was  intended  for 
the  service  of  the  universal  Church. 

The  matter  was  entrusted  to  the  Congregation 
of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  which  declared,  on  16  June, 
its  general  commendation  of  the  society,  but  also 
its  judgment  that  it  was  as  yet  too  young  to  be 
approved  as  a  regular  order,  and  its  hesitation  on 
one  or  two  points  in  the  constitutions,  notably  on 
the  form  of  poverty.  They  therefore  deferred  the 
ap[)n)bation.  Rosmini  satisfied  Cardinal  Castra- 
cane,  the  promoter  of  the  cause,  on  these  heads;  but 
before  proposing  a  new  examination  the  promoter 


is  accustomed  to  hear  some  other  consultor;  and  to 
this  end  Zecchinelli,  a  Jesuit,  was  admitted  by  Cas- 
tracane  to  write  his  opinion.  It  was  unfavourable, 
principally  concerning  the  matter  of  poverty;  and 
his  party  further  procured  the  appointment  of  a 
new  consultor,  a  Servite,  whose  hostile  vote  was 
launched  almost  on  the  eve  of  the  session  in  which 
a  decision  was  to  be  taken.  This  action  drove 
Castracane  to  appeal  to  the  pope  that  the  meeting 
might  be  postponed,  and  the  pope  intervcmed  at 
once  with  such  effect  that  the  last  vote  was  set  aside 
and  other  consultors  deputed  instead.  On  20  Decem- 
ber, 1838,  the  congregation  met  and  gave  its  final 
sentence  that  the  society  and  its  rule  deserved  the 
formal  approbation  of  the  Holy  See,  and  that  the 
institute  should  have  the  status  of  a  religious  con- 
gregation, with  the  usual  privileges.  The  pope 
immediately  ratified  this  decision.  On  the  following 
25  March  the  vows  were  first  made,  by  twenty  in 
Italy  and  five  in  England.  Five  of  these  then  went 
to  Rome  and  on  22  August,  in  the  Catacombs  of  St. 
Sebastian  made  the  fourth  vow  of  special  obedience 
to  the  pope.  Apostolic  letters  embodying  Ros- 
mini's own  summary  of  the  constitutions  were  issued 
on  20  September,  naming  Rosmini  as  the  first  pro- 
vost-general of  the  institute  for  life. 

Spirit  and  Organization. — The  end  which  the  Insti- 
tute of  Charity  sets  before  its  members  is  perfect 
charity.  Love  of  God  is  plcnitudo  legis,  because  it 
extends  of  its  very  nature  to  all  intelligent  creatures 
who  are  in  God's  image.  No  special  manner  of  life 
is  added  in  this  rule  as  an  obligatory  proximate  end; 
hence  for  a  vocation  to  it  nothing  is  required  but  a 
true  and  constant  desire  to  love  justice  most.  It 
is  a  universal  vocation.  It  embraces  all  vocations, 
not  indeed  by  taking  all  charitable  works  whatso- 
ever as  its  province;  rather  it  does  not  take  one, 
but  it  refuses  none.  The  field  then  is  vast,  but 
only  with  a  negative  vastness.  Hcec  est  voluntas 
Dei,  sanctificatio  vestra.  But  by  focusing  the  will 
on  that  one  point  the  best  way  is  opened  to  every- 
thing else.  Thus  the  first  or  elective  state  of  the 
Itosminian  is  just  the  unum  necessarium,  ihv  con- 
tem])lative  life;  not  inactivity,  not  sluggishness,  but 
prayer  and  labour  and  study  and  the  learning  of 
some  mechanical  or  liberal  art,  that  so  he  may  be 
ready  for  any  call  and  not  become  a  burden  to 
others.  It  is  a  time  for  accumulating  experience  and 
strength,  and  those  who  avail  themselves  of  it  apply 
themselves  to  their  duties,  awaiting  the  time  when 
they  will  go  forth  to  answer  the  call  of  zeal.  If  no 
such  call  comes,  it  matters  little,  for  in  the  elective 
state  all  their  end  is  achieved.  If  the  call  docs  come, 
the  elective  is  laid  aside  for  the  assumed  state,  this 
being  accepted  not  of  choice  at  all,  but  only  because 
of  God's  will  clearly  manifested. 

By  what  methods  does  the  institute  discern  this 
will?  Apart  from  extraordinary  inward  motions 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  common  way  is  that  of  out- 
ward events,  which  give  sure  tokens  of  God's  will 
to  those  who  use  the  light  of  faith.  The  principal 
events,  as  the  institute  views  it,  whi(;h  make  known 
God's  call  to  charitable  work  are:  (1)  a  petition 
made  by  a  neighbour  in  need;  (2)  a  reciuest  by  some- 
one else  on  his  behalf;  (3)  his  needs  themselves  when 
they  come  before  us.  Among  simultaneous  re- 
quests there  is  a  choice.  The  pope's  come  first,  a 
bishop's  next;  ceteris  paribus,  earlier  petitions  are 
accepted  rather  than  later.  But  in  general  when- 
ever a  neighbour,  in  the  universal  Christian  meaning 
of  that  word,  seeks  the  help  of  the  institute,  it  has 
to  be  given,  unless  one  of  the  following  conditions 
be  wanting:  that  the  desired  work  be  no  hindrance 
to  the  fulfilment  of  duties  already  undertaken,  tiiat 
the  whole  labour  which  su(;h  addition  involves  be 
not  beyond  the  brethren's  strength,  and  that  the 
institute  have  at  its  disposal  members  eufficent  in 


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200 


ROSMINIANS 


both  number  and  endowment  for  its  rightful  dis- 
charge. 

Again,  charity  which  is  one  in  essence,  is  three- 
fold in  exercise,  and  according  as  good  things  regard 
the  bodily  and  sentient  life  or  the  intellectual  or 
the  moral,  the  charity  which  bestows  them  is  divided 
in  the  institute  into  temporal,  intellectual,  and 
spiritual.  The  temporal  is  the  lowest  and  gives 
the  lowest  kind  of  good.  Inconceivably  far  above 
it  stands  that  which  seeks  to  increase  the  life  of  the 
understanding  by  the  knowledge  of  truth;  and  above 
both  there  is  the  spiritual  charity  which  tends  to 
make  men  good  and  happy  by  loving  the  known 
truth.  Hence  we  see  that  the  topmost  point  of  the 
institute's  activity  is  the  cure  of  souls.  Its  whole 
theory  leads  to  the  religious  and  the  pastoral  life 
wedded  together,  as  the  crowning  achievement  of 
charity.  The  blending  of  the  two  types  in  the  rule 
consists  in  this,  that  the  brethren  have  to  choose 
and  prefer  a  private  state  in  the  Church.  They  are 
of  the  ecclesia  discens.  The  restless  disposition 
which  indirectly  seeks  honours  or  powers  would  be 
treason  to  their  whole  spirit.  Passive  in  privacy 
till  public  work  summons  them,  they  must  then  be 
all  courage,  confidence,  perseverance,  and  work. 

There  are  three  classes  of  persons  who  more  or 
less  strictly  belong  to  the  Institute  of  Charity.  The 
first  is  of  those  who,  led  by  a  desire  to  keep  the 
Evangelical  law  perfectly,  take  on  themselves  the 
discipline  of  the  society  and  bind  themselves  by 
vows.  The  second  is  of  Christians  who  desire  per- 
fection, but  are  so  bound  by  earlier  engagements 
that  they  cannot  make  these  vows,  yet  desire  as  far 
as  po.ssible  to  co-operate  with  the  society,  and  these 
are  "adopted  children".  The  third  is  of  "ascribed 
members",  good  Christians  who  do  not  aspire  to  the 
life  of  the  counsels,  yet  according  to  their  condition 
desire  also  to  co-operate.  But  since  only  the  relig- 
ious are  of  the  substance  of  the  society,  it  is  of  their 
formation  and  regulation  alone  that  we  will  here  add 
a  few  words. 

The  institute  neither  soUcits  nor  insinuates  voca- 
tions, but  leaves  the  initiative  to  Divine  Providence, 
being  from  its  fundamental  principles  just  as  per- 
fect when  small  and  hidden  as  if  it  was  large  and 
famous.  Of  the  care  used  in  examining  and  instruct- 
ing the  postulant  and  in  implanting  firm  roots  of 
piety  and  charity  in  the  novices  and  in  trying  his 
vocation  in  many  ways  we  need  not  here  give  de- 
tailed notice.  After  two  years  of  noviceship  his 
first  profession  is  made,  obedience  being  understood 
to  comprehend  the  acceptance  of  any  grade  that 
superiors  may  assign.  He  thus  becomes  an  "ap- 
proved scholastic",  who  is  not,  however,  definitively 
incorjKjrated  with  the  institute  until  he  has  fitted 
himsfilf  by  study  or  other  j)reparation  for  taking  the 
coa^liutor's  vows.  Coadjutors,  spiritual  or  tem- 
poral, add  the  further  promise  of  not  seeking  any 
dignity  either  within  the  society  or  outside  and  of 
not  accepting  and  not  refusing  the  spontaneous 
offer  of  it  except  under  obedience.  They  are  divided 
moreover  into  internal  coadjutors  if  living  in  houses 
of  the  institute,  and  external  if  elsewhere,  the  latter 
fitat^;  being  from  the  universality  of  charity  quite 
in  harmony  with  the  rule.  From  among  the  internal 
spiritual  coa^ljutors  presbyters  are  chosen,  and  these 
take  a  fourth  vow  of  special  obedience  to  the  sover- 
eign pontiff.  Thus  the  Vxjdy  of  the  society  con- 
sists of  prmbyters  and  coadjutors,  but  it  is  the 
presbyters  who  give  life  and  movement  to  the  rest 
and  to  whom  the  more  univ(!rsal  works  of  charity  are 
fX)mniilted. 

Vows  in  the  institutx;  are  life-long,  and  ordinarily, 
though  not  nectrHsarily,  simple.  Its  form  of  poverty 
permits  the  retention  of  bare  ownership  in  the  eye 
of  the  civil  law,  but  eaf;h  memh(!r  must  be  ready  to 
surrender  even  that  at  the  call  of  obedience,  and 


none  may  keep  or  administer  or  use  one  farthing  at 
his  own  will.  Strenuous  opposition  was  offered  in 
Rome  to  this  form  of  religious  poverty,  which  was 
declared  by  one  party  to  be  merely  affective,  not 
effective.  Rosmini  answered  by  indicating  the  con- 
ditions just  named  and  also  the  nature  of  property 
itself;  that  it  is  a  complexus  of  rights,  that  rights 
are  relations,  and  are  divisible;  that  they  may  be 
relative  to  the  State  or  to  the  Church;  and  that  a 
religious  keeps  property  relatively  to  the  State  only, 
and  not  absolutely.  It  is  absolute  ownership,  not 
relative,  that  offends  Evangelical  poverty.  The 
founder's  sagacity  in  leaving  property  under  the 
legal  dominion  of  individuals  has  been  abundantly 
illustrated  since  his  time;  the  spiritual  gains  of  the 
occasions  thus  given  for  continually  renewed  acts 
of  sacrifice  are  no  less  obvious.  The  true  facts  of 
the  rule  are  that  board,  lodging,  and  clothing  are  to 
be  those  of  poor  men,  and  that  all,  even  superiors, 
do  much  of  their  own  servile  work.  Chastity  next, 
considered  as  a  vow,  is  understood  in  the  sense  of 
the  subdeacon's  obligation.  The  virtue  of  obedience 
is  regarded  as  a  director  of  charity  and,  therefore,  aa 
quite  universal;  as  a  vow,  however,  though  its  field 
is  still  unrestricted,  it  comes  more  seldom  into  play. 

The  institute  is  governed  by  a  provost-general 
elected  for  life  by  certain  presbyters  according  to  a 
minutely  prescribed  form.  He  has  full  powers 
except  for  a  few  exceptional  cases.  It  is  he  who 
admits  to  the  various  grades  in  the  society  and  who 
ajjpoints  all  the  superiors.  The  institute  is  divided 
into  provinces,  and  each  province,  at  least  in  theory, 
into  dioceses,  and  each  diocese  into  parishes;  and 
there  may  be  rectories  besides  for  more  particular 
works  of  charity.  Having  in  view  only  the  fullness 
of  Christian  law,  it  has  followed  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  organization  of  the  Christian  Church.  Being 
ordered  to  charity,  the  institute  chooses  a  way  of 
living  that  will  not  sunder  the  brethren  too  far  from 
other  men.  No  habit  and  no  special  bodily  mortifi- 
cation is  prescribed  them,  but  in  lieu  of  further  aus- 
terities they  embrace  the  lasting  hardness  of  their 
chosen  lot.  Not  the  hedge  of  a  multitude  of  regula- 
tions, but  a  strong  conviction  of  lofty  principles  is 
to  make  men  such  as  the  institute  desires. 

The  institute  as  such  holds  no  property  and  takes 
no  kind  of  civil  action.  From  the  State  it  does  not 
seek  exemptions,  but  only  common  right.  If  guar- 
antees of  association  were  refused  it,  it  could  still  live 
privately  and  contemplatively,  and  attain  its  whole 
end.  Its  members  remain  citizens,  with  a  citizen's 
interest  and  duties.  Towards  the  Church  it  has  this 
chief  relation,  that  it  lives  for  her,  not  for  itself,  in- 
sists on  not  confounding  the  interests  of  one  religious 
society  with  those  of  Chrislcndom,  and  is  so  con- 
structed as  to  be  alt()g<'flicr  ancillary  to  the  Christian 
episcopate.  Any  exclusive  esprit  de  corps  is  banned 
throughout  the  rule  and  is  (juile  contrary  to  its  spirit; 
for  "the  one  gi'oundwork  of  the  institute,"  said  its 
founder,  "is  the  Providence  of  CJod  tlie  Father,  and  to 
lay  another  would  be  to  destroy  it."  Instead  of 
seeking  its  own  aggrandizement,  its  tendency  is  to 
render  the  union  of  all  Catholics  more  intimate  and 
sensible,  to  make  them  feel  their  own  greatness,  and 
that  they  are  stronger  than  the  world  and  are  fellow- 
workers  with  Providence  in  putting  all  things  under 
Christ. 

History  and  Activities. — The  institute  is  too  young 
to  have  much  history  yet.  As  was  to  be  expected 
from  its  principles,  it  has  progressed  but  slowly.  Its 
chief  houses  in  Italy  are  Monte  Calvario,  which  has 
long  been  both  a  novitiate  and  house  of  theological 
stiuly;  the  college  foiuided  in  1S;59  for  young  l)oys  at 
Stresa,  and  tlie  large  college  for  older  ones  at  Domo- 
doHsola  built  in  lS7;i  and  taking  the  place  of  a  school 
Iianded  over  to  the  institute  by  Count  Mellerio  in 
1837.     Rosmini  founded  a  house  at  Trent  in  1830  at 


ROSS 


201 


ROSS 


the  bishop's  invitation;  but  Austrian  dislike  of  Italian 
influences  brought  it  to  an  end  in  1835.  The  same 
spirit  drove  the  institute  from  Rovereto  in  1835  and 
from  Verona  in  1849.  The  charge  of  the  Sanctuary 
of  S.  Michele  della  Chiusa,  an  ancient  abbey  on  a 
steep  mountain-peak  near  Turin,  was  accepted  in 
1835  at  the  King  of  Sardinia's  desire,  and  remains  of 
deceased  members  of  his  house  were  transferred 
thither.  This  sanctuary  is  still  kept,  but  the  king's 
plan  of  a  house  of  retreat  was  left  unexecuted  by  his 
Government.  A  good  number  of  elementary  schools 
are  conducted  by  the  institute  in  various  parts  of 
northern  Italy,  and  in  1906  it  accepted  the  charge  of 
the  Church  of  S.  Charles  in  the  Corso  at  Rome. 
Noteworthy  also  are  Rosmini's  plans  of  an  English 
college  of  missionaries  for  different  parts  of  the 
British  Empire,  with  a  special  training  for  work  in 
India;  his  college  of  elementary  masters  in  the  insti- 
tute, still  flourishing,  and  his  project  of  a  medical 
college  towards  which  Prince  d'Aremberg  offered  a 
large  sum.  An  orphanage,  founded  with  this  money 
at  Sainghin,  near  Lille,  was  closed  in  1903  through 
the  hostility  of  the  French  Government. 

The  founding  of  the  English  y)rovince  is  inseparably 
linked  with  the  name  of  Luigi  (icntili.  This  cultured 
and  ardent  young  Roman  threw  himself  whole- 
heartedly into  religious  life  in  1831,  and  from  the  first 
felt  greatly  drawn  towards  England.  Ambrose  de 
Lisle  was  already  inviting  him  to  work  in  Leicester- 
shire, and  Bishop  Baines,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  West- 
ern District,  had  offered  him  a  post  at  Prior  Park.  To 
this  college  he  was  sent  by  Rosmini  in  1835  with  two 
companions  to  teach  both  lay  and  church  students. 
He  became  rector  there  the  next  year,  but  the  entrance 
of  two  of  the  bishop's  clergy.  Furlong  and  Hutton, 
into  the  institute  brought  the  engagement  to  an 
abrupt  close  in  1839.  Invited  next  to  the  Midland  dis- 
trict, the  fathers  taught  for  a  while  at  old  Oscott,  and 
in  1841  was  opened  the  mission  of  Loughborough, 
which  has  since  remained  in  the  institute's  hands. 
Many  converts  were  made  and  some  missions  founded 
in  the  neighbourhood,  and  in  1843  the  first  public 
mission  ever  preached  in  England  was  given  by  Gen- 
tili  and  Furlong.  In  the  same  year  at  RatclifTe,  near 
Leicester,  were  laid  the  foundations  of  a  novitiate  de- 
signed by  Pugin,  but  in  1840  the  present  college  for 
boys  of  the  middle  class  was  opened  there.  The  mis- 
sion of  Newport,  Monmouthshire,  was  undertaken  in 
1847,  that  of  Rugby  in  1850  and  Cardiff  (of  which 
only  two  churches  are  now  retained  by  the  institute) 
in  1854. 

The  fathers  were  all  this  time  giving  zealous  aid 
towards  dissipating  that  excessive  fear  of  outward 
devotion  which  Enghsh  Catholics  had  inherited  from 
times  of  persecution.  Rosmini's  warm  interest  in 
England  had  led  him  to  send  thither  some  of  the  most 
capable  and  apostolic  men  he  had,  Pagani  (this  J.  B. 
Pagani,  author  of  "The  Science  of  the  Saints"  and 
"  Anima  Divota",  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Ital- 
ian provincial  of  the  same  name,  author  of  a  "Life  of 
Rosmini",  and  other  Rosminian  works),  Gentili,  Rin- 
olfi,  Ceroni,  Cavalli,  Gastaldi,  Bertetti,  Caccia,  Sig- 
nini;  and  the  mission  of  Gentili  and  Furlong,  and  also 
of  Rinolfi  and  Lockhart,  in  many  parts  of  the  British 
Isles  produced  a  deep  and  lasting  effect.  Gentili  died 
of  fever  in  Dublin,  in  1848,  while  preaching  a  mission 
in  a  fever-stricken  district.  Of  Lockhart  it  should  be 
added  that  in  1854  he  began  the  mission  of  Kingsland 
in  North  London,  and  here  he  worked  for  twenty 
years.  The  Church  of  St.  Etheldreda,  formerly 
chapel  of  the  London  palace  of  the  bishops  of  Ely, 
and  a  fine  specimen  of  thirteenth-century  Gothic,  was 
restored  by  the  institute  to  Catholic  worship  in  1876, 
and  Lockhart  became  its  first  rector.  Other  houses 
under  the  charge  of  the  English  province  are  the  re- 
formatory called  St.  William's  School  at  Market 
Weighton,  Yorkshire,  and  two  Irish  industrial  schools, 


one  at  Upton  near  Cork,  and,  one  towards  which 
Count  Moore  gave  land  and  money,  at  Clonmel.  The 
latest  mission  established  by  the  institute  is  that  of 
Bexhill-on-Sea.  The  Rugby  house,  which  had  from 
1850  the  English  novitiate,  became  in  1886  a  junior- 
ate,  or  preparatory  school  for  novices.  The  present 
novitiate  stands  in  wooded  grounds  at  Wadhurst, 
Sussex,  and  a  house  for  Irish  novices  has  been  opened 
at  Omeath  on  the  shores  of  Carlingford  Lough  in  the 
Archdiocese  of  Armagh. 

In  America  Fr.  Joseph  Costa,  after  working  single- 
handed  in  various  parts  of  Illinois,  gathered  the  first 
community  of  the  institute  about  him  at  Galesburg  in 
that  state.  Here  they  have  St.  Joseph's  Church, 
which  existed  before;  and  in  addition  they  have  built 
Corpus  Christi  Church  (1887)  and  College  (1896)  as 
well  as  St.  Joseph's  Academy,  directed  by  Sisters  of 
Providence,  and  in  1906  St.  Mary's  schools. 

The  provost-generals,  since  Rosmini's  death  have 
been  Pagani,  who  succeeded  in  1855,  Bertetti  (1860), 
Cappa  (1874),  Lanzoni  (1877),  and  Bernardino  Bal- 
sari  in  1901.  Other  names  deserving  mention  are 
Vincenzo  de  Vit,  known  principally  for  two  works  of 
vast  labour  and  research,  the  "Lexicon  totius  Latini- 
tatis",  a  new  and  greatly  enlarged  edition  of  Forcel- 
lini,  and  the  "Onomasticon",  a  dictionary  of  proper 
names;  Giuseppe  Calza,  noteworthy  as  a  philosopher; 
Paolo  Perez,  formerly  professor  at  Padua,  and  master 
of  a  singularly  delicate  Italian  style;  Gastaldi,  after- 
wards Archbishop  of  Turin;  Cardozo-Ayres,  Bishop 
of  Pernambuco,  who  died  at  Rome  during  the  Vatican 
Council,  and  whose  incorrupt  body  has  lately  been 
transported  with  great  veneration  to  his  see;  and  two 
English  priests,  Richard  Richardson,  organizer  of  the 
holy  war  against  intemperance,  and  enroller  in  it  of 
70,000  names;  and  Joseph  Hirst,  member  of  the 
Royal  Archaeological  Institute.  (See  Rosmini  and 
RosMiNiANisM,  Gentili,  Lockhart,  Sisters  op 
Providence.) 

Rosmini,  Maxims  of  Christian  Perfection  (London,  1888); 
Idem,  Letters  (London,  1901);  Lockhart,  Life  of  Rosmini  (Lon- 
don, 1886) ;  Paoani,  Life  of  Rosmini  (London,  1907) ;  Missions 
iti  Ireland  (Dublin,  1855) ;  Vita  di  Rosmini  da  un  sacerdote  dell' 
Instituto  (Turin,  1897).  W.    H.    PoLLARD. 

Ross,  Diocese  of  (Rossensis),  in  Ireland.  This 
see  was  founded  by  St.  Fachtna,  and  the  place- 
name  was  variously  known  as  Roscairbre  and  Rosail- 
ithir  (Ross  of  the  pilgrims).  St.  Fachtna  founded 
the  School  of  Ross  as  well  as  the  see;  and  his  death 
occurred  about  590,  on  14  August,  on  which  day 
his  feast  is  celebrated.  The  succession  of  bishops 
was  uninterrupted  till  after  the  Reformation  period. 
King  John  in  1207  granted  the  cantred  of  Rosailithir 
to  David  Roche,  regardless  of  the  claims  of  the  native 
chief,  the  O'DriscoU,  but  the  episcopal  manors  were 
left  undisturbed.  In  1306,  the  value  of  the  bishop's 
mensa  was  26  marks,  while  the  cathedral  was  valued 
at  3  marks;  and  the  tribal  revenue  of  the  see  was  but 
45  pounds  sterling.  The  number  of  parishes  was  29, 
divided  into  3  divisions;  and  there  was  a  Cistercian 
abbey,  Carrigilihy  {de  fonte  vivo) ;  also  a  Benedictine 
Priory  at  St.  Clary's,  Ross.  The  Franciscans  ac- 
quired a  foundation  at  Sherkin  Island  from  the 
O'Driscolls  in  1460.  Owing  to  various  cau.ses  the  see 
was  not  in  a  flourishing  condition  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  and  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  contributed  to 
the  unfortunate  state  of  affairs  which  prevailed  in  the 
second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Blessed  Thady 
MacCarthy  was  appointed  Bishop  in  1482,  but  was 
forcibly  deprived  of  his  see  in  1488.  However  he 
was  translated  to  the  united  Sees  of  Cork  and  Cloyne 
in  1490;  was  again  a  victim  of  political  intrigues,  and 
died  a  glorious  confessor  at  Ivrea  in  1492,  being 
beatified  in  1895.  In  1517  the  revenue  of  the  dio- 
cese was  but  60  marks.  At  that  date  the  chapter 
was  complete  with  12  canons  and  4  vicars,  and  there 
were  27  parishes,  including  three  around  Berehaven- 


ROSS 


202 


ROSS 


Thomaf^  O'Herlihv  a,ssisto(l  at  the  Council  of  Trent, 
and  ruled  from  1562  till  his  death  on  11  March.  1580. 
It  was  not  until  15S1  that  Queen  Elizabeth  ventured 
to  appoint  a  Protestant  prelate  under  whom,  in 
1.584,  the  Sees  of  Cork  and  Cloyne  were  annexed  to 
Ross  However,  in  the  Catholic  arranpieinent  Ross 
continued  independent,  and  Owen  MacEgan  died 
a  confessor  in  January.  1602-3.  In  1625  the  bishop 
(de  Torres)  w:is  a  Spaniard,  who  ruled  his  diocese 
through  a  vicar-general.  In  1647  the  nave  and  tower 
of  the  cathedral  were  levelled  by  the  Puritans; 
and  the  bishop  (MacEgan)  was  basely  hanged  by 
Lord  Hroghill.  on  10  April.  16.50.  At  length,  in 
1693.  Bi.^hop  Sleyne  of  Cork  was  given  Ross  in 
oommcndam,  and  the  see  continued  under  his  suc- 
cessors till  1748.  when  it  was  united  to  Cloyne, 
under  Bishop  O'Brien.  From  1748  Ross  was  ad- 
ministered by  the  Bishops  of  Cloyne,  but  it  regained 
its   autonomy   under    Bishop   Crotty,    and   in    1857 


- 

J^SH^^I 

r 

in 

M-ilUBEKEE.N 


Bishop  O'Hea  was  consecrated  to  Ross.  During 
the  episcopate  of  Dr.  O'Hea  (the  Catholic  popula- 
tion was  then  65,000)  the  episcopal  see  was  trans- 
ferred to  Skibbereen,  and  the  diocese  was  materially 
improved  under  his  fostering  care.  His  successor, 
Wilham  Fitzgerald  (1877-97)  also  laboured  zeal- 
ously. The  present  bishop,  the  Most  Rev.  Denis 
Kelly,  was  bom  near  Nenagh,  Co.  Tipperary,  in 
1852,  and  was  educated  at  Ennis  and  Paris.  He  was 
appointed  president  of  the  Killaloe  Diocesan  College 
in  1890,  and  was  consecrated  9  May,  1897.  Bishop 
Kelly  has  acted  on  several  Royal  commissions,  and 
has  recently  (1911)  been  named  one  of  the  two 
commis.sioners  for  the  projected  Home  Rule  finance. 
In  1901  the  Catholic  population  was  46,694,  and  there 
were  eleven  parishes — two  of  which  were  mensal — 
served  by  28  priests.  The  latest  returns  give  the 
Dumber  of  churches  as  22,  and  there  are  three  Con- 
vents of  Mercy,  respectively,  at  Skibbereen,  Clona- 
kilty,  and  Ros.scarbery.  There  is  no  chapter,  but 
there  are  two  vicars  forane. 

CaUriAar  of  Papal  ReaUlers  (9  vols.,  London,  189.3-1911); 
Brady,  Rec'irdn  of  Cork,  Cloyne,  and  Rons  (Dublin,  1864);  Idem, 
EpUcMpal  .Succenxion  (Rome,  1876);  Archdall,  MoiiaKliron 
Hibernieum  CDublin,  187.3);  Smith,  Cork  (new  cd.,  Cork,  1893); 
Irith  Calholic  Directory  (1911). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Robs,  School  of,  now  called  Ross-Carbery,  but 
formerly  Ross-Aililhir  from  the  large  number  of  monks 
and  students  who  flocked  to  its  halls  from  all  over 
P^urope,  was  founded  by  St.  Fachtna,  who  is  generally 
rf-Karded  as  the  same  who  founded  the  Diocese  of  Kil- 
fenora,  for  the  fea.st  in  both  cases  is  kept  on  14 
August;  and  in  both  the  saint's  descent  is  traced  to 
the  princely  race  of  Corca  Laighde.  Fachtna  was 
bom  at  a  place  called  Tulachtcano,  and  died  at  the 


early  age  of  forty-six,  in  what  year  we  cannot  say, 
but  probably  late  in  the  sixth  century,  and  is  buried 
in  his  own  cathedral  church  at  Ross.  Like  many 
other  great  Irish  saints,  he  received  his  first  lessons 
in  piety  from  St.  Ita  of  Killeedy,  the  Brigid  of  Mun- 
ster,  from  whose  care  he  passed,  according  to  some 
writers,  to  St.  Finnbar's  seminary  at  Loch  Eirce, 
near  Cork.  He  founded  the  monastery  Molana,  on 
the  little  island  of  Dririnis  in  the  Blackwater,  not 
far  from  the  town  of  Youghal.  Returning  to  his 
native  territory,  he  set  about  a  more  important 
foundation  on  a  rocky  promontory  situated  in  the 
midst  of  woods  and  green  fields  between  two 
lovely  bays.  This  was  the  monastic  School  of  Ro.ss, 
called  in  the  "Life  of  St.  Mochoemoc",  magnum 
studium  scholarium,  for  it  quickly  became  famous 
for  its  study  of  Sacred  Scripture,  and  the  attention 
given  to  all  the  branches  of  a  liberal  education. 
One  of  the  assistant  teachers  was  St.  Brendan  the 
Navigator,  whom  Fachtna  had  known  and  loved  as  a 
companion  when  under  the  care  of  St.  Ita.  An  old 
flocunient  quoted  by  U.sher  represents  Brendan  as 
being  at  Ross  in  540.  While  engaged  in  teaching 
here,  St.  Fachtna  was  stricken  with  total  blindness. 
On  appealing  to  God  in  his  distress,  he  was  directed 
by  an  angel  to  make  apjilication  to  Nessa,  the  sister 
of  St.  Ita,  who  was  about  to  b(>come  the  mother  of 
St.  Mochoemoc.  Fachtna  did  as  he  was  directed 
and  his  sight  was  miraculously  restored.  Fachtna, 
it  is  generally  thought  by  the  best  authorities,  re- 
ceived episcopal  orders,  and  became  the  first  Bishop 
of  Ross.  He  is  sometimes  called  Facundus,  in  al- 
lusion to  his  eloquence,  to  which,  as  well  as  to  his 
sanctity,  unmistakable  testimony  is  borne  by  St. 
Cuimin  of  Connor.  Cuimin  describes  him  as  "the 
generous  and  steadfast,  who  loved  to  address  as- 
sembled crowds  and  never  spoke  aught  that  was  base 
and  displeasing  to  God". 

His  immediate  successor  in  the  School  of  Ross  was 
St.  Conall.  and  we  read  al.so  of  a  St.  Finchad.  a  former 
schoolmate  at  Loch  Eirce.  Both  were  probably  tribes- 
men of  his  own,  for  we  are  told  that  he  was  succeeded 
by  twenty-seven  bisho])s  of  his  own  tribe,  whose  names 
unfortunately  have  not  been  preserved.  Under  sev- 
eral ninth-century  dates  we  find  in  the  Four  Masters 
reference  to  the  abbots  of  the  School  of  Ross;  and 
under  date  840  we  are  told  that  the  institution  was 
ravaged  by  the  Danes.  Once  only  in  the  two  centuries 
that  followed  is  there  mention  of  a  bishop,  Neachtan 
MacNeachtain  whose  death  is  set  down  under  date 
1085.  In  all  other  references  to  Ross  the  word  nir- 
chinnect  is  used,  as  if  showing  that  tlie  govormnent  of 
the  school  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  hiyiiieii,  who 
nodoubt  employed  ecclesiastics  to  iM-rfonn  thcsjjirilual 
duties  and  functions.  Nevertheless  the  School  must 
have  continued  to  flourish,  for  we  read  under  date 
866 — according  to  the  "Chronicon  Scotorum",  868 — 
of  the  death  of  Feargus  who  is  described  as  a  cele- 
brated scribe  and  anchorite  of  Ross-Ailithir.  But 
more  remarkable  evidence  still  of  the  extent  and 
variety  of  the  literary  work  done  at  Ross  is  furnished 
by  the  geographical  poem  in  the  Iri.sh  language  still 
extant,  compo.sed  by  MacCosse  or  Ferlegind,  a  lecturer 
at  this  school,  and  used  no  doubt  as  a  text-book  in  the 
different  clas.se8.  When  we  take  into  ac(!ount  the 
period  at  which  MacCosse  lived,  his  geographical 
treati.se  may  fairly  be  thought  one  of  the  most  accu- 
rate and  interesting  of  its  kind  that  has  ever  yet  been 
written.  Of  the  later  history  of  the  School  we  have 
but  few  details,  but  mention  of  the  native  spoiler  is 
not  missing  in  them.  In  1127,  according  to  the 
"Chronicon  Scotorum",  one  Toirdhealbach  O  Conor 
sailed  to  Ross-Ailithir,  and  laid  waste  the  land  of 
Desmond.  He  was  followed  by  the  Anglo-Normans 
under  P'itzStephen,  who  towanls  the  do.se  of  the;  cen- 
tury completed  the  devastation.  All  record  of  this 
ancient  seat  of  learning  is  then  lost. 


ROSSANO 


203 


ROSSI 


COLGAN,  Acta  SS.;  O'Hanlon,  Lives  of  the  Irish  Saints,  14 
August;  Olden  in  Proceedings  of  Royal  Irish  Academy  (Jan., 
1884);  Hbaly,  Irelarid's  Ancient  Schools  and  Scholars  (5th  ed., 
Dublin,  1902). 

John  Healy. 

Rossano,  Archdiocese  of  (Rossanensis),  in 
Calabria,  province  of  Cosenza,  Southern  Italy.  The 
city  i><  situntcil  nr\  ;in  pminfiice  not  f;ir  from  tho  Gulf 


Illustration  to  St.   Mark'.s  Gospel 

From  the  Rossano  Codex, 

the  oldest  known  pictorial  copy  of  a  Gospel 

of  Taranto.  It  was  the  ancient  Ro.scianum,  a  Roman 
colony,  and  was  ravaged  by  Totile.  The  Saracens 
failed  to  conquer  it.  In  982  Otto  II  captured  it  tem- 
porarily from  the  Byzantines,  who  had  made  it  the 
capital  of  their  po.ssessions  in  Southern  Italy.  It  pre- 
served its  Greek  character  long  after  its  conquest  by 
the  Normans.  In  the  cathedral  there  is  an  ancient 
image  of  the  "Madonna  acheropita"  (i.  e.  the  "  Ma- 
donna not  made  by  hands").  Rossano  was  the  birth- 
place of  John  Vil,  the  antipope  John  VII  (Phil- 
agathus),  St.  \ilus, — founder  of  the  Abbey  of  Grotta- 
ferrata,  and  St.  Bartholomew,  another  abbot  of  that 
monaster}^  The  first  known  bishop  of  this  see  is 
Valerianus,  Bishop  of  the  "Ecclesia  Rosana"  in  the 
Roman  Council  of  680.  Cappelletti,  however,  names 
a  certain  Saturninus  as  first  bishop.  In  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, or  perhaps  earlier,  the  Greek  Rite  was  intro- 
duced at  Rossano,  and  continued  until  the  sixteenth 
century,  although  two  attempts  were  made  to  intro- 
duce the  Latin  Rite — once  in  1092,  and  again  by 
Bishop  Matteo  de'  Saraceni  in  1460.  Priests  of  the 
Latin  Rite,  however,  were  often  appointed  bishops. 
The  Greek  Rite  was  maintained  especially  by  the 
seven  Basilian  monasteries  in  the  diocese,  the  most 
famous  of  which  was  S.  Maria  in  Patiro.  In  1571  the 
Greek  Rite  was  abandoned  in  the  cathedral,  and  half  a 
century  afterwards  throughout  the  city.  It  is  still 
observed  in  a  few  villages  inhabited  by  Albanians. 
Noteworthy  bishops  were:  Vincenzo  Pimpinella 
(1525),  nuncio  in  Germany;  Giovanni  Battista  Cas- 
tagna  (1553),  afterwards  Urban  VII;  Lucio  Sanse- 
verino,  founder  of  the  seminary;  Pier  Antonio 
Spinelli  (1628)  and  Jacopo  Carafa  (1646),  both  of 


whom  restored  and  embellished  the  cathedral.  The 
archdiocese  is  without  suffragans.  It  includes  the 
ancient  Diocese  of  Turio  (Thurii),  a  city  which  arose 
after  the  destruction  of  Sybaris;  five  of  its  bishops  are 
known,  the  first  being  Giovanni  (501)  and  the  last 
Guglielmo  (1170).  Rossano  has  39  parishes,  70,000 
Catholics,  140  secular  priests,  4  houses  of  nuns,  and 
3  schools  for  girls.  For  the  famous  "puri)le  Codex 
Rossanensis",  discovered  in  1879  in  the  cathedral 
sac-risty,  see  Batiffol  (below).  This  Greek  parch- 
ment manuscript  of  St.  Matthew  (to  xvi,  14)  and 
St.  Mark  is  the  oldest  pictorial  Gospel  known,  and 
is  accorded  by  scholars  various  dates  from  the  end 
i)f  the  fifth  to  the  eighth  or  ninth  century;  it  is  jn-ob- 
alil\-  of  Alexandrine  origin  (ed.  Gebhardt  and  Harnack, 
1880;   A.  Munoz,  Rome,  1907). 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  XXI;  De  Rosis,  Cenno  storico 
delta  cittd  di  Rossano  (Naples,  1839) ;  Rende,  Cronistoria  del 
Munastero  di  S.  Maria  in  Patiro  (Naples,  1747);  Batiffol, 
L'abbaye  de  Rossano  (Paris,  1891);  Gay,  Les  diocises  de  Calabre 
a  I'epoque  byzantine  (M&con,  1900).  For  the  Codex  Rossanen- 
sis, as  above,  see  Kraus.  Gesch.  christl.  Kunst  (Freiburg, 
1S96-7);  KoNDAKOFF,  Hist,  de  I'art  byzantin,  I  (Pads,  1886), 
114  sqq. 

U.  Benigni. 

Rosselli,  CosiMO  (Lorenzo  di  Filippo),  Itahan 
fres(o  i)ainter,  b.  at  Florence,  1439;  d.  there  in  1.507. 
The  master-works  of  this  skilful  artist  are  the  four 
panels  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  which  he  painted  for 
Sixtus  IV  as  a  part  of  the  decoration  in  that  building. 
Va.sari  tells  us  that  they  ijleased  the  pope  more  than 
the  similar  jianels  l)y  Ghirlandajo,  Signorelli,  Perug- 
ino,  and  Botticelli  by  rea.son  of  the  glory  of  blue  and 
gold  which  distinguished  them,  but  is  not  existent  now. 
The  i)anels  are  skilfully  comi)osed,  marked  by  clever 
(Iraughtstnansliij),  and  harmonious  in  their  colour 
scheme,  but  vastly  inferior  to  the  other  panels 
in  the  same  chapel.  One  is,  therefore,  more  easily  able 
to  understand  Va- 
sari's  comment 
upon  them,  be- 
cause there  must 
have  been  some 
reason  to  account 
for  Rosselli  being 
given  so  many 
panels.  His  re])u- 
tation  rests  more 
.securely  on  his 
close  friendship 
with  Benozzo 
Gozzoli  and  on  the 
fact  that  amongst 
his  pupils  were  Fra 
liartolommeo  and 
Piero  di  Cosimo. 
Amongst  his  other 
works  are  three 
frescoes  at  Berlin, 
a  very  important 
one  from  Fiesole 
in  the  National 
Gallery,  a  fine  ex- 


CosiMO   Rosselli 

Portrait  of  himself  introduced  into 

his  Preaching  of  Christ, 

Sistine  Chapel 


ample  in  Paris,  and  several  at  Florence,  including  one 
in  the  Academy,  and  others  in  various  churches. 

Bktan,  Diet,  of  Painters  and  Enqrarers,  V  (London,  1904),  s.  v. 

George  Charle.s  Williamson. 

Rossi,  Bernardo  de  (de  Rubeis,  Giovanni  Fran- 
cesco Bernardo  Maria),  theologian  and  historian; 
b.  at  Cividale  del  FriuH,  8  Jan.,  1687;  d.  at  Venice,  2 
Feb.,  1775.  He  made  his  religious  profession  with 
the  Dominicans  at  Conegliano,  1704,  after  which 
he  studied  at  Florence  and  Venice.  He  taught  at 
Venice  for  fifteen  years,  and  was  twice  general  vicar 
of  his  province.  In  1722  he  was  theologian  to  a 
Venetian  embas.sy  to  Louis  XV  and  remained  in  Paris 
five  months.    He  resigned  his  chair  in  1730  and  de- 


ROSSI 


204 


ROSSINI 


voted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  literary  activity. 
His  sanctity  and  learning  won  for  him  a  wide  reputa- 
tion, and  his  correspondence  with  the  great  men  of 
his  time  fills  nine  volumes.  His  works,  written  in 
elegant  Latin,  show  a  vast  erudition  and  a  mind  at 
once  critical  and  profound.  Amongst  his  dogmatic 
'RTitings  must  be  mentioned  the  masterly  work  "De 
Peccato  Originah"  (Venice,  1757).  He  is  famous 
especially  for  his  new  edition  of  the  works  of  St. 
Thomas  with  a  commentary  (Venice,  1745-60,  24 
vols.).  He  was  also  the  author  of  thirty-two  excellent 
dissertations  on  the  life  and  writings  of  the  Angelic 
Doctor,  which  have  been  placed  in  the  first  volume  of 
the  Leonine  Edition  of  St.  Thomas's  works.  De 
Rossi  also  ranks  high  as  a  writer  on  historical,  pa- 
tristic, and  liturgical  subjects.  Besides  his  numerous 
works  which  are  published,  he  left  thirty  volumes  in 


manuscript. 

HuRTER,  Nomendator,  s.  v. 


J.  A.  McHuGH. 


Rossi,  Bernardo  de.  See  Editions  of  the 
Bible. 

Rossi,  Pellegrino,  publicist,  diplomat,  economist, 
and  statesman,  b.  at  Carrara,  Italy,  13  July,  1787; 
assassinated  at  Rome,  15  November,  1848.  He 
studied  at  the  Universities  of  Pavia  and  Bologna,  in 
which  latter  city  he  practised  law  with  great  success. 
In  1874  he  obtained  the  chair  of  criminal  law  and 
civil  procedure.  Rossi  being  an  advocate  of  Italian 
imity  and  independence,  and  a  member  of  the  Car- 
bonari, Joachim  Murat,  King  of  Naples,  wh9  then 
aspired  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  entire  peninsula, 
appointed  him  commissioner  general  of  the  provinces 
lying  between  the  Po  and  the  Tronto;  but  on  Murat's 
defeat  at  Tolentino,  Rossi  was  forced  to  fly  to  France, 
whence,  after  Waterloo,  he  betook  himself  to  Geneva. 
At  Geneva  he  began  a  private  course  of  Roman  law 
which  gained  him  a  chair  in  the  university  of  that 
city,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  he  was  a  Catholic. 
Having  married  a  Protestant  Genevese  lady,  he  was 
elected  to  the  Cantonal  Council  of  Geneva,  where  he 
played  a  prominent  role  in  the  compilation  of  the 
laws  on  mortgages,  civil  marriage,  and  court  proce- 
dure. In  1832  he  presented  to  the  Swiss  Federal  Diet 
a  plan  of  a  constitution  (called  the  Palto  Rossi)  based 
on  that  of  1803,  which  was  approved  by  the  Diet, 
but  rejected  by  the  communes.  Notwithstanding 
his  political  activity  he  continued  his  deep  study  of 
law.  Between  1819  and  1821,  with  the  collaboration 
of  Sismondi  and  Bello,  he  published  the  "Annales  de 
legi.slation  et  d'6conomie  politique",  which  in  a  short 
time  gained  him  a  world-wide  reputation.  With 
Guizot  he  established  the  doctrinaire  school,  the 
juridical  principles  of  which  did  not  differ  fundament- 
ally from  those  of  the  eighteenth  century.  In  1829 
he  published  his  "Trait6  de  droit  p6nal",  an  author- 
itative work  of  the  time. 

The  hostility  caused  by  his  projected  constitution 
led  him,  in  1833,  to  seek  the  chair  of  political  economy 
in  the  College  de  France,  and  although  the  Acad6mie 
des  Sciences  Morales  had  presented  another  candi- 
date, Ro.ssi  was  succrjssful.  In  the  beginning  he  met 
with  HOirw  oi)i)Osition,  which,  however,  he  overcame, 
chiefly  through  the  influence  of  (iuizot,  minister  of 
Ivouis  Philippe,  wlio  knew  that  Rossi  shanid  his  politi- 
cal and  juridical  views.  In  1834  he  taught  constitu- 
tional law  in  the  university;  nor  did  he  fail  to  gain 
further  honours  and  distmctions,  being  elected  a 
member  of  the  Acarl6mie  des  Sciencf«  Morales  (1836) 
and  made  a  peer  of  France  (1839),  and  an  officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honour  (1841).  In  1845  he  withdrew 
from  the  profesHorial  chair  to  embrarie  a  diplomatic 
career.  He  was  wmt  to  Rome  to  negotiat<;  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Jesuits,  at  first  only  as  an  envoy 
extra^^rdinary,  later  as  an  ainba-ssador,  with  the  title 
of  Count.     On  the  fall  of  Ixjuis  Philippe  ho  withdrew 


into  private  life,  watching  the  development  of  the 
Revolution  in  the  first  years  of  the  pontificate  of  Pius 
IX.  He  believed  that  the  age  demanded  a  regime  of 
liberty,  but  that  it  should  be  granted  gradually.  The 
pope,  who  knew  his  opinions  on  this  subject,  appointed 
him  minister  of  justice  in  the  Fabbri  ministry,  on  the 
fall  of  which  Rossi  was  invited  to  draw  up  a  pro- 
gramme. His  intention  was  to  re-establish  the  papal 
authority,  together  with  a  form  of  constitutional 
government,  but  above  all  to  restore  public  order. 
Such  a  programme  was  as  displeasing  to  the  Con- 
servative Party,  who  distrusted  the  prevailing  views, 
as  to  the  advanced  Republicans,  who  hated  Rossi  as 
the  representative  of  the  constitutional  monarchy. 
Like  Pius  IX,  he  favoured  the  Italian  league,  but 
wished  to  preserve  the  independence  of  each  state. 
This  programme,  and  the  energy  which  Rossi  ex- 
hibited against  the  disturbers  of  public  order,  caused 
him  to  be  sentenced  to  death  by  the  secret  societies. 
On  15  November,  1848,  Rossi  was  on  his  way  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly  (in  the  Palazzo  della  Cancel- 
leria)  to  explain  his  programme;  hardly  had  he  seated 
himself  in  his  carriage,  when  an  assassin  stabbed  him 
in  the  neck  with  a  dagger.  He  expired  almost  im- 
mediately. Pius  IX,  on  hearing  the  tidings,  exclaimed : 
"Count  Ro.ssi  has  died  a  martjT  of  duty."  The 
assassination  was  for  the  secret  societies  the  signal  to 
spread  the  flames  of  the  revolution  which  drove  Pius 
IX  into  exile  and  established  the  Roman  Republic. 

The  most  important  of  Rossi's  writings  is  his 
"Cours  d'economie  politique",  a  classic  work,  based 
on  the  theories  of  Smith,  Say,  Malthus,  and  Ricardo. 
Like  these  authors,  he  favoured  freedom  of  trade, 
labour,  and  manufacture;  and  in  general,  not  clearly 
foreseeing  the  diflSculties  of  economic  life,  he  wished 
to  solve  them  by  the  free  play  of  individual  force  and 
intelligence  rather  than  by  legislation.  But  he  recog- 
nized the  great  economic  utility  of  associations.  A 
characteristic  note  of  his  scientific  speculations  is  his 
fondness  for  considering  social  phenomena  from  a 
mathematical  point  of  view,  so  that  he  was  called  the 
geometrician  of  economy.  This  made  him  attach 
great  importance  to  statistics.  In  politics  he  is  the 
father  of  the  principle  of  non-intervention,  and  pub- 
lished an  essay  on  the  subject.  A  most  distinguished 
representative  of  the  middle-class  Liberal  doctrinaires, 
of  the  type  of  the  "men  of  1830",  Pellegrino  Rossi 
died  by  the  assassin's  poignard  as  the  inevitable  result 
of  a  policy  too  advanced  for  the  supporters  of  the 
Holy  Alliance,  and  too  backward  for  the  generation 
that  was  being  prepared  by  Cavour. 

Garnier,  Notice  stir  la  vie  et  leu  travaux  de  M.  Rossi  (Paris, 
1849);  Reybau,  Economistes  modernes  (Paris,  1862);  Processi 
dell'  assasainio  del  conte  P.  Rossi  (Rome,  18.54)  in  Hist.  pol.  Blat- 
ter, XXVI,  109  sqq.;  Civilld  Catt.,  2nd  series,  VIII;  D'Ideville, 
Le  comte  Pellegrino  Rossi  (Paris,  1887). 

U.  Benigni. 

Rossini,  Gioacchino  Antonio,  b.  29  Feb.,  1792,  at 
Pesaro  in  the  Romagna;  d.  13  Nov.,  1868,  at  Passy, 
near  Paris.  He  w;us  twice  married:  in  1822  to  Isabella 
Colbrand;  in  1847  to  Olympe  PelLssier,  who  survived 
him,  but  he  had  no  children.  Rossini  was  not  only 
the  chief  operatic  comjjoser  of  his  time,  but  also  a 
great  innovator.  Lesueur,  in  1824,  the  greatest  com- 
l)Oser  of  the  French  s(;}iool,  said  that  "his  ardent 
genius  had  opened  a  new  road  and  marked  a  new  (!i)och 
in  musical  art".  In  the;  opera  scria  for  long  recit.'itives 
he  substituted  mort;  singing;  in  the  oixra  hnffa  he 
inaugurat(!d  a  new  comedy  style.  He  introdueed 
many  new  instruments  into  the  Italian  orchestras.  To 
him  belongs  the  irreghiera  for  a  whole  body  of  voices, 
as  first  introduced  in  "Mo.se".  He  had  a  good  bari- 
tone voice,  and  was  an  excellent  pianist.  In  1804  he 
had  lessons  in  singing  and  pianoforte  playing  at 
Bologna.  Two  y(!ars  later  he  anted  as  musical  director 
to  a  travelling  (!om])any,  but  soon  returned  to  Bologna 
to  study  composition  at  the  Lyceum.    Uia  first  sue- 


ROSTOCK 


205 


ROTA 


GioACCHiNO  Antonio  Rossi 


cesses  were  at  Venice  and  Milan.  In  1813  he  wrote 
"Tancredi",  the  first  of  his  operas  which,  with 
"L'ltaUana  in  Algeri",  became  celebrated  throughout 
Europe.  In  1816  and  1817  he  composed  for  the 
Teatro  Valle  at  Rome  his  happiest,  if  not  his  greatest, 
work,  "The  Bar- 
ber of  Seville" 
and  "Ceneren- 
tola".  Meanwhile 
he  had  begun  his 
career  at  the  San 
Carlo  in  Naples, 
and  wrote  for  this 
important  opera- 
house  in  1818 
"Mose",  in  1819 
"La  Donna  del 
Lago".  In  1823 
came  "Semira- 
mide",  ^Titten  for 
Venice,  his  last 
work  in  Italy;  it 
was  his  thirty- 
fourth  opera.  In 
1824  he  spent  the 
season  in  London, 
and  at  the  first 
concert  he  himself 
sang  the  solo.  The 
same  year  he  undertook  in  Paris  the  direction,  first  of 
the  Italian  Opera,  and  then  of  the  Academic.  He  wrote 
for  Paris  in  1829  "William  Tell",  his  last  and  finest 
opera.  Then  followed  the  comparatively  inactive  period 
of  his  fife,  in  which  he  ceased  to  write  for  the  stage,  but 
still  produced  in  1832  his  well  known  "Stabat",  in 
1847  his  "Stanzas"  to  Pius  IX,  in  18G4  a  "Messe 
Solennelle".  In  18.36  he  went  to  live  with  his  father 
at  Bologna;  but  from  1855  till  his  death  he  was  again 
in  France. 

Edwards,  The  Life  of  Rossini  (London,  1869);  Silvestbi, 
Delia  Vita  e  delle  opere  di  G.  Rossini  (Milan,  1874) ;  Azevedo, 
Rossini,  sa  vie  et  ses  ceuvres  (Paris,  1864);  Oettinger,  Joachim 
Rossini  (Leipzig,  1852). 

A.  Walter. 

Rostock,  Sebastian  von,  Bishop  of  Breslau, 
b.  at  Grottkau,  Silesia,  24  Aug.,  1607;  d.  at  Breslau, 
9  June,  1671.  He  studied  classics  at  Neisse  and 
from  1627  to  1633,  philosophy  and  theology  at 
Olmiitz.  After  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood  in 
1633  he  was  assii;nefl  to  pastoral  duty  at  Neisse, 
and  was  distinffuished  for  his  courage  and  oratorical 
talent.  When  tlie  Swedes  captured  the  city  in  1642, 
Rostock  was  taken  prisoner  and  deported  to  Stettin. 
After  his  release  he  was  ennobled  by  the  emperor, 
but  remained  pastor  of  Neisse  until  his  transfer  in 
1649  to  the  cathedral  of  Breslau.  Henceforth  he 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  administration  of  the 
diocese,  and  in  1653  was  appointed  vicar-general. 
It  was  largely  through  his  efforts  that  the  right  of 
reformation  (Jus  rtformandi),  granted  the  emperor 
by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  was  effectively  exercised 
in  the  territory  of  Breslau,  so  that  656  Cathohc 
churches  which  had  been  seized  by  the  Protestants 
were  restored  to  their  former  owners.  Considerable 
difficulty  was  experienced  in  providing  suitable 
priests  for  these  numerous  churches,  and  in  infusing 
new  religious  life  into  an  almo.st  completely-ruined 
diocese.  But  Rostock  consecrated  his  life  to  the  task, 
in  spite  of  the  additional  difficulty  from  the  almost 
uninterrupted  absence  from  their  diocese  of  the  three 
bishops  under  whom  he  served.  In  1664  he  was  him- 
self elected  bishop,  and  shortly  after  the  civil  ad- 
ministration of  the  district  was  also  placed  in  his 
hands.  He  continued  with  greater  independence 
the  work  of  Catholic  reorganization,  endeavoured  to 
suppress  the  power  of  the  Protestants  over  affairs  of 
the   Cathohc   Church,   and   to   neutralize   the  anti- 


Catholic  influence  of  Protestant  teachers.  He  suc- 
cumbed to  an  attack  of  apople.xy,  superinduced  by  an 
imperial  decree  which  suspended  a  decision  that  had 
been  previously  granted  and  which  was  favourable 
to  Catholic  interests. 

JuNGNiTZ,  Sebastian  von  Rostock  (Breslau,  1891). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Rostock,  Universitt  of,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
founded  in  the  j^ear  1419  through  the  united  efforts 
of  Dukes  John  IV  and  Albert  V,  and  on  13  February 
of  the  same  year  granted  a  Bull  of  foundation  by 
Pope  Martin  V.  At  first  the  university  included  only 
the  three  secular  faculties;  in  1432  a  theological  faculty 
was  added  with  the  approval  of  Eugenius  IV.  The 
Bishop  of  Schwerin  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the 
university;  his  present  successors  are  the  Grand  Dukes 
of  Mecklenburg.  The  majority  of  the  professors  came 
from  Erfurt,  among  them  the  first  rector,  PetrusSten- 
beke.  The  city  of  Rostock  endowed  the  university 
most  generously  with  lands,  as  did  the  Bishop  of 
Schwerin,  who  presented  his  house  at  Rostock  as  a  resi- 
dence. At  a  later  date  it  received  contributions  from 
Hamburg  and  Llibeck.  In  1427  it  obtained  from 
Martin  V  a  unique  privilege,  allowing  the  rector  in  con- 
junction with  several  doctors  to  bestow  a  degree  if  the 
chancellor  refused  without  a  valid  reason  to  grant  it. 
WTien  Rostock  was  placed  under  the  bann  of  the 
empire  and  the  Church  on  account  of  outbreaks 
among  the  citizens,  the  university  moved  to  Greifs- 
wald  (Easter,  1437).  In  1443  it  returned  to  Rostock, 
but  when  the  dukes  wi.shed  to  raise  one  of  the  churches 
of  the  city  to  a  cathedral-church  in  order  to  give  the 
professors  the  canonries  as  benefices,  the  town  op- 
posed the  procedure  and  there  developed  what  is 
known  as  the  cathedral  feud.  The  university  mi- 
grated temporarily  in  the  summer  of  1487  to  Wismar 
and  then  to  Liibeck.  It  fell  into  complete  decay 
after  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation  in  (1523)  when 
the  university  revenues  were  lost  and  matriculations 
ceased.  When  an  effort  was  made  later  to  reorganize 
the  university  a  dispute  arose  between  the  city  of 
Rostock  and  the  dukes  of  Mecklenburg  as  to  the  ad- 
ministration and  supervision  of  the  school.  In  1563 
an  agreement  called  the  "Formula  concordise", 
was  made  between  the  contending  parties,  which 
granted  nearly  equal  rights  to  both.  The  university 
now  enjoyed  an  era  of  prosperity.  In  1758  Duke 
Frederick  desired  the  appointment  of  a  rigidly  or- 
thodox professor,  but  the  theological  faculty  opposed 
him;  whereupon  the  duke  obtained  an  imperial 
patent  for  the  founding  of  a  university  at  Biitzow 
which  was  opened  in  1760.  The  two  universities 
proving  too  expen.sive  for  the  country,  the  school 
at  Biitzow  was  closed  and  united  with  Rostock  in 
1789.  In  1829  the  town  council  renounced  its  right 
of  co-patronage.  During  the  second  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  University  began  steadily  to  de- 
velop and  gain,  so  that  in  1911  it  had  about  800 
students. 

Krabbe,  Die  UniversitOt  Rostock  im  XV.  und  XVI.  Jahrhun- 
dert  (Rostock,  1854);  Hofmeister,  Die  Matrikel  der  Vniversitat 
Rostock  (1899). 

Karl  Hoeber. 

Rosweyde,  Heribert.    See  Bollandists,  The. 

Roswitha.     See  Hroswitha. 

Rota,  Sacra  Romana. — In  the  Constitution 
"Sapienti  Consilio"  (29  June,  1908),  II,  2,  Pius  X 
re-established  the  Sacra  Romana  Rota,  one  of  the 
three  tribunals  instituted  by  that  Constitution.  To 
it  are  assigned  all  contentious  cases  that  must  come 
before  the  Holy  See  and  require  a  judicial  investiga- 
tion with  proof,  except  the  so-called  major  cases. 
The  Rota  therefore  tries  in  the  first  instance  the  cases, 
including  criminal  cases,  which  the  pope,  either 
motu  propria  or  at  the  request  of  the  contesting  par- 


ROTH 


206 


ROTH 


ties,  calls  up  for  his  own  judgment  and  commits  to  the 
Rota;  it  decides  these  cases  even  in  the  second  and 
third  instance.  Moreover,  it  is  the  court  of  appeal  for 
cases  alreadv  tried  judicially  in  the  episcopal  tri- 
bunals of  first  instance.  Finally,  it  decides  in  the 
last  instance  cases  tried  by  any  inferior  tribunal  of 
second  or  further  instance,  as  the  cause  has  not  then 
become  res  judicata.  In  addition  to  major  cases,  epis- 
copal decisions  which  are  given  without  judicial  pro- 
cedure are  excluded  from  its  authority,  being  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  other  congregations.  The  Rota 
is  composed  of  the  auditors,  ranking  as  prelates,  ap- 
pointed by  the  pope;  they  must  be  priests  who  have 
obtained  a  doctorate  in  theology  and  canon  law. 
Wlien  thev  reach  the  age  of  seventy  their  office  ceases 
ipso  facto]  but  they  retain  the  title  of  "emeritus 
auditor".  These  form  a  college  of  which  the  oldest 
among  them  is  dean.  Each  auditor  chooses  an  as- 
sistant, who  must  be  a  doctor  of  canon  law,  and  whose 
selection  must  be  approved  by  the  pope.  Other 
officers  are  a  promotor  of  justice,  corresponding  to 
the  pubblico  ?7nnistcro  in  modern  Italian  civil  courts, 
and,  for  cases  relating  to  matrimony,  religious  pro- 
fession, and  sacred  ordination,  a  defender  of  the 
bond  (def elisor  tinculi),  who  may  have  a  substitute. 
These  officers  are  appointed  by  the  pope  on  the  rec- 
ommendation of  the  College  of  Auditors.  There  are 
also  notaries  (at  present  three  in  number)  selected 
by  the  College  of  Auditors  after  a  concursus,  to  draw 
up  acts  etc.  The  auditors  give  their  decision  either 
through  three  of  their  number  or  in  plena;  but  some- 
times the  pope  may  in  a  particular  case  ordain  other- 
wise. A  case  may  also  be  submitted  to  the  Rota  not 
for  a  decision  but  for  an  opinion.  The  auditor  who 
prepares  the  report  is  called  the  ponente  or  relator. 
An  appeal  may  be  made  from  one  judicial  commission 
to  another.  The  contestants  may  plead  personally 
or,  as  more  ordinarily  happens,  may  employ  a  pro- 
curator or  advocate,  whose  selection  must  be  con- 
firmed. The  complaint  and  the  defence  must  be  in 
writing  or  printed,  and  copies  distributed  among  the 
judges,  the  assistants,  the  promotor,  and  others  con- 
cerned. The  written  defence  may  be  elucidated  orally 
in  presence  of  the  judges.  The  auditors  decide  by  a 
majority  of  votes.  The  .sentence  must  contain  not  only 
the  conclusion  arrived  at,  but  the  reasons  therefor. 

History. — The  many  and  various  ecclesiastical 
cases  which  were  referred  to  the  Holy  See  from  every 
quarter  of  the  Christian  world  were,  till  near  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century,  discussed  and  decided  by  the 
pope,  as  a  rule,  in  the  Consistory,  which  from  the 
presence  of  many  bLshops  became  like  a  council. 
From  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  however,  owing 
to  the  increasing  number  of  these  cases  and  to  the 
more  detailed  and  complicated  procedure,  the  popes  ap- 
pfjintcd  for  each  case  either  a  cardinal  or  one  of  their 
chaplains,  and  sometimes  a  bishop,  to  arrange  for  the 
suit,  hear  the  evidence  of  the  litigants  (hence  the 
term  awlitor),  and  then  make  a  report  to  the  pope, 
who  would  give  his  decision  personally  or  in  a  Con- 
sistory. Sometimes,  too,  the  auditor  was  empowered 
to  decide,  but  his  judgment  had  to  be  confirmed  by 
the  p<jpe.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury we  find  the  auditors  as  a  class  distinct  from  the 
chaplains,  with  the  title  of  "Sacri  palatii  causarum 
gerierales  auditores".  This  innovation  was  made 
b}'  Innocent  IV,  who  entrusted  to  th(!m  ca-ses  re- 
lating to  benefices  (which  had  increa-scnl  owing  to 
the  many  expectative  r(is<;rvations  granted  by  this 
]H)\H'.)  and  other  minor  oncis,  while  he  employed  the 
cardinals  in  the  other  cases.  Gra/lually  the  various 
cases  were  almost  always  entrusted  to  them  for  de- 
cision, subject  to  the  approval  of  thewjvereign{)ontiff. 

Tlie  audit^jrs  Winsf^quently  did  not  as  yet  constitute 
a  tribunal  with  definitive  jurisdiction,  but  only  a  vaA- 
lege  from  which  the  fxjpc  sf;Iected  at  phiasunr  judges 
for  the  cases  he  cho.sc  to  entrust  tu  them.     Nicholas 


III  and  Martin  IV  temporarily  appointed  auditors 
general  for  civil  suits  in  the  papal  dominions;  Nicholas 

IV  (1288)  appointed  them  permanenth'^  for  the  vari- 
ous provinces  of  the  pontifical  states.  Clement  V 
(1307)  instituted  an  auditor  general  with  two  others 
in  the  second  instance  for  ecclesiastical  beneficiary 
suits,  and  in  1309  an  auditor  general  for  contentious 
ecclesiastical  cases,  the  litigant  having  the  choice  of 
going  before  the  pope  himself  or  the  auditor  general. 

Thus  arose  an  autonomous  tribunal,  but  one  in  con- 
currence with  the  pope.  From  the  year  1323  we  have 
the  first  document  of  a  transaction  adjudicated  col- 
legialiter,  and  in  a  definitive  way  by  that  tribunal; 
John  XXII,  by  the  Bull  "Ratio  Juris"  (1331),  laid 
down  certain  rules  for  it ;  but  its  sphere  of  competency 
was  not  marked  out,  so  through  all  the  fourteenth 
century  the  causes  were  referred  in  a  special  way  to 
the  pope.  Sixtus  IV  fixed  the  number  of  auditors  at 
twelve.  Other  popes,  like  Martin  V  ("Romani  pon- 
tificis",  1422;  "Statuta  et  ordinationes",  1414),  In- 
nocent VIII  ("Finem  litibus",  1487),  Pius  IV  ("In 
throno  justitiaj",  1561),  Paul  V  ("Universi  agri", 
1611),  determined  their  competency  more  definitely. 
Civil  appeals  in  the  papal  dominions  were  also  en- 
trusted to  the  tribunals  of  the  auditors  of  the  sacred 
palace,  probably  after  the  end  of  the  Western  Schism; 
but  criminal  cases  were  always  excluded.  With  the 
institution  of  the  Roman  congregations  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Rota  in  ecclesiastical  matters  was  greatly 
curtailed,  and  it  became,  generally  speaking,  a  civil 
tribunal,  enjoying  a  world-wide  reputation. 

Character. — The  civil  character  of  the  Rota  was 
confirmed  by  the  legislation  of  Gregory  XVI,  and 
mixed  suits  and  purely  ecclesiastical  suits  concerning 
economical  matters,  if  the  subject  matter  did  not 
amount  to  over  500  scudi,  were  assigned  to  it.  Leo 
XIII  entrusted  to  the  auditors  part  of  the  process  of 
beatification  and  canonization,  as  well  as  the  canon- 
ical suits  of  those  employed  in  the  Apostolic  Palace. 
Formerly  the  auditors  had  many  privileges.  France, 
Austria,  Spain,  Venice,  and  Milan  each  had  the  right 
of  proposing  one  of  their  subjects  as  an  auditor. 
Austria  still  has  the  privilege,  at  present  the  auditors 
being  two  in  number.  From  1774  there  has  been  a 
tribunal  of  the  Rota  at  Madrid,  the  president  of 
which  is  the  Nuncio.  The  origin  of  the  name  Rota  is 
uncertain  and  has  been  a  matter  of  discussion;  it  oc- 
curs first  in  1336. 

Constit.  de  rom.  curiii  in  Acta  A  post.  Sedis,  fasc.  I;  Lex  propria 
S.  Rom.  Rotm  (Rome,  1909);  Decisiones  S.  Rotce  Rom.  (published 
and  continued  at  various  dates) ;  Bernino,  II  tribunate  delta  S. 
Rota  Rom.  (Rome,  1717);  SagmOller,  Die  Entwickelung  der  Rota 
in  Theol.  Quartalsch.,  (1895);  Goller,  JZur  Oesch.  der  rom.  R.  in 
Archiv.  f.  kath.  KirchenrecM  (1911),  19;  Hillinq,  Die  romixche 
Kurie  (Paderborn,  190C);  Capello,  De  curia  Rom.  (Turin,  1911). 

U.  Beniuni. 

Roth,  Heinrich,  missionary  in  India  and  San- 
skrit scholar,  b.  of  illustrious  parentage  at  Augsburg, 
18  December,  1620;  d.  at  Agra,  20  June,  1668.  He 
became  a  Jesuit  in  1639;  was  assigned  to  the  Ethio- 
pian mission  (Piccolomini,  "Instructio  pro  P.  Hen. 
Roth,  Ingolstadio,  ad  mi.ssionem  Acthiopicam  pro- 
fecturo",  in  Huond(!r,  "Deutsche  jcsuitenmissionare 
im  17.  und  18.  Jahrh.",  Freiburg,  1899,  213),  and 
arrived  at  Goa  by  the  land  route,  via  Ispahan.  He 
laboured  first  on  the  Island  of  Salsette  off  Goa, 
where  from  time  to  time  he  acted  as  Portuguese 
interpreter.  He  wtus  sent  on  an  embassy  to  one  of 
the  native  princes,  and  finally  reached  the  empire 
of  the  Great  Mogul,  where,  as  rector  of  the  residence 
at  Agra,  lu;  was  involved  in  the  persecution  under 
Shah  Jahiln.  Here  the;  I'rench  explorer,  Francis 
Bernier,  learned  to  know  and  appreciate  him  as  one 
eminently  versed  in  expert  knowledge  of  the  i)hilo.so- 
phy  of  religions  in  India  ("Travels  in  Hindustan", 
new  ed.,  Calcutta,  1904,  p.  109  s(jq.).  In  1()62  Roth 
revisited  Europi?  by  the;  land  route  via  Kabul  to  ob- 
tain new  recruits  for  the  mission,  and  returned  to 


ROTHE 


207 


ROTTENBURG 


Agra  in  1664.  Roth  shares  with  the  Jesuit,  Hanxle- 
den,  the  fame  of  being  among  Europeans  the  pioneer 
Sanskrit  scholar,  and  of  having  compiled  the  first 
Sanskrit  grammar  (Wiener,  Zeitschr.  fiir  die  Kunde 
des  Morgenlandes,  XV,  1901,  pp.  303-320).  "  During 
his  stay  in  Agra,  he  succeeded  in  persuading  some 
Brahmins  to  teach  him  Sanskrit  and,  after  six  years 
of  diligent  study,  he  obtained  complete  mastery  of  this 
difficult  tongue.  He  was  the  author  of  the  interest- 
ing description  of  the  Sanskrit  alphabet,  published  by 
Athanasius  Kircher  in  his  China  illustrata"  (Max 
Miiller,  "Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language",  Lon- 
don, 1866,  p.  277).  Roth's  works,  most  of  which  were 
published  by  his  learned  friend,  Athanasius  Kircher, 
S.J.,  are:  "Relatio  rerum 
notabiUum  Regni  Mogor  in 
Asia",  which  contains  the 
first  information  concern- 
ing Kabul  which  had  reached 
Europe  (Straubing,  1  ()(>.'), 
Aschaffenburg,  166S);  "Iter 
ex  Agra  Mogorum  in  Euro- 
pam  ex  relatione  PP.  Joh. 
Gruberi  et  H.  Roth"  in  Kir- 
cher, "China  illustrata" 
(Amsterdam,  1667),  pp.  91 
sqq.;  "Itinerarium  St. 
Thomse  Apost.  ex  Juda-a 
in  Indiam",  and  "Dogmata 
varia  fabulossissima  Brach- 
manorum",  ib.,  156-162; 
"  Exactissimum  opus  totius 
grammaticae  Brachmanicac 
cujus  et  rudimentais  [Roth] 
primus  Europaj  comniuni- 
cavit"  in  "Romani  Collcfiii 
S.J.  musseum"  (Amst(M-il;mi, 
1678),  p.  65;  a  letter  (Rome, 
1664)  in  "  Welt-Bott ",  I 
(Augsburg,  1726), 35;  manu- 
script-letters and  relations 
in  Royal  Library,  Brussels, 
Nos.  6828-29,  fol.  415. 

HosTEN,  Jesuit  Missionaries  in 
Northern  India,  1380-1803  (Cal- 
cutta, 1906),  30  sqq.;  Balfour, 
Encycl.  of  India  (London,  1885),  a. 
v.;  Benfey,  Gesch.  der  Sprachwis- 
senschaft  (Munich,  1869),  335;  V. 
ScHLEGEL,  Sprache  u.  Weisheit  der 
India-  (Heidelberg,  1808),  p.  xi. 

Anthony  Huonder. 


Rothe,  David,  Bishop  of 
Ossory  (Ireland),  b.  at  Kil- 
kenny in  1573,  of  a  distin- 
guished family;  d.  20  .\pril, 
1650.  Having  studied  at 
the  Irish  College,  Douai,  and  at  the  University  of 
Salamanca,  where  he  graduated  doctor  in  civil  and 
canon  law,  he  was  ordained  in  1600,  and  proceeded  to 
Rome.  From  1601  to  1609  he  was  professor  of  theol- 
ogy and  secretary  to  Archbishop  Lombard,  and  on  15 
June,  1609,  was  appointed  Vice-Primate  of  Armagh. 
He  arrived  in  Ireland  in  1610,  having  been  made  pro- 
thonotary  Apostolic,  and  held  a  synod  for  the  Ulster 
Province  at  Drogheda,  in  February,  1614,  and  a 
second  synod  in  1618.  Though  appointed  Bishop  of 
Ossory  on  10  October,  1618,  he  had,  owing  to  the 
severity  of  the  penal  laws,  to  seek  consecration  in 
Paris,  where  he  was  consecrated  early  in  1620;  he 
returned  to  Ireland  in  the  winter  of  1621.  As  early 
as  1616,  Dr.  Rothe  had  published  the  first  part  of  his 
famous  "Analecta"  and  the  completed  work  was 
issued  at  Cologne  (1617-19);  a  new  edition  was 
brought  out  by  Cardinal  Moran  in  1884.  In  1620 
he  published  "Brigida  Thaumaturga",  at  Paris,  fol- 
lowed by  "  Hiberniae  sive  Antiquioris  Scotiae  "  in  1621 
at  Antwerp,   and   "Hibernia  Resurgens"   at  Paris, 


in  the  same  year.  Other  works  of  his  except  some 
few  fragments  have  long  since  disappeared.  In 
1624  Bishop  Rothe  presided  over  a  synod  at  Kil- 
kenny, and  he  laboured  zealously  for  religion  and 
country  during  a  trying  period.  He  joined  the  Con- 
federates in  1642,  and  welcomed  the  papal  nuncio, 
Rinuccini,  to  Kilkenny,  on  14  November,  1645. 
Unfortunately,  three  years  later,  he  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge the  validity  of  the  censures  issued  by 
Rinuccini,  believing  that  the  Supreme  Council  were 
acting  in  the  best  interests  of  the  country.  Although 
seriously  ill  in  1649,  he  continued  to  minister  to  the 
plague-stricken  citizens  of  Kilkenny.  He  was  com- 
pelled bv  the  Cromwellians  to  leave  his  episcopal 
city  28  March,  1650,  but, 
being  robbed  on  the  way,  he 
was  permitted  to  return. 
His  remains  were  interred 
in  St.  Mary's  Church,  but 
there  is  a  cenotaph  to  his 
memory  in  St.  Canice's 
Cathedral. 

Lynch,  De  pra-sulibus  Hiberniae 
(1672);  Ware,  De  prcesuiibus  Hi- 
bernia  (Dublin,  1665);  Meehan, 
Franciscan  Monasteries  (Dublin, 
1872);  Mohan,  Spicilegium  Os- 
soriense  (Dublin,  1874-84) ;  Car- 
RiGAN,  History  of  Ossory  (Dublin, 
1905) ;  Report  on  Franciscan  MSS. 
in  Hist.  MSS.  Com.  (Dublin,  1906). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Rottenburg,  Diocese  of 

(Rottenbdrgensis),  suffra- 
gan of  the  ecclesiastical 
Province  of  the  Upper  Rhine. 
It  embraces  the  Kingdom  of 
WUrtemberg,  three  parishes 
in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Ba- 
den, and  one  parish  in  the 
Prussian  territory  of  Hohen- 
zoUern  -  Sigmaringen.  The 
diocese  is  divided  into  29 
deaneries,  and  in  1911  con- 
tained 698  parishes,  19 
F'farrkuratien  (incorporated 
churches  with  an  indepen- 
dent care  of  souls),  164  chap- 
laincies, and  155  other  pas- 
toral charges;  1084  active 
and  75  pensioned  secular 
clergy;  and  728,000  Catho- 
lics. The  cathedral  chapter, 
which  enjoys  the  right  of 
electing  the  bishops,  consists 
of  a  cathedral  dean  and  vicar- 
general,  six  capitulars,  and 
six  cathedral  prebendaries.  The  bishop,  cathedral 
dean,  and  the  six  capitulars  constitute  also  the  or- 
dinariate;  the  legal  adviser  of  the  ordinariate  is  the 
syndicus,  a  lay  official  who  is  likewise  director  of  the 
chancellery  of  the  ordinariate,  consisting  of  six  mem- 
bers. The  rights  of  the  State  circa  sacra  are  entrusted 
to  a  royal  Catholic  church  council,  which  is  composed 
of  a  director,  two  clerical,  and  several  lay  members. 
The  diocesan  institutions  are:  the  priests'  seminary  at 
Rottenburg,  with  a  regent,  viceregent,  and  a  Repetent, 
or  private  tutor ;  the  theological  college ' '  Wilhelmsstif  t" 
at  Tubingen  with  a  director  and  7  Repelenten,  supported 
by  the  State,  and  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the 
bishop  and  church  council;  the  gymnasia-1  boarding- 
schools  at  Ehingen  and  Rottweil,  also  maintained  by 
the  St  ate :  the  diocesan  boys'  seminaries  at  Rottenburg 
and  Mergenthcim.  Theological  students  are  trained 
partly  in  the  "  Wilhelmsstif t"  and  partly  in  the  theo- 
logical faculty  of  University  of  Tubingen,  which  has 
four  ordinary  and  three  extraordinary  clerical  pro- 
fessors.    The    "Theologische    Quartalschrift",    the 


The  Gothic  Cathedral  at  Ulm 
Formerly  Catholic.   1377-1494,  Tower,  528  feet 


ROTULI 


•208 


ROTTEN 


oldest  theological  periodical  in  Germanj',  is  published 
bv  the  professors  of  the  theological  facultj'.  Priests 
also  act  as  instructors  in  the  private  boarding- 
schools  at  Ehingen,  EUwangen,  and  Rottweil,  which 
are  under  the  patronage  of  the  bishop,  as  well  as  in 
the  twenty-four  State  intermediate  schools  {Gym- 
nasien,  Rc'alschiden,  Lateinschulen  etc.)- 

Despite  every  effort  on  the  part  of  the  Catholics, 
the  male  religious  orders  have  not  yet  been  read- 
mitted into  the  Kingdom  of  Wurtemberg.  In  1910 
the  following  orders  and  congregations  of  women  had 
establishments  in  the  diocese:  the  Congregation 
of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  who  have  a  mother- 
house  at  Bonlanden,  a  boarding  school,  and  two 
branches  (116  sisters);  the  Sisters  of  St.  Francis 
from  Heiligenbronn,  with  a  mother-house  and  two 
branches  (ISS  sisters),  who  conduct  an  institute  for 
the  rescue,  education,  and  boarding  of  poor  neglected 
girls,  an  institute  for  boys,  and  a  children's  home; 
the  School  Sisters  of  Our  Blessed  Lady,  with  a  mother- 
house  at  Ravensburg  and  one  branch  (79  sisters); 
the  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  from 
Rente,  who  have  103  nursing  establishments,  schools 
for  manual  work,  and  schools  for  children  (783 
sisters) ;  the  School  Sisters  of  the  Order  of  St.  Francis, 
who  have  a  mother-house  at  Siessen  and  30  branches 
(373  sisters),  and  conduct  several  high  schools  for 
girls,  and  numerous  public  schools  and  schools  for 
manual  work;  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  who  have  a  mother-house  at  Untermarchtal 
and  127  branches  (1245  sisters),  and,  besides  nursing 
the  sick,  conduct  schools  for  children,  and  schools 
for  manual  training,  homes  for  working  women, 
boarding  schools,  and  rescue  institutions;  the  Sisters 
of  the  Holy  Cross,  from  Strasburg,  Alsace,  who  have 
one  establishment  with  13  sisters.  There  are  also 
in  the  diocese  11  ecclesiastical  boarding  schools  for 
poor  children  and  one  royal  orphanage  under  religious 
direction.  Of  the  numerous  Catholic  churches 
notable  from  the  artistic  standpoint  may  be  mentioned : 
the  Cathedral  of  St.  Martin  at  Rottenburg,  a 
three-naved  Gothic  basilica,  which  was  completely 
renovated  after  the  fire  of  1644  (a  new  cathedral  is 
being  planned  by  the  present  bishop);  the  late- 
Roman  Church  of  St.  John  at  Gmund  (thirteenth 
century) ;  the  Gothic  parish  church  of  Gmiind  (1351- 
1410;;  the  church  of  the  former  Benedictine  Monas- 
ter.' of  EUwangen,  the  largest  Romanesque  church 
in  the  countr>'  (1124);  the  parish  church  of  Wein- 
garten;  the  "Sankt  Petersdom  Wiirttembergs", 
erected  in  the  Baroque  style  by  the  Benedictines 
(1738-53);  the  Gothic  Church  of  Our  Lady,  Stutt- 
gart (1879).  Of  the  churches  which  were  formerly 
Catholic,  but  which  now  are  Protestant,  the  most 
important  is  the  Gothic  cathedral  at  Ulm  (1377- 
1494),  which  has  the  highest  church  tower  in  the 
world  (over  528  feet).  Much  frequented  places  of 
pilgrimage  are  Weingarten,  Weggental,  near  Rotten- 
burg; Reute,  with  the  grave  of  Blessed  Elizabeth 
Bona;  the  Schonberg,  near  EUwangen,  the  Drei- 
faltigkejtsberg,  near  Spaichingen.  Concerning 
the  erection  and  beginnings  of  the  diocese,  see 
Uppkr  Rhine,  Ecclesiastical  Province  of  the; 
conrx'ming  its  further  history  and  the  relations  be- 
tween the  Catholic  Church  and  the  State,  see  WiJR- 
TEMBERG.  It  will  be  sufficient  here  to  give  a  list 
of  the  bishops:  Johann  Baptist  von  Kellf-r  0828-45), 
the  first  bishop;  Joseph  von  Lipp  (1848-69);  Karl 
Joseph  von  Hefele  ri 869-93);  \\ilhelm  von  Reiser 
(1893-98);  Franz  Xaver  von  Linsenmann,  d.  21 
Sept.,  1898,  before  his  consecration;  Paul  Wilhelm 
von  Keppler  (elected  11  Nov.,  1898;  consecrated 
18  Jan.,  1899). 

Die  kalhol.  Kirchengetetze  fUr  da»  Bittum  RoUenburg,  ed. 
Lano  (RoU<;nburK,  18.36);  Goltheh,  Der  Slant  u.  die.  kathol. 
Kirche  im  KOni^/reirh  WUrUemf/fn-a  (Stuttgart,  1874);  cf.  there- 
with RCmeun,  Rrjli-n  und  AufnOlze,  new  series  (FreiburK,  1881), 
205-77;    Kvct.aKBie.VL,  Die  Didzete  RoUentmrg  u.   Hire  AnklOger 


(Tabingen,  1869);  Die  kathol.  Kirche  unserer  Zeit,  II  (Munich, 
1900).  97-102;  Nehek,  Die  kathol.  u.  evangel.  Geistlichen  Wiirt- 
tembergs, 1813-1901  (Ravensburg,  1904);  Personalkatalog  des 
Bistums  Rottenb.  (Rottenburg,  1910);  Didzesanarchiv  von 
Schwaben  (Stuttgart,  1882 — );  concerning  the  churches  see  Kep- 
pler, WUrttembergs  kirchl.  KunstaUerlumer  (Rottenburg,  1888); 
Das  Kdnigreich  WUrltemberg,  ed.  by  the  National  Office  of 
Statistics,  4  vols.,  2nd  ed.  (Stuttgart,  1904-07);  Kunst  und 
Altertumsdenkmale  im  Kdnigreich  Wurttemberg  (Esslingen,  up  to 
1909),  60  parts. 

Joseph  Lins. 

Rotuli,  i.  e.  rolls,  in  which  a  long  narrow  strip  of 
papjTUs  or  parchment,  WTitten  on  one  side,  was  wound 
like  a  blind  about  its  staff,  formed  the  earliest  kind  of 
"volume"  {volumen  from  volvere,  to  roll  up)  of  which 
we  have  knowledge.  Many  such  rolls  have  been  re- 
covered in  their  primitive  form  from  the  excavations 
at  Herculaneum  and  elsewhere.  In  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries,  however,  these  rolls  began  to  give  place 
to  books  bound  as  we  know  them  now,  i.  e.  a  num- 
ber of  written  leaves  were  laid  flat  one  on  top  of  the 
other  and  attached  together  by  their  corresponding 
edges.  This  was  a  gain  in  convenience,  but  for  certain 
purposes  rolls  were  still  retained.  To  this  latter  class 
belonged  certain  legal  records  (from  which  is  still  de- 
rived the  title  of  the  judicial  functionary  known  as  the 
"Master  of  the  Rolls"),  also  the  manuscripts  used  for 
the  chanting  of  the  Exsultet  (q.  v.),  and  especially 
the  documents  employed  in  sending  round  the  names 
of  the  deceased  belonging  to  monasteries  and  other 
associations  which  were  banded  together  to  pray 
mutually  for  each  other's  dead.  These  "mortuary 
rolls"  (in  French  "rouleaux  des  morts")  were  called 
in  Latin  "rotuli".  They  consisted  of  strips  of  parch- 
ment, sometimes  of  i)rodigious  length,  at  the  head  of 
which  was  entered  the  notification  of  the  death  of  a 
particular  person  deceased  or  sometimes  of  a  group  of 
such  persons.  The  roll  was  then  carried  by  a  special 
messenger  ("gerulus",  "rotularius",  "rollifer",  "to- 
miger",  "breviator",  were  some  of  the  various  titles 
given  him)  from  monastery  to  monastery,  and  at  each 
an  entry  was  made  upon  the  roll  attesting  the  fact 
that  the  notice  had  been  received  and  that  the  req- 
uisite suffrages  would  be  said. 

By  degrees  a  custom  grew  up  in  many  places  of 
making  these  entries  in  verse  with  complimentary 
amplifications  often  occupying  many  lines.  It  will 
be  readily  understood  that  these  records,  some  of 
which  are  still  in  existence,  preserving  as  they  do 
specimens  of  ornate  verse  composition  by  a  repre- 
sentative scholar  of  each  monastery  or  institution,  and 
engrossed  on  the  roll  by  some  skilful  penman  in  each 
community,  afford  valuable  materials  both  for  the 
study  of  palaeography  and  also  for  a  comparative 
judgment  of  the  standard  of  scholarship  prevalent 
in  these  different  centres  of  learning.  The  use  of 
these  mortuaiy  rolls  flourished  most  in  the  eleventh, 
twelfth,  and  thirteenth  centuries.  Some  are  of  pro- 
digious size.  That  of  the  Abbess  Matilda  of  Caen, 
the  daughter  of  William  the  Conqueror,  was  seventy- 
two  feet  long  and  eight  or  ten  inches  wide,  but  this 
no  doubt  was  altogether  exceptional. 

Delisle,  Rouleaux  des  morts  du  IX*^  au  X  V»»w  siMe  (Paris, 
1866);  Idem  in  Bihl.  de  I'icole  des  Charles,  series  II,  vol.  Ill: 
Sur  I'usage  de  prier  pour  les  morts;  Thurston,  A  Mediaeval 
Mortuary-card  in  The  Month  (London,  Dec,  1896);  Nichols  in 
Mem.  Archaolog.  Institute  (Norwich,  1847);  Molinier,  Obiluaires 
frantais  au  moyen-Age  (Paris,  1886);  Ebner,  Gebetsverbriider- 
ungen  (Freiburg,  1891);  Wattendach,  Schriflwesen  im  Mittelaller 
(3rd  ed.,  Leipzig),  150-74. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Rouen,  Archdiocese  of  (Rothomagensis),  re- 
vived by  the  Concordat  of  1802  with  the  Sees  of 
Bayeux,  Evreux,  and  S6ez  as  suffragans:  it  also  in- 
cludes the  Department  of  the  Seine  Inferieure.  The 
Archdiocese  of  Rouen  was  curtailed  in  1802  by  giving 
the  Archdeanery  of  Pontoise  to  the  Diocese  of  Ver- 
sailles; the  Deaneries  of  Pont  Audemer  and  Bourg- 
thcroulde,  and  a  part  of  the  Deanery  of  P<^ner.  to  the 
Diocese  of  Evreux;  several  parishes  of  the  Deanery 


ROUEN 


209 


ROTTEN 


of  Aumale  were  annexed  to  the  Diocese  of  Beauvais. 
The  Archbishop  of  Rouen  bears  the  title  of  Primate 
of  Normandy.  Rouen,  chief  city  of  the  Secunda 
Provincia  Lugdunensis  under  Const  ant  ine,  and  later 
of  Neustria,  has  been  since  912  the  capital  of  Nor- 
mandy and  residence  of  the  dukes. 

The  episcopal  catalogues  of  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries  and  the  "Liber  Eburneus"  of  the  cathedral 
of  Rouen,  which  extends  to  1068,  indicate  St.  Mellon 
as  first  Bi.shop  of  Rouen;  the  "Liber  Niger"  of  St. 
Ouen  which  comes  down  to  1079  and  the  episcopal 
lists  dating  from  the  twelfth  century  mention  the 
episcopate  of  a  certain  Nicasius  (Nicaise)  as  ante- 
dating that  of  St.  Mellon.  The  legend  of  this  Nicaise, 
based  on  Hilduin,  makes  him  and  his  two  companions, 
Quirinus  and  Scubiculus,  disciples  of  St.  Denis  who 


Interior  of  The  C.\thedr.\l,  Rocen 

came  from  Rome  to  Normandy  but  suffered  martjT- 
dom  at  their  arrival  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Epte. 
It  was  under  tlu>  episcopate  of  William  (Bonne  Ame) 
the  Good  (1079-1110)  that  the  name  of  Nicaise  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  episcopal  lists  of  Rouen.  A 
number  of  saints  were  the  successors  of  St.  Mellon; 
according  to  the  chronology  of  the  Abbe  Sauvage  they 
were:  St.  Avitianus  (about  314);  St.  Severus;  St. 
Victricius,  born  about  330,  a  soldier  in  the  beginning 
of  his  career  and  as  such  a  confcs.sor  of  the  Faith  under 
Julian  the  Apostate;  made  Bishop  of  Rouen  about  380 
and  died,  according  to  his  biographer.  Abbe  Vacan- 
dard,  before  409;  famous  for  his  friendship  with  St. 
Paulinus  of  Nola  and  St.  Martin,  also  for  going  in  396 
to  England  where  he  worked  zealously  for  the  con- 
version of  the  English  people;  his  treatise  "De  Laude 
Sanctorum"  is  a  strong  plea  in  favour  of  the  devotion 
to  relics;  Innocent  I  commissioned  him  in  404  to  make 
known  in  Gaul  the  "Liber  Regularum",  which  con- 
tains urgent  instructions  for  ecclesiastical  celibacy, 
for  the  respect  due  to  the  hierarchy,  and  Roman 
supremacy;  St.  Innocent;  St.  Evodius  (about  430) ;  St. 
Goldardus  (490-525),  brother  of  St.  Medardus,  one  of 
the  assistants  at  the  baptism  and  coronation  of  Clovis; 
St.  Flavins;  St.  Pretcxtatus  (550-586),  exiled  in  577 
by  order  of  King  Chilperic,  was  reinstated  in  the 
diocese  in  584,  and  stabbed  before  the  altar  in  586  by 
order  of  Fredegonde;  St.  Romanus  (631-641)  former 
XIII.— 14 


chancellor  of  Clotairell;  legend  relates  how  he  de- 
livered the  environs  of  Rouen  from  a  monster  called 
Gargouille,  having  had  him  captured  by  a  liberated 
prisoner;  in  commemoration  of  St.  Romain  in  the 
Middle  Ages  the  Archbishops  of  Rouen  were  granted 
the  right  to  set  a  prisoner  free  on  the  day  that  the  reli- 
quary of  the  saint  was  carried  in  procession;  St. 
Ouen  (Audqennus)  (641-684),  previous  to  his  appoint- 
ment as  bishop,  was  chancellor  of  Dagobert,  and 
wrote  a  life  of  St.  Eloy  (Eligius);  his  episcopate  was 
distinguished  by  the  foundation  of  the  monasteries 
of  Fontenelle,  Jumieges,  and  Fecamp,  by  the  unceas- 
ing efforts  he  made  to  exterminate  all  traces  of  pagan- 
ism in  his  dioce-ses,  and  by  the  arbitration  effected 
through  his  influence  between  Austrasia  and  Neustria; 
his  fame  as  a  miracle-worker  was  great  in  the  Middle 
Ages;  St.  Ansbert  (684-92  or  93)  chancellor  of  Clotaire 
III,  and  afterwards  confined  for  political  reasons  by 
P('l)iii  of  Heristal  in  the  Abbey  of  Hautmont;  recently 
there  was  found  in  the  library  of  Carlsruhe  a  curious 
little  i)oem  of  the  seventh  century  written  by  him  on 
St.  Ouen;  this  poem  came  originally  from  the  Abbey 
of  Reichenau;  St.  Hugh  (722-30)  was  a  monk  of 
Jumieges  before  being  made  bishop;  he  subsequently 
combined  the  Sees  of  Rouen,  Paris  and  Bayeux,  also 
the  abbeys  of  Jumieges  and  Fontenelle;  St.  Remi 
(755-772),  brother  of  King  Pepin,  was  also  arch- 
bishop of  Rouen. 

Guntbaldus  who  had  played  a  certain  part  in  the 
restoration  of  Louis  the  Pious,  having  become  Bishop 
of  Rouen,  was  commissioned  in  846  by  Sergius  II  to 
settle  a  dispute  between  Ebbo  and  Hincmar,  and  died 
in  S49.  The  name  of  a  certain  St.  Leo  who  suffered 
martyrdom  at  Baj'onne  sometimes  appears  incorrectly 
on  the  lists  of  archbishops  of  Rouen  at  the  end  of 
the  ninth  century  and  should  be  struck  off.  Among 
the  more  famous  archbishops  of  Rouen  were:  .Vrch- 
bishop  Franco  (911-19),  who  baptized  the  North- 
man chief  Rollo;  St.  Maurille  (1055-67),  who  reformed 
his  clergy  and  fought  the  heresy  of  Berengarius;  Jolui 
of  Hayeux  (1069-79),  who.se  book  on  ecclesiastical 
services  regulated  religious  devotions  in  Normandv; 
William  1  (Bonne  Ame)  (1071-1119),  first  a  Bene- 
dictine and  allowed  St.  Anselm  to  leave  the  Abbey  of 
Bee  to  occupy  the  See  of  Canterbury;  Hugh  of  Amiens 
(1130-74),  author  of  numerous  theological  works; 
under  his  episcopate  Rouen  was  honoured  in  May, 
1131,  by  a  visit  from  Innocent  II,  the  only  pope  who 
ever  entered  Normandy;  Gautier  de  Coutances  called 
the  Magnificent  (1184-1207)  the  favourite  companion 
of  Richard  the  Lion  Hearted;  Eudes  II  Rigaud  (1247- 
1274),  one  of  the  most  eminent  statesmen  of  the  day; 
he  accompanied  St.  Louis  on  his  Tunis  crusade  and 
left  a  diary  of  his  pastoral  visitations  which  has  the 
most  important  bearing  on  the  ecclesiastical  history 
of  the  province;  Gilles  Aycelin  (1311-18),  Chancellor 
of  France;  Pierre  Roger  (1330-39)  became  Pope 
Clement  \T;  Peter  de  la  Foret  (1352-56)  was  at  first 
Bishop  of  Paris  and  became  a  cardinal  in  1356,  as 
Chancellor  of  France  he  was  one  of  the  most  faithful 
adherents  of  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Charles  V. 

During  the  Hundred  Years  War  the  English  oc- 
cupied Rouen  from  1417-1449;  the  Duke  of  Bedford 
at  his  own  request  was  formally  made  a  member  of 
the  Chapter  of  Rouen  in  1430.  The  English  rule,  so 
severe  for  the  people,  increased  the  privileges  of  the 
clergy  but  dealt  rigorously  with  such  ecclesiastics 
as  were  thought  rebellious;  especially  with  Archbishop 
Louis  de  Harcourt  who  was  deprived  in  1421  of  his 
pos.sessions  for  refusing  to  pay  homage  to  Henry  V. 
The  following  .should  be  added  to  the  list  of  arch- 
bishops: John  of  la  Rochetaillee  (1423-29),  cardinal  in 
1426;  Louis  of  Luxembourg  (1436-42),  cardinal  in 
1439,  was  the  sworn  agent  in  France  of  Henry  VI, 
King  of  England;  WiUiam  of  Estouteville  (1453-83), 
cardinal  in  1437  and  commissioned  by  Nicholas  V  in 
1453  to  mediate  between  France  and  England,  and  to 


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210 


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obtain  from  Charles  \'1I  certain  modifications  of  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction;  Robert  of  Croismare  (1483-93) 
an.l  Cardinal  Georges  d'Amboise  (1493-1510),  both 
of  whom  played  an  important  part  in  the  Renaissance 
movement;  the  two  Cardinals  Charles  of  Bourbon 
(1550-90  and  1590-94),  the  first  of  whom  was  at  one 
time  a  candidate  for  the  throne  of  France;  Francois, 
Cardinal  de  Joyeuse  (1604-15)  who  negotiated  peace 
in  the  name  of  Henry  IV  between  Paul  V  and  the 
Republic  of  Venice;  the  two  Francois  de  Harlay  (1015- 
51)  and  (1651-71);  John  Nicholas  Colbert  (1691- 
1707),  son  of  the  minister;  Nicholas  de  Saulx  Tavannes 
(1733-59),  cardinal  in  1756;  Dominic  de  la  Roche- 
foucauld (1759-lSOO),  cardinal  in  1778,  president  of 
the  clergy  at  the  States  General,  emigrated  after  10 
August,  1792,  and  died  in  exile  at  Miinster;  Etienne 
Hubert  de  Cambaceres  (1802-18),  brother  of  the  arch- 
chancellor  of  Nai)oleon,  cardinal  in  1803;  Prince  de 
Croy  (1823-44),  chief  almoner  of  France  under  the 
Restoration,  and  cardinal  in  1825;  Henry  de  Bonne- 
chose  (18.58-83),  cardinal  in  1863;  Leon  Thomas 
(1884-94),  cardinal  in  1893;  WilUam  Sourrieu  (1894- 
99),  cardinal  in  1897. 

It  is  not  known  exactly  whether  Rouen  became  a 
metropolitan  at  the  time  of  St.  Victricius  or  under 
Bishop  Grimo,  who  in  744  received  the  palUum  from 
Pope  Zachary;  in  the  Middle  Ages  it  exercised  metro- 
politan rights  over  E^Teux,  Avranches,  Seez,  Bayeux, 
Lisieux,  and  Coutances.  It  seems  that  in  the  seventh 
century  Lillebonne  (Juliobona)  was  for  a  short  time 
the  see  of  a  bishop  suffragan  of  Rouen.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Rouen  assumed  at  an  early  date  the  title  of 
Primate  of  Normandy  and  Neustria,  to  indicate  the 
entire  independence  of  his  metropohtan  see  which  was 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  In  vain  did  Gebuin, 
Archbishop  of  Lyons,  obtain  from  Gregory  VII  two 
Bulls  in  1070  which  recognized  his  primacy  over 
Rouen ;  they  remained  unexecuted  as  well  as  a  similar 
hnW  of  Celestine  II  given  in  1144.  On  12  November, 
1455,  Cardinal  Dominic  Cai)ranica,  papal  delegate, 
recognized  the  independence  of  the  Church  of  Rouen 
bv  giving  a  definite  decision,  confirmed  in  1457  and 
1458  by  two  Bulls  of  Callistus  III.  The  Archdeacon 
of  Rouen  was  known  as  the  "grand  archidiacre  de  la 
chn'tiente".  The  Chapter,  in  virtue  of  a  Bull  from 
Gregory  XI  in  1371,  was  completely  exempt  from  the 
archbishop's  jurisdiction  both  spiritual  and  temporal. 
Nicholas  Oresme  (d.  1382)  was  head  master  of  the 
College  of  Navarre  and  Bishop  of  Lisieux;  he  trans- 
lated Aristotle  and  was  dean  of  the  Church  of  Rouen; 
tlic  famous  Peter  d'Ailly  and  the  historian  Thomas 
Basin,  later  Bishop  of  Lisieux,  belonged  to  the  Chap- 
ter of  Rouen.  St.  Remy,  Bishop  of  Rouen,  was  after 
Chrodigang,  Bishop  of  Metz,  the  principal  initiator 
in  the  reform  which  under  Pepin  replaced  the  Gal- 
lican  with  the  Roman  liturgy.  In  1729  the  cathedral 
of  Rouen  accepted  the  breviary  of  Urbain  Robinet, 
vicar-general  of  Rouen,  who  revised  the  liturgy  in  a 
Galilean  sense.  Later  Cardinal  Bonnechose  insisted 
on  the  use  of  the  Roman  liturgy  in  the  diocese.  The 
Chapter  of  Rouen  preserved  the  custom  until  the 
Revolution  of  chanting  the  Office  by  heart;  it  was 
forbidden  even  to  bring  a  book  into  the  choir.  The 
faculty  of  Catholic  theology  of  Rouen  was  founded  in 
1808  and  organized  in  1809;  it  was  however  suppressed 
in  1885. 

No  town  of  France  has  produced  such  marvels  of 
religious  architec^ture  as  Rouen.  The  oUlest  part  of 
the  Cathedral,  which  has  survived  all  fires,  is  the  belfry 
of  St.  Piomanus's  tower,  which  dates  from  about  1 160; 
the  construction  of  the  nave  began  about  1200;  the 
Calende  portal,  so  called  from  an  imaginary  animal, 
and  the  portals  of  the  libraries,  famous  for  the  richness 
of   their   ornamentation,    were   finished    in    the   first 

?iuarter  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  Butter  Tower 
la  Tour  de  Beurre),  m  called  because  it  was  built 
with  the  alms  derived  from  the  Lenten  dispensalioDS, 


dates  from  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  and  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
edifices  in  the  flamboyant  style.  The  ninety-six  choir 
stalls  were  carved  in  the  fifteenth  century  under  the 
direction  of  Philippot  Viart  and  represent  in  their 
workmanship  all  the  professions  of  the  period.  There 
are  three  celebrated  tombs  preserved  in  the  cathedral; 
one,  whether  correctly  or  not,  is  said  to  be  the  tomb  of 
Archbishop  Maurille,  and  dates  from  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries;  that  of  the  two  cardinals  dWm- 
boise  dates  from  1520  to  1525,  and  on  it  is  the  statue 
of  George  d'Amboise,  the  work  of  Jean  Goujon;  that 
of  Louis  de  Brez6,  attributed  in  part  to  Jean  Goujon, 
was  executed  from  1535  to  1544  at  the  expense  of 
Diane  de  Poitiers,  widow  of  Louis  de  Br6z6.  The 
present  Church  of  St.  Ouen,  where  a  small  Roman 
apse  is  still  preserved  and  some  bases  of  Roman 
pillars  dating  from  the  eleventh  century,  is  one  of  the 
rare  exami)les  that  exists  in  France  of  a  large  and 
beautiful  church  of  the  fourteenth  century,  almost 
complete,  and  one  of  the  most  delicate  pieces  of  archi- 
tecture extant.  The  Church  of  St.  Maclou  dates  frona 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries;  the  folding  doors 
are  attributed  to  Jean  Goujon.  On  one  side  of  the 
church  is  a  monument  unique  in  its  way,  the  ailre 
St.  Maclou.  The  word  aitre  is  derived  from  Atrium. 
Uaitre  St.  Maclou,  the  old  cemetery  of  the  parish, 
is  a  large  rectangular  space  surrounded  by  porticoes 
built  in  1.526-40,  and  shows  the  Renaissance  style  in 
all  its  purity.  A  Dance  of  Death  (Danse  Macabre) 
sculptured  on  its  columns  was  unfortunately  badly 
defaced  by  the  Huguenots.  The  Palace  of  Justice 
in  Rouen  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  buildings  be- 
longing to  the  end  of  the  Gothic  period. 

Among  the  twelve  Benedictine  abbeys  for  men 
which  the  Diocese  of  Rouen  possessed  under  the  old 
regime  must  be  mentioned,  besides  Fontenelle  and 
Jumieges,  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  St.  Ouen  de 
Rouen,  founded  in  548,  where  a  school  of  theology 
flourished  which  was  recognized  by  Gregory  IX  in 
1238;  and  the  Abbey  of  Fecamp,  dedicated  to  the 
Trinity  in  658  by  St.  Waningus  (Vaning),  Governor 
of  Neustria  and  Count  of  the  Palace  under  Clovis  II. 
This  was  first  occupied  by  nuns  under  the  direction  of 
St.  Hildemarche,  was  ruined  by  the  Normans  in  841, 
and  reopened  for  priests  by  Richard,  first  Duke  of 
Normandy,  who  had  the  present  beautiful  church 
dedicated  in  990.  St.  William  (1001-28)  was  the 
first  Abbot  of  P'ecamp;  he  had  among  his  successors 
the  future  Pope  Clement  VI  and  Jean  Casimir,  King 
of  Poland,  who,  after  abdicating  his  throne,  became 
Abbot  of  F6camp  in  1669.  The  Abbey  of  St.  George 
de  Boscherville  was  founded  in  1060  by  Raoul  de 
Tancarville,  chamberlain  of  William  the  Conqueror. 
The  abbey  of  Trdport  was  founded  in  1056-59  by 
Robert,  Count  d'Eu,  companion  of  William  the  Con- 
queror. During  the  religious  wars  the  Calvinists 
committed  great  ravages  in  Rouen;  having  become 
masters  of  the  city  16  April,  1562,  they  devastated 
St.  Ouen,  made  a  pyre  in  the  centre  of  the  church  with 
the  stalls  and  fragments  of  the  superb  screen,  and  then 
burnt  the  body  of  St.  Ouen  and  other  relics  of  the 
basilica.  Rouen  was  retaken  26  October,  1562,  by 
FranQois  de  Guise  anfl  Antoine  de  Bourbon;  the 
majority  of  Charles  IX  was  proclaimed  there  in  1563. 
Rouen,  which  hafl  declared  for  the  League,  was  in- 
effectually besieged  by  Henry  IV  from  December, 
1.591,  to  April,  1.592,  and  only  surrendered  in  1594  to 
the  new  Bourbon  king. 

In  the  eleventh  century  an  association  of  distin- 
guished men  was  founded  at  Rouen  in  hf)nour  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception.  Its  chief  or  president  was 
called  "prince".  In  1486  Pierre  Dar<5,  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  bailiwick  of  Rouen,  was  "prince"  and 
converted  the  association  into  a  literary  society  which 
awarded  a  prize  for  the  best  poems  written  on  the 
Inamaculate  CoQception.    Every  stanza  of  the  poems, 


DISTANT  VIEW  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL,  ROUEN 


ROUEN 


211 


ROUEN 


according  to  a  special  rule,  must  end  with  the  same 
verse  as  the  first;  this  repeated  verse,  which  they 
called  "palinodie",  gave  the  name  of  "Palinod"  to 
the  confraternity.  Malherbe  took  the  prize  in  1555; 
Pierre  Corneille  competed  in  1633,  but  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  crowned;  Jacqueline  Pascal  received  the 
prize  in  1640;  Thomas  Corneille  in  1641.  The  three- 
volume  Bible,  finished  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury for  the  Chapter  of  Rouen,  is  one  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  caligraphy  of  the  Middle  Ages.  A  copy 
of  the  "Chroniques  de  Normandie",  made  at  Rouen 
about  1450  for  the  aldermen  and  given  to  Colbert  in 
1682  for  the  royal  library,  is  illustrated  with  ten 
miniatures  which  are  among  the  most  beautiful  pro- 
ductions of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  finest  copy 
extant  of  the  "Chroniques  de  Monstrelet"  was  made 
at  Rouen  and  contains  drawings  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance for  the  history  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
manuscripts,  written  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  order 
of  Cardinal  George  d'Amboise,  who  brought  back 
with  him  the  most  beautiful  manuscripts  from  the 
royal  library  of  Naples,  compare  favourably  with  those 
of  the  best  Italian  masters. 

Besides  those  already  mentioned,  many  saints  are 
connected  with  the  history  of  the  Dioce-se  of  Rouen 
or  are  the  objects  there  of  special  devotion:  St. 
Severus  (sixth  century)  who  perhaps  was  the  Bishop 
of  Avranches  and  whose  relics  are  preserved  at  the 
cathedral  of  Rouen;  St.  Austreberta,  Benedictine 
abbess  (seventh  century);  St.  Sidonius,  of  Irish  origin 
(seventh  century);  the  hermit  St.  Clair,  of  Vexin, 
martyr  of  the  ninth  century;  St.  Lawrence  O'Toole, 
Archbishop  of  Dublin,  died  at  Eu  in  the  diocese  USO; 
Blessed  Joan  of  Arc  was  imprisoned  at  Rouen  in  the 
tower  constructed  in  1206  l)y  King  Philip  Augustus, 
and  was  burned  in  tlic  old  market  ])l;ice  31  May,  1431, 
after  her  so-calle(l  abjuration  at  the  cenictcrv  of  St. 
Ouen;  St.  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle,  who  established 
the  first  novitiate  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools  at  St.  Yon  near  Rouen  in  1705  and  died  at 
Rouen  in  1719.  The  .saints  given  to  the  diocese  by 
Fontenelle  and  Jumieges  must  aLso  be  mentioned. 
The  saints  of  Fontenelle  are:  the  founder,  St.  Wan- 
drille  (Wandregesilus)  (570-667) ;  the  abbots  St.  Bain 
(about  729),  St.  Wando  (742-756);  St.  Gerbold  (d. 
806);  St.  Ansegisus  (823-833),  who  compiled  the 
capitularies  or  statutes  of  Charlemagne  and  Louis  the 
Pious;  St.  Gerard  (1008-31);  and  the  monks  St. 
Gond  (d.  about  690);  St.  Erembert,  who  became, 
about  657,  Bishop  of  Toulouse;  St.  Wulfram,  Arch- 
bishop of  Sens  and  apo.stle  of  the  Frisians  (d.  in  720); 
St.  Agatho;  St.  Desir^;  St.  Sindoard;  St.  Conde 
(second  half  of  the  seventh  century);  St.  Erbland  or 
Hermeland,  who  died  in  715  after  founding  the  niona.s- 
tery  of  Hindre  (Indret)  in  the  Diocese  of  Nantes; 
St.  Erinhard  (d.  739);  St.  Hardouin  (d.  811).  The 
saints  of  Jumieges  are:  the  founder,  St.  Philcert  (675) ; 
St.  Aicadre  (d.  687),  and  St.  Gontard  (1072-95).  The 
distinguished  natives  of  the  diocese  should  also  be 
mentioned :  the  two  Corneille  brothers;  the  philoso- 
pher, Fontenelle  (1657-1757);  the  Jesuit,  Brumoy 
(1688-1742),  famous  for  his  translations  of  Greek 
plays;  the  Jesuit,  Gabriel  Daniel  (1649-1728),  whose 
three-volume  "History  of  France",  published  in  1713, 
is  considered  the  first  reliable  and  complete  history  of 
France;  Cavelier  de  la  Salle  (1640-87),  explorer  of 
the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi;  the  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, Samuel  Bochart  (1.599-1677),  a  famous  Oriental 
scholar;  the  numerous  Protestant  family  of  Basnage, 
the  most  distinguished  member  of  which,  Jacques 
Basnage  (16.53-1723),  is  well  known  as  a  historian 
and  diplomat;  the  liberal  publicist,  Armand  Carrel 
(1800-36);  Boildieu,  the  composer  (1775-1834)  and 
pupil  of  the  cathedral  music  school  of  Rouen. 

The  principal  pilgrimages  of  the  archdiocese  are: 
Our  Lady  of  Salvation  {Notre  Dame  de  Salut),  near 
Fdcamp,  which  dates  from  the  eleventh  century;  Our 


Lady  of  Good  Help  {Notre  Dame  de  Bon  Secours)  at 
Blosseville,  a  pilgrimage  which  existed  in  the  thir- 
teenth century;  Our  Lady  of  the  Waves  {Notre  Dame 
dcs  Flots)  at  St.  Adresse,  near  the  harbour  of  Havre, 
is  a  chapel  built  in  the  fourteenth  century.  Before 
the  Law  of  1901  directed  against  the  religious  orders, 
there  were  in  the  Diocese  of  Rouen,  Benedictines, 
Jesuits,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Picpusiens,  Fathers 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary, 
and  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools.  Some  religious 
orders  for  women  originated  in  the  diocese,  of  which 
the  mo.st  important  are  the  Sisters  of  Providence,  a 
teaching  order  founded  in  Rouen  in  1666  by  the  Minim 
Barre  and  the  priest  Antoine  de  Lahaye,  and  the 
Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  hospitallers  and  teachers, 
founded  at  Ernemont  in  1698  by  Archbishop  Colbert. 
The  religious  owned  in  the  Diocese  of  Rouen  at  the 
end  of  the  nineteenth  century  6  infant  asylums,  43 
infant  schools,  1  asylum  for  deaf-mutes,  5  orjihanages 
for  boys,  1  orphanage  for  children  of  both  sexes, 
28  girls'  orphanages,  3  schools  of  apprenticeship,  7 
societies  for  preservation,  1  house  of  correction,  38 
hospitals,  1  dispensary,  26  houses  of  religious  who  care 
for  the  sick  in  their  homes,  4  houses  of  convalescence, 
2  homes  for  incurables,  1  asylum  for  the  blind.  In 
1910  the  Diocese  of  Rouen  had  803,879  inhabitants, 
5  archdeaconeries,  45  deaneries,  16  first-class  parishes, 
47  second-class  parishes,  599  succursal  parishes,  53 
curacies  and  about  800  priests. 

Gallia  Christ,  (nova)  (1759),  XI,  1-121,  instr.  58;  Fisquet, 
La  France  pontificale  (Rouen,  Paris,  1866);  Duchesne,  Pastes 
ipiscopaux,  II,  200-11;  Sauvage,  Elenchi  episcoporum  Rotoma- 
gensium  in  Anal.  Boll.  VIII  (1889);  Fallue,  Histoire  politique 
el  religieuse  de  I'iglise  mitropolitaine  et  du  diocese  de  Rouen  (Rouen, 
1850);  Vacandard,  St  Victrice  Mque  de  Rouen  (Paris,  1903); 
Idem,  Vie  de  St  Ouen.  ivique  de  Rouen  (Paris,  1902);  Ch^ruel, 
Histoire  de  Rouen  sous  la  domination  anglaise  au  X  V'  siicle  (Rouen, 
1840);  Thierry,  Armorial  des  archeviques  de  Rouen  (Rouen, 
1864) ;  Loth,  Histoire  du  cardinal  de  la  Rochefoucauld  et  du  diocise 
de  Rouen  pendant  la  Revolution  (Rouen,  1893) ;  Cl^rambray,  La 
Terreur  d  Rouen  (Rouen,  1901);  Touoard,  Catalogue  des  saints 
du  diocise  de  Rouen  (Rouen,  1897) ;  Idem,  L'hagiographie  Rouen- 
naise  in  Revue  catholique  de  Normandie,  1909;  Lononon,  Pouillis 
de  la  province  de  Rouen  (Paris,  1903) ;  Palinods  prisenth  au  Puy 
de  Rouen,  ed.  Robllard  de  Beaurepaire  (Rouen,  1896) ;  Guiot, 
Les  trois  siMes  palinodiques  ou  histoire  ginirale  des  palinods,  ed. 
TouGARD  (Rouen,  1898) ;  Sarrazin,  Histoire  de  Rouen  d'aprhs  les 
miniatures  des  manuscrils  (Rouen,  1904) ;  Cook,  The  Story  of 
Rouen  (London,  1899) ;  Collette,  Histoire  du  brfviaire  de  Rouen 
(Rouen,  1902);  Enlart,  Rouen  (Paris,  1904);  Perkins,  The 
Churches  of  Rouen  (London,  1900);  Laaland,  A  Short  Guide  to 
Rouen  (Rouen,  1907);  Chevalier,  Topohibl.,  2618-28. 

Georges  Goyau. 

Rouen,  Synods  of. — The  first  synod  is  generally 
believed  to  have  been  held  by  Archbishop  Saint- 
Ouen  about  650.  Sixteen  of  its  decrees,  one  against 
simony,  the  others  on  liturgical  and  canonical  mat- 
ters, are  still  extant.  Pommeraye  (loc.  cit.  infra.) 
and  a  few  others  place  this  synod  in  the  second  half 
of  the  ninth  century.  Later  synods  were  presided 
over  by:  Archbishop  St.  Ansbert  some  time  between 
689-93;  Archbishop  Mauger  in  1048;  the  papal  legate 
Hermanfrid  of  Sitten  at  Lisieux  in  1055,  at  which 
Archbishop  Mauger  of  Rouen  was  deposed  for  his  loose 
morals;  Archbishop  Maurilius  in  1055,  which  drew  up  a 
creed  against  Berengarius  of  Tours  to  be  subscribed 
to  by  all  newly  elected  bishops;  Archbishop  John  of 
Bayeux,  one  in  1072  and  two  in  1074,  urging  ecclesiasti- 
cal reforms;  Archbishop  William  in  1096,  at  which  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Clermont  (1095)  were  pro- 
claimed; Archbishop  Goisfred  in  1118,  at  which  the 
papal  legate  Conrad  asked  the  assembled  prelates  and 
princes  to  support  Gelasius  II  against  Emperor  Henry 
Vand  his  antipope,  Burdinus  (Gregory  VIII) ;  the  same 
Archbishop  in  1119,  and  the  cardinal  legate  Matthew 
of  Albano,  in  1128,  to  enforce  clerical  celibacy;  Arch- 
bishop Gualterus  in  1190,  and  the  papal  legate  Robert 
de  CourQon,  in  1214,  to  urge  clerical  reform.  Other 
synods  were  held  in  1223,  1231,  1278,  1313,  1321, 
1335, 1342,  1445,  and  1581 .  The  synod  held  by  Arch- 
bishop Colbert  in  1699  condemned  F^nelon'a  "Ma- 
ximes  des  Saints".     The  last  provincial  synod  was 


ROUQUETTE 


212 


ROWSHAM 


held  by  Archbishop  Bailleul  in  1S30;   for  its  Acts  see 
"CoUectio  Lacensis",  IV,  513-36. 

Hefele,  Concitiengesch.;  Bessin,  Concilia  Rotomagensis  pro- 
Tincia:  (Rouen.  1717);  Pommeraye,  S.  Rotomag.  Eccles.  Concilia 
(Rouen.  1C77).  MiCHAEL  OtT. 

Rouquette,  Adrien,  b.  in  Louisiana  in  1813,  of 
French  parentage;  d.  as  a  missionary  among  the 
Choctaw  Indians  in  1887.  The  great  passion  of 
his  vouth  was  devotion  to  the  Choctaw  Indians. 
He  was  sent  north  in  1824  to  divert  his  mind  from 
his  savage  associates.  In  1829  he  was  sent  to  France 
and  finished  his  collegiate  studies  in  Paris,  Nantes, 
and  Rennes,  winning  his  baccalaureate  in  1833.  He 
returned  to  New  Orleans,  but  refused  to  mingle  in 
worldly  pleasures,  and  spent  much  time  alone  or 
among  his  Indian  friends.  Later  he  returned  to 
Paris  to  study  law,  but  preferred  hterature,  and 
returning  to  Louisiana,  led  a  desultory  life  until  1842. 
He  then  made  a  third  visit  to  France,  where  he  pub- 
hshed  his  first  poetic  es.say,  "Les  Savannes".  This 
was  well  received  and  he  returned  to  Louisiana  to 
become  editor  of  "Le  Propagateur  Catholique". 
Ere  long  he  found  his  true  vocation  and  was  ordained 
priest  in  1845.  Assigned  to  duty  at  the  Cathedral  of 
Saint  Louis,  at  New  Orleans,  his  eloquence  crowded 
the  building,  and  his  holy  life  commanded  the  love 
and  respect  of  all  denominations.  He  served  for  four- 
teen years  as  a  priest  at  New  Orleans,  then  suddenly, 
in  1859,  he  severed  all  connection  with  civihzation 
and  made  his  home  for  twenty-nine  years  as  a 
missionary  among  the  Choctaw  Indians  on  the  banks 
of  Bayou  La  Combe.  As  a  result  of  his  patient 
labours  he  won  many  converts  to  the  Faith.  Among 
his  pubhcations  are:  "La  Thebiade  de  L'Am^rique", 
"L'Antoniade",  "LaNouvelle  Atala",  "Wild  Flowers". 

S.  B.  Elder. 

Rousseau,  Jean-Baptiste,  a  French  poet,  b. 
in  Paris,  16  April,  1670;  d.  at  La  Genette,  near 
Brussels,  17  May,  1741.  Although  he  was  the  son  of 
a  shoemaker,  he  was  educated  with  the  greatest  care 
and  made  his  studies  at  the  Jesuit  College  of  Louis  le 
Grand,  Paris.  On 
account  of  his  wit, 
he  was  admitted  to 
the  most  exclusive 
salons.  After  a 
short  sojourn  in 
London,  as  pri- 
vate secretary  to 
the  French  am- 
bassador, Tallard, 
lif  fr('(iuontfd  the 
irrcligicMis  society 
whicli  gathered  at 
tlie  Temple,  the 
evil  influence  of 
which  caused  his 
misfortunes.  His 
first  dramatic  at- 
tempts were  fail- 
ures, but  his  epi- 
grams gained  him 
He  was  elected  to  the  Acad- 
and    Belles-Lettres    in    1700. 


-11aJ-I  I-  1  1.    llOL-.^^I-AC 

a  portrait  by  Rigaud 


a  great  reputation, 
erny  of  Inscriptions 
In  1710  he  was  accused  of  being  the  author  of 
"Couplets  infames",  a  libel  of  a  mo.st  licentious 
character.  Having  retorted  that  they  had  been 
written  by  Saurin,  he  was  sentenced  by  the  Parle- 
ment  to  pay  four  thousand  livres  damages  to 
Saurin,  and  soon  after  sent  to  exile.  He  went  first  to 
Switzerland,  where  he  was  sheltered  by  the  French 
ambassador,  Ojunt  de  Luc,  then  to  Vienna,  to  Prince 
Eugene's  Cfjurt,  and  finally  to  Brussels.  He  tried 
several  times  to  have  the  court's  decision  annulled, 
but  failed  because  of  the  hostility  of  Voltaire  and  a 
few  others.     His  works  consist  of:    (1)   a  comedy 


in  prose,  "Le  caf(5"  (1694),  two  operas,  "Jason" 
(1696)  and  "V6nus  et  Adonis"  (1697),  and  five 
comedies  in  verse,  only  two  of  which  were  produced 
on  the  stage,  "Le  flatteur"  (1696)  and  "Le  capri- 
cieux"  (1700);  (2)  four  books  of  odes,  the  first 
being  an  adaptation  of  the  Psalms,  two  books  of 
allegories  and  a  score  of  cantatas;  (3)  his  epigrams,the 
best  part  of  his  work,  which  will  secure  his  fame; 
(4)  his  letters.  His  works  were  repeatedly  reprinted 
from  1710  to  1820.  His  lyrics  are  not  esteemed  now, 
but  he  is  still  regarded  as  the  greatest  epigrammatist 
of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Brunetiere,  Manuel  de  I'hixt.  de  la  litl.  francaise  (Paris,  1899) ; 
Faguet,  Revue  des  cours  et  conferences  (Paris,  1899-1900). 

Louis  N.  Delamarre. 

Rovezzano,  Benedetto  da,  sculptor  and  architect, 
b.  in  1490,  either  at  Rovezzano,  near  Florence,  or, 
according  to  some  authorities,  at  Canapalc,  near 
Pistoia;  d.  at  Flor- 
ence, 1530.  His 
family  name  is  said 
to  have  been  Gra- 
tiniorGrazini.  One 
of  his  most  impor- 
tant works  was  the 
sculptures  for  the 
Church  of  St.  John 
Gualbertus  (1505); 
these  sculptures 
were  injured  during 
the  siege  of  Flor- 
ence, 1530.  The 
mutilated  frag- 
ments, five  reliefs 
from  the  life  of  the 
saint,  are  in  the  Bar- 
gello.  Benedetto 
executed  many 
tombs, chiefly  archi- 
tectural in  design, 
with  ornaments  in 
sculpture.  The 
monument  of  Odde  Altoviti,  Church  of  8S.  Apostoli, 
Florence,  done  in  1507,  is  by  him ;  the  monument  of  Piero 
Soderini  in  the  choir,  church  of  the  Carmine,  Florence; 
and  others.  Leo  X  sent  to  Card.  Wolsey  twelve  terra 
cotta  medallions  by  Rovezzano  and  the  sculptor  him- 
self went  to  England  in  1524.  The  cardinal  engaged 
him  upon  a  tomb  for  himself,  but  as  he  fell  into  dis- 
grace before  its  completion,  it  was  finished  by  the 
king's  order.  Charles  I  wished  to  be  buried  in  it, 
but  the  tomb  remained  empty  until  the  death  of 
Nelson.  Rovezzano  is  bclic^ved  to  have  acquired 
prosperity  in  I^ngland.  He  returned  to  Florencie  in 
later  life,  an(l  eiKlurcd  long  years  of  blindness  before 
his  death.  Further  works  are  the  altar  of  St.  Denis 
in  the  S.  Trinita,  Florence;  two  altars  in  the  church 
of  the  Badia;  door  of  Badia;  door  of  SS.  Apostoli; 
a  St.  John  in  marble  in  the  Duomo;  and  in  the 
Bargello,  marble  niches  from  the  Palazzo  Cepparcllo 
and  a  chimney  piece. 

Perkins,  Tuncan  Sculptors  (London,  1886);  Semper,  Hervor- 
ragende  Bildhauer,  Architekten  der  Renaiasance  (Dresden,  1880); 
Si.voer,  Allgemcines  Kilnsller  Lexicon  (Frankfort,  1901);  Boo 
CARDO,  Nuota  Enciclopedia  (Turin,  1888). 

M.  L.  Handley. 

Rowlands,  Richard.      See  Verstegan,  Richard. 

Rowsham,  Stephen,  a  native  of  Oxfordshire,  en- 
tered Oriel  {'olh'ge,  Oxford,  in  1572.  He  took  orders 
in  the  Kiiglish  Cliurch  and  was  minister  at  the  Univer- 
sity Church  about  157S,  but  becoming  convince(l  of 
the  truth  of  the  Catholic  religion  he  went  to  Reims 
(23  April,  15S1),  wh<!re  he  was  ordained  priest,  and 
sent  on  the  Kngli.sh  mission  (30  April,  1582).  Being 
recognized  almost  immediately  on  his  landing,  he  was 
apprehended  and  sent  to  the  Tower,  19  May,  1582, 


ROY 


213 


ROYER-COLLARD 


and  remained  a  prisoner  for  more  than  three  years, 
during  half  of  which  time  (14  Aug.,  1582,  until  12 
Feb.,  1584)  he  was  confined  to  the  dungeon  known  as 
the  "Little  Ease".  On  the  latter  date  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Marshalsea,  from  which  prison  he  was 
carried  into  exile  in  the  autumn  of  1585.  He  arrived 
at  Reims,  8  October,  but  set  out  for  England  again, 
7  Feb.,  1586.  The  field  of  his  labours,  which  were 
continued  for  about  a  year,  was  in  the  west  of  Eng- 
land. He  was  taken  at  the  house  of  the  Widow 
Strange  in  Gloucestershire.  His  trial  and  martyrdom 
were  at  Gloucester  in  March,  1586-87. 

Douay  Diaries;  Reg.  Univ.  Oxon.;  Rishton,  Diarium  in  Turri- 
Londin;  Pollen.  Acts  of  Eng.  Martyrs  (London,  1891);  Prison 
Lists,  II  (Catholic  Record  Society). 

J.  L.  Whitfield. 
Roy,  Paul  Eugene.    See  Quebec,  Archdiocese 

OF. 

Royal  Declaration,  The. — This  is  the  name 
most  commonly  given  to  the  solemn  repudiation  of 
Catholicity  which,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions 
of  the  "Bill  of  Rights"  (1689)  and  of  "the  Act  of 
Succession"  (1700),  every  sovereign  succeeding  to 
the  throne  of  Great  Britain  was,  until  quite  recently, 
required  to  make  in  the  presence  of  the  assembled 
Lords  and  Commons.  This  pronouncement  has 
also  often  been  called  "the  King's  Protestant  Declara- 
tion" or  "the  Declaration  against  Transubstantia- 
tion"  and  (but  quite  incorrectly)  "the  Coronation 
Oath".  With  regard  to  this  last  term  it  is  important 
to  notice  that  the  later  coronation  oath,  which  for 
two  centuries  has  formed  part  of  the  coronation 
service  and  which  still  remains  unchanged,  consists 
only  of  certain  promises  to  govern  justly  and  to 
maintain  "the  Protestant  Reformed  Religion  es- 
tablished by  Law".  No  serious  exception  has  ever 
been  taken  by  Catholics  to  this  particular  formula, 
but  the  Royal  Declaration,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
regarded  for  long  years  as  a  substantial  grievance, 
constituting  as  it  did  an  insult  to  the  faith  professed 
by  many  millions  of  loyal  subjects  of  the  British 
Crown.  The  terms  of  this  Declaration,  which  from 
1689  to  1910  was  imposed  upon  the  sovereign  by 
statute,  ran  as  follows:  "I,  A.  B.,  by  the  grace 
of  God  King  (or  Queen)  of  England,  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  Defender  of  the  Faith,  do  solemnly  and 
sincerely  in  the  presence  of  God,  profess,  testify, 
and  declare,  that  I  do  believe  that  in  the  Sacrament 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  there  is  not  any  Transubstantia- 
tion  of  the  elements  of  bread  and  wine  into  the  Body 
and  Blood  of  Christ  at  or  after  the  consecration 
thereof  by  any  person  whatsoever:  and  that  the  invo- 
cation or  adoration  of  the  Virgin  Mary  or  any  other 
Saint,  and  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Ma.ss,  as  they  are  now 
used  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  are  superstitious  and  idol- 
atrous. And  I  do  solemnly  in  the  presence  of  God  pro- 
fess, testify,  and  declare  that  I  do  make  this  declara- 
tion, and  every  part  thereof,  in  the  plain  and  ordinary 
sense  of  the  words  read  unto  me,  as  they  are  com- 
monly understood  by  English  Protestants,  without  any 
evasion,  equivocation,  or  mental  reservation  whatso- 
ever, and  without  any  dispensation  already  granted 
me  by  the  Pope,  or  any  other  authority  or  person 
whatsoever,  or  without  any  hope  of  any  such  dispen- 
sation from  any  person  or  authority  whatsoever, 
or  without  thinking  that  I  am  or  can  be  acquittetl 
before  God  or  man,  or  absolved  of  this  declaration 
or  any  part  thereof,  although  the  Pope,  or  any  other 
person  or  persons,  or  power  whatsoever,  should  dis- 
pense with  or  annul  the  same  or  declare  that  it 
was  null  and  void  from  the  beginning." 

The  terms  of  the  document  are  important,  for  even 
the  extravagant  and  involved  wording  of  the  "long 
rigmarole"  at  the  end  added  much  to  the  sense  of 
studied  insult  conveyed  by  the  whole  formula.  Not 
only  is  the  Mass  stigmatized  as  idolatrous,  but  a 
false  statement  of  Cathohc  doctrine  is  impUed  in 


the  reference  to  the  "adoration"  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
and  the  saints  "as  now  used  in  the  Church  of  Rome", 
while  the  existence  of  a  supposed  dispensing  power  is 
assumed  which  the  Cathohc  Church  has  never  as- 
serted. What  added  still  more  to  the  just  resent- 
ment of  Cathohcs  at  the  continued  retention  of  the 
Declaration  was  the  consciousness  that,  in  the  words 
of  Lingard,  it  owed  its  origin  "to  the  perjuries  of  an 
impostor  and  the  delusion  of  a  nation".  The  for- 
mula was  not  one  drafted  by  a  Parliament  in  its 
sober  senses.  With  the  object  of  excluding  Cathohcs 
from  the  throne,  the  Bill  of  Rights,  after  the  deposi- 
tion of  James  II  in  1689,  exacted  of  the  monarch  a 
profession  of  faith  or  "Test".  The  test  selected  was 
one  which  already  stood  in  the  statute  book,  and 
which  was  first  placed  there  during  the  frenzy  excited 
by  the  supposed  Popish  Plot  of  1678.  It  was  amid 
the  panic  created  by  the  fabrications  of  Titus  Gates, 
that  this  Test  was  drafted  (not  improbably  by  Gates 
himself),  and  it  was  imposed  upon  all  officials  and 
pubhc  servants,  thus  effectually  excluding  Catholics 
from  Parliament  and  positions  of  trust.  By  a  curious 
inversion  of  history  the  declaration  which  was  drawn 
up  in  1678  to  be  taken  by  every  official  except  the 
king,  had  come  two  hundred  years  later  to  be  exacted 
only  of  the  king  and  of  no  one  else.  Although  state- 
ments have  been  made  contending  that  the  substance 
of  the  Royal  Declaration  is  older  than  Titus  Gates' 
time,  an  examination  of  these  earlier  formulae  shows 
little  to  support  such  a  conclusion  (see  a  full  discus- 
sion in  "The  Tablet",  13  Aug.,  1910,  p.  243).  A 
brief  account  of  these  formula),  and  of  the  attempts 
which  were  made  in  1891  and  subsequent  years  to 
abolish  or  modify  the  Royal  Declaration,  has  already 
been  given  in  the  article  Oaths.  It  will  be  sufficient 
to  cite  here  the  terms  of  the  new  Declaration  which 
was  formally  carried  by  Mr.  Asquith's  Government 
in  August,  1910,  in  time  to  relieve  King  George  V 
from  the  necessity  of  wounding  the  feelings  of  his 
Catholic  subjects  by  a  repetition  of  the  old  formula. 
In  virtue  of  Air.  Asquith's  "Accession  Declaration  Act " 
the  brief  statement,  which  now  replaces  that  quoted 
above,  runs  as  follows:  "I,N,  do  solemnly  and  sin- 
cerely in  the  presence  of  God,  profess,  testify  and 
declare  that  I  am  a  faithful  Protestant,  and  that  I 
will,  according  to  the  true  intent  of  the  enactments 
to  secure  the  Protestant  Succession  to  the  Throne 
of  my  realm,  uphold  and  maintain  such  enactments 
to  the  best  of  my  power." 

See  sections  IV  and  V  of  the  bibliography  under  the  article 
Oaths;  Thurston  in  Dublin  Review  (Oct.,  1909),  225-38; 
The  Tablet  (London,  July  and  August,  1910),  passim. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Royer-CoUard,  Pierre-Paul,  philosopher  and 
French  politician,  b.  at  Sompuis  (Marne),  21  June, 
1763;  d.  at  Chateauvieux  (Loire  et  Cher),  4  Septem- 
ber, 1845.  An  advocate  under  the  ancient  regime,  and 
assistant  registrar  of  the  municipality  of  Paris  from 
1790  till  1792,  he  withdrew  to  La  Marne  during  the 
Terror.  In  1797  he  represented  La  Marne  in  the 
Council  of  the  Five  Hundred  (Cinq-Cents)  and  be- 
came prominent  through  a  celebrated  discourse  in 
which  he  demanded  liberty  for  the  Catholic  religion, 
"which  rallied  under  its  ancient  standards  seven- 
eighths  of  the  French  people",  and  accused  of  "pro- 
found folly"  those  who  wished  to  substitute  "I  know 
not  what  philosophical  silliness".  Driven  from  the 
council  by  the  stroke  of  the  18  Fructidor,  he  turned 
to  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  and  began  a  cor- 
respondence with  Louis  XVIII;  he  was  even,  up  to 
1804,  a  member  of  a  secret  council  which  sent  messages 
to  the  future  king.  Under  the  empire  he  withdrew 
from  public  life,  but  accepted  from  Napoleon  (Decem- 
ber, 1809)  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  the  Sorbonne. 
His  teaching,  which  was  influenced  by  the  School  of 
Reid,  marked  a  reaction  against  the  sensualism  of  the 
eighteenth  century.     He  held  to  a  certain  spiritual- 


ROZSNYO 


214 


RUBENS 


ism,  based  on  "common  sense",  and  an  "under- 
standing of  human  weakness".  Under  the  Restora- 
tion he  again  took  up  pohtics;  he  became  deputy 
and  wiis  president  for  five  years  of  the  Committee 
of  PubHc  Instruction  as  counsellor  of  state.  As 
deputy  he  opposed  both  the  intrigues  of  the  Ultras, 
and  the  anti-constitutional  manoeuvres  of  the  Left. 
His  discourses  on  the  religious  laws  of  the  epoch 
show  that  he  was  inclined  to  admit,  as  a  consequence 
of  the  Concordat,  the  interference  of  the  State  in 
Church  matters.  Educated  by  a  Jansenist  mother, 
and  declaring  voluntarily  that  "whoever  did  not 
know  Port-Royal  did  not  know  humanity",  he 
preserved  certain  prejudices  against  Roman  in- 
fluence and  gave  expression  to  them  in  his  discourses. 
He  opposed  the  law  punishing  sacrilege  with  death, 
and  the  laws  restraining  the  hberty  of  the  Press. 
In  1827  he  was 
elected  by  seven 
electoral  colleges, 
became  ]iresident 
of  the  Chamber  in 
lS2S,and  presented 
to  Charles  X  in 
lS:iO  the  address 
of  the  two  hundred 
and  twenty-one  in 
which  the  Chamber 
re-fused  to  accept 
Polignac.  Royer- 
Collard  described 
himself  when  he 
wrote  to  Barante 
(19  Sept.,  1833): 
"My  only  vocation 
as  a  liberal  was  on 
the  side  of  the  Legi- 
timists". For  the 
Pierre-Paci,  Royer-Collard  "doctrinaires"     of 

From  a  portrait  by  Maurin  whom    he  WaS  '  the 

head,  the  legitimist  monarchy  without  liberty  was 
an  arbitrary  absolutism,  liberty  without  the  legiti- 
mist monarchy,  anarchy.  Under  the  monarchy  of 
July  he  continued  as  deputy,  but  only  as  a  spec- 
tator. The  "Restoration",  writes  Barante,  "was 
for  him  a  country",  and  from  1830  this  country  no 
longer  existed.  He  resigned  from  the  Chamber  in 
1842,  and  pa.ssed  his  last  jears  in  retirement,  but 
his  disciples,  both  in  philosophy  and  politics — 
Jouffroy,  Cousin,  Guizot,  Remusat — perpetuated 
the  influence  of  certain  of  his  writings;  and  M. 
Paguet  declares  that  in  the.se  one  must  .seek  "the 
most  penetrating,  the  most  solid,  and  the  most  far- 
seeing  doctrine  on  parliamentary  government". 
This  he  developed  witli  a  grave,  austere  elo(juence, 
trusting  to  logic  for  its  strength.  Whilst  during  the 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  word  "liberal" 
was  generally  sj'nonymous  with  Voltaireanism  and 
hostility  to  the  Jesuits,  certain  speeches  of  Royer- 
Collard  quoted  by  Barante  .show  that  this  liberal, 
esiKJcially  in  his  later  years,  professed  a  deferential 
attaf;hment  for  the  Church.  "If  Christianity",  he 
wrote,  "has  h(ten  a  degradation,  a  corruption, 
Vfjltaire  in  attacking  it  has  been  a  benefactor  of  the 
human  race;  but  if  the  contrary  be  true,  (hen  the 
passing  of  Voltaire  over  the  Christian  earth  has  been 
a  great  calamity. "  In  a  Ic!tter  to  P^re  de  Ravignan  he 
comments  upon  the  institution  of  the  Jesuits  as  a 
wonderful  creation.  His  death  was  that  of  a  pro- 
fessing and  believing  Catholic.  He  was  the  incama^ 
tion  of  the  upper  middle  class  of  his  time.  He  was 
a  member  of  th«!  French  Aca<lemy  from  1827. 

JotTFROT,  (Euvre.n  lie  Thonuin  ReuJ,  III,  IV  (Parifl,  1828-30) , 
coritairiH  nf>me  U^muwt  in  philosophy  and  hiHtoripal  fragments  by 
Koypr-f bollard;  I)e  Barantb,  hi  vie  j)otilu/ue  fie  M.  de  Royer- 
ColUtrii.  Ken  iHhcouth  rt  net  frritn  (2  voIh.,  PariH,  18(11);  Faouet, 
PolUuiU*H  et  mtrraliHle.ii  ilu  lU  Hiirle,  firnt  wricH  (PariH,  1891); 
Spclleb.  Royer^.-oUard  (189.5).  GeOH(JE8   GoYAU. 


Rozsnyo.     See  Rosenau,  Diocese  op. 

Ruadhan,  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve  "Apostles  of 
Erin"  (q.  v.);  d.  at  the  monastery  of  Lorrha,  Co. 
Tipperary,  Ireland,  5  April,  584.  Ruadhan  studied 
under  Saint  Finian  of  Clonard.  His  embassy  to  King 
Dermot  at  Tara,  in  556,  is  worked  into  a  lomance 
known  as  the  "Cursing  of  Tara",  but  the  ardri  con- 
tinued to  reside  at  Tara  till  his  death  (564).  The 
legend  as  to  Tara's  halls  having  been  deserted  after 
564  is  of  comparatively  late  origin,  and  is  contra- 
dicted by  the  fact  that  a  Feis  was  held  at  Tara  in  697. 
St.  Ruadhan  founded  the  monastery  of  Lorrha.  His 
bell  is  preserved  in  the  British  Museum;  St.  Rua- 
dhan's  feast  is  kejit  on  the  anniversary  of  his  death. 

O'Hanlon,  Lives  of  the  Irish  Saints,  IV  (Dublin,  s.  d.);  Hbaly, 
Ireland's  Ancient  Schools  and  Scholars  (4th  ed.,  Dublin,  1902); 
Ua  Clerigh,  History  of  Ireland  (London,  1908). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 
Rubeis,  Bernardusde.     See  Rossi,  Bernardo  de. 

Ruben  [Reuben],  a  proper  name  which  designates 
in  the  Bible:  (I)  a  patriarch;  (II)  a  tribe  of  Israel. 
I.  Ruben,  a  patriarch,  Jacob's  eldest  son  (Gen., 
xlvi,  8;  xlix,  3)  by  Lia,  was  born  in  Mesopotamia,  and 
called  Ruben  ("see  ye,  a  son")  as  an  allusion  to  Lia's 
distress  because  of  Jacob's  previous  dislike  of  her: 
"The  Lord  saw  my  affliction:  now  my  hu.sband  will 
love  me"  (Gen.,  xxix,  32).  Ruben  was  deprived  of 
his  birthright  in  punishment  of  an  incest  which  he 
committed  in  Chanaan  (Gen.,  xxxv,  22;  xlix,  4). 
It  was  at  his  suggestion  that  instead  of  killing  Joseph, 
his  brothers  threw  the  latter  into  a  pit,  whence  Ruben 
vainl}^  hoped  to  rescue  him  (Gen.,  xxxvii,  18-24; 
29-30;  xlii,  22).  When  Jacob  refused  to  allow 
Benjamin  to  go  to  Egypt  with  his  brothers,  Ruben 
offered  two  of  his  sons  as  a  pledge  that  lienjamin 
would  be  brought  back  (Gen.,  xlii,  37).  To  these  few 
biblical  data  concerning  Jacob's  firstborn,  numerous 
and  worthless  Haggadic  details  are  added  in  rab- 
binical and  apocryphal  literature. 

II.  Ruben,  a  Tribe  of  Israel,  situated  east  of 
Jordan,  and  sharing  with  the  tribe  of  Gad,  the  original 
territory  of  the  Amorrhite  king,  Sehon,  between  the 
Arnon  and  the  Jeboc  and  as  far  east  as  Jaser,  the 
border  of  the  Ammonites.  The  respective  lot  of 
Ruben  and  Gad  cannot  be  given  with  perfect  ac- 
curacy (see  Gad),  although  on  the  basis  of  Jos.,  xiii, 
15-23,  Ruben's  territorial  possessions  are  usually 
described  as  on  the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  Jordan, 
between  (jad  on  the  north  and  Moab  on  the  south. 
Among  the  prominent  towns  of  the  Rubenites  were 
Baalmaon,  Bethphogor,  Cariathaim,  Dibon,  Hesebon, 
Jassa,  Medaba,  and  Sabama.  During  the  journey 
through  the  wilderness,  the  tribe  of  Ruben  counted 
over  40,000  men  (Num.,  i,  21;  xxvi,  7)  and  marched 
with  Gad  and  Simeon  on  the  south  side  of  Israel. 
To  the  same  period  are  referred  the  rebellion  of  the 
Rubenit(>  chiefs,  Duthan  and  Abiron,  against  Moses, 
and  its  signal  i)uiiishment  (Num.,  xvi;  Deut.,  xi,  6). 
After  contributing  to  the  conquest  of  Western 
Palestine;  and  sharing  in  the  various  incidents  con- 
ne(;ted  with  the  erection  of  a  great  altar,  the  de- 
scendants of  Ruben  settled  in  a  district  favourable 
to  pastoral  pursuits  (Num.,  xxxii;  Jos.,  xxii).  To- 
gether with  the  Gadites,  they  held  aloof  from  the 
war  against  Sisara  (Judges,  v),  were  smitten  by 
Hazael  (IV  Kings,  x,  32-3),  and  carried  into  cap- 
tivity by  Teglathphala.sar  (734  b.  c).  The  Ruben- 
ites were  pre-eminently  a  pastoral  race,  little  fitted 
to  resist  invasion,  and  several  of  their  cities  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Moab  (q.  v.)  long  before  the  tribes  east 
of  Jordan  were  carried  captive  by  the  Assyrians 
(cf.  Is.,  xv;   Meha). 

Francis  E.  CJuiot. 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul,  eminent  Flemish  painter, 
b.  at  Siegen,  Westphalia,  28  June,  1577;   d.  at  Ant- 


RUBENS 


215 


RUBENS 


werp,  30  May,  1640.  His  father,  Jan  Rubens,  a 
lawyer  and  alderman  of  Antwerp,  was  a  Protestant 
who  had  fled  from  his  native  city  to  Cologne  at  the 
time  that  the  Spanish  governor  was  making  strong 
efforts  to  extirpate  heresy  in  Flanders.  After 
various  troublous  experiences  in  connexion  with  the 
Dutch  army,  with  the  wife  of  Prince  William  of 
Orange,  and  following  upon  more  than  one  im- 
prisonment, the  father,  who  had  temporarily  to  leave 
Cologne,  returned  to  that  city,  where  Peter  Paul 
commenced  his  studies.  His  mother,  Maria  Pype- 
Unx,  had  continued  a  Cathohc,  although  she  tem- 
porarily concealed  the  fact  during  her  aggressive 
husband's  life,  but  she  insisted  upon  the  boy's  educa- 
tion at  a  Jesuit  school.  She  herself  was  formally 
received  back  into  the  Catholic  Church,  immediately 
upon  the  death  of  the  elder  Rubens,  when,  though 
in  reduced  circumstances,  she 
was  able  to  return  to  Ant- 
werp. From  her  and  from 
his  schoolmaster  Rombout 
Verdonck,  Rubens  acquired 
the  strong  religious  character 
which  marked  the  whole  of  his 
career.  His  earliest  days  were 
passed  as  a  page  in  the  house- 
hold of  a  princess,  the.  widow 
of  Count  van  Lalaing,  former 
Governor  of  Antwerp.  When 
nearly  thirteen  the  young  Ru- 
bens was  sent  to  the  studio  of 
Tobias  Vcrhaecht,  and  thence 
quickly  removed  to  study  under 
Adam  van  Noort  where  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Jor- 
daens,  a  fellow-pupil  in  the 
same  studio  and  a  lifelong 
friend  of  the  great  artist.  He 
soon  went  to  a  third  studio, 
that  of  Otto  van  Veen,  and 
remained  with  this  last  master 
until  1598,  when  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Painters'  (luild 
of  Antwerp,  and  started  on  his 
fir.st  journey  to  Italy  (ItiOOi. 

He  carried  introductions  to 
the  Duke  of  Mantua,  Vincenzo  Peter  Pa 

Gonzaga,  received  his  patron-  .self-portra.t. 

age,  and  was  sent  by  him  to  Florence,  Genoa,  and  Rome 
to  carry  out  important  commissions.  He  then  returned 
to  Mantua  and  was  sent  to  Spain  in  charge  of  certain 
portraits  intended  as  diplomatic  presents.  On  his 
return  to  Italy  he  entered  into  the  Duke's  per- 
manent service,  but  was  permitted  to  spend  con- 
siderable time  in  Rome  where  he  continued  his  studies. 
In  1608  he  left  Italy  and  returned  to  his  own  city  of 
Antwerp,  where  he  married  Isabella  Brant  and  settled 
down  as  an  artist  of  great  renown.  He  joined  more 
than  one  religious  guild  connected  with  the  local 
churches,  and  especially  became  attached  to  that  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  in  honour  of  whose  great  fes- 
tival on  the  day  of  his  birth,  Rubens  had  received 
his  two  Christian  names.  At  this  tirne  he  com- 
menced his  great  house,  splendidly  built,  lavishly 
decorated,  and  installed  with  many  fine  treasures 
which  he  had  ac-quired  in  Italy.  He  Uved  there  in 
great  luxury,  full  of  commissions,  and  surrounded 
by  a  host  of  pupils,  among  whom  was  Anthony  van 
Dyck  who  rivalled  and  even  surpassed  him  in  por- 
traiture, and  the  eminent  painters  Jordaens,  Snyders, 
de  Vos,  and  Justus  von  Egmont. 

Here  his  two  sons,  Albert  and  Nicholas,  were  born. 
In  1622  he  was  commissioned  to  paint  the  great 
pictures  representing  Marie  de'  Medici,  now  in  a 
gallery  in  the  Louvre;  this  occupied  him  for  two 
years.  His  wife  died  in  1626,  and  four  years  after, 
he  married  Helena  Fourment,  the  daughter  of  Isabella 


Brant's  sister.  Meantime,  he  had  become  painter- 
in-ordinary  to  the  new  Governor  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands,  the  Infanta  Isabella,  who  kept  him  very 
busy,  both  as  artist  and  diplomatist,  for  which  his 
courtliness  and  sweetness  of  manner  particularly 
fitted  him.  In  1629  he  was  sent  to  London  by  the 
Count  Olivares  by  way  of  Brussels  and  Paris,  and  was 
knighted  by  Charles  I  on  21  February,  1629-30. 
After  his  second  marriage  he  purchased  a  great  house 
near  Mechlin  and  there  prepared  his  designs  for  the 
pageant  intended  to  commemorate  the  triumphal 
entry  into  Antwerp  of  the  new  governor.  Archduke 
Ferdinand.  This  governor  made  him  Court  painter 
and  showered  various  commissions  upon  him,  among 
them  the  decorations  of  a  shooting  box  which  the 
King  of  Spain  was  at  that  time  erecting  near  Madrid. 
By  this  time  Rubens'  wonderful  energy  and  health 
were  so  broken,  that  many  of 
his  later  pictures  were  executed 
by  his  pupils  under  his  super- 
vision and  are  to  a  very  slight 
extent  his  own  work. 

He  had  become  a  man  of 
considerable  means  through 
countless  commissions  not  only 
in  painting  and  designing  pic- 
tures, but  in  etching,  silver 
point  work,  preparing  designs 
for  tapestry,  engraving  on  sil- 
ver, and  scheming  the  entire 
decoration  for  the  wonderful 
pageants  that  were  a  feature 
of  his  jieriod  and  country.  A 
man  of  j)n)(ligi<)us  energy  and 
()verpow(M-ing  enthusiasm,  he 
was  the  author  of  perhaps  a 
larger  luimber  of  huge  pictures 
than  can  be  attributed  to  any 
other  painter,  and  though  very 
many  of  his  works  were  en- 
tirely executed  by  his  own 
hand,  he  trained  his  pupils  to 
so  skilfully  copy  his  methods 
and  carry  out  his  ideas  that  in 
many  cases  all  the  rough  and 
bolder  work  of  the  picture  was 
executed  by  them,  he  himself 
applying  the  final  details  and 
glazes,  which  enabled  the  picture  to  be  declared  a  mas- 
terpiece and  gave  to  it  that  quality  which  his  hand 
alone  could  supply.  The  best  of  his  religious  work  is 
at  .\ntwerp,  but  the  twenty-two  pictures  representing 
the  history  of  Marie  de'  Medici,  on  all  of  which  he  is 
supposed  to  have  worked  to  a  certain  extent,  stand 
supreme  in  decorative  work.  Several  of  his.  finest  por- 
traits are  in  Madrid,  others  in  Munich,  and  one  or 
two  of  his  masterpieces  in  the  National  Gallery  in 
London,  but  almost  all  the  great  galleries  of  Europe 
contain  representative  examples  of  his  work.  Dres- 
den, Brussels,  Frankfort,  St.  Petersburg,  Vienna,  Ber- 
lin, Florence,  and  Windsor  must  all  be  visited  if  any 
adequate  idea  of  the  output  of  this  extraordinary  and 
remarkable  painter  is  to  be  obtained. 

He  has  been  the  subject  of  many  biographies  and  of 
constant  research.  He  is  always  somewhat  of  a 
mystery,  for  at  first  one  is  depressed  by  his  very 
exuberance,  his  unbridled  artistic  frenzy,  and  the 
vast  show  of  flesh  and  power  which  characterize  his 
pictures,  while  to  many  who  love  tenderness,  mysti- 
cism, a  sensitive  quahty,  and  stately  dignity,  his 
impropriety  and  exaggerated  enthusiasm  is  repugnant. 
Some  of  the  greatest  artists,  such  as  Rossetti,  were  in 
their  early  days  unable  to  understand  the  anomalies 
in  the  art  of  Rubens  or  to  appreciate  his  greatest 
pictures  even  in  their  most  lenient  moods.  There  is 
such  an  abundant  glory,  such  powerful  organic  life  in 
the  work  of  this  majestic  colourist,  that  his  pictures 


UL   RCBKNS 

UfBzi,  Florence 


RUBRICS 


216 


RUBRICS 


are  not  easy  to  appreciate  until  one  is  practically 
vanquished "  by  the  glory  of  their  colour  and  the 
luxuriance  of  their  unrestraint.  A  deeper  considera- 
tion awakens  fuller  appreciation  and  the  marvellous 
conceptions  of  the  artist  and  his  exuberant  ideas  of 
magnificence  impress  and  reveal  the  high  position  of 
the  painter. 

In  his  drawings  he  is  almost  supreme.  His  religious 
pictures,  when  properly  regarded  and  thoughtfully 
understood,  are  impressive  in  their  intense  religious 
quality  apart  from  the  fury  of  colour  and  extrav- 
agance. His  portraits  are  triumphant,  sometimes 
perhaps  sensual,  often  dreamy,  always  impressive. 
He  is  unequalled  as  to  colours,  and  though  fuller  of 
the  delights  of  earth  than  of  heaven,  yet  when  the 
nature  of  the  man  is  understood  the  intensely  devout 
quaUty  of  his  beautiful  reUgious  pictures  can  be  appre- 
ciated. It  is,  however,  as  a  draughtsman  and  colour- 
ist,  as  a  master  of  pageant  and  a  decorator  of  the 
highest  position  that  the  fame  of  Rubens  has  been 
created. 

Michel,  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Rubens  (Brussels,  1771); 
Gachet,  Letters  of  Rubens  (Brussels,  1840) ;  Rooses,  The  Work 
of  Rubens  (Antwerp,  1886);  Wacters,  The  Flemish  .School  of 
PairUing  (London,  1885).  See  also  various  catalogues  of  Rubens 
exhibitions  and  articles  upon  him,  specially  those  by  Waagen, 
Saixsbdrv,  and  Ruelens. 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Rubrics. — I.  Idea. — Among  the  ancients,  accord- 
ing to  Columella,  Vitruvius,  and  Pliny,  the  word 
rubrica,  rubric,  signified  the  red  earth  used  by  carpen- 
ters to  mark  on  wood  the  line  to  follow  in  cutting  it; 
according  to  Juvenal  the  same  name  was  applied  to 
the  red  titles  under  which  the  jurisconsults  arranged 
the  announcements  of  laws.  Soon  the  red  colour,  at 
first  used  exclusively  for  writing  the  titles,  passed  to 
the  indications  or  remarks  made  on  a  given  text.  This 
custom  was  adopted  in  liturgical  collections  to  dis- 
tinguish from  the  formula  of  the  prayers  the  instruc- 
tions and  indications  which  should  regulate  their 
recitation,  so  that  the  word  rubric  has  become  the 
consecrated  term  for  the  rules  concerning  Divine 
service  or  the  administration  of  the  sacraments. 
Gavanti  said  that  the  word  appeared  for  the  first  time 
in  this  sense  in  the  Roman  Breviary  printed  at  Venice 
in  1550,  but  it  is  found  in  MSS,  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, such  as  4.397  of  the  Vatican  Library,  fol.  227-28; 
see  also  the  fifteenth-century  "Ordo  Romanus"  of 
Peter  Amelius.  The  word  is  used  sometimes  to  indi- 
cate the  general  laws,  sometimes  to  mark  a  particular 
indication,  but  always  to  furnish  an  explanation  of  the 
use  of  the  text,  hence  the  saying:  Lege  rubrum  si  vis 
int«lligere  nigrum  (read  the  red  if  j-ou  would  under- 
stand the  black).  Thus  in  liturgical  books  the  red 
characters  indicate  what  should  be  done,  the  black 
what  should  be  recited,  and  the  Rubrics  may  be  de- 
fined as:  the  rules  laid  down  for  the  recitation  of  the 
Di%'ine  Office,  the  celebration  of  Mass,  and  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  sacraments.  In  some  respects  the 
rubrics  resemble  ceremonies,  but  they  differ  inasmuch 
as  the  ceremonies  are  external  attitudes,  actions  con- 
sidered as  accidental  rites  and  movements,  while  the 
Rubrics  bear  on  the  essential  rite. 

1 1 .  Kinds. — Writers  distinguish  between  the  rubrics 
of  the  Breviary,  the  Missal,  and  the  Ritual,  according 
as  the  matter  regulated  concerns  the  Divine  Ofl^ice,  the 
Mass,  or  the  sacraments;  and  again  between  essential 
and  accidental  rubrics  according  Jis  they  relate  to  what  is 
of  necessity  or  to  ext^-rnal  circumstances  in  t  he  act  which 
they  regulate,  ftc  But  the  chief  distinction  seems  to 
be  that  which  divides  them  into  general  and  particular 
rubrics.  The  first  are  the  rules  common  to  the  same 
sacred  function,  e.  g.  those  which  re^rijlate  the  recita- 
tion of  the  Divine  Office,  whether  considered  as  a 
whole,  in  its  chief  parts,  or  in  its  secondary  parts; 
they  are  at  prf«ent  printed  under  thirty-four  titles  in 
the  editions  of  the  Roman  Breviary  at  the  head  of  the 
part  for  autumn;  those  which  regulate  the  celebration 


of  Mass  printed  at  the  beginning  of  the  Roman  Missal 
(twenty  titles  containing  the  general  rules,  thirteen 
others  giving  the  rite  to  be  followed  in  the  celebration, 
and  ten  others  explaining  the  defects  which  may 
occur);  those  which  regulate  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments  (given  by  the  Ritual  at  the  beginning 
of  each  of  the  sacraments,  as  also  by  the  Pontifical 
for  the  sacraments  administered  by  a  bishop).  The 
particular  rubrics  are  the  special  rules  which  determine 
during  the  course  of  the  action  what  must  be  done  at 
each  period  of  the  year,  on  certain  fixed  days,  as  the 
days  of  Holy  Week,  or  when  a  particular  formula  is 
recited.  They  are  inserted  in  the  midst  of  the  form- 
ulaj  of  Breviary,  Missal,  or  Ritual. 

III.  Origin  and  Development. — The  Rubrics  are  as 
ancient  as  the  Offices  themselves.  They  were  long 
transmitted  by  oral  tradition  and  when  they  were 
consigned  to  wTiting  it  was  not  in  the  fulness  known 
to  us.  Like  the  various  elements  of  the  Divine  Office 
and  the  Mass,  the  manner  of  celebrating  them  had  at 
first  a  local  character;  there  were  observances  peculiar 
to  certain  churches.  Thus  St.  Cyprian  (Ep.  Ivi,  in 
P.  L.,  IV,  410)  mentions  the  peculiarities  of  Carthage 
in  the  administration  of  the  sacraments;  St. Augustine 
in  his  reply  to  Januarius  (Ep.  Iv,  in  P.  L.,  XXXIII, 
204)  treats  at  length  the  rites  of  the  Church,  those 
which  might  under  no  circumstances  be  neglected  and 
those  which  might  be  discontinued;  St.  Gregory  the 
Great,  writing  to  St.  Augustine  of  Canterbury  (XI, 
Ixiv,  in  P.  L.,  LXXVII,  1186)  suggests  to  him  the 
same  wise  direction  with  regard  to  local  practices. 
It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  period  at  which  these 
rules  were  consigned  to  writing.  The  ancient  Sacra- 
mentaries,  the  MSS.  Missals,  and  even  the  early 
printed  Missals  contain  some,  but  very  few,  rubrics. 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  they  were  con- 
tained in  special  collections  known  as  Ordinaries, 
Directories,  and  Rituals.  An  Ordo  Romanus  has  been 
attributed  to  Gregory  the  Great  (see  Liturgical 
Books),  but  it  is  difficult  to  say  what  it  was.  Relying 
on  the  "Ordines  Romani"  published  by  Mabillon, 
leather  Grisar  (Civilta  Cattolica,  20  May,  1905)  gives 
the  oldest  description  of  the  solemn  pontifical  Mass 
as  dating  from  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  the  Great. 
Hittorp's  publication  has  been  much  discussed.  Cardi- 
nal Bona  (De  divina  psalmodia,  i,  604)  regarding  the 
collection  as  very  ancient  but  overloaded  with  the 
ceremonies  of  subsequent  ages,  which  is  the  case  with 
all  the  ritualistic  books.  Cardinal  Tommasi  (Opera, 
IV,  p.  xxxv)  characterizes  it  as  a  confused  mass  in 
which  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  the  most  ancient 
and  authentic  practices.  In  this  primitive  state 
rubrics  and  ceremonies  were  generally  mingled. 

There  were  no  rubricists  until  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries.  At  first  they  were  comjiilers  and 
worked  on  separate  parts.  Cardinal  Quign6nez  found 
the  ancient  rubrics  obscure  and  confused;  the  new 
rubrics  which  still  exist  with  some  additions  and 
alterations  form  an  excellent  exposition  borrowed  from 
the  "Directorium  OflUcii  Divini",  published  in  1540 
by  the  Franciscan  L.  Ciconialano  with  the  approval 
of  Paul  III.  In  1502,  under  Leo  X,  Burchard  edited 
the  general  rubrics  of  the  Roman  Missal;  they  were 
printed  in  the  edition  of  the  "Missale  Planum"  and 
have  thus  reached  us.  In  collaboration  with  Aug. 
Patrizi  Piccolomini,  Bun-hard  also  issued  (1488)  the 
ordinary  and  the  ceremonies  of  the  pontifical  Mass 
under  the  title  "Romans;  Ecclesia;  Ca;remoniarum 
libri  tres";  these  have  passed  into  our  present 
Pontifical.  Finally  the  lionian  Ritual,  edited  in  1614 
under  Paul  V,  was  compiled,  witli  the  ai<l  of  the  Rit>ial 
of  Cardinal  (liulio  Antonio  .Sjmtario,  from  which 
most  of  the  rubrics  are  derived.  Thus  various  collec- 
tions of  the  nibricH  compiled  by  individuals  have  re- 
ceived the  approval  of  the  sovereign  pontiffs,  and 
since  Pius  V,  instead  of  being  published  as  separate 
treatises,  they  have  been  inserted  in  the  liturgical 


PETER  PAUL  RUBENS 


TUE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 
THE    PRADO,    MADRID 


PHILIP    II    OF    SPAIN 
THE    PRADO,    MADRID 


MARIA    DE 
THE    PRADO, 


MEDICI 
MADRID 


THE    DESCENT   FROM   THE   CRC 
THE   MUSEUM,    ANTWERP 


RUBRUCK 


217 


RUBRUCK 


books  with  which  they  dealt.  The  S.  C.  of  Rites, 
instituted  by  Sixtus  V  in  1587,  is  commissioned  to 
approve  new  rites,  to  suppress  abuses  in  Hturgical 
matters,  issue  authentic  editions  of  liturgical  books, 
to  interpret  the  rubrics,  and  to  solve  difficulties  con- 
nected therewith.  Besides  this  interpreting  authority, 
individual  liturgists  may  also  write  commentaries  and 
explanations  on  the  subject. 

IV.  Obligatory  Character. — In  describing  the  kinds 
of  rubrics  we  have  intentionally  omitted  mention 
of  distinctions  which  seem  to  us  without  sufficient 
foundation.  Writers  distinguish  between  Divine 
and  human  rubrics,  but  as  soon  as  rubrics  are  ap- 
proved by  the  sovereign  pontiff  and  promulgated  in 
his  name  it  seems  to  us  that  they  emanate  from  a 
Divine-human  authority,  and  none  save  the  Church 
has  the  right  to  establish  such  rules.  According  to 
a  prevalent  sentiment,  we  should  do  away  with  the 
distinction  between  the  preceptive  rubrics  (those 
which  bind  under  pain  of  sin,  mortal  or  venial  ac- 
cording to  the  matter)  and  directive  rubrics  (those 
which  are  not  binding  in  themselves,  but  state  what 
is  to  be  done  in  the  form  of  an  instruction  or  counsel). 

It  may  be  said  that  the  rubrics  of  the  liturgical 
books  are  real  laws;  this  follows  from  the  definition: 
they  are  prescriptions  for  the  good  order  of  external 
worship  in  the  Catholic  Church,  they  emanate  from 
the  highest  authority — the  sovereign  ])onlifT — and 
considering  the  terms  in  which  they  are  promulgated 
it  does  not  appear  that  the  supreme  head  of  the  Church 
merely  desires  to  give  a  counsel.  Hence  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  prfKjeptive  and  directive  rubrics 
is  (a)  in  contradiction  to  the  terms  of  the  definition 
of  rubrics,  which  are  rules,  consequently  ordinances, 
laws,  whose  character  is  to  be  at  once  both  directive 
and  preceptive,  i.  e.  to  impose  an  obligation:  (b)  it 
is  contrary  to  the  mind  of  the  sovereign  pontiffs 
as  expressed  in  their  Bulls,  which  in  establishing  and 
promulgating  rubrics  intend  to  make  them  real  laws. 
Pius  V  in  the  Bull  "Quod  a  nobis",  for  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Roman  Breviary  (1.508),  expressed  him- 
self as  follows:  "Statuentes  Breviarium  ipsum  nullo 
unquam  tempore,  vel  totum  vel  ex  parte  mutandum, 
vel  ei  aliquid  addendum,  vel  omnino  detrahendum 
esse".  The  same  pope  uses  similar  terms  in  the 
Bull  "Quo  primum  tempore",  for  the  publication  of 
the  Roman  Missal  (1870):  "Mandantes,  ac  districte 
.  .  .  praecipientes  ut  cocteris  omnibus  rationibus 
et  ritibus  ex  aliis  IMissalibus  quantumvis  vetustis 
hactenus  observari  consuetis,  in  posterum  penitus 
omissis  ac  plane  reject  is,  Missam  ju.xta  ritum,  modum 
ac  normam  quie  per  Missale  hoc  a  Nobis  nunc  traditur 
decantent  ac  legant,  neque  in  Mis.sa;  celebratione 
alias  cajremonias,  vel  preces  quam  qua?  hoc  Missali 
continentur  addere  vel  recitare  praesumant".  No 
less  explicit  are  the  expressions  employed  by  Paul  V 
for  the  pubhcation  of  the  Ritual  (Brief  "Apostolica; 
Sedi",  1614),  by  Clement  VIII  for  the  publication 
of  the  Pontifical  (Brief  "Ex  quo  in  Ecclesia",  1596), 
etc.;  (c)  this  distinction  is  equally  contrary  to  the 
Decrees  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites,  which 
constitute  a  real  command,  while  it  cannot  be  said 
that  they  involve  a  greater  obligation  than  the  rubrics 
which  they  exTDlain,  which  would  be  the  case  if  the 
rubrics  were  not  preceptive,  when  the  commentary 
would  have  greater  force  than  the  text  itself,  (d)  It 
is  contrary  to  the  rubricists'  manner  of  expressing 
themselves.  Thus  Bissus  declares  that  the  rubrics 
are  laws:  "Leges  tam  Missalis  quam  Breviarii 
dicuntur  Rubricse,  cum  legibus  et  aliis  ordinationibus 
et  Solent  esse  firmse  donee  revocentur".  De  Herdt 
is  still  more  ex-plicit:  "Rubrics  sunt  reguLT  juxta 
quas  officium  divinum  persolvi,  I\Iissa>  sacrificum 
celebrari,  et  sacramenta  administrari  debent." 

It  is  true  that  many  others  admit  the  distinction 
between  preceptive  and  directive  rubrics,  as  De 
Herdt  does,  but  they  write  from  the  standpoint  of 


conscience,  and  when  they  excuse  infractions  of  the 
rule  it  is  in  virtue  of  special  reasons  due  to  circum- 
stances. It  is  also  objected  that  certain  rubrics  are 
marked  "Ad  libitum",  e.  g.  the  third  Collect  of  the 
Mass  for  certain  days,  the  optional  recitation  of  the 
"Dies  Irae"  in  low  unprivileged  Masses  for  the  dead. 
But  even  in  these  cases  there  is  a  certain  prescription: 
a  third  prayer  must  be  said,  which  is  left  to  the  choice 
of  the  celebrant;  half  of  the  "Dies  Irae"  may  not  be 
said,  but  it  must  either  be  omitted  or  said  entire. 
Rubrical  indications  whose  obligatory  character  is 
completely  lacking,  such  as  the  prayers  in  preparation 
for  Mass,  "pro  opportunitate  sacerdotis  facienda", 
are  exceptional  instances,  the  very  terms  of  which 
show  what  is  to  be  understood,  but  these  exceptions 
merely  confirm  the  thesis.  To  make  them  the  start- 
ing-point in  establishing  a  distinction  is  merely  to 
multiply  distinctions  at  wall,  a  procedure  that  is 
all  the  more  useless  because  it  would  eventually 
amount  to  saying  that  there  are  preceptive  precepts 
and  non-preceptive  precepts.  We  can  only  conclude 
that  the  distinction  between  preceptive  and  directive 
rubrics  should  be  done  away  with,  or  if  it  be  mentioned 
at  all,  it  should  be  simply  as  an  historical  reference 
(see  Ephemerides  Liturgicae,  I,  146).  Under  certain 
circumstances  rubrics  may  be  modified  by  custom, 
but  in  this  respect  they  do  not  differ  from  laws  in 
general. 

Gavanti,  Thesaurus  sacr.  rit.  cum  atldit.  Merati  (Venice,  1769); 
De  Herdt,  Sac.  liturg.  praxis  (Louvain,  1863);  Menghini, 
Elem.  juris  liturg.  (Rome,  1907) ;  Van  der  Stappen,  Sac.  liturg. 
cursus  (Mechlin,  1898);  Zaccaria,  Bib.  ritual.  (Rome,  1778); 
Onomasticon  (Fraenza,  1787). 

F.  Cabrol. 

Rubruck,  William  (also  called  William  of  Ru- 
bruck  and  less  correctly  Ruysbrock,  Ruysbroek,  and 
Rubruquis),  Franciscan  missionary  and  writer  of 
travels;  b.  at  Rubrouc  in  northern  France  probably 
about  1200;  d.  after  1256.  He  became  closely  con- 
nected with  St.  Louis  (Louis  IX)  in  Paris,  accom- 
panied him  on  his  crusade,  and  was  at  Acre  and  Trip- 
oli. Louis,  notwithstanding  his  repeated  ill-success, 
again  formed  the  plan  of  converting  the  Tatars  to 
Christianity,  and  at  the  same  time  of  winning  them 
as  confederates  against  the  Saracens.  Consequently 
at  his  orders  Rubruck  undertook  an  extended  mission- 
ar>'  journey,  going  first  to  visit  Sartach,  son  of  Batu 
and  ruler  of  Kiptchak,  then  reported  to  have  become 
a  Christian.  In  1253  Rubruck  started  from  Constan- 
tinople, crossed  the  Black  Sea,  traversed  the  Crimea 
towards  the  North,  and  then  continued  eastward; 
nine  days  after  crossing  the  Don  he  met  the  khan. 
The  latter  was  not  inclined  to  agree  to  the  schemes  of 
St.  Louis  and  sent  the  ambassadors  to  his  father  Batu, 
living  near  the  Volga.  Batu  would  not  embrace 
Christianity  and  advised  the  envoys  to  visit  the  great 
Khan  Mangu.  In  midwinter  they  reached  the  eastern 
point  of  Lake  Alakul,  south  of  Lake  Balkasch,  and 
near  this  the  Court  of  the  khan,  with  which  they 
arrived  at  Karakorum  at  Easter,  1254.  After  residing 
for  some  time  in  this  city  they  had  to  return  home 
without  having  obtained  anything.  On  the  return 
journey  they  took  a  somewhat  more  northerly  route 
and  arrived  in  the  spring  of  1255  by  way  of  Asia 
Minor  at  Cyprus,  whence  they  proceeded  to  Tripoli. 

The  report  of  the  journey  which  Rubruck  presented 
to  the  king  is  a  geographical  masterpiece  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  It  exceeds  all  earlier  treatises  in  matter,  power 
of  observation,  keenness  of  grasp,  and  clearness  of 
presentment,  besides  being  but  little  spoiled  by 
fabulous  narratives.  In  it  Rubruck  gives  a  clear 
account  of  the  condition  of  China,  of  the  character- 
istics and  technical  skill  of  its  inhabitants,  of  their 
peculiar  wTiting,  and  of  the  manufacture  of  silk;  he  also 
mentions  paper  money,  printing,  the  cUvision  into 
castes,  rice  brandy,  kumiss,  speaks  of  the  physicians 
who  diagnosed  diseases  by  the  pulse,  and  prescribed 


RUDOLF 


218 


RUDOLF 


rhubarb.  The  Middle  Ages  also  owed  to  him  the 
solution  of  a  disputed  geographical  question;  he 
proved  that  the  Caspian  was  an  inland  sea  and  did 
not  flow  into  the  Arctic.  He  called  attention  to  the 
relationship  between  German  and  the  Indo-Germanic 
group  of  languages,  and  to  the  family  unity  of  the 
Hungarians,  Bashkirs,  and  Huns  in  the  great  racial 
chvision  of  the  Finns;  and  he  also  gave  a  circumstantial 
account  of  the  religion  of  the  Mongols  and  the  various 
ceremonies  of  the  idolaters.  Rubruck's  account  has 
been  edited  by  the  Societe  de  Geographic  in  the 
"Recueil  de  voyages  et  de  m^moires",  IV  (Paris. 
1S93),  German  translation  by  Kulb  in  the  "Geschichte 
der  Missionsreisen  nach  Mongolei",  I,  II  (Ratisbon, 
1860) ;  English  tr .  bv  Rockhill, ' '  The  Journey  of  William 
of  Rubruk  to  the  Eastern  Parts"  (London,  1900). 

.Schmidt,  Uber  Rubruks  Reise  in  Zeitschrift  der  Gesellschaft 
fur  Erdkunde  zu  Berlin,  XX  (Berlin,  1885);  Matrod,  Le  voyage 
de  Ft.  Guillaume  de  Rubrouck  (Couvin,  1909);  Schlager, 
MongoUnfahrten  der  Framiskaner  (Trier,  1911),  45-126. 

Patricius  Schlager. 

Rudolf  of  Fulda,  chronicler,  d.  at  Fulda,  8 
March.  S62.  In  the  monasterj'  of  Fulda  Rudolf 
entered  the  Benedictine  Order,  studied  under  the  cele- 
brated Rabanus  Maurus,  and  was  himself  a  teacher. 
He  was  undoubtedly  associated  ■with  King  Louis  the 
Pious,  whose  intimate  friend  he  considered  himself, 
but  it  is  not  known  how  long  he  remained  at  court. 
It  is  probable  that,  after  the  elevation  of  Rhabanus 
to  the  Archiepiscopal  See  of  Mainz,  Rudolf  followed 
him  thence,  and  onlj' towards  the  close  of  his  life  took 
up  his  permanent  residence  once  more  at  Fulda.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  scholars  of  his  time. 
The  "Annales  Fuldenses",  begun  by  Einhard  and 
continued  (838-6.3)  on  the  same  lines  by  Rudolf, 
are  valuable  contributions  to  the  general  history  of  the 
period  on  account  of  his  close  connexion  with  the 
court.  Among  the  many  editions  of  the  "Annales 
Fuldenses  sive  Annales  regni  Francorum  orientalis", 
that  of  Kurze  (Hanover,  1891)  is  the  best  (German  tr. 
by  Wattenbach,  "  Geschichtsschreiber  der  deutschen 
Vorzeit",  XXIII,  Leipzig,  1889).  At  the  suggestion 
of  his  master  Rabanus,  Rudolf  (838)  compiled,  from 
notes  of  the  priest  Mego  and  from  oral  tradition,  a 
life  of  St.  Lioba  or  Leobgyth  Tpublished  in  "Acta 
SS.",  VII,  Sept.,  Antwerp  ed.,  760-9,  and  in  "Mon. 
Germ.  Script.",  XV,  i,  121-31).  It  was  St.  Lioba 
whom  St.  Boniface  called  to  Bischof.sheim  on  the 
Tauber  to  assist  him  by  her  activity.  Under  the  mis- 
leading title,  "  Vitabeati  Rabani  Mauri,  archiepLscopi 
Moguntini  in  Germania",  there  is  extant  a  work  upon 
the  miracles  performed  V)y  the  relics  brought  to  Fulda 
by  Rabanus,  interspersed,  according  to  the  spirit  of 
the  times,  with  important  historical  and  ethnological 
notes.  In  the  "Mon.  Germ.  Script."  (XV,  329-41) 
it  is  printed  under  the  more  correct  title,  "Miracula 
sanctorum  in  Fuldenses  ecclesias  translatorum".  A 
similar  work  of  much  more  importance  historically  is 
"Tran.slatio  sancti  Alexandri  W'ildeshusam  anno  8.51 " 
in  "Mon.  Germ.  Scripjt.",  II,  07.3-81,  begun  by  Rudolf 
in  863  at  the  request  of  Waltbraht,  a  grand.s(jn  of 
W'idukin,  and  completed  by  Meginhart.  Taking  the 
"Germania"  of  Ta<-itus  for  his  model,  he  pictured  the 
history  of  ancient  Saxony  and  the  introduction  of 
Christianity. 

Wattknuach,  iJeiUHchl/irulK  OeHrhichtHguellen  im  MiUelalltr, 
II  (Berlin,  IHW),  227  sq.,  2:Wwi.;  I'otthaht,  Bibliolheca  hixtoriai 
metlii  aevi  (Berlin.  1S96;.  I,  07;    II,  11.01,  1429,  1.540. 

Patricius  Schlager. 

Rudolf  of  Habflburg,  Grrman  king,  b.  1  May, 
1218;  <i.  at  Sp-yr-r,  1.5  .July,  1291.  He  was  the  son 
of  -Mbcrt  I\',  the  founder  of  the  Habsburg  line,  and 
CfjunteKS  Heilwige  of  Kiburg.  After  the  death  of 
his  father  in  the  Holy  Land,  Rudolf  pursued  an  in- 
dependent line  of  politics,  in  the  conflict  between 
the  papar;y  and  the  empire  h<-  sui)i)orled  the  Hohen- 
staufens,  and,  during  the  irit<Tregnuui,  strove  to  in- 


crease the  power  of  his  house,  especially  in  Switzer- 
land. In  his  extensive  domains,  of  which  Swabia 
formed  the  centre,  he  .showed  himself  a  good,  if  stern 
ruler,  and  especially  in  the  south  won  manj-  friends. 
At  the  instigation  of  Gregory  X,  who  threatened  to 
appoint  a  regent  to  govern  the  empire  if  ste]is  were 
not  taken  to  restore  order  to  the  country  by  the  elec- 
tion of  a  prince  who  would  exercise  an  effective 
rule,  Rudolf  was  cho.sen  emperor  1  October,  1273. 
Towering  but  l{>an  of  stature,  with  bony  cheeks  and 
hooked  no.'^e,  he  was  a  courageous  warrior,  a  skilled 
diplomat,  and  distinguished  alike  for  unrelenting 
sternness  and  genial  kindness.  Six  electors  voted  for 
Rudolf;  the  seventh,  Ottakar  of  Bohemia,  abstained 
from  voting.  This  powerful  king  ruled  from  Meissen 
and  the  mountains  in  the  north  of  Bohemia  as  far  as 
the  Adriatic,  having  added  Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia, 
and  Krain  to  his  inherited  domains.  'When  Ottakar 
was  summoned  to  answer  for  this  alienation  of  the 
imperial  fiefs,  Rudolf  proved  himself  an  astute 
politician  in  the 
proceedings 
against  Bohemia. 
Recognizing  that 
it  was  impossible 
to  force  the  Ger- 
man princes  to 
the  position  of 
vassals,  he  utilized 
everj^  opportunity 
to  enhance  the 
power  of  his 
house,  for  only  the 
possession  of  great 
domains  could  en- 
sure for  a  German 
king  a  position 
of  prominence. 
Supported  by  the 
Church,  Rudolf 
began  the  war  in 
1276,  and  on  the 
Marchfeld    on    26  Rudolf  of  Habsburg 

August,   1278,  Ot-  Engraving  by  Goltzius 

takar  lost  his  throne  and  his  life.  The  ancient  posses- 
sions of  t  he  Bohemian  royal  house  were  left  to  Ottakar's 
son  Wenceslaus,  who  was  still  a  minor,  but  the  Austrian 
lands  had  to  be  given  up  and  were  formally  granted 
by  Rudolf  to  his  own  sons,  as  according  to  the  pre- 
vailing laws  of  the  empire,  the  sovereign  could  not 
retain  confiscated  lands.  In  this  manner  Ostmark 
came  permanently  into  the  possession  of  the  Habs- 
burgs.  Whether  the  downfall  of  Ottakar  was  a  Ger- 
man success  or  not,  is  still  an  open  (juestion  among 
scholars.  In  recent  times,  the  opinion  has  prevailed 
that,  far  from  being  hostile  to  the  (iermans,  Ottakar 
favoured  German  immigration  into  Bohemia,  and 
that,  with  the  possession  of  the  Austrian  lanils,  he 
might  perhaps  have  completely  germanized  Bohemia; 
and,  had  he  secured  the  imperial  crown,  this  powerful 
prince  might  have  given  a  new  imi)ortance  to  the 
imperial  authority.  The  creation  of  a  strong  central 
power  was  also  the  object  of  Rudolf's  politics.  For 
the  consolidation  of  his  kingdom  .'ihout  the  Danube, 
peace  and  stabilitj'  in  (lennaiiy  were  necess:irv,  sinil 
these  only  a  strong  imperial  jxjwer  could  guarantee. 
Then;  was  no  fixcsd  imjx-rial  constitution,  and  the 
develoi)nient  of  such  would  have  been  resisted  by  the 
territorial  princes.  Rudolf  was  shrewd  enough  to 
abstain  from  attempting  forcibly  to  increase  his  con- 
stitutional powers,  and  contented  himself  with  i)re- 
serving  such  domains  and  rights  as  were  still  ksft  to 
th(?  crown.  He  sought  to  recover  the  many  imperial 
poswssions  which  had  been  lost  since  1245,  moreover 
he  saw  to  it  that  the  taxes  laid  upon  the  imperial 
cities  and  towns  were  duly  paid;  although  he  failed  to 
establish   uniform  system  of  taxation  owing   to   the 


RUDOLF 


219 


RUDOLF 


resistance  of  many  cities  which  had  to  be  put  down 
by  force  of  arms  before  they  came  to  an  agreement 
with  the  Emperor. 

With  Rudolf  began  a  period  of  national  peace 
for  Germany  which  was  to  last  for  two  hun- 
dred years.  Taking  as  his  model  the  pacific 
settlement  made  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II,  in 
the  Landfricden  at  Mainz,  in  1235,  he  drew  up  a 
number  of  agreements  which,  though  often  broken, 
were  the  chief  means  of  protecting  commerce  and 
trade.  But  here  also  he  had  to  be  content,  if  the 
princes  and  towns  really  carried  out  these  settlements 
to  do  which  they  claimed  as  their  right  and  if  they 
really  checked  the  system  of  robbery,  which,  under 
the  form  of  "feuds",  prevailed  more  and  more.  This 
however  was  not  always  the  case.  Even  in  such  cases 
Rudolf  did  not  take  vigorous  measures  and  prove 
practically  that  the  maintenance  of  public  peace  was 
the  duty  of  the  Emperor.  Lesser  peace-breakers  he 
punished;  greater  ones  only  in  case  they  threatened 
his  dynastic  interests.  In  Swabia  his  governor 
{Landvogl),  Count  Albert  of  Hohenberg,  fought  with- 
out much  success  against  Count  Eberhard  the  Il- 
lustrious of  Wiirtemberg;  against  Siegfried,  the  am- 
bitious Metropolitan  of  Cologne,  he  proceeded  by 
force  of  arms.  But  it  was  not  the  warlike  measures 
of  Rudolf,  but  the  defeat  of  Siegfried  near  Wor- 
ringen  in  I'iSS  by  the  Duke  of  Bral)ant  in  the  quarrel 
concerning  the  inheritance  of  Duke  Walram  of  Lim- 
burg  that  cm-bed  the  ambitious  efforts  of  the  arch- 
bishoj).  Ruflolf  was  more  successful  in  his  efforts 
(1289)  to  settle  the  disputes  in  the  House  of  Wettin. 
But  his  chief  ambition,  to  secure  the  imperial  crown 
for  his  house,  he  failed  to  realize.  Th(!  electoral  au- 
thority grew  stronger  during  his  reign,  and  the  system 
of  electing  its  kings  remainef  I  the  canker  of  the  German 
Empire.  Until  the  very  last  he  endeavoured  to  in- 
crease the  power  of  his  family;  indeed,  in  the  eiist  of 
the  empire,  he  created  for  his  family  such  a  position 
that  a  little  later  it  developed  into  a  decisive  factor  in 
the  subsequent  historical  evolution  of  the  German 
Empire.  Meanwhile,  considering  the  difficult  con- 
ditions, he  did  very  much  to  restore  the  unity  of  the 
empire.  By  his  wi.se  moderation  he  secured  for  him- 
self general  recognition,  being  the  first  emperor  for  a 
long  period  to  achieve  this  end.  The  many  diets 
which  he  held  must  also  have  strengthened  the  feel- 
ing of  the  unity  of  the  empire.  His  foreign  policy 
showed  the  same  wise  moderation.  He  abstained 
from  taking  any  action  in  the  Italian  question,  without 
however  resigning  the  rights  of  the  empire.  How- 
ever much  the  pope  strove  to  secure  the  support  of 
the  German  king  against  the  i)owerful  Charles  of 
Anjou  in  order  to  check  his  power  in  the  .south  of  the 
peninsula,  Rudolf  wiis  always  able  to  skilfully  avoid 
the  overtures;  even  the  attractions  of  the  imperial 
crown  were  of  no  account  in  the  eyes  of  this  .sober  and 
calculating  prince.  In  Burgundian  affairs  he  inter- 
fered only  as  far  as  his  action  was  likely  to  increase 
the  power  of  his  house,  by  strengthening  it  on  the 
imperial  frontiers  towards  Burguncly.  Otherwise  his 
policy  in  the  West  was  guitled  by  the  principle  of 
preserving  peaceful  relations  with  France.  The  death 
of  this  uyiright  and  popular  monarch  was  received 
with  lamentations  throughout  the  empire.  He  was 
buried  at  Speyer. 

LiUDNEB,  Deutsche  Gesch.  unter  den  Habsburgern  u.  Luxem- 
burgern  (Stuttgart,  1888-93);  Kopp,  Gesck.  der  eidgenossischen 
Bunde  (Basle,  1882) ;  Michael,  Gesch.  des  deutschen  Volkes  vom 
13.  Jahrh.  bis  zum  Ausgang  des  MitteUiUers  (Freiburg,  1897- 
1903);  ScHULTE,  Gesch.  der  Habsburger  in  den  ersten  drei  Jahr- 
hunderten  (Innsbruck,  1887);  Redlich.  Rudolph  von  Ilabsburg 
(Innsbruck,  1903). 

Franz  Kampers. 

Rudolf  of  Riidesheim,  Bishop  of  Breslau,  b.  at 
Riidesheim  on  the  Rhine,  about  1402;  d.  at  Breslau 
in  Jan.,  1482.  From  1422  to  1426  he  studied  at  the 
University  of  Heidelberg  from  which  he  graduated  aa 


master.  He  then  proceeded  to  Italy,  graduated  as 
doctor  in  ecclesiastical  law  and  became  auditor  of 
the  Rota.  Numerous  benefices  were  conferred  upon 
him  at  an  early  date,  particularly  in  the  dioceses  of 
Mainz  and  Worms.  From  1438  onward  he  represented 
the  cathedral  chapter  of  the  latter  city  at  the  schismatic 
Council  of  Basle,  where  he  formed  a  friend.ship  with 
Enea  Silvio  de'  Piccolomini,  subsequently  Pope 
Pius  II.  The  latter,  his  successor  Paul  II,  and  the 
Emperor  Frederick  III  entrusted  Rudolf  with  im- 
portant missions  and  difficult  negotiations.  Pius 
II  named  him  in  1463  Bishop  of  Lavant  in  Tyrol. 
The  See  of  Breslau  was  conferred  on  him  in  1468, 
at  a  time  when  the  inhabitants  were  spiritedly  re- 
sisting their  ruler,  George  Podiebrad,  King  of 
Bohemia.  The  latter  had  been  deposed  and  ex- 
communicated, but  maintained  his  position  as  ruler. 
The  war  which  resulted  was  protracted  beyond 
Podiebrad's  lifetime  and  terminated,  with  Rudolf's 
co-operation,  in  the  Peace  of  Olmiitz  in  1479.  Now 
intent  more  exclusively  upon  the  spiritual  welfare 
of  his  diocese,  the  bishop  sought  to  heal  the  wounds 
of  the  war,  endeavoured  to  imbue  the  diocesan  secu- 
lar and  regular  clergy  with  a  soimd  ecclesiastical 
spirit,  and  insisted  upon  the  importance  of  their 
proper  theological  training.  The  acts  of  the  synods 
held  in  1473  and  1475  bear  witness  to  the  zeal  and 
energy  of  the  .skilful  prelate. 

Zaun,  Rwlolf  von  Riidesheim  (Frankfort,  1881);  Pastor, 
1/isl.  of  the  Popes,  tr.  Antrobu.s,  III  (London,  1894),  174,  198- 
201. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Rudolf  von  Ems  (Hohenems  in  Switzerland),  a 
Middle  High  German  ej)ic  poet  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Almost  nothing  is  known  of  his  life.  He  him- 
self tells  us  that  he  was  in  the  service  of  the  Counts 
of  Montfort  and  from  the  anonymous  continuator  of 
the  "Weltchronik"  we  learn  that  the  poet  died  "in 
welschen  richen",  i.  e.  in  Italy,  whither  he  had  prob- 
ably gone  with  King  Konrad  IV,  about  1254.  He 
professes  himself  a  follower  of  Gottfried  von  Strass- 
i)urg,  for  whom  he  entertains  the  greatest  admiration, 
but  his  moralizing  and  didactic  tendency  differs  strik- 
ingly from  Gottfried's  joyous  .sen.su alism,  and  he  is 
prone  to  diffusencss  and  redundancy.  In  the  choice 
of  subjects  he  shows  a  ])redilection  for  tho.se  that  are 
learned,  and  he  generally  draws  from  Latin  sources. 
The  earliest  of  his  extant  poems  and  one  of  the  best 
is  "  Der  gute  Cierhard"  in  which  the  simple  piety  of  an 
humble  merchant  of  Cologne  puts  to  shame  the  Phar- 
isaical ostentation  of  the  Emperor  Otto.  The  didactic 
tendency  is  very  conspicuous  in  the  poem  "Barlaam 
und  Jo.saphat",  which  treats  a  well  known  Christian 
legend  that  seems  to  have  its  root  in  Buddhist  sources 
and  which  on  account  of  its  glorification  of  the 
ascetic  life  and  its  defence  of  Christianity  against 
Paganism  was  a  favourite  subject  with  medieval 
poets.  Another  poem  on  a  legendary  subject,  the 
conversion  of  St.  Eustace,  which  Rudolf  mentions 
among  his  works,  has  not  been  preserved.  "  Wilhelm 
von  Orlens",  a  courtly  epic  with  a  conventional  love- 
story,  is  based  on  a  French  original  and  was  written 
for  one  Konrad  von  Winterstetten  (d.  1241).  Rudolf's 
most  ambitious  efforts  were  the  historical  epics  "Alex- 
ander" and  "Weltchronik".  For  the  former  the  chief 
sources  are  the  "historia  de  preliis"  and  the  work  of 
Curtius  Rufus.  The  "Weltchronik"  was  undertaken 
at  the  request  of  King  Konrad  IV  and  was  to  be  a 
complete  history  of  the  world  from  the  beginning  to 
the  poet's  own  time.  But  death  intervened  and  the 
story  breaks  off  with  King  Solomon's  reign.  An 
anonymous  poet  then  took  up  the  subject  and,  making 
free  use  of  Rudolf's  material  as  well  as  drawing  on 
Godfrey  of  Viterbo's  "Pantheon",  he  gave  a  version 
that  carried  the  story  as  far  as  the  Book  of  Judges. 
This  .second  recension,  usually  called  the  "  Christ - 
Herre-Chronik",  from  its  opening  words,  was  sub- 


RUDOLPH 


220 


RUFFORD 


sequently  still  further  amalgamated  with  Rudolf's 
version  and  ampUfied  by  various  continuators,  notably 
one  Heinrich  von  Miinchen  (fourteenth  century). 
In  this  form  the  work  became  very  popular  and  was 
finallv  resolved  into  prose. 

•'Der  gute  Gerhard"  was  edited  by  Haupt  (Leip- 
zig. 1S40);  "Barlaam  und  Josaphat"  by  PfeifTer 
(Leipzig.  1843).  Of  the  other  works  there  are  as  yet 
no  critical  editions.  A  MS.  reprint  of  a  "Willehalm 
von  Orlens"  was  given  by  Victor  Junk  in  "Deutsche 
Texte  des  Mittelalters"  (Berlin,  1905),  II;  selections 
from  "Alexander"  bv  Junk  in  "Beitriige  zur  Ge- 
schichte  der  deutschen  Sprache"  (1904).  29,  369-469; 
from  "Woltchronik",  by  Vilmar,  "Die  zwei  Rezen- 
sionen  und  die  HandschriftenfamiUen  der  Weltchronik 
Rudolfs  V.  E."  (Marburg,  1839). 

KrCger,  Stilis:lische  Unlersuchungen  iiber  R.  v.  E.  als  Nachahmer 
Gottfrifds  (Lubeck.  1896);  Zingerle,  Die  Quellen  zum  Alex, 
des  R.  V.  E.  in  Weinhold  and  Vogt,  Germanistische  Abhand- 
lungen,  IV  (Breslau,  1885);  Zeidler,  Die  Quellen  von  Rtidolfs 
r.  E.  Wilhelm  ron  Orient  (Berlin,  1894) ;  Junk,  Die  Epigonen  des 
hofischen  Epos  in  Sammlung  Goschen,  no.  289  (Leipzig,  1906), 
16-<)2. 

Arthur  F.  J.  Remy. 

Rudolph  Acquaviva,  Blessed.     See  Cuncolim, 

Martyrs  of. 

Rueckers,  Family  of,  famous  organ  and  piano- 
forte builders  of  Antwerp.  Hans  Rueckers,  the  founder, 
lived  in  Amsterdam  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  and 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  where  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Guild  of  St.  Luke  and  was  ac- 
tive principally  as  organ-builder.  He  died  in  1640  or 
1641.  In  what  year  the  house  which  he  estabhshed 
in  Amsterdam  was  transferred  to  Antwerp  is  not 
known,  but  it  was  in  the  latter  city  that  it  attained  its 
renown.  Hans  Rueckers  originated  a  spinet  (fore- 
runner of  the  piano-forte)  with  two  keyboards,  which 
could  be  played  singly  or  simultaneously.  They 
could  be  coupled,  a  higher  octave  on  one  keyboard, 
with  a  lower  octav^e  on  the  other,  thereby  doubling 
the  sonority.  Hans  Rueckers'  son,  Andreas,  b.  in 
1579,  still  further  perfected  the  mechanism  of  their 
instruments,  which  gained  world-wide  celebrity  under 
Andreas  the  Younger  during  the  second  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  their  importance  continuing 
under  his  successors  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
the  eighteenth.  Rueckers'  pianos  were  exported  to 
foreign  countries,  particularly  to  England,  and  sold 
for  the  price,  in  tho.se  days  fabulous,  of  3000  francs. 
Many  of  these  instruments  were  decorated  by  famous 
painters,  which  caused  some  of  them  to  be  destroyed 
.so  that  the  paintings  might  be  preserved. 

RiMBADLT,  The  Pianoforte,  its  Origin,  Progress,  and  Construc- 
tion (London,  1860) ;  Hopkins,  Old  Keyboard  Instruments 
( Ixjndon,    1887) ;      Musikaliaches    Konversationslexikon    (Berlin, 

1877). 

Joseph  Otten. 

Rufliii,  Paolo,  physician  and  mathematician,  b. 
at  Valentano  in  the  Duchy  of  Castro,  3  Sept.,  1765; 
d.  at  Modena,  10  May,  1822.  At  first  he  intended 
to  enter  Holy  orders  and  went  so  far  as  to  receive  the 
tonsure,  but  changing  his  mind,  he  began  the  study 
of  mathematics  and  medicine  in  the  University  of 
Moflena,  where  he  receiv<-d  the  degree  of  doctor.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-three  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  analysis  after  having  substituted  for  a  year  for  his 
ff-acher,  Cassiani.  In  1791,  the  chair  of  elementary 
mathematics  wa«  entrusted  to  him.  In  the  meantime, 
he  did  not  neglect  the  stud^  and  practice  of  medicine. 
.•\t  the  time  of  the  French  mvasion  of  Italy  (1796),  he 
wiiF  unfxpe(;te<ily  appointed  a  member  of  the  Juniori 
in  the  legi.slativc  bo^ly  at  Milan.  It  was  not  without 
difficulty  that  he  succeeded  in  returning  to  his  lectures 
at  Moflena.  Becauw;  he  refused  to  take  the  rei)ubli- 
can  oath  without  \hf  conditional  declaration  dictatxid 
by  his  con.scienc;e,  he  was  dismisstid  from  his  jiosition 
as  a  public  lecturer;  but  with  the  return  of  the 
AuHtrians  in  1799  he  waa  restored  to  hia  former  poet 


and  maintained  therein  by  succeeding  governments. 
A  call  to  the  chair  of  higher  mathematics  in  Pavia  he 
declined,  because  he  did  not  wish  to  give  up  his  medi- 
cal practice  among  his  dear  Modenese.  The  univer- 
sity having  been  degraded  to  the  rank  of  a  lyceum, 
he  accepted  (1S06)  the  chair  of  applied  mathematics 
at  the  newly  established  military  school.  In  1814 
Francesco  IV  re-established  the  university  and  ap- 
pointed Ruffini  rector  for  life,  and  at  the  same  time 
professor  of  practical  medicine  and  applied  mathe- 
matics. By  his  lectures  with  the  patients  actually 
present  he  revived  the  clinical  studies  which  had 
been  neglected  for  several  years.  During  the  t\T)hus 
epidemic  of  1817  he  sacrificed  himself  for  his  fellow 
citizens,  and  finally  succumbed.  Although  he  re- 
covered, he  never  regained  his  strength.  He  was 
buried  in  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  di  Pomposa, 
between  the  tombs  of  Sigonio  and  Muratori. 

Ruffini's  sole  medical  treatise  is  a  "Memoria  sul 
tifo  contagioso".  As  a  mathematician  his  name  is 
inseparably  associated  with  the  proof  of  the  im- 
possibility of  solving  algebraically  the  quintic  equa- 
tion, on  which  subject  he  wrote  several  treatises 
("Teoria  generale  delle  equazioni,  in  cui  si  dimostra 
impossibile  la  soluzione  algebraica  delle  equazioni 
generali  di  grado  superiore  al  4°",  2  vols.,  Bologna, 
1798;  "Delia  soluzione  delle  equazioni  alg.  determi- 
nate particolari  di  grado  sup.  al  4°"  in  "Mem.  Soc. 
Ital.",  IX,  1802,  which  was  awarded  a  prize  by  the 
National  Institute  of  Milan;  "Delia  insolubilita  delle 
eq.  alg.  etc.",  ibid.,  X,  1803;  "Delia  insolubilita  etc. 
qualunque  metodo  si  adopori,  algebraico  esso  sia  o 
trascendente "  in  "Mem.  Inst.  Naz.  Ital.",  I,  1806). 
He  also  proved  the  impossibility  of  the  quadrature 
of  the  circle  ("Riflessioni  intorno  alia  rettificazione 
ed  alia  quadratura  del  circolo"  in  "Mem.  Soc.  Ital.", 
IX,  1802).  Less  known,  however,  is  the  fact  that 
Ruffini  published  the  now  familiar  "Horner's  method " 
of  approximation  to  the  roots  of  numerical  equations 
fifteen  years  before  Horner's  fii-st  paper  on  it  appeared 
in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  of  1819  (pt.  I, 
pp.  308-35).  In  1802  the  Italian  Society  of  Forty 
offered  a  gold  medal  for  the  best  method  of  deter- 
mining the  root  of  a  numerical  equation  of  any  de- 
gree. In  1804  the  medal  was  awarded  to  Ruffini,  and 
the  dissertation  was  ])ublished  under  the  title  "Sopra 
la  determinazione  delle  radice  nelle  equazioni  nume- 
riche  di  qualunque  grado".  In  a  paper  read  before 
the  Southwestern  Section  of  the  American  Math. 
Soc.  (26  Nov.,  1910),  Professor  Florian  Cajori  pointed 
out  that  the  computation  demanded  by  Ruffini  is 
identical  with  that  in  "Horner's  method",  and  that 
this  method  is  elaborated  by  Ruflnni  with  a  clearness 
and  thoroughness  not  surpassed  in  Horner's  own  ex- 
position of  1819.  In  view  of  this  fact.  Professor 
Cajori  insists  that  the  name  of  Ruffini  should  be 
associated  with  that  of  Horner  in  the  designation  of 
the  method.  Ruffini  again  wrote  on  this  subject  in 
1807  (Algebra  elementare,  cap.  iv,  v),  and  in  1813 
(Memori(!  Soc.  It.,  X\^I,  XVII).  Ruffini  was  during 
his  whole  life  a  zealous  Catholic.  His  convictions  find 
expression  in  his  a])ologetic  works:  "Dell'  immortality 
deir  anima"  (Modena,  1806),  dedicated  to  I'ius  VII, 
who  sent  him  a  gold  medal;  "Riflessioni  critichc  sopra 
il  saggio  filosofico  intorno  alle  probability,  del  Sig. 
Conte  de  la  Place-"  (Modena,  1821),  in  which  he 
proves  himscdf  to  be  as  familiar  with  metaphysics  as 
with  questions  of  religion. 

Fantonetti,  Note  Slorirfir  sopra  i  socj  defunti:  Paolo  Ruffini 
in  Mem.  Imp.  Reg.  hi.  ,IH  Regno  Lomb.  Ven.,  V  (1838),  40-41; 
LoMBAHDi,  Notizie  nulla  vita  di  Paolo  Ruffini  (Florence, 
1S24);  PooaENDOiiKF,  Biogr.-Litl.  IlandwOrterb.  zur  Gesch.  der 
Exact.  Wiss.  (18.58-<j.'5);  Cajori,  Horner's  Method  of  Approxi- 
mation Anticipated  by  Ruffini  in  Bull,  of  American  Math.  Soc 
(May,  1911). 

J.  Stein. 

Ruflord  Abbey,  a  monastery  of  the  Cistercian 
Order,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rainworth 


RUFINA 


221 


RUPINUS 


Water,  about  two  miles  south  of  Ollerton  in  Notting- 
hamshire, was  founded  by  Gilbert  de  Gant  in  or  about 
1147,  and  colonized  with  monks  from  Rievaulx  abbey. 
Gilbert  endowed  it  with  the  manor  of  Rufford,  and 
shortly  afterwards  added  "Cratil"  (Wellow),  Barton, 
and  Willoughby;  these  donations  were  confirmed  by 
Stephen  and  Henry  II,  who  also  granted  exemption 
from  certain  tolls  and  customs.  Other  benefactions 
followed  and  the  abbey  grew  rich  enough  to  bo  re- 
quired in  1310  to  supply  victuals  for  Edward  II's 
expedition  to  Scotland,  and  to  be  asked  in  1319  for  a 
contribution  towards  making  good  the  losses  suffered 
by  the  Archbishop  of  York  through  the  Scottish  war; 
yet  in  1409  it  escaped  payment  of  a  tenth  to  the  king 
on  the  ground  of  extreme  poverty.  The  published 
lists  of  abbots,  in  Dugdale  and  the  Victoria  County 
History,  begin  with  Philip  de  Kyme,  a  well-known 
Lincolnshire  magnate,  whose  inclusion  is  due  to  a 
mis-punctuation  in  a  Pontefract  charter.  Both  lists 
also  omit  the  following  early  abbots:  Gamellus,  who 
occurs  as  witness  to  a  Kirkstead  charter  of  1148-49 
(Dugdale,  V,  420)  and  is  eulogized  in  two  epitaphs 
contained  in  a  Rufford  manuscript  now  in  the  British 
Museum  (Tit.  D.  xxiv,  ff.,  81b,  88);  Elias  (1156  and 
1160),  in  Bulls  of  Adrian  IV  and  Alexander  III  (Harl. 
Ch.  Ill,  A.  2, 5);  Matthew  (c.  1170-80),  in  various  un- 
dated charters  (Harl.  MS.  1063,  flf.  10b,  65b,  etc.); 
William,  oc.  between  1189-95  (''Reg.  of  Abp.  W. 
Gray",  Surtees  Soc,  p.  39);  Walter,  1212  (Harl.  MS. 
1063,  f.66);  Robert,  1228  (ib.,  f.  127b);  John,  c.  1260- 
70  (ibid.,  f.  22b).  The  last  abbot  but  one,  Rowland 
Blyton,  or  Bliton,  left  Rufford  in  1533  to  become 
Abbot  of  Rievaulx.  His  successor,  Thomas  Don- 
caster,  was  given  a  pension  of  £25  at  the  di.s.solution 
in  1536;  but  relinquished  it  within  a  few  months  on 
becoming  rector  of  Rotherham.  The  dissolved  abbey, 
with  its  estates,  valued  at  £246  15s.  5d.  yearly,  was 
granted  in  1537  to  George  Talbot,  fourth  Earl  of 
Shrewsbury.  On  the  death  of  Edward,  eighth  earl, 
in  1618,  it  passed  to  Sir  George  Savile  through  his 
marriage  with  Lady  Mary  Talbot;  and  it  has  remained 
ever  since  in  the  possession  of  the  Savile  family,  the 
present  owner  being  John,  Lord  Savile.  The  remains 
of  the  monastic  buildings  are  incorporated  in  the 
modern  mansion. 

DuoDALE,  Monasl.  Anglicanum,  V  (1825),  .517-21;  Page, 
Victoria  Ilistury  of  co.  Nottingham,  ii  (1910),  101-5;  Warner 
AND  Ellis,  Facsimiles  of  Brit.  Mus.  Charters,  I  (1903),  no.  48; 
authorities  cited,  especially  Harl.  MS.  1063,  a  seventeenth  cent, 
transcript  of  Abbot  John  Lyie's  chartulary  compiled  in  1471. 

J.  A.  Herbert. 

Rufina,  Saints. — The  present  Roman  Martyrology 
records  saints  of  this  name  on  the  following  days:  (1) 
On  10  July,  Rufina  and  Secunda,  Roman  martyrs, 
who  according  to  the  legendary  Acts  (Acta  SS.,  July, 
III,  30-1)  suffered  in  287  during  the  Aurelian  per- 
secution. Their  place  of  burial  was  at  the  ninth  mile- 
stone of  the  Via  Cornelia,  as  is  stated  in  the  Berne 
manuscript  of  the  "Martyrologium  Hieronymi- 
anum"  (ed.  De  Ros.si-Duchesne,  89).  These  martyrs 
are  also  recorded  in  the  Itineraries  of  the  seventh 
century  as  on  the  road  just  mentioned  (De  Rossi, 
"Roma  sotterranea",  I,  182-83).  Pope  Damasus 
erected  a  church  over  the  grave  of  the  saints.  The 
town  on  this  spot  named  after  St.  Rufina  became  the 
see  of  one  of  the  suburbicarian  dioceses  that  was  later 
united  with  Porto  (cf.  Allard,  "Histoire  des  Per- 
s6cutions".  III,  96).  (2)  On  19  July,  Justa  and 
Rufina,  martyrs  at  Seville  (Hispalis)  in  Spain.  Only 
St.  Justa  is  mentioned  in  the  "Martyrologium 
Hieronymianum"  (93),  but  in  the  historical  martyrol- 
ogies  (Quentin,  "Les  martyrologes  historiques", 
176-77)  Justina  is  also  mentioned,  following  the 
legendary  Acts.  There  is  no  doubt  that  both  are 
historical  martjTS  of  the  Spanish  Church.  (3)  On 
31  August,  Theodotus,  Rufina,  and  Ammia,  of  whom 
the  first  two  arc  said  to  be  the  parents  of  the  cele- 


brated mart5T  Mamas  (Mammes),  venerated  at 
Csesarea  in  Cappadocia  (cf.  the  various  Passions  of 
these  saints  in  the  "Bibl.  hagiographica  latina",  II, 


Sts.  .Iusta  and  Rufina 
Murillo,   Provincial  Museum,  Seville 

771  sq.,  and  in  the  "Bibl.  hagiogr.  grajca",  2nd  ed., 
143).  (4)  On  24  or  25  August,  the  feast  of  two  mar- 
tyrs, Rufina  and  Eutyche,  at  Capua  in  Campania  is 
recorded  in  the  "Martyrologium  Hieronymianum" 
(110).  Nothing  further  is  known  of  either  of  these 
saints. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Rufinus,  Saint. — The  present  Roman  Martyrol- 
ogy records  eleven  saints  named  Rufinus:  (I)  On  28 
February,  a  Roman  martyr  Rufinus,  with  several 
companions  in  martyrdom;  nothing  is  known  con- 
cerning them.  (2)  On  7  April,  an  African  martyr 
Rufinus  with  two  companions;  their  names  are  men- 
tioned under  6  April  in  a  list  of  martyrs  in  the 
"Martyrologium  Hieronymianum"  (ed.  De  Rossi- 
Duchesne,  40).  (3)  On  14  June,  the  two  martyrs 
Valerius  and  Rufinus  who  suffered  at  Soissons,  France, 
during  the  Diocletian  persecution;  their  names  are 
given  under  this  date  in  the  "  Martyrologium  Hierony- 
mianum" (ed.cit.,  78;  cf.  66  under  2()  May;  also  Acta 
SS.,  June,  II,  796  sqq.).  (4)  On  21  June,  Rufinus 
who  suffered  martyrdom  with  Martia  at  Syracuse; 
nothing  is  known  concerning  him.  (5)  On  30  July, 
Rufinus  of  Assisi,  who  was  according  to  legend  the 
bishop  of  this  city  and  a  martyr.  He  is  probably 
identical  with  the  "episcopus  Marsorum"  noted 
under  11  August.  The  Acts  of  the  martyrdom 
of  this  Rufinus  are  purely  legendary  [cf.  "Biblio- 
theca  hagiographica  latina",  II,  1068;  Elisei,  "Studio 
sulla  chiesa  cattedrale  di  S.  Rufino"  (As.sisi,  1893); 
D.  de  Vincentiis,  "Notizie  di  S.  Rufino"  (Avezzano, 
1885)].  (6)  On  19  August,  Rufinus,  confessor  at  Man- 
tua. (7)  On  26  August,  a  confessor  Rufinus  venerated 
at  Capua  (cf.  Acta  SS.,  August,  V,  819-820).  His 
name  is  given  in  the  "Martyrologium  Hieronymi- 
anum" under  26  and  27  August.  (S)  On  4  Soi)teml)('r, 
a  martyr  Rufinus  with  his  companions  in  mart  ynlom 
who  suffered  at  Ancyra  in  Galatia:  lie  is  also  m("ntion(>d 
in  company  with  several  others  in  the  "Martyrol. 
Hieronym. "  (ed.  cit.,  113)  under  31  August,  and  again 


RUFINUS 


222 


RUPUS 


IUfinus  of  Aquileia. 
From  a  woodcut  in  Thevet's  book  ' 
Vrais  Pourtraits,"  Paris,   1584 


under  4  September  (ed.  cit.,  1 16).  (9)  On  9  September, 
Rufinus  and  Rufinianus,  with  no  further  particulars. 
(10)  On  16  November,  Rufinus,  a  martyr  in  Africa  with 
several  companions  in  martjTdom;  nothing  is  kno^\Ti 
concerning  this  saint.  (11)  Besides  the  saints  al- 
ready given  mention  should  also  be  made  of  a  martyr 
Rufinus  of  Alexandria  whose  name  is  given  under 
22  June  in  the  "MartjTol.  Hieronym.^'  (ed.  cit.,  81). 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Rufinus  Tyrannius,  better  known  as  Rufinus  of 
Aquileia.  b.  about  345,  probably  at  Concordia  in 
Italy  (Jerome,  Ep.  ii,  2);  d.  in  Sicily  about  410. 
Though  both  his  parents  were  of  the  Christian  Faith, 
he  was  not  baptized  till  he  was  about  twenty-five 
years  old  at  Aqui- 
leia, where  he  lived 
for  a  short  time  as 
a  monk.  During 
this  period  he  prob- 
ably composed  his 
"  Exposition  of  the 
Creed".  Soon  af- 
ter his  baptism  he 
went  to  Egypt, 
]irobably  in  the 
company  of  Me- 
lania ;  he  there 
spent  six  years 
among  the  her- 
mits, and  from 
them  imbibed  his 
love  of  Origen. 
Afterwards  he  scut- 
tled in  Palestine, 
and  lived  in  a 
monastery  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives  with  companions  who  dwelled  in  cells 
built  at  his  expense,  for  he  was  a  wealthy  man.  He 
later  paid  a  second  visit  to  Egypt  which  lasted  about 
two  years.  His  friendship  with  St.  Jerome,  begun  at 
Aquileia  if  not  earlier,  was  broken  by  the  Origenist 
controversy  in  Palestine  stirred  up  by  St.  Epipha- 
nius  (see  Origenis.m),  but  the  two  were  subse- 
quently reconciled.  In  397  he  returned  to  Italy  in 
the  company  of  Melania.  On  his  arrival  there  he 
composed  a  commentary  on  the  "Benedictions  of  the 
Patriarchs",  and  began  his  labours  as  a  translator  of 
Origen  with  a  Latin  version  of  Pamphilus's  "Apology 
for  (Jrigen"  (see  Pamphilus  of  C^sarea,  Saint),  to 
which  he  affixed  by  way  of  epilogue  a  short  but  his- 
torically valuable  treatise  "The  Adulteration  of  the 
Works  of  Origen  by  Heretics".  This  was  followed 
by  a  traiLslation  of  Origen's  "De  principiis".  As  the 
original  is  no  longer  extant,  Rufinus's  concept  of  his 
office  as  a  translator,  though  prudent  at  the  time,  is 
aggravating  to  po.sterity.  Assuming  extensive  falsi- 
fication by  heretics,  he  omitted  and  rcc^tificd,  endeav- 
ouring however  to  make  his  rectifications  from  what 
Origen  haxi  said  elsewhere.  He  als(j  indiscreetly,  if 
not  with  malicious  intent,  lauded  St.  Jerome's  earlier 
zeal  for  Origen.  This  led  to  a  fresh  outbreak  of  the 
Origenist  controversy  and  a  final  estrangement  from 
St.  Jerome.  St.  Jerome  atta/iked  Rufinus,  who  replied 
with  an  "Apology"  in  two  books.  It  was  in  con- 
nexion with  this  controvrTsy  that  he  wrote  his  short 
"Apology  to  Pope  Anastasius".  Rufinus  translated 
other  writings  of  Origrm  besides  those  already  named : 
Hfinie  treatises  of  St.  Basil  and  of  Gregory  of  Nazian- 
ziiH,  the  "R^jcognitions  of  Clement",  the  "Sayings" 
or  "Ring  of  Xystus",  some  short  tracts  of  EvagriuH 
Ponticus,  and  Eusf-bius's  "Church  History";  to  this 
hist  he  abided  two  books,  bringing  the  narrative  down 
to  his  own  times.  For  the  question  whether  the 
"Historia  mona/!horum"  was  an  original  work  or  a 
translation  see  Monaktk'ikm.  II.  Enjit/rn  MnnoHti- 
cism  Before  Chalcedan  (A,  D.  451).    The  beat  edition 


of  the  works  of  Rufinus  is  that  of  Vallarsi  (Verona, 
1745).  It  contains  Fontanini's  "Vita  Rufini",  which 
is  still  a  great  authority.  This  edition  has  been  re- 
printed by  jMignc  in  P.  L.,  XXI.  Unfortunately,  it 
does  not  contain  the  translations,  and  what  is  of  more 
importance,  the  prefaces  to  the  translations:  these 
must  be  sought  in  the  works  of  Origen,  St.  Basil  etc. 
The  translation  of  Eusebius's  "Church  History", 
together  with  the  continuation,  has  been  recently 
published  in  the  Berlin  edition  of  the  Greek  Christian 
writers  of  the  first  three  centuries.  The  most  im- 
portant of  Rufinus's  writings,  including  the  aforesaid 
prefaces,  have  been  translated  in  the  third  volume  of 
Wace  and  Schaflf's  "Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers". 

For  further  information  concerning  Rufinus  and  his  writings 
consult  the  Prolegomena  to  the  above-mentioned  translations. 
See  also  Fremantle  in  Did.  Christ.  Biog.,  s.  v.  Rufinus  (3).  For 
the  Origenist  controversy  see  Duchesne,  Hist,  ancienne  de 
Veglise,  III,  ii;  Thierry,"  Sauii  Jerome,  I  (Paris,  1867),  1.  VII. 
For  Rufinus  as  a  translator  of  Origen  see  Armitage  Robinson's 
edition  of  the  Philocaha  (Cambridge,  1893),  pp.  xxxi-xxxix; 
this  writer  says:  "His  [Rufinus's]  translation  is  in  fact  what  we 
should  now  call  a  paraphrase.  He  gives  as  a  rule  sense;  and  for 
the  most  part  it  is  Origen's  sense,  if  we  have  regard  to  the  general 
thought  rather  than  to  the  individual  sentence." 

F.  J.  Bacchus. 

Rufus,  Saints. — The  present  Roman  Martyrology 
records  ten  saints  of  this  name.  Historical  mention 
is  made  of  the  following:  (1)  On  19  April,  a  grou])  of 
martyrs  in  Melitene  in  Armenia,  one  of  whom  bears 
the  name  of  Rufus.  These  martyrs  are  mentioncnl  al- 
ready in  the  "Mart>Tologium  Hieronymianum"  (ed. 
De  Rossi-Duchesne,  46).  (2)  On  1  August,  Rufus, 
with  several  comi)anions  who,  according  to  the  most 
reliable  manus<'ri])ts  of  the  "Martyrol.  Hieronym." 
died  at  Tomi,  the  jilace  b(>ing  afterwards  by  mistake 
changed  to  Philadeli)hia  (cf.  Quentin,  "Les  martyr- 
ologes  historiques",  337).  (3)  On  27  August,  two 
martjTs  named  Rufus  at  Capua — one,  whose  name 
also  appears  as  Rufinus  in  the  "Martyrol.  Hieronj^m." 
(ed.  cit..  111).  The  other  is  said  to  have  suffered  with 
a  companion,  Carponius,  in  the  Diocletian  i)erse(m- 
tion  (cf.  "Bibliothecahagiographicalatina",  II,  1070; 
Acta  SS.,  VI  August,  18-19).  (4)  On  25  S(>ptember, 
several  martjTs  at  Damas(;us,  among  them  one  named 
Rufus.  (5)  On  7  Nov(>mber,  a  St.  Rufus,  who  is  said 
to  have  been  Bishoj)  of  Metz;  his  history,  however,  is 
legendary.  His  name  was  inserted  at  a  later  date  in 
an  old  manuscrijjtof  the  "Martyrol.  Hieronym."  (ed. 
cit.,  140).  In  the  ninth  century  his  relicts  were  trans- 
ferred to  Gau-Odernheim  in  Ilesse,  Diocese  of  Mainz. 
(6)  On  12  November,  Rufus,  a  sup])Osed  Bishop  of 
Avignon,  who  is  perhaps  identical  with  Rufus,  the 
disciple  of  Paul  (21  November).  Legend,  without  any 
historical  proof,  has  made  him  the  first  Bishop  of 
Avignon  [cf.  Duchesne,  "Pastes  episcopaux  do 
I'ancienne  Gaulc",  I,  258;  Duprat  in  "Memoires  do 
r Academic  de  Vaucluse"  (1889),  373  sqq.;  (1890), 
1  sqq.,  105  sqq.].  (7)  On  21  November,  Rufus  the 
discii)le  of  th(>  Ai)Ostles,  who  lived  at  Rome  and  to 
whom  St.  I'aul  sent  a  greeting,  as  well  as  he  did  also 
to  the  mother  of  Rufus  ( Rom.,  xvi,  13).  St.  Marksays 
in  his  Gospel  (xv,  21)  that  Simon  of  C>Tene  was  the 
father  of  Rufus,  and  as  Mark  wrote  his  (losi)el  for 
the  Roman  Christians,  this  Rufus  is  jjrobably  the  same 
jis  th(!  one  to  whom  Paul  .sent  a  salulat ion  [cf.  Cornely, 
"Commentar.  in  Ei)ist.  ad  Romanos"  (Paris,  1896), 
778  sq.].  (8)  On  28  November,  a  Roman  martyr 
Rufus,  probably  ideni  i(;al  with  the  Rufinianus  who  was 
buried  in  the  Catacomb  of  (Jenerosa  on  th(!  Via 
Portuensis,  and  who  is  introduc^ed  in  the  legendary 
Acts  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Chry.sogonus  (cf.  Allanl, 
"Histoire  des  pers<!cutions",  IV,  371  sq.).  (9)  On  18 
December,  the  holy  martyrs  R>ifus  and  Zosimus,  who 
were  taken  to  Rome  with  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch  .md 
were  put  to  death  therefor  their  unwavering  confession 
of  Christianity  during  the  persecution  of  Tr.ijiin.  St . 
Polycarp  sptiaks  of  them  in  his  letter  to  the  Philii)- 
piane  (c.  ix).  J.  P.  Kiubcu. 


RUINART 


223 


RUIZ 


Ruinart,  Thierry  (Theodore),  church  historian 
and  theologian,  b.  at  Reims  10  June,  1657;  d.  at 
the  Abbej'  of  Hautvillers  near  Reims,  27  September, 
1709.  "After  completing  his  classical  studies  he  en- 
tered (2  October,  1674)  the  Maurist  Congregation 
of  the  Benedictine  Order  at  the  Abbey  of  Saint- 
Remy  at  Reims  which,  in  that  era,  produced  in 
France  a  brilliant  company  of  distinguished  scholars. 
His  seriousness,  deep  piety,  and  fine  intellectual 
gifts  soon  made  him  known  throughout  his  order,  and 
Mabillon  requested  the  superiors  to  give  him  Ruinart 
as  a  fellow-worker.  Thus  in  1682  he  came  to  the 
Abbey  of  Saint-Germain-des-Pres,  near  Paris,  where 
Mabillon  was  staying  and,  under  the  guidance  of 
this  great  investigator,  became  one  of  the  most 
eminent  church  historians  and  critics  of  his  time. 

The  first  large,  important  work  that  Thierry 
Ruinart  undertook  was  the  publication  of  the  Acts 
of  the  martyrs  that  he  regarded  as  genuine:  "Acta 
primorum  martyrum  sincera  et  selecta"  (many 
editions;  first  ed.  Paris,  1689;  last  ed.,  Ratisbon, 
1859).  Taken  as  a  whole  the  collection  is  not  sur- 
passed even  to-day,  though  individual  documents 
are  not  regarded  as  genuine  by  the  keener  criticism 
of  modem  times.  In  the  introduction  he  ably  dis- 
cussed the  authorities  for  the  history  of  the  martyrs, 
the  Christian  persecutions,  and  in  doing  this  refuted 
the  opinion  propounded  by  Dodwoll  ("De  paucitate 
martyrum",  Oxford,  1684),  that  there  were  onlj' 
a  small  number  of  martyrs  in  the  early  Church. 
A  suj)i)lciiicnt  to  his  work  was  published  by  Le  Blant 
("Les  actcs  dcs  martyrs",  Paris,  1883,  in  "Memoires 
de  rinstitut  de  France",  XXX).  After  the  "Acta" 
he  publi-shed  the  "Historia  persecutionis  Van- 
dalicffi"  of  Victor  of  Vita,  to  which  he  added  an  ex- 
haustive discussion  of  the  persecution  of  the  CathoUcs 
in  Africa  at  the  hands  of  the  Vandals  (Paris,  1694; 
Venice,  1732). 

After  this  he  edited  the  works  of  St.  Gregory  of  Tours 
(S.  Gregorii  Florentii  episcopi  Turon.  opera  omnia) 
and  the  chronicle  of  Fredegar  (Paris,  1699),  with  a 
comprehensive  introduction  and  a  large  number  of 
notes.  With  Mabillon  he  published  volumes  VIII 
and  IX  of  the  "Acta  Sanctorum  ord.  S.  Benedict i" 
(Paris,  1700-01).  In  this  same  period  he  prepared 
his  "Apologie  de  la  mission  de  Saint-Maur"  (Paris, 
1702)  as  a  contribution  to  the  history  of  the  Bene- 
dictine Order  in  France.  He  published  the  treatise 
"Ecclesia  Parisiensis  vindicata"  (Paris,  1706),  in 
defence  of  Mabillon's  work,  "De  re  diplomatica", 
whicli  had  Ix'cn  attacked  by  Bartholomew  Germon. 
Mabillon  had  begun,  but  had  not  been  able  to  com- 
plete, a  new  edition  of  the  "De  re  diplomatica"; 
this  edition  was  now  issued  by  Ruinart,  who  published 
in  connexion  with  it  an  "Abr6g6  de  la  vie  de  J. 
Mabillon"  (Paris,  1709).  At  the  same  time  he  had 
undertaken  the  continuation  of  the  "Annales  ord.  S. 
Benedicti"  and  carried  it  further  by  nearly  complet- 
ing the  fifth  volume. 

While  on  a  journey  made  during  the  year  1709, 
which  he  undertook  to  gather  further  material  for 
this  work,  he  was  taken  ill  and  died.  The  fifth 
volume,  just  mentioned,  was  edited  (Paris,  1713)  by 
Massuet  after  Ruinart 's  death.  Several  manu- 
scripts left  by  Mabillon  and  Ruinart  were  edited 
by  Thuillier  ("Ouvrages  j)()sthumes  de  Mabillon  et 
Ruinart",  three  volumes,  Paris,  1724).  Among  these 
were  three  treatises  by  Ruinart:  "Iter  literariuni  in 
Alsatiam  et  Lotharingiam " ;  "De  palHo  arcliiei)is- 
copali";  "Vita  S.  Urbani,  pp.  11".  The  letters  of 
the  distinguished  scholar  were  edited  by  Valery, 
"Correspondance  in^dite  de  Mabillon  et  de  Mont- 
faucon"  (three  volumes,  Paris,  1846),  by  Jadart 
in  his  biography  of  Ruinart  (see  below),  and 
by  Gigas,  "Lettres  des  B^nedictins  de  Saint- 
Maur,  1652-1741"  (three  volumes,  Copenhagen, 
1S92-93). 


Massuet,  Biog.  de  Ruinart  in  Anruilcs  ord.  S.  Benedicti  V 
(Paris,  1713);  Jadart,  £)om  Th.  Ruinart  (Paris,  1886);  Brogue, 
Mabillon  et  la  societe  de  Saint-Germain-des-Pres  (2  vols.,  Paris 
1888);    HuRTER,    Nomenclator,   IV   (3rd  ed.,   Innsbruck,   1910)1 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Ruiz  de  Alaxcon  y  Mendoza,  Juan  de,  Spanish 
(h-amatic  poet,  b.  at  Mexico  City,  about  1580;  d.  at 
Madrid,  4  August,  1639.  He  received  his  elementary 
education  in  Mexico  and  finished  his  studies  at  the 
University  of  Salamanca,  obtaining  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Laws.  In  1606,  he  removed  to  Seville 
with  the  object  of  practising  his  profession,  and  re- 
mained in  that  city  for  three  years.  \Miile  there  his 
friends  and  associates  were  the  men  of  letters  of  the 
city,  among  them  the  illustrious  Miguel  Cervantes 
Saavedra,  with  whom  he  formed  a  close  friendship. 
The  years  between  1609  and  1611  he  passed  in  his 
native  country.  Returning  to  Spain,  he  settled  in 
Madrid.  A  few  years  before  Philip  II  had  trans- 
ferred his  court  to  that  city,  and  it  was  not  long  before 
Alarc6n's  dreams  of  a  prominent  position  at  the  bar 
were  shattered,  for  he  saw  that  only  through  intrigue 
and  adulation  could  he  hope  for  preferment.  This 
being  distasteful  to  a  man  of  his  tenii)orament,  he 
turned  to  writing  for  the  stage,  attracted  by  the  suc- 
cess of  Lope  de  Vega,  Gabriel  Tellez  (Tirso  de  Molina), 
and  others  of  that  period,  which  was  so  rich  in  literary 
masters.  He  was  successful  almost  from  the  start. 
Unfortunately,  lie  gained  as  well  the  envy  and  enmity 
of  some  of  the  poets  of  the  time,  among  them  Lope  de 
\'ega,  Gongora,  and  Montalvdn,  who  lampooned  him 
mercilessly.  After  his  death  he  was  gradually  forgot- 
ten, save  by  plagiarists,  who  could  safely  pilfer  from 
his  unread  works.  Posterity,  however,  has  given  him 
his  due,  and  he  is  considered  the  first  gi-eat  literary 
product  of  the  New  World  and  perhajis  even  to  this 
day,  one  of  the  greatest.  He  is  admittedly  in  the 
foremost  rank  of  Spanish  dramatists,  being  surpassed, 
if  at  all,  only  by  Lojjc  de  Vega  and  Caldcron.  Alarc6n 
was  the  author  of  many  i)lays,  all  of  them  master- 
pieces. Among  the  best  known  are:  "Truth  Sus- 
pected", which  drew  forth  the  highest  praise  from 
Corneille,  who  used  it  as  a  basis  for  his  "  Le  Menteur  " ; 
"Walls  have  Ears"  was  meant  to  ridicule  the  habits 
of  go.ssip  and  slander;  "The  Weaver  of  Segovia",  a 
drama  of  intrigue  and  passion,  in  two  parts,  the  first 
of  which  has  been  attributed  to  another  author,  being 
so  much  inferior  to  the  second.  In  general  his  plays 
are  distinguished  by  their  ingenious  plots,  moral  tone, 
vigorous  and  pure  style,  and  purity  of  versification. 

Hartzenbdsch,  Comedias  de  J.  Ruiz  de  Alarcon  y  Mendoza 
(1852);  Antonio,  Bihliotheca  hispana  nova  (Madrid,  1783-88); 
Latocr,  Espagne,  tradition,  mceurs  et  litlerature  (18G9);  Guerre 
y  Orbe,  D.  J.  R.  de  Alarcdn  y  Mendoza  (Madrid,  1871). 

Ventura  Fuentes. 

Ruiz  de  Montoya,  Antonio,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished jjioneers  of  the  original  Jesuit  mission  in 
Paraguay,  and  a  remarkable  linguist;  b.  at  Lima, 
Peru,  on  13  June,  1585;  d.  there  11  April,  1652. 
After  a  youth  full  of  wild  and  daring  pranks  and 
adventures  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  on  1 
November,  1606.  In  the  same  year  he  accompanied 
Father  Diego  Torres,  the  first  provincial  of  Paraguay, 
to  this  mission,  where  he  laboured  for  thirty  years  as 
one  of  its  most  capabh;  and  successful  apostles. 
Father  Ruiz  de  Montoya  was  one  of  the  true  type  of 
great  Spanish  missionaries  of  that  era,  who,  as  if 
made  of  cast-iron,  united  a  burning  zeal  for  .souls  with 
an  incredible  fewness  of  wants  aiul  great  power  of 
work.  In  co-operation  with  Fathers  Cataldino  and 
Mazeta  he  founded  the  Redu(;tions  of  Guayra,  brought 
a  number  of  wild  tribes  into  the  Church,  and  is  said 
to  have  baptized  personally  100,000  Indians.  As 
head  of  the  missions  he  had  charge  from  1620  of  the 
"reductions"  on  the  upper  and  middle  course  of  the 
Parana,  on  the  Uruguay,  and  the  Tape,  and  iidded 
thirteen  further  "reductions"  to  the  twenty-six  al- 


RUIZ 


224 


RX7MANIA 


ready  existing.  When  the  missions  of  GuajTa  were 
endangered  by  the  incursions  of  marauders  from  Brazil 
in  search  of  slaves,  Father  Mazeta  and  he  resolved  to 
transport  the  Christian  Indians,  about  15,000  in  num- 
ber, to  the  Reductions  in  Paraguay,  partly  by  water 
with  the  the  aid  of  seven  hundred  rafts  and  numberless 
canoes,  and  partly  by  land  through  the  mazes  of  the 
primeval  forest.  The  plan  was  successfully  carried  out 
in  1631  aftCT  the  suffering  of  incredible  hardships  and 
dangers.  "This  expedition  ",  says  the  Protestant  von 
Ihering,  "is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  undertak- 
ings of  this  kind  known  in  hi.story"  [Globus,  LX  (1891), 
179].  In  1637  Montoya  on  behalf  of  the  governor,  of 
the  Bishop  of  Paraguay,  and  of  the  heads  of  the  orders 
laid  a  complaint  before  Philip  IV  as  to  the  Brazilian 
poUcy  of  sending  marauding  expeditions  into  the 
neighbouring  regions.  He  obtained  from  the  king 
important  exemptions,  privileges,  and  measures  of 
protection  for  the  Reductions  (see  Reductions  op 
Paraguay).  Soon  after  his  return  to  America  Mon- 
toya died  in  the  odour  of  sanctity. 

He  was  a  fine  scholar  in  the  beautiful  but  difficult 
language  of  the  Guaranl  Indians,  and  has  left  works 
up)on  it  which  were  scarcely  exceeded  later.  These 
standard  works  are:  "Tesoro  de  la  lengua  guarani" 
(Madrid,  1639),  a  quarto  of  407  pages;  "Arte  y 
vocabulario  de  la  lengua  guarani"  (Madrid,  1640),  a 
quarto  of  234  pages;  "  Catecismo  de  la  lengua  guarani" 
(Madrid,  1648),  a  quarto  of  336  pages.  Mulhall 
calls  Ruiz  de  Montoya's  grammar  and  vocabulary 
"a  lasting  memorial  of  his  industry  and  learning". 
The  German  linguist  Von  der  Gabelentz  regarded 
them  as  the  very  best  sources  for  the  study  of  the 
Guarani  language,  while  Hervas  declares  that  the 
clearness  and  comprehensive  grasp  of  the  rules  to 
which  Montoya  traced  back  the  complicated  structure 
and  pronunciation  of  Guarani  are  most  extraordinary. 
All  three  works  were  repeatedly  republished  and  re- 
vised. In  1876  Julius  Platzmann,  the  distinguished 
German  scholar  in  native  American  languages,  issued 
at  Leipzig  an  exact  reprint  of  the  first  Madrid  edition 
of  this  work  "unique  among  the  grammars  and  dic- 
tionaries of  the  American  languages".  A  Latin 
version  was  e<litod  by  the  German  scholar  Christ. 
Friedr.  Seybold  at  Stuttgart  in  1890-91.  A  collected 
edition  of  all  Montoya's  works  was  published  at 
\'ienna  under  the  supervision  of  the  Vicomte  de  Porto 
Seguro  in  1876.  Of  much  importance  as  one  of  the 
oldest  authorities  for  the  history  of  the  Reductions  of 
Paraguay  is  Montoya's  work,  "Conquista  espiritual 
hecha  por  los  rcligiosos  de  la  C.  de  J.  en  las  provincial 
del  Paraguay,  Parand,  Uruguay  y  Tape"  (Madrid, 
1639),  in  quarto;  a  new  edition  was  issued  at  Bilbao 
in  1892.  In  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned 
Montoya  wrote  a  number  of  ascetic  treatises.  Letters 
and  various  literary  remains  of  Ruiz  de  Montoya  are 
to  be  found  in  the  "Memorial  histor.  espanol",  XVI 
(Madrid,  1862),  .57  sqq.;  in  "Litteraj  annua;  provinc. 
Paraguaria;"  (Antwerp,  1600),  and  in  the  "Memorial 
sobrc  limites  de  la  Republ.  Argentina  con  el  Para- 
guay" (Buenos  Aires,  1867),  I,  appendix;  II,  216- 
2.52;  of.  Ba^;ker-Sommervogel,  "Bibl.  de  la  C.  de 
J6sus",  VI,  167.5  sqq. 

Dahlmann,  Die  Sprachenkunde  und  die  Missionen  (Freihuri;, 
IH'Jlj,  H4  nqq.;  Conquiula  enpirilunl  (Bilbao),  Prdloyn;  Sal- 
DAMANHO,  Lot  antiquoH  JenuUan  del  Peru  (Lima,  1882),  01  h<\>\.\ 
Xakqce,  Vida  de  P.  Ant.  Ruiz  de  Montoya  (Saragossa,  10()2); 
DE  Anubade,  Varonen  iluHlreg  (Madrid,  1000);  Platzmann, 
Verzexchniti  einer  AuhwiM  amerihin.  Gramnuitiken,  Wdrler- 
hiicher,  etc.  (I^eipzig,  1870),  h.  vv.  GuARAvf  and  Ruiz;  Muiy 
HALL,  Between  the  Amazon  and  Andes  (London,  1881),  248  nqq.; 
Revista  Peruana,  IV,  11 'J. 

Anthony  Huonder. 

Ruiz  de  Montoya,  Diego,  f  hfH^)logian,  b.  at  Seville, 
1.562;  d.  thf-rc  15  March,  16.32.  He  entered  the 
Society  of  .J(*iUH  in  1572  and  wiw  profc;.ssed  22  July, 
1592.  He  taught  philo80i)hy  in  Ciranada,  moral  thf^ol- 
ogy  for  one  year  in  Baeza,  and  theology  for  about 


twenty  years  in  Cordova  and  Seville.  For  a  time  he 
was  rector  of  the  College  of  Cordova,  and  represented 
his  province,  Andalusia,  at  the  Sixth  General  Con- 
gregation. The  last  years  of  his  life  were  devoted  to 
WTiting.  His  distinguishing  characteristics  seem  to 
have  been  humility,  a  retiring  disposition,  and  integ- 
rity. Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  Duke  of 
Lerma  promised  to  obtain  permission  from  Paul  V  to 
publish  his  manuscripts  "  De  Auxiliis  ",  if  he  furthered 
his  plans,  he  declined  to  advise  the  citizens  of  Seville 
to  pay  a  certain  tribute.  Fray  Miguel  de  San  Jos6 
considers  him  a  most  finished  theologian;  Merlin  a 
wise,  subtle,  prudent  student  and  faithful  interpreter 
of  the  Fathers,  and  Kleutgen  and  Menendez-Pelayo 
think  that  he  combined  positive  historic  theology 
with  scholastic,  in  a  manner  not  achieved  by  anj'^  of  the 
theologians  who  preceded  him.  His  published  works 
are:  "Doctrina  Christiana",  WTitten  by  command  of 
the  Bishop  of  Cordova,  published  anonymously  and 
several  times  reprinted;  "Commentaria  ac  disputa- 
tiones  in  primam  partem  D.  Thoma;" — (a)  "De 
Trinitate"  (Lyons,  1625),  his  principal  treatise  and 
one  of  the  best  on  this  subject;  (b)  "De  pra^destina- 
tione  ac  reprobatione  hominum  et  angelorum  "  (Lj^ons, 
1628);  (c)  "De  scientia,  ideis,  veritate  ac  vita  Dei " 
(Paris,  1629);  (d)  "De  voluntate  Dei  et  propriis 
actibus  ejus"  (Lyons,  16.30);  (c)  "De  providentia" 
(Lyons,  1631);  (f)  "De  nominibus  Dei".  These  are 
rare  and  much  sought  editions.  In  manuscript  pre- 
served in  various  libraries:  "  De  auxiliis",  two  volumes 
cla.ssified  as  very  good  by  Father  Vitelleschi;  "De 
angelis";  "Commentarii  in  materiam  de  peccatis"; 
" Controversia;  et  quajstiones  theologicae";  "De  bene- 
ficiis  parochialibus  conf erendis " ;  "De  eliminandis  e 
republica  comocdiis  vulgaribus";  "De  statu  eorum, 
qui  petunt  dimis.sionem  in  Societate  Jesu";  "De 
causis  dimittendi  a  Societate  Jesu". 

MuNOz  DE  Galvkz,  Carta  .  .  .  sobre  la  mxierte  y  virtudes  del 
Padre  Montoya.  Uriarte  says  this  was  signed  in  Seville  in  1632 
and  was  written  by  Father  Felieiano  de  FiKuero  (Catalogue  .  .  . 
No.  3797).  Andrade,  Varones  ilustres,  VII  (Bilbao,  1S91),  162; 
Michael  a  S.  Joseph,  Bibliogr.  Crit.  sacra  et  prof.,  IV  (^Iad^id, 
1742),  85;  NicolAs  Antonio,  Bihliotheca  Hispana  Nova,  I 
(Matriti,  1793),  311;  Sotwel,  Bibliot.  scrip,  societ.  (Rome,  1676, 
1774);  HuRTER,  Nomenclator,  I  (Innsbruck,  1892),  no.  205; 
SoMMEBVOGEL,  BibHolhcque,  VII  (1890),  col.  323;  Memorial  del 
Colegio  de  Cdrdoba,  I,  cap.  viii,  p.  iv,  n.  ii;  Guilhermy,  M6nologe: 
Espayne,  I,  433. 

Antonio  P^rez  Go  yen  a. 
Rule,  Religious.    See  Religious  Life. 
Rule  of  Faith.     See  Faith. 

Rumania,  a  kingdom  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
situated  between  the  Black  Sea,  the  Danube,  the 
Carpathian  Mountains,  and  the  Pruth. 

I.  History. — The  modern  Rumanians  are  generally 
regarded  as  the  descendants  of  the  Dacians,  a  branch 
of  the  ancient  Thracians;  they  dwelt  north  of  the 
Danube  in  the  territory  now  known  as  Transylvania, 
and  formed  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  a 
comparatively  well-organized  state.  Under  the  rule 
of  able  princes  (c.  g.  Dec(!l)alus)  they  frequently 
threatened  the  Roman  civilization  between  tJie 
Adriatic  Sea  and  the  Danube.  Trajan  first  succcecled 
after  several  campaigns  (102-0())  in  l)riiiging  the 
country  under  the  Roman  doiniiiion:  the  new  iioman 
province;  received  tlie  name  of  Dacia,  and  eml)raced 
the  modern  Transylvania,  Baiiat ,  ai:d  Rumania.  To 
replace  the  Dacians,  a  i)ort  ion  of  whom  had  emigrated 
northwards,  Trajan  introduced  colonists  into  the  land 
from  every  part  of  the  Roman  Empire,  especially 
from  the  neighbouring  Illyrian  provinces;  these  settlers 
soon  converted  the  Dacian  territories  wasted  by  the 
wars  into  one  of  the  most  flourishing  Roman  provinces, 
which  was  shortly  known  as  "Dacia  felix".  From 
the  fusion  of  the  remaining  Thracians  and  the  Roman 
colonists,  who  possessed  a  higher  culture,  issued  in 
the  course;  of  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  the;  Da(!o- 
Kumanian  people.     As  early  aa  the  second  century 


RUMANIA 


225 


RUMANIA 


began  the  assaults  of  the  Germanic  tribes  on  the 
Roman  Empire.  After  several  unsuccessful  attempts, 
the  Goths  occupied  the  Dacian  province  in  the  third 
century,  and  in  271  Emperor  Aurelian  formally  ceded 
the  territory  to  them.  In  the  fourth  century  the 
Goths  were  followed  by  the  Huns,  who  in  similar 
fashion  brought  the  Romans  and  Goths  into  subjec- 
tion after  several  campaigns.  In  the  fifth  century 
came  the  Gepida;,  and  in  the  sixth  the  Avars,  who 
occupied  Dacia  for  two  centuries.  Under  the  domin- 
ion of  the  Avars  the  Slavs  made  their  appearance, 
settling  peacefully  among  the  inhabitants;  they  have 
left  many  traces  of  their  presence  in  the  names  of 
places  and  rivers.  Gradually,  however,  they  were 
absorbed  and  Romanized,  so  that  the  Latin  character 
of  the  language  was  preserved.  The  influence  of  the 
Slavs  was  greater  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube, 
where  they  overwhelmed  the  Thraco-Roman  popula- 
tion by  weight  of  numbers,  and  denationalized  the 
Finnic  Bulgars  who  settled  in  the  country  in  the 
seventh  century.  In  this  way  the  Romanic  popula- 
tion of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  was  divided  by  the  Slavs 
into  two  sections;  the  one  withdrew  northwards  to 
the  Carpathians,  where  people  of  kindred  race  had 
settled,  w'hile  the  other  moved  southwards  to  the 
valleys  of  the  Pindus  and  the  Balkan  Mountains, 
where  their  descendants  (the  modern  Aromuni  or 
Macedo-Vlachs)  still  maintain  themselves.  In  the 
history  of  the  Southern  Rumanians  the  erection  of 
the  Rumano-Bulgar  Empire  by  the  brothers,  Peter, 
Jonita,  and  Asen  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  is 
especially  noteworthy;  this  empire  became  disin- 
tegrated in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  on 
the  extinction  of  the  Asen  dynasty  (see  Bulgari.\). 
The  Bulgar  dominion  over  ancient  Dacia  exercised  a 
decisive  influence  on  the  ecclesi:istical  development  of 
the  country.  Christianity  had  been  introduced — 
especially  into  the  modern  Dobrudja,  where  there 
was  a  strong  garrison — by  Roman  colonists  and 
soldiers,  the  Latin  form  and  liturgy  being  employed. 
In  Tomi  (now  Constanta)  existed  an  episcopal  see, 
nine  occupants  of  which  between  the  fourth  and  sixth 
centuries  are  known.  During  the  dominion  of  the 
Bulgars  the  ancestors  of  the  Rumanians  with  their 
lords  came  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Greek  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  and  were  thus  drawn  into 
the  Greek  Schism.  Consequently,  even  to-day  the 
vast  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Rumania  belong 
to  the  Orthodox  Church  (see  below).  The  immigra- 
tion of  the  Bulgars  was  followed  by  the  campaigns 
of  the  Magyars,  who  howe\-er  made  no  permanent 
settlement  in  the  land,  choosing  for  settlement  the 
plain  between  the  Danube  and  the  Theiss.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  tenth  century  the  country  was  sub- 
jected to  the  repeated  attacks  of  the  Peshenegs,  and 
in  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  to  those  of  the  Cumans. 
During  the  migrations  and  invasions  of  various  tribes, 
the  population  of  the  country  was  strongly  imjjreg- 
nated  with  Slav  and  other  elements,  and  only  in  the 
wooded  hills  of  Northwestern  Moldavia  and  Tran- 
sylvania did  the  original  Daco-Rumanian  population 
remain  pure  and  unmixed.  After  peace  had  been 
restored,  the  people  descended  from  these  remote 
retreats,  and  united  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  plains 
to  form  the  Rumanian  people. 

During  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  small  prin- 
cipalities called  Banats  were  formed  in  the  territory  of 
ancient  Dacia;  those  which  ex-tended  from  Trans- 
sylvania  northwards  and  westwards  to  the  valley  of 
the  Theiss  came  gradually  under  the  sway  of  the 
Magyars,  while  those  extending  eastwards  and  south- 
wards from  the  Carpathians  maintained  their  inde- 
pendence. Frorn  the  latter  originated  the  principali- 
ties of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia.  By  uniting  the 
smaller  districts  on  both  sides  of  the  River  Olt,  Voi- 
vode  Bassarab  (d.  1340)  founded  toward  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century  the  Grand  Banat,  Little  Wal- 
XIII.— 15 


lachia,  and  successful  wars  against  Charles  I,  King  of 
Hungary,  and  Robert  of  Anjou  enabled  him  to  pre- 
serve his  independence  and  to  extend  his  authority  to 
the  Danube  and  the  Black  Sea.  A  little  later  (about 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  centurjO  Bogdan,  Voi- 
vode  of  Maramaros  in  Transylvania,  who  rebelled 
against  the  suzerainty  of  Hungary  in  1.360,  founded 
the  Principality  of  Moldavia  by  overrunning  the  Car- 
pathians and  reducing  under  his  sway  the  hilly  coun- 
try along  the  River  Moldau.  Both  these  Rumanian 
principalities  had  to  contend  with  great  difficulties 
from  their  foundation:  on  the  one  hand  their  inde- 
pendence was  threatened  by  the  neighbouring  king- 
doms of  Hungary  and  Poland,  while  on  the  other  do- 
mestic quarrels  and  a  want  of  unity  between  the  kin- 
dred principalities  lessened  their  strength.  But  their 
most  dangerous  enemy  was  the  Turk,  who  extended  his 
conquests  into  the  Balkan  Peninsula  in  the  middle  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  In  wars  against  the  Turks 
and  vain  efforts  to  shake  off  the  Turkish  yoke,  almost 
the  whole  activity  of  the  two  principalities  was  ex- 
hausted for  several  centuries.  By  their  unflinching 
defence  of  their  religion,  the  ancestors  of  the  present 
Rumanians  protected  the  culture  and  civilization  of 
the  Christian  West  from  the  onslaught  of  Islam,  and 
thus  played  a  role  in  universal  history.  Several  of  the 
princes  who  reigned  during  this  heroic  period  of  Ru- 
manian history  are  especially  conspicuous:  Mircea 
the  Old  or  the  Great  (13S6-141S)  and  Radul  the 
Great  (1496-1508)  in  Wallachia,  and  Alexander  the 
Good  (1400-33)  and  Stephen  the  Great  (1457-1504) 
in  Moldavia.  Mircea  organized  his  dominions  and 
ex-tended  his  frontiers  to  the  Black  Sea  by  seizing  Do- 
bnidja  and  the  town  of  Pilistria  from  the  Bulgars  in 
1391.  To  repel  the  onsets  of  the  Turks,  he  formed 
with  King  Sigismund  of  Hungary  (afterward  em- 
peror) an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance,  in  accord- 
ance with  which  he  participated  in  the  ill-fated  battle 
near  Nicopolis  in  1396.  In  1402  he  had  to  recognize 
the  suzerainty  of  Turkey,  to  vacate  the  right  bank  of 
the  Danube,  and  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute,  in  return  for 
which  the  Porte  guaranteed  the  free  election  of  the 
Wallachian  princes  and  the  independent  internal  ad- 
ministration of  their  territory.  The  immediate  fol- 
lowers of  Mircea  were  weak  princes,  and  disputes  con- 
cerning the  succession  postponed  the  casting  off  of  the 
Turkish  yoke.  Radul  the  Great,  son  and  succes.sor  of 
the  ex-monk  Vlad  I  who  had  been  appointed  prince  by 
the  Turks  (1481),  sought  by  reforms  in  the  adminis- 
tration and  in  ecclestiastical  matters  to  mitigate  the 
general  distress  and  to  secure  greater  independence 
from  Turkey. 

For  Moldavia  the  long  reign  of  Alexander  the 
Good  (1401-32)  was  a  time  of  prosperity:  he  or- 
ganized the  finances,  the  administration,  and  the 
army,  drew  up  a  code  of  laws  after  Byzantine  models, 
and  increased  the  culture  of  the  peopl(>  bj-  founding 
schools  and  monasteries.  Alexander  had  on  three  oc- 
casions to  take  the  oath  of  fealty  to  the  King  of  Po- 
land; his  sons  had  likewise  to  recognize  the  suzerainty 
of  Poland,  and  his  natural  son,  Peter  (1455-57),  had  in 
addition  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Turks.  After  a  period 
of  almost  uninterrupted  wars  for  the  princely  dignity, 
Stephen  the  Great  (1457-1504),  a  grandson  of  Alex- 
ander, inaugurated  a  period  of  peace  and  splendour 
for  Moldavia.  Thanks  to  his  valiant  and  well-organ- 
ized army,  he  succeeded  not  only  in  keeping  his  coun- 
try independent  of  the  Turks  and  Poland  for  nearly 
half  a  century,  but  also  increased  his  territory  by  sub- 
duing a  portion  of  Bessarabia,  organized  the  Church, 
founded  a  new  bishopric,  and  built  several  new 
churches  and  monasteries.  Under  him  Moldavia 
reached  its  greatest  power  and  extent.  His  son  Bog- 
dan  III  (1504-17),  in  view  of  the  superior  forces  of  the 
Turks,  had  to  engage  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute,  in  re- 
turn for  which  Moldavia  was  (like  Wallachia)  al- 
lowed the  maintenance  of  the  Christian  faith,  the  free 


RUMANIA 


226 


RUMANIA 


election  of  its  princes,  and  independent  domestic 
administration.  In  spite  of  these  treaties,  a  period 
of  bondage  began  for  both  hinds  after  the  battle  of 
Mohacs,  which  had  brought  Turkey  to  the  height  of 
its  power.  The  Turks  created  a  militar\-  zone  along 
the  Danube  and  the  Dniester,  estabUshed  Turkish 
garrisons  in  important  places,  and  compelled  the 
princes  to  do  personal  homage  to  the  sultan  in  Con- 
stantinople ever>'  three  years,  to  bring  (in  addition  to 
the  tribute)  presents  in'token  of  their  submission,  to 
perform  militarj-  service,  to  maintain  a  troop  of  jani- 
zaries in  their  retinue,  and  to  give  relatives  as  hos- 
tages for  their  fidehty.  The  sultans  finally  arrogated 
to  themselves  the  riglit  of  appointing  and  removing  at 
will  the  vaivodes  of  both  principalities;  the  princes 
thus  became  mere  blind  tools  of  the  Porte,  were  for  the 
most  part  engaged  in  harrj'ing  each  other,  and  in  very 
many  instances  fell  by  the  hands  of  assassins.  Tur- 
key abused  its  power  to  appoint  new  princes  at  short 
intervals;  as  the  princes  had  usually  to  purchase  the 
recognition  of  the  Porte  with  large  sums  of  money, 
they  exacted  from  their  subjects  twice  or  three  times 
the  amounts  thus  paid.  The  chief  portions  of  these 
extortion?  were  wrung  from  the  peasants,  who  were  re- 
duced by  the  large  landowners  and  the  nobles  (the 
boj'ars)  to  the  condition  of  serfs.  The  nobles  also  be- 
came demoralized,  and  wasted  their  strength  in 
scheming  to  obtain  the  vaivodeship.  Both  principali- 
ties, however,  occasionallj'  enjoyed  a  brief  period  of 
prosperitv.  Thus,  Michael  the  Brave  of  Wallachia 
(1.59.3-1601)  succeeded  in  casting  off  the  Turkish 
yoke,  defeating  an  army  twenty  times  as  numerous  as 
his  own  in  1595.  In  1599  he  occupied  Translyvania 
and  in  1600  Moldavia,  and  thus  formed  an  united 
Rumanian  Kingdom  which,  however,  again  collapsed 
on  his  assassination  in  1601.  The  reign  of  Matthias 
Bassarab  (1632-54)  was  also  beneficient  for  Wallachia; 
he  protected  his  boundaries  from  the  attacks  of  the 
Turks  on  the  Danube,  restrained  the  previously  inor- 
dinate influence  of  the  Greeks,  founded  in  1652  the 
first  Rumanian  printing  establishment,  and  had  a  code 
of  laws  compiled  after  Greek  and  Slav  models.  His 
example  was  imitated  by  Vasih  Lupu,  Vaivode  of 
Molda\'ia  (1632-53),  who  in  addition  endeavoured  by 
the  foundation  of  schools  and  charitable  institutions 
to  promote  the  culture  of  the  land.  Thus,  despite  the 
oppressive  political  conditions  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  became  possible  the  existence 
of  a  flouri.shing  ecclesiastical  literature  and  spiritual 
lyrical  poetry,  which  kept  alive  the  national  con- 
sciousness of  the  people.  At  this  period  were  laid 
the  enduring  foundations  of  Rumanian  culture.  Of 
great  importance  also  was  the  circumstance  that 
the  Old  Slavonic  language  then  began  to  be  re- 
place<l  by  the  Rumanian  both  in  public  life  and  in 
the  Church. 

When,  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  and  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  Turkish 
pKjwer  was  broken  by  the  victories  of  Austria,  the  in- 
fluence of  Austria  and  Ru.ssia  began  to  make  itself  felt 
in  the  affairs  of  the  two  Rumanian  principalities.  To 
rid  themselves  of  the  Turkish  domination,  the  princes 
turned  now  to  one  power  and  now  U)  the  other,  but 
were  deceived  by  both.  To  oppose  these  attempts 
the  Porte  ceasr^d  Uj  appoint  native  Rumanian  nfibles 
to  the  vaivodeship  as  previou.sly,  appointing  Greeks — 
especially  from  the  Panar  district  in  Coiislantinople, 
who  wf-re  able  U>  offer  larger  sums  for  tlxir  appoint- 
ment than  the  boyars;  the  princely  dignity  w:is  thus 
in  thf  Ktrictfist  sense  of  the  word  lea,s<Kl.  Por  the 
Rumanian  lands  thus  began  the  gloomiest  period  of 
their  history,  the  period  of  the  Fanariots,  which 
lasted  from  1712  to  1H21.  Foreign  princes  succeeded 
one  another  at  thf  shortost  intervals,  taking  posses- 
sion of  the  country  with  a  numerous  retinue  of  warfls, 
relatives,  and  erediUjrs,  anrl  reducing  it  to  greater  and 
greater  poverty.     A  great  portion  of  the  land  waa  pre- 


sented to  Greek  monasteries,  and  much  of  its  income 
left  the  land  and  enriched  Greek  monasteries  through- 
out the  East  (especially  Mount  Athos).  M(\niwhile 
the  Porte  arbitrarily  raised  the  tribute  to  many  times 
its  former  amount.  Some  Greek  i)rinc(>s  formed  a 
glorioas  exception,  and,  by  introducing  reforms  in  fa- 
vour of  the  peasants,  rendered  great  services  to  both 
countries;  especially  notable  in  this  resjiect  were 
Nicholas  and  Constant  ine  Mavrocordatus  in  Walla- 
chia and  Gregorj^  Ghica  in  Moldavia.  During  the 
Fanariot  dominion  Rumania  was  frequentlj'  the  scene 
of  the  wars  waged  bj'  Turkey  against  Austria  or 
against  Russia.  In  1718  the  western  portion  fell  to 
Austria,  but  in  1739  it  was  recovered  by  Turkey. 
After  the  Turco-Russian  War  of  1768-74  Russia 
wished  to  occupy  the  Rumanian  principalities;  Aus- 
tria opposed  this  and,  in  return  for  this  s(>rvice,  the 
Porte  ceded  to  Austria  Upper  Moldavia  (the  present 
crownland  of  Bucovina).  Moldavia  had  to  bear  the 
co.st  of  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1806-12,  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  countiy  between  the  Pruth  and  the 
Dniester  (Bessarabia)  being  ceded  by  Turkey  to 
Russia.  Of  the  Moldavia  of  Stephen  the  Great  only 
half  now  remained.  When  Vaivode  Alexander  Ypsi- 
lanti,  a  Fanariot,  utilized  the  princely  office  to  pro- 
mote the  rebellion  of  the  Greeks  against  the  Turkish 
rule,  the  Porte  found  itself  compelled  to  cease  ap- 
pointing Greeks  to  the  princety  dignity,  and  to  revert 
to  the  old  practice  of  naming  Rumanians.  Russia 
now  began  to  interest  itseK  in  the  principalities, 
though  only  for  interested  reasons;  by  the  Treaty  of 
Akerman  it  obtained  that  only  boyars  should  be  ap- 
pointed princes.  A  new  war  having  broken  out  be- 
tween Russia  and  Turkey  in  connexion  with  the 
Greek  struggle  for  freedom,  Russia  occupied  the  two 
principalities  after  the  Peace  of  Adrianojjle  (1828); 
the  Russian  Count  Kisselew,  who  governed  the  terri- 
tories at  the  head  of  the  Russian  army  of  occupation, 
regulated  anew  the  administration  and  the  political 
organization  of  the  countries.  After  the  Russian  oc- 
cupation Russia  appointed  as  princes  for  life,  for 
Moldavia  Michael  Sturdza  (1834-49),  and  for  Wal- 
lachia Alexander  Ghica  (1834-43),  who  was  suc- 
ceeded by  another  favourite  of  the  tsar,  George 
Bibescu. 

The  reforms  introduced  under  the  Russians  subse- 
quently prepared  the  way  for  the  gradual  economic 
development  of  the  territories.  However,  this  im- 
provement benefited  almost  exclusively  the  boyars 
and  the  great  landowners,  while  the  jjeople  remained 
in  their  former  pitiable  ('(jiulition.  Tiie.se  circum- 
stances, as  well  as  the  interference  of  Rus.sia  in  the 
domestic  affairs  of  the  principalities,  the  spread  of 
patriotic  and  liberal  ideas,  the  desire  for  national 
unity,  the  curtailment  of  the  privileges  of  the  boyars, 
and  free  institutions,  finally  led  (owing  to  the  example 
giA'en  by  the  French  Revolution  of  Fc'bruarj-)  to  an 
insurrection,  which  was  successful  only  in  Wallachia. 
On  21  June,  1848,  George  Bibescu  was  forced  to  abdi- 
cate, a  new  constitution  was  proclaimed,  and  a  pro- 
visional government  appointed.  However,  Russia 
and  Turkey  occupied  the  principalities  in  common, 
set  aside  the  constitution,  and  restored  the  old  condi- 
tions by  the  Convention  of  Balta-Limani  (1  May, 
1849) ;  at  the  same  time  the  election  of  princes  for  life 
and  the  national  a,ssembly  were  abolished.  Barbti 
StirbcuQ,  Bibsecu's  brother,  was  named  Prince  of  Wal- 
lachia, and  Gregory  Alexander  Prince  of  Mold.-ivia  for 
a  period  of  seven  years.  During  the  Crimean  War 
both  principalities  were  occupied  first  by  Ru.ssia,  and 
then  (after  18.54)  by  .Austria.  The  Congress  of  Paris 
rearranged  their  relations,  setting  aside  the  Russian 
suzerainty  and  restoring  that  of  Turkey.  A  commis- 
sion of  the  great  powers  which  had  been  sent  to  the 
principalities  having  learned  the  wishes  of  the  Ru- 
manian people,  both  were  given  autonomy  to  the  ex- 
tent of  their  ancient  treaty  with  Turkey  and  a  consti- 


I 


RUMANIA 


227 


RUMANIA 


tutional  government  by  the  Convention  of  Paris 
(1858) ;  the  further  wishes  of  the  people  for  the  union 
of  the  two  territories  and  the  nomination  of  a  prince 
from  one  of  the  ruling  houses  of  Europe  were  not  ful- 
filled, the  two  principalities  being  kept  separate  and 
each  electing  a  prince  for  life.  In  1859,  however,  a 
personal  union  was  effected,  Colonel  Alexander  John 
Cuza  being  elected  for  Moldavia  on  17  January  and 
for  Wallachia  on  24  January ;  the  double  election  was 
ratified  by  the  Porte  after  some  hesitation.  In  1861 
Cuza  estabU.shed,  instead  of  the  separate  ministries,  a 
common  ministry  and  a  common  representative  as- 
sembly, and  in  1862  the  union  of  the  principalities, 
henceforth  known  as  Rumania,  was  proclaimed. 
Prince  Cuza  introduced  a  series  of  reforms;  the  most 
important  were  the  secularization  of  the  Greek  mon- 
asteries, the  law  dealing  with  public  instruction,  the 
codification  of  the  laws  on  the  basis  of  the  Napoleonic 
Code,  and  especially  the  land  laws  of  1864,  by  which 
the  peasants  were  given  free  possession  of  the  land 
and  the  remnants  of  serfdom,  socage  and  tithes,  were 
abolished.  As  the  chamber,  which  was  controlled  by 
the  boyars,  was  particularly  opposed  to  the  last  meas- 
ure, Cuza  abolished  the  chamber  in  1864  and  gave  the 
country  a  new  constitution  with  two  chambers.  Not- 
withstanding all  his  services,  Cuza  brought  the  coun- 
try into  a  financial  crisis.  A  conspiracy  was  formed 
against  him,  in  which  the  army  participated;  on  the 
night  of  22  February,  1866,  he  was  seized  by  the 
conspirators  and  compelled  to  abdicate  the  following 
morning. 

After  Count  Philip  of  Flanders,  brother  of  King 
Leopold  of  Belgium,  had  refu.sod  the  sovereignty,  the 
Catholic  prince,  Charles  of  HohenzoUom-Sigmarin- 
gen,  was  elected  hereditary  prince  at  the  instance  of 
Napoleon  III  on  14  April,  1866.  On  22  May  he  en- 
tered Bucharest,  and  after  sonic  months  was  recog- 
nized by  the  Porte,  although  Rumania  had  again  to 
recognize  its  obligation  to  pay  tribute.  From  the  be- 
ginning of  his  reign  Charles  had  great  (Ufficulties  to 
overcome;  the  development  of  the  country  had  been 
prevented  by  centuries  of  foreign  occupation,  com- 
merce and  manufacture  were  to  a  great  extent  in  the 
hands  of  foreigners,  the  land  was  for  the  most  part  in 
the  power  of  a  few  great  landowners,  while  the  mass  of 
the  population  were  poor  and  burdened  with  heavy 
taxation.  Notwithstanding  frequent  rotation  in 
power  of  the  political  parties,  a  series  of  reforms  were 
passed,  and  the  armj^  organized  after  the  Prussian 
model,  made  creditably  efficient.  When  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War  broke  out  in  1878,  Rumania  made  a 
treaty  with  the  tsar,  allowing  the  Russian  troops  to 
march  through  its  territory,  and  on  22  May,  1877,  de- 
clared its  independence  of  the  Porte.  At  the  storm- 
ing of  Plevna  and  the  besieging  of  other  places  the 
Rumanian  army  rendered  very  imjxjrtant  services  to 
Russia — ser\'ices  for  whii-h  Russia  showed  no  grati- 
tude. The  complete  independence  of  Rumania  was 
recognized  by  the  Congress  of  Berlin  (13  July,  1878), 
but  it  was  compelled  to  cede  to  Russia  Bessarabia, 
which  it  had  acquired  in  1856,  and  to  content  itself 
with  the  less  important  Dobrudja.  In  consequence  of 
this  disappointment  Rumania  has  since  favoured  Ger- 
many and  Austria  in  its  foreign  policy.  On  26  March, 
1881,  Charles  had  himself  crowned  king.  The  new 
kingdom  soon  began  to  display  a  successful  acti\aty 
in  both  the  material  and  intellectual  domains.  The 
natural  richness  of  the  land  was  developed,  the  build- 
ing of  roads  and  railways  promoted,  and  the  standard 
of  public  instruction  raised.  Between  1882  and  1885  the 
independence  of  the  Orthodox  Church  in  Rumania 
from  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople  was  effected, 
and  in  1883  the  Archdiocese  of  Bukarest  was  erected 
for  the  CathoHcs.  Thanks  to  its  intellectual  and 
material  development  and  its  military  strength,  Ru- 
mania has  become  an  important  factor  in  European 
politics.     Grievous  conditions,  however,  still  prevail 


in  the  country  in  one  connexion — the  distribution  of 
the  land  and  real  property.  Almost  half  of  the 
landed  interest  (over  47  per  cent)  is  vested  in  the 
hands  of  scarcely  4200  persons,  so  that  Rumania  out- 
rivals Southern  Italy  as  the  land  of  big  estates  with  all 
the  resulting  evils.  As  these  great  landowners  possess 
pohtical  as  well  as  economical  power,  and  exercise  it 
to  the  detriment  of  the  peasants,  a  serious  rising  of  the 
peasants  broke  out  in  1907,  and  could  be  suppressed 
only  with  the  aid  of  the  army  after  the  proclaimirig  of 
rnartial  law.  To  abolish  gradually  these  evil  condi- 
tions and  to  protect  the  peasants  from  the  oppression 
of  the  landowners  and  lessees  and  from  usury,  a  series 
of  excellent  agrarian  reforms  have  been  introduced 
since  1907  and  have  been  in  many  cases  already  en- 
forced. 

II.  Present  Condition. — The  area  of  Rumania 
is  50,720  sq.  miles;  according  to  the  census  of  1899 
the  population  was  5,956,690  (at  the  beginning  of 
1910  the  estimated  population  was  6,865,800).  In 
1899  the  population  included:  5,451,787  Greek  Ortho- 
dox (over  91-5  per  cent),  149,677  CathoUcs  (2-5  per 
cent),  22,749  Protestants,  15,094  Lippovans,  5787 
Armenians,  266,652  Jews,  44,732  Mohammedans,  222 
of  other  religions.  According  to  nationality  the  popu- 
lation was  as  follows:  5,489,296  Rumanians,  108,285 
Austrians  and  Hungarians,  23,756  Turks,  20,103 
Greeks,  8841  ItaUans,  7964  Bulgarians.  7636  Germans, 
5859  foreign  Jews,  11,380  of  other  nationalities.  Ac- 
cording to  the  constitution  of  19  June,  1866,  Rumania 
is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  the  legislative  power 
being  vested  jointly  in  the  king  and  parliament.  The 
national  assembly  consists  of  two  chambers,  a  senate 
and  a  house  of  representatives.  To  the  senate  be- 
long the  adult  princes  of  the  royal  house,  the  eight 
bishops  of  the  Orthodox  Church,  one  representative 
of  each  of  the  two  national  universities,  and  110 
members  elected  by  two  electoral  colleges;  the  house 
of  representatives  consists  of  183  members  elected 
by  adult  Rumanians  paying  taxes  organized  into  3 
electoral  colleges.  The  bills  passed  by  Parliament 
receive  the  force  of  laws  only  when  sanctioned  by  the 
king.  While  according  to  the  constitution  the  Greek 
Orthodox  is  the  State  Church,  liberty  in  the  practice 
of  their  religion  is  granted  to  all  the  other  Churches, 
and  the  State  refrains  from  all  interference  in  the 
election  and  appointment  of  the  clergy  of  the  various 
denominations.  State  support  is  given  only  to  the 
Orthodox  Church.  The  Orthodox  Church  of  Rumania 
declared  itself  independent  of  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople in  1859,  a  declaration  which  was  not 
recognized  by  the  latter  until  1885.  The  supreme 
ecclesiastical  authority  is  the  Holy  Synod,  consisting 
of  the  two  metropolitans,  the  six  bishops,  and  the 
eight  titular  archpriests  of  Rumania;  its  duties  are  to 
preserve  the  unity  of  the  Rumanian  with  the  Eastern 
Church  in  dogma  and  the  canons,  to  maintain  eccle- 
siastical discipline  within  the  territory  of  Rumania, 
and  to  decide  all  purely  ecclesiastical  spiritual  and 
legal  questions  according  to  the  holy  canons.  The 
choice  of  bishops  is  vested  in  an  electoral  body  com- 
posed of  the  eight  bishops,  the  titular  archpriests, 
and  all  the  Ortliodox  representatives  and  senators; 
the  election  is  by  secret  ballot.  For  ecclesiastical 
administration  the  country  is  di\'ided  into  eight 
eparchies  (dioceses),  of  which  the  eparchies  Ungro- 
Wallachia,  with  its  scat  at  Bukarest,  and  Moldau,  and 
Sucea,  with  its  seat  at  Jassy,  are  metropolitan.  The 
Primate  of  Rumania  is  the  Metropolitan  of  Bukarest. 
For  the  Catholics  of  Rumania  have  been  erected  the 
Archdiocese  of  Bukarest  and  the  Diocese  of  Jassy. 
The  ancient  Catholic  Church  of  Rumania  disappeared 
when  the  p(>ople,  influenced  by  the  Bulgars,  placed 
themselves  under  the  juristfiction  of  the  Greek  Church 
in  the  ninth  century  and  thus  became  involved  in  its 
schism. 

The  seed  of  the  modem  Catholic  Church  in  Ru- 


RUMOHR 


228 


RX7M0HR 


mania  developed  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  in  consequence  of  the  immigration  of  the 
Hungarians  and  Poles,  and  various  Catholic  dioceses 
were  founded  in  the  Middle  Ages.  However,  the 
mass  of  the  population  was  never  won  over  to  reunion 
v\-ith  Rome,  and  the  dioceses  soon  vanished.  In  1211 
Iving  Andreas  II  presented  to  the  Teutonic  Order  the 
land  about  Kronstadt  in  Transylvania,  but  he  with- 
drew his  donation  in  1225  and  entered  into  personal 
possession  of  the  territory'.  Numerous  Hungarians 
and  Germans  had  meanwhile  settled  in  the  plain  of 
the  DanulDC,  then  occupied  mostly  by  the  pagan 
Cumans,  and  the  majority  of  the  latter  were  won  for 
Christianity.  For  these  converted  Cumans  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Gran  erected  the  "Diocese  of  the  Cumans", 
which  included  not  only  the  modern  Rumania,  but 
also  Bessarabia  and  a  portion  of  Transylvania. 
Theodorich,  a  Dominican,  was  the  first  occupant  of 
the  see,  and  fixed  his  seat  at  Milcov.  In  1241,  how- 
ever, the  diocese  was  ravaged  by  the  Tatars;  the  title 
alone  was  retained,  being  given  to  Hungarian  vicars- 
general  (even  to  ordinary'  parish  priests)  until  1523. 
To  replace  this  see  a  Catholic  bishopric  was  established 
in  1246  at  Severin,  a  tovm  on  the  Danube  near  the 
Hungarian  frontier  which  had  been  taken  from  the 
Bulgar-Rumanian  Empire  of  the  Asens  by  King 
Andreas  II  in  1230  and  presented  to  the  Knights  of 
Malta  in  1247.  The  first  bishops,  Gregory  (about 
1246)  and  another  Gregory  (about  1382),  were  actual 
bishops,  but  the  remaining  ten  occupants  of  the  see 
(mentioned  until  1502)  were  merely  titular  bishops, 
who  hved  mostly  in  Hungarj'.  A  third  Catholic 
diocese  was  founded  at  Sereth.  \\Tien  the  Eastern 
emperor,  John  Pala?ologus  the  Elder,  made  his  sub- 
mission to  Rome  in  1369,  Latzco,  the  Rumanian 
Prince  of  Molda\-ia,  followed  his  example,  and  asked 
Pope  Urban  V  to  erect  a  diocese  at  Sereth  (1370). 
The  first  bishop  was  the  Conventual,  Nicholas  Andrea 
Wassilo;  he  became  Administrator  of  Halicz  in  1373, 
and  Bishop  of  Wihia  in  1388.  As  the  next  two  bishops 
were  also  coadjutors  of  Cracow,  this  see  was  reduced 
to  the  rank  of  a  titular  see.  In  consequence  of  the 
efforts  for  reunion  of  Urban  V,  who  wished  to  restore 
the  old  Diocese  of  Milcov,  another  Catholic  diocese 
was  founded  at  Arges  in  1381,  and  the  Dominican 
Nicholas  Antonii  appointed  its  first  incumbent.  Of 
his  sixteen  successors,  known  until  1664,  all  lived  out- 
side the  diocese,  the  title  of  which  they  added  to  their 
other  titles.  A  fifth  diocese  was  founded  at  Baja, 
the  oldest  town  in  Moldav-ia.  The  names  of  seven 
bishops  who  lived  before  1523  are  known;  in  the  six- 
teenth centurj'  the  population  almost  imanimously 
embraced  Protestantism.  The  foundation  of  the 
Diocese  of  Bacau  (1607),  whose  occupants  resided 
in  Poland,  did  as  little  to  strenghten  the  Catholic 
Church. 

As  the  bishops  of  these  dioceses  resided  almost 
exclu.sively  outside  their  sees,  the  ministration  to  the 
Cathohcs,  whose  number  was  never  very  great,  was 
undertaken  by  the  religious  orders — especially  the 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans,  who  founded  many 
monasteries  in  the  territory  of  the  present  Rumania. 
During  the  time  of  the  Reformation  most  of  the 
Catholics  joined  either  the  Greek  schismatics  or  the 
Protestancs.  The  spiritual  care  of  the  few  who  re- 
mained faithful  was  undertaken  by  the  Conventuals 
from  C<jnstantinoplc;  to  these  friars  is  due  the  main- 
t<^;nance  of  the  Catholic  faith  in  Rumania,  and  the 
erection  of  a  church  in  Bukarest  (1633).  When,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sriventecnth  century,  an  episcopal 
fiCii  was  rtstablished  at  Sofia,  its  first  occupant,  Petrus 
a  Solis  (1610;,  was  named  Administrator  Apostolic 
of  Wallachia — an  office  alwj  fulfilled  by  his  successf^rs. 
The  most  famous  of  these  a^lministrators  was  Petrus 
Deodatus  Baksifh  (1641-74;  from  1642  archbishop), 
whose  report  f)f  his  canonical  visitation  is  preserved 
in  the  .(Xjchives  of  the  Propaganda.     As  most  of  the 


bishops  of  Sofia  were  chosen  from  the  Franciscan 
Observants,  these  friars  gradually  replaced  the  Con- 
ventuals as  missionaries.  In  similar  fashion  the 
bishops  of  the  Diocese  of  Marcianopolis  (erected  in 
1643)  were  appointed  administrators  Apostolic  for 
the  Catholics  of  Molda^^a,  and  the  bishops  of  Nicop- 
olis  (1648)  for  the  Catholics  of  Dobrudja.  When, 
subsequently  to  1715,  the  See  of  Sofia  was  left  vacant, 
the  administration  of  Wallachia  was  transferred  to 
the  Bishop  of  Nicopolis.  During  the  plague  of 
1792-3  Bishop  Paulus  Dovanlia  of  Nicopolis  (1777- 
1804)  transferred  the  seat  of  his  diocese  to  the  Fran- 
ciscan monaster}''  in  Bukarest ;  since  then  the  bishops 
of  Nicopolis  have  resided  in  Bukarest.  or  at  Ciople  in 
the  neighbourhood.  Dovanlia's  successors  have  been 
chosen  mostly  from  the  Passionists,  who  came  to 
Bukarest  in  1781.  The  first  was  Francis  Ferrari, 
who  died  of  the  plague  in  1813.  His  successor,  For- 
tunatus  Ercolani  (1815),  became  involved  in  a  quarrel 
with  his  flock  in  consequence  of  his  attitude  towards 
the  Franciscans,  who  had  won  the  affection  of  the 
people,  and  was  transferred  to  Civita  Castellana  in 
1822.  The  next  bishops  were  Josephus  Molajoni 
(1822-47)  and  Angelo  Parsi  (1852-63);  the  latter 
built  a  new  church  and  episcopal  residence  at  Bukar- 
est and  introduced  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools  and  religious  orders  of  women  into  the  coun- 
try. Parsi's  successor,  Joseph  Pluym,  became  Patri- 
archal Vicar  of  Constantinople  in  1869:  The  number 
of  Catholics  so  greatly  increased  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  owing  mainly  to  immigration  from  Austria 
and  Hungary,  that  a  reorganization  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Rumania  became  necessary.  This  was  done 
in  1883:  the  territory  of  Rumania  was  separated 
ecclesiastically  from  the  Diocese  of  Nicopolis,  Bishop 
Ignatius  Paoh  (1870-85)  was  named  Archbishop  of 
Bukarest  in  1883,  and  the  exempt  Diocese  of  Jassy 
simultaneously  re-erected.  (Concerning  the  further 
history  and  ecclesiastical  statistics,  see  Bukarest  and 
Jassy.) 

Abt,  Die  katholische  Kirche  in  Rumanien  (Wiirzburg,  1879); 
Samuelson,  Rumania,  past  and  present  (London,  1882) ;  Rudow, 
Gesch.  des  rum&n.  Schrifttums  (Wernigerode,  1892^;  de  Mar- 
tonne,  La  Roumanie  (Paris,  1900) ;  Benger,  tr.  Keane,  Rumania 
in  1900  (London,  1901);  Netzhammer,  Aus  Rumdnien  (Ein- 
siedeln,  1909) ;  Sturdza,  La  terre  el  la  race  Roumaines  depuis  leurs 
origines  jusgu'A  nos  jours  (Paris,  1904);  Onciul,  Din  Istoria 
Romanici  (Bukarest,  1900);  Bellessort,  La  Roumanie  con- 
temporaine  (Paris,  1907);  Xenopol,  Les  Roumnins  (Paris,  1909); 
FoBGA,  Istoria  biscricii  RomAnesti  (2  vols.,  Bukarest,  1905-09); 
Creanga,  Grundbesetz  verteilung  u.  Bauernfrage  in  RumUnien 
(3  vols.,  Leipzig,  1907-09);  Le  Pointe,  La  Roumaine  moderne 
(Paris,  1910) ;  Fischer,  Die  Kulturarbeit  des  Deutschtums  in 
Rumanien  (Hermannstadt,  1911). 

Joseph  Lins. 
Rumohr,  Karl  Friedrich,  art  historian,  b.  at 
Dresden,  1785;  d.  there,  1S43.  He  Ijecame  a  Catho- 
lic in  1804.  He  was  blessed  not  only  with  worldly 
possessions,  but  also  with  a  practically  unquenchable 
thirst  for  knowledge,  and  especially  with  a  keen  sense 
of  form  and  beauty,  which  fitted  him  for  the  critical 
treatment  of  art  and  social  relations.  Italy  was 
frequently  visited  by  him,  and  he  was  fond  of  varying 
life  in  the  large  cities  with  the  stillness  and  loneliness 
of  the  country.  Exercising  a  magnificent  hospitality, 
he  himself  was  in  many  places,  despite  his  very  irri- 
table temperament,  a  welcome  guest — even  with  King 
William  IV  of  Prussia  and  Cliristian  VIII  of  Den- 
mark. In  his  "Italienische  Forschungen"  (3  vols., 
1826-31),  he  treated  in  masterly  fashion  the  Um- 
brian-Tuscan  School  of  painting,  and  prepanid  th('  way 
for  a  critical  conception  of  art  history  in  Italy.  His 
residence  in  Italy  also  gav(!  rise  to  interesting  works 
on  the  rural  condition  of  Central  and  Upper  Italy. 
His  "Drei  Reisen  nach  Italic^n"  appeared  .as  a  special 
work.  Ah  the  result  of  searching  study  he  wrote 
"Hans  Holbein  der  Jiingere  in  seinem  Verhiiltnis  zuni 
deutschen  Formschnittwesen",  "Zur  Geschichtc^ 
und  Theorie  der  Formschneidekunst",  and  "Ge- 
Bchichtc  der    koniglichcn    Kupferstichsammlung    zu 


RUPERT 


229 


RURAL 


Kopenhagen".  His  "Novellcn"  are  unimportant, 
his  "Deutsche  Denkwurdigkeiten"  (4  vols.),  of  httle 
interest;  his  "  Hunde-Fiichsestreit "  (Kynalope- 
komachie)  and  "Schule  der  Hoflichkeit"  are  written 
in  a  humorous  vein.  The  "Geist  der  Kochkunst" 
also  extended  his  fame  and  popularity.  King  Chris- 
tian VIII  built  a  monument  in  his  honour. 

Biography  by  Schulz  (Leipzig,  1844);  Poel  in  Allg.  Deutsche 
Biogr.,  XXIX. 

G.    GlETMANN. 


Rupert,  Saint  (alternative  forms,  Rxjprecht, 
Hrodbertus,  Hrodperht,  Hrodpreht,  Roud- 
BERTUS,  Rudbertus,  Robert,  Rupprecht),  first 
Bishop  of  Salzburg,  contemporarj^  of  Childobert  III, 
King  of  the  Franks  (695-711),  date  of  birth  unknown; 
d.  at  Salzburg,  Easter  Sunday,  27  March,  718. 
According  to  an  old  tradition,  he  was  a  scion  of  the 
Frankish  Merovingian  family.  The  as.sumption  of 
660  as  the  year  of  his  birth  is  merely  legendary. 
According  to  the  oldest  short  biographical  notices 
in  the  "Mon.  Germ.  Script.",  XI,  1-15,  Rupert  was 
noted  for  simplicity,  prudence,  and  the  fear  of  God; 
he  was  a  lover  of  truth  in  his  discourse,  upright  in 
opinion,  cautious  in  counsel,  energetic  in  action, 
far-seeing  in  his  charity,  and  in  all  his  conduct  a 
glorious  model  of  rectitude.  While  he  was  Bishop  of 
Worms,  the  fame  of  his  learning  and  piety  drew  many 
from  far  and  wide.  The  report  of  the  bishop's 
ability  reached  Duke  Theodo  II  of  Bavaria,  who  had 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  current  ecclesias- 
tical movement  in  Bavaria.  Theodo  sent  Rupert 
messengers  with  the  request  that  he  should  come  to 
Bavaria  to  revive,  confirm,  and  projiagate  the  spirit 
of  Christianity  there.  Despite  the  work  of  early 
missionaries,  Bavaria  was  only  superficially  Christian; 
its  very  Christianity  was  indeed  to  some  extent 
Arian,  while  heathen  customs  and  views  were  most 
closely  interwoven  with  the  external  Christianity 
which  it  had  retained.  St.  Rupert  acceded  to 
Theodo's  request,  after  he  had  by  messengers  made 
himself  familiar  with  the  land  and  people  of  Bavaria. 
St.  Rupert  was  received  with  great  honour  and  cere- 
mony by  Theodo  in  the  old  residential  town  of 
Ratisbon  (696).  He  entered  immediately  upon  his 
apostolic  labours,  which  extended  from  the  territory 
of  the  Danube  to  the  borders  of  Lower  Pannonia, 
and  upon  his  missionary  journey  came  to  Lorch. 
Thence  he  travelled  to  the  lonely  shores  of  the  Waller- 
see,  where  he  built  a  church  in  honour  of  Saint 
Peter,  thereby  laying  the  foundation  of  the  present 
market-town  of  Seekirchen  in  the  Newmarket  dis- 
trict of  Salzburg.  From  the  Roman  colony  there 
Rupert  obtained  an  account  of  the  ancient  Roman 
town  of  Juvavum,  upon  the  site  of  which  there  still 
remained  many  more  or  less  dilaj)idated  buildings, 
overgrown  with  briars  anil  brushwood. 

Having  personally  verified  the  acicuracy  of  this 
account  concerning  the  place  and  position,  Rupert 
requested  Theodo,  in  the  interests  of  his  apostolic 
mission  to  the  country,  to  give  him  the  territory  of 
Juvavum  (which  was  still  a  place  of  considerable 
commerce)  for  the  erection  of  a  monastery  and  an 
episcopal  see.  The  duke  granted  this  petition, 
bequeathing  the  territory  of  Juvavum  (the  modern 
Salzburg),  two  square  miles  in  area,  to  St.  Rupert 
and  his  successors.  At  the  foot  of  the  precipice  of 
the  Monchberg,  where  once  St.  Maximus,  a  disciple 
of  St.  Severin,  had  suffered  martjTdom  with  his  com- 
panions (476),  St.  Rupert  erected  the  first  church  in 
Salzburg,  the  Church  of  St.  Peter,  in  honour  of  the 
Prince  of  the  Apostles,  as  well  as  a  monastery. 
Upon  the  lofty  prominences  (Nonnberg)  to  the  south- 
east of  the  town,  where  the  old  Roman  fortress  once 
towered,  he  established  a  convent  of  nuns  which, 
like  the  monastery  of  the  Monchberg,  he  placed  under 
the  protection  and  Rule  of  St.   Benedict.     To  set 


his  institutions  upon  a  solid  basis,  Rupert  repaired 
home,  and  returned  with  twelve  companions  besides 
his  niece  Ehrentraud  (Erindruda),  whom  he  made 
abbess  over  the  Benedictine  Convent  of  Nonnberg, 
while  he  with  his  twelve  companions  formed  the  first 
congregation  of  the  famous  Benedictine  Monastery 
of  St.  Peter  at  Salzburg,  which  remains  to  the  present 
day.  St.  Rupert  thenceforth  devoted  himself  en- 
tirely to  the  work  of  salvation  and  conversion  which 
he  had  already  begun,  founding  in  connexion  there- 
with many  churches  and  monasteries — e.  g.  Maxglan, 
near  Salzburg,  Maximilianszelle  (now  Bischofshofen 
in  Pongau),  Altotting,  and  others.  After  a  life  of 
extraordinarily  successful  activity,  he  died  at  Salz- 
burg, aided  by  the  prayers  of  his  brethren  in  the 
order;  his  body  reposed  in  the  St.  Peterskirche  until 
24  Sept.,  774,  when  his  discijjle  and  successor,  Abbot- 
Bishop  St.  Virgil,  had  a  portion  of  his  remains  removed 
to  the  cathedral.  On  24  Sept.,  1628,  these  relics 
were  interred  by  Archbishop  Paris  von  Ladron 
(1619-54)  under  the  high  altar  of  the  new  cathedral. 
Since  then  the  town  and  district  of  Salzburg  solem- 
nize the  feast  of  St.  Rupert,  Apostle  of  Bavaria  and 
Carinthia,  on  24  September. 

In  Christian  art  St.  Rupert  is  portrayed  with  a 
vessel  of  salt  in  his  hand,  symbolizing  the  universal 
tradition  according  to  which  Rupert  inaugurated 
salt-mining  at  Salzburg;  this  portrayal  of  St.  Rupert 
is  generally  found  upon  the  coins  of  the  Duchy  of 
Salzburg  and  Carinthia.  St.  Rupert  is  also  represented 
baptizing  Duke  Theodo;  this  scene  has  no  his- 
torical foundation.  St.  Rupert  was  the  first  Abbot- 
Bishop  of  Salzburg,  for,  as  he  established  his  founda- 
tions after  the  manner  of  the  Irish  monks,  he  com- 
bined in  his  own  per.son  the  dignities  of  abbot  and 
bishop.  A  similar  combination  of  dignities  existed 
also  in  Rati.sbon  and  Freising.  This  twofold  charac- 
ter of  the  bishop  continued  in  Salzburg  for  nearly 
300  years  until  the  scjiaration  of  the  dignities  was 
effected  in  9S7  hy  Arclihishop  Friedrich  I  of  Salzburg, 
Count  of  Cliicingau,  the  twenty-first  Abbot  of  the 
Monastery  of  St.  Peter.  The  period  of  St.  Rupert's 
actiyity  was  until  very  lately  a  matter  of  great  dis- 
cussion. Formerly  the  opinion  was  held  that  the 
end  of  the  fifth  and  beginning  of  the  sixth  centuries 
was  the  age  of  his  missionary  work,  but,  according 
to  the  most  exhaustive  and  reliable  investigations, 
the  late  seventh  and  early  eighth  centuries  formea 
the  period  of  his  activity.  This  fact  is  established 
especially  by  the  "Breves  notitiie  Salzburgenses", 
a  catalogue  of  the  donations  made  to  the  Church  of 
Salzburg,  with  notices  from  the  ninth  century.  In 
these  latter  Bishop  St.  Virgil,  whose  ministry  is 
referred  to  745-84,  appears  as  a  direct  disciple  of  St. 
Rupert.  It  is  forthwith  evident  that  the  assumption 
of  the  end  of  the  sixth  and  beginning  of  the  seventh 
centuries  as  the  period  of  Rupert's  activity  is  ex- 
tremely doubtful,  even  apart  from  the  fact  that  this 
view  also  involves  the  rejection  of  the  catalogue  of  the 
bishops  of  Salzburg  and  of  Easter  Sunday  as  the  day 
of  Rupert's  death.  Many  churches  and  places  bearing 
Rupert's  name,  serve  as  surviving  memorials  of  his 
missionary  activity.  A  successor  of  St.  Rupert,  the 
present  scholarly  Abbot  of  St.  Peters  in  Salzburg, 
Willibald  Hauthaler,  has  written  an  interesting  work 
upon  this  subject  entitled  "Die  dem  hi.  Rupertus 
Apostel  von  Bayern  gevveihten  Kirchen  und  Kapel- 
len"   (with  map,  Salzburg,   1885). 

De  conrerfione  Bagoarioium  et  Carantavorum  liheUiis  in  Mon. 
Germ.:  Script.,  XI,  1-15.  A  complete  list  of  the  literature  is 
given  in:  Potthast,  Bibl.  hist,  medii  cevi,  II  (Berlin,  189C), 
lo57-58;  Wattenbach,  Deulschlands  Geschichtsjuellen  im 
MittelaUer,  I  (7th  ed.,  Berlin,  1901),  135-37;  Lindner,  Monas- 
ticon  metropolis  Sahburgensis  antiquce  (Salzburg,  1908),  66. 
On  the  Rupert  question  of.  Anthaller,  Die  Gesch.  der  Ruper- 
tusfrage  (1885);  Doeberl,  Entwickelungsgesch.  Bayerns.  I 
(Munich,   1908).  567-60. 

Ulrich  Schmid. 
Rural  Dean.    See  Dean. 


RUSADDIR 


230 


RUSSELL 


Rusaddir,  a  titular  see  of  INIauritania  Tingatana. 
Rusaddir  is  a  Phoenician  settlement  whose  name  sig- 
nifies a  loftv  cape.  This  city  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy 
(IV  1)  and  Pliny  (V,  IS)  who  call  it  "oppidum  et 
portus",  also  bv  Mela  (I,  33),  under  the  corrupted 
form  Rusicada  and  bv  the  "Itinerarmm  Antonini  . 
During  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  the  Berber  city  of 
Mlila;  it  is  now  known  as  Melilla.  In  1497  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia,  and  in  150o 
was  returned  to  the  Crown  of  Spain.  Since  then  its 
history  is  a  succession  of  famines  and  sieges  of  which 
the  most  renowned  is  that  of  1774  and  the  most 
recent  that  of  1S93.  In  1909  it  was  the  seat  of  the 
warfare  carried  on  between  Spain  and  the  Rif  tribes. 
Melilla  is,  after  Ccuta,  the  most  important  of  the 
Spanish  fortresses  or  presidios  on  the  African  coast. 
It  has  about  9000  inhabitants,  and  is  built  in  the  form 
of  an  amphitheatre  on  the  east  slope  of  a  steep  rock 
1640  feet  high,  bounded  by  abrupt  cliffs,  whereon  is 
the  Fort  of  Rosario.  A  free  port  since  ISSl,  Melilla 
carries  on  an  active  commerce  with  the  Rif.  There 
is  no  record  of  any  bishop  of  this  see. 

Smith  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  geogr.  s.  v.;  Muller,  Notes 
on  Ptolemy,  cd.  Didot,  I,  5S3;  Meaki.n,  The  Land  of  the  Moor 
(London,  1901);  Barr£,  Melilla  et  les  presides  espagAols  in 
Rerue  franchise  a^08).  S.   PETRinfes. 

Rusicade,  a  titular  see  of  Numidia.  It  is  men- 
tioned bv  Ptolemy  (IV,  3),  Mela  (I,  33),  PUny  (V,  22) 
"Itinerarium  Antonini",  the  "Tabula  Peutingeru 
etc.  Nothing  is  known  of  its  history.  Situated  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Thapsus,  it  served  as  the  commercial 
port  of  Cirta  and  exported  grain  to  Rome.  The  port 
was  called  Stora  or  Ustura,  where  under  Valentinian 
and  Valens  granaries  were  built  whose  ruins  are  still 
visible.  The  city  was  known  as  Colonia  Veneria 
Rusicada.  It  was  a  total  ruin  when  rebuilt  by  the 
French  as  Philippe ville.  Philippevillc  is  the  capital 
of  the  pro%'ince  of  the  Department  of  Constantine 
(.\lgeria);  it  has  21,.5.50  inhabitants  of  whom  8200 
are  French,  5900  foreigners,  mostly  Italians  and 
Maltese,  4.50  Jews,  and  7000  Arabs.  The  ancient 
name  survives  in  Ras  Skidda,  a  point  of  the  Djebel 
Addouna  from  which  juts  forth  the  great  pier.  The 
commerce  is  considerable.  Ruins  of  a  theatre, 
mu.seum.  Christian  sarcophagus,  Christian  inscrip- 
tion.s,  and  the  remains  of  a  basilica  dedicated  to  Saint 
Digna  may  be  found  there.  Six  bishops  of  Rusicade 
are  known:  Verulus,  present  at  the  Council  of  Car- 
thage (2.5.5),  perhaps  the  martyr  in  the  martyrology, 
21  February;  Victor,  condemned  at  the  Council  of 
Cirta  (30.5j  as  a  traitor  or  betrayer  of  the  Scriptures; 
NaN-igius  whose  remains  and  epitaph  have  been  re- 
covered in  the  church  which  he  erected  to  Saint  Digna 
in  the  fourth  century;  Faustinianus,  present  at  the 
Conference  of  Carthage  (411)  with  his  Donatist  rival, 
Junior;  Quint ilianus  (?)  in  42.5;  Eusebius,  exiled  by 
Huneric  in  484. 

Smith,  Did.  of  Greek  and  Roman  geogr.,  s.  v.;  MOller,  Notes 
on  Ptolemy,  eA.  Didot,  I,  614;  Touiotte,  Geographie  de  I'Afrique 
chretienne:  Xumidie  (Ilennes  and  Paris,  1894),  25S-63. 

S.    P^TRIofes. 

Ruspe,  titular  see  of  Byzacena  in  Africa,  men- 
tioned only  by  Ptolemy  (IV,  3)  and  the  "Tabula" 
Peutinger.  According  to  the  first  it  was  on  the 
coast  between  Acholla  (Kasr  el  Abiah)  and  Usilla 
(Henshir  Inshilla);  the  "Tabula",  or  map  of  Peut- 
inger, states  that  it  was  six  (doubtless  twenty-six) 
miles  from  the  Iatt<;r  pla<;e.  It  is  identified  with  the 
ruins  called  Kacnir  Sia<l,  seventeen  miles  from  Acholla. 
Others  believe  it  to  be  at  Henshir  Sbia,  four  miles 
west  of  Cape  Kapouflia  (north  of  the  Gulf  of  CJabes, 
Tunisia),  its  name  being  preserved  at  Koudiat 
Rosfa  near  Ras  el  Ixjuza.  It  seems  more  i)robable 
that  Koudiat  Rospa  is  itself  the  ancient  Ruspe, 
Vonr  bishops  of  the  see  are  known:  Stephanus, 
exiled  by  King  Huneric  (484);   St.  Fulgcntius,  con- 


secrated in  508,  died  in  533;  Felicianus,  his  com- 
panion in  exile  and  successor,  who  assisted  at  the 
Council  of  Carthage  (about  534);  Julianus,  who 
signed  in  641  the  Anti-Monothelite  letter  of  the  bish- 
ops of  Byzancena  to  the  Emperor  Constantine. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  geogr.,  a.  v.;  Muller,  Notes 
on  Ptolemy,  ed.  Didot,  I,  622;  Toulotte,  Geographie  de  I'Afrique 
chrHienne:  Byzackne  et  Tripolitaine  (Montreuil,  1894),  164-6. 

S.  Petrid^s. 

Russell,  Charles,  Baron  Russell  of  Kil- 
LOWEN,  b.  at  NewTy,  Ireland,  10  November,  1832; 
d.  in  London,  10  August,  1900.  He  was  the  elder  son 
of  Arthur  Russell  of  Killowen  and  Margaret  Mullin 
of  Belfast.  The  family  was  in  moderate  circum- 
stances, their  ancestors  having  suffered  much  for 
the  Faith  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
Arthur  Russoll  having  died  in  1845,  the  care  of  his 
large  family  devolved  upon  their  talented  mother  and 
their  paternal  uncle,  the  celebrated  Dr.  Russell  of 
Maynooth.  Having  studied  at  the  diocesan  seminary, 
Belfast,  at  a  private  school  in  Newry,  and  St.  Vin- 
cent's College,  Castleknock,  Dublin,  Charles  Russell 
entered  the  law  offices  of  Mr.  Denvir,  Newry,  in 
1849,  and  of  Mr.  O'Rorke,  Belfast,  in  1852.  Ad- 
mitted a  solicitor  in  1854,  he  practised  in  the  county 
courts  of  Down  and  Antrim,  and  became  at  once  the 
champion  of  the  Catholics  who  had  resisted  organized 
attempts  at  proselytizing  by  Protestants  in  these 
counties.  His  success  was  so  striking  that  his  legal 
friends  urged  him  to  become  a  barrister  in  London, 
and  in  1856  he  entered  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  Having 
followed  an  extensive  course  bj^  close  private  study 
under  the  direction  of  Maine,  Broom,  and  Birkbeck, 
he  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1859.  His  success  on  the 
northern  circuit  soon  recalled  him  to  London,  where 
he  became  "Queen's  Counsel"  in  1872,  and  divided 
the  mercantile  business  of  the  circuit  with  Lord 
Herschell.  The  increasing  demand  for  his  services 
may  be  judged  by  his  fees  which  averaged  $15,000 
a  year  from  1862-72,  $50,000  in  the  next  decade, 
$80,000  in  the  third,  and  in  1893-4,  his  last  year  of 
practice,  reached  $150,000.  His  knowledge  of  law, 
business,  and  human  character,  a  flexible  and  often 
passionate  eloquence  which  derived  its  force  from  in- 
tense earnestness  rather  than  oratorical  device, 
marvellous  dexterity  in  extracting  the  truth  from 
witnesses,  and  a  manifest  honesty  of  purpose  gave 
him  a  power  over  judge  and  jury  which  made  him 
universally  regarded  as  the  first  advocate  of  his  age. 

Though  in  his  first  years  in  London  he  had  been 
weekly  correspondent  of  the  Dublin  "Nation", 
an  advanced  Nationalist  organ,  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  a  Liberal  being  elected,  after  two  defeats, 
member  for  Dundalk  in  1880.  He  generally  acted 
with  the  Nationalists  on  Irish,  and  always  on  Catho- 
lic, questions,  and,  when  he  visited  the  United  States 
in  1883,  bore  a  flattering  introduction  from  Mr. 
Parnell.  Elected  member  for  South  Hackney 
(lSS.5-94),  he  was  appointed  attorney-general  by  Mr. 
Gladstone  in  1886,  and  again  in  1892  on  the  return 
of  the  Liberals  to  power.  He  was  a  strenuous  ad- 
vocate of  Home  Rule  in  Parliament  and  on  public 
platforms,  and  was  leading  advocate  for  Mr.  Parnell 
at  the  Parnell  Commission  trial  in  1888.  His  cross- 
examination  of  the  witnesses  of  the  "Times",  and 
especially  his  exi)osure  of  Pigott,  the  author  of  the 
"Times"  forgeri(!s,  made  a  favourable  verdict  in- 
evitable. His  famous  eight-day  speech  for  the  de- 
fence was  his  greatest  forensic  effort.  In  189;i  he 
represented  Great  Britain  in  the  Behring  Sea  Arbi- 
tration, his  speech  against  the  United  States'  con- 
tentions lasting  eleven  days,  and  was  knighted  for  his 
services.  Made  Lord  of  Appeal,  1894,  he  was  raised 
to  the  p(?erage  for  life,  taking  his  title  from  his  native 
lownland  of  Killowen.  In  the  same  year  he  was  ap- 
pointcfl  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England,  the  first 
Catholic  to  attain  that  office  for  centuries.     lie  won 


RUSSELL 


231 


RUSSIA 


speedily  the  public  confidence  and  is  ranked  with  the 
most  illustrious  of  his  predecessors.  He  revisited 
the  United  States  in  1896  as  the  guest  of  the  American 
Bar  Association  and  delivered  a  notable  address  on 
arbitration.  In  1899  he  represented  England  on  the 
Venezuelan  Boundaries  Commission,  and  displayed 
all  his  old  power  of  separating  vital  points  from  ob- 
scuring details.  The  following  year  he  was  attacked 
while  on  circuit  by  an  internal  malady,  and,  after 
a  few  weeks'  illness,  died  piously  in  London,  after 
receiving  the  sacraments  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
of  which  he  had  been  always  a  faithful  and  devoted 
member.  He  was  survived  by  his  widow  (Ellen, 
daughter  of  Dr.  Mulholland  of  Belfast),  whom  he 
married  in  1858,  and  by  five  sons  and  four  daughters. 
The  unanimous  tribute  paid  him  by  the  English 
and  American  Bar  and  by  the  people  and  journals 
of  the  most  diverse  political  and  religious  views  at- 
tested that,  despite  his  masterful  character  as  lawj-er, 
judge,  and  parliamentarian,  and  his  stalwart  loyalty 
to  his  Faith  and  country,  he  had  attained  a  rare  and 
widespread  popularity.  In  him  were  blended  many 
qualities  not  usually  found  together.  With  a  keen 
and  orderly  mind,  a  resolute  will,  great  capacity  for 
work,  and  severe  official  dignity,  he  combined  sen- 
sibility of  temperament,  a  spirit  of  helpfulness  and 
comradeship,  and  a  dreamer's  devotion  to  ideals. 
He  was  always  ready  to  write  and  speak  for  educa- 
tional, religious,  and  benevolent  purposes,  though 
such  action  was  not  calculated  to  forward  his  polit- 
ical ambitions.  Devoted  to  his  family,  he  crossed 
the  continent  on  his  first  American  trip  to  visit 
Mother  Mary  Baptist  Russell  of  San  Francisco  (who, 
with  two  others  of  his  sisters,  had  entered  the  Order 
of  Mercy),  and  found  time  to  write  for  his  children 
and  send  them  day  by  day  an  admirable  account  of 
his  experiences.  This  "Diary  of  a  Visit  to  the  United 
States"  has  been  since  edited  by  his  brother,  Rev. 
Matthew  Russell,  S.J.,  and  published  (1910)  by  the 
U.  S.  Catholic  Historical  Society.  His  other  pub- 
lished works  include:  "New  Views  of  Ireland" 
(London,  1880);  "The  Christian  Schools  of  England 
and  Recent  Legislation"  (1883);  his  speech  before 
the  Parnell  Commission  (1888);  essay  on  Lord 
Coleridge  in  the  "North  American  Review"  (1894), 
and  on  the  legal  profession  in  the  "Strand  Maga- 
zine" (1896);  "Arbitration,  its  Origin,  History,  and 
Prospects"  (London,  1896). 

Barry  O'liRiEN,  Life  (London,  1901);  personal  recollections 
in  The  Times  (London,  ll  Aug.,  1900),  and  files  of  the  daily- 
press;  Irish  Monthly  and  other  magazines  (Sept.  and  Oct.,  1900); 
Reports  of  American  Bar  Association  (.31  .\ug.,  1900),  and  of  the 
unveiling  of  the  Lord  Russell  Statue  (London,  Jan. ,1905);  Foster, 
Men  at  the  Bar;  Lincoln's  Inn  Reg.;  Burke's  Peerage  (1900); 
CoKAYNE,  Complete  Peerage  (1900). 

M.  Kenny. 

Russell,  Charles  William,  b.  at  Killough,  Co. 
Down,  14  May,  1812;  d.  at  Dublin  26  Feb.,  1880. 
He  was  descended  from  the  Russells  who  held  the 
barony  of  Killough  of  Quoniamstown  and  Bally- 
strew.  He  received  his  early  education  at  Drogheda 
grammar  school  and  Downpatrick,  after  which  he 
entered  Maynooth  in  1826.  After  a  brilliant  course 
he  was  ordained  on  13  June,  1835,  and  became 
one  of  the  professors  of  humanities  at  the  college. 
In  1842  he  was  chosen  by  Gregory  XVI  to  be  the  first 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Ceylon,  but  he  refused  the  dignity 
as  also  the  liishopric  of  Down  and  the  Archbishopric 
of  Armagh.  Three  years  later  he  returned  to  May- 
nooth as  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history.  Having 
published  his  translation  of  Leibnitz's  "System  of 
Theology"  in  18.50,  he  was  occupied  on  his  "Life  of 
Cardinal  Mezzofanti"  which  appeared  in  1858.  In 
1857  he  succeeded  Dr.  Renehan  as  President  of  May- 
nooth. His  profound  antiquarian  learning  caused 
him  to  be  appointed  a  member  of  the  Historical 
Manuscripts  Commission  in  1869,  and  in  that  capacity 
he  acted  as  joint  editor  (with  John  Prendergast)  of 


the  eight-volume  "Report  on  the  Carte  Manuscripts 
in  the  Bodleian  Library"  (1871)  and  the  "Calendar 
of  Irish  State  Papers  during  the  reign  of  James  I" 
(4  vols.,  1872-77).  He  was  also  a  frequent  contribu- 
tor to  the  "Dublin  Review"  which  for  thirty  years 
he  enriched  by  various  papers,  often  writing  more 
than  one  for  the  same  number.  The  last  of  these 
were  the  two  masterly  articles  on  the  sonnet  (1876-77). 
He  wrote  many  articles  for  "Chambers's  Encyclo- 
pedia", and  two — "Palimpsests"  and  "Papyrus" 
— for  the  "Encyclopedia  Britannica".  He  con- 
tributed also  to  many  other  magazines  such  as  the 
"Edinburgh  Re\dew",  the  "Month",  and  "Irish 
Monthly".  A  humbler  but  very  popular  work  has 
been  his  translation  of  Canon  Schmid's  "Tales  for  the 
Young"  first  published  in  1846.  Besides  his  literary 
work  and  all  that  he  accomplished  for  Maynooth, 
he  exercised  a  very  powerful  influence  on  the  leading 
men  of  his  age  by  the  charm  and  force  of  his  per- 
sonahty.  Wiseman  and  Newman  alike  counted 
him  as  an  intimate  friend,  and  the  latter  wrote  of 
him:  "He  had  perhaps  more  to  do  with  my  conver- 
sion than  any  one  else".  Dr.  Russell  lived  to  wit- 
ness the  early  success  of  his  nephew  Charles  who 
subsequently  became  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England. 

Healy,  Centenary  History  of  Maynooth  College  (Dublin,  1S95); 
Carlyle  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.;  Ward,  Life  and  Times  of  Cardinal 
Wisenmn  (London,  1897). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Russell,  Richard,  Bishop  of  Viz6u  in  Portugal, 
b.  in  Berkshire,  1630;  d.  at  Vizeu,  15  Nov.,  1693. 
He  was  of  humble  station,  and  when  twelve  years  old 
became  servant  to  Dr.  Edward  Daniel,  newly  ap- 
pointed President  of  Lisbon  College.  Five  years 
later,  having  meanwhile  applied  his  leisure  to  study, 
he  was  admitt(>d  an  alumnus  of  the  college  and  took 
the  oath,  14  Aug,  1647.  In  1653  he  went  to  Douai 
College,  and  thence  to  Paris,  where  he  was  ordained. 
In  1655  he  returned  to  Lisbon  as  procurator,  but  two 
years  later  was  summoned  by  the  Chapter  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  spent  three  years  as  a  chaplain  to  the 
Portuguese  ambassador.  On  his  return  to  Portugal 
he  received  the  title  of  Secretary  to  the  Queen,  and  a 
pension,  in  consideration  of  his  services  to  the  crown 
of  Portugal.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  again  in 
England  on  business  connected  with  the  marriage 
treaty  of  Charles  II  and  Catharine  of  Braganza,  and 
on  this  occasion  he  was  elected  a  Canon  of  the  Eng- 
lish Chapter  (26  June,  1661).  Having  declined  the 
Bishopric  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  Ru.ssell  accom- 
panied the  Infanta  to  England.  The  English  Chap- 
ter hoped  that  he  might  be  consecrated  bishop  of  a 
Portuguese  see  and  that  then  he  would  return  to 
Englantl,  resign  his  diocese  and  become  head  of  the 
P^nglish  clergy  with  episcopal  powers;  for  the  English 
Catholics  had  long  been  without  a  resident  bisliop, 
and  they  had  had  no  episcopal  superior  at  all  since 
the  death  of  Bishop  Smith  in  1655.  This  plan, 
however,  came  to  nothing,  and  when  Russell  was 
persuaded  to  accept  the  see  of  Portalegre  in  1671  he 
decided  to  remain  in  his  diocese.  He  was  conse- 
crated bishop  in  the  chapel  of  the  English  College, 
Lisbon,  on  27  Sept.,  1671.  Overcoming  the  first 
opposition  of  his  clergy  to  a  foreign  bishop,  he  spent 
ten  years  in  zealous  and  apostolic  labour  and  effected 
a  complete  reformation  of  the  diocese.  In  1682 
he  was  transferred  to  the  diocese  of  Vizeu  where  he 
spent  the  last  eleven  years  of  his  life.  His  portrait 
is  preserved  at  the  EngUsh  College,  Lisbon. 

Kirk  in  Croft,  Historical  Account  of  Lisbon  College  (London, 
1902),  with  portrait;  Dodd,  Church  History,  III  (Brussels  vere 
Wolverhampton,  1737-42) ;  Serjeant,  Account  of  the  Chapter 
(London,  1853);  Brady,  Episcopal  Succession,  III  (Rome, 
1877);  GiLLOw,  BiU.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,  s.  v.  Russell,  Richard, 
Fifth  Douay  Diary  in  Catholic  Record  Society,  X  (London,  1911). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Russia. — Geography. — Russia  (Rossiiskaia  Im- 
periia;  Russkoe  Gosudarstvo)  comprises  the   greater 


RUSSIA 


232 


RUSSIA 


part  of  Eastern  Europe,  and  a  third  of  Afia;  its  area 
is  one-sixth  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe.  In  the 
reign  of  Alexander  II  the  total  area  of  the  empire  was 
8,689,945  sq.  miles,  of  which  only  2,156,000  were  in 
Europe.  The  greatest  length  of  Russia  from  east  to 
west  is  6666  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  is  2666 
miles;  it  lies  between  35°  45'  and  79°  N.  lat.,  and 
17°  40'  and  191°  E.  long  (i.  e.,  169  W.  long.).  The 
boundaries  of  Russia  are:  on  the  north,  the  Arctic 
Ocean;  on  the  west,  Sweden,  Norway,  the  Baltic  Sea, 
Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Rumania;  on  the 
south,  the  Black  Sea,  Turkey,  Persia,  the  Caspian 
Sea,  Afghanistan,  and  China;  on  the  east,  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  Russia  forms  a  vast,  compact  territory,  the 
area  of  its  islands  being  only  107,262  sq.  miles,  which 
was  greatly  reduced  by  the  cession  of  the  southern 
part  of  Sakhalin  to  Japan.  Geographers  usually  di- 
vide Russia  into  European  and  Asiatic  Russia,  re- 
garding the  natural  boundarj''  to  be  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains, the  Ural  River,  the  Don,  and  the  Volga;  this 
division  is  based  neither  on  natural  nor  on  political 
grounds.  The  Ural  Mountains  form  a  chain  of  wooded 
highlands,  which  may  be  compared  to  the  central 
axis  of  the  empire  rather  than  to  a  dividing  barrier; 
moreover  there  is  no  natural  boundary  line  between 
the  southern  extremity  of  these  mountains  and  the 
Caspian  Sea.  The  division  between  European  and 
Asiatic  Russia  can  best  be  established  ethnologically, 
and  this  method  is  frequently  used  in  Russian 
geographies. 

Seas. — The  coasts  of  Russia  are  washed  by  many 
seas;  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  White  Sea,  the  Bay  of 
Tcheskaya,  the  Bay  of  Kara,  the  Gulf  of  Obi,  the 
Baltic  Sea,  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia,  Finland,  and  Riga, 
the  Black  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Azof,  the  Caspian  Sea,  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  Behring  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  and 
the  Sea  of  Japan.  But  Russia  is  not  destined  to  be- 
come a  great  maritime  power,  because  for  the  most 
part  the  seas  of  Ru.ssia  are  in  regions  where  naviga- 
tion is  impossible  in  winter;  for  periods  of  six  months 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  from  fifteen  days  to  one 
month  at  some  points  in  the  Black  Sea.  And  the 
future  of  Russia  as  a  maritime  power  is  moreover 
obstructed  by  pohtical  difficulties;  the  way  from  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  Mediterranean  is  closed  by  the 
Bo.sphorus  and  the  Dardanelles;  the  way  from  the 
Baltic  to  the  Atlantic  is  closed  by  Sweden,  Germany, 
Norway,  and  Denmark.  The  Arctic  Ocean  washes 
the  extreme  northern  coasts  of  Russia,  sterile,  unin- 
habited regions,  over  which  there  hangs  a  winter  of 
nine  months,  paralyzing  the  activities  of  life.  The 
ice,  whether  fixed  or  floating,  blocks  the  way  of  ships; 
these  ply  however  in  the  White  Sea,  which  is  free  of 
ice  for  three  months  of  the  year,  and  the  waters  of 
which  form  the  Gulfs  of  Mezen,  the  Dwina,  Onega, 
and  Kandalak,  the  latter  being  the  most  frequented. 
There  are  but  few  islands  in  this  immense  extent  of  ice; 
the  more  important  ones  are  the  islands  of  Kolguet, 
Vaigatch,  Nova  Zembla,  New  Siberia,  and  the  islands 
of  Solovka,  on  one  of  which  is  a  famous  monastery 
founded  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  St.  Sabbatius  and 
the  Blessed  Germanus.  Among  the  most  important 
peninsulas  may  be  cited  that  of  Kola  or  Russian  Lap- 
land. Russia  shares  the  possession  of  the  Baltic  Sea 
with  Sweden,  Germany,  and  Denmark,  and  its  waters 
have  been  the  highway  of  Russian  commerce  since  the 
time  of  Peter  the  Great,  although  their  shores  are 
rugged  and  reefs  numerous.  The  Gulfs  of  Bothnia, 
Finland  and  Riga  are  frozen  for  several  months  of 
the  year,  while  the  Gulf  of  Livadia  is  frozen  for  six 
weeks,  although  it  scjmetimes  remains  free  of  ice 
through  the  whole  year.  Notwithstanding  these 
natural  obstacles,  Russian  commerce  has  been  devel- 
oped on  the  Batlic,  the  shortest  route  for  the  exporta- 
tion of  Russian  products  to  European  countries  and 
America.  The  Baltic  Sea  is  studaed  with  islands,  of 
which  the  following  belong  to   Russia:  the  numer- 


ous Aland  group,  eighty  of  which  are  inhabited; 
the  Islands  of  Dago,  Oesel,  Mohn,  Wornes,  and 
Kothn;  on  the  last  is  built  the  formidable  fortress  of 
Kronstadt. 

Climate. — In  European  Russia  the  climate  is  se- 
vere, both  in  winter  and  summer,  the  rains  are  scanty, 
and  the  temperature  is  not  as  mild  as  in  Western 
Europe.  The  coasts  of  the  Baltic  and  the  shores  of 
the  Vistula  have  a  climate  similar  to  that  of  Western 
Europe.  European  Russia  presents  graduated  varia- 
tions of  climate  between  40°  and  70°  N.  lat.,  and  alsc 
from  east  to  west.  At  Nova  Zembla  the  lowest  win- 
ter temperature  is  16°  F.,  while  at  the  south  of  the 
Crimea  it  rises  to  56-3°  in  summer.  The  isothermal 
lines  of  European  Russia  are  not  coincident  with  the 
parallels  of  latitude,  but  diverge  towards  the  south- 
east. There  are  places  situated  on  the  same  parallel 
presenting  considerable  differences  in  mean  tempera- 
ture, e.  g.  Libau,  49-1°;  Moscow,  39-2°;  Kazan,  37-4°; 
Yekaterinburg,  32-9°.  In  the  valley  of  the  Rion  in 
the  Caucasus,  cotton  and  sugar-cane  are  grown,  while 
the  tujidras  of  the  Kola  Peninsula  are  sparsely  covered 
with  moss.  In  Western  Russia,  the  cold  of  winter  is 
never  greater  than  31°  below  zero,  while  the  heat  of 
summer  is  never  in  excess  of  86°;  but  in  Eastern  Rus- 
sia the  thermometer  falls  to  40°  below  zero  in  winter, 
and  rises  to  109°  in  summer.  European  Russia  may 
be  divided  into  fom*  climatic  zones:  the  cold  zone, 
which  includes  the  coasts  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  their 
adjacent  islands,  and  extends  bej^ond  the  Arctic  Cir- 
cle; its  winter  lasts  nine  months,  and  its  summer  three; 
the  cold-temperate  zone,  from  the  Arctic  Circle  to 
61°  N.  lat. ;  its  winter  lasts  six  months,  and  each  of  the 
other  seasons  two  months;  the  temperate  zone,  ex- 
tending from  61°  to  48°  N.  lat. ;  each  season  lasts  three 
months,  the  winter  being  longer  towards  the  north, 
and  summer  longer  towards  the  south ;  the  warm  zone, 
between  48°  N.  lat.  and  the  southern  frontier  of  Rus- 
sia; the  summer  lasts  six  months,  and  the  other  three 
seasons  two  months  each.  European  Russia  is  not 
unhealthy,  although  in  the  cold  zone  scurvy  is  fre- 
quent, and  near  the  Gulf  of  Finland  ailments  of  the 
throat  and  the  respiratory  organs;  plica  polonica  in- 
fects the  marshy  regions  of  Lithuania  and  Russian 
Poland;  and  there  is  the  so-called  Crimean  fever  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Sivash  and  in  a  region  on  the 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea. 

The  climate  of  the  Caucasus  is  not  of  a  uniform 
character;  it  belongs  in  the  north  to  the  cold-temper- 
ate zone,  and  in  Transcaucasia  to  the  warm  zone.  In 
the  north,  summer  lasts  six  months,  and  the  other 
seasons  two  months  each.  In  Transcaucasia  the  sum- 
mer lasts  nine  months,  and  the  other  three  months  of 
the  year  are  like  spring.  Nevertheless  the  irregularity 
of  the  mountain  sy.stem  of  the  Caucasus  produces  dif- 
ferences of  temperature  in  jjlaccs  separated  by  short 
distances.  On  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  between 
Batum  and  Sukhum,  the  temperature  seldom  falls  be- 
low 32°;  in  January  the  temperature  rises  as  high  as 
43°.  Western  Transcaucasia  receives  warm  and  hu- 
mid winds,  while  the  eastern  part  is  exposed  to  dry 
winds  from  the  north-east. 

The  part  of  Siberia  1  hat  borders  on  the  Arctic  Ocean 
lies  entirely  within  the  cold  zone;  tlie  wiiifor  lasts  nine 
months,  and  the  summer  is  like  (he  bcgiiiniiig  of  spring 
in  European  Ru.ssia.  T)ie  jjortion  of  Siberia  Ix'tween 
the  Arctic  Circle  and  ()0°  N.  lat.  has  a  winter  that 
lasts  six  months;  the  region  below  the  parallel  of  60° 
N.  lat.  has  a  winter  a  little  longer  than  the  summer. 
In  proportion  to  the  flistance  from  tiie  Ural  Moiin 
tains  the  climate  of  Western  Siberia  experiences  great  ei 
extremes  of  temperature,  the  winter  and  the  lieat  of 
summer  becoming  more  sf^vere;  and  the  same  is  true  of 
Eastern  Siberia  in  relation  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The 
greatest  variations  of  temperature  in  Eastern  Siberia 
are  observed  at  Irkutsk,  Yakutsk,  and  Verkhoyansk, 
where  the  thermometer  registers  at  times  59-6°  below 


RUSSIA 


233 


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zero  in  winter,  and  49-46°  in  summer.  In  midwinter 
the  northern  extremity  of  Siberia  resembles  the  polar 
regions;  during  several  days  the  sun  does  not  rise,  and 
the  vast  plain  of  snow  is  lit  up  by  the  Aurora  Borealis, 
while  at  times  the  region  of  the  tundras  is  swept  by  vio- 
lent snowstorms.  The  climate  of  Turkestan  is  simi- 
lar to  Siberia.  Those  regions  are  far  from  the  sea,  and 
have  cold  winters  and  very  warm  summers,  a  sky  that 
is  always  clear,  a  dry  atmosphere,  and  strong  north- 
erly and  north-easterly  winds.  The  north  winds  de- 
velop violent  snowstorms.  The  summer  is  unbear- 
able; in  the  shade,  the  thermometer  rises  to  104°,  and 
even  to  117-5°,  while  the  ground  becomes  heated  to  158°. 
Mean  temperature  of  certain  Russian  cities: — 
January  July 

St.  Petersburg 15-26  63-86 

Moscow 12-2  661 

Kieff 20-84  66-56 

Kazan 7-16  67-46 

Yekaterinburg 2-3  63-5 

Reval 42-8  53-96 

Libau 36-14  62- 

Astrakhan 44-96  77-9 

Verkhoyansk -59-44  49-46 

The  mean  yearly  rainfall  is  estimated  at  from  8  to 
24  inches.  In  general,  those  parts  of  Russia  that  are 
exposed  to  the  North,  and  are  covered  with  snow  during 
the  winter,  abound  in  forests  that  preserve  the  humid- 
ity, in  which  they  have  an  advantage  over  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  countr3\  In  the  former,  the  rains  are 
not  violent,  but  are  lasting,  and  moisten  the  earth  to 
a  considerable  depth;  in  the  South  they  are  resolved 
into  severe  temp('sts,which  pour  down  great  quantities 
of  water  that  are  dispersed  in  torrents  and  rivers,  and 
do  not  sink  deep  into  the  ground.  The  greatest  rain- 
fall of  Russia  is  around  the  Baltic  Sea  (20  to  28 
inches);  and  the  least  is  in  the  Caucasus  (4  to  8 
inches).  The  advantages  of  the  western  over  the 
eastern  part  of  Russia  are  due  to  its  greater  proximity 
to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  vapours  of  which  are 
carried  over  Europe  into  Russia.  The  mean  rainfall 
of  Western  Russia  is  calculated  at  18-3  inches;  that 
of  the  north-east,  15  inches;  that  of  the  east,  from 
12  to  15  inches;  and  that  of  the  south  is  still  less.  The 
months  of  greatest  rainfall  are  June,  Juh%  and  Au- 
gust. The  yearly  rainfall  at  St.  Petersburg  is  20 
inches,  there  being  rain  on  150  days  of  the  year.  The 
number  of  days  upon  which  rain  falls  diminishes  con- 
siderably towards  the  East  and  South. 

Mineral  Riches. — The  mineral  riches  of  Russia 
consist  principally  of  salt,  coal,  and  iron.  Salt  is 
found  in  the  mineral  state  in  the  Governments  of 
Orenburg,  Astrakhan,  Kharkoff,  and  Yekaterinoslaff; 
and  as  a  sediment,  deposited  by  salt  waters,  in  the 
Government  of  A.strakiian,  and  in  the  Crimean  lakes 
of  Sakskoe,  Sasyk,  and  Sivash.  The  river  basin  that 
most  abounds  in  coal  is  that  of  the  Donetz;  it  is  233 
miles  in  length,  and  100  in  breadth,  and  produces 
every  known  species  of  fossil  coal.  This  basin  also 
furnishes  great  quantities  of  peat,  naphtha,  gold, 
silver,  platinum,  copper,  tin,  mercury,  iron,  emer- 
alds, topazes,  rubies,  .sapphires,  amethysts,  porphyry, 
marble,  granite,  graphite,  asphalt,  and  phosphorus. 
The  Central  Ural  Mountains  yield  malachite  and 
jasper.  There  are  abundant  petroleum  springs  in  the 
Caucasus  Mountains,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Baku. 
In  the  Kolivan  Mountains,  which  is  a  ramification  of 
the  Altai  system,  deposits  of  malachite  are  found. 

Ethnography  and  Statistics  of  Population. — 
The  ethnographical  history  of  primitive  Russia  is 
obscure.  There  is  record  of  the  Anti,  a  people  who  in 
the  fourth  century  inhabited  the  regions  about  the 
mouths  of  the  Danube  and  Don,  but  their  name  is  lost 
after  that  date.  Constant ine  Porphyrogenitus  and 
the  Russian  chroniclers  refer  to  twelve  tribes,  col- 
lected under  the  general  name  of  Russians;  they  are 
the  Slovenes,   Krivitches,   Dregovitches,    Drevlians, 


Polians,  Duliebys,  Buzhans,  Tivercys,  Ulitches, 
Radimitches,  Viatics,  and  the  Sieverians.  The  poht- 
ical  cradle  of  Russia  is  the  region  of  Kieflf,  where  the 
Varangian  princes  formed  the  first  Russian  state.  The 
invasions  of  the  Tatars  exercised  a  great  influence  up- 
on the  Russians;  but  it  is  a  mistake  to  say  that  the 
Russians  disappeared  entirely  before  the  Tatars  and 
that,  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  the 
regions  evacuated  by  the  Tatars  were  peopled  by 
Little  Russians  from  Galicia.  The  population  of 
Russia  has  steadily  increased  in  numbers  during  the 
last  two  centuries,  its  rapid  development  being  partly 
due  to  the  birth-rate,  and  partly  to  the  conquest  of 
vast  foreign  territories.  In  1724  Russia  had  a  popula- 
tion of  14,000,000,  which  had  increased  to  36,000,000 
in  1793,  to  69,000,000  in  1851,  and  to  128,967,694  in 
1897.  The  census  of  1897  was  the  first  official  census 
of  Russia.  Its  data,  however,  are  only  relatively 
correct,  partly  on  account  of  the  great  extension  of 
the  Russian  Empire,  partly  on  account  of  the  con- 
tinuous emigration  within  the  frontiers  of  that 
country,  partly  because  of  the  lack  of  information 
concerning  some  of  the  centres  of  population  in  Si- 
beria, and  partly  because  of  the  resistance  of  some 
tribes  to  submit  to  the  control  of  European  civiliza- 
tion. In  view  of  the  enormous  excess  of  births  over 
deaths,  the  progressive  increase  of  the  population  is 
calculated  to  be  2,000,000  each  year.  In  1904,  basing 
the  calculation  on  the  stati.stics  of  births,  the  popula- 
tion of  Ku.ssia  was  146,000,000;  in  1908,  154,000,000; 
and  in  1910,  158,000,000.  The  greatest  increase  in 
the  population  is  given  by  the  region  of  New  Russia, 
that  of  the  Baltic,  and  the  Province  of  Moscow.  In 
general,  the  number  of  births  in  Russia  is  calculated 
at  48  per  1000,  and  that  of  the  deaths  at  34  per  1000. 
Compared  with  other  P^uropean  states,  Russia  is  very 
thinly  peopled,  except  in  a  few  regions;  for  the  whole 
empire,  it  is  17-325  per  sq.  mile;  for  European  Russia 
65;  for  Poland,  214;  and  for  Siberia,  1-35.  The 
government  in  which  the  population  appears  to  be 
most  dense  is  that  of  Piotrkow,  where  the  correspond- 
ing figures  are  295  inhabitants  per  sq.  mile;  after 
which  follow  in  order  the  Governments  of  Moscow 
(187),  Podolia  (184-5),  and  Kieff  (180).  In  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Archangel,  there  are  2-25  inhabitants  per 
sq.  mile,  and  in  Yakutsk  .225. 

The  great  mass  of  the  population  consists  of 
peasants;  they  form  84  per  cent  of  the  population 
of  European  Russia,  a  percentage  greatly  in  excess 
of  that  of  Rumania,  Hungary,  and  Switzerland, 
nations  that  are  essentially  agricultural.  The  nobles 
and  their  servants  constitute  1-5  per  cent  of  the 
population;  the  clergy,  0-5  per  cent;  the  citizens 
or  merchants,  0-6  per  cent;  the  burgesses  (mieshan- 
slvo),  10-6  per  cent.  The  proportion  of  working  men 
shows  a  notable  increase:  from  1885  to  1897  the  in- 
crease in  the  mining  centres  was  91  per  cent,  and 
in  the  manufacturing  centres  73  per  cent;  the 
population  of  the  cities  also  is  continually  increasing. 
Some  of  the.se  cities,  as  Kazan,  Astrakhan,  Tiflis, 
and  Bakhtchisarai,  are  semi-Asiatic  in  character, 
as  are  also  the  cities  of  Turkestan.  The  cities  of 
ancient  Livonia,  e.  g.,  Riga  and  Reval,  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  medieval  German  towns.  The  villages 
of  Great  Russia  have  a  commercial  character,  and 
stretch  along  the  principal  roads  and  waterways. 
On  the  other  hand  the  villages  of  Little  Russia  are 
agricultural  in  character.  The  White  Russian 
villages  are  noticeable  for  the  small  number  of  houses 
they  contain.  With  relation  to  sex,  according  to 
the  statistics  of  1905,  the  population  of  Russia  has 
103-2  women  for  each  100  men.  In  the  villages,  the 
corresponding  proportion  of  women  is  106- 1;  in  the 
cities,  it  is  85-9.  In  13  out  of  50  of  the  governments 
of  European  Russia,  the  number  of  men  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  women;  in  3  the  numbers  are  equal, 
and  in  34  the  number  of  women  is  in  excess  of  that 


RUSSIA 


234 


RUSSIA 


of  the  men;  in  12  governments  the  proportion  is 
100  men  to  110  women. 

With  regard  to  religion,  Christianity  in  various 
denominations  is  the  reUgion  of  the  great  majority 
of  the  people.  There  are  123,000.000  Christians 
(8-4-3  per  cent  of  the  entire  population).  The  ma- 
joritv  are  of  the  Orthodox  Church,  which  has  102,- 
600.000  adlierents  (69-9  per  cent  of  the  population, 
the  corresponding  figures  for  European  Russia  being 
91.000,000  1,75  per  cent).  Consequently  among 
the  Russians  Orthodox  and  Russian  are  s>'nonymous 
terms.  Since  the  Ukase  of  17  April,  1905,  which 
proclaimed  freedom  of  conscience,  Russian  orthodoxy 
has  lost  1,000,000  of  followers,  through  conversions 
to  Catholicism,  to  Protestantism,  and  to  Moham- 
medanism, The  Catholics  of  Russia  number  13,- 
000,000  (S-9  per  cent);  the  Protestants,  7,200,000 
(4-9  per  cent);  other  Christian  denominations, 
1,400,000  (1  per  cent);  Mohammedans,  15,900,000 
(10  per  cent);  pagans,  700,000  (0-4  per  cent). 
Pagans,  to  the  number  of  300,000,  are  to  be  found, 
not  only  in  Siberia,  but  also  in  European  Russia 
(Kalmucks  and  Samogitians).  The  Catholics  are 
chiefly  in  Poland,  where,  according  to  the  census 
of  1S97,  they  constituted  74-8  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  one-half  of  the  Jews  who 
are  scattered  over  the  earth  are  in  Russia,  the  number 
of  them  in  that  country  being  estimated  at  from 
6,000,000  to  7,000,000,  all  concentrated  within  the 
boundaries  of  fifteen  governments. 

From  the  standpoint  of  education,  Russia  does  not 
occupy  even  a  secondary  position  in  Europe.  In 
European  Russia  the  percentage  of  those  who  know 
how  to  read  and  write  is  22-9.  The  regions  in  which 
there  are  the  least  numbers  of  the  educated  are  as  fol- 
lows: Esthonia  (79  per  cent);  Livonia  (77-7  per  cent); 
Courland  (70-9  per  cent);  the  cities  of  St.  Petersburg 
(55- 1  per  cent)  and  Moscow  (40-2  per  cent),  and  Po- 
land (41  per  cent). 

Emigration,  as  a  rule,  takes  place  only  within  the 
boundaries  of  the  empire.  From  the  most  remote 
times,  the  inhabitants  of  Novgorod  founded  colonies 
as  far  awaj'  as  the  shores  of  the  White  Sea  and  the 
Ural  Mountains.  Emigration  to  Siberia  began  in 
1582;  the  first  colonists  of  that  country  were  the 
exiles,  the  Cossacks,  fishermen,  and  prospectors  in 
search  of  gold;  and  this  emigration  was  considerably 
increa.'^ed  after  the  liberation  of  the  serfs  in  1861. 
In  1891  the  Siberian  Railway  Company  undertook 
the  colonization  of  Siberia,  and  by  opportune  meas- 
ures gave  a  great  impulse  to  Siberian  immigration. 
In  1889  the  number  of  Russian  emigrants  to  that 
region  was  between  25,000  and  40,000;  in  1900  it 
ha<i  increased  to  220,000.  These  emigrants,  who 
came  from  Central  Russia  and  from  Little  Russia, 
spreafi  at  first  over  Western  Siberia,  and  then  over 
Central  Siberia;  but  later  they  went  farther  and 
farthf-r  towards  the  extreme  east,  a  movement  to 
which  the  war  with  .Japan  put  a  stop,  but  which  wa.s 
again  takf-n  up  with  greater  activity  when  that  war 
ended.  In  1906,  200,790  emigrants  passcfl  through 
Cheliabinsk  to  Siberia,  and  400,000  in  1907.  A  part 
of  the  emigration  Ls  directed  towards  the  south- 
cast  of  Turkestan.  The  first  colonists  arrived  in  the 
Province  of  Semiryetchensk  in  1848,  and  in  the 
Province  of  Sir-Daria  in  1876.  Emigration  beyond 
the  frontiers  of  Russia  is  very  limited,  amounting 
in  numbers  at  the  presf-nt  time  to  from  75,000  to 
100,000,  who  for  the  greater  part  pa,ss  through  the 
ports  of  Hreinen  and  Hamburg.  From  1891  to  1906, 
out  of  every  \()(Y)  Russian  emigrants,  900  wcint  to 
the  L'^nited  States,  and  the;  majority  of  the  others  to 
Brazil  and  the  Argentine  Republic. 

The  poj)ulation  of  Russia  is  very  much  divided 
linguist ieally,  it  being  calculated  t?iat  a  hundred 
languages  are  spoken  within  the  empire,  of  which 
forty-two  are  in  use  in  the  city  of  Tiflie  alone.     Rus- 


sian is  the  official  language  of  eightj'-nine  govern- 
ments and  provinces,  but  it  is  the  predominant  lan- 
guage in  only  forty-one  of  them.  Among  the  dialects. 
Great  Russian  is  the  one  that  is  most  extensively 
used.  The  tongues  of  the  Mongolian  tribes  that  are 
subject  to  Russia  are  little  developed,  and  are  gen- 
erally without  a  literature.  The  population  of 
Russia  presents  a  great  variety  of  races,  united  by  a 
political  rule,  by  the  community  of  the  Russian 
language,  and  to  a  great  extent  by  the  Orthodox 
religion;  it  is  characterized  also  by  a  great  pre- 
ponderance of  the  rural  over  the  urban  population, 
and  by  the  presence  of  a  high  percentage  of  peoples 
or  tribes  with  little  culture  of  their  own,  and  little 
aptitude  for  the  assimilation  of  the  culture  of  Europe. 

Speci.\l  Ethxography. — Ethnographically  the 
population  of  the  Russian  Empire  is  divided  into  two 
races,  the  Caucasian,  which  predominates,  and  the 
Mongolian.  Of  the  total  population  121,000,000, 
or  82-6  per  cent,  are  Caucasians;  while  the  Mon- 
golian races  in  all  Russia  constitute  17  per  cent  of 
the  whole  population.  Russians,  properly  so-called, 
constitute  87-7  per  cent  of  the  population  in  Western 
Siberia,  80  per  cent  in  European  Russia,  53-9  per 
cent  in  eastern  Siberia,  8-9  per  cent  in  central  Asia, 
6-7  per  cent  in  the  region  of  the  Vistula,  and  0-2 
per  cent  in  Finland.  Notwithstanding  the  dif- 
ference in  tj-pes,  the  Russians  constitute  a  single 
people,  ethnographically  divided  into  three  classes. 
Great  Russians,  Little  Russians,  and  ^^^lite  Russians. 
These  three  ethnographical  branches  are  differentiated 
from  each  other  by  dialectical  differences,  domestic 
traditions  and  customs,  character,  and  historical 
tradition.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  zones  of 
the  three  branches,  or  the  numbers  of  individuals  of 
which  they  consist.  According  to  the  census  of 
1897,  there  were  55,667,469  Great  Russians  (Veli- 
korussi),  22,380,350  Little  Russians  (Malorussi), 
and  5,885,547  \Vhite  Russians  (Bielorussi).  At 
present,  there  are  65,000,000  Great  Russians.  They 
occupy  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  European 
Russia,  their  centres  of  population  extending  from 
the  White  Sea  to  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Sea  of 
Azoff ,  and  are  to  be  found  also  in  Siberia  and  in  the 
Caucasus.  They  have  emigrated  to  Little  Russia 
in  considerable  numbers;  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  Kharkoff  was  inhabited  almost 
entirelj'  by  Little  Russians,  but  in  1897  Great 
Russians  constituted  58  per  cent  of  the  population, 
and  the  Little  Russians  only  25  per  cent.  The  Great 
Russians  are  active  and  energetic,  and  have  great 
aptitude  for  commerce  and  work  in  general.  They 
are  regarded  as  the  essentially  Russian  race,  which 
has  not  only  preserved  its  known  ethnical  charac- 
teristics under  difficult  conditions,  but  has  assimilated 
with  itself  other  races,  especially  of  the  Finnish  stock. 
Their  language  is  the  predominant  tongue  of  the 
Ru.ssian  Empire.  The  small  commerce  of  the  cities 
is  in  their  hands,  as  is  also  the  commerce  of  the 
wines  and  fruit  that  come  from  Bessarabia,  the  Crimea 
and  the  Don,  and  the  fish  from  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Ural  River. 

The  Little  Russians  inhabit  the  south  of  Russia 
and  the  basin  of  the  middle  and  lower  course  of  the 
Dnieper,  and  constitute  26-6  per  cent  of  the  total 
population  of  the  empire.  'I'heir  greatest  masses 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Governments  of  Pultowa  (93 
per  cent),  TchernigofT  (S5-6  per  cent),  Podolia 
(80-9  per  cent),  Kharkoff  (80-6  per  cent), 
Stavropol  (80  per  cent),  Kieff  (79-2  per  cent), 
Volhynia  (701  per  cent),  and  YekaterinoslafT 
(68-9  per  cent).  The  Little  Russians  are  an  agri- 
cultural people,  anrl  remain  in  their  native  districts. 
Their  emigrations  extend  only  to  the  steppes  of 
New  Russia,  and  to  the  territories  of  the  Don  and 
of  the  Kuban  rivers.  Of  recent  times  they  have 
furnished    a    large    contingent    to    the    agricultural 


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235 


RUSSIA 


colonization  of  Siberia.  From  the  standpoint  of  cul- 
ture, that  of  the  Great  Russians  is  superior  to  that 
of  the  Little  Russians,  although  the  intellectual  level 
of  Little  Russia  was  much  higher  than  that  of  Great 
Russia  during  the  Polish  domination.  The  musical  and 
poetical  talents  of  this  people  are  very  much  developed 
and  their  popular  literature  abounds  in  beautiful 
songs.  The  difference  between  Great  and  Little 
Russians  is  not  only  anthropological,  but  is  also  one 
of  tcmporamont  and  character,  the  Little  Russians 
protesting  that  they  are  not  Muscovites;  and  to 
emj)hasiz(>  tlu-ir  antipathy  for  the  other  race,  in  the 
nineteenth  century  they  attempted  to  give  a  literary 
development  to  their  dialect. 

The  White  Russians  inhabit  the  forest  and  marsh 
region  that  is  comprised  between  the  Rivers  Diina, 
Dnieper,  Pripet,  and  Bug.  They  represent  7  per  cent 
of  the  total  population,  and  are  scattered  through  the 
Governments  of  Vilna,  Vitebsk,  Grodno,  Kovno, 
Minsk,  Mohileff,  Suwalki,  and  Yelisavetpol.  Both 
physically  and  intellectually  they  are  less  developed 
than  the  Great  and  Little  Russians.  According  to 
the  Russians,  the  intellectual  inferiority  of  that 
people  is  due  to  the  despotism  of  Polish  masters, 
under  which  they  lived  for  several  centuries,  to  the 
loss  of  their  nobility,  which  became  Polish,  and  to  the 
economic  supremacy  of  the  Jews.  Accordingly,  the 
White  Russians  are  poor,  ignorant,  and  superstitious. 
There  is  a  great  admixture  of  Polish  and  Lithuanian 
terms  in  their  dialect.  At  the  present  time,  however, 
national  sentiment  is  awakening  in  the  \\'hite  Rus- 
sians, who  publish  newspapers  in  their  own  language, 
and  aspire  to  better  their  et^onomic  conditions. 

Ethnographically,  the  Caucasians  are  Great  and 
Little  Russians.  They  are  a  race  of  warrior-merchants 
and  agriculturists,  who  developed  the  characteristic 
traits  of  their  social  and  domestic  life  in  struggles  with 
the  Tatars  and  Turks.  According  to  the  statistics 
of  190.5,  there  were  3,370,000  Cossacks  in  all  Russia, 
or  2-3  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  empire.  Those 
of  the  Don  are  Great  Russians.  They  are  famous  for 
their  military  qualities  in  general,  and  in  particular 
for  the  part  that  they  took  in  the  liberation  of  Mos- 
cow from  Poli.sh  occupation  in  1612,  in  the  conquest 
of  Siberia,  and  in  the  war  of  1812.  At  present  they 
devote  themselves  to  agriculture,  raising  cattle,  com- 
merce, and  military  service,  and  they  enjoy  many 
exemptions  and  privileges.  The  Cossacks  of  the  Urals 
are  noted  for  their  religious  fanaticism.  Those  of  the 
Kuban  and  of  the  Black  Sea  are  of  Little  Russian 
origin.  They  are  called  Cossacks  of  "the  Line", 
because,  after  the  Russian  conquest  of  the  Caucasus, 
they  built  a  line  of  fortified  villages  on  the  shores  of 
the  Kuban,  to  defend  their  new  po.ssession8  against 
incursions  of  the  so-called  mountaineers  of  the 
Caucasus,  the  Tcherkesy,  Tchetchency,  Abkhazy, 
Osetiny,  and  Lezginy.  In  their  life  they  have  pre- 
served the  Little  Russian  customs  and  traditions. 

Besides  the  Russian,  properly  so-called,  there  are 
a  great  many  other  races  that  belong  politically  to 
Russia.  Among  the  Slav  races  within  the  Russian 
frontiers,  the  most  numerous  are  the  Poles,  of  whom 
there  are  12,000,000,  and  who  chiefly  inhabit  the 
region  of  the  Vistula.  The  Bulgarians  and  Servians 
have  emigrated  to  the  region  of  New  Russia  since 
1752,  forming  colonies  of  peasants.  The  Servians 
allowed  them.selves  to  be  easily  russianized ;  but  the 
Bulgarians  showed  reluctance  to  this,  and  still  pre- 
serve their  national  character.  The  Lithuanians  live 
along  the  Vilia  River  and  the  lower  course  of  the 
Niemen,  at  the  Prussian  frontier.  Their  number  is 
given  as  3,500,000.  They  come  in  succession  under 
Russian,  Polish,  Finnish,  and  Jewish  influence.  They 
are  fervent  Catholics,  and  their  economic  conditions 
are  prosperous.  Their  national  sentiment,  depressed 
for  several  centuries,  has  awakened  in  recent  times, 
and  nationalist  Lithuanians  seek  to  throw  off  Russian 


and  Polish  influence  and  to  form  a  national  literature. 
Related  to  the  Lithuanians  are  the  Letts  (Latyshi); 
they  are  a  hard-working  race  and  have  a  high  moral 
standard.  Their  religion  is  chiefly  Lutheranism;  a 
few  of  them  are  of  the  Orthodox  Church. 

To  the  Germanic  race  belong  the  Germans  and 
Swedes.  The  Germans  of  Russia  live  on  the  Baltic 
Sea  and  on  the  western  frontier,  while  colonies  of 
them  are  to  be  found  in  European  Russia  and  in  the 
region  of  the  Volga.  In  the  Baltic  region  they  con- 
stitute the  higher  classes  of  the  population,  being  for 
the  most  part  merchants  and  artisans.  They  own 
the  greater  portion  of  the  land,  because,  after  the  im- 
perial manifesto  of  19  February,  1861,  they  freed 
their  serfs  (Letts  and  Esthonians),  but  did  not  divide 
their  lands  among  them.  There  are  over  100,000  of 
them  in  this  region ;  in  that  of  the  Vistula,  there  are 
German  colonists,  some  of  whom  descend  from  those 
who  were  called  by  the  Polish  nobility  to  occupy  the 
free  lands.  At  the  present  time,  the  Germans  are 
devoted  chiefly  to  industry,  and  have  established  a  great 
many  factories,  especially  at  Lodz.  There  are  German 
colonies  on  the  steppes,  which,  having  the  authoriza- 
tion of  the  Government  and  special  privileges,  are 
prosperous,  but  which  oppose  effective  resistance  to 
all  attempts  to  ru.ssianize  them.  The  Swedes,  about 
400,000  in  number,  are  concentrated  in  Finland, 
especially  in  the  Governments  of  Nyland  (45  per 
cent)  and  Vasa  (28-8  per  cent).  They  constitute  the 
aristocratic  and  intellectual  classes  of  Finland;  but 
their  political  and  literary  influence,  which  was  con- 
siderable, tends  to  diminish  before  the  development 
of  Finnish  national  sentiment. 

The  Romanic  races  are  represented  by  about 
1,000,000  Moldavians,  and  by  the  Wallachians,  who 
inhabit  Bessarabia  and  the  western  part  of  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Kherson.  They  are  all  of  the  Orthodox 
religion,  and  as  a  rule  are  employed  in  wine  production 
and  gardening.  They  resemble  the  Little  Russians 
both  physically  and  morally.  The  Iranian  races  are 
represented  by  about  1,000,000  Armenians,  part  of 
whom  inhabit  the  Little  Caucasus;  the  rest  are 
scattered  about  the  various  cities  of  the  Caucasus 
and  in  European  Russia.  They  are  famous  for  the 
beauty  of  their  type  and  for  their  patriarchal  habits. 
Families  are  to  be  found  among  them  numbering  as 
many  as  fifty  individuals,  who  are  ruled  by  the  eldest 
of  them.  They  devote  themselves  to  agriculture  and 
commerce,  for  the  latter  of  which  pursuits  they  have 
a  special  aptitude.  They  are  Monophysites,  and  reject 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (Armenian-Gregorians), 
being  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  katolicos  who  resides 
at  Etchmiadzin.  They  have  the  greatest  attachment 
to  their  language  and  the  traditions  of  their  mother- 
country.  Among  those  who  live  in  the  Caucasus, 
there  is  a  considerable  literary  culture.  Several 
thousands  of  them  are  Catholics. 

On  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Azoff 
there  are  several  colonies  of  Greeks  who  devote  them- 
selves to  agriculture,  and  especially  to  the  production 
of  tobacco.  There  are  Greek  colonies  also  in  the  chief 
centres  of  population  of  Russia,  especially  at  Odessa 
and  St.  Petersburg. 

The  Jews  are  a  scattered  population,  principally  in 
the  Governments  of  Western  and  Southern  Russia. 
Their  presence  in  Russia  is  due  to  emigrations  of 
German  Jews  from  Poland,  and  they  still  preserve 
their  dialect  of  Hebrew  German,  which  is  the  language 
of  their  Press.  As  elsewhere,  they  evince  the  greatest 
aptitude  for  commercial  matters,  and  the  commerce 
and  industry  of  Western  Russia  is  in  their  hands. 
The  severe  laws  that  limit  the  civil  rights  of  the  Jews 
in  Russia  have  concentrated  the  members  of  that  race 
in  the  cities,  and  the  number  of  workmen  and  of 
artisans  among  them  is  very  great,  making  their 
struggle  for  existence  very  difficult.  Large  fortunes 
are  to  be  found  among  the  Russian  Jews,  but  their 


RUSSIA 


236 


RUSSIA 


masses  constitute  a  proletariat  that  on  various  occa- 
sions has  been  the  victim  of  cruel  massacres.  Among 
these  Russian  Jews  there  is  the  greatest  devotion  to 
the  Jewish  religion  and  the  greatest  racial  brother- 
hood. The  Government  admits  only  a  limited  number 
of  them  to  the  e.stablishments  of  higher  education; 
nevertheless,  in  the  large  cities,  there  is  a  great  num- 
ber of  Jews  who  exercise  the  liberal  professions,  and 
especially  that  of  medicine.  The  number  of  those  who 
devote  themselves  to  industrial  pursuits  increases 
each  year. 

The  Finns  inhabit  the  regions  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  the 
Volga,  and  the  Ural  Mountains.  The  Finns,  properly 
so-called,  who  inhabit  Finland  are  2,500,000  in  num- 
ber. For  several  centuries  they  were  under  the 
domination  of  Sweden,  by  which  country  they  were 
barred  from  western  civilization.  They  are  famous  for 
their  honesty,  love  of  their  coimtry  and  traditions 
(they  are  Lutherans),  their  high  intellectual  level  (there 
are  scarcely  any  illiterate  among  them),  the  status  of 
their  women  (the  University  of  Helsingfors  has  six  hun- 
dred women  students,  and  the  Parliament  of  Helsing- 
fors has  twenty-two  women  members),  and  their  tenac- 
ity of  character,  by  which  they  have  transformed  the 
poor  soil  of  Finland.  The  progress  of  the  Finns  during 
the  last  fifty  years  has  been  considerable,  but  in  1910 
the  Government  suppressed  the  liberty  and  autonomy 
of  Finland,  and  possibly  thereby  has  placed  a  barrier 
to  the  development  of  Finnish  culture.  The  Korely, 
who  live  to  the  north  of  Lakes  Ladoga  and  Onega,  and 
of  whom  there  are  210,000,  are  Baltic  Finns;  there 
are  also  small  groups  of  them  between  Lake  Ilmen 
and  the  Volga.  They  have  been  more  amenable  to 
russianization,  and  have  embraced  the  Orthodox 
faith.  The  Esthonians  occupv  the  southern  part  of  the 
plain  of  the  Baltic.  There  are  1,300,000  of  them,  who 
constitute  a  class  of  poor  peasants,  among  whom 
remain  manj-  traditions  and  customs  of  paganism. 
They  are  mostly  Lutherans. 

The  Finns  of  the  Volga  comprise  the  Tcheremisy, 
the  Mordva,  and  the  Tchuvashi.  The  first,  to  the 
number  of  400,000,  hve  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga, 
in  the  Governments  of  Kazan  and  of  Vyatka.  They 
were  converted  to  Christianity  by  the  Russian  mis- 
sionaries, but  they  remain  pagans  at  heart,  and  in 
their  customs.  They  devote  themselves  to  agriculture, 
the  chase,  lumber  commerce,  and  fishing.  Their 
villages  are  small,  having  each  not  more  than  thirty 
hou.ses.  They  are  poor  but  honest,  theft  being  re- 
garded among  them  as  a  grave  offence.  The  Tchu- 
vashi are  800,000  in  number;  they  live  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Volga,  and  their  chief  centres  of  popula- 
tion are  in  the  Governments  of  Kazan,  Orenburg, 
Simbirsk,  and  Saratoff.  Although  they  are  Finns, 
they  have  adopted  Russian  customs,  and  tend  more  and 
more  to  become  russianized.  From  the  eighteenth 
century  the  Russian  missionaries  have  attempted 
to  convert  them  to  orthodoxy,  and  have  baptized  a 
great  number  of  them;  but  the  Tchuvashi  preserve 
a  basis  of  paganism  that  is  revealed  in  their  rite  and 
in  their  creed.  Agriculture  is  their  favourite  pursuit, 
but  they  devote  themselves  also  to  the  culture  of 
bees,  and  they  supply  the  markets  of  St.  Petersburg 
with  poultry  and  eggs. 

Other  less  imf>ortant  races  are  mentioned  by 
Russian  geographers.  The  total  number  of  the 
various  nationalities  that  constitute  the  Russian 
Ilmpire  is  about  one  hundred.  Their  multiplicity, 
which  transforms  Russia  into  a  true  ethnographical 
museum^,  is  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  civilization, 
to  the  dissemination  of  instruction,  and  to  the  stabil- 
ity of  the  representative  system. 

Administrative  Divisions. — For  the  purposes 
of  administration  Russia  is  divided  into  six  great 
territorial  regions:  (1)  European  Russia,  properly 
BO-called;  (2)  the  Governments  of  the  Vistula 
(Privifllanskiia  gubemii);    (3j  the  Grand  duchy  of 


Finland;  (4)  the  Caucasus;  (5)  Siberia;  (6)  Central 
Asia.  These  territories  are  divided  into  governments 
igubertiii)  and  provinces  (oblasti).  The  governments 
are  ruled  with  laws  that  are  called  "Statute.s  of  the 
Governments"  {Polozhenie  o  gubeniiiazh);  the 
provinces,  besides  the  general  laws,  have  special  laws 
that  are  made  necessary  bj'  the  great  number  of 
non-Russians  and  of  the  non-Orthodox  who  inhabit 
those  regions.  The  governments  are  di%ided  into 
districts  called  uiezdy,  and  the  provinces  into  dis- 
tricts called  okrugi.  The  number  of  these  districts, 
both  in  the  governments  and  provinces,  varies  from 
four  to  fifteen.  The  districts  are  divided  into 
volosti,  selskiia  obshcstva,  etc.  The  okrugi  are  divided 
into  military,  judicial,  scholastic,  postal,  etc.  In  Euro- 
pean Russia  there  are  seven  gradonatchalstva ,  i.  e., 
cities  that  have  administrations  independent  of  the 
governments  and  provinces  in  which  they  are  situated : 
these  are  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Odessa,  Rostoff- 
on-the-Don,  Sebastopol,  Kertch-Yenikale,  and  Niko- 
laieff.  Kronstadt  constitutes  a  separate  military 
government. 

European  Russia  contains  fifty-nine  governments 
and  two  provinces.  The  governments  of  the  Vistula, 
consisting  of  the  territory  of  the  former  Kingdom 
of  Poland  that  was  annexed  to  Russia  {carstvo 
polskoe),  belong  to  European  Russia.  They  enjoyed 
a  certain  autonomy  until  the  revolution  of  1863  led 
the  Russian  Government  to  suppress  all  their  privi- 
leges and  to  -employ  every  means  for  their  russian- 
ization. After  the  liberal  edicts  of  1905  it  was  hoped 
that  autonomy  would  be  restored  to  the  Russian 
Poles;  but  these  hopes  are  far  from  being  realized. 
The  Grand  duchy  of  Finland,  which  was  united  to 
Russia  in  1809  as  an  integral  part  of  the  empire, 
enjoyed  a  special  autonomy  that  gave  an  admirable 
development  to  the  culture  and  prosperity  of  that 
land.  The  Finns  had  a  code  of  special  laws,  a  diet, 
senate,  bank,  coinage,  and  postal  service.  After 
1905  there  was  universal  suffrage,  and  the  new 
chamber  of  deputies  admitted  women  also  to  its 
membership.  In  1910,  however,  the  Duma  approved 
a  bill  relating  to  Finland,  which,  if  carried  into  effect, 
would  bring  Finnish  autonomy  to  an  end.  Finland 
is  divided  into  eight  governments.  In  the  Caucasus, 
where  the  Russian  population  is  in  a  minority,  be- 
sides the  various  governments,  there  are  provinces 
where  special  laws  are  in  force.  Siberia  is  divided 
into  governments  and  provinces.  Among  the  latter 
the  Island  of  Sakhalin,  with  an  area  of  14,836  sq. 
miles,  has  a  population  of  17,900.  The  southern 
portion  of  this  island,  however,  was  ceded  to  Japan 
by  the  treaty  of  Portsmouth,  16-29  August,  1905. 
The  governments  and  provinces  of  Siberia  are  eight 
in  number.  Asiatic  Russia  has  provinces  (oblasti) 
only,  because  the  Russians  constitute  only  a  small 
minority  of  the  population. 

Agriculture,  and  Condition  of  the  Peasants. 
— Russia  is  a  great  agricultural  nation;  three- 
quarters  of  its  population  derive  their  support  from 
the  soil,  which  furnishes  the  most  important  resources 
of  the  country.  The  statistics  concerning  agriculture 
date  from  1877-78,  and  were  collected  by  the  Central 
Committee  of  Statistics.  More  precise  information 
was  gathered  by  the  same  committee  in  1886-88, 
and  in  1905.  According  to  the  latest  of  the.se  statis- 
tics, there  were  in  European  Russia,  exclusive  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Poland,  1,067,019,596  acres  of  cul- 
tivated land,  besides  17,609,124  acres  in  the  Kalmuck 
steppes,  and  10,133,296  in  the  steppes  of  the  Kirghiz. 
The  cultivated  lands  are  divided  into  three  classes: 
(1)  private  property  (274,685,426  acres);  (2)  lands 
granted  by  the  government  to  the  peasants  or 
nadiel'nyja  zemli  (374,672,484  acres);  (3)  lands  be- 
longing to  the  treasury,  the  churches,  monasteries, 
cities,  and  institutions  (417,661,685).  A  comparison 
of  these  statistics  with  those  of  1877  shows  that  in 


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1905  the  lands  owned  by  the  nobles  had  diminished 
in  area  by  53,851,008  acres,  and  those  of  foreign  sub- 
jects by  341,679  acres.  On  the  other  hand  the  landed 
property  of  the  peasants  had  increased  by  20,051,428 
acres,  and  that  of  the  other  social  classes  had  in- 
creased proportionately.  In  Siberia  all  the  land, 
except  the  southern  part  of  the  Government  of 
Tomsk  which  belongs  to  the  imperial  family,  is  the 
property  of  the  Government,  for  as  yet  only  a  small 
portion  has  been  granted  to  public  and  private  in- 
stitutions. 

The  state  lands  of  European  Russia  are  distrib- 
uted very  irregularly.  In  the  Governments  of 
Archangel,  Olonetz,  and  Vologda,  the  State  owns 
from  83  to  90  per  cent  of  the  land;  in  the  region  of 
Tchernozom,  5  per  cent,  and  in  the  Governments  of 
Pultowa,  Bessarabia,  and  in  Esthonia  less  than  1 
per  cent.  The  lands  granted  to  the  peasants  occupy 
more  than  half  of  the  Governments  of  Orenburg, 
Vyatka,  Ufa,  Kazan,  Penza,  Voronezh,  Samara,  the 
Province  of  the  Don,  Vladimir,  Ryazan,  Kursk, 
Moscow,  Kaluga,  Kharkoff,  Tchernigoff,  and  Pultowa. 
Of  the  lands  that  are  private  property,  52  per  cent 
belong  to  the  nobility,  24  per  cent  to  the  peasants, 
16  per  cent  to  the  merchants,  and  the  remainder  is 
divided  among  other  classes.  The  possessions  of  the 
nobility  are  chiefly  in  the  Baltic  region,  Lithuania, 
and  the  Governments  of  Minsk,  Perm,  Podolia, 
and  Kieff.  In  the  period  between  1860  and  1905  the 
rural  property  of  the  nobility,  which  had  reached 
213,300,000  acres,  was  reduced  to  143,100,000  acres. 
The  great  landowners,  possessing  more  than  2700 
acres  each,  are  chiefly  in  the  eastern  governments 
and  in  those  of  the  Baltic.  The  arable  lands  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Poland  occupy  an  area  of  30,312,168 
acres  of  which  44-56  per  cent  belong  to  private 
owners,  45-58  per  cent  to  the  peasants  through 
government  concessions,  4-02  per  cent  to  the  cities, 
and  5-84  per  cent  to  the  churches  and  other  institu- 
tions. The  land  belonging  to  the  churches  and 
monasteries  in  the  whole  of  European  Russia,  in- 
cluding Poland,  is  estimated  at  0-6  per  cent  of  all 
the  arable  land  of  that  division  of  the  empire. 

There  are  591,788  rural  villages  in  European 
Russia,  with  a  total  population  of  81,050,300,  of 
whom  84-5  per  cent  are  peasants.  According  to 
statistics,  38-8  per  cent  of  the  total  surface  is  forest; 
26-2  per  cent  is  arable  land;  19-1  per  cent  is  land 
not  available  for  cultivation;  and  15-9  per  cent  is 
prairies  and  pasture  lands.  The  lands  unavailable 
for  cultivation  are  the  salt  steppes,  the  marshes,  and 
the  tundras.  In  P^inland  these  lands  occupy  35-6 
per  cent  of  the  country,  and  the  porportion  is  still 
greater  in  Siberia  and  Turkestan,  where  the  arable 
land  is  only  2  per  cent. 

The  "extensive"  and  the  "intensive"  systems  of 
cultivation  are  variously  applied  in  Russia,  according 
to  the  region.  In  the  governments  of  Northern 
Russia  (Archangel,  Olonetz,  Vologda,  Novgorod, 
and  in  parts  of  Yaroslaff,  Kostroma,  Vyatka,  and 
Perm)  the  system  called  podsielchnaja  obtains,  con- 
sisting in  stripping  and  uprooting  the  forests,  plant- 
ing wheat  on  their  sites  for  intervals  of  from  three  to 
nine  years,  and  then  allowing  the  forests  to  grow  up 
again  when  the  fertility  of  the  soil  has  been  exhausted. 
In  the  Governments  of  Kherson,  Yekaterinoslaff, 
Taurida,  Stavropol,  Orenburg,  the  Province  of  the 
Urals,  and  the  Province  of  the  Don  Cossacks  is 
practised  the  method  called  zalezhnaia  (Fr.  jachhrc). 
This  consists  in  cultivating  the  land  while  its  pro- 
ductive power  endures;  then  it  is  transformed  mto 
pasture,  and  its  cultivation  is  not  resumed  for  an 
interval  of  ten,  twelve,  or  fifteen  years,  as  occasion 
may  require.  The  intensive  method  of  agriculture 
obtains  m  the  central  governments  of  Russia,  in  the 
zone  of  Tchernozom,  and  in  other  governments. 
A  field  is  divided  into  three  sections;    in  the  first, 


winter  grain  (rye,  corn)  is  sown;  in  the  second,  a 
crop  of  summer  grain  is  put  in  (wheat,  barley,  oats) ; 
and  in  the  third,  grass  for  pasture  is  allowed  to  grow; 
each  year  the  crop  of  each  section  is  changed  for  one 
of  the  other  two,  thus  allowing  each  section  to  rest 
once  in  three  years.  In  the  regions  of  the  Vistula 
and  the  Baltic  and  in  the  south-western  i)art  of  Fin- 
land the  intensive  system  of  agriculture  obtains; 
no  portion  of  the  land  remains  untilled,  but  the  peas- 
ants sow  seed  and  plant  vegetables  in  alternate 
years,  so  as  not  to  exliaust  the  productiveness  of  the 
soil.  In  several  regions,  especially  in  the  Caucasus, 
in  Daghestan,  Transcaucasia,  and  Turkestan,  a 
remedy  is  found  for  the  aridity  of  the  soil  in  irrigation 
by  means  of  canals.  In  other  regions  of  a  marshy 
character  the  work  of  draining  the  swamps  is  carried 
on,  at  times  by  the  Government,  and  at  times  by 
private  parties.  In  Podlachia  alone,  from  1874 
to  1892,  there  were  reclaimed  6,210,000  acres  of 
swamp  lands.  The  same  kind  of  work  was  accom- 
plished in  Siberia. 

Russia  is  a  great  cereal-producing  country.  Ac- 
cording to  the  statistics  of  1908,  in  73  governments 
(63  in  Russian  Europe,  1  in  Transcaucasia,  4  in 
Siberia,  and  5  in  Central  Asia),  out  of  327,642,983 
acres  of  land,  56-2  per  cent  were  devoted  to  the 
culture  of  cereals,  3-2  per  cent  to  the  culture  of  the 
potato,  13-9  per  cent  to  the  oat  crop,  and  26-7  per 
cent  to  artificial  meadow  lands.  In  1908  the  grain 
crop  amounted  to  48,000,000  tons;  the  potato  crop 
yielded  29,000,000  tons;  oats,  13,000,000  tons,  and 
hay  from  artificial  meadows,  47,000,000  tons.  The 
governments  that  are  the  most  productive  of  cereals 
are  those  of  Bessarabia,  Kherson,  Taurida,  Yeka- 
terinoslaff, and  the  Province  of  the  Don  Cossacks. 
As  a  cereal-producing  country,  Russia  is  the  second 
in  the  world,  the  United  States  being  the  first. 
The  development  of  potato  culture,  which  was  in- 
troduced into  Russia  in  1767,  is  notable.  The  grain 
that  Russia  produces  is  not  only  sufficient  to  supply 
the  home  market,  but  also  constitutes  one  of  the  chief 
exports.  The  amount  of  it  that  is  exported  amounts 
on  an  average  to  15,000,000  tons  a  year.  It  should 
be  noticed,  however,  that  in  proportion  to  the  area 
of  the  empire,  the  grain  production  of  Russia  is  not 
high:  Germany,  France,  and  Austria,  the  combined 
area  of  which  countries  is  only  one-third  of  that  of 
European  Russia,  produce  together  more  grain  than 
is  produced  in  all  Russia. 

There  are  abundant  crops  of  other  staples,  also, 
that  Russia  produces;  these  are  the  flax  crop,  which 
yields  500,000  tons  a  year,  produced  in  several  of  the 
governments  of  the  north-east,  north-west,  and  south; 
hemp,  400,000  tons;  cotton,  raised  in  Transcaucasia 
and  Turkestan,  especially  in  the  Province  of  Ferg- 
hana, annual  yield  more  than  170,000  tons.  Tobacco 
was  introduced  into  Russia  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury; its  use  was  prohibited  by  severe  laws,  but  was 
allowed  from  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great;  it  is  cul- 
tivated in  the  Governments  of  Tchernigoff,  Pultowa, 
Samara,  Saratoff,  Taurida,  Bessarabia,  Kuban,  etc. 
Its  annual  yield  is  about  100,000  tons,  while  the  lands 
that  are  devoted  to  its  cultivation  cover  an  area  of 
1,755,000  acres.  The  principal  tobacco  factories  are 
at  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Riga,  Kieff,  and  Odessa. 
The  culture  of  beets,  introduced  into  Russia  about 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  has  been 
greatly  developed  during  the  last  thirty  years,  there 
being  now  devoted  to  it  an  aggregate  area  of  1,485,000 
acres,  the  greater  portion  of  which  is  in  the  Govern- 
ments of  Kieff  and  Podolia,  the  annual  crop  amount- 
ing to  10,000  tons.  Wine  is  not  extensively  produced 
in  Russia,  and  is  of  inferior  quality.  The  best  vine- 
yards are  in  the  Crimea,  in  Kakhetia,  and  in  the 
Province  of  the  Don  Cossacks.  There  are  729.000 
acres  devoted  to  vine  culture,  and  the  yearly  product 
amounts  to  not  more  than  88  milUon  gallons.    The 


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238 


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Government  seeks  to  encourage  the  home  produc- 
tion of  wine  by  very  high  duties  on  foreign  wines. 
The  cuhure  of  vegetables  and  fruit  is  not  greatly 
developed;  market  gardens  thrive  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  large  cities,  especially  in  the  District  of 
Rostofif,  and  in  the  Governments  of  Saratoflf  and 
Samara.  The  production  of  fruit  is  abundant  in 
Transcaucasia  and  the  Crimea. 

According  to  the  statistics  of  1908  there  were  in 
Russia  140,656,000  head  of  cattle,  namely,  28,723,000 
horses,  42,031,000  horned  cattle.  57,466,000  sheep  and 
goats,  and  12,436,000  hogs.  The  horned  cattle  are 
scattered  over  the  whole  of  European  Russia:  the 
cattle  of  Siberia  are  of  a  better  class,  on  account  of 
the  abundance  of  forests.  There  are  numerous  breeds 
of  horses  in  Russia,  and  special  establishments  are 
devoted  to  the  improvement  of  these  breeds  in  the 
Pro\'ince  of  the  Don  Cossacks  and  the  Governments 
of  Voronezh.  Kherson,  Tamboff,  Pultowa,  and 
Kharkoff.  The  annual  product  from  the  sheep  is 
calculated  at  120.000,000  roubles  (1  rouble=52  cents 
U.  S.  A.).  The  best  wool  is  produced  by  the  flocks 
of  the  Governments  of  Novgorod  and  Voronezh,  of 
the  Volga,  the  Vistula,  the  Baltic,  the  Caucasus,  and 
Turkestan.  The  raising  of  hogs  is  especially  pursued  in 
the  Governments  of  Minsk  and  Volhynia.  the  chicken 
industry  flourishes  in  Western  and  Central  Russia; 
fowls  and  eggs  are  exported  and  yield  an  annual  income 
of  more  than  70,000,000  roubles,  of  which  61,000,000 
are  for  eggs.  The  yearly  production  of  honey  is 
nearlj'  26,000  tons,  and  wax  5000  tons,  yielding  an 
aggregate  income  of  from  15,000,000  to  20,000,000 
roubles.  The  culture  of  the  silk-worm  is  being 
developed,  chiefly  in  the  Governments  of  Bessarabia, 
Kherson,  and  Taurida,  and  in  Turkestan  and  the 
Caucasus.  The  5'early  production  of  silk  amounts  to 
about  1000  tons. 

The  condition  of  the  peasants,  although  greatly  im- 
proved, is  far  from  being  prosperous,  and  the  agrarian 
question  is  one  of  the  gravest  with  which  Russian 
statesmen  have  to  deal.  Prior  to  1861,  or  since 
1592  according  to  some  authorities,  1649  according  to 
others,  the  peasants  were  legally  reduced  to  servitude 
(kriepostnoe  pravo).  Thej^  were  under  serfdom  to 
the  landowners,  were  attached  to  the  soil,  and  were 
not  allowed  to  change  their  place  of  residence  or 
dispose  freely  of  their  property;  they  were  obliged  to 
cultivate  the  lands  of  their  employers  and  pay  a  tax 
to  the  State.  The  pomieshshiki,  or  landowners,  became 
80  many  little  tsars,  and  the  peasants  were  reduced  to 
the  condition  of  slaves.  As  a  consequence  there 
occurred  the  revolts  of  the  peasants,  in  the  seven- 
teenth centur}^  under  Stenko  Razin,  and  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  under  PugatchefT.  During  the 
reign  of  Catherine  II  a  Russian  author,  Radishsheff, 
in  his  "Voyage  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Moscow", 
suggested  the  neces.sity  of  freeing  the  peasants  from 
their  servitude;  the  book  was  held  to  be  dangerous, 
and  its  author  was  exiled  to  Siberia.  Paul  I  in  1797 
alleviated  the  condition  of  the  peasants  by  decreeing 
that  they  should  work  only  three  days  on  the  lands 
of  their  employers.  Alexander  I  attempted  in  vain 
to  free  them :  his  humanitarian  efforts  were  thwarted 
by  the  oppo.sition  of  the  nobles.  Nicholas  I 
entertained  the  same  purpo.se,  but  notwithstanding 
his  abscjlutism  was  unable  to  realize  it;  he  promul- 
gated various  laws,  however  (1826,  1835,  1S39,  1845, 
1846,  1847,  and  1848),  by  which  the  right  of  the 
peasants  and  of  their  communities  (mir)  to  acquire 
real  estate  was  recognized;  but  these  laws  were  not 
executed,  and  the  pomieshshiki  pretended  to  be  unin- 
formed of  them. 

The  European  revolution  of  1848  and  the  Crimean 
War  brought  an  awakening  of  Liberal  irleas  in  Russia, 
and  Alexander  II,  a.s  one  of  the  first  measures  of  his 
reign,  abolished  serfdom.  The  preparatory  measure 
for  this  consummation  were  studied  by  a  secret  com- 


mittee in  1857.  In  1859  the  committees  of  the  nobil- 
ity and  of  the  pomieshshiki  in  the  various  provinces 
discussed  this  question  of  the  abolition  of  serfdom, 
and  the  Press  dealt  with  it  in  an  active  way,  showing 
Russia's  moral  and  political  need  to  solve  it.  An 
imperial  commission,  estabhshed  in  1859,  prepared 
a  law  which,  after  long  dehberations  and  frequent 
modifications,  received  the  signature  of  the  tsar,  12 
Feb.,  1S61,  and  was  promulgated  on  5  March  of  the 
same  year.  The  terms  of  this  law  made  all  peasants 
free,  and  secured  to  them,  upon  the  payment  of  a  tax 
established  by  law,  the  use  of  their  habitations  (dvor) 
and  a  grant  of  land,  of  which  they  could  become  own- 
ers in  fee  simple  by  pecuniary  redemption.  More- 
over, the  pomieshshiki  were  obliged  to  grant  to  the 
peasants  or  to  the  7nir  the  lands  occupied  by  them, 
conformably  wath  a  maximum  or  minimum  estab- 
lished by  law.  On  the  other  hand,  the  dvorovie,  or 
servants,  who  numbered  1,500,000,  in  1861  regained 
their  freedom,  with  however  the  obligation  of  serving 
their  masters  for  a  further  period  of  two  j'ears. 

The  lands  were  so  distributed  that  each  peasant  who 
was  entitled  to  share  in  them  received,  on  an  average, 
fourteen  acres;  on  an  average,  because  the  quality 
of  the  lands  was  taken  into  account  in  the  distribu- 
tion; in  the  zone  of  the  Tchernozom,  the  concessions 
were  of  eight  acres.  Moreover,  the  distribution  of 
lands  was  very  unequal,  and  42-6  per  cent  of  the 
peasants  who  participated  in  it  received  concessions 
that  were  insufficient  for  their  needs;  to  this  may  be 
added  that  many  millions  of  peasants  were  not 
benefited  by  the  law,  and  that  the  annual  tax  to  be 
paid  to  the  Government  by  those  who  received  portions 
of  land  became  a  burden.  The  Government  therefore 
continued  to  enact  laws  to  solve  the  agrarian  question. 
The  taxes  were  diminished  in  1881,  and  in  1882  the 
Agrarian  Bank  was  established,  which  helped  the 
peasants  to  acquire  possession  of  19,000,000  acres  in 
a  few  years.  In  1885  the  per  capita  tax  paid  by  the 
peasants  was  abolished,  by  which  the  Government  lost 
50,000,000  roubles.  Other  laws,  some  of  them  pro- 
mulgated as  late  as  1900,  are  directed  towards  the 
protection  of  the  rights  of  the  peasants.  These 
measures,  however,  are  insufficient.  The  increase  in 
the  population  has  greatly  reduced  the  average  hold- 
ing of  land,  which  in  1893  amounted  to  6-5  acres  for 
each  peasant.  The  improvidence  of  the  peasants, 
drink,  backward  methods  in  agriculture,  and  bad 
crops  have  on  more  than  one  occasion  caused  famine 
to  be  felt  in  the  agricultural  regions.  The  agrarian 
question,  therefore,  lies  like  an  incubus  on  Russia,  while 
the  various  parties  of  the  Duma  propose  dilTeront  so- 
lutions for  it.  The  moderate  parties  advise  directing 
the  peasant  emigration  towards  Siberia,  dispersing 
the  peasants  in  less  poijulous  governments,  and  im- 
parting to  them  agricultural  instruction;  while  the 
more  advanced  parties  demand  that  the  crown  lands 
and  the  lands  of  the  churclics  and  the  monasteries  be 
divided  among  the  peasants,  or  again  that  the  great 
landowners  be  deprived  of  their  rural  possessions 
(socialization  of  lands).  Until  now,  however,  the 
debates  that  have  taken  place  in  the  various  dumas 
on  this  subject  have  led  to  no  practical  results. 

Statistics  of  Commerce. — According  to  the  sta- 
tistics of  1908  Russia  occupies  the  ninth  place  among 
nations  as  regards  her  merchant  fleet,  which  including 
that  of  Finland  has  6250  ships,  with  a  gross  tonnage 
of  1,046,195;  this  includes  1240  steamers  with  a 
tonnage  of  500,000.  Finland  has  2800  ships,  with  a 
tonnage  of  346,195.  The  ships  of  more  than  1000  tons 
burden  in  the  Russian  merchant  fleet  niiinher  114. 
Of  Russian  vessels,  1129  belong  to  tlie  Black  Sea 
ports  and  the  Sea  of  AzofT,  and  1104  to  the  Baltic 
ports.  According  to  the  statistics  of  the  same  year, 
there  arrived  at  Hu.ssian  ports  during  1908  11,011 
ships,  of  which  1 777  were  Ru.ssian,  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of   1,241,000,   and  9519  foreign,   aggregate 


RUSSIA 


239 


RUSSIA 


tonnage  9,519,000.  The  chief  centres  of  Russian 
maritime  commerce  are  the  ports  of  the  Baltic,  the 
Black  Sea,  and  the  Sea  of  Azof.  The  foreign  mari- 
time commerce  of  Russia  is  divided  by  tonnage  as 
follows:  England,  42  per  cent;  Germany,  16  per 
cent;  Denmark,  10  per  cent;  Greece,  8  per  cent;  and 
Sweden  and  Norway,  4  per  cent. 

The  coasting  trade  between  small  ports  is  reserved 
exclusively  for  Russian  shipping;  it  has  found  its 
greatest  development  in  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea 
of  Azof  (36,590  ships,  15,098,000  tons),  in  the 
Caspian  Sea  (16,538  ships,  8,884,000  tons),  and  in  the 
Baltic  Sea  (10,809  ships,  1 ,230,000  tons) .  This  shipping 
carries  on  an  average  10,000,000  tons  of  merchandise 
a  year,  of  which  4,400,000  tons  are  petroleum,  and 
1,100,000  tons  grain.  The  great  coasting  commerce 
between  the  Black  and  the  Baltic  Seas,  between  the 
ports  of  European  Russia  and  those  of  Eastern  Siberia, 
and  between  the  Murman  coasts  {Murmanskii  bereg) 
and  the  Baltic  Sea,  employs  212  steamships,  of  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  450,000,  carrying  a  yearly 
average  of  270,000  tons  of  merchandise.  The  most 
important  commercial  ports  of  Russia  are  St.  Peters- 
burg, Riga,  Libau,  Reval,  and  Odessa.  According 
to  the  most  recent  statistics,  the  river  fleet  consists 
of  3300  steam  and  22,860  other  craft,  with  an  aggre- 
gate tonnage  of  11,200,000.  The  yards  that  build 
this  shipping  are  at  Nizhni-Novgorod,  St.  Petersburg, 
Moscow,  Perm,  and  in  Finland.  The  river  fleet 
carries  a  yearly  average  of  32,000,000  tons  of  mer- 
chandise, of  an  aggregate  value  of  800,000,000 
roubles. 

The  first  railway  that  was  constructed  in  Russia 
was  that  of  Tsarskoi  Selo  in  1837;  in  1850,  Russian 
railways  had  666  miles  of  line,  which  had  increased 
to  7094  miles  in  1870,  to  14,78()  in  1880,  and  to  20,- 
000  in  1890.  The  greater  portion  of  these  was  con- 
structed by  private  companies,  and  in  1882  13,582 
of  a  total  of  15,724  miles  of  railway  belonged  to 
those  companies.  In  1908  the  railway  mileage  of 
Russia  amounted  to  45,132  miles,  of  which  35,076 
were  in  Europe,  2078  in  Finland,  and  7978  in  Asia. 
At  present  four-fifths  of  these  railways  belong  to  the 
State,  and  one-fifth  to  private  parties.  In  1909  there 
were  270  miles  of  new  railways  opened  and  the  con- 
struction of  3074  miles  more  was  determined  upon. 
Russia  has  the  second  railway  mileage  of  the  world, 
being  second  only  to  the  riiited  States;  but  compared 
with  the  area  of  the  empire,  the  railway  mileage  of 
Russia  is  small.  The  railway  centre  of  Russia  is 
Moscow.  The  Trans-Siberian  Railway  is  the  great- 
est enterprise  of  modern  Russia:  it  has  made  possible 
the  exploitation  of  the  natural  riches  of  Siberia, 
and  has  opened  a  way  for  the  commerce  of  EurojK^ 
with  the  Far  East.  Its  construction  was  begun  in 
1891,  and  finished  in  1903,  at  a  cost  of  850,000,000 
roubles.  It  has  a  length  of  5532  miles.  After  the 
war  with  Japan,  the  branch  to  Port  Arthur  became  a 
part  of  the  Eastern  China  Railway.  The  voyage 
from  Europe  to  Shanghai,  which  takes  forty-five 
days  by  the  Suez  Canal,  and  thirty-five  days  by 
Canada  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  is  made  in  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  days  over  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway  by  way  of  Vladivostok.  The  total  value 
of  the  Russian  railways  is  5,500,000,000  roubles,  and 
their  average  cost  is  estimated  at  169,500  roubles  per 
mile. 

In  foreign  commerce,  exports  and  imports,  Russia 
occupies  the  seventh  place  among  commercial  na- 
tions, the  imports  and  exports  representing  a  value 
approximatclv  of  2,000,000,000  roubles  (in  1906, 
800,000,000  roubles  of  imports,  and  547,500,000 
roubles  of  exports).  This  commerce  to  the  amount 
of  1,545,000,000  roubles  is  carried  on  across  the 
European  frontiers;  268,000,000  roubles  across 
Asiatic  frontiers;  and  83,000,000  roubles  across  the 
frontiers  of  Finland.     Russia  exports  wheat,  barley, 


oats,  rye,  and  corn  to  Germany,  England,  Holland, 
Italy,  France,  Austria,  etc.;  eggs,  sugar,  butter, 
caviare,  fish,  fowls,  petroleum,  cattle,  and  raw 
minerals;  and  imports  woollen  textiles  amounting  to 
25,000,000  roubles,  worked  metals,  paints,  and  dyes, 
coal,  silk,  rubber  goods,  machinery,  watches,  tea 
(in  1906,  90,000  tons  of  this  commodity  were  im- 
ported at  a  cost  of  77,000,000  roubles),  herrings, 
wines  (11,000,000  roubles),  lemons  and  oranges 
(4,500,000  roubles),  other  fruits,  etc. 

The  internal  commerce  of  Russia  is  greatly  de- 
veloped by  the  periodical  markets  or  fairs,  of  which 
26,000  are  held  in  6830  different  places.  The  most 
important  one  of  them  is  that  of  Nizhni-Novgorod, 
originating  in  the  seventeenth  century  near  the  monas- 
tery of  the  Blessed  Macarius,  which  was  built  within 
the  Government  of  Nizhni-Novgorod.  To  that  market 
Turks,  Tatars,  and  Persians  went  in  great  numbers. 
In  1816  the  fair  was  transferred  to  Novgorod,  a  city 
which,  on  account  of  its  position  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Volga  and  the  Oka  Rivers,  possessed  the 
requisites  for  becoming  a  great  commercial  centre; 
the  commercial  importance  of  the  fair  increased 
rapidly;  it  was  visited  by  as  many  as  200,000  mer- 
chants from  all  parts  of  Russia  and  Siberia.  The 
value  of  the  merchandise  brought  to  this  market, 
which  amounted  to  32,000,000  roubles  in  1817,  at- 
tained a  sum  of  246,000,000  roubles  in  1881,  after 
which  it  fell  to  a  yearly  average  of  from  160  to  170 
million  roubles.  The  fair  is  hold  from  15  July  to 
25  Aug.,  the  chief  commodities  being  silk,  cotton, 
linen  and  woollen  goods,  worked  metals,  and  skins. 
Another  important  fair  is  that  of  Irbit,  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  Perm.  This  fair  originated  in  1643;  it 
is  held  from  1  Feb.  to  1  March,  the  value  of  the  mer- 
chandise brought  to  it  being  estimated  at  30,000,000 
roubles  each  year.  In  Little;  Russia  these  fairs  are 
frequently  held;  among  them  tlie  most  noted  are 
those  of  the  Epiphany,  at  Kharkoff,  from  6  to  26 
Jan.  (merchandise  of  a  value  of  from  11  to  13  million 
roubles) ;  those  of  the  Assumption,  the  Intercession 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  the  Holy  Trinity,  in  the 
same  city,  from  15  Aug.  to  1  Sept.,  1  to  15  July, 
and  1  Oct.  to  1  Nov.  respectively;  the  fair  of  Kieff, 
from  5  to  26  Feb.;  those  of  Kursk,  Simbirsk,  Menzel- 
insk,  Ivanoffskaia  etc.  The  growth  of  the  railways 
tends  to  diminish  the  importance  and  volume  of 
business  of  these  fairs.  The  number  of  commercial 
establishments  in  Russia  (statistics  of  1907)  ia 
889,746,  and  the  number  of  people  engaged  in  com- 
merce is  1,600,000. 

Industries,  and  Condition  of  the  Workers. — 
Russian  industries  have  been  greatly  developed,  al- 
though they  are  far  from  being  in  a  position  to  supply 
the  home  demand.  In  1906  there  were  in  Russia 
14,247  industrial  establishments,  in  which  there  were 
1,684,5(J9  workers;  in  1907  the  number  of  those 
establishments  had  decreased  to  14,190,  while  the 
workers  had  increased  to  1,723,173.  The  industrial 
districts  are  those  of  St.  Petersburg  (2049  establish- 
ments, 296,109  workers),  Moscow  (2485  estab- 
lishments, 610,402  workers),  Warsaw  (2978  establish- 
ments, 268,256  workers),  Kieff  (2791  establishments, 
207,751  workers),  the  Volga  (1768  establishments,  137,- 
235  workers),  and  Kharkoff  (2119  establishments, 
203,424  workers).  The  number  of  women  employed 
in  these  establishments  increases  continually,  and 
grew  from  383,782  in  1901  to  435,684  in  1906. 

The  metal  industries  are  the  most  important. 
Under  Peter  the  Great  there  was  declared  the  so- 
called  freedom  of  mines  (gornaia  svohoda),  according 
to  which  the  ownership  of  a  mine  was  independent 
of  that  of  the  land  under  which  it  was  found.  This 
law  was  revoked  by  Catherine  II  in  1781,  to  the 
detriment  of  the  metallurgical  industries.  Ac- 
cording to  the  latest  statistics,  the  number  of  work- 
men employed  in  these  industries  is  700,000,  of  whom 


RUSSIA 


240 


RUSSIA 


more  than  half  are  employed  in  the  extraction  and 
working  of  iron.  The  value  of  the  yearly  output 
of  the  metallurgical  industries  is  300,000,000  roubles. 
Russia  holds  an  important  position  as  a  gold-pro- 
ducing country:  in  1906  Siberia,  the  Urals,  and  Fin- 
land produced  30  tons  of  gold.  The  average 
production  of  gold  each  j'ear,  from  sand  and  quartz, 
amounts  to  80,960  lb.,  of  a  value  of  60,000,000 
roubles.  Russia  occupies  the  fourth  place  among 
gold-producing  countries.  The  Province  of  Irkutsk, 
in  Eastern  Siberia,  is  the  chief  gold  region  of  the 
country-,  and  especially  the  District  of  Olekminsk, 
which  produces  6  tons  of  the  metal.  By  the  laws  of 
12  March.  1901,  and  1  March,  1902,  the  prohibition 
that  had  been  placed  upon  free  commerce  in  gold 
was  removed.  There  are  80,000  workers  employed 
in  the  gold  industries  of  the  country. 

Ru.ssia  may  be  said  to  be  the  only  platinum- 
producing  countn*'.  This  metal  is  taken  from 
the  Urals,  where  it"  was  discovered  in  1819,  the  yearly 
production  of  it  amounting  to  5  tons,  although  in 
1906  the  amount  was  5  ^  tons.  It  is  mined  in  the 
Government  of  Perm,  giving  employment  to  1292 
men.  and  is  usually  sold  to  the  British  at  a  price  of 
806,000  roubles  per  ton;  when  refined  in  England, 
it  is  sold  for  1,240,000  roubles  per  ton.  The  pro- 
duction of  silver,  which  from  1886  to  1890  was  16 
tons  a  j^ear,  has  decreased  to  6  tons  yearly.  The 
metal  is  mined  in  the  Districts  of  Nertchinsk  and  the 
Altai,  and  in  the  Governments  of  Viborg  and  Arch- 
angel. 

Russia  has  produced  copper  since  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  her  annual  production  of  that 
metal  increases  continually:  from  8,300  tons  in 
190.5,  it  increased  to  70,000  tons  in  1906,  and  to 
14,000  in  1907.  There  are  22  establishments  de- 
voted to  the  copper  industry;  the  metal  i.s  mined 
chiefly  in  the  Caucasus  and  in  the  Urals,  and  to  a 
small  extent  in  the  steppes  of  the  Kirghiz  and  in  the 
Altai  Mountains.  Lead  is  usually  found  in  Russia 
mixed  ^s-ith  silver,  and  is  obtained  in  the  Province 
of  Terek  and  the  Districts  of  Nertchinsk  and  the 
Altai.  An  exact  average  of  the  yearly  production 
of  lead  cannot  be  established;  in  1890  it  amounted 
to  800  tons;  in  1895  to  400  tons;  in  1904  to  only 
80  tons,  while  it  increased  to  770  tons  in  1905,  and  to 
1000  tons  in  1906.  Zinc  is  furnished  by  four  great 
establishments,  situated  respectively  at  Bendzin, 
Const  antin,  Paulina  (Government  of  Piotrkow), 
and  Alagir,  in  the  Province  of  Terek.  The  pro- 
duetion  of  this  metal  yielded  8100  tons  in  1902, 
H.fXK)  tons  in  1904,  and  10,000  tons  in  1906.  Mer- 
cury was  discovered  in  1879  in  the  District  of  Bakh- 
mut  (Government  of  Yekaterinoslaff),  and  its  yearly 
production  amounts  to  320  tons.  Manganese,  which 
i.s  worked  chiefly  in  the  Governments  of  Kutais 
and  of  Yekaterino.slaff,  yielded  a  production  of 
320  tons  in  1898,  790  tons  in  1900,  and  500  tons  in 
1905. 

Ru.ssia  produces  great  quantities  of  iron.  The 
first  establishments  for  the  working  of  this  metal 
originated  in  the  seventeenth  century  and  were  the 
property  of  the  State.  In  1906  the  total  production 
of  iron  amounted  to  5, 183, .579  tons.  There  are  126 
foundries  which  produce  2,700,000  tons  of  melted 
iron.  Russia  occupies  the  seventh  place  among  the 
eoal-prodiieing  countries.  The  first  coal  was  mined 
in  1h''  nign  of  Peter  I,  but  the  co.al  industry  was  only 
de\-elf)pfd  to  any  extent  under  Catherine  II,  and  that 
development  continues  from  year  to  year.  The 
prr)duetion  of  thi.s  mineral  amounted  to  25,000,000 
tons  in  1906.  Russia  is  exceptionally  rieh  in  petro- 
leum. Many  of  its  oil  deposits  are  yet  undeveloperl, 
especially  in  the  Governments  of  Kielce  and  Taurida, 
anrl  in  the  Urals.  The  greatest  supply  of  Russian 
petroleum  now  comra  from  the  northern  and  southern 
slopes  of  the  Caucasus  Mountains,  especially  from 


the  Government  of  Baku  (90  per  cent),  from  the 
Provinces  of  Terek,  Kuban,  and  Daghestan,  from  the 
Government  of  Tiflis,  and  from  the  Transcaspian 
region.  In  1907  the  total  production  of  petroleum 
in  Russia  amounted  to  8,300,000  tons.  The  petro- 
leum exported  in  1908  represented  a  value  of  30,000,- 
000  roubles. 

Among  salt-producing  countries  Russia  holds  the 
fourth  place,  producing  from  mines  and  salt  lakes  a 
yearly  average  of  more  than  1,770,000  tons  of  salt, 
chiefly  from  the  Governments  of  Yekaterinoslaff ,  Astra- 
khan, Perm,  and  Taurida.  The  textile  industry  holds 
an  important  place,  there  being  2000  factories,  em- 
ploving  700,000  workers,  and  producing  fabrics  valued 
at  800,000,000  roubles  a  year.  Of  those  establish- 
ments 730  are  cotton  factories,  which  employ  437,000 
workers,  and  produce  a  yearly  output  valued  at 
520,000,000  roubles.  The  principal  establishments 
for  the  cleaning  of  cotton  are  in  Turkestan  and  the 
Government  of  Erivan.  Factories  for  spinning  and 
weaving  cotton  first  appeared  in  Russia  during  the 
second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century;  the  principal 
ones  among  them  at  the  present  time  are  in  the 
Governments  of  Vladimir,  Moscow,  Piotrkow,  St. 
Petersburg,  Kostroma,  Terek,  and  Yaroslaff.  The 
wool  industry  has  916  factories  that  produce  an  aggre- 
gate yearly  income  of  nearly  170,000,000  roubles. 
Russia  has  145  linen  factories  that  produce  a  yearly 
income  of  42,000,000  roubles.  The  silk  industry, 
which  was  introduced  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  had  in  1900  200  factories  (Gov- 
ernments of  Moscow,  Vladimir,  and  Piotrkow), 
and  was  producing  a  yearly  income  of  23,000,00() 
roubles. 

The  flour  industry  is  an  important  one,  there 
being  1400  large  mills,  the  yearly  products  of  which 
are  valued  at  225,000,000  roubles,  besides  which 
there  are  20,000  small  mills.  The  distillation  of 
spirits,  made  free  in  1803,  is  another  important  in- 
dustry, there  being  2480  distilleries  with  a  yearly 
production  of  89,100,000  gallons.  There  are  80 
distilleries  for  the  production  of  vodka,  which  has 
become  a  government  monopoly,  and  the  yearly 
product  of  which  is  2,160,000  gallons,  chiefly  in  the 
Governments  of  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg.  The 
brewing  of  beer  was  begun  in  Russia  more  especially 
in  the  nineteenth  century,  and  as  a  beer-producing 
country  Ru.ssia  occupies  the  sixth  place,  having  918 
breweries  with  a  yearly  product  of  162,000,000 
gallons.  Russia  also  produces  sugar.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth century  it  had  7  refineries.  The  first  refinery 
for  the  production  of  beet  sugar  was  established  in 
1802.  At  present  tliere  are  2S0  beet  sugar  factories 
and  refineries,  whieli  in  19()S  i)rodueed  l,;i()0,000  tons. 
There  are  294  oil  factories,  where  oil  is  extracted  from 
sunflower  seed,  linseed,  and  hempseed. 

There  are  827  workshops  where  industrial  ma- 
chinery is  made,  the  value  of  their  annual  products 
being  estimated  at  208,000,000  roubles.  Fourteen 
large  establishments  in  the  Governments  of  St. 
Petersburg,  Livonia,  Moscow,  and  Nizhni-Novgorod 
construct  locomotives  and  railway  cars,  of  a  value 
of  92,000,000  roubles.  The  goldsmith's  industry, 
which  flourishes  in  the  Governments  of  Warsaw,  St. 
Petersburg,  and  Moscow,  yields  an  annual  income  of 
5,500,000  roubles.  Electrical  works,  of  which  there 
an-  50  in  the  Government  of  St.  Petersburg,  have 
made  their  appearance  within  recent  years;  their 
annual  product  is  valued  at  8,000,000  roubles. 
The  paper  industry  is  an  ancient  one  in  Russia, 
d.'iting  from  the  sixteenth  century.  There  are  at 
present  451  factories.  The  wood  industry  is  rep- 
resented in  the  first  place  bv  956  saw-mills,  the 
yearly  produets  of  which  .are  estimated  at  70,000,000 
roubles;  and  secondly  by  250  furniture  factories, 
with  a  yearly  output  of"  14,000,000  roubles.  Tlie 
yearly  production  of  the  174  chemical  factories  in 


RUSSIA 


241 


RUSSIA 


Russia  is  estimated  at  32,000,000  roubles.  Tanning, 
which  was  practised  in  Russia  as  far  back  as  the 
ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  is  now  carried  on  in  641 
tanneries  that  produce  a  yearly  output  of  55,000,000 
roubles.  The  glass  industry  also  is  important  in 
Russia,  where  it  made  its  appearance  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  under  the  Tsar  Michael  Theodoro- 
vitch  (212  factories,  and  a  yearly  output  of  26,000,- 
000  roubles). 

The  material  and  the  moral  conditions  of  the  work- 
ing people  leave  a  great  deal  to  be  desired.  The 
wages  are  low  in  proportion  to  the  cost  of  living  in 
Russian  cities,  and  the  law  does  not  give  the  workman 
sufficient  protection  against  exploitation  by  his  em- 
ployer. It  may  be  said  that  there  are  no  sanitary 
laws  with  regard  to  workers  in  factories,  although 
this  matter  has  been  considered  by  various  com- 
missions, established  by  the  Government  in  1859, 
1870,  1874,  and  1892.  Sickness  and  accidents  are 
frequent  among  the  workmen:  in  1871  in  17,533  es- 
tablishments, employing  1,700,000  workers,  there  were 
24,744  accidents,  of  which  385  were  fatal.  To  these 
may  be  added  23,360  injuries  through  accident  in 
the  mines,  making  a  total  of  48,104;  these  official 
figures  seem  too  low  to  represent  the  facts.  The  in- 
surance societies  have  only  600,000  workers  inscribed 
on  their  lists;  and  in  case  of  accident  it  is  very 
difficult  to  obtain  payment  from  those  companies. 
There  is  want  of  medical  assistance.  The  moral 
standard  is  very  low.  It  is  therefore  no  wonder  that 
the  working  class  takes  an  active  part  in  revolu- 
tionary movements  and  furnishes  a  large  percentage 
of  highway  robbers. 

Intellectual  Russia. — Intellectual  culture  is  of 
recent  date,  and  was  first  developed  in  Southern  and 
Western  Russia  under  Polish  influence.  The  first 
Russian  academy  was  established  at  Kieff  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  In  Muscovite  Russia  intellec- 
tual culture  began  under  Peter  the  Great,  who  gave 
much  attention  to  the  education  of  the  people.  Cath- 
erine II  established  the  first  school  for  girls.  Under 
Alexander  II  a  great  number  of  schools  and  of  estab- 
lishments for  higher  education  were  opened,  and  this 
intellectual  development  was  carried  to  Siberia  by 
the  foundation  of  the  University  of  Tomsk  under 
Alexander  III.  Higher  education  is  represented  by  ten 
universities:  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  KieflF,  Odessa, 
Kharkoff,  Warsaw,  Kazan,  Yurieff  (Dorpat),  Helsing- 
fors,  and  Tomsk.  Two  other  universities  are  about 
to  be  established  by  the  Government,  at  Saratoff  and 
Tobolsk.  In  1909  the  ten  universities  just  named  were 
attended  by  36,890  students,  those  having  the  great- 
est number  of  students  being  the  Universities  of  St. 
Petersburg  (8805),  Moscow  (8698),  Kharkoff  (4048), 
and  Kieff  (4230);  on  the  other  hand,  Warsaw  has 
only  fifteen  students,  being  boycotted  by  the  Poles 
on  account  of  the  exclusive  use  of  the  Russian  lan- 
guage. The  most  frequented  courses  are  those  of  law 
(13,970  students),  physics  and  mathematics  (8778 
students),  and  medicine  (7068  students).  There  is  a 
notable  attendance  of  women  (500)  at  the  University 
of  Helsingfors.  The  nine  Russian  universities  are 
maintained  by  the  State  at  an  expense  of  5,405,660 
roubles  a  year,  to  which  should  be  added  other 
amounts  of  regular  receipts,  making  a  sum  total  of 
7,684,000  roubles.  The  University  of  Helsingfors  is 
supported  by  Finland  at  a  cost  of  806,700  roubles,  of 
which  173,700  roubles  are  furnished  by  the  public 
treasury. 

Russian  universities,  some  of  which  date  from  the 
eighteenth  or  even  the  seventeenth  century,  received 
their  first  impetus  from  Alexander  I  (1801-25),  who 
founded  the  Universities  of  Kharkoff,  Kazan,  and  St. 
Petersburg.  Under  Nicholas  I  (1825-55),  they  ran 
the  risk  of  being  closed,  and  were  subjected  to  a  rule 
of  superintendence  and  severe  discipline.  In  1863  the 
minister  Golovin  introduced  important  reforms  into 
XIII.— 16 


the  organization  and'administration  of  the  universities, 
and  conferred  many  privileges  upon  the  professors 
and  students,  which  privileges  were  limited  by  the 
law  of  23  Aug.,  1884.  The  regular  professors  receive 
a  salary  of  3000  roubles  a  yeai ;  the  supplementary 
professors  receive  2000  roubles,  and  the  dozents  1000 
roubles.  The  various  universities  have  in  their 
faculties  men  of  superior  attainments,  who  are  an 
honour  to  science.  Those  institutions  are  distin- 
guished also  for  their  Liberal  sentiments,  which  in 
1905-07  degenerated  into  excesses,  and  on  various 
occasions  tran.sformed  the  universities  into  hotbeds  of 
political  agitation. 

The  intellectual  culture  of  women  has  its  centres 
in  the  so-called  "Superior  Course"  (Vysshie  kursy)  of 
St.  Petersburg  (2396  students)  and  of  Moscow  (2177 
students),  and  in  the  women's  medical  school  of 
St.  Petersburg  (1635  students).  In  the  "Superior 
Courses",  the  greater  portion  of  the  women  students 
take  up  the  study  of  history  and  of  philosophy.  The 
one  at  St.  Petersburg  is  maintained  at  a  cost  of 
217,530  roubles  a  year;  the  corresponding  one  at 
Moscow  at  153,000  roubles  a  year,  and  the  women's 
school  of  medicine  at  a  cost  of  573,926  roubles.  There 
are  many  scholarships  for  poor  students,  men  and 
women.  The  Russian  women  who  frequent  the 
"Superior  Courses"  are,  as  a  nile,  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  are  distinguished  by 
their  quickness  of  intellect  and  energy  of  character, 
and  also  by  a  decrease  of  womanly  qualities. 

According  to  the  statistics  of  1907,  secondary  in- 
struction for  men  is  given  in  246  gymnasia  and  37 
pro-gymnasia,  having  2912  classes,  4668  masters, 
and  107,296  students;  for  women,  in  433  gymna- 
sia and  172  pro-gymnasia,  with  5432  classes,  10,- 
272  teachers,  and  200,761  students,  and  in  178 
Rcalschulen,  1590  classes,  2538  teachers,  and  55,499 
students.  In  the  gymnasia,  the  course  lasts  seven 
years;  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  German  are  taught 
at  these  institutions,  as  also  the  natural  sciences, 
history,  geography,  Russian  literature,  and  the  cate- 
chism. The  pro-gymnasia  teach  the  same  subjects, 
with  the  exception  of  the  dead  languages.  The  Rcal- 
schulen impart  a  practical  education.  In  the  gym- 
nasia for  girls,  the  course  is  six  years.  To  the  number 
of  these  schools  must  be  added  the  institutes  and  the 
seminaries  for  the  education  of  teachers  {utchilel' skie 
insiituty,  utchileV skija  seminarii),  there  being  10  of 
the  former,  with  143  professors,  and  1738  students; 
and  73  of  the  latter,  with  909  professors,  and  12,355 
students. 

There  are  in  the  whole  of  Russia,  including  Finland, 
111,427  schools  for  primary  instruction,  attended  by 
6,875,765  scholars,  of  whom  4,691,691  are  boys.  To 
this  class  belong  the  parochial  schools  that  were  in- 
stituted 13  July,  1884,  and  were  placed  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  Synod.  The  scope  of  these 
schools  is  chiefly  religious;  they  teach  the  law  of  God, 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic;  some  of  them  have 
only  one  class;  some  two;  in  the  second  class,  when 
there  is  one,  ecclesiastical  and  national  history  are 
taught.  The  remuneration  received  by  the  teachers 
of  parochial  schools  is  often  as  low  as  150  roubles  a 
year.  In  the  schools  that  depend  upon  the  Ministry 
of  Public  Instruction,  the  salaries  of  teachers  are  500 
or  600  roubles  a  year.  In  1909  the  ministry  spent 
54,000,000  roubles  for  the  schools  of  primary  instruc- 
tion, while  the  Holy  Synod  spent  14,000,000  for  the 
schools  dependent  upon  it,  a  sum  that  is  increased  to 
89,000,000  roubles  by  the  contributions  of  other  min- 
istries or  institutions.  The  primary  schools  neverthe- 
less are  insufficient  in  number,  and  the  progressive 
element  in  Russia  calls  for  the  establishment  of 
500,000  additional  schools.  Russia  has  also  profes- 
sional schools:  an  institute  of  forestry  {liesnoi  in- 
stilut),  attended  by  460  students;  142  commercial 
institutes,  with  2775  professors  and  33,397  students; 


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242 


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87  commercial  schools,  with  1040  professors  and  12,- 
510  students;  and  37  professional  schools  and  insti- 
tutes, with  717  professors  and  4270  students. 

Among  the  scientific  institutions,  the  Imperial 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  St.  Petersburg  stands  in  the 
first  place.  It  was  instituted  by  Peter  the  Great  in 
1724.  and  was  opened  by  Catherine  I  in  1726,  and  has 
various  museums,  libraries,  laboratories,  and  obser- 
vatories. Its  literarA'  activity  is  intense,  its  numerous 
scientific  publications  already  forming  a  vast  librarj-. 
There  are  also:  the  Imperial  Archsographical  Com- 
mission of  St.  Petersburg,  famous  for  its  splendid  edi- 
tions of  Russian  national  chronicles;  the  Imperial 
Archaeological  Commission  of  St.  Petersburg;  the 
Imperial  Archaeological  Society  of  Moscow,  which 
publishes  learned  and  artistic  volumes  on  the  sacred 
and  profane  monuments  of  Russia;  the  Society  of 
Oriental  Studies,  at  St.  Petersburg  {Vostotchnoviedic- 
nija  Obshshcstvo),  the  scientific  researches  of  which 
deal  especialh'  with  Siberia  and  China;  the  Society 
of  Xaturahsts  of  St.  Petersburg  (Obshshestvo  estesl- 
voispytatclci),  which  was  founded  in  1868;  the  So- 
ciety of  Geographical  Studies  (Obshshestvo  zemlevie- 
dienija\  establLshed  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1903;  the 
Imperial  Institute  of  Experimental  Medicine;  the 
philologico-historical  societies  of  Odessa  and  of  Khar- 
koff;  the  Imperial  Historical  Society  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, which  has  published  130  volumes  of  historical 
documents  and  the  Russian  biographical  lexicon;  the 
Archaeological,  Historical,  and  Ethnological  Society  of 
Kazan;  the  Society  of  the  Friends  of  Ancient  Litera- 
ture of  St.  Petersburg,  which  has  published  numerous 
and  valuable  copies  of  ancient  texts;  the  Historical 
and  .Ancient  Literature  Society,  connected  with  the 
University  of  Moscow,  whose  Tchlenija  (lectures) 
constitute  the  richest  and  most  valuable  historical 
collection  of  Russia;  the  Imperial  Mineralogical  In- 
stitute of  St.  Petersburg;  the  Slav  Society  of  AIoscow, 
which  publishes  the  periodical  "Slavianski  Viek"; 
the  Polytechnical  Institute  of  Moscow;  the  Imperial 
Archaeological  Society  of  St.  Petersburg,  with  classical. 
Oriental,  Russo-Slavic,  and  numismatical  sections; 
the  Imperial  Geographical  Society  of  St.  Petersburg, 
famous  for  its  publications;  the  Juridical  Institute  of 
St.  Petersburg;  the  Lazareff  Institute  of  Moscow, 
famous  for  its  learned  publications  on  Oriental  and 
other  subjects.  All  of  those  institutions,  to  which 
manj*  of  secondan.-  importance,  existing  in  all  Russian 
cities,  are  to  be  added,  furnish  a  notable  contribution 
to  the  activities  of  Russian  science,  which  in  reality 
are  very  considerable.  These  institutions  are  also 
endowed  with  ver>'  fine  libraries. 

The  most  important  Russian  library  is  the  Imperial 
Public  Librars',  which  is  divided  into  thirteen  sec- 
tions, and  is  rich  in  bibliographical  treasures,  among 
them  the  famous  Codex  Sinaiticus  of  the  Bible.  The 
second  is  the  library  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
which  Ls  growing  richer  from  year  to  year,  and  with 
which  is  connected  the  library  of  the  Asiatic  Museum 
of  St.  Petersburg,  where  there  are  many  Oriental 
manuscripts  of  value.  Two 'famous  libraries  at  Mos- 
cow are:  that  of  the  Holy  Synod,  where  there  is  a 
ver>'  large  collection  of  Greek  codices;  and  the  li- 
brary' of  the  RurnianzofT  Museum.  In  the  Caucasus 
there  are:  the  library  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Museum 
of  Tiflis,  which  is  rich  in  ancient  Georgian  codices; 
and  the  library  of  the  monastery  of  Etchmiadzin, 
which  has  a  valuable  collection  of  Armenian  codices. 

Economics  and  Finance. — It  was  only  towards  the 
end  of  the  ninetwnth  century  that  the  budget  began 
to  free  itself  from  its  continuous  fluctuations.  In  view 
of  the  di.sorder  that  obtained  in  its  finances  during 
that  centur>%  the  Government  wa«  compelled  con- 
tinually to  increase  the  compulsory  afjccptance  of 
bank-noU^H  which,  from  a  total  of  .508  million  roubles 
in  1857,  increased  to  IKK)  million  roubles  by  1883. 
To  meet  its  obligations,  it  was  obliged  to  resort  to 


loans  which,  from  2537  million  roubles  in  1S56,  in- 
creased to  5424  milhon  roubles  in  1883.  The  Russian 
budget,  both  in  receipts  and  in  expenses,  increases 
continually:  the  highest  budgets,  for  receipts  and  for 
expenses,  were  those  of  1905  (receipts,  2989  milhon 
roubles;  expenses,  3194  million  roubles);  1906  (re- 
ceipts, 3423  milhon  roubles;  expenses,  3212  million 
roubles);  and  1907  (receipts,  2195  million  roubles; 
ex-penses,  2582  million  roubles).  The  increased  re- 
ceipts are  due  to  loans,  and  the  increased  expenses  to 
the  war  with  Japan.  The  expenses  of  the  war  from 
1904  to  1909  amounted  to  2,414,923.194  roubles.  The 
budget  that  was  submitted  to  the  Duma  and  to  the 
Council  of  the  Empire  for  1908  fixed  the  receipts  at 
2,478,677,241  roubles,  and  the  expenditure  at  2,631,- 
495,495  roubles.  That  for  1909  fixed  both  the  re- 
ceipts and  the  ex-penditure  at  2,595,049,000  roubles. 
Of  the  receipts  193,882,000  roubles  are  derived 
(Statute  of  1909)  from  direct  taxation;  523,758,000 
from  indirect  taxation;  140,709,000  from  the  cus- 
toms; 806,488,000  from  the  rights  of  the  State 
(regalii) ;  685,670,000  from  the  properties  and  capitals 
of  the  State;  and  the  remainder  from  other  sources. 
Of  the  expenditure,  473,919,000  roubles  are  for  the 
account  of  the  Ministry  of  Marine;  393,363,000 
roubles  are  absorbed  by  the  paj'ment  of  coupons  of 
the  Russian  Rentes;  89,353,000  roubles  are  assigned 
to  the  Ministry  of  the  Na^T;  452,117,000  to  the  Min- 
istry of  Finance;  553,156,000  to  the  Ministry  of 
Railways  and  Communications;  154,378,000  to  the 
Ministry  of  the  Interior;  63,937,000  to  the  INIinistry 
of  Public  Instruction;  31,663,000  to  the  Holy  Synod, 
and  71,488,000  to  the  Ministry  of  Justice.  Among  the 
direct  taxes  are  those  upon  alcohohc  liquors  (34,- 
172,000  roubles),  upon  tobacco  (49,028,582  roubles), 
on  sugar  (75,541,747  roubles),  and  on  petroleum  (31,- 
967,500  roubles).  The  monopoly  of  alcoholic  drinks 
3'ields  to  the  State  the  enormous  sum  of  542,288,341 
roubles.  The  Government  receives  36,500,000  roubles 
from  the  postal  service,  21,500,000  roubles  from  the 
telegraphs,  and  453,500,000  roubles  from  the  railways. 
Russia  has  the  largest  budget  in  the  world,  but  not 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  its  inhabitants. 

A  great  portion  of  the  resources  of  Russia  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  interest  on  its  debt,  which  in  1907 
amounted  to  8,625,560,215  roubles.  Of  this  sum, 
3,155,641,839  roubles  were  on  account  of  the  railways. 
In  1908  the  debt  amounted  to  8,725,523,210  roubles. 
During  1903-07,  on  account  of  the  war  with  Japan, 
the  Russian  debt  increased  by  a  sum  of  2,081,596,540 
roubles.  For  the  payment  of  its  foreign  Rentes,  the 
Russian  Government  needs  several  hundred  millions 
in  gold,  wherefore  its  financial  policy  tends  to  increase 
exportations,  to  favour  home  industries,  and  to  aug- 
ment the  metallic  supply.  The  law  of  29  Aug.,  1897, 
put  gold  into  circulation  in  Russia;  and  that  of  28 
April,  1900.  guaranteed  the  payment  in  gold  of  notes 
of  credit.  In  1908  tlie  bank  notes  in  circulation  aggre- 
gated a  sum  of  1200  million  roubles;  and  the  gold 
578,200,000  roubles,  a  decrease  of  19,400,000  roubles 
from  the  preceding  year.  The  principal  establishment 
of  credit  in  Russia  is  the  state  bank  {(josudarMvennyi 
bank),  which  has  8  agencies  and  107  branches.  Its 
gold  reserve  in  1908  amounted  to  1200  million  roubles, 
in  Russian  and  in  foreign  coin,  and  in  bars.  Its  de- 
posits in  precious  metals  and  in  securities  amounted 
to  8286  million  roubles.  In  1862  there  were  only  2 
savings  banks  in  Ru.ssia;  in  1880  their  number  had 
increased  to  76,  and  in  1890  to  1826;  in  1900  to  5145, 
and  in  1908  to  0710,  with  an  aggregate  of  6,210,238 
depositors,  and  of  1,149,243,581  roubles  of  (ieposits. 
Other  important  banks  are:  the  Agricultural  Bank  of 
the  Nobility,  the  a.ssets  of  which,  on  1  Jan.,  1909, 
amounted  to  808,000,000  roubles;,  the  Agricultural 
Bank  of  th(!  peasants,  which  on  the  same  date  had 
a.ssets  of  1134  million  roubles;  the  agricultural  stock 
banks    {akdonemye   zemel'nye    banki),    which    were 


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243 


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established  between  1871  and  1873  in  the  Govern- 
ments of  Kharkoff,  Pultowa,  St.  Petersburg,  Tula, 
Bessarabia,  Taurida,  Nizhni-Novgorod,  Samara,  Kieff, 
Vilna,  Yaroslaff,  Kostroma,  and  the  Province  of  the 
Don  Cossacks,  the  aggregate  assets  of  which,  on  1 
Jan.,  1909,  amounted  to  1164  million  roubles.  The 
first  mutual  credit  society  was  established  at  St. 
Petersburg  in  1864;  at  the  present  time  there  are 
401  of  them,  13  of  which  are  at  St.  Petersburg.  In 
1909  there  were  368  of  these  associations,  with  an 
aggregate  of  208,914  members,  and  assets  of  403 
million  roubles. 

Insurance  societies  are  of  long  standing  in  Russia. 
One  of  them,  the  Russian  Fire  Insurance  Society,  was 
established  in  1827.  In  1907  there  were  13  fire  insur- 
ance societies  in  the  empire,  the  agfiicKatc;  receipts  of 
which  in  1907  amounted  to  107, ()()(),()()()  roubles,  as 
compared  with  99,000,000  in  lOOti,  and  91,000,000  in 
1905.  The  most  important  of  these  companies  is  the 
Salamandra,  which  was  e.stablished  in  1846.  Life 
insurance  policies  are  issued  also  by  the  State  savings 
banks,  which  in  1907  issued  1653  policies  for  the  total 
sum  of  3,018,929  roubles.  There  are  7  Russian  and  3 
foreign  life  insurance  companies,  the  first  having  a 
combined  capital  of  90,000,000  roubles,  and  the  sec- 
ond 20,000,000  roubles.  In  1907  there  were  125  in- 
surance societies  in  operation  in  the  various  cities  of 
Russia.  After  the  law  of  2  July,  1903,  which  provided 
for  indemnity  to  workmen  in  case  of  accident  at  work, 
nine  accident  insurance  societies  appeared,  at  the 
industrial  centres  of  Riga,  Ivanovo,  Warsaw,  Moscow, 
Kieff,  Odessa,  St.  Petersburg,  Tchernomoriia,  and 
Bielostok.  These  societies  have  a  combined  capital 
of  1,700,000  roubles,  but  the  number  of  workers  in- 
sured is  small  (290,775).  Besides  the  establishments 
that  have  been  mentioned  above,  there  are  in  Russia 
34  commercial  banks,  407  mutual  credit  societies,  and 
86  pawn  offices  {moiits  de  pictc).  In  all,  there  are  1502 
institutions  of  credit  in  Russia. 

Morality:  Statistics  of  Crime. — Statistics  show 
a  continual  increa.se  of  criminality  in  Russia,  due  to 
the  increase  of  the  population,  the  dissemination  of 
socialistic  and  of  revolutionary  ideas  among  the  lower 
classes,  the  want  of  culture,  and  the  lack  of  moral  in- 
fluence of  the  Orthodox  religion.  From  a  total  of 
266,261  crimes  punished  by  the  law  in  1901,  the  figures 
increased  to  271,360  in  1902;  292,907  in  1903;  299,968 
in  1904,  and  351,710  in  1905.  Thefts  and  crimes 
against  the  person  represent  the  greatest  number  of 
these  crimes.  The  number  of  homicides  increased 
considerably  in  1905-07,  and  likewise  offences  by  the 
Press.  In  1905  there  were  141,847  arrests  (129,275 
men).  In  the  same  year  3622  men  and  720  women 
were  condemned  for  homicide.  The  highest  percent- 
age of  criminals  is  furnished  by  the  peasants.  In  1906 
there  were  111,403  arrests;  in  1907,  138,501;  and  to 
1  Jan.,  1908,  160,025.  In  1907  there  were  903  prisons. 
Criminality  has  assumed  great  proportions,  especially 
in  the  Caucasus  and  Poland,  where,  on  account  of 
political  as  well  as  of  economic  causes,  outlawry  has 
increased  its  numbers  to  a  considerable  extent.  Polit- 
ical criminality  has  increased  there  to  an  alarming 
degree.  In  Poland  in  1904-06  760  civil,  military,  and 
police  employees  died  by  violence,  and  864  were 
wounded;  142  suffered  from  the  explosion  of  bombs. 
In  Warsaw  alone,  from  1904  to  1907,  236  police  were 
killed,  179  of  them  in  1906.  The  Russian  Government 
has  answered  these  assaults  by  a  multiplication  of 
death  sentences,  the  number  of  which  from  1905  to 
the  present  time  amounts  to  several  thousand. 

History. — A.  The  Epoch  of  the  Princes. — Nestor, 
the  Russian  chronicler,  speaks  of  the  Drevliani, 
Radimitchi,  Viatitchi,  Severiani,  and  of  the  primitive 
races  of  Russia  as  of  beasts,  and  assails  their  polyg- 
amy, indecency,  and  the  roughness  of  their  ways.  A 
few  families  would  collect  to  form  a  village,  and  a  few 
villages  would  constitute  a  voolst  governed  by  a  prince; 


their  attempts  at  cities  were  few  and  far  between,  and 
the  little  states,  devoid  of  a  central  Government,  were 
the  prey  of  internal  discord,  and  too  weak  to  resist 
the  attacks  of  external  enemies.  The  Slavs  of  the 
south  were  tributaries  of  the  Khazari ;  and  according 
to  Nestor,  those  of  the  Ilmen,  torn  by  dissensions,  sent 
messengers  to  the  Vareghi,  or  Variaghi,  inviting  the 
latter  to  the  country  of  the  Slavs  of  the  Ilinen,  wKwh 
was  a  land  of  plenty,  but  devoid  of  order  and  of 
justice.  Russian  historians  do  not  agree  upon  the 
ethnological  relations  of  the  Vareghi,  who,  according 
to  some  authorities,  were  Scandinavians,  and  accord- 
ing to  others,  Slavs;  while  yet  others  regard  them  as 
adventurers  made  up  of  both  of  those  races;  more  fre- 
quently however  they  are  recognized  as  Normans. 
Be  that  as  it  may,  the  Vareghi  accepted  the  invitation 
to  establish  themselves  in  the  country  of  th(>  Slavs  of 
the  Ilmen,  and  opened  the  era  of  the' national  history 
of  Rus.sia — of  the  Russia  of  the  heroic  period;  and 
the  region  of  Kieff,  according  to  ancient  chronicles, 
received  the  name  of  Russ. 

The  first  to  establish  themselves  in  the  territory 
of    the    Russian    tribes    were    the    three    Vareghian 
brothers,  Rurik,  Sineus,  and  Truvor,  who  came  with 
their  druzhine,  or  bands  of  warriors.     Rurik  pitched 
his  tents  on   the  shores   of   Lake   Ladoga;    Sineus 
on  the  shores  of  the  White  Sea;    while  Truvor  es- 
tablished himself  at  Isborsk.     After  the  deaths  of 
Sineus   and  Truvor,    Rurik  took  up  his   abode  at 
Novgorod,    where    he    built    a    castle.     Two    other 
Vareghians,  Askold  and  Dir,  installed  themselves  at 
Kieff,    and    reigned    over    the    Poliani;     with    their 
fleets  of  small  vessels,  they  crossed  the  Bosphorus  and 
attacked   Constantinople,   which   city,   according   to 
the  Byzantine  chroniclers,   owed  its  safety  on  this 
occasion   to   the   intercession   of   Our   Lady  of   the 
Blacherna;.      Rurik    was    succeeded    by    Oleg,    who 
treacherously  murdered  Askold  and  Dir,  made  him- 
self master  of  Kieff,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Mother  of  Russian  Cities,  collected  a  great  fleet  in 
908  to  attack  Byzantium,  and  died  in  the  height  of 
his  glory,  leaving  the  kingdom  to  a  son  of  Rurik, 
Igor.     The    latter    turned    his    arms    unsuccessfully 
against  Byzantium,  and  died  the  victim  of  a  bar- 
barous assassination  at  the  hands  of  the  Drevliani 
in  945.     The  widow  of  Igor,  Queen  Olga,  assumed 
the  regency  in  the  minority  of  her  son  Sviatoslaff, 
and  cruelly  punished  the  Drevliani  for  their  crimes. 
Under  Prince   Sviatoslaff    (964-72),    the   Khazari 
were  completely  defeated,  the  Petcheneghi  put  the 
city  of  Kieff  in  danger  of  destruction,  and  the  Rus- 
sians,  after  an  heroic  resistance,  wore  defeated  at 
Silistria  by  the  Byzantine    army   under  Joannes  I 
Zimiskes.     On  his  return  to  Russia  the  Petcheneghi 
prepared  an  ambuscade  for  Sviato.slaff,   and  killed 
him  and  the  survivors  of  his  defeated  army.     The 
kingdom  of  Sviatoslaff  was  inherited  by  his  sons 
Jaropolk,    Oleg,    and   Vladimir.     Jaropolk,    who  re- 
ceived the  Province  of  Kieff,  killed  Oleg,  who  reigned 
over  the  Drevliani,  and  in  turn  was  killed  by  Vladimir, 
who  had  inherited  the  Province  of  Novgorod.     Be- 
fore his  conversion  to  Christianity,  this  prince  gave 
himself  up  to  the  most  unbridled  dissipation.     For- 
tunate in  war,  he  fought  successfully  against  the  Poles, 
the   Viatitch,    the   Radimitchi,    the    Letts,    and   the 
Petcheneghi,    and   owing    to    his    military   successes 
became    the   hero   of    Russian    popular   songs.     His 
reign  lasted  from  972  to  1015.     Upon  the  death  of 
Vladimir,  his  dominions  were  divided  among  many 
heirs,  and  there  were  consequent  disputes  and  civil 
wars.     Two  of   the   sons  of   Vladimir,    the   princes 
Boris  and  Gliebe,  were  assassinated  by  Sviatopolk, 
Prince   of   Turoff.     Yaroslaff,    Prince   of   Novgorod, 
another  son  of  Vladimir,  succeeded  in  avenging  the 
death  of  his  innocent  brothers,  and  driving  Sviato- 
polk from  his  throne,  he  united  all  Russia  under  liis 
own  sceptre  and  established  his  seat  of  government  at 


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244 


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Kieff.  His  reign  was  long  and  glorious.  He  in- 
flicted terrible  defeats  upon  the  Petcheneghi,  the 
Lithuanians,  and  the  Finnish  tribes,  but  sought  in 
vain  to  take  Constantinople.  His  far-sighted  policy 
led  him  to  seek  intermarriages  with  the  Kings 
of  Poland,  Norway,  France,  and  Hungary.  Kieflf 
(adorned  with  its  splendid  Cathedral  of  St.  Sophia) 
became  the  artistic  and  intellectual  centre  of  Russia. 

From  1054,  however,  the  political  conditions  of 
Russia  went  from  bad  to  worse,  and  the  want  of 
political  unity  remained  a  constant  cause  of  internal 
weakness.  In  less  than  two  centuries,  according  to 
Pogodin,  there  were  sixty-four  independent  prin- 
cipalities, 293  princes,  and  83  civil  wars,  to  which 
must  be  added  the  continual  incursions  of  the  bar- 
barians. The  history  of  Russia  during  this  period 
is  a  mass  of  discordant  notices.  The  chief  prin- 
cipalities of  that  time  were  Smolensk,  Tchernigoff, 
Northern  Novgorod,  Ryazan,  Murom,  Tver,  Suz- 
dal, Rostoflf,  Vladimir,  Yaroslaff,  Pereiaslaff-Zalieski, 
Volhynia,  Galicia,  and  others;  and  these  states, 
upon  the  death  of  each  of  their  respective  princes, 
were  subdivided  into  new  fiefs.  Yaroslaflf  was  suc- 
ceeded upon  the  throne  of  Kieff  by  his  son  Iziaslaff, 
who  died  in  1078.  The  son  of  Iziaslaflf,  Sviatopolk, 
reigned  from  1093  to  1113,  during  which  period 
questions  of  the  succession  to  the  Principalities  of 
Tchernigoff  and  Volhynia  brought  the  horrors  of 
civil  war  upon  Russia.  Sviatopolk  was  succeeded  by 
the  prudent  Vladimir  Monomacus  (1113-25),  who 
obtained  important  victories  over  the  Polovcy, 
Petcheneghi,  and  Tcherkessi.  When  he  died  he 
left  as  his  testament  to  his  sons  an  instruction,  which 
is  to  some  extent  an  autobiography,  and  which  con- 
tains wise  advice  for  government.  His  sons  and  his 
grandsons,  however,  did  not  profit  by  it,  for  their 
rivalry  contributed  to  the  decadence  of  Kieff,  which 
in  1169  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the  armies  of 
Rostoff,  Vladimir,  and  Suzdal,  commanded  by 
RIstislav,  .son  of  Andrew  Bogoljubski.  The  city  was 
sacked  and  its  churches  profaned.  In  1203  it  was 
again  sacked  by  the  Polovcy,  and  Kieff  ceased  to  be 
the  political  centre  of  Russia. 

After  the  fall  of  Kieff,  the  Principalities  of  Suzdal, 
Galicia,  Novgorod,  and  Pskof  had  a  rapid  but 
ephemeral  development.  The  most  famous  of  the 
princes  of  Suzdal  was  Andrew  Bogoljubski  (1157-74), 
who  owed  his  fame  to  his  ambition,  his  military  en- 
terprises, his  love  for  the  fine  arts,  and  his  attach- 
ment to  the  Orthodox  Church.  The  city  of  Vladimir 
owes  to  him  the  splendid  monuments  that  place  it 
in  the  front  rank  of  the  cities  of  Russia  from  an 
archaeological  standpoint.  Autocracy  found  in  him 
its  staunchest  supporter,  which,  however,  cost  him 
hLs  life,  for  he  was  assassinated  by  the  boyars  at 
Bogoljubovo,  where  he  had  built  a  monastery.  His 
death  was  followed  by  turbulence,  caused  by  the 
rivalry  of  the  cities  of  Rostoff,  Suzdal,  and  Vladimir, 
the  last  of  which  was  victorious,  and  developed  its 
power  still  more  under  Prince  Vsevolod  (1176- 
1212).  Further  wars  of  succession  led  in  1215  to  the 
terrible  battle  of  Lipetsk,  in  which  the  troops  of 
Novgorod,  Pskof,  and  Smolensk  massacred  the  army 
of  Suzdal  and  Murom.  Their  prince,  George  II, 
at  the  death  of  his  brother  Constantine,  Prince  of 
Vlarlimir,  fought  furiously  against  the  Bulgarians 
of  the  Volga,  and  in  1220,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Oka  with  the  Volga,  laid  the  foundation  of  Nizhni- 
Novgorod. 

In  Galicia,  Romano,  Prince  of  Volhynia  (1188- 
120.5),  assisted  by  the  Poles,  established  himself  at 
Galitch,  became  famous  through  his  cruelty  and  his 
military  enterprisf^,  and  died  in  battle  ajjainst  the 
Poles.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Daniel  (120.5- 
1266) ;  this  prince  allowed  the  Jews,  the  Armenians, 
and  the  Germans  to  enter  his  dominions,  and  thereby 
greatly  promoted  industry  and  commerce.    During 


this  period  the  free  cities  of  Novgorod,  Pskof,  and 
Vyatka,  like  the  Italian  republics  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  reached  a  high  degree  of  splendour,  and  of 
economic  and  artistic  development;  but,  torn  by 
internal  dissensions,  their  power  waned,  while  the 
power  of  the  German  military  order  of  the  Brothers 
of  the  Militia  of  Christ,  or  Sword-Bearers,  and  that 
of  the  Teutonic  Order  increased;  these  two  orders 
were  formed  into  a  single  society  in  1237,  and  sub- 
jected the  Letts,  the  Livonians,  and  the  Finns  to  their 
influence. 

B.  Russia  under  the  Tatars. — After  uniting  all  the 
Tatar  tribes  under  his  sceptre,  Jenghiz  Khan  (1154- 
1227)  extended  his  conquest  to  China,  Turkestan, 
Great  Bokhara,  and  the  plains  of  Western  Asia  as 
far  as  the  Crimea;  and  his  successors,  continuing 
the  advance,  with  their  hordes  crossed  the  steppes 
of  Southern  Russia,  and  reached  the  frontiers  of  the 
Polovcy;  these  turned  to  the  Russian  princes  for 
assistance.  The  latter  responded  to  that  appeal, 
and  met  the  Asiatic  hordes  (1224)  at  the  Kalka,  a 
rivulet  that  flows  into  the  Sea  of  Azoff.  The  princes 
Mstislav  the  Rash,  Daniel  of  Galitch,  and  Oleg  of 
Kursk  performed  prodigies  of  valour  at  the  head  of 
their  troops;  but  the  numerical  superiority  of  the 
Tatars  and  the  cowardice  of  the  Polovcy  brought  de- 
feat upon  the  Russians,  costing  them  the  lives  of  six 
princes  and  seventy  boyars.  In  1237,  led  by  Baty, 
the  Tatars  returned  to  Russia,  burned  and  destroyed 
the  capital  of  the  Bulgarians  in  the  region  of  the 
Volga,  and  assailed  Ryazan,  whose  princes  opposed 
a  desperate  resistance,  without  however  being  able 
to  save  the  city  from  pillage  and  ruin.  Having 
secured  the  possession  of  Ryazan,  the  Tatars  invaded 
the  Principality  of  Suzdal  (1238),  and  burned  Suzdal, 
Rostoff,  Yarosiaff,  and  many  other  cities  and  villages. 
The  Prince  of  Suzdal,  George  II,  died  on  the  battle- 
field. In  1239-40,  the  Tatars  continued  their  de- 
vastations through  Southern  Russia,  took  Pereiaslaff, 
Tchernigoflf,  and  KiefT,  sowed  death  and  ruin  broad- 
cast, and  entered  Volhynia  and  Galicia,  Novgorod 
alone  escaping  the  fate  of  the  other  Russian  cities. 
In  the  region  of  the  lower  course  of  the  Volga,  Baty 
established  his  residence  {Sarai,  the  castle),  which 
became  the  capital  of  a  great  Tatar  empire,  called 
the  Kingdom  of  the  Golden  Horde,  extending  from 
the  Urals  and  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Danube.  About  1272  the  Tatars  of  Russia 
embraced  Mohammedanism,  became  its  fanatical 
preachers,  and  on  this  account  refrained  from  mixing 
with  the  Russians.  At  the  death  of  George  II  his 
dominions,  devastated  and  pillaged,  were  inherited 
by  Yaro.slaff  (1238-46),  who  was  forced  to  traverse 
the  whole  of  Russia  and  Asia  to  pay  homage  to  the 
Grand  Khan  of  the  Tatars,  Oktai.  He  died  of  want 
in  the  desert,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexander 
Nevski,  whose  name  is  famous  in  the  national  his- 
tory of  Russia  on  account  of  his  victories  over  the 
Teutonic  Knights,  the  Swedes,  and  the  Finns  (1246- 
52). 

Following  a  policy  of  toleration  the  very  opposite 
of  the  Turkish  policy  towards  Christian  peoples, 
the  Tatars  respected  the  dynasties  and  the  political 
institutions  of  the  Russian  principalities.  Suzdal, 
Galicia,  Volhynia,  Tchernigoff,  Polotsk,  and  Nov- 
gorod continued  to  liv(!  and  to  govern  themselves 
as  in  the  past.  The  Russians  were  not  tatarized, 
chiefly  becau.se  differences  of  religion  raised  insur- 
mountable barriers  between  them  and  the  Tatars. 
The  khans  of  the  Golden  Horde  limited  themselves 
to  requiring  the  external  homage  of  the  Russian 
princes,  to  acting  as  arbiters  in  their  quarrels,  to 
imposing  a  poll-tax,  to  exacting  a  military  contingent, 
to  reserving  the  right  of  investiture  over  them, 
and  to  forbidding  them  to  carrv  on  war  without 
permission.  This  subjection  of  the  Russians  to  the 
Tatars  exercised  a  great  influence  on  Russia.    For 


RUSSIA 


245 


RUSSIA 


several  centuries  the  Russians  had  no  contact  with 
Western  civiHzation,  and  were  subjected  more  directly 
to  the  weakening  influence  of  the  Byzantine  civili- 
zation. In  their  military,  economic,  and  political 
organization  the  Russians  adopted  a  great  many 
Tatar  institutions.  The  autocratic  government  of 
the  Tatar  helped  to  consolidate  the  autocracy  of  the 
Russian  princes,  which  was  derived  from  Byzantium. 
The  Orthodox  Russian  Church  grew  in  power  under 
the  rule  of  the  Tatars,  on  account  of  the  privileges 
and  exemptions  accorded  to  it.  Monasteries  were 
multiplied  throughout  Russia,  and  through  the  dona- 
tions of  the  faithful  acquired  enormous  riches.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  are  Russian  writers  who  believe 
that  they  discern  Tatar  influence  in  the  condition 
of  the  women  in  Russia. 

Besides  the  Tatars,  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  the  Russians  had  to  struggle  in  the  western 
provinces  against  the  aggressive  ambition  of  the 
Lithuanians,  the  political  union  of  which  people  had 
been  established  by  Prince  Mindvog,  assassinated  in 
1263.  The  territorial  expansion  of  the  Lithuanians 
reached  its  culmination  under 
Prince  Gedimin  (1315-40),  who 
extended  his  conquest_s  to 
Southern  Russia,  and  subjected 
to  his  rule  Grodno,  Pinsk,  Brest, 
Polotsk,  T(!hernigofT,  \'ladimir, 
and  finally  Kieff,  which  had  en- 
tirely lost  its  prestige.  At  his 
death,  his  son  Olgerd  (1345-77) 
led  his  victorious  armies  into 
the  territory  of  Novgorod,  add- 
ing to  his  father's  conquests 
Vitebsk,  MohilefT,  Bryansk, 
northern  Novgorod,  Kamenetz, 
and  Podolia,  and  reached  the 
shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  He 
would  have  establi-shed  his 
power  at  Moscow  also,  if  the 
Teutonic  Knights  and  the  Poles 
had  not  opposed  his  ambitious 
projects.  His  successor  Jagellon 
(1377-1434)  married  Hedwig, 
Queen  of  Poland,  converted  the 
Lithuanians  to  Cathohrism,  and 
established  his  capital  at  Cra- 
cow. But  the  conversion  of 
the  Lithuanians  displeased  the 
obstinate  pagans  and  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Orthodox  Church, 
and  these  two  united  under  the 
flagof  Vitovt  (1392-1430),  upon 
whom  Jagellon  was  obliged  to  confer  the  title  of  Grand 
Prince  of  Lithuania.  Vitovt,  like  his  predecessors, 
continued  his  conquests  in  Russia,  and  took  and  pil- 
laged Smolensk.  He  also  conceived  the  design  of 
bringing  the  Tatar  domination  to  an  end,  and  in  1399 
at  the  head  of  an  enormous  army  of  Lithuanians,  Poles, 
and  Russians,  he  gave  battle  to  the  Tatars,  who  route(l 
him  completely.  Vitovt,  however,  was  not  disheart- 
ened. In  1410  with  a  large  army  of  Poles  and 
Lithuanians,  to  which  40,000  Tatars  and  20,000  mer- 
cenaries were  added,  he  assailed  the  army  of  the  Teu- 
tonic Knights  at  Tannenberg,  and,  not\vithstanding 
their  desperate  efforts,  destroyed  their  power,  while 
they  left  the  flower  of  their  order  on  the  battlefield. 
C.  The  Principality  and  the  Grand  Princes  of 
Moscow. — The  name  of  Moscow  appears  for  the  first 
time  in  Russian  chronicles  in  1147.  Its  founder  is 
said  to  have  been  Prince  George  Dolgoruki,  who 
raised  it  from  a  humble  village  to  a  city  that  was 
destined  to  become  the  heart  of  the  great  Russian 
empire.  In  1237  it  was  burned  by  the  Tatars;  but 
having  arisen  again  under  Prince  George  Danilovitch 
(1303-26),  it  began  its  political  development.     The 


not  creditable  to  the  princes  of  Moscow,  who,  ac- 
cording to  Rambaud,  used  intrigue,  corruption, 
the  purchase  of  consciences,  servility  towards  the 
Tatars,  assassination,  and  delation.  George  Danil- 
ovitch used  the  Tatars  to  destroy  the  power  of  the 
princes  of  Tver.  He  was  assassinated  in  1325  by 
Prince  Demetrius  of  Tver,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Ivan  Kalita,  who  turned  his  efforts  to  transforming 
Moscow  into  the  metropolis  of  Russia;  he  built  the 
Cathedral  of  the  Assumption  {Uspenski  Sobor)  within 
the  enclosure  of  the  Kremlin;  and  he  destroyed  the 
power  of  the  princely  dynasty  of  Tver.  His  two  sons, 
Simon  the  Superb  (1340-53)  and  Ivan  the  Good- 
Natured  (1353-59),  continued  the  policy  of  their 
father,  the  former  holding  the  Russian  princes  in 
submission,  and  taking  the  title  of  Grand  Prince 
of  all  the  Russians;  and  the  latter  showing  himself 
gentle  towards  his  rivals  and  towards  the  Lithuanians 
when  they  attempted  to  encroach  upon  his  rights; 
he  was  supported  by  faithful  and  intelligent  men, 
among  them  the  metropolitan  Alexis,  who  pre- 
served the  throne  for  Demetrius  Ivanovitch,  son 
of  Ivan.  Demetrius  Ivanovitch 
made  the  first  decisive  step 
towards  liberating  Russia  from 
the  Tatar  yoke.  After  carry- 
ing on  war  with  the  princes  of 
Suzdal,  of  Tver,  and  of  Ryazan, 
he  crossed  the  Don,  with  a 
large  army  and  the  contingents 
of  many  Russian  princes  sub- 
ject to  him,  and  on  the  plain  of 
Kulikovo  inflicted  a  bloody  de- 
feat upon  Mamai,  Khan  of  the 
Golden  Horde,  who  had  led 
against  the  Russians  an  im- 
mense multitude  of  Tatars, 
Turks,  Polovcy,  Tcherkessi, 
etc.  His  victory  won  him  the 
epithet  of  Donskoi,  but  his  suc- 
cess was  not  lasting,  for  the 
Tatars,  assisted  by  Tokhta- 
mitch,  one  of  the  generals  of 
Timur,  laid  waste  Moscow,  Vla- 
dimir, Mozhaisk,  and  Yurieff. 
.\t  the  death  of  Demetrius, 
tlie  Grand  Princii)ality  of  Mos- 
cow and  N'ladiiiiir  was  inherited 
by  \'assili-Dniitrievitch  (1389- 
1425),  was  extended  by  new 
conquests  in  the  territory  of 
Tchernigoff,  Vyatka,  and  Nov- 
gorod, and  thereafter  consoli- 
dated more  and  more  its  supremacy  over  the  Tatars, 
whose  empire  was  wasting  away  in  consequence  of  in- 
ternal quarrels.  During  the  reign  of  his  successor, 
Vasili  the  Blind  ( 1425-62) ,  a  civil  war  that  lasted  twenty 
years  desolated  the  Grand  Principality  of  Moscow,  the 
political  development  of  which  was  thereby  arrested. 
Nevertheless  Muscovite  supremacy  was  established 
over  Novgorod  and  Ryazan.  From  1449  Vasili  had 
associated  with  himself  in  the  government  his  son  Ivan, 
who  was  destined  to  acquire  the  epithets  of  "Great" 
and  "Consolidator  of  Russia".  Ivan  the  Great  (1462- 
1505)  found  the  territory  that  he  inherited  at  the 
death  of  his  father  surrounded  by  the  Tatar  conquests, 
the  Lithuanian  Empire,  and  Sweden.  Among  the 
first  events  of  his  reign  should  be  mentioned  the  com- 
plete submission  of  Novgorod  to  his  rule:  the  ancient 
and  free  city  retained  only  the  name  of  republic;  in 
1495  Ivan  destroyed  its  commerce  also,  and  reduced 
it  to  the  status  of  a  city  of  his  dominions.  At  the  same 
time  Russian  armies  were  penetrating  the  north  of 
Russia,  conquering  the  Province  of  Perm  and  the  city 
of  Vyatka,  marching  to  the  shores  of  the  Petchora, 
and  reaching  the  coast  of  the  White  Sea.    The  Prin- 


1  nuiarmk",  XVII  Century 


means  adopted  for  their  aggrandizement  are  certainly     cipaUty  of  Tver  was  annexed  to  that  of  Moscow,  as 


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246 


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were  also  the  cities  of  Bielozersk,  Dmitroff,  Mozhaisk, 
and  Serpukhoff.  The  poUtical  unity  of  Russia  was 
being  consohdated  in  proportion  as  the  Tatar  empire 
of  the  Golden  Horde  crumbled.  In  14S0  two  great 
armies  of  Russians  and  Tatars  almost  decided  the 
fate  of  Russia  in  open  battle.  In  14S7  the  troops  of 
Moscow  entered  the  Tatar  city  of  Kazan,  and  took 
its  king.  Alegam,  prisoner  to  Moscow.  Kazan,  how- 
ever, did  not  become  Russian  territory,  for  Ivan  the 
Great  rightly  feared  that  a  general  uprising  of  the 
Mussulman  Tatars  would  follow  if  he  annexed  it 

From  1492  Ivan  turned  his  arms  against  Lithuania. 
The  Lithuanians  were  supported  by  the  Poles,  the 
Teutonic  Knights,  and  the  Mussulman  Tatars;  but 
many  princes  among  the  vassals  of  the  Grand  Prince 
of  Lithuania  passed  to  the  side  of  the  Muscovites. 
The  war  was  prolonged  for  many  years,  until  a  truce 
was  brought  about  by  the  mediation  of  Pope  Alex- 
ander \T  and  the  King  of  Hungary  in  1503.  The  most 
important  event  of  the  reign  of  Ivan  the  Great  was 
his  marriage  to  Sophia  Palceologus,  daughter  of 
Thomas  Palaeologus,  a  brother  of  the  last  Emperor 
of  Byzantium.  This  marriage  was  concluded  by 
Paul  II  and  Cardinal  Bessarion,  and  served  as  the 
pretext  for  the  tsars  to  declare  themselves  heirs  of  the 
Byzantine  baaileis,  to  take  as  their  arms  the  two- 
headed  eagle,  and  to  assume  the  role  of  defenders  and 
champions  of  the  Orthodox  Church.  With  Sophia 
Palaeologus  there  went  to  Moscow  the  surviving 
representatives  of  Byzantine  culture,  and  some  Italian 
artists,  among  whom  were  the  famous  architects 
Aristotele  Fioravanti  and  Pietro  Antonio.  Ivan  the 
Great  then  entered  into  relations  with  Venice. 
Through  the  Princess  Sophia,  Humanism  and  the 
Renaissance  flourished  for  a  period  at  the  court  of 
Moscow. 

Under  Basil  Ivanovitch  (1505-33),  Muscovite 
Russia  grew  by  the  annexation  of  the  Republic  of 
Pskof,  the  Principalities  of  Ryazan  and  Novgorod- 
Seversk,  and  the  Tcrritorj'  of  Smolensk.  The  political 
prestige  of  Russia  increased  in  Europe,  and  Basil  Ivano- 
vitch had  diplomatic  relations  with  the  pope,  France, 
Austria,  Sweden,  Turkey,  and  Egypt.  The  court  of 
Moscow  displayed  Asiatic  luxury  in  its  feasts.  The 
Tatars,  who  had  again  invaded  Russian  territory,  and 
had  reached  the  walls  of  Moscow,  wore  met  by  new 
campaigns  against  Kazan  (1523  and  1524),  which, 
however,  were  not  successful.  In  1533  Ivan  IV,  a 
son  of  Basil,  ascended  the  throne.  Posterity  has  given 
to  him  the  name  of  "Terrible"  on  account  of  his 
cruelty,  although  noted  Russian  historians  like 
Soloveff  and  ZaVjiehn  have  sought  to  clear  his  memory 
and  to  proclaim  his  great  servaces  to  Russia.  After 
freeing  himself  from  the  tutelage  of  the  boyars,  who 
lorded  it  according  to  their  pleasure,  in  1547  as  heir 
of  the  House  of  Palaeologus  he  caused  himself  to  be 
crowned  at  Moscow  as  Tsar  of  all  the  Russias,  con- 
quered Kazan  (15-52),  and  Astrakhan  (1556),  subju- 
gated the  Tchcrmisi,  Mordvy,  Tchiuvashi,  Votiaki, 
Bashkiri,  and  Nf)gais;  he  fought  with  varied  fortunes 
against  the  Teutonic  Order  in  Livonia  and  against 
the  Poles,  and  through  the  daring  exploits  of  Gregory 
Strogonoff  and  of  the  Cossack  Irmak  Timotheevitch 
he  conqufTffl  Siberia.  He  had  the  misfortune  of  seeing 
his  cai)it;il  burncfl  by  the  Tatar  Klian  Devlet  Ghirei, 
and  of  killing  his  eldest  son  Ivan  in  one  of  his  violent 
excesses  of  rage.  He  died  in  1584  and  was  Bucceeded 
by  his  son  Feodor  (15S4-98),  who  was  bom  the  son  of 
Ivan  and  Anastasia  Romanoff.  He  married  Irene, 
sister  of  Boris  GodunofT,  who  coveted  the  throne,  and 
who  became  the  true  tsar  in  the  reign  of  Feodor.  The 
young  prince  Demetrius,  son  of  the  seventh  wife  of 
Ivan  the  Terrible,  w;i.s  relegated  to  the  city  of  Uglitch. 
To  the  advice  of  Boris  GodunofT  also  were  due  the 
two  most  important  measures  of  this  reign,  the  institu- 
tion of  serfdom,  and  of  the  7)atriarchate. 

To  satisfy  his  thirst  for  power,  GodunofT  had  the 


young  brother  of  Feodor,  the  Tsarevitch  Demetrius, 
and  his  relations  put  to  death,  and  made  the  city  of 
Uglitch  pay  for  having  given  them  hospitality.  At  the 
death  of  Feodor,  Boris  CJodunoff,  whose  name  was  to 
be  immortalized  by  the  beautiful  tragedy  of  Pushkin, 
placed  the  crown  of  the  tsars  upon  his  own  head.  He 
worked  to  introduce  Western  civilization  into  Mo.scow, 
and  died  in  1605.  He  wished  to  leave  the  crown  to  his 
son,  Feodor  Borisovitch;  in  1603  however  a  man, 
whose  identity  is  still  shrouded  in  mystery,  had  pre- 
sented himself  to  the  court  and  to  the  Polish  nobility 
as  the  son  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  the  young  Demetrius 
whom  Boris  GodunofT  had  attempted  to  murder,  but 
whom  his  relatives  had  saved.  With  the  aid  of  the 
Polish  nobility,  Demetrius,  known  to  posterity  as 
Pseudo-Demetrius,  succeeded  in  entering  Moscow, 
where  Feodor  Borisovitch  and  his  mother  paid  with 
their  lives  for  the  short  reign  of  Boris  Godunoff.  But 
a  year  later  Demetrius  died,  the  victim  of  a  conspir- 
acy, at  the  head  of  which  was  Prince  Vasili  Shuiski, 
who  then  ascended  the  throne  of  the  tsars. 

Russia  then  entered  upon  a  period  of  troubles 
(smutnoe  vremia)  that  nearlj^  brought  about  its  polit- 
ical dissolution.  New  false  Demetriuses  appeared. 
The  serfs  and  the  peasants,  led  by  Bolotnikoff,  iruen- 
aced  Moscow.  The  nobles  wished  to  drive  the  usurper 
Vasili  from  the  throne.  The  Poles  fomented  troubles, 
and  sought  to  establish  their  supremacy  at  Moscow. 
A  Polish  army  under  the  orders  of  the  wayirode  John 
Sapieha  and  of  Lissowski  for  sixteen  months  besieged 
the  shrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity  and  St.  Sergius,  forty 
miles  from  Moscow.  But  the  monks  defended  them- 
selves so  resolutely  that  the.y  comj^elled  the  enemy  to 
raise  the  siege.  Tsar  Vasili  Shuiski  called  the  Swedes 
to  his  assistance,  but  the  King  of  Poland,  Sigismund 
III,  casting  aside  all  pretence,  entered  upon  the  con- 
quest of  Russia.  The  inhabitants  of  Moscow  re- 
volted, and  compelled  Shuiski  to  abdicate  (1610). 
Menaced  from  many  quarters,  they  elected  Vladislaff, 
son  of  Sigismund,  to  be  their  tsar,  on  condition  that 
he  would  adopt  the  Orthodox  religion.  The  Polish 
troops,  commanded  by  the  hclman  Tolkiewski,  en- 
tered Moscow.  But  soon  a  popular  revolt  that  cost 
thousands  of  lives  obliged  the  Polish  army  to  shut 
itself  up  in  the  Kremlin  and  to  set  fire  to  the  capital. 
Sigismund  was  victorious:  Smolensk,  after  a  heroic 
defence,  fell  into  his  hands,  and  the  Tsar  VasiU 
Shuiski  died  at  Warsaw.  Russia  seemed  destined  to 
disappear  as  a  political  entity.  The  people,  however, 
saved  her :  a  butcher  of  Nizhni-Novgorod  instigated  his 
fellow-citizens  to  give  their  wealth  and  their  sons  to 
free  their  country  from  the  foreigner;  and  the  Russian 
monks  and  bishops  were  ardent  supporters  of  this 
struggle  for  the  defence  of  Russian  orthodoxy  and  of 
the  power  of  the  tsars.  A  Russian  army  was  formed 
at  Yaroslaff,  and  under  the  command  of  Prince 
Demetrius  Pozharski  marched  against  Moscow,  where 
the  Polish  troops,  decimated  by  hunger,  capitulated 
at  the  moment  when  Sigismund  was  drawing  near 
with  an  army  to  assist  tliein  (1612).  A  great  national 
assembly  convened  at  Moscow,  and  elected  Michael 
Romanoff  tsar.  He  was  a  son  of  the  metropolitan 
Filarete,  who  was  held  a  prisoner  at  Marienburg  by 
the  Poles. 

Under  the  new  tsar  (1613-45),  Russia  strove  to  heal 
its  wounds.  With  Sweden  in  1617  the  peace  of  Stol- 
bovo  was  concluded;  but  the  Poles  continued  their 
hostilities,  and  Vladislaff  was  ready  to  march  on 
Moscow.  In  1618  however  a  truce  was  concluded. 
Filarete  then  returned  to  Moscow,  where  he  became 
the  counsellor  of  his  son,  and  was  associated  with  him 
in  the  empire.  At  the  death  of  Sigismund  III  (1632), 
Vladislaff,  having  ascended  the  throne  of  Poland  as 
Wladislaw  IV,  took  up  arms  against  Russia  once 
more.  The  war,  whi(;h  was  fought  with  varied  for- 
tunes, terminated  in  the  Irucc  (.f  Deulin,  by  the  terms 
of  which  Wladislaw  recognized  Michael  Romanoff  as 


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tsar.  The  successor  of  Michael  was  Alexis  Mikhail- 
ovitch  (1645-76).  His  first  action  was  directed 
against  Poland,  which,  by  its  political  and  religious 
persecution  of  the  Orthodox  of  Little  Russia,  had  lost 
the  good  will  of  the  Cossacks  and  of  the  lower  classes. 
A  Cossack  leader,  Bogdan  Khelmnicki,  raised  the 
banner  of  revolt,  and  after  several  battles  the  tsar 
also  took  up  arms  in  1654.  The  Russian  armies 
marched  against  the  Poles,  and  in  a  short  time  in- 
vaded the  whole  of  Little  Russia  and  Lithuania.  A 
treaty  of  peace  which  was  concluded  in  1667  made 
Russia  mistress  of  Kieff,  Smolensk,  and  the  right  bank 
of  the  Dnieper,  but  re-established  Polish  rule  in 
Lithuania.  This  peace  was  made  necessary  by  the 
Cossacks,  who,  unwilling  to  submit  to  authority,  men- 
aced the  interior  tranquillity  of  Russia.  One  of  them, 
Stenko  Razin,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  large  band 
of  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  passed  to  the  region  of  the 
Volga,  caused  peasants,  Tatars,  Tchiuvashi,  Mordvy, 
and  Tchermisi  to  revolt,  and  desolated  eastern  Russia. 
His  hordes  were  routed  by  George  Bariatinski  near 
Simbirsk,  and  he  was  decapitated  at  Moscow  in  1670. 
Under  the  Tsar  Feodor  Alcxievitch  (1672-82)  the 
Ukraine  and  the  territory  of  the  Zaporoghi  Cossacks 
definitively  became  Russian  possessions,  by  the  treaty 
of  1681  with  Turkey. 

D.  Reforms  of  Peter  the  Great. — Modern  Russia  and 
its  political  greatness  as  a  European  state  really  begin 
with  Peter  the  Great.  Without  him  Russia  would 
probably  have  remained  an  Asiatic  power.  Peter  I 
the  Great  was  the  son  of  Alexis  Mikhailovitch  and  his 
second  wife  Natalia  Naryshkin.  He  was  proclaimed 
tsar  at  the  age  of  nine  years,  and  his  youth  was 
threatened  by  the  gravest  perils.  The  ambitious 
Sophia,  daughter  of  Alexis  Mikhailovitch  and  his 
first  wife,  Maria  Miloslavska,  taking  advantage  of  the 
minority  of  Peter,  succeeded,  by  intrigue  and  cunning 
beyond  her  age,  in  holding  the  regency  of  the  empire 
for  seven  years  (1682-89),  until  she  was  driven  from 
the  throne  and  locked  up  in  the  Devici  monastery, 
while  her  favourites  and  partisans  died  on  th(>  scaffold 
or  in  exile.  Sole  and  absolute  sovereign,  Peter  the 
Great  wished  to  begin  his  reign  with  some  great  vic- 
tory. Accordingly,  he  rapidly  l)uilt  a  fleet,  with  which 
he  compelled  the  capitulation  of  .\zofT  in  1696.  This 
splendid  success  gave  him  great  prestige.  In  1697  he 
undertook  a  journey  to  Western  Europe,  where  he 
visited  Holland,  England,  and  Austria,  becoming  a 
mechanic,  visiting  industrial  establishments,  and  tak- 
ing workmen  and  engineers  into  his  employ,  while  at 
the  same  time  he  busied  himself  with  politics.  This 
voyage  to  Europe  had  disastrous  efi"ects  upon  internal 
order  in  Russia,  for  the  clergy  and  the  lower  classes, 
with  superstitious  terror,  believed  that  it  would  estab- 
lish foreign  influen(!e  in  Russia,  that  is  to  say,  would 
destroy  the  ancient  religious  customs  of  the  land.  The 
lower  classes  considered  it  sacrilegious  to  shave  off 
the  beard,  just  as  the  raskolniki,  who  were  very 
numerous,  regarded  it  as  a  crime  to  use  tobacco.  Both 
of  these  customs  Peter  the  Great  had  brought  to 
Russia;  reports  were  spread  that  he  was  not  of  royal 
birth,  but  was  the  child  of  adultery,  and  that  he  was 
the  Antichrist  who  was  to  be  born  in  those  times. 
Peter  the  Great  returned  to  Moscow,  and  quenched 
the  revolution  in  blood,  causing  a  thousand  people 
to  be  put  to  death  amid  tortures  in  a  single  week,  and 
not  hesitating  to  wield  the  axe  himself  to  decapitate 
rebels.  Two  other  military  revolts,  that  of  the  Don 
Cossacks  (1706)  and  the  Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine, 
which  was  brought  about  by  the  hetman  Mazeppa, 
who  had  allied  himself  to  Charles  XH  of  Sweden, 
were  crushed  by  Peter's  generals. 

The  conquest  of  the  Baltic  led  Peter  the  Great  to 
make  war  on  Sweden.  The  Russian  troops  were  de- 
feated in  1700  under  the  walls  of  Narva;  but  in  1701 
Prince  Seremeteff  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  upon  the 
Swedish  general  Slipenbach,  near  Ehresfer,  and  a  more 


severe  one  in  1702  near  Hummelsdorf,  after  which  he 
took  the  fortress  of  Nienschantz  which  the  Swedes 
had  built  at  the  mouth  of  the  Neva.  Narva  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Peter  the  Great  in  1704.  In  1708  Charies 
XII  of  Sweden  invaded  Russia  at  the  head  of  an  army 
of  43,000  veterans,  and  took  the  way  to  Moscow 
through  Lithuania;  but  a  most  severe  winter  and  the 
want  of  provisions  decimated  his  troops.  On  8  July, 
1709,  under  the  walls  of  Pultowa,  a  Russian  army  of 
60,000  men  attacked  the  Swedes,  who  were  reduced 
to  extremes  by  hunger  and  sickness.  Both  sides 
fought  heroically,  but  the  Swedish  army  was  destroyed 
and  Charles  XII  was  compelled  to  seek  refuge  in 
Turkey.  By  this  victory,  which  has  remained  famous 
in  history,  Russia  raised  her  flag  on  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic,  while  Sweden  fell  from  the  rank  of  a  great 
European  power. 

Crowned  with  the  halo  of  victory,  Peter  the  Great 
displayed  greater  energy  in  his  purpose  to  combine 
Western  civilization  with  the  ancient  Russian  life, 
preserving  however  those  Russian  customs  that 
seemed  to  him  to  be  useful  to  his  empire.  For  example, 
the  serfdom  of  the  agricultural  classes  was  sanctioned 
by  laws,  and  all  the  peasants  were  bound  to  fixed  resi- 
dence and  to  per  capita  taxation.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  cities  were  divided  into  guilds,  according  to  trades 
or  professions;  foreigners  were  authorized  to  carry  on 
commerce  and  to  devote  themselves  to  the  industries 
in  Russia;  women  were  taken  from  their  isolation  and 
from  the  retirement  of  the  terem;  he  instituted  the 
tlirecting  senate  to  take  the  place  of  the  ancient  duma 
of  the  boyars;  the  provincial  administration  was  reor- 
ganized; many  abuses  of  the  bureaucracy  were  rooted 
out;  the  army  received  a  European  organization,  and 
was  increased  to  210,000  men;  the  ancient  organiza- 
tion of  the;  Russian  Church  was  destroyed  by  the  in- 
stitution of  the  Holy  Synod;  religious  tolerance  was 
e.stablished;  commerce  and  industry  were  developed; 
a  great  number  of  schools  and  i)rinting-h<)uscs  were 
founded;  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Neva  he  built  his 
capital,  St.  Petersburg,  the  "window  opened  towards 
the  West";  the  head  of  Russia,  as  Moscow  is  its 
heart.  And  in  order  to  redvice  so  many  reforms  to 
practice  in  the  face  of  the  hostility,  sometimes  open, 
sometimes  covert,  of  his  subjects,  Peter  the  Great 
used  all  the  resources  of  his  iron  will,  all  the  arms  that 
autocracy  placed  in  his  hands,  not  excluding  violence 
and  cruelty. 

The  work  of  these  reforms  did  not  take  the  mind  of 
the  great  reformer  from  his  military  enterprises.  In 
1711  he  crossed  the  Dniester  at  the  head  of  30,000 
men,  bent  on  the  conquest  of  Constantinople;  but 
an  army  of  200,000  Turks  and  Tatars  on  the  banks  of 
the  Pnith  compelled  him  to  abandon  his  ambitious 
dream  and  to  restore  Azoff  to  Turkey.  In  1713  the 
Russian  fleet,  under  the  direction  of  Admiral  Apraxin 
and  of  Peter  the  Great  himself,  took  possession  of 
Helsingfors  and  Abo  in  Finland,  and  drew  near  to 
Stockholm.  After  a  pause  of  a  few  years,  war  with 
Sweden  was  renewed  in  1719  and  continued  until 
the  peace  of  Nystad  put  an  end  to  it  in  1721,  secur- 
ing to  Russia  the  possession  of  Livonia,  Esthonia, 
Ingermanland,  a  part  of  Finland,  and  a  part  of 
Karelia.  In  the  following  year  Russian  troops 
marched  to  the  frontier  of  Persia,  invaded  Daghestan, 
Ghilan,  and  Mazandaran,  and  took  possession  of 
Derbent. 

But  the  military  and  political  successes  of  Peter  the 
Great  were  embittered  by  domestic  tragedies.  His 
first  wife,  Eudocia  Lapukhina,  was  opposed  to  the  re- 
forms, and  was  therefore  compelled  to  lock  herself  up 
in  the  Pokrovski  monastery  at  Suzdal.  The  son  of 
Eudocia,  Alexis,  held  to  his  mother's  ideas,  and  hated 
his  father's  reforms.  He  left  Russia  while  Peter  the 
Great  was  travelling  in  the  West,  and  sought  refuge  at 
Vienna  and  Naples.  Having  been  discovered,  he  re- 
turned to  St.  Petersburg,  where  his  father  subjected 


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him  to  torture,  and  thereby  discovered  that  Alexis 
and  his  mother  were  the  soufof  a  conspiracy  to  destroy 
Peter's  work.  Eudocia  was  beaten  with  rods;  the 
counsellors  and  partisans  of  Alexis  died  amid  the 
most  dreadful  sufferings;  and  Alexis  himself,  having 
been  subjected  to  torture  several  times,  died  in  con- 
sequence, or  was  executed,  in  1718.  By  his  ukase 
in  1723,  Peter  the  Great  declared  Catherine  em- 
press. She  was  a  native  of  Livonia  who,  after  be- 
ing the  mistress  of  Sheremetefif  and  Menshikoff,  had 
become  the  mistress  of  Peter,  who  had  married 
her  in  1712.  The  great  reformer  died  in  1725. 
However  historians  may  differ  in  their  opinions  of 
him,  Peter  was  certainly  the  founder  of  modern 
Russia. 

E.  The  Successors  of  Peter  the  Great. — The  brief 
reigns  of  Catherine  I  (1725-27)  and  of  Peter  II 
Alexeevitch,  son  of  Alexis  and  Charlotte  of  Bruns- 
wick, offer  nothing  of  interest,  except  the  struggle  for 
poUtical  influence  between  the  Menshikoffs  and  the 
Dolgorukis.  At  the  death  of  Peter  II,  Anna  Ivanovna, 
Duchess  of  Courland,  became  Empress  of  Russia,  and 
an  attempt  by  the  aristocracy  to  establish  a  supreme 
council  to  limit  the  autocratic  power  cost  the  hves  of 
its  authors,  among  whom  were  several  of  the  Dolgo- 
ruki.  The  empress  surrounded  herself  with  Germans; 
and  among  them,  a  Courlander  of  low  extraction, 
named  Biren,  became  very  influential.  On  his  ac- 
count the  reign  of  Anna  Ivanovna  received  the  narne 
of  Bironovshshina.  Very  many  nobles  paid  with  their 
lives  for  the  antipathy  they  felt  towards  the  new 
regime,  and  measures  of  public  finance  reduced  the 
peasants  to  extreme  poverty,  while  Anna  indulged  in 
unheard-of  luxury,  and  her  court  distinguished  itself 
for  its  immorality  and  dissipation.  At  the  death  of 
Anna  in  1740  the  regency  passed  to  Anna  Leopoldovna 
of  Mecklenburg,  who  continued  the  German  regime 
and  gave  to  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great, 
timely  occasion  to  drive  her  from  the  throne  and  to 
imprison  her  with  her  husband  and  her  children  at 
Kholmogorj%  while  Elizabeth  proclaimed  herself  Em- 
press of  alf  the  Russias.  Elizabeth  Petrovna  (1756- 
1762),  notwithstanding  her  dissolute  habits,  continued 
the  traditions  of  her  father:  the  senate  was  re-estab- 
lished; industrj'  was  developed;  great  impulse  was 
given  to  commerce;  the  severitj'  of  corporal  punish- 
ment was  mitigated;  the  University  of  Moscow  was 
established;  St.  Petersburg  was  embellished  with 
splendid  buildings  designed  by  the  Italian  architect 
Rastrelli;  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  founded  by  Peter 
the  Great  and  Catherine  I,  began  its  period  of  fruitful 
literary  work;  while  the  Russian  armies  conquered 
southern  Finland  and  weakened  the  power  of 
Prussia,  which  suffered  the  disasters  of  Grossjagerns- 
dorf  (1757)  and  Kunersdorf  (1759).  In  1760  the 
armies  of  Elizabeth  made  their  triumphal  entrance 
into  Berlin. 

Elizabeth  was  succeeded  by  Peter  III,  a  son  of  Anna 
Petrovna  and  Charles  Frederick,  Duke  of  Holstein. 
His  reign  was  ver>'  short,  for  his  ambitious  consort. 
Princess  Sophia  of  Anhalt-ZcrVist,  who  became  cele- 
brated under  the  narne  of  Catherine  II,  compelled 
him  to  abdicate,  leaving  her  to  reign  alone  in  1762. 
The  first  grr-at  events  of  her  government  wen;  the  war 
with  the  Turks  and  the  partition  of  Poland.  Against 
the  Turks,  Catherine  sent  Prince  Galitzin,  who  in  1769 
near  Chotin  defeated  a  Turkish  army  three  times 
larger  than  his  own.  In  the  following  year  (1770), 
Rumiantzeff  obtained  a  still  more  decisive  victory  at 
Kagul,  where  with  17,fKK)  Russians  he  defeated  a 
Turkish  army  of  150,(KX)  men.  In  1771  Prince 
Dolgoruki  tf>ok  possr-Hsifjn  of  the  whole  of  the  Crimea, 
from  which  he  drove  the  Turks.  At  the  same  time, 
the  Ilus.Mian  Baltic  fleet  annihilated  the  Turkisli  fleet 
in  the  roiids  f)f  Chios  and  in  the  port  of  TchesirK^. 
Hostilities  were  rfsumed  in  1772,  and  culminated  in 
the  treaty  of  Kutchuk-Kainardji  (1774),  by  which  the 


independence  of  the  Tatars  of  the  Crimea  was  recog- 
nized, while  Azoff,  Kinburn,  and  the  strongholds  of 
the  peninsula  were  ceded  to  Russia,  which  received  a 
war  indemnity  of  4,500,000  roubles.  The  treaty  of 
15  Jan.,  1772,  between  Russia  and  Prussia  sanctioned 
the  iniquitous  division  of  Poland,  which  was  desired 
by  Frederick  II  and  was  hastened  by  the  polic}-  of  the 
Pohsh  nobility  and,  to  a  great  extent,  of  the  clergy. 
Bv  this  division  Russia  added  to  her  dominions  White 
Russia  (Polotsk,  Vitebsk,  Orsha,  Mohileff,  Mstislavl, 
and  Gomel),  with  1,600,000  inhabitants;  Austria  re- 
ceived eastern  Galicia  and  Ruthenia  (or  Red  Russia), 
with  2,500,000  inhabitants;  and  Prussia  received  the 
provinces  of  western  Prussia  (except  Thorn  and 
Danzig),  with  900,000  inhabitants. 

To  these  victories  and  conquests  Catherine  added 
her  efforts  to  give  to  Russia  a  good  internal  govern- 
ment: she  established  a  commission,  a  species  of 
national  representation  of  the  different  peoples  of 
Russia,  to  frame  a  new  code  of  laws  (1766-68);  she 
suppressed  the  revolt  of  Emilius  Pugatcheff,  a 
Raskolnik  Cossack,  who,  pretending  to  be  Peter  III, 
escaped  from  his  butchers,  carried  fire  and  sword 
through  the  region  of  the  Volga,  stirred  the  serfs  and 
the  Cossacks  to  revolt,  and  massacred  many  nobles 
(1773);  by  a  ukase  in  1775  she  divided  Russia  into 
fifty  governments,  and  the  governments  into  dis- 
tricts; she  reorganized  the  administration  of  justice, 
and  established  a  better  apportionment  of  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  various  social  classes;  she 
secularized  the  property  of  the  clergy,  and  founded 
at  Moscow  the  Vospitatelnyi  dom  for  orphans,  gave 
efficient  aid  to  the  literary  movement  of  lier  age,  and 
became  famous  also  as  a  writer;  she  corresponded 
with  learned  Europeans  (especially  with  the  French 
Encyclopedists),  promoted  the  arts,  and  enriched 
the  museums.  Meanwhile  skilful  generals,  among 
whom  was  Catherine's  favourite,  Potemkin,  added 
new  glories  to  the  military  history  of  Russia.  Gus- 
tavus  III  of  Sweden,  notwithstanding  the  naval 
victory  of  Svenska-Sund  (9  July,  1790),  was  unable 
to  take  land  from  Russia.  RumiantzefT,  Potemkin, 
Suvaroff,  and  Soltikoff,  one  after  another,  defeated 
the  Turkish  armies,  took  Otchakoff  and  Ismail  by 
assault,  and  compelled  Turkey,  at  the  Peace  of 
Jassy  (1792),  to  make  new  cessions  of  territory 
(Otchakoff  and  the  coast  between  the  Bug  and  the 
Dnieper)  and  to  grant  independence  to  the  prin- 
cipalities of  the  Danube. 

Under  Catherine  II  there  took  place  the  third 
Partition  of  Poland,  which  the  heroism  of  Kosciuszko 
was  not  able  to  avert.  By  this  partition  Russia 
added  Volhynia,  Podolia,  Little  Russia,  and  the  re- 
mainder of  Lithuania  to  her  empire  (1795).  Catherine 
died  17  Nov.,  1796,  at  the  age  of  67  years.  Thanks 
to  her  policy  and  to  the  victories  of  her  generals 
she  had  greatly  increased  the  territorj'  of  Russia, 
extending  its  frontiers  to  the  Niemen,  the  Dniester, 
and  the  Black  Sea.  Paul  I  (1796-1801)  at  first 
followed  a  policy  of  peace;  he  introduced  wise 
economic  reforms,  and  re-established  the  principle 
of  succession  to  the  throne  in  the  male  line.  But 
the  French  Revolution  compelled  him  to  enter  an 
alliance  with  Turkey,  England,  and  Austria  against 
France.  The  Russian  troops,  imder  the  orders  f)f 
Rimsky-Korsakoff,  entered  Switzerland,  and  under 
Suvaroff  they  marched  into  upper  Italy.  The  cam- 
paign was  not  a  successful  one  for  the  Russians,  but 
their  retreat  under  Suvaroff  through  the  Alps,  where 
they  were  shut  in  by  the  French  armies  (1799),  has 
reiriained  famous.  Paul  I  was  assassinated  by  a 
|)alace  consy)iracv  on  the  night  of  23-24  March,  1801, 
and  Alexander  I  (1801-25)  ascended  the  throne.  The 
new  emperor  took  part  in  the  epic  struggle  of  Europe 
against  Napoleon.  On  2  Dec,  1805,  was  fought  the 
battle  of  Austerlitz,  which  cost  Russia  the  flower  of 
her  army  and  very  nearly  the  life  of  Alexander  him- 


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249 


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self.  On  6  Feb.,  1807,  at  Eylau,  the  Russian  troops 
under  Bennigsen,  after  a  bloody  battle  in  which  they 
lost  26,000  men  killed  and  wounded,  were  compelled 
to  retreat.  On  25  April,  1807,  Russia  and  Prussia 
signed  the  convention  of  Bartenstein,  by  which  those 
two  powers  became  allied  against  France;  and  on 
14  June  of  the  same  year  the  decisive  defeat  of 
Bennigsen  at  Friedland  led  Alexander  to  conclude 
with  Napoleon  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  which  was  ratified 
12  Oct.,  1808,  at  Erfurt.  At  peace  with  France, 
Russia  turned  her  arms  against  Turkey,  whose  armies 
were  defeated  at  Batynia  by  Kamenski  (1810),  and 
at  Slobodsia  by  Kutuzoff  (1811).  The  congress  of 
Bukarest  (1812)  insured  to  Russia  the  possession 
of  Bessarabia.  At  the  same  time  Russia  was  at 
war  with  Persia. 

The  Polish  question  and  the  Russian  national 
sentiment,  which  was  excited  to  a  high  degree  against 
the  French,  brought  about  the  great  war  between 
Russia  and  France,  a  war  that  led  to  the  ruin  of  the 
Napoleonic  empire.  The  French  army,  consisting 
of  600,000  men  of  the  various  European  nationalities, 
crossed  the  Russian  frontiers,  entered  Vilna,  and  on 
18  Aug.,  1812,  fought  the  Russians  in  a  bloody  battle 
at  Smolensk.  The  battle  of  Borodino  was  fought  on 
7  Sept.,  and  cost  the  Russians  40,000  men,  while  the 
French  lost  30,000.  On  14  Sept.  Napoleon  entered 
Moscow  to  the  sound  of  the  Marseillaise.  The  city 
was  set  on  fire.  On  the  other  hand  an  exceptionally 
severe  winter  set  in.  After  a  stay  of  thirty-five  daj's 
at  Moscow,  Napoleon  began  the  retreat,  during  which 
he  was  obliged  to  defend  himself,  not  only  against  the 
regular  Russian  troops,  but  also  against  the  Cossacks 
and  the  peasants  in  search  of  bootj'.  Between  26 
and  29  Nov.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Beresina,  near 
Studienka,  40,000  men  of  the  Grand  Army  held 
140,000  Russians  in  check,  and  with  Napoleon 
succeeded  in  making  a  safe  retreat.  On  30  Dec, 
after  Homeric  struggles.  Marshal  Ney  recrossed  the 
Niemen  with  the  remnant  of  the  army.  The  Grand 
Army  of  Napoleon  had  left  330,000  men  killed  and 
wounded  in  Russia.  Russia  had  repelled  the  in- 
vader from  her  soil,  and  on  28  Feb.,  1813,  allied  her- 
self to  Prus.sia  by  the  Treaty  of  Kalish. 

The  military  genius  of  Napoleon  and  his  vic- 
tories were  unable  to  save  his  throne.  On  31  March, 
1814,  Alexander  I  and  the  alHed  armies  entered  Paris. 
The  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815)  placed  the  Kingdom 
of  Poland  again  under  the  sceptre  of  the  Tsars,  and 
withdrew  that  unhappy  nation  from  the  number  of 
the  free  peoples.  Its  autonomy,  however,  remained 
to  it  under  Alexander  I,  who  also  organized  Finland 
as  an  independent  grand  duchy.  That  prince  had 
a  mind  that  was  open  to  Liberal  ideas,  which  found 
a  convinced  promoter  in  the  minister  Speransky 
(1806-12);  but  the  intrigues  of  Speransky's  enemies 
undermined  the  influence  that  he  exercised  with 
Alexander,  and  his  place  was  taken  by  Araktcheyeff, 
a  man  whose  name  in  Russia  is  synonymous  with 
blind  reaction  and  ferocity.  The  reformist  policy 
of  Speransky  ceased,  and  measures  of  the  severest 
intolerance  were  adopted  in  politics,  and  even  in  the 
sciences  and  literature.  Alexander  I  was  becoming 
more  and  more  of  a  mystic,  when  death  overtook 
him  at  Taganrog  on  1  Dec,  1825.  The  popular 
imagination  transformed  him  into  a  legendary  hero, 
into  a  sovereign  who,  to  expiate  his  faults,  adopted  the 
garb  of  a  muzhik,  and  lived  and  died  unknown  among 
his  most  humble  subjects. 

Alexander  was  succeeded  on  24  Dec,  1825,  by 
Nicholas  I,  third  son  of  Paul  I.  The  beginning  of  his 
reign  was  marked  by  a  revolution  that  broke  out  in 
December,  and  brought  to  its  authors  the  name  of 
Dekabristi  or  Decembrists.  The  most  cultured  and 
eminent  men  of  Russia  were  engaged  in  this  con- 
spiracy, among  them  Pestel,  Ryleeff,  Muravieff- 
Apostol,    and    Bestuzheff-Riumin,    who    sought    to 


establish  a  constitutional  regime.  Nicholas  was  most 
severe.  The  Decembrists  ended  their  lives  in 
Siberia  or  on  the  scaffold.  They  are  regarded  as  the 
most  illustrious  martyrs  of  liberty  in  Russia.  In 
his  domestic  policy  Nicholas  I  continued  the  work  of 
his  predecessors  with  regard  to  the  codification  of 
the  Russian  laws.  In  1830  there  appeared  the 
"Complete  Collection  of  Russian  Laws";  in  1838 
the  "Collection  of  Laws  in  Force",  and  in  1845  the 
penal  code.  The  work  of  canal-making  was  con- 
tinued, and  the  first  railways  in  Russia  were  built; 
but  every  literary  or  political  manifestation  of  Liberal 
ideas  found  in  Nicholas  I  a  fierce  and  inexorable 
adversary. 

In  his  foreign  policy  Nicholas  continued  the  war 
with  Persia,  which  by  the  treaty  of  22  Feb.,  1828, 
was  compelled  to  cede  the  Provinces  of  Erivan  and 
Nakhitchevan,  to  pay  a  war  indemnity,  and  to  grant 
commercial  concessions.  The  Russian  fleet,  to- 
gether with  the  French  and  the  English  fleets,  took 
part  in  the  Battle  of  Navarino  (20  Oct.,  1827),  in 
which  the  Turkish  fleet  was  destroyed,  and  by  which 
the  independence  of  Greece  was  established.  Russia 
continued  the  war  against  Turkey  in  1828  and  1829, 
until  the  Treaty  of  Adrianople  (1829)  secured  to 
her  the  gains  which  she  expected  from  her  victories: 
the  acquisition  of  Turkish  territory  and  commercial 
advantages.  After  a  series  of  military  expeditions, 
the  Khan  of  Khiva  finally  became  a  vassal  of  the 
tsar  (1854).  The  Polish  insurrection  of  1830,  which 
was  desired  by  the  people  rather  than  by  the  cul- 
tured and  leading  classes,  put  Poland  and  Lithu- 
ania at  the  mercy  of  fire  and  sword  in  1830  and  1831, 
and  cost  Poland  her  autonomy,  brought  on  her  the 
policy  of  russianization,  and  led  to  the  exile  of  thou- 
sands of  victims  to  Siberia.  Austria  and  Germany 
gave  to  Russia  their  moral  support  in  her  severe  re- 
pression of  the  Polish  revolution,  which  on  the  other 
hand  found  many  sympathizers  in  P>ance.  Nicholas 
I  was  the  most  determined  enemy  of  the  European 
revolution  of  1848.  In  1849  the  Russian  army  sup- 
pressed the  Hungarian  revolution,  and  saved  the 
throne  of  Francis  Joseph.  In  1853  the  question  of 
the  Holy  Places,  the  antagonism  of  France  and  Rus- 
sia in  the  East,  and  the  ambition  of  Nicholas  for  a 
Russian  protectorate  over  all  the  Orthodox  states 
of  the  Balkans  brought  about  the  war  between 
Russia  and  Turkey,  and  in  1854  the  Crimean  War. 
Turkey,  England,  and  France,  and  later  Piedmont 
allied  themselves  against  Russia.  The  allied  fleets 
burned  or  bombarded  the  maritime  strongholds  of 
Russia,  and  in  1854  the  allied  armies  invaded  the 
Crimea,  where  on  20  Sept.  the  battle  of  the  Alma 
opened  to  them  the  way  to  Sebastopol.  The  Rus- 
sians had  prepared  to  make  a  desperate  defence  of 
that  city,  under  one  of  the  most  daring  and  talented 
generals  of  the  Russia  of  our  day,  Todleben.  But 
the  fortunes  of  the  Crimean  campaign  now  ap- 
peared disastrous  for  Russia.  Nicholas  I  was  heart- 
broken by  it,  and  unable  to  withstand  the  blow 
that  it  dealt  to  his  pride,  he  died  of  a  broken  heart 
3  March,  1855,  while  the  star  of  Russian  power  in  the 
East  waned. 

The  first  care  of  his  successor,  Alexander  II  (1855- 
1881),  was  to  bring  the  Crimean  War  to  an  honourable 
termination,  and  to  prevent  the  political  and  eco- 
nomic ruin  of  Russia.  Sebastopol  had  fallen  on  8  Sept., 
1855.  The  war  had  cost  Russia  250,000  men,  and  the 
Government  had  not  funds  to  continue  it.  The  Con- 
gress of  Paris,  on  25  Feb.,  1856,  obliged  Russia  to 
accept  terms  of  peace  by  which  all  the  efforts  and 
sacrifices  of  Peter  I,  Catherine  II,  and  Alexander  I  to 
establish  their  power  at  Constantinople  came  to 
naught.  The  Black  Sea  was  opened  to  all  nations, 
and  Russia  was  refused  the  protectorate  over  Chris- 
tians in  the  East.  Alexander  II  understood  that,  to 
remedy  the  evil  results  of  the  Crimean  War,  it  was 


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250 


RUSSIA 


necessary  to  establish  great  social  reforms,  and  to 
curtail  the  power  and  limit  the  abuses  of  the  bureau- 
cracy. On  19  Feb.,  IStil,  an  imperial  decree  pro- 
claimed the  end  of  the  serfdom  of  the  rural  classes,  and 
restored  to  freedom  2:>,()00,()()()  serfs.  Important  re- 
forms were  introduced  into  tlie  administration  of  jus- 
tice and  that  of  the  provincial  governments;  corporal 
punishment  was  abolished;  the  censorship  of  the 
Press  was  made  less  severe;  foreigners  were  granted 
the  same  privileges  enjoyed  by  Russians,  and  the  priv- 
ileges of  the  universities  that  Nicholas  I  had  abolished 
were  rostored.  By  all  of  which  Alexander  II  acquired 
the  good  will  of  his  people,  who  gave  to  him  the  title 
of  Tsar  Liberator.  Other  reforms  were  intended  to 
mitigate  the  painful  conditions  of  the  Poles,  w;hom  the 
iron  hand  of  Nicholas  I  had  despoiled  of  their  auton- 
omy. But  the  imprudence  of  the  Nationalist  parties 
provoked  the  new  Polish  insurrection  of  1863,  which, 
notwithstanding  the  pacific  remonstrances  of  France, 
Austria,  and  England,  brought  its  deathblow  to  Polish 
free  government,  cost  Poland  thousands  of  victims, 
and  transformed  that  land  into  a  field  open  to  all  the 
abuses  of  russianization.  The  Polish  language  was 
officially  replaced  bj'  the  Russian.  Finland  on  the 
contrary  was  confirmed  in  all  its  privileges  by  Alex- 
ander 11,  who  was  exceptionally  favourable  to  the 
German  nobility  of  the  Baltic  provinces. 

During  the  reign  of  Alexander  II,  Russia  took  an 
active  part  in  the  aflfairs  of  Asia  and  Europe.  The 
Russian  troops  continued  their  slow,  but  persevering, 
invasion  of  Asia.  The  Kirghiz  and  the  Turkonaans 
became  the  vassals  of  Russia;  the  Khanates  of  Kho- 
kand  and  Samarkand  were  annexed  to  Russian  terri- 
tory, while  those  of  Khiva  and  Bokhara  were  declared 
vassals;  the  influence  of  Russia  over  Persia  was  firmly 
established;  the  treaty  of  Tientsin  (1858),  and  that 
of  Peking  (1860),  secured  to  Russia  the  possession  of 
all  the  left  bank  and  of  part  of  the  right  bank  of  the 
Amur;  in  all,  800,000  .sq.  miles.  In  1867  Russia  sold 
her  American  possessions  to  the  United  States.  In 
1875  Japan  ceded  the  island  of  Sakhalin. 

In  Europe,  under  the  guidance  of  the  imperial  chan- 
cellor. Prince  Alexander  Gortchakoff,  Russia  recog- 
nized the  unity  of  Italy,  and  remained  indiflferent  to 
the  aggrandizement  of  Prussia  and  the  crushing  of 
France  in  1870.  On  21  Jan.,  1871,  she  recognized  the 
German  Empire.  As  the  price  of  her  neutrality, 
RiLssia  demanded  the  abrogation  of  the  clause  of  the 
treaty  of  1856  which  hmited  her  military  power  on 
the  Black  Sea.  A  convention  with  Turkey  (18  March, 
1872 j  stipulated  that  Russia  and  Turkey  could  erect 
fortifications  on  the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea,  and 
maintain  fleets  on  its  waters.  The  insurrection  of 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  the  war  of  Servia  and  Mon- 
tenegro agairLst  Turkey  (1876),  the  Bulgarian  mas- 
sacres (1875),  and  the  victory,  and  later  the  defeat,  of 
the  Servian  army  at  Djunis  (1876)  provoked  a  new 
crLsLs  in  the  affairs  of  the  East.  Russia  took  up  arms 
again  in  defence  of  the  Slavs  of  the  Balkans.  In 
April,  1878,  the  Russian  armies  cros.sed  the  Pruth  and 
enterefl  Rumania.  The  war  was  a  bloody  one.  The 
Turki.sh  g(;nerals,  Suleiman  Pa.sha,  Osman  Pasha,  and 
Mukhtar  Pa.sha,  fought  with  great  bravery;  but  the 
tenacity  of  the  Russians,  their  enthusiasm  for  a  war 
that  seemerl  sacred  to  them,  from  the  national  and 
from  the  rcjligious  point  of  view,  and  the  valour  and 
military  geniu-s  of  the  Russian  generals,  especially  of 
Todleben  anrl  SkobelefT,  triumphed.  The  most  im- 
portant ('j>i.sodes  of  th(!  campaign  were  the  repeated 
battles  in  llie  Shii)ka  1'a.ss  (16  Aug. -17  Sept.)  and  the 
taking  of  Plevna  HO  Dec),  when  the  Russians  them- 
selves expre.sK(rd  their  a/lmiration  of  the  heroism  of 
Osman  Pa.sha  and  his  troops.  The  Rumanians,  Ser- 
vians, and  Montx;ne,grinH  fought  beside  the  Russians, 
and  with  equal  valour.  From  victory  to  victory  the 
Russians  marched  with  rapid  strides  along  the  roa/l 
to  Constantinople,  and  established  themselves  at  San 


Stefano.  Russia's  ideal  would  have  been  attained  if 
England  had  not  stood  in  her  way.  On  3  March,  1878, 
the  Russian  ambassador,  Ignafieff,  signcnl  with  the 
Sulilime  Porto  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano,  by  which  the 
Balkan  Statics  wore  organized.  Russia  received  a  war 
indomiiity  of  ;510,000,(K)0  roubles,  the  Armenian  dis- 
tricts of  Batum,  Kars,  Ardahan,  and  Bayazid.and  the 
part  of  Bessarabia  that  was  united  to  the  Danubian 
Principalities  in  1856.  But  the  advantages  that  Russia 
obtained  by  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  were  revoked 
in  great  measure  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (13  July, 
1878).  The  map  of  the  Balkans  was  remodelled  so  as 
to  make  Russia  lose  the  influence  that  she  had  ac- 
quired over  the  Balkan  States  by  her  victories,  while 
she  saw  the  appearance  in  the  East  of  a  dangerous 
competitor,  Austria,  who  had  become  the  protector, 
and  later  the  master,  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina. 
Russia  surrendered  Bayazid,  and  the  course  of  the 
Danube  from  the  Iron  Gates  to  the  Black  Sea  was 
declared  neutral  and  closed  to  ships  of  war. 

The  victories  obtained  over  the  Turks  had  not  been 
sufficient  to  destroy  the  germs  of  revolution  in  Russia, 
fomented  by  the  Nihilists.  Alexander  II  was  prepar- 
ing to  give  a  constitution  to  his  j^eople  when  the 
Nihilist  plot  of  13  March,  1881,  put  a  tragic  end  to  his 
life.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alexander  III 
(1881-94).  The  constitutional  projects  of  Alexander 
II  were  entirely  abandoned;  the  counsellors  of  the 
tsar,  and  especially  Ignatiefi"  and  Katkoff,  bitter 
enemies  of  Liberalism,  induced  the  emperor  to  give 
to  the  principle  of  autocracy  his  strongest  sanction. 
This  reign  was  marked  by  the  terrible  massacres  of  the 
Jews  in  1881  and  1882;  by  the  disorders  of  the  uni- 
versities in  1882  and  1887,  which  led  the  government 
to  subject  the  universities  to  severe  supervision;  by 
the  rigorous  censorship  of  the  Press;  by  the  promulga- 
tion of  a  collection  of  laws  that  were  intended  to  com- 
plete the  work  of  liberation  of  the  serfs  and  to  better 
the  economic  condition  of  the  rural  classes;  and 
lastly,  by  the  great  economic  and  military  develop- 
ment of  Russia.  The  work  of  russianization  was  con- 
tinued with  activity,  even  with  ferocity.  The  Cau- 
casus lost  its  administrative  autonomy;  cruel  and 
inhuman  laws  were  framed  against  the  Poles;  the  Jews 
were  reduced  to  despair  and  hunger;  the  German 
Protestants  of  the  Baltic  provinces  were  treated  like 
the  Poles;  and  the  autonomy  of  Finland  lacked  little 
of  being  destroyed  by  force. 

Alexander  III  continued  with  the  greatest  success 
the  Russian  invasion  of  Asia.  Russian  territory,  not- 
withstanding the  opposition  of  England,  grew  at  the 
expense  of  Afghanistan,  China,  and  Korea;  the  build- 
ing of  the  Trans-Caspian  Railway  opened  to  Ru.ssia 
the  strategic  ways  of  Persia,  Afglianistan,  and  India; 
the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  was  to  (»iidow  liussia  with 
an  open  sea,  and  to  open  a  way  of  communication 
between  Moscow  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  in- 
fluence of  Russia  in  the  Balkans  waned  under  Alex- 
ander III.  The  severity  of  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg 
towards  Prince  Alexander  of  Battenb(Tg,  and  towards 
the  national  sentiment  of  the  Bulgarians,  and  the 
tenacity  with  which  StambulofT  conducted  the  cam- 
paign against  the  Russian  policy  in  his  country, 
greatly  diminished  the  gratitude  and  good  will  of  the 
Bulgarians  towards  Russia.  The  most  important 
event  in  the  foreign  relations  of  Russia  during  the 
reign  of  Alexander  111  was  the  understanding  with 
France.  Russia  at  first  leam^l  towards  Germany; 
but  after  the  German  conventions  with  Austria  (1879 
and  1882)  and  the  formation  f)f  the  Triple  Alliance, 
she  turn(!(l  to  France;  for  Iht  friendly  relations  with 
this  pow(!r  Ru.ssia  had  also  financial  reasons,  because 
she  need(!d  funds  for  the  construction  of  her  railways, 
especially  tlus  Trans-Siberian;  and  as  the  money 
market  of  Jicirlin  had  been  closed  to  Russia  by  Bis- 
marck, th(!  French  had  lent  her,  in  the  years  1887, 
1889,    1890,    and    1891,    more    than    3,000,000,000 


RUSSIA 


251 


RUSSIA 


francs.  In  1891  the  French  fleet,  commanded  by 
Admiral  Gervais,  visited  Kronstadt,  where  the  French 
sailors  were  received  with  an  enthusiastic  welcome. 
In  June,  1893,  a  commercial  treaty  created  more  in- 
timate relations  between  the  two  powers. 

F.  The  Reign  of  Nicholas  II. — The  successor  of 
Alexander  III  is  Nicholas  II,  b.  6  May,  1868,  and 
married  14  Nov.,  189-1,  to  the  daughter  of  Louis  IV, 
Grand  Duke  of  Hesse,  the  Empress  Alexandra  Feodor- 
ovna.  The  reign  of  Nicholas  II  has  been  unfortunate 
for  Russia.  He  was  crowned  at  jMoscow  in  May,  1896, 
in  the  presence  of  delegates  of  nearly  all  the  civihzed 
nations  and  of  a  special  mission  of  the  Holy  See,  at  the 
head  of  which  was  Cardinal  Agliardi;  and  a  few  days 
after  his  coronation,  on  the  occasion  of  a  feast  given 
in  his  honour,  a  thousand  people  were  crushed  to 
death  by  crowding.  In  1898  a  convention  between 
China  and  Russia  placed  Port  Arthur  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  latter  power  for  a  space  of  twenty-five  years, 
granted  the  right  to  connect  that  port  with  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway,  and  secured  to  the  Russians  a  free 
way  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  By  this  convention  Russia 
took  a  preponderant  position  in  the  Far  East,  and  al- 
ready contemplated  the  conquest  of  Korea,  to  the 
detriment  of  Japan.  In  1896  China  had  already 
granted  to  Russia  the  right  of  way  for  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  as  far  as  Mukden. 
The  domestic  policy,  thanks  especially  to  the  inspira- 
tions of  de  Plehve  and  of  Constantini  Pobicdonostseff, 
was  one  of  fierce  repression  and  russianization.  It 
was  intended  to  crush  the  Polish  element  and  to  de- 
prive Finland  of  its  autonomy.  To  carry  out  this 
policy.  General  Bobrikoff  was  appointed  governor  of 
Finland.  He  fell  in  1898  a  victim  of  the  exasperated 
patriotism  of  a  student.  The  Jews  especially  were 
made  objects  of  legal  as  well  as  illegal  persecutions, 
which  led  to  the  ma.ssacrcs  of  Gomel  and  KisliiiietT 
in  190.3.  This  policy  of  russianization  brought  about 
a  renewal  of  the  activities  of  the  terrorists,  who  in  1901 
and  1902  murden-d  the  ministers  of  i)ublic  instruction, 
Bogoliepoff  and  Sipiugin,  and  in  1904  de  Plehve. 

In  1899  at  the  initiative  of  Nicholas  II  the  confer- 
ence of  the  Hague  was  convoked,  to  consider  the  ques- 
tion of  disarmament  and  the  maintenance  of  universal 
peace.  How  commercial  this  initiative  was,  Russia  her- 
self .soon  showed,  for  in  1904  she  broke  off  diplomatic 
negotiations  with  Japan.  The  Japanese  demanded 
that  Russia  should  evacuate  Manchuria  and  give  up 
her  project  of  conquering  Korea.  The  war  was  fought 
with  equal  valour  by  both  combatants  on  land  and  sea; 
but  the  Russians  lost  Port  Arthur,  were  driven  from 
Korea,  and  saw  their  fleet  annihilated  at  Tsushima. 
Russia  could  have  continued  her  disastrous  war,  but 
the  growth  of  the  revolution  at  home  compelled  her 
to  consent  to  the  proposals  of  peace  that  were  made 
by  President  Roo.sevclt  of  the  United  States.  On  16 
Aug.,  1905,  there  was  concluded  at  Portsmouth,  New 
Hampshire,  U.  S.,  a  peace  that  was  ratified  on  1  Oct. 
of  the  same  year.  Meanwhile  Ru.ssia  was  in  the 
throes  of  the  revolution.  In  Jan.,  1905,  the  troops 
fired  upon  thousands  of  workmen  who  were  making 
a  demonstration  and  there  were  several  hundred  vic- 
tims. In  February  the  Grand  Duke  Sergius  was  torn 
to  fragments  by  a  bomb.  A  man-of-war  of  the  Black 
Sea  fleet  mutinied:  a  miUtary  revolt  broke  out  at 
Viborg.  The  tsar,  to  stop  the  revolutionary  flood,  in 
October  granted  a  constitution  by  an  imperial  decree 
in  which  he  proclaimed  Uberty  of  conscience,  of  the 
Press,  and  of  association,  re-established  the  ancient 
privileges  of  Finland,  and  promised  to  alleviate  the 
conditions  of  the  non-Russian  subjects  of  the  em- 
pire. 

On  27  April,  1906,  the  Duma,  which  consisted  in 
great  part  of  Liberal  members,  was  opened.  It  lasted 
two  months.  The  right  of  suffrage  was  limited; 
nevertheless,  the  second  Duma,  which  lasted  a  hundred 
days,  had  a  revolutionist  and  socialist  majority.    The 


government  reformed  the  electoral  laws,  and  in  that 
way  was  able  to  secure  the  election  of  a  Duma  that 
was  more  in  accord  with  its  wishes,  containing  among 
its  members  forty-two  priests  and  two  bishops  of  the 
Orthodo.x  Church.  Notwithstanding  the  proclama- 
tion of  liberty  of  conscience  and  of  the  Press,  there 
was  a  return  to  the  old  policy,  recourse  being  had  to 
the  most  severe  methods  of  repression  to  put  do^Ti 
revolutionary  movements  and  the  ferocious  banditism 
of  Poland  and  the  Caucasus.  Exceptional  laws  against 
the  Poles  and  Finns  were  revived. 

From  1907  to  1911  the  Russian  Government,  though 
constitutional  in  appearance,  has  endeavoured  to 
strengthen  its  autocratic  regime  and  to  render  illusory 
all  its  promises  of  constitutional  hberty.  During  this 
period,  the  reins  of  government  were  in  the  strong 
and  energetic  hands  of  Peter  Arkadevitch  Stoh^jin,  b. 
at  Srednikovo  near  Moscow,  1862,  and  governor  of 
Saratoff  in  1906.  Appointed  to  the  Ministry-  of  the 
Interior  26  April,  1906,  and  premier  on  8  July,  1906, 
he  applied  him.self  with  unshaken  purpose  to  re-estab- 
lish internal  order  in  Russia.  In  the  beginning  he 
seemed  to  be  animated  by  Liberal  sentiments,  but 
pressure  from  the  court  party  and  on  the  other  hand 
the  crimes  of  the  Terrorists  led  him  to  ally  himself  with 
that  faction  of  the  Duma  which  opposed  the  constitu- 
tion as  harmful  to  the  solidarity  of  Russia.  In  inter- 
nal politics  he  .sought  to  limit  the  powers  of  the  Duma, 
to  maintain  in  all  their  vigour  the  laws  against  the 
Jews,  to  crush  the  obstinacy  of  the  Finns  by  trans- 
forming the  Government  of  Viborg  into  a  Russian 
province  and  impeding  in  ever>'  way  the  Diet  of  Hel- 
singfors,  to  sui)press  the  Polish  national  movement  by 
limiting  the  number  of  Polish  deputies  in  the  Zemstva 
of  western  Russia,  and  by  dividing  administratively 
the  Province  of  Chclm  from  the  Kingdom  of  Poland. 
In  foreign  politics  Russia  has  suffered  from  its  defeat 
in  the  war  with  Japan.  The  annexat  ion  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzogovina  came  near  precipitating  a  conflict  be- 
tween Austria  and  Russia,  almost  involving  all  the 
Slavs  of  the  Balkan  states,  but  Austria's  military  su- 
periority, in  addition  to  the  support  of  the  German 
Emperor,  induced  Russian  diplomacy  to  moderate  its 
demands.  In  the  meantime,  Russia  has  been  pre- 
occupied in  reorganizing  its  own  military  and  naval 
forces,  in  efficaciously  directing  colonizations  in  Si- 
beria, in  penetrating  tentatively  into  Persia,  and  in 
agitating  its  own  pohtical  propaganda  in  the  Austrian 
provinces  of  Galicia  and  Bukovina.  The  revolution 
seemed  to  have  been  suppressed  when,  in  Sept.,  1911, 
Stolypin,  in  the  Imperial  Theatre  of  Kieff,  fell  under 
the  dagger  of  a  Jewish  lawyer  called  Bogroff.  He  ex- 
pired exclaiming  that  he  was  always  ready  to  die  for 
the  tsar.  The  tsar  selected  as  his  successor  Kokov- 
tzoff,  an  economist  of  European  fame,  who  entertains 
the  same  political  ideas  as  Stolypin  and  continues  his 
methods  of  government. 

Geography  and  Statistics: — Buhle,  Versuch  einer  krilischen 
Lileratur  iler  russichen  Geschichte  (Moscow,  1810) ;  Russkaja  istori- 
tcheskaja  bibliografija  (Russian  Historical  Bibliography)  (St. 
Petersburg,  1861-72).  77;  Bestuzheff-Riumin,  Quellen  und  LU- 
teratuT  zur  russichen  Geschichte  von  der  dttesten  Zeit  bis  1825  (Mi- 
tau,  1876) ;  Ikonnikoff,  Opyt  russkoi  istoriografii  (Essay  on  Rus- 
sian Historiography),  t.  I  (1-2)  (Kieff,  1891);  t.  II  (1-2)  (Kieff, 
1908),  a  monumental  work,  of  iiicalculablo  bil)liographical  value. 

Heym,  Versuch  einer  vollsin,  ■', , ;.■.;,/'  ,  ,•;, -'..;„, .,..-, j^,;  , .,/,.,  „ 

Encyklopddie  des  russischen  A'      _    :i    1  7   i       \    i  .     i  .  i 

SKIJ,   Dictionnaire  geographic  I:  ,     ,■ 

(2   vob.,   St.   Petersburg,    is:;:;   :     -'    ii-,..ii      /;    • ■,-.    ,,..,- 

graphique  el  statislique  de  Vempirt-  de  Ruxftic  (.5  vols.,  .St.  Peters- 
burg, 1863-1873) ;  Keuck  and  Stackelberg,  Ortsverzeichniss  von 
Russland  (Leipzig,  1903);  Strahlenberg,  Description  historique 
de  I'empire  russien  (2  vols.,  .\msterdam,  1757);  Busching,  Neue 
Beschreibung  des  russischen  Reichs  (Hamburg,  1763);  d'Anville, 
L'empire  de  Russie  (Paris,  1772);  Georgi,  Beschreibung  aller  Na- 
tionen  des  russischen  Reichs  (3  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1776-77); 
SoNNTAG,  Das  russische  Reich  (2  vols.,  Riga,  1791-1792);  Co- 
meiras,  Tableau  general  de  la  Russie  moderne  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1807) ; 
de  Raymond,  Tableau  historique,  geogrnphique,  militaire  et  moral 
de  l'empire  de  Russie  (2  vols.,  Paris,  18i2);  Schaffer,  Beschrei- 
bung des  russischen  Reichs  (Berlin,  1812);  vox  Bromsen,  Russ- 
land und  das  russische  Reich  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1819);  Hassel,  Voll- 
stdndige   und  neuesle  Erdbeschreibung  des  riissischen   Reichs   in 


RUSSIA 


252 


RUSSIA 


Europa  (Weimar,  1821);  Bulgarin,  Russland  in  historischer, 
gtaiistischer,  geographischer  und  liUerarischer  Beziehung  (3  vols., 
Riga,  1839-41);  Possabt,  Das  Kaiserthum  Russland  (Stuttgart, 
1840);  Oldekop,  Geographie  des  russischen  Reichs  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1842) ;  vox  Reden,  Das  Kaiserreich  Russland:  statistisch- 
geschichtliche  Darstellung  (Berlin,  1843) ;  Revnell,  Russia  as  it  is 
(London,  1S54) ;  Le  Dlc,  La  Russie  contemporaine  (Paris,  1854) ; 
VoLTER,  Das  Kaiserthum  Russland  in  Europa,  Asien  und  Amerika 
(Esslingen,  1855) ;  Schxitzler,  L'Empire  des  Tzars  (Paris,  1856) ; 
JorRDiER,  Des  forces  produclires,  destructives  el  improdudives  de  la 
Russie  (Paris,  1860) ;  Bcschex,  Beiolkerung  des  russischen  Kaiser- 
reichs  ((3otha.  1862);  Paclt,  Description  ethnographique  des  peu- 
ples  de  la  Russie  (St.  Petersburg,  1862) ;  Wahl,  The  Land  of  the 
Czar  (London,  1875);  Roskoschxt,  Russland:  Land  und  Leute 
(Leipzig,  2  vols.,  1882-83):  Ptpix,  Istorija  russkoi  etnografii  (St. 
Petersburg,  4  vols.,  1891-1892);  Bigelow,  The  Borderland  of  Czar 
and  Kaiser  (London,  1895);  Kowalewskt,  La  Russie  d  la  fin  du 
XIX  sifcle  (Paris,  1900) ;  Semexoff  axd  Lamaxsky,  Polnoe  geo- 
grafiichcskoe  opisanie  nashego  otestchestra  (Complete  geographical 
description  of  our  country)  (16  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1899-1907); 
KrpczAXKO,  Russland  in  Zahlen  (Leipzig,  1902);  Boxmariage, 
La  Russie  d'Europe:  topographic,  relief,  geologic,  hydrologie,  clima- 
tologie,  regions  naturelles  (Brussels,  1903) ;  Drage,  Russian  Affairs 
(London,  1904);  Schlesixger,  Russland  im  XX.  Jahrhundert 
(Berlin.  190S):  Boustedt,  Das  russische  Reich  in  Europa  und 
Asien  (Berlin,  1910) ;  works  on  the  geography  of  the  Russian  Em- 
pire bv  Jaxsox  (.St.  Peter.sburg,  1878);  by  Voroxeckij  (St.  Pe- 
tersburg, 1905);  Elisieeff  (Moscow,  1905),  Jaxtchix  (Moscow, 
1905),  LiMBERT  (St.  Petersburg,  1906),  Bielokh  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1907),  Baraxoff  (St.  Petersburg,  1907),  Spiridoxoff  (St. 
Petersburg,  1907),  Mattchexko  (Kie£f,  1907),  and  Timkhovskij 
(Moscow,  1908). 

Commerce,  Industrj-,  Agriculture  and  Finance: — Marbatjlt, 
Essai  sur  le  commerce  de  Russie  (Amsterdam,  1777) ;  Freibe,  Ueber 
Russlands  Handel,  Industrie  und  Produkte  (3  vols.,  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1796-98);  Peltchixsky,  De  I'elat  des  forces  industrielles  de 
la  Russie  (St.  Petersburg,  1834) ;  Dede,  Der  Handel  des  russischen 
Reichs  (Mitau,  1844);  SxEixHArs,  Russlands  industrielle  und 
commercielle  Verhaltnisse  (Leipzig,  1852);  Tegoborski,  Etudes 
sur  les  forces  productites  de  la  Russie  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1852-55); 
Aristoff,  Promyshlennost  drevnei  Rusi  (The  commerce  of  An- 
cient Russia)  (St.  Petersburg,  1866);  ^L^.TTHAI,  Der  auswartige 
Handel  Russlands  (St.  Petersburg,  1874);  Idem,  Die  Industrie 
Russlands  in  ihrer  bisherigen  Entwickelung  und  gegenwSrtigen 
Zustande  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1872-73);  Grothe,  Die  Hauptmo- 
mente  der  wirthschaftlichen  Entwickelung  Russlaiids  (Berlin,  1884) ; 
KowALEVSKY,  The  Industries  of  Russia  (5  vols.,  St.  Petersburg, 
185^3);  Tcgax-Baraxowsky,  Geschichte  der  russischen  Fabrik 
(Berlin,  1900) ;  Wittschewsky,  Russlands  Handels,  Zoll  und  In- 
dustriepolilik  von  Peter  dem  Grossen  bis  auf  die  Gegenwart  (Berlin, 
1905);  ZwEiG,  Die  riusische  Handels- Politik  seit  1877  (Leipzig, 
1906);  Laxwick,  L'induslrie  dans  la  Russie  meridionale,  sa  situa- 
tion, son  avenir  (Brussels,  1907);  Sviatlovsku,  Professionalnoe 
dvizhenie  t  Rossii  (Professional  movement  in  Russia)  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1907);  RcBixoFF,  Russia's  Wheat  Trade  (Washington, 
1908);  Idem,  Russian  Wheat  and  Wheat  Flour  in  European  Mar- 
kets (Washington,  1908);  Lovjagix,  Otetchestvoviedienie:  prirod- 
nyja  uslotija,  narodnoe  khozjaistvo,  duhovnaja  kultura  i  gosudar- 
ttzennyi  stroj  rossiiskoi  imperii  (Notes  of  the  fatherland:  natural 
conditions,  national  economy,  intellectual  culture,  and  political 
constitution  of  the  Russian  Empire)  (St.  Petersburg,  1901); 
MoREFF,  Olcherk  kommertcheskoi  geografii  i  khozjaistvennoi  stat- 
ittiki  Rossii  (Essay  on  Russian  commercial  geography  and 
economic  statistics)  (St.  Petersburg,  1907) ;  Soboleff,  Kommer- 
Icheskaja  geografija  Rossii  (Moscow,  1907):  Storch,  Der  Bauern- 
ttand  in  Russland  (St.  Petersburg,  1850) ;  Etudes  sur  la  question  de 
I'abolition  du  servage  en  Rtusie  (Paris,  1859);  von  Haxthausen, 
Die  larulliche  Verfassung  Russlands  (Leipzig,  1866) ;  von  Wurs- 
TEMBERGER,  Die  gcgenwdrtiger  Agrarverhdltnisse  Russlands  (Leip- 
zig. 1873);  vox  Keussler,  Zur  Geschichte  und  Kritik  des  b&uer- 
lichen  Gemeindebesilzes  in  Russland  (2  vols.,  Riga,  1876,  1882-83); 
•Semenoff,  Krestjnne  t  carstroranie  imperatricy  Ekateriny  II  (The 
nea-iants  during  the  reign  of  Catharine  II)  (2  vols.,  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1881,  KKJl-03);  Yermoloff,  Memoire  sur  la  production 
agricoU  de  la  Russie  (St.  Petersburg,  1878);  Semenoff,  Osroboz/i- 
denie  kresljnn  (The  emancipation  of  the  Russian  pea.sants)  (3 
vols..  St.  Petersburg,  1889-1892);  Stepniak,  Der  russische  Bauer 
(Stuttgart,  1893);  Simkhovitch,  Die  Feldgemeinschaft  in  Russ- 
land (Jena.  1898);  KATfuoBOVBKij,  Russkaja  obshshina  (The  Rus- 
sian mir)  (Moscow,  \'MW>);  BnAfDE,  Zur  Agrarbewegung  in  Russ- 
Uind  (I>?ipzig.  1907);  Mahhuoff,  Die  Agrarfrage  in  Russland 
(Stuttgart,  1907);  Ijabhhhenko,  Otcherki  agrarnoj evoljucii Rossii 
(Essays  on  the  agrarian  evolution  of  Russia)  (St.  Petersburg, 
1908);  Meyendorff,  Otcherki  pozemelnago  zakonodatestva  (Essay 
on  the  agrarian  legislation  of  Russia)  (St.  Petersburg,  1909). 

HaGEMEIHTEB,  Rozynkanija  o  finansakh  drernei  Rossii  (Re- 
Bf-archcH  on  the  finanees  f)f  anfient  Russia)  (St.  Petersburg,  1833) ; 
Wou^wnKi,  Les  fninnrei,  de  In  Russie  (Paris,  1804);  Raffaix)- 
viTfH,  Leu  finances  de  Ui  Russie  depuis  la  dernii're  guerre  d'Orient 
(Pari«.  1883):  LECi.F.nrQ,  Les  finances  de  I' empire  de  Russie  (Am- 
sterdam, 1886);  KRf  ger,  Russlands  Finnmlnge  fBerlin,  1887); 
RAFFAl.'>viTrH,  Les  finances  de  la  Russie  1887-1889  (Paris,  1889); 
SkaI.kowhky,  Les  ministres  des  finances  de  la  Russie  (1802-1890) 
(Paris,  1891):  Hokkier,  Les  finances  de  la  Russie  (Paris,  1892); 
Moo".  Die  Finanzen  Rurolands  (Berlin,  1896);  MiotJLlN.  Russkij 
goswlar'trennyi  kredit  (Public  credit  in  Russia)  (3  vols.,  KharUoff, 
1899-1907);  de  Bir)f  h.  /.<■»  finances  de  la  Russie  au  XIX'  siMe 
(2  voU..  Paris.  1899);  floixivix,  RwtsUinds  Finampolitik  und  die 
Aufgaben  der  Zukunft  (Leipzig,  1900);  Davidhon,  Die  Finanz- 
virtsehafl  Russlands  dycipzig,  1902);  Fbiedmann,  Die  russischen 
Finanzen  (Berlin,  1906). 

Army  and  Navy: — von  Pi>otho,  Ueber  die  ErUslehung,  die  Port- 


schritle  und  die  gegenwSrtige  Verfassung  der  russischen  Armee  (Ber- 
lin, 1811);  Tanski,  Tableau  statistique,  politique  el  moral  du  sys- 
time  militaire  de  la  Russie  (Paris,  1833) ;  von  Haxthausen,  Die 
Kriegsmacht  Russlands  in  ihrer  historischen,  statislischen,  ethno- 
graphischen  und  politischen  Beziehung  (Berlin,  1852) ;  Fr.  tr.  (Berlin, 
1853);  Brix,  Geschichte  der  alien  russischen  Heereseinrichtungen 
(Berlin,  1867);  von  Sarauw,  Die  russische  Heeresmacht  (Leip- 
zig, 1875);  Weil,  Les  forces  militaires  de  la  Russie  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1880) ;  vox  Drygalski,  Die  russische  Armee  in  Kreig  und  Frieden 
(Berlin,  1882) ;  vox  Stein,  Geschichte  des  russischen  Heeres  (Han- 
over, 1885) ;  Drygalski,  Beitrage  zur  Orientierung  iiber  die  Ent- 
wicklungsgeschichte  der  russischen  Armee  von  ihren  Anfdngen  bis 
auf  die  neueste  Zeit  (Berlin,  1892) ;  Idem,  Russland,  Das  Heer  (Ber- 
lin, 1898);  MouRix,  Essai  historique  sur  I'armee  russe  (Paris, 
1899);  Drygalski,  Die  Organisation  der  russischen  Armee  (Leip- 
zig, 1902);  Clarke,  Russia's  Sea  Power,  Past  and  Present;  or,  the 
Rise  of  the  Russian  Navy  (London,  1898) ;  Bridge,  History  of  the 
Russian  Fleet  During  the  Reign  of  Peter  the  Great  (London,  1899); 
Jaxe,  The  Imperial  Russian  Navy,  Its  Past,  Present,  and  Future 
(London,  1899);  Ogorodnikoff,  Istoritcheskij  obzor  razvitjia  i 
diejateVnosti  morskogo  Tni7iisterstva,  za  sto  liet  ego  sushshestvovanja 
{1802-1902)  (An  historical  essay  on  the  progress  and  work  of 
the  ministry  of  the  Russian  navy  during  the  first  century  of  its 
existence)  (St.  Petersburg,  1902) ;  Klado,  Die  russische  Seemacht 
(Berlin,  1905). 

Customs,  and  Morality  in  Russia: — Michalo,  De  moribus  Tar- 
tarorum,  Lithuanorum  et  Moschorum  (Basle,  1615);  I.  C.  M.  D., 
The  ancient  and  present  state  of  Muscowy  (London,  1698);  Alga- 
ROTTi,  Saggio  di  letlere  sopra  la  Russia  (Paris,  1763);  Meixers, 
Vergleichung  des  dltern,  und  neuern  Russlands  (2  vols.,  Leipzig, 
1798);  de  Rechberg,  Les  peuples  de  la  Russie  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1812-13);  Russland,  oder  Sitten  der  Bewohner  der  sSmmtlichen 
Provinzen  dieses  Reichs  (Schweidnitz,  1828);  Dupr£  de  St. 
Maure,  Observations  sur  les  mceurs  et  les  usages  russes  (3  vols., 
Paris,  1829);  Ger.  tr.  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1830);  Russlands  inneres 
Leben  (3  vols.,  Brunswick,  1846);  Tcrgenieff,  La  Russie  el  les 
Russes  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1847) ;  von  Haxthausen,  Etudes  sur  la  situ- 
tion  interieure,  la  vie  nationale,  et  les  institutions  rurales  de  la 
Russie  (Hanover,  1847-48;  3  vols.,  Berlin,  1853):  Dolqorodkoff 
La  verite  sur  la  Russie  (Paris,  1860);  Lestreli.n,  Les  paysans 
russes,  leurs  usages,  moBurs,  caractere  (Paris,  1861);  Grenville- 
Murray,  The  Russians  of  To-Day  (Leipzig,  1878);  Leroy-Beau- 
LiEU,  V empire  des  Tzars  et  les  Russes  (3  vols.,  Paris.  1881,  1882, 
1889) ;  Ger.  tr.  (Berlin,  1884-90) ;  Kovalevsky,  Modern  Customs 
and  Ancient  Laws  of  Russia  (London,  1891);  Hehn,  De  moribus 
Ruthenorum  (Stuttgart,  1892);  Brandes,  Charakterbilder  aus  Le- 
ben, Politik,  Sitten  Russlands  (Leipzig,  1896);  von  Bruggen,  Das 
heutige  Russland  (Leipzig,  1902);  Poixsard,  La  Russie:  le  peuple 
et  le  gouvernement  (Paris,  1904) ;  Anfiteatroff,  Die  Frau  in  den 
gesellschafllichen  Kreisen  Russlands  (Geneva,  1905);  Stern, 
Geschichte  der  offentlichen  Sittlichkeit  in  Russland  (2  vols.,  Berlin, 
1908);  Haumaxt,  La  culture  f ran (aise  en  Russie  (Paris,  1910); 
Schlesixger,  Land  und  Leute  in  Russland  (Berlin,  1909). 

Form  of  Government  and  Political  Institutions: — de  Mun- 
NlCH,  Ebauche  pour  donner  une  idee  de  la  forme  du  gouvernement  de 
Vempire  de  Russie  (Copenhagen,  1774) ;  Purgold,  De  diversis  im- 
perii rossici  ordinibus  eorumque  juribus  atque  obligations  bus  (Halle, 
1786);  HuPEL,  Versuch  die  Staatsverfassung  des  russischen  Reichs 
darzustellen  (2  vols.,  Riga,  1791-93);  Peltschinski,  Systeme  de 
legislation,  d' administration,  et  de  politique  de  la  Russie  en  1844 
(Paris,  1845) ;  Walcker,  Die  gegenwdrtige  Lage  Russlands  (Leip- 
zig, 1873) ;  Kovalewsky,  Le  regime  economique  de  la  Russie 
(Paris,  1898) ;  Korf,  Istorija  rtisskoi  gosudarstvennosti  (History  of 
the  form  of  government  in  Russia)  (St.  Petersburg,  1908) ; 
MuKHANOFF  AND  Nabokoff,  Pcrvaja  gosudarslvennaja  duma  (The 
first  Imperal  Duma)  (3  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1907);  Salkind. 
Die  russische  Reichsduma,  ihre  Geschdftsordnung  mil  den  Ges- 
ch&ftsordnungen  anderer  Volksvertretungen  (Vienna,  1909);  Chas- 
LE8,  Le  Parlement  russe:  son  organisation,  ses  rapports  avec  I'em- 
pereur  (Paris,  1910). 

General  Political  History  of  Russia;  Collections  of  Documents; 
Chronicles  and  Manuals  of  General  History;  Ancient  History; 
Monographs: — Rerum  moscovitarum  auctores  varii:  unum  in  cor- 
pus nunc  primum  congesti  (Frankfort,  1600);  Schetelio,  Rerum 
russicarumscriptores aliquot  (HamhuTg,  1768);  Wichmann,  Samm- 
lung  bisher  ung'edruckter  kleiner  Schriflen  zur  dlteren  Geschichte  itnd 
Kenntniss  des  russischen  Reichs  (Berlin,  1820) ;  Starczewski,  His- 
tori<t  ruthenici  scriptores  eiteri  saculi  XVI  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1841- 
42);  TuROENlEFF,  Historica  Russia:  monumenta  (Scripta  varia  e 
secreto  archivo  Vaticano)  (St.  Petersburg,  1842);  Theiner,  Monu- 
ments historiques  relatifs  aux  regnrs  d' Alexis  Mikhailovitch,  Ffodor 
III  el  Pierre  le  Grand  (Rome,  1859);  Bodenstadt,  Beitrdge  zur 
Kenntniss  des  Slaats-  und  Volkslebens  in  seiner  historischen  Ent- 
wickelung (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1802);  Documents  servant  a  ^claircir 
I'histoire  des  provinces  orientales  de  la  Russie  et  de  la  Pologne  (St. 
Petersburg,  1865) ;  Menaoios,  Repertoire  des  traitfs,  conventions  et 
aulres  acles  principaux  de  la  Russie  avec  les  puissances  Hrangh-es 
depuis  1474  jusqu'inos  jours  (Paris,  1874);  Martens,  Recueil  des 
Traitls  el  conventions  conclus  par  la  Russie  avec  les  puissances 
Hranghes  (15  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1874-1909);  the  numerous 
publications  of  the  Imperial  Historical  Society  and  of  the 
ARCHEOGBAPnic  COMMISSION  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  tchtenja 
(lectures)  of  the  Socikty  of  Russian  History  and  Antiquities 
of  Moscow;  Reutenfels,  De  rebus  moschoviticis  ad  magnum 
Etruriir  ducem  Cosmum  terlium  (Padua,  1680);  Lacomde,  Ihs- 
toire  des  revolutions  de  Vempire  de  Russie  (Amsterdam,  1700) ;  Ger. 
tr  (Leipzig,  1761);  contmued  by  .Joacitim  (Halle,  1764);  Lo- 
MOVOSOFF,  Hisloire  de  la  Rus.ne  depuis  I'originede  la  nation 
jusqu'a  la  mart  du  grand-due  Jnroslaw  I  (2  vols..  Pans,  1769); 
Schmidt,  Versuch  einer  neuen  Einleitung  in  die  russische  Ge- 
schichte (2  vols.,  Riga,  177.3-74) :  Wagner.  Geschichtedes russischen 
Retches  von  den  dltesten  bis  auf  die  neueslen  Zeiten  (6  vols..  Ham- 


RUSSIA 


253 


RUSSIA 


burg,  1810);  Shbherbatoff,  Russische  Geschichte  von  den  dltes- 
ten  Zeiten  (2  vols.,  Danzig,  1779);  Levesque,  Histoire  de  Russie 
(5  vols.,  Paris,  1782);  hs  Clkrc,  Histoire  physique,  morale,  civile, 
et  politique  de  la  Russie  ancienne  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1783-84);  Mer- 
KEL,  Geschichte  des  russischen  Reichs  (3  vols.,  Leipzig,  1795) ;  Le- 
8UK,  Des  progres  de  la  puissance  russe  depuis  son  origine  jusqu'au 
commencement  du  XIX  siecle  (Paris,  1812) ;  Ewers,  Geschichte  der 
Russen  (Dorpat,  1816);  K.^ramsin,  Histoire  de  I'empire  russe 
(11  vols.,  Paris,  1819-26;  10  vols.,  Riga,  1820-33;  12  vols.,  .Ath- 
ens, 1856-59) ;  Wickmann,  Chronologische  Uebersicht  de  russi- 
schen Geschichte  von  der  Geburt  Peters  des  Grossen  bis  auf  die  neu- 
eslen  Zeiten  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1821-25);  de  S^gctr,  Histoire  de  la 
Russie  et  de  Pierre  le  Grand  (Paris,  1829) ;  Strahl,  Geschichte  des 
russischen  Staates  (2  vols.,  Hamburg,  1832-39);  Herr.ma.n.n-, 
Geschichte  des  russischen  Staates  (4  vols.,  Hamburg,  1846-49); 
Ustrialofp,  Die  Geschichte .Russlands  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1840- 
43);  DE  Caulaincourt,  Das  russische  Reich  (Leipzig,  1854);  His- 
toire pittoresque,  dramatique,  et  caricaturale  de  la  Sainte-Russie 
(Paris,  1854) ;  de  Gerebtzoff,  Essai  sur  I'histoire  de  la  civilisa- 
tion en  Russie  (Paris,  1858);  Kostomaroff,  Russische  Geschichte 
in  Biographien  (Leipzig,  1888);  Kleinschmidt,  Russlands  Ge- 
schichte und  Politik  dargestellt  in  der  Geschichte  des  russischen  hohen 
Adds  (Cassel,  1877) ;  Rambaud,  Histoire  de  la  Russie  (Paris,  1884, 
1900);  Ger.  tr.  (Berlin,  1886);  von  Golowin,  Die  geschichtliche 
Entwickelung  des  russischen  Volkes  (Leipzig,  1887);  Bruck.xer, 
Geschichte  Russlands  bis  zum  Ende  des  XVIII.  Jahrhunderls 
(Gotiia,  1896) ;  Kleinschmidt,  Drei  Jahrhunderte  russischer  Ge- 
schichte (Berlin,  1898);  Munro,  The  Rise  of  the  Russian  Empire 
(London,  1899);  Morfill,  A  History  of  Russia  from  the  Birth  of 
Peter  the  Great  to  the  Death  of  Alexander  II  (London,  1902); 
Skrine,  The  Expansion  of  Russia  (Cambridge,  1903);  Waliszew- 
8KI,  Les  origines  de  la  Russie  moderne  (Paris,  1904);  Pantenics, 
Geschichte  Russlands  von  der  Entstehung  des  russischen  Reiches  bis 
zur  Gegenwarl  (Leipzig,  1908);  Fr.\hn  Ibn-Foszlan's  und  anderer 
Araber  Berichte  uber  die  Russen  alterer  Zeit  (St.  Petersburg,  1823); 
ScHOLZER,  Russiche  Annalen  in  ihrer  slavonischen  Grundsprache 
(3  vols.,  Gottingen,  1802-09);  the  Chronicle  of  Nestor  has  been 
translated  into  French  also,  by  Louis  Paris  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1834- 
35),  and  by  L^ger  (Paris,  1884);  and  into  Latin  by  Miklosich 
(Vienna,  1860);  Schoettgenius,  De  originibus  russicis  disserta- 
tiones  (Leipzig,  1731) ;  Potocki,  Histoire  primitive  des  peuples  de  la 
Russie  (St.  Petersburg,  1802);  Lehrbero,  Untersuchungen  zur 
Erlduterung  der  dlteren  Geschichte  Russlands  (St.  Petersburg, 
1816) ;  Ewers,  Sludien  zur  grundlichen  Ketintniss  der  Vorzeit  Russ- 
lands (Dorpat,  1830) ;  Schloezer,  Les  premiers  habitants  de  la 
Russie  (Paris,  1846) ;  Krug,  Forschungen  in  der  dlteren  Geschichte 
Russlands  (2  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1848) ;  Tho.mson,  The  Origin  of 
the  Russian  State  (Oxford,  1877) ;  Zabielix,  Istorija  russkoi  zhizni 
s  drevnieishikh  vremen  (History  of  Russian  Life  from  the  Re- 
motest Times)  (Moscow,  1908). 

On  the  Varangians: — Helsingius,  De  Varegis  (Upsala,  1734); 
Bioerner,  Schediasma  historico-geographicum  de  Varegis,  heroi- 
bus  scandianis  et  primis  Russue  dynastis  (Stockholm,  1743); 
Krahmer,  Die  Urheimath  der  Russen  in  Europa  (Moscow,  1862); 
Gedeongs,   Varjagi  i  Rus  (2  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1876). 

Invasions  of  the  Tatars: — -Ha.mmer-Purostall,  Geschichte  der 
goldenen  Horde,  das  ist,  der  Mongolen  in  Russland  (2  vols.,  Buda- 
pest, 1840) ;  Exemplarskij,  Les  grands-princes  de  la  Russie  sep- 
tentrionale  durant  la  periode  tatare  depuis  1238  jusqu'd  1505  (2 
vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1889),  in  Russian. 

Monographs: — Gonsiorovskij,  Boleslav  Jurij  II,  knjaz  vsej 
Maloj  Rusi  (Boleslaw  George  \l.  Prince  of  all  Little  Russia)  (St. 
Petersburg,  1907) ;  Nowakowski,  De  Demetrio  I,  Magnce  Russice 
duce,  Ivani  fdio  (Berlin,  1839);  Piebling,  La  Russie  et  iOrient: 
mariage  d'un  tzar  au  Vatican:  Ivan  III  et  Sophie  PaUologue 
(Paris,  1891);  Oderbornius,  Johannis  Basilidis  Magni  Moscovie 
duds  vita  (Wittenberg,  1585);  Waliszewski,  Ivan  le  Terrible 
(Paris,  1904);  Idem,  La  crise  revolutionnaire  (Paris,  1906);  La  le- 
gende  de  la  vie  et  de  la  mort  de  Demetrius  I'imposteur  (.Vmsterdam, 
1606;  Moscow,  1839);  Ciampi,  Esame  critico  dei  documenti  inediti 
delta  storia  di  Demetrio  di  Ivan  Vasiljevitch  (Florence,  1827) ; 
M^rim^e,  Les  faux  Dimitrius  (Paris,  1853);  Lorentz,  Der 
falsche  Demetrius  (Berlin,  1862);  Hirschberg,  Dymitr  Samoz- 
waniec  (Lemberg,  1898);  Pantenius,  Der  falsche  Demetrius 
(Bielefeld,  1904);  Suvorin,  O  Dimitrii  Samozvancie  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1906);  Hirschberg,  Marina  MHiszchowna  (Lemberg, 
1906);  SoKOLOFF,  Rossija  pod  skiptrom  doma  Romanovykh  (Rus- 
sia under  the  Sceptre  of  the  House  of  Romanoff)  (.St.  Peters- 
burg, 1891);  Bain,  The  First  Romanoffs:  a  History  of  Muscovite 
Civilization  and  the  Rise  of  Modern  Russia  under  Peter  the  Great 
(London,  1905);  Waliszewski,  Le  berceau  d'une  dynastie:  les 
premiers  Romanov  (Paris,  1909) ;  Berck,  Carstvovanie  Carja 
Mikhaila  Romanova  (The  reign  of  Michael  Romanoff)  (2  vols.,  St. 
Petersburg,  1832);  Idem,  Carstvovanie  Carja  Aleksieja  Mikhailo- 
vitch  (St.  Petersburg,  1830);  Galitzin,  La  Russie  du  XVII  siecle 
dans  ses  rapports  avec  V Europe  occidentale  (Paris,  1855);  Idem,  La 
rebellion  de  Stenko-Razin  contre  le  grand  due  de  Moscovie  (Paris, 
1856);  Shshebalskij.  La  regence  de  la  tzarine  Sophie  (Karlsruhe, 
1857);  Nestesuranoi  (Jean  Rousset),  Memoires  du  regne  de 
Pierre  le  Grand,  empereur  de  Russie  (4  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1725-26); 
The  History  of  the  Life  of  Peter  the  Great,  Emperor  of  All  Russia 
(London,  1740) ;  de  Mauvillon,  Histoire  de  Pierre  I"-  surnommt 
le  Grand  (Amsterdam,  1742);  C.\tiforo,  Vita  de  Pietro  il  Grande 
imperatore  delta  Russia  (Venice,  1748);  Gordon,  The  History  of 
Peter  the  Great  (2  vols.,  Aberdeen,  1755);  Voltaire,  Histoire  de 
Russie  sous  Pierre  le  Grand  (1759);  Claudius,  Peter  der  Grosse 
(Leipzig,  1805) ;  Beromann,  Peter  der  Grosse  als  Mensch  und  Re- 
gent (6  vols.,  Konigsberg,  Riga,  Mitau,  1823-29);  Pelz,  Ge- 
schichte Peters  des  Grossen  (Leipzig,  1848) ;  de  Villebois,  Memoires 
secrets  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  de  la  cour  de  Russie  sous  les  rignes 


de  Pierre  le  Grand  et  de  Catherine  I"-'  (Paris,  1853);  Ustrjaloff, 
Istorija  carstvovanija  Petra  Velikago  (History  of  the  reign  of 
Peter  the  Great)  (3  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1858);  Golovin,  His- 
toire de  Pierre  appele  le  Grand  (Leipzig,  1861);  Brcck.ner,  Peter 
der  Grosse  (Berlin,  1879) ;  Schutler,  Peter  the  Great,  Emperor  of 
Russia  (2  vols.,  London,  1884);  Waliszewski,  Pierre  le  Grand, 
I'iducation,  Ihomme,  I'aeuvre  (Paris,  1897) ;  Tchistjakoff,  Is- 
torija Vetra  Pelikago  (History  of  Peter  the  Great)  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1903) ;  Knjazhkoff,  Otcherki  iz  istorii  Petra  Velikago  i  ego 
vremeni  (Essays  on  the  History  of  Peter  the  Great  and  on  his 
Times)  (Moscow,  1909);  Rousset,  Mtmoires  du  regne  de  Cath- 
erine, impiratrice  de  toute  la  Russie  (Amsterdam,  1728) ;  Mott- 
ley.  The  History  of  the  Life  and  Reign  of  the  Empress  Catharine 
(2  vols.,  London,  1744);  Waliszewski,  L' Heritage  de  Pierre  le 
Grand  {1725-1741)  (Paris,  1900);  Barthold,  Anna  Johannovna 
(Leipzig,  1836) ;  de  SIau\'illon,  Histoire  de  la  vie,  du  rvgne,  et  du 
ditronement  d'lvan  III,  empereur  de  Russie  (London,  1766); 
Bain,  The  Daughter  of  Peter  the  Great  (Westminster,  1899); 
Waliszewski,  La  derniere  des  Romanov,  Elizabeth  I'"  impira- 
trice  de  Russie  (Paris,  1902);  Molloy,  The  Russian  Court  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century  (2  vols.,  London,  1905);  Laveaux,  Histoire  de 
Pierre  III  empereur  de  Russie  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1799);  DE  Saldern, 
Histoire  de  la  vie  de  Pierre  III,  empereur  de  toutes  les  Russies 
(Frankfort,  1802);  Schumacher,  Geschichte  der  Thronensetzung 
und  des  Todes  Peter  des  Dritten  (Hamburg,  1858) ;  Bain,  Peter  III, 
Emperor  of  Russia  (Westminster,  1902) ;  Castera,  Vie  de  Cathe- 
rine Ilimperatice  de  Russie  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1797) ;  tr.  (3  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1798);  Tooke,  The  Life  of  Katherine  II,  Empress  of  Russia 
(3  vols.,  London,  1800);  Fr.  tr.  (Paris.  1801);  Bruckner,  Kathe- 
rine die  Zweite  (Berlin,  1883);  Bilbasoff,  Istorija  Ekateriny  vtoroi 
(History  of  Catharine  II)  (2  vols.,  St.  Petersburg  and  London, 
1890,  1895);  Ger.  tr.  (4  vols.,  Berlin,  1891-93);  Waliszewski,  Le 
roman  d'une  imperatrice:  Catherine  II  de  Russie  (Paris,  1893); 
Idem,  Autour  d'un  trdne:  Catherine  1 1  de  Russie  (Paris,  1894);  db 
Larivi£re,  Catherine  la  Grande  d'apris  sa  correspondance  (Paris, 
1895);  Schilder,  Imp.  Pavel  pervyi  (The  Emperor  Paul  I)  (St. 
Petersburg,  1901);  Golovkine,  La  cour  et  le  regne  de  Paul  I"" 
(Paris,  1905) ;  Morane,  Paul  I"  de  Russie  (Paris,  1907) ;  Rappo- 
PORT,  The  Course  of  the  Romanovs  (London,  1907) ;  Rabbe,  His- 
toire d'  .Alexandre  I"',  empereur  de  toutes  les  Russies  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1826);  ScHNiTZLER,  Histoire  intime  de  la  Russie  sous  Alexandre  et 
Nicholas  /<"•  (Paris,  1847);  Joyneville,  Life  and  Times  of  Alex- 
ander I,  Emperor  of  All  the  Russias  (3  vols.,  London,  1875); 
Schilder,  Imperator  Aleksandr  Pervyj  ego  zhizn  i  carstvovani 
(The  Emperor  Alexander  I,  His  Life  and  his  Reign)  (4  vols.,  St., 
Petersburg,  1897-98);  Schiemann,  Kaiser  Alexander  I  und  die 
Ergebnisse  seiner  Lebensarbeit  (Berlin,  1904) ;  Golovine,  La  Rus- 
sie sous  Nicholas  I"-  (Leipzig,  1845) ;  Lacroix,  Histoire  de  la  vie 
et  du  regne  de  Nicolas  I",  empereur  de  Russie  (Paris,  1864) ; 
Schilder.  Imperator  Nikolaj pervyi,  ego zhiznicarstvovanie{2vo\s., 
St.  Petersburg,  1903);  Golovin,  Russland  unter  Alexander  II 
(Leipzig,  1870) ;  Kosma,  La  Russie  et  I'eeuvre  d' Alexandre  II 
(Paris,  1882);  Joyneville,  Life  of  Alexander  II,  Emperor  of  All 
the  Russias  (London,  1883);  Tatishsheff,  Imp.  Alexander  II,  ego 
zhizn  i  carstvovanie  (2  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1903) ;  Samson,  Russ- 
land unter  Alexander  III  (Leipzig,  1891);  Flourens,  Alexandre 
III,  sa  vie,  son  oeuvre  (Paris,  1894) ;  Notovitch,  V empereur  Nico- 
las II  et  la  politique  russe  (Paris,  1895) ;  Leudet,  Nicolas  II  intime 
(Paris,  1898) ;  Prince  U.,  Leben  und  Thaten  Nikolaus  II  (Berlin, 
1910);  L<)FFLER,  Der  russisch-japanische  Krieq  (Leipzig,  1907); 
Trapa.ni,  La  guerra  russo-giapponese  (Rome,  1908);  Boujac,  La 
guerre  russo-japnnaise  (Rome,  1908);  Culman.n,  Etude  sur  les 
caracteres  ginfraux  de  la  guerre  en  Extreme-Orient  (Paris,  1909); 
From  the  literary  point  of  view,  the  best  history  of  Russia  in  the 
Russian  language  is  the  Istorija  gosudarstva  rossiiskago  (12  vols., 
St.  Petersburg,  1897) ;  from  the  standpoint  of  biography  the  best 
is  that  of  Kostomaroff,  Russkaja  istorija  v  jizneopisanijakh  eja 
glavniejshikh  diejcUelej(2  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1903-07) ;  but  for  the 
wealth  of  its  documentation  and  for  the  interest  of  its  recital,  none 
is  as  good  as  the  Istorija  Rossii  s  drevniejshikh  vremen  (History  of 
Russia  Since  the  Remotest  Ages)  (2nd  ed.,  29  vols.,  St.  Peters- 
burg) ;  unfortunately  it  is  brought  down  only  to  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century. 

The  Religion  of  Russia. — A.  The  Origin  of  Rus- 
sian Christianity. — There  are  two  theories  in  regard 
to  the  early  Christianity  of  Russia;  according  to  one 
of  them,  Russia  was  Cathohc  from  the  times  when 
she  embraced  Christianity  until  the  twelfth  century; 
the  other  holds  that  Russia  was  always  Orthodox,  i.  e., 
an  adherent  of  the  Greek  schism,  from  the  time  when 
Christian  missionaries  first  crossed  her  frontiers. 
The  first  of  these  theories  is  held  by  Catholics,  whose 
arguments  were  condensed  and  developed  by  Viz- 
zardelli  ("Dissertatio  de  origine  Christiana;  religionis 
in  Russia",  Rome,  1S26),  and,  more  amply.^by  Father 
Verdiere,  S.J.  ("Origines  catholiques  de  i'Egliso russe 
jusqu'au  Xlle  siecle",  Paris,  1S.5G).  Russian  Ortho- 
dox writers  unanimously  reject  the  conclusions  that 
Verdiere  demonstrated  in  the  form  of  theses,  which, 
to  us,  appear  to  be  without  solid  foundations.  The 
history  of  Russian  Christianity  dates  from  the  ninth 
century;  by  which  it  is  not  implied  that  Christianity 
was  entirely  unknown  to  the  Russians  before  that 


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period,  for  the  merchants  of  Kieff  were  in  frequent 
communication  with  Constantinople:  one  of  the 
quarters  of  the  flourishing  metropolis,  St.  Mamante, 
was  inhabited  by  them,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that 
there  were  Clu-istians  among  them.  On  the  other 
hand,  some  nucleus  of  Christianity  must  have  existed 
at  Kieff  before  Photius,  as  he  himself  relates  in  his 
encyclical  letter  to  the  Patriarchs  of  the  East,  sent  a 
bishop  and  missionaries  to  that  city.  On  account  of 
this  action,  Photius  is  considered  to  have  introduced 
Christianity  into  Russia.  His  testimony  is  repudiated 
by  Catholic  writers,  who  claim  for  St.  Ignatius  the 
giory  and  the  initiative  of  this  evangelical  mission  to 
Russia.  There  are  no  valid  arguments,  however,  to 
throw  doubt  upon  the  authenticity  of  the  information 
that  has  been  handed  down  by  Photius,  as  is  proved 
in  the  present  wTiter's  work  "La  conversione  dei  Russi 
al  cri.stianesimo,  e  la  testimonianza  di  Fozio",  in 
"Studii  religiosi",  t.  I,  1901,  pp.  133-61. 

According  to  the  national  chronicler  Nestor,  many 
Russians  were  Christians  in  94.5,  and  had  at  Kieff 
the  Church  of  St.  Elias  ("La  chronique  de  Nestor", 
t.  I,  Paris,  1834,  p.  6.5).  In  9.5.5  Olga,  widow  of  Igor, 
went  to  Constantinople,  where  she  was  baptized  by 
the  Patriarch  Poliutus  (9.56-70),  and,  loaded  with  rich 
gifts  that  she  received  from  Constantine  Porphyro- 
genitus  (912-59),  she  returned  to  Kieff,  and  devoted 
herself  to  the  conversion  of  her  fellow-countrymen. 
The  schism  between  the  Churches  of  the  East  and  of 
the  West  wa.s  not  yet  accomplished;  and  therefore 
Olga,  who  received  in  baptism  the  name  of  Helen,  is 
venerated  as  a  saint  also  by  the  United  Ruthenians. 
Western  chroniclers  relate  that  Olga  sent  an  embassy 
to  the  Emperor  Otto  I,  to  ask  for  Latin  missionaries, 
and  that  Otto  charged  Adaldag,  Bishop  of  Bremen, 
to  satisfy  that  request.  Adaldag  consecrated  as 
bishop  of  the  Russians  Libutius,  a  monk  of  the  Con- 
vent of  St.  Albano,  who  died  before  entering  Russia. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Adalbertus,  a  monk  of  the  con- 
vent of  St.  Maximinus,  at  Trier.  The  Russians,  how- 
ever, received  the  Latin  bishop  badly,  killed  several 
of  his  companions,  and  constrained  him  to  return  to 
Germany.  It  may  be  observed  that  Assemani  and 
Karamzin  do  not  admit  that  Latin  missionaries  came 
to  Rassia  with  Adalbertus. 

The  efforts  of  Olga  to  convert  her  son  Sviatoslaff  to 
Christianity  were  urusucce.ssful.  Vladimir,  son  of 
Sviatoslaff,  has  the  glory  of  having  established  Chris- 
tianity as  the  official  State  religion  in  Ru.ssia.  Accord- 
ing to  the  legend,  Vladimir  received  Mohammedan, 
Latin,  and  Greek  legates,  who  urged  him  to  adopt 
their  respective  religions.  The  Greeks  finally  tri- 
umphed. Vladimir  marched  with  an  army  towards 
the  Taurida,  and  in  998  took  Kherson;  then  he  sent 
ambassadors  to  the  Emperors  Busilius  and  Constan- 
tine, asking  for  the  hand  of  their  sister  Anna,  which 
he  obtained  on  condition  that  he  would  become  a  Chris- 
tian. He  wa.s  baptized  by  the  Bishop  of  Kherson, 
who,  according  U)  Russian  chroniclers,  made  Vladimir 
read  a  profession  of  faith  that  was  hostile  to  the 
"corrupt"  doctrine  of  the  Latins.  Thereafter,  taking 
with  him  the  relics  of  Pope  St.  Clement  and  of  that 
pop(;'s  disciple,  Phebus,  m  well  as  sacred  vessels  and 
irnages,  Vlaflimir  returned  to  Kieff,  accorripanied  by 
his  con.sfjrt,  anfl  by  mma  Greek  missionaries.  Once 
there  he  caused  the  idol  of  Perun  to  be  thrown  into 
the  Dnieper,  and  on  the  site  that  it  occupied  built  a 
Christian  church,  u.\m  commanding  that  all  his  sub- 
jects, without  distinction  of  age,  shoiild  be  baptized. 
The  inhabitant^  of  Kieff  yielded  before  his  threats; 
but  those  of  NovgorfKl  resisted  and  suffenul  severe 
treatment.  'J'h<;  Kussians  were  baptizerl,  but  they 
did  not  receive  Christian  instruction  and  education; 
the  ancient  beliefs  and  habits  f)f  Paganism  endured, 
and  survived  for  many  centuries;  consequently  the 
moral  influence  of  Christianity  was  not  efficiently 
exercised  upon  the  Russian  people.    Vladimir  erected 


a  church  in  honour  of  the  Assumption  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary,  under  the  direction  of  Grecian  artists. 
Thanks  to  his  solicitude,  the  Russian  Church  was  en- 
dowed with  a  hierarchy,  a  metropolitan,  bishops, 
and  priests.  At  first  this  hierarchy  was  Greek;  the 
metropolitans  were  appointed  and  consecrated  by  the 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  went  to  Russia  as  foreign- 
ers, and  remained  such.  They  succeeded,  however,  in 
inspiring  the  Russians  with  hatred  for  the  Latin 
Church.  The  metropolitans  Leontius  (dead  in  1004), 
George  (1072),  Ivan  II  (dead  in  1089),  and  Nice- 
phorus  I  (1103-21)  wrote  the  first  polemical  works  of 
Russian  literature  against  the  Latins. 

B.  Catholicism  in  Russia,  from  the  Twelfth  Century 
to  the  Council  of  Florence. — Although  the  Russian 
Church  in  its  earliest  periods  was  comi^lotcly  dom- 
inated by  the  clergy  of  Constant iiiojile  who  made  the 
schism,  the  relations  between  Russian  princes  and  the 
Holy  See,  begun  under  Vladimir,  subsisted  for  several 
centuries.  Russian  documents  testify  that  Vladimir 
in  991  sent  an  embassy  to  Rome,  and  that  three  em- 
bassies went  from  Rome  to  Kieff,  sent  by  John  XV 
(98.5-96),  and  by  Sylvester  II  (999-1003).  A  German 
chronicler,  Dithmar,  relates  that  a  Saxon  missionary, 
consecrated  archbishop  by  the  Archbishop  of  Magde- 
burg, went  to  Russia,  where  he  preached  the  Gospel, 
and  was  killed  with  eighteen  of  his  companions  on 
14  Feb.,  1002.  At  about  that  time  Reinl)ert,  Bishop 
of  Kolberg,  went  to  Russia  with  th(>  daughter  of 
Boleslaus  the  Intrepid,  bride  of  Sviat()])()lk,  the  son 
of  Vladimir.  He  strove  to  diffuse  Catholicism  in 
Russia,  and  died  a  prisoner.  Other  missionaries  con- 
tinued their  Apostolic  efforts;  but  Russia  was  already 
lost  to  Catholicism.  The  Metropolitan  Nicephorus  I 
(1103-21)  regarded  the  Latin  Church  as  schismatic, 
and  reproached  it  with  a  long  list  of  errors.  Russian 
canonical  documents  of  the  twelfth  century  refer  to 
the  Latins  as  pagans,  and  prohibit  all  relations  with 
them.  The  most  virulent  calumnies  against  the 
Roman  Church  were  inserted  in  the  "Kormtchaia 
kniga";  and  Russian  metropolitans  down  to  Isidor 
(1437)  had  no  relatitms  with  the  Holy  See. 

This  does  not  mean  to  say,  however,  that  the 
Catholic  Church  neglected  Russia  as  a  field  for  its 
apostolate;  for  the  popes  always  tried  to  lead  her 
back  to  the  centre  of  unity,  and  to  enter  into  rela- 
tions with  her  princes.  The  prince  Iziaslaff  Yarosla- 
vitch  (10.54-68;  1069-73;  1076-78)  sent  his  son  to 
Gregory  VII,  asking  the  assistance  of  that  pontiff, 
and  promising  to  make  Russia  a  vassal  of  the  Holy 
See.  Gregory  answered  him  by  letter  of  17  April, 
107.5.  Under  the  Grand  Duke  Vsevolod  Yaroslavitch 
(1078-93)  there  was  established  the  feast  of  the 
translation  of  the  relics  of  St.  Nicholas  of  Bari,  ap- 
proved by  Urban  II  (1088-99),  who  in  1091  sent  to 
the  same  prince  Bishop  Teodoro,  with  relics.  In  1080 
the  antipope  Clement  III  sent  a  letter  to  the  Metro- 
politan Ivan  II  (dead  in  1089),  proposing  to  the  latter 
the  union  of  the  Russian  Church;  Ivan  answered, 
however,  enumerating  the  heresies  of  the  Latins 
(Marcovitch  attributes  this  letter  to  the  Metropolitan 
Ivan  IV,  who,  according  to  Golubinsky,  d.  in  1166). 
Clement  III  (1187-91)  sent  a  letter  to  the  Grand 
Princ(!  Vsevolod  and  to  the  Metroi)olitan  Nicephorus 
II  (1182-97),  inviting  them  to  take  part  in  the 
Cru.sade,  but  in  vain.  Innocent  III  (1198-1216)  sent 
two  legations  to  the  princ(!s  of  Russia,  exhorting  them 
to  be  nnmited  to  Rome.  Under  Ilonorius  III  (1216- 
1227)  St.  Hyacinth,  with  other  religious  of  the  Order 
of  St.  Dominic,  jm-ached  th(!  CathoHc  faith  in  south- 
ern Rus.sia,  and  founded  a  convent  at  Kieff,  while  a 
religious  of  tlu;  same;  order  in  1232  was  api)ointed 
bishoj)  of  that  city,  out  of  which,  however,  the  Domin- 
•icans  were  driven  in  1233.  Another  letter  of  Honorius 
III,  an<l  one  of  Gregory  IX  (1227-41)  encouraged  the 
Russians  of  Pskof  to  realize  their  intention  of  em- 
bracing Catholicism.     All  of  these  efforts  were  in 


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255 


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vain.  It  was  only  in  Galicia  that  the  soHcitude  of  the 
popes  was  attended  with  some  favourable  results. 
Innocent  IV  (1243-54)  had  continuous  relations  with 
the  Grand  Prince  Daniel  Romanovitch  (1229-64), 
who  hoped  for  the  assistance  of  the  West  to  throw  off 
the  Tatar  yoke;  the  pope's  nuncio  to  the  King  of 
Poland  in  12.54  crowned  the  grand  prince  as  king  at 
the  city  of  Dorogtchin.  But  through  dissension 
among  the  princes  of  the  West  the  assistance  that  the 
pope  promised  to  Daniel  was  not  given,  and  in  1256 
the  latter  repudiated  his  union  with  Rome.  The  same 
pope  made  efforts  to  convert  to  CathoHcism  the  na- 
tional hero,  Alexander  Nevski,  whose  father  had  ab- 
jured the  errors  of  the  schism  before  the  pontifical 
legate  Giovanni  da  Pian  Carpino.  In  1248  Innocent  IV 
wrote  to  the  Prince  Alexander  Nevski,  exhorting  the 


PaTHIAKCH    XlKdN    AND    Cl.KUOY 

From  a  Contemporary  Portrait 

latter  to  embrace  Catholicism;  and  in  another  letter 
the  same  pope  asserts  that  the  conversion  of  that 
prince  took  place.  Russian  writers  however  are  unani- 
mous in  considering  their  national  hero  a  champion 
of  the  Orthodox  faith,  who  refused  to  submit  to 
Rome. 

Under  John  XXII  (1316-34)  Catholicism  was  propa- 
gated in  Lithuania,  where  it  had  its  martyrs.  Gedimin 
(1315-45),  although  a  pagan,  wrote  a  letter  to  John 
XXII,  declaring  that  Franciscans  and  Dominicans 
were  authorized  to  preach  in  his  principality.  Pagan- 
ism was  firmly  rooted  in  the  people,  and  in  1332 
fourteen  Franciscans  were  massacred  at  Vilna.  In 
1323  the  same  pope  re-established  the  Latin  Diocese 
of  Kieff,  to  which  he  appointed  a  Dominican.  Cath- 
olicism became  preponderant  in  Lithuania,  when  Hed- 
wig,  Queen  of  Poland,  married  Jagello,  and  the  two 
states  were  united  into  a  single  kingdom.  Jagello 
embraced  Catholicism  in  1386,  called  Poli.sh  priests 
to  Lithuania,  and,  like  Vladimir  the  Great,  resorted 
to  violence  to  convert  his  subjects.  Many  Ru.ssians 
were  converted  to  Catholicism,  and  Vilna  became  the 
see  of  a  Latin  bishop. 

In  1436  the  Russian  Church,  which  was  still  de- 
pendent upon  Constantinople,  had  as  metropolitan 
Isidor  (1436-41),  a  Greek,  native  of  Thessalonica, 


and  staunch  adherent  of  the  cause  of  the  union.  This 
prelate  on  8  Sept.,  1437,  with  A\Taam,  Bishop  of 
Suzdal,  and  many  clergymen  and  laymen,  went  to 
the  Council  of  Florence,  where  he  ardently  defended 
the  union;  and  by  a  Brief  of  17  Aug.,  143S,  Eugene  IV 
named  him  legate  a  latere  for  Lithuania,  Livonia,  and 
Russia.  Avraam  of  Suzdal,  however,  was  not  a 
partizan  of  the  union;  and  leaving  Isidor,  returned 
alone  to  Russia.  Isidor  sent  an  enctyclical  letter  to  the 
Russians  (5  March,  1440),  extolling  the  union  that 
had  been  concluded  at  Florence.  Upon  his  return  to 
Moscow,  however.  Prince  Vasili  Vasilevitch  convened 
a  council,  condemned  the  work  of  the  metropolitan, 
and  imprisoned  the  latter  in  the  Monastery  of  the 
Miracles  (Tchudoff);  but  Isidor  succeeded  in  making 
his  escape,  and  found  asylum  in  Italy.  Wherefore, 
Russia  did  not  accept  the  decree  of  union  of  the 
Council  of  Florence;  on  the  contrary,  she  drew  from  it 
arguments  to  proclaim  the  superiority  of  her  Orthodox 
faith  over  the  pliant  faith  of  the  Greeks,  and  to  pre- 
pare the  way  for  her  rehgious  autonomy. 

C.  Catholicism  in  Russia  from  the  Council  of  Flor- 
ence to  the  Present  Time. — Isidor  resigned  the  Metro- 
politan See  of  Kieff  about  1458,  and  in  the  same  year 
Pius  II  appointed  Gregor  the  Bulgarian,  who  was  a 
disciple  and  companion  of  the  former  metropolitan, 
and  who,  according  to  the  historian  Golubinski,  re- 
mained united  to  Rome  until  1470,  after  which  he 
became  Orthodox,  and  died  in  1472.  Among  his  suc- 
cessors who  were  friendly  to  the  union  were  Mikhail 
Drucki  (1475-80),  Semion  (1481-88),  Jonah  Glezna 
(1492-94),  Makap  (1495-97),  and  Josef  Soltan,  who 
in  1500  wrote  a  letter  to  Alexander  VI  asking  for 
papal  confirmation  of  his  metropolitan  dignity.  At 
the  death  of  Josef  II,  which  according  to  Stroeff 
was  in  1519,  the  Metropolitanate  of  Kieff  became 
again  wholly  Orthodox. 

After  the  Council  of  Florence,  the  fanaticism  of  the 
Ru.ssians  in  regard  to  the  Latin  Church  increased. 
The  Latins  were  not  even  considered  citizens.  They 
were  not  allowed  to  build  churches  in  Russian  cities. 
The  popes,  however,  did  not  cease  their  efforts  to 
effect  a  reconciliation  between  Russia  and  the  Roman 
See.  An  event  that  should  have  hastened  the  attain- 
ment of  that  end  served  only  to  widen  the  breach  be- 
tween Orthodoxy  and  Catholicism.  There  hved  at 
Rome  under  the  tutelage  of  the  jjopes  and  the  spirit- 
ual guidance  of  Cardinal  Hessarion  tlic  Greek  Princess 
Zoe,  daughter  of  Thomas  Palu'olotius,  Despot  of 
Morea;  and  Paul  II,  wisliing  ardently  to  induce  the 
Russians  to  join  the  princes  of  the  West  in  a  crusade 
against  the  Turks,  proposed  to  offer  the  hand  of  Zoe 
to  Ivan  Vasilevitch  III  (1462-1505);  but  death  over- 
took him  before  he  was  able  to  bring  about  the  realiza- 
tion of  his  purpose.  Sixtus  IV  (1471-84)  continued 
the  policy  of  his  predecessor.  Ivan  III  received  the 
proposal  with  enthusiasm.  On  12  Nov.,  1472  Zoe 
with  a  numerous  suite  arrived  at  Moscow,  and  the 
Metropolitan  Philip  I  (1464-73)  united  her  in  mar- 
riage with  Ivan.  But  the  hopes  of  union  to  which  this 
marriage  had  given  rise  vanished.  Ivan  would  not 
hear  the  propositions  of  the  Bishop  Antonio,  who  as 
legate  of  the  Holy  See  had  accompanied  Zoe;  while 
the  latter  passed  over  to  the  schism.  Ivan  III  and  the 
Ru.ssians  thought  only  of  drawing  profit  from  the 
good  will  of  the  popes.  The  grand  prince,  having 
married  a  princess  of  the  imperial  house  of  Pateo- 
logus,  formulated  claims  to  the  throne  of  Byzantium; 
while  the  Russians  began  to  regard  Moscow  as  the 
third  Rome,  which  should  inherit  the  prerogatives  of 
the  first  and  of  the  second. 

Several  embassies  of  Leo  X  and  of  Clement  VII 
to  the  Prince  Basil  Ivanovitch  (150.5-33)  were  without 
favouralDle  results  for  the  union.  Julius  III  and  Pius 
IV  invited  Ivan  the  Terrible  to  send  delegates  to  the 
Council  of  Trent;  while  Pius  V  in  his  turn  invited 
him  to  join  a  crusade  against  the  Turks;  but  Sigis- 


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mund,  King  of  Poland,  and  Maximilian  II,  Emperor 
of  Germany,  prevented  the  legates  of  the  pope  from 
crossing  the  Russian  frontiers,  or  rendered  their 
missions  fruitless.  In  15S0  Ivan  the  Terrible,  menaced 
bv  the  victorious  arms  of  Bdthori,  King  of  Poland 
(i576-S6\  and  of  the  Swedes,  sent  to  Gregory  XIII 
an  embassv  at  the  head  of  which  was  Leontius 
Tche^Tigin.'  The  Holy  See,  although  placing  httle 
faith  in  the  promises  of  the  tsar,  sent  to  Moscow  one 
of  the  most  eminent  men  of  his  day,  the  Jesuit 
Antonio  Possevino,  who,  on  22  Feb.,  1582,  had  a 
theological  disputation  with  the  tsar.  Possevino 
was  well  received  at  the  Court  of  Moscow,  but  his 
apostolic  efforts  were  without  result.  He  returned  on 
15  March,  15S2,  in  company  with  Jacob  Molvianinoff, 
legate  of  the  tsar,  and  bearer  of  a  letter  to  Gregory 
XIII.  In  that  letter  Ivan  the  Terrible  did  not  refer 
to  the  imion.  Possevino  had  relations  also  with  the 
successor  of  Ivan,  Feodor  Ivanovitch,  and  with  Con- 
stantine  II,  Prince  of  Ostrog,  the  great  champion  of 
Orthodox^'  in  the  sixteenth  century;  always,  however, 
with  unfavourable  results.  The  advent  of  the  False 
Demetrius  and  his  marriage  with  the  heiress  of  the 
Wa\'wodes  of  Sandomir  gave  hopes  that  Russia  would 
see  "a  Catholic  djTiasty  on  its  throne.  Demetrius, 
indeed,  had  been  converted  to  Catholicism  in  1604, 
and  had  entered  into  relations  with  the  Holy  See, 
which,  through  its  nuncios  in  Poland,  proceeded  to 
confirm  him  in  the  Catholic  faith,  and  to  maintain 
his  devotion  to  the  Roman  Church.  Demetrius  gave 
to  the  Holy  See  the  happiest  hopes  for  the  conversion 
of  Russia;  but  through  a  con.spiracy  on  27  May,  1606 
he  lost  the  crown  and  his  life.  Fanatical  Russian 
writers  charge  the  popes  with  responsibility  for  the 
turbulence  that  followed  the  advent  to  the  throne  of 
the  False  Demetrius;  but  the  letters  of  the  Roman 
pontiffs  refute  that  calumny  decisively. 

In  1675  the  Tsar  Alexis  (1645-76)  sent,  as  ambas- 
sador to  Clement  X,  General  Paul  Menesius,  a  Catholic. 
The  object  of  this  embassy  was  to  promote  an  alliance 
of  the  Christian  princes  against  the  Turks.  The 
Russian  legate  was  received  with  great  distinction. 
No  happy  results,  however,  attended  his  mission 
from  a  religious  point  of  view.  During  the  reign  of 
Alexis,  strenuous  efforts  were  made  to  draw  Russia 
towards  CathoUcism  by  a  famous  Croatian  mission- 
ary, George  Krizhanitch,  a  student  of  the  Propaganda, 
on  who.se  life  and  works  Professor  Bielokuroff  recently 
wrote  several  valuable  volumes  rich  in  documents. 
Krizhanitch  Ls  regarded  as  one  of  the  pioneers  of 
Panslavism;  but  his  efforts  to  bring  Russia  to  the 
Catholic  Church  cost  him,  in  1661,  an  exile  to  Siberia, 
whence  he  was  unable  to  return  to  Moscow  until  1676, 
after  the  death  of  Alexis. 

In  1684  the  Jesuit  Father  Schmidt  established  him- 
self at  Moscow  as  chaplain  to  the  embassy  from 
Vienna.  In  1685  another  Jesuit,  Father  Albert  De- 
bois,  was  the  bearer  of  a  letter  from  Innocent  XI  to 
the  tsar;  and  in  1687  Father  Giovanni  Vota,  also  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  advocated  at  Moscow  the  need 
of  Ru.ssia  to  unite  herself  to  the  Church  of  Rome. 
The  Emperor  of  Germany,  Leopold  I  (1657-1705), 
obtained  permi.ssion  for  the  Jesuits  to  open  a  school 
at  Moscow,  where  they  established  a  house.  Their 
work  would  have  been  very  favourable  for  the  Church, 
for  under  the  influence  of  Catholic  theology  a  band 
of  learned  Orthodox  theologians,  led  by  the  higumeno 
Sylvester  Medvedeff,  supported  certain  Latin  doc- 
trines, especially  the  Epiklesis.  Unfortunately  how- 
ever two  fanatical  Greek  monks,  Joannikius  and 
Sophronius  Likhudes,  excited  the  fanaticism  of  the 
Russians  against  the  Latins  at  Moscow,  and  when 
Peter  the  Great  freed  him.self  of  the  tutelage  of  his 
Bi.ster  Sophia  in  16S9,  the  Jesuits  were  expflled  from 
Moscow.  The  schismatic  Patriarch  Joachim,  a  man 
actuated  by  hatred  for  foreigners,  and  in  particular 
for  Catholics,  had  much  to  do  with  that  expulsion. 


The  reforms  of  Peter  the  Great  did  not  better  the  con- 
dition of  Catholicism  in  Russia.  In  the  first  years  of 
his  reign  he  showed  deference  to  the  Catholic  Church ; 
he  granted  permission  to  the  Cathohcs  in  1691  to  build 
a  ciiurch  at  Moscow,  and  to  summon  Jesuits  for  its 
service;  in  1707  he  sent  an  embassy  to  Clement  XI, 
to  induce  that  pontiff  not  to  recognize  Stanislaus  Lesz- 
czynski  as  King  of  Poland,  to  which  dignity  the  latter 
had  been  elected  by  the  Diet  of  Warsaw  on  12  July, 
1704;  he  promised  the  pope  to  promulgate  a  constitu- 
tion that  would  establish,  in  favour  of  Catholicism, 
the  freedom  of  worship  that  had  been  promised,  but 
never  maintained.  During  his  sojourn  at  Paris  in  1717 
he  received  from  various  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  a 
scheme  for  the  union,  to  which  he  caused  Theophanus 
Prokopovitch  and  Stcpan  Gavorski  to  reply  in  1718. 
In  order  to  captivate  the  Russians,  the  doctors  of  the 
Sorbonne  had  worked  Gallican  ideas  into  that  scheme, 
regarding  the  primacy  of  the  pope  and  his  authority. 

Peter  the  Great,  however,  was  inimical  to  Catholi- 
cism. His  religious  views  were  influenced  by  Pro- 
kopovitch, a  man  of  great  learning,  but  a  courtier  by 
nature,  and  a  bitter  enemy  of  the  Roman  Church. 
Peter  the  Great  revealed  his  anti-Catholic  hatred 
when,  at  Polotsk  in  1705,  he  killed  witli  his  own  hand 
the  Basilian  Theophanus  Kolbieczynski,  as  also  by 
many  other  measures;  he  caused  the  most  offensive 
calumnies  against  Catholicism  to  be  disseminated  in 
Russia;  he  expelled  the  Jesuits  in  1719;  he  issued 
ukases  to  draw  Catholics  to  Orthodoxy,  and  to  pre- 
vent the  children  of  mixed  marriages  from  being 
Catholics;  and  finally,  he  celebrated  in  1722  and  in 
1725  monstrous  orgies  as  parodies  of  the  conclave, 
casting  ridicule  on  the  pope  and  the  Roman  court. 

From  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great  to  Alexander  I, 
the  history  of  Catholicism  in  Russia  is  a  continuous 
struggle  against  Russian  legislation:  laws  that  em- 
barrassed the  action  of  Catholicism  in  Russia,  that 
favoured  the  apostasy  of  Catholics,  and  reduced  the 
Catholic  clergy  to  impotence  were  multiplied  each 
year,  and  constituted  a  Ncronian  code.  In  1727,  to 
put  a  stop  to  Catholic  propaganda  in  the  Government 
of  Smolensk,  Catholic  priests  were  prohibited  from 
entering  that  province,  or,  having  entered  it,  were  pro- 
hibited from  occupying  themselves  with  religious 
matters;  the  nobility  was  forbidden  to  leave  the  Or- 
thodox communion,  to  have  Catholic  teachers,  to  go 
to  foreign  countries,  or  to  marry  Catholic  women.  In 
1735  the  Empress  Anna  Ivanovna  prohibited  Catholic 
propaganda  among  Orthodox  Russians  under  the 
severest  penalties.  Illustrious  converts,  like  Alexci 
Ladygenski  and  Mikhail  Galitzin,  were  treated  with 
the  most  inhuman  barbarity  on  account  of  their  con- 
version. In  1747  the  government  expelled  from 
Astrakhan  the  Capuchins  who  were  making  many 
conversions  to  Catholicism  among  the  Armenians. 

Under  Catharine  II  (1762-96)  the  condition  of 
Catholics  became  worse  than  before,  notwithstanding 
the  ukases  of  religious  tolerance  that  the  empress 
promulgated.  The  ukase  of  22  July,  1763  authorized 
the  Catholics  to  build  chapels  and  churches  of  stone. 
Another  ukase  of  23  Feb.,  1769  promulgated  the 
ecclesiastical  constitution  of  the  Catholics.  This 
constitution  established  two  parishes,  at  St.  Peters- 
burg and  Moscow,  and  placed  them  in  charge  of  the 
Reformed  Franciscans  and  the  Capuchins.  It  pro- 
vided that  the  number  of  parishes  should  not  be 
greater  than  nine;  and  it  strictly  prohibited  Catholic 
priests,  residing  in  Russia,  from  proselytizing  among 
Orthodox  Russians. 

The  first  dismemberment  of  Poland  (1772)  brought 
a  strong  body  of  Catholics  to  Russia,  anrl  Catharine 
II  proposed  to  make  of  them  a  national  Church,  inde- 
pendent of  Rome.  Unfortunately  an  ambitious  Pol- 
ish bishop,  Stanislaus  Siestrzencewicz,  entered  into 
her  views,  and  a  ukase  of  23  May,  1774  established 
the  Diocese  of  White  Russia,  with  its  episcopal  see  at 


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257 


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Mohileff,  its  first  bishop  being  Siestrzencewicz,  Vicar- 
General  of  Vilna.  This  personage  is  judged  variously 
by  historians.  Pierling,  Zalenski,  and  Markovitch 
treat  him  as  an  ambitious  man  who  sought  to  become 
l^atriarch  of  all  the  Catholics  in  Russia,  and  who  in 
his  heart  hated  the  Roman  See.  Godlewski  on  the 
contrary  is  incUned  to  excuse  him,  and  to  beheve  that 
the  difficult  conditions  of  Catholicism  in  Russia, 
possibly  led  him  to  adopt  measures  that  appear  to 
have  been  injurious  to  Catholic  interests.  According 
to  Markovitch,  during  his  long  episcopate  (1774- 
1826),  Siestrzencewicz  was  the  scourge  of  the  Catholic 
Church  of  both  rites  in  Russia.  By  her  manifestos  of 
1779  Catharine  II  began  the  systematic  destruction 
of  the  religious  orders,  withdrawing  them  from 
the  authority  of  their  rehgious  superiors,  and  put- 
ting them  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of 
Mohileff.  The  latter  in  1782  was  raised  to  the  archi- 
episcopal  dignity,  and  in  1784  received  the  palhura 
from  the  Apostolic  legate,  Mgr.  Giovanni  Andrea 
Archetti,  Archbishop  of  Chalcedon.  He  assumed 
episcopal  jurisdiction  over  all  the  CathoUcs  of  the 
Russian  Empire,  and  acted  as  if  he  were  independent 
of  the  Holy  See. 

The  sound  principles  of  Catholicism,  however,  were 
maintained  and  propagated  by  the  Jesuits  who,  sup- 
pressed by  the  Holy  See  and  exiled  from  the  Catholic 
nations,  found  an  asylum  and  the  centre  of  their  future 
revival  in  Russia.  In  1779  Catharine  II  invited  the 
Jesuits  to  exercise  their  ministry  in  White  Russia, 
and  in  178G  they  had  in  Russia  six  colleges  and  178 
members.  Their  number  increased  so  much  that 
Pius  VII  re-establisju'd  their  order  for  Russia,  where 
it  returned  to  life  under  Father  Gruber.  In  1801  the 
society  had  2(12  members,  and  347  in  1811.  The 
Jesuits  retained  a  lively  gratitude  for  the  hospitality 
that  they  had  received  in  Russia,  and  worked  with 
zeal  to  convert  it  to  Catholicism. 

The  Second  am}  Third  Partitif)ns  of  Poland  (179.3- 
94)  considerably  increased  the  numl)er  of  Catholics 
in  Russia;  Catharine  11  promised  them  the  free  exer- 
cise of  their  religion,  their  rights  of  property  and 
those  of  their  Church,  and  their  complete  independ- 
ence of  the  civil  power.  These  promises  were  decep- 
tive, as  was  shown  by  the  destruction  of  the  Ruthenian 
Church,  accomplished  by  her  order.  The  Catholics 
of  the  Latin  Rite  also  soon  had  cause  to  remember 
that  they  were  under  the  domination  of  implacable 
enemies.  The  Catholics  had  awaited  the  death  of 
Catharine  and  the  advent  to  the  throne  of  Paul  I 
(1796-lSOl),  to  better  their  condition.  In  1797 
Archbishop  Lorenzo  Litta,  legate  a  latere  of  the  Holy 
See,  arrived  at  St.  Petersljurg,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  honours.  The  Catholics  who  had  been 
exiled  to  Siberia  were  rccallcil;  tlie  Sees  of  Lutzk, 
Vilna,  Kamenetz,  Minsk,  and  Samogitia  (the  ancient 
Diocese  of  Livonia)  were  created;  tlic  archiepiscopal 
See  of  Mohileff  was  d(>('larcd  metropolitan,  which  it 
still  is;  and  the  government  granted  an  indemnity  to 
the  clergy  for  the  property  that  had  l;een  taken  from 
them.  In  1802  the  number  of  the  faithful  amounted 
to  1,635,490,  of  adults  alone.  Paul  I  showed  a  special 
predilection  for  the  Jesuits,  and  reposed  great  con- 
fidence in  Father  Gruber;  he  called  them  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, where  he  authorized  them  to  open  schools  and 
seminaries,  while  he  obtained  from  Pius  VII  a  Brief 
(7  March,  1801),  re-establishing  the  society  in  Russia. 
Under  Alexander  I  diplomatic  relations  were  estab- 
lished between  the  Holy  See  and  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment. In  1802  a  Russian  legation  was  established  at 
Rome,  while  Pius  VII  on  his  part  named  an  Apostolic 
nuncio  to  St.  Petersburg,  Mgr.  Arezzo,  Archbishop  of 
Seleucia.  The  affairs  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 
Russia  were  to  be  administered  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
Ecclesiastical  College,  created  in  imitation  of  the 
Synod  of  St.  Petersburg.  This  college  had  been  ap- 
oroved  by  Alexander  I,  through  his  ukase  of  21  Nov., 
XIII.— 17 


1801.  Siestrzencewicz  of  course  was  selected  as  its 
pre-sident;  and  the  Russian  Government,  in  its  Note 
of  13  Dec,  1803,  asked  of  the  Holy  See  such  powers 
for  him  as  would  have  rendered  him  independent. 
The  Sovereign  Pontiff  opposed  a  determined  resistance 
to  these  demands,  and  the  Ecclesiasti(!al  College  was 
henceforward  merely  a  name.  In  1804  Mgr.  Arezzi, 
the  Apostohc  nuncio,  in  view  of  the  disagreements 
b(!tween  the  Russian  Government  and  the  Holy  See, 
left  St.  Petersburg;  whereupon  Siestrzencewicz  had 
a  free  hand,  and  devoted  himself  to  discrediting 
Catholicism  by  proposing  as  bishops  of  the  vacant 
sees  men  who  were  corrupt  or  allied  to  the  govern- 
ment, by  persecuting  the  religious  orders,  by  granting 
divorces  arbitrarily,  by  favouring  the  English  Bible 
Society,  and  finally,  by  surrounding  himself  with 
assistants  of  evil  mind  and  heart.  Diplomatic  rela- 
tions between  the  Holy  See  and  Russia  were  resumed 
in  1815.  The  Russian  plenipotentiary,  Baron  de 
Tuyll,  had  colloquies  with  Cardinal  della  Somaglia  in 
regard  to  the  union  of  the  two  Churches,  which,  how- 
ever, were  without  result,  for  the  Russian  Government 
declared  that  the  union  was  impossible  so  long  as  the 
Holy  See  wished  to  impose  its  dogmatic  teachings  and 
its  disciplinary  practices  upon  the  Ru.ssians.  Mean- 
while, Siestrzencewicz  made  use  of  the  renewal  of  re- 
lations between  Rome  and  St.  Petersburg  to  seek 
through  the  Russian  Government  new  favours  and 
concessions,  e.  g.  the  nomination  of  episcopal  candi- 
dates by  the  tsar,  the  title  of  Primate,  matrimonial 
dispensations,  etc.  In  other  words,  it  was  a  question 
of  imitating  the  canonical  legislation  of  the  Orthodox 
Church,  and  of  harnessing  Catholicism  to  the  car  of 
the  State.  The  Holy  See  merely  granted  to  the 
Metropolitan  of  Mohileff  the  honorary  title  of  pri- 
mate, without  any  additional  jurisdiction,  and  author- 
ized a  small  number  of  priests  to  administer  the 
Sacrament  of  Confirmation  with  oil  blessed  by  the 
bishop.  The  various  efforts  of  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment to  establish  a  primate,  with  patriarchal,  almost 
independent  powers  in  Ru.ssia  were  always  thwarted 
by  the  determined  rcsi-stance  of  the  Holy  See. 

The  most  painful  occurrence  in  the  history  of 
Catholicism  during  the  reign  of  Alexander  I  was  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Russia,  the  pretext  for 
which  was  the  conversion  of  Prince  Alexander  Galit- 
zin  to  the  Catholic  faith.  The  Jesuits  were  expelled 
from  St.  Petersburg  during  the  night  of  22-23  Dec, 
1815,  and  the  Catholic  parish  church  of  St.  Catharine 
was  given  to  the  Dominicans.  The  Jesuits  were 
relegated  to  Polotsk;  later,  however,  by  the  ukase  of 
25  March,  1820,  they  were  exiled  from  Russian  terri- 
tory. On  the  other  hand,  as  many  nobles  of  the  for- 
mer Polish  provinces,  subjects  of  Russia,  sent  their 
children  abroad  to  be  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  the 
government  provided  that  young  Catholics  should  not 
leave  Russia.  In  the  last  years  of  his  reign  Alexander 
I  showed  more  sympathy  for  Catholicism,  and  the 
relations  of  the  Holy  See  with  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment were  cordial  during  the  jmntificate  of  Leo  XII 
and  the  sojourn  of  the  Chevalier  Italinski  at  Rome  as 
Russian  minister.  The  Holy  S(h>  obtain(><l  the  con- 
cession that  the  Russian  Government  would  pay  to 
the  Datary  1000  scudi  for  the  Bulls  of  Catholic  arch- 
bishops in  Russia,  and  800  scudi  for  those  of  bishops; 
Alexander  I  also  allowed  a  Catholic  chapel  to  be 
erected  at  the  imperial  residence  of  Tsarskoye  Selo, 
and  gave  40,000  roubles  for  its  construction.  He  pro- 
posed to  visit  Rome,  and,  according  to  an  unauthenti- 
cated  historical  report,  to  abjure  Orthodoxy.  There 
are  Catholic  writers  who  affirm  that  Alexander  I  and 
his  consort  became  Catholics;  but  there  is  no  docu- 
mentary evidence  in  support  of  this. 

The  reign  of  Nicholas  I  was  a  long  period  of  per- 
secution and  suffering  for  Catholics  in  Russia.  In 
1826  the  Holy  See  sent  Mgr.  Bernetti  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, to  be  present  at  the  coronation.     He  was  well 


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received  by  the  tsar,  and  thereafter  wrote  optimisti- 
cally to  Rome.  Soon,  however,  the  trials  of  the 
Cathohcs  began.  By  two  ukases  in  1828  the  admis- 
sion of  novices  in  the  religious  orders,  and  of  clerics 
in  the  seminaries,  was  made  very  difficult,  if  not  quite 
impossible;  and  in  the  following  year  all  the  novitiates 
were  closed.  In  1830  other  ukases  encouraged  di- 
vorce among  Cathohcs,  prohibited  Cathohc  rehgious 
propaganda  among  the  Orthodo.x,  the  hearing  the 
confessions  of  foreigners,  and  changes  of  residence 
among  the  clergy'. 

The  Polish  insurrection  of  1830  and  1831  intensified 
the  persecution  against  the  Latin  Catholics.  In  1832 
the  Russian  Government  asked  of  the  "Roman 
Ecclesiastical  College"  that  the  number  of  convents 
be  diminislied.  Of  300  monasteries  in  the  Diocese 
of  MohilefF  202  were  closed;  while  the  administrator 
of  that  diocese,  Bishop  Szczyt,  who  had  opposed  this 
reduction,  was  sent  to  Siberia.  In  the  same  year  the 
pubhcation  of  Papal  Bulls  in  Russia  was  prohibited. 
In  June  and  September,  1832  respectively  the  Holy 
See  addressed  two  notes  to  the  Russian  Government, 
lamenting  the  disabilities  to  which  Catholics  were  sub- 
jected in  Russia,  and  the  innovations  which  had  been 
introduced  into  ecclesiastical  discipline.  The  govern- 
ment blamed  the  Polish  revolutionists  for  its  severity. 
On  9  June,  1832,  yielding  to  the  Russian  Government, 
Gregory  XVI  addressed  his  Encyclical  to  the  Polish 
clergy,  Urging  obedience  to  the  civil  power  in  civil 
matters.  The  encyclical  aroused  great  discontent 
among  the  Poles,  and  did  not  deter  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernment from  its  purpose  of  annihilating  Catholicism. 
The  Government  directed  its  blows  against  Cathohcs, 
more  especially  by  laws  concerning  mixed  marriages, 
by  preventing  Catholic  priests  from  ministering  to  the 
United  Catholics,  and  by  calling  to  the  episcopal  sees 
men  who  were  devoted  to  its  policy,  e.  g.  Mgr.  Paw- 
lowski,  who  was  named  Archbishop  of  Mohilefif  in 
1841.  The  Holy  See  could  no  longer  remain  silent 
in  the  presence  of  this  violence,  and  in  his  Allocution 
to  the  solemn  Consistory  of  22  July,  1842,  Gregory 
XVI  called  the  attention  of  the  Catholic  world  to  the 
painful  oppre.ssion  to  which  Catholicism  was  subjected 
in  Russia;  and  his  protests  were  more  serious  and 
energetic,  when  in  184.5,  upon  the  occasion  of  the 
visit  of  the  tsar  to  Rome,  he  had  an  interview  with 
the  latter,  which  resulted  in  the  concordat  of  3  Aug., 
1847,  by  which  there  were  estabhshed  m  Russia  an 
archbishopric  and  six  ei)iscopal  sees,  and  in  Poland, 
the  .same  number  of  dioceses  that  had  been  established 
by  the  Bull  of  Pius  VII  of  30  June,  1818.  The  con- 
cordat repealed  several  iniquitous  laws  that  had  been 
promulgated  against  Catholics,  placed  the  seminaries 
and  the  ecclesiastical  academy  of  St.  Peter.sburg  under 
the  juri.sfliction  of  the  ordinary,  and  recognized  to  a 
somewhat  greater  degree  the  authority  of  the  Holy 
See  over  the  bishops.  The  Tsar  Nicholas,  by  a  letter 
of  1.5  Nov.,  1847,  ratified  the  concordat  of  3  Aug., 
which,  like  so  many  other  Russian  laws,  was  destined 
to  remain  a  dead  letter.  Obstacles  were  placed  to  the 
determination  of  the  boundaries  of  dioceses;  21  con- 
vents were  suppressed  by  a  ukase  of  18  July,  18.50; 
while  Catholics  were  prohibited  from  restoring  their 
churches  and  from  building  new  ones;  from  preach- 
ing w^rmons  that  had  not  previously  been  approved  by 
the  government,  and  from  refuting  the  calumnies  of 
the  Preas  against  Catholicism.  It  is  not  necessary 
for  as  to  recur  to  the  authority  of  Catholic  writers, 
like  Lescfjeur,  to  prove  how  odious  this  violence  was; 
we  may  be  satisfied  with  a  mere  glance  at  the  immense 
collection  of  laws  and  govern  mentiil  measures  con- 
cerning the  Catholic  Church,  from  the  times  of  Peter 
and  of  Ivan  Alexeievitch  to  1807  C'Zakonopolozhenija 
i  pravitelstvennyia  rasp<^)rjazhenija  do  rimsko-kato 
litcheskoi  cerkvi  v  Rossii  otnosjachtchijasja  so 
vremeni  carstvovanija  Tzarei  Petra  i  loanna  Aleksiee- 
vitchei,  1G69-1867",  Vienna,  1868).     It  is  not  with- 


out reason  that  a  Cathohc  writer  has  said  that  the 
laws  of  Nicholas  I  against  Cathohcism  constitute  a 
Neronian  code. 

The  first  years  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  II  were  not 
marked  by  anti-Catholic  violence.  The  Russian  Gov- 
ernment promised  the  Holy  See  that  the  concordat 
would  be  scrupulously  observed,  and  in  1856  the 
episcopal  sees  of  Russia  and  Poland  were  filled. 
Soon  however  there  was  a  return  to  the  methods  of 
Nicholas  I,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Pius  IX 
wTote  to  the  tsar,  imploring  liberty  for  Catholics  of 
both  rites  in  Russia.  In  another  letter,  addressed  in 
1861  to  Mgr.  Fialkowski,  Archbishop  of  Warsaw,  Pius 
IX  referred  to  the  continual  efTorts  of  tlie  Holy  See 
to  safeguard  the  existence  of  Catholicism  in  Russia, 
and  to  the  difficulties  that  were  opposed  to  all  measures 
of  his  and  of  his  predecessors  in  that  connection. 
Encouraged  by  the  words  of  the  pope,  the  Polish 
bishops  presented  a  memorandum  to  the  representa- 
tive of  the  emperor  at  Warsaw,  asking  for  the  abroga- 
tion of  the  laws  that  oppressed  Cathohcs  and  destroyed 
their  liberty.  A  similar  memorandum  was  presented 
to  the  tsar  by  the  Archbishop  of  Mohileff  and  the 
bishops  of  Russia.  Upon  the  basis  of  these  memo- 
randa, the  government  accused  the  Catliolic  clergy  of 
promoting  the  spirit  of  revolution  and  of  plotting 
revolts  against  the  tsar.  Most  painful  occurrences 
ensued;  the  soldiery  was  not  restrained  from  profaning 
the  churches  and  the  Holy  Eucharist,  from  wounding 
defenceless  women,  or  from  treating  Warsaw  as  a  city 
taken  by  storm.  One  hundred  and  sixiy  priests,  and 
among  them  the  vicar  capitular  Bialobrzeski,  were 
taken  prisoners,  and  several  of  them  were  exiled  to 
Siberia.  Mgr.  Deckert,  coadjutor  of  the  Archbishop 
Fialkowski,  died  of  the  sufferings  that  these  events 
caused  him.  The  condition  of  the  Poles  were  becom- 
ing intolerable,  and  Catholicism  suffered  proportion- 
ately. Amid  the  general  indifference  of  Europe,  one 
voice,  that  of  Pius  IX,  was  raised,  firm  and  energetic, 
in  favour  of  an  oppressed  people  and  of  a  persecuted 
faith.  On  12  March,  1863,  in  his  Allocution  to  the 
Consistory,  and  on  22  April,  1863,  in  a  letter  to  the 
tsar,  Pius  IX  demanded  that  justice  and  equity  be 
no  longer  violated.  The  tsar  Alexander  II  wrote  to 
the  pope  expressing  regrets  that  the  Polish  clergy 
should  ally  itself  with  the  authors  of  civU  disorder  and 
should  disturb  the  public  peace. 

The  Polish  revolution  of  1863  furnished  the  govern- 
ment with  a  pretext  for  inhumanity  towards  the 
Catholic  clergy,  both  regular  and  secular.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  some  priests  and  religious,  moved  by 
patriotic  ardour,  committed  the  error  of  taking  part 
in  an  insurrection  whif^h  was  opposed  by  the  more 
cultured  and  reasonable  portion  of  the  nation.  The 
Russian  Government,  however,  did  not  take  pains  to 
punish  only  the  guilty,  but  dealt  with  all  the  Cathohc 
clergy  alike.  In  1863  the  Archbishop  of  Warsaw, 
Mgr.  Felinski,  was  confined  at  Yaroslaff,  as  was  his 
coadjutor  Mgr.  Rzaewuski  at  Astrakhan  in  1865: 
while  their  succes-sors,  the  canons  Szczygielski  and 
Domagolski,  were  exiled  to  Siberia  in  1867.  Mgr. 
Krasinski,  Archbishop  of  Vilna,  was  confined  at 
Vyatka.  Several  priests  in  1863  were  either  hanged 
or  shot,  as  implicated  in  the  revolt,  while  others  were 
sent  to  the  interior  of  Russia,  or  were  deported  to 
Siberia.  The  Poles  and  the  Catholics  in  their  dis- 
tress received  consolation  only  from  Pius  IX,  who  dis- 
tinguished between  the  right  of  a  government  to 
punish  an  unjust  revolt  and  the  right  of  subjects  to 
profess  their  Faith  freely.  In  the  encyclical  "  Ubi 
Urbaniano"  of  30  July,  1864,  addressed  to  the  bishops 
of  Russia  and  Poland,  he  enumerated  the  grievous 
evils  that  the  Russian  Government  had  inflicted  on 
Catholicism. 

The  letters  and  the  protests  of  the  pope  however 
were  of  little  avail.  On  8  Nov.,  1864  the  government 
suppressed  the  convents  and  religious  orders  of  Rus- 


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259 


RUSSIA 


sian  Poland;  and  a  ukase  of  16  Nov.,  1866  abolished 
the  concordat  of  1847.  Another  ukase,  on  22  May, 
1867,  made  the  "Roman  Catholic  College"  the  in- 
termediary between  the  Cathohc  bishops  of  Russia 
and  the  Holy  See.  Unfortunately  some  prelates  al- 
lowed themselves  to  be  led  astray  by  the  promises  or 
by  the  threats  of  the  Russian  Government,  which 
sought  the  ruin  of  Catholicism  in  Russia  through  the 
establishment  of  a  Polish  national  church.  We  may 
cite  Mgr.  Staniewski,  administrator  of  the  Diocese  of 
Mohileff,  Mgr.  Constance  Lubienski,  Bishop  of  Augus- 
towo,  who  nobly  expiated  his  mistake,  and  died  in 
exile  at  Diiiiaburg;  and  Mgr.  Sosnowski,  administrator 
of  the  Diocese  of  Lublin.  A  series  of  curious  revela- 
tions and  documents,  concerning  the  incredible  abuses 
of  Russian  legislation  against  Catholicisn".,  is  contained 
in  the  work  "Das  polnisch-russische  Staatskirchen- 
recht  auf  Grund  der  neuesten  Bestimraungen  und 
praktischer  Erfahrungen  systematisch  erzahlt  von 
einem  Priester",  Po.sen,  1892. 

Under  Alexander  III  (1881-94)  negotiations  be- 
tween the  Holy  See  and  the  Russian  Government 
were  renewed,  and  Russia  maintained  a  legation  at 
the  Vatican.  In  1882  Archbishop  Felinski  was  re- 
called from  exile,  and,  instead  of  his  See  of  Warsaw, 
received  the  title  of  Archbishop  of  Tarsus.  The  See 
of  Warsaw  was  given  to  Mgr.  Vincent  Theophilus 
Popiel,  who  had  energetically  resisted  the  efforts  of 
the  Russian  Government  to  establish  an  independent 
ecclesiastical  college  for  the  government  of  the  Cath- 
ohc Church  in  Russia.  A  new  concordat  was  con- 
cluded in  1882,  but  its  clauses  were  nullified  by  new 
laws.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that,  during  the 
entire  reign  of  Alexander  II,  the  religious  policy  of 
Russia  was  inspired  by  Konstantin  Pobiedonostseff, 
Procurator  General  of  the  Holy  Synod,  who,  for 
political  rather  than  religious  motives,  was  a  fierce 
adversary  of  Catholicism.  The  Catholic  clergy  con- 
tinued to  endure  the  severest  oppression,  abandoned 
to  the  caprices  of  the  police,  greatly  reduced  in  num- 
bers, and  trammelled  by  a  thousand  obstacles  in  the 
exercise  of  its  apostolic  ministry.  This  condition  of 
things  was  prolonged  into  the  reign  of  Nicholas  II, 
during  which  Pobiedonostseff  exercised  his  dictator- 
ship until  1905. 

After  the  war  with  Japan,  however,  and  in  con- 
sequence of  internal  political  troubles,  Nicholas  II 
promulgated  the  constitution  in  1905,  and  published 
the  edict  of  religious  toleration.  Two  years  of  liberty 
were  sufficient  to  reveal  the  great  vitality  of  Catholi- 
cism in  Russia,  for  the  number  of  conversions  to  the 
Catholic  faith,  in  so  short  a  lapse  of  time,  amounted  to 
500,000,  including  over  300,000  Uniate  Catholics 
whom  the  Russian  Government  had  compelled  to  de- 
clare themselves  Orthodox;  100,000  of  these,  known  in 
Russian  as  Obstinates  {xiporstvujushshie)  had  not  re- 
ceived the  sacraments  for  more  than  thirty  years, 
during  which  time  they  frequented  no  church,  in  order 
not  to  be  reckoned  among  the  Orthodox.  The 
Catholic  clergy  developed  the  greatest  activity  in 
social  and  educational  work,  in  the  Press,  and  in  the 
awakening  of  Christian  piety;  and  the  reactionary 
party  of  the  Orthodox  Church,  centred  in  the  Synod, 
cried  out  against  the  danger,  and  called  for  new  laws  to 
protect  Orthodoxy  against  the  assaults  of  militant 
Cathohcism.  These  protests  and  lamentations  were 
heard;  the  laws  relating  to  liberty  of  conscience  were 
submitted  to  revision,  abolished,  or  modified;  the 
government  refused  to  recognize  as  legitimate  the 
conversions  to  Catholicism  of  the  former  Uniate 
Catholics;  the  priests  who  baptized  children  of  mixed 
marriages  were  punished  with  fines  and  imprisonment; 
the  parochial  schools  were  closed;  the  confraternities 
and  the  Catholic  social  organizations  were  dissolved, 
and  the  former  severity  against  the  Catholic  Press 
was  resumed.  The  government  directed  its  action 
especially  against  the  re-establishment  of  the  United 


Church  in  Russia,  and  in  1911  closed  two  Russo- 
Cathohc  chapels  that  had  been  erected  at  St.  Peters- 
burg and  Moscow.  Denunciations  against  a  zealous 
Jesuit,  Father  Werczynski,  who  had  established  him- 
self at  Moscow  in  1903,  and  had  converted  a  thousand 
Russians  to  Catholicism,  furnished  the  government 
with  pretexts  for  renewed  severity :  Father  Werczynski 
was  exiled;  the  suffragan  Bishop  of  Mohileff,  Mgr. 
Denisewicz,  was  deposed  (1911)  without  the  previous 
consent  of  the  Holy  See,  and  was  deprived  of  hia 
stipend;  and  another  most  zealous  prelate.  Baron  von 
Ropp,  Bishop  of  Vilna,  was  obliged  to  resign  his  see 
and  to  retire  to  the  Government  of  Perm. 

Nevertheless  Catholicism  continues  to  exercise  a 
great  influence  upon  the  cultured  classes  of  Russia, 
a  fact  due  in  great  measure  to  Vladimir  Soloveff,  the 
greatest  of  Russian  philosophers,  who  has  rightly  been 
called  the  Russian  Newman;  and  from  these  classes 
there  have  always  been  conversions  that  have  brought 
to  the  fold  of  the  Catholic  Church  noble  and  exalted 
souls,  as,  for  example.  Princess  Narislikin,  Princess 
Bariatinski,  Princess  Volkonski,  Countess  Nessclrode, 
Miss  Ushakova,  Prince  Gagarin,  Prince  Galitzin, 
Count  Shuvaloff,  and  many  others.  Khomiakoff, 
the  legislator  and  apostle  of  Slavophilism,  said  that  if 
liberty  of  conscience  were  established  in  Russia  the 
upper  and  the  cultured  classes  would  embrace  Catholi- 
cism, which  seems  to  be  justified  by  the  facts. 

D.  Statistics  of  the  Catholic  Dioceses  of  Russia. — 
The  basis  for  the  diocesan  and  clerical  statistics  of 
Russia  is  furnished  by  the  very  useful  "Elcnchi  om- 
nium Ecclesiarum  et  universi  cleri"  which  is  published 
every  year  by  the  various  dioce-ses  as  an  appendix  to 
the  "Directorium  divini  officii".  These  "Elenchi" 
are  useful  not  only  for  their  statistics  but  also  for 
their  historical  data,  because  they  sometimes  contain 
documents  and  historical  notes  concerning  the  dio- 
ceses. From  the  ecclesiastical  point  of  view,  the 
Catholic  dioceses  of  Russia  are  divided  into  two 
classes:  the  dioceses  of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland,  and 
those  of  Russia.  The  Kingdom  of  Poland,  or  Russian 
Poland,  has  seven  sees:  (1)  Archdiocese  of  Warsaw; 
(2)  Diocese  of  Kielce;  (3)  Diocese  of  Lublin  (with  ad- 
ministration of  Podlachia);  (4)  Diocese  of  Plock;  (5) 
Diocese  of  Sandomir;  (6)  Diocese  of  Sejny  and  Au- 
gastowo;  (7)  Diocese  of  Wladislaw.  In  Russia  there 
are:  (1)  Archdiocese  of  Moliileff  (with  administration 
of  Minsk);  (2)  Diocese  of  Lutzk,  Zhitomir,  and 
Kamenetz;  (3)  Diocese  of  Samogitia;  (4)  Diocese  of 
Tiraspol;  (5)  Diocese  of  Vilna.  These  are  all  treated 
under  separate  heads.  In  1SG6  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment suppressed  the  Diocese  of  Podlachia  in  Poland, 
and  Minsk  and  Kamenetz  in  Russia;  the  Holy  See, 
however,  did  not  sanction  these  arbitrary  acts,  and 
therefore  the  three  dioceses  in  question  exist  canon- 
ically,  although  they  have  no  bishops,  and  have  been 
incorporated  into  other  dioceses.  There  are  in  the 
Russian  Empire  more  than  13,000,000  Catholics,  of 
whom  more  than  5,000,000  are  in  Russia;  there  are 
approximately  2900  parishes,  3300  churches,  2000 
chapels,  and  4600  priests.  According  to  the  illus- 
trative tables  of  Father  Urban,  S.J.,  there  may  be 
reckoned  an  average  of  more  than  3000  Catholics  for 
each  priest.  In  some  dioceses,  as  for  example  in  Pod- 
lachia, there  is  1  priest  for  each  4800  Catholics;  and 
in  the  Diocese  of  Minsk  1  priest  for  each  4G70  Cath- 
olics. The  division  into  parishes  is  irregular,  and 
some  of  the  parishes  have  a  very  large  poj)ulation; 
that  of  Holy  Cross  at  Lodz  has  a  population  of  142,000 
Catholics  with  only  10  priests;  and  Praga,  near  War- 
saw, has  82,000  Catholics,  with  only  4  priests.  In 
Siberia  the  parishes  have  an  enormous  extent.  Ac- 
cording to  the  convention  between  the  Holy  See  and 
the  Government,  the  diocesan  bishops  shoulil  have  22 
auxiliaries:  3  for  the  metropolitanate  of  Mohileff;  3 
for  the  Diocese  of  Kovno;  3  for  Lutzk,  Zhitomir,  and 
Kamenetz;  3  for  Vilna;  2  for  Tiraspol;  2  for  Warsaw; 


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260 


RUSSIA 


and  1  each  for  Kielce,  Lublin,  Wladislaw,  Sandomir, 
Plock,  and  Sejny  and  Augustowo.  Unfortunately 
however  the  convention  is  not  observed  by  the  Rus- 
sian Government:  in  1911  there  were  only  four  suf- 
fragan bishops;  and  it  should  be  added  that  the  dio- 
ceses remain  vacant  for  long  periods.  The  Diocese 
of  Vilna  has  been  vacant  since  1905.  There  follows 
consequently  great  disorganization  and  many  abuses 
in  the  ecclesiastical  administration,  which  cannot  be 
remedied  for  lack  of  competent  authority. 

Each  diocese  has  its  cathedral  and  its  collegiate 
chapters.  A  ukase  of  1865  fixed  12  as  the  number  of 
canons  of  a  cathedral.  Each  diocese  has  also  its  con- 
sistory; and  to  the  twelve  diocesan  consistories,  should 
be  added  the  consistories  of  Kalish,  Piotrkow,  and 
Pultusk.  The  consistories  are  composed  of  "Offi- 
cers", "vice-officers",  assessors,  visitors  of  monas- 
teries, and  also  lay  members  in  the  Russian  dioceses. 
The  efTorts  of  the  Russian  Government  to  make  auton- 
omous the  consistories  of  the  various  dioceses  and  the 
ecclesiastical  college  at  St.  Petersburg  have  failed,  for 
the  Catholic  hierarchy  in  Russia,  taught  by  experience, 
remains  faithful  to  the  Roman  See,  and  accepts  no 
innovations  contrary  to  Catholic  canon  law. 

E.  Religious  Orders. — In  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  there  were  in  Russian  Poland 
many  monasteries,  and  several  thousand  religious  of 
the  various  orders.  Among  the  latter  the  Jesuits 
and  the  Piarists  (founded  by  St.  Joseph  Calasanctius) 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  services  to  educa- 
tion; but  the  iniquitous  laws  of  Catharine  II  and 
Nicholas  I,  and  the  measures  adopted  by  the  Russian 
Government  in  1864  after  the  Polish  insurrection, 
almost  extirpated  Western  monachism  from  Russia. 
In  1864  it  was  provided  that  the  monasteries  of  Russia 
should  be  divided  into  two  classes,  those  approved 
and  recognized  by  the  state,  and  those  not  approved 
or  recognized.  The  monasteries  of  the  first  of  these 
two  classes  were  allowed  to  have  novices,  and  to  be 
inhabited  each  by  14  religious;  those  of  the  second 
class  were  allowed  to  remain  in  existence  until  the 
number  of  religious  in  each  should  be  reduced  to  7, 
when  the  monastery  was  to  be  suppressed.  The 
opening  of  the  novitiates  of  the  recognized  monas- 
teries was  deferred  to  the  time  when  the  non-approved 
monasteries  should  have  ceased  to  exist.  The  number 
of  the  Paulist  monks  of  the  monastery  of  Czenstoch- 
owa  was  fixed  at  twenty-four.  Even  these  restrictive 
laws,  however,  were  not  observed.  Only  three  or 
four  of  the  recognized  monasteries  were  allowed  to 
receive  novices,  and  the  members  of  religious  orders 
were  prohibited  from  having  relations  with  their 
religious  superiors  outside  of  Russia.  It  is  therefore 
not  astonishing  that  the  religious  orders  should  have 
nearly  disappeared  from  that  country.  The  Sisters 
of  Charity  alone  have  been  able  to  develop  their 
organization;  and,  as  elsewhere,  they  have  won  the 
admiration  of  all,  even  of  the  Orthodox. 

The  greater  part  of  the  religious  are  in  Russian 
Poland.  The  Archdiocese  of  Warsaw  has  a  Capuchin 
monastery  at  Nowe  Miasto,  with  15  religious,  and  the 
convents  of  the  Visitation  (14  religious),  the  Perpetual 
Adoration  (Vi  religious),  and  the  Sisters  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  f36  religious).  The  Sisters  of 
Charity,  .382  in  numl>er,  have  under  their  charge  there 
34  hospitals  or  philanthropic  in.stitutions.  In  1905 
the  Redemptorists,  five  in  number,  had  established 
themselves  at  Warsaw;  but  the  Russian  Government 
expelled  them  in  1910.  Thf!re  are  remnants  of  the 
olrl  orders  that  were  su7)i)ressed  in  1864,  but  their 
number  is  reducffl  from  year  to  year. 

The  Diocf^e  of  Wladislaw  has  the  celebrated  monas- 
tery of  Czenstochowa,  hflonging  to  a  congregation  of 
cenobites  called  Paulists  (from  St.  Paul  I  the  hermit). 
There  are  about  forty  religious,  priests  and  laymen, 
in  the  convent.  A  grievous  crime  that  was  committed 
in  the  convent  in  1909  led  the  diocesan  authorities 


to  adopt  the  severest  measures  for  the  re-establish- 
ment of  rehgious  discipline  there.  In  the  same  diocese 
there  are  two  convents  of  Friars  Minor,  at  Kolo 
and  at  Wladislaw,  with  10  religious;  one  convent  of 
Dominican  Tertiaries,  at  Prz}'r6w,  with  12  religious; 
and  one  convent  of  Franciscan  Tertiaries,  with  13 
religious,  at  Wielun.  There  are  49  Sisters  of  Charity, 
who  have  charge  of  13  philanthropic  estabhshments. 
In  the  Diocese  of  Plock  there  are:  a  convent  of  Car- 
melites, at  Obory,  with  6  religious;  a  monastery  of 
Felician  Sisters,  at  Przasnysz,  with  9  religious;  and 
5  charitable  institutions,  in  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of 
Charity. 

In  the  Diocese  of  Sejny,  besides  a  Benedictine 
monastery,  with  10  religious,  there  are  two  hospitals 
and  one  asylum,  under  the  care  of  13  Sisters  of 
Charity. 

In  the  Diocese  of  Sandomir  there  is  a  Franciscan 
convent  for  women,  with  13  religious;  and  6  charitable 
institutions,  under  the  care  of  29  Sisters  of  Charity. 

The  Diocese  of  Kielce  has  35  Sisters  of  Charity,  and 
that  of  Lublin  44.  who  are  in  charge  of  8  charitable 
establishments. 

In  the  Archdiocese  of  Mohileflf  there  are  no  con- 
vents, properly  so  called.  At  St.  Petensburg  and 
Moscow  there  live  some  Dominicans  of  different 
nationalities,  and  it  is  by  priests  of  that  order  that 
the  French  parishes  of  those  two  cities  are  served.  In 
1907  eight  Franciscan  Si.sters,  Missionaries  of  Mary, 
established  themselves  at  St.  Petersburg  with  the 
consent  of  the  government.  They  direct  a  house  of 
work.  There  are  also  in  the  archdiocese  a  few  Sisters 
of  French  and  of  Polish  congregations. 

The  Diocese  of  Vilna  has  a  Benedictine  monastery 
at  Vilna,  with  6  religious,  and  a  Franciscan  monastery, 
with  3  religious,  at  Slonim.  In  the  Diocese  of  Kovno 
there  is:  a  Franciscan  monastery,  with  3  religious,  at 
Kretinga;  one  Benedictine  monastery  at  Kovno,  with 
9  religious;  and  a  convent  of  Sisters  of  St.  Catharine, 
with  9  religious,  at  Kroki.  At  Zaslaff,  in  the  Diocese 
of  Lutzk,  Zhitomir,  and  Kamenctz,  the  Franciscans 
have  a  monastery  with  4  resident  religious;  and  there 
are  about  10  religious  of  various  other  orders  scattered 
throughout  the  diocese.  There  are  no  religious  in  the 
Diocese  of  Tiraspol. 

In  all,  therefore,  of  the  13,000,000  Catholics  in 
Russia,  150  men  and  550  women  are  religious,  and 
of  the  women  4.50  are  Sisters  of  Cliarity.  The 
Catholic  Church  in  Russia,  therefore,  is  deprived  of 
an  important  part  of  its  militia,  and  there  is  small  hope 
that  religious  life  will  flourish  in  that  country.  The 
small  monasteries  that  remain  depend  on  the  bi.shops, 
and  have,  instead  of  provincials,  visitors  who  are 
chosen  from  among  the  secular  clergy.  The  several 
attempts  of  the  Polish  religious  of  Galicia  (Augustin- 
ians,  Franciscans,  Bernardists,  Piarists,  Redemptor- 
ists) and  others  to  establish  themselves  in  Russia 
since  1905  have  been  futile. 

F.  Moral  and  Inlelleclvuil  Life  of  the  Catholic  Clergy 
in  Russia. — From  the  moral  and  intellectual  points 
of  view,  in  Ru.ssia,  as  in  all  Orthodox  countries,  the 
Catholic  clergy  is  very  superior  to  that  of  other  de- 
nominations, according  to  the  confes.sion  even  of  the 
Orthodox  writers  themselves.  Any  shortcomings 
which  may  occur  in  the  lives  of  the  Catholic  clergy 
arise  out  of  circumstances  beyond  the  control  of  the 
ecclesiastical  authority.  The  Holy  See  cannot  exer- 
cise in  Russia  a  more  efficacious  vigilance  than  it 
exercises  in  other  countries;  but  even  if  it  were  in  a 
position  to  do  so,  it  would  find  an  obstacle  to  its 
efforts  in  the  laws  of  the  country.  On  the  otlier  liand. 
the  clergy  is  too  scattered,  its  work  too  great,  and 
the  civil  offices  impo.sed  vipon  it  by  the  bureaucracy 
too  arduous.  Nevertheless,  in  the  difficult  circum- 
stances in  which  it  is  placed,  its  zeal  has  succeeded 
in  working  marv(>ls,  in  holding  its  fold  firmly  bound 
to  the  Faith,  and  in  conciliating  the  esteem  of  the 


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Orthodox  and  the  affection  of  CathoHcs.  The  gener- 
osity of  the  CathoHcs,  especially  Poles  and  Lithua- 
nians, is  considerable,  and  therefore  the  financial  cir- 
cumstances of  the  Catholic  clergy  are  of  the  best, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  stipends  which  it 
receives  from  the  Russian  Government  are  exceed- 
ingly small:  parish  priests  receive  from  230  to  600 
roubles  a  year,  and  canons  have  the  same  stipend. 
The  people  are  very  pious,  and  their  pilgrimages  to 
the  sanctuaries  are  frequent.  At  the  Feast  of  the 
Assumption,  the  sanctuary  of  Czenstochowa  is  visited 
at  times  by  as  many  as  1,000,000  pilgrims.  The 
sanctuary  of  Our  Lady  of  Ostrabrama,  at  Vilna,  is 
also  a  centre  of  many  pilgrimages,  and  the  streets 
that  lead  to  it  are  always  crowded  with  people  on  their 
knees. 

The  Catholic  clergy  in  Russia  is  unable  to  con- 
tribute efficiently  to  the  propagation  of  the  Faith,  for 
its  zeal  is  trammelled  by  very  severe  laws.  In  190.S- 
1911  many  priests  were  fined,  imprisoned,  and  even 
exiled  for  having  baptized  children  of  mixed  mar- 
riages; nevertheless  the  clergy  contributes  in  some 
measure  to  the  work  of  the  union.  There  had  been 
hopes  of  restoring  the  Uniate  Church  in  Russia 
through  the  agency  of  three  or  four  Russian  priests 
who  were  converted  to  Catholicism;  and  two  chapels 
of  the  Slav  Rite  sprang  up,  at  St.  Petersburg  and 
Moscow.  In  1911,  however,  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment closed  the  two  chapels,  and  forbade  the  exercise 
of  their  ministry  by  the  converted  priests,  one  of 
whom  returned  to  the  schism. 

The  Catholic  clergy,  and  Catholics  in  general,  ab- 
stain from  taking  part  in  politics;  but  they  do  a  great 
deal  for  the  moral  and  intellectual  development  of 
their  fellow-countrymen.  The  Poles  are  the  .staunch- 
est  supporters  of  Catholicism  and  Polish  nationalism 
in  Russia.  The  Lithuanian  clergy  has  taken  a  very 
active  part  in  the  awakening  of  Lithuanian  national- 
ism, the  restoration  of  the  Lithuanian  language  to 
the  churches  of  Lithuania,  and  the  dcvclopiuent  of 
Lithuanian  literature.  From  these  jjoints  of  view, 
therefore,  both  the  Polish  and  Lithuanian  clergy  have 
rendered  great  service  to  their  respective  nationali- 
ties. It  is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that  there  should 
frequently  aris(>  at  Vilna,  between  the  Polish  and  the 
Lithuanian  clergy,  disputes  that  are  at  variance  with 
Catholic  interests.  The  intellectual  development  of 
the  clergy,  as  yet,  is  not  all  that  might  be  desired. 
The  seminaries,  in  all  that  concerns  the  admission  of 
young  men,  are  at  the  mercy  of  the  government, 
which,  possibly,  prevents  the  more  desirable  youths 
from  entering  those  establishments.  For  the  rest, 
the  course  of  studies  in  those  seminaries  is  not  very 
complete.  At  present,  however,  an  intellectual  and 
moral  reform  in  these  establishments  is  being  sought: 
a  considerable  number  of  Catholic  priests  go  to  foreign 
countries  to  complete  their  studies  in  Catholic  uni- 
versities, and  upon  their  return  to  Ru.ssia  teach  in 
the  seminaries.  The  Catholic  Press,  also,  which  had 
been  kept  at  a  low  standard  by  the  Russian  censor- 
ship, has  improved  greatly  of  recent  times.  In  1909 
the  seminary  of  Wlarlislaw  began  the  publication  of 
the  "Duchowni  Kaplan",  a  monthly  periodical  that 
is  on  a  level  with  the  most  learned  Catholic  publica- 
tions of  Europe.  Other  Catholic  periodicals  are  pub- 
hshed  at  Warsaw,  Vilna,  Sandomir,  etc.,  and  seek  to 
neutralize  the  anticatholic  propaganda,  and  the  prop- 
aganda of  atheism,  which  latter  has  its  centre  at 
Warsaw,  where  it  publishes  its  organ  the  "My^l 
Nepolegla"  (Independent  Thought). 

The  chief  centre  of  Catholic  study  in  Russia  is  the 
Roman  Catholic  Ecclesiastical  Academy  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, established  in  1S33,  in  place  of  the  seminary  of 
Vilna,  which  was  considered  the  university  of  the 
Catholic  clergy  in  Russia.  The  academy  has  a  rector, 
an  inspector,  a  spiritual  director,  1.5  professors,  and  a 
librarian.     The  dioceses  send  to  this  establishment 


their  best  students,  who  after  a  course  of  four  years 
receive  the  Degree  of  Master  of  Theology.  It  has 
60  students.  Among  its  professors  mention  should 
be  made  of  Mikhail  Godlewski,  author  of  important 
publications  on  the  history  of  Catholicism  in  Russia; 
and  Stanislaus  Trzeciak,  the  author  of  an  important 
work  on  the  literature  and  religion  of  the  Jews  at  the 
time  of  Christ  ("Literatura  i  religija  u  zyd6w  za 
czas6w  Chrystusa  Pana",  Warsaw,  1911). 

The  sect  of  the  Mariavites  is  treated  in  the  article 
Poland. 

The  Orthodox  Church  of  Russia. — Rassian 
writers  ordinarily  divide  the  history  of  their  national 
church  into  five  periods.  The  first,  from  989  to  1237, 
was  the  period  of  the  diffusion  of  Christianity  in 
Russia.  Christianity  was  spread  slowly,  but  the 
want  of  culture  among  the  people  caused  pagan  super- 
stitions to  be  maintained  under  the  external  appear- 
ances of  Christian  rites.  The  conditions  of  the  lower 
clergy,  both  as  to  culture  and  to  apo-stolic  spirit,  were 
wretched.  Monastic  life  began  to  flourish  in  Russia, 
when  the  monk  Anton,  coming  from  Mount  Athos  in 
1051,  established  himself  in  a  grotto  near  Kieff,  and 
collecting  about  him  various  followers,  among  them 
the  famous  Blessed  Theodosius  Petcherski,  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  great  monastery  called  Kievo- 
Petchenskaja.  This  monastery  became  a  focus  of 
culture  in  the  development  of  Russia,  and  is  rightly 
considered  a  national  monument  of  that  country. 
Monasticism  was  so  generally  spread  in  the  twelfth 
century  that  in  the  city  of  Kieff  alone  there  were 
seventeen  monasteries. 

During  this  fir.st  period  the  Russian  Church  was 
totally  dependent  ujran  the  Church  of  Constantinople, 
and  was  governed  liy  the  Metropolitans  of  Kieff,  the 
li.st  of  which  opens  with  Leo  (dead  in  1004),  and  closes 
with  the  M('troi)()litan  Josef  in  1237.  According  to 
Golubinski  this  first  list  contains  twenty-four  names. 
Some  of  them,  Mikhail,  Ilarion,  Ivan  11,  Ephraim, 
and  Konstantin  were  placed  upon  the  calendar  of  the 
saints.  One  of  the  most  famous  saints  of  this  first 
epoch  was  St.  Cyril  of  Turoff. 

The  second  period,  from  1237,  in  which  year  begin 
the  Mongolian  invasions  and  the  progressive  develop- 
ment of  the  power  of  northern  Russia,  extends  to 
1461,  when  Orthodox  Russia  was  divided  into  two 
metropolitanates.  During  this  period,  Russia  was 
governed  by  the  Metropolitans  of  all  Russia,  the  list 
of  whom  begins  with  Cyril  III  (1242-49),  and  closes 
with  St.  Gona  (1448-61).  Among  these  metropol- 
itans, St.  Pioter  (1308-26),  St.  Alexei  (13.54-78),  and 
St.  Gona  (1448-61)  were  raised  to  the  honours  of  the 
altar  of  the  Ru.ssian  Church.  The  latter  fought 
again.st  the  Tatars;  while  several  Russian  princes 
suffered  martyrdom  for  their  Faith  and  were  canon- 
ized. Some  few  missionaries  attempted  to  spread 
Chri-stianity  among  the  Tatars.  In  1329  two  Rus- 
sian monks,  Sergei  and  Germanus,  founchvi  the  famous 
monastery  of  Balaam,  on  an  islet  of  Lak(>  Ladoj^a.  In 
the  second  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  St .  Stephen, 
Bishop  of  Perm  (d.  1396),  preached  Christianity  to 
the  Zyriani.  The  efforts  of  the  Russians,  however, 
to  win  Lithuania  over  to  the  schism  were  not  crowned 
with  success.  During  this  period,  there  were  eighteen 
eparchies  in  Russia.  The  Russian  bishops  gradually 
leaned  towards  Moscow,  which  had  aspirations  to 
spiritual  supremacy.  The  moral  and  intellectual  con- 
ditions of  the  clergy  were  very  low.  Towards  the 
latter  end  of  the  fourteenth  c(>ntury,  then^  arose  the 
heresy  of  the  Slrigolniki,  who  rejected  the  hierarchy. 
Monasticism  attained  its  highest  d(>vel()pment,  there 
appearing  180  new  monasteries.  St.  Serg(>i  Radonej- 
ski  (dead  in  1392),  a  saint  whom  popular  legends 
represent  as  endowed  with  supernatural  powers,  be- 
came the  legislator  of  the  new  monasticism.  At 
Sergievo,  40  miles  from  Moscow,  he  founded  the 
celebrated  monastery  of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity,  a 


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262 


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great  religions  and  national  monument  of  Russia. 
The  monasteries  at  this  epoch  contained  possibly  300 
religious. 

The  third  period  is  from  1461  to  1589,  when  the 
Russian  Church  was  divided  into  the  two  metropoli- 
tanates  of  Moscow  and  Kieflf.  The  former  was 
bounded  bv  the  frontiers  of  Great  Russia,  and  was 
strictly  Russian  and  Orthodox.  That  of  Kieff  at- 
tempted to  assimilate  the  culture  of  the  West,  and 
developed  great  literary  activity.  In  the  metropolis 
of  Moscow,  Tihon  of  Vyatka  (dead  in  1612)  worked 
for  the  conversion  of  the  Voguli  and  of  the  Ostiaki  of 
of  the  Government  of  Perm.  The  monks  of  the  mon- 
astery of  Solovka  evangelized  the  Lopari,  in  which 
efforts  the  Blessed  Theodoretus  (dead  in  1577)  and 
the  Blessed  Tihon  Petchengski  (1495-1583)  distin- 
guished themselves.  In  the  work  of  the  conversion 
to  Christianity  of  the  Tatars  of  Kazan,  the  higumeno 
George  (Gurij )  Rugotin  became  famous.  He  died  4 
Dec,  1563,  and  was  canonized  by  the  Russian  Church; 
so  also  was  the  archimandrite  Barsonofius  (dead  in 
1576,  and  Germanus  (d.  1567).  Other  Russian  monks 
devoted  their  energies  to  the  conversion  of  the  pagans 
of  Astraklian  and  of  the  Caucasus. 

The  Russian  Church  became  more  and  more  sep- 
arated from  the  Greek  Church,  and  towards  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century  refused  to  receive  Greek 
metropolitans  and  bishops.  Among  the  metropoli- 
tans of  this  time,  Macarius  (1542-63),  and  the  ener- 
getic Philippus  II,  who  was  slain  by  order  of  Ivan 
the  Terrible  in  1473,  were  distinguished  by  the  extent 
of  their  learning.  In  the  Metro politanate  of  Moscow 
there  were  ten  eparchates.  The  clergy  was  very  nu- 
merous, and  many  of  its  members,  unable  to  sub- 
sist in  the  villages,  lived  a  vagabond  life  at  Moscow, 
to  the  detriment  of  discipline.  With  a  view  to  re- 
forming the  clergy  there  was  convened  at  Moscow 
in  1551  the  famous  Council  of  the  Hundred  Chap- 
ters (Stoglnv).  Monasticism  spread  more  and  more. 
From  the  fifteenth  to  the  seventeenth  century  there 
appeared  three  hundred  new  monasteries,  which 
accumulated  enormous  wealth.  The  Blessed  Nil 
Sorski  (1433-1508)  made  himself  the  champion  of  a 
reform  among  the  monks,  which  implied  on  their  part 
the  renunciation  of  all  real  property  and  seclusion  in 
the  monasteries.  His  doctrines  found  numerous  ad- 
versaries, among  whom  was  the  Blessed  Josef  of 
Volock  (1440-1515).  Many  monks  and  ascetics  of 
this  time  were  venerated  as  saints.  Among  the  more 
famous  of  these,  were  Alexander  Svirski  (dead  in  1533) 
and  Daniel  of  Pereiaslaff  (d.  1540).  The  want  of 
religious  in.struction  favoured  superstition  and  the 
germination  of  heresies.  In  the  fifteenth  century 
there  broke  out,  at  Novgorod  and  its  surroundings, 
the  heresy  of  the  Judaizers  (zhidovslvujushshie) , 
against  which  the  Archbishop  Gennadius  (a  saint  who 
died  in  1.505J  and  the  Blessed  Josef  of  Volock  struggled 
with  much  energy.  In  the  sixteenth  century  Matwei 
Baksin  and  Theodosius  Kosoi  taught  rationalist  doc- 
trines, abjuring  the  sacraments  anrl  ecclesiastical 
government,  which  evoked  refutations  ancl  anathemas 
from  Maxim  the  Greek,  and  from  the  monk  Zinovii 
Otenski.  The  Protestants  established  themselves  at 
Moscow. 

There  were  fifteen  metropolitans  of  Kieff,  from 
Gregor  the  Bulgarian  (1458-73),  who,  according  to 
Golubinski,  aftor  embracing  the  union,  returned  to 
the  Orthodox  Church,  to  Onisiphorus  Dievotchak 
(1579-80),  who  was  succeerled  by  Mikhail  Ragosa — 
the  latter  having  embraced  the  tJnion.  The  Ortho- 
dox of  the  metropolifanate,  after  the  Union  of  Brest, 
fanatically  opposed  the  progress  of  the  Unionists. 
Ru.ssian  wTiters  mention  with  praise,  among  these 
champions  of  Orthofloxy  against  the  Union,  Prince 
Andrei  Kurbski  and  Prince  Konstantin  of  Ostrog. 
The  followers  f)f  f)rthodoxy  also  established  con- 
fraternities  for   the   printing   and   dissemination   of 


polemical  works,  and  to  oppose  Catholic  influence 
through  the  schools.  For  want  of  bishops  and 
priests  of  their  own,  members  of  the  Orthodox  Church 
passed  over  to  the  Union.  In  1620,  however,  Theo- 
phanus.  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  consecrated  Job 
Borecki  Metropolitan  of  Kieff,  and  six  members  of 
the  Orthodox  Church  as  bishops  respectively  of 
Polotsk,  Vladimir,  Lutzk,  Przemy^l,  Chelm,  and 
Pinsk;  and  thus  the  Orthodox  hierarchy  was  re- 
established. In  the  domain  of  theology  the  six-teenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  were  prolific  of  works, 
written  bj'  Orthodox  theologians,  to  combat  the  ar- 
guments of  the  Catholics  and  Uniates.  The  most 
salient  personality  of  the  Orthodox  hierarchy  of 
Kieff  during  this  period  was  the  Metropolitan  Peter 
Moghila  (d.  1646). 

The  fourth  period  of  the  Russian  Church  is  that  of 
the  Patriarchate  of  Moscow  (1589-1700).  The  Patri- 
archate of  Moscow  was  created  in  1589  by  Jeremias 
II,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  The  first  patriarch 
was  Job  (1589-1605) ;  he  was  succeeded  by  Ignatei 
(1605-06),  Hermogenes  (1606-11),  Filaretc  Romanoff 
(1619-33),  Joshaphat  (1634-40),  Josef  (1642-52), 
Nikon  (1652-66),  Joshaphat  (1667-72),  Pitirim 
(1672-73),  Joachim  Saveloff  (1674-90),  and  Adrian 
(1690-1700).  Among  the  most  famous  of  these 
mention  should  be  made  of  Filarete  and  Joachim, 
bitter  enemies  of  Catholicism;  and  of  Nikon,  who  with 
uncurbed  energy  upheld  the  rights  of  his  Church 
against  the  usurpations  of  the  civil  power,  on  which 
account  he  was  deposed  in  1666.  The  patriarchs 
formed  at  Moscow  a  court,  which,  especially  under 
Filarete  Romanoff,  was  a  rival  of  that  of  the  tsars, 
both  as  to  wealth  and  authority,  and  which  for  these 
reasons  was  suppressed  by  the  tsars.  The  patriarchs 
exercised  superintendence  over  the  metropolitans  and 
over  the  bishops,  the  number  of  whom  was  increased 
and  diminished  by  turns.  After  the  establishment 
of  the  patriarchate,  Novgorod,  Kazan,  Rostoff,  and 
Kruticki  became  metropolitanates,  and  Suzdal, 
Ryazan,  Tver,  Vologda,  and  Smolensk  were  made 
archiepiscopal  sees.  The  number  of  dioceses  was 
fixed  at  eight.  In  1620  Siberia  was  given  an  episcopal 
see  at  Tobolsk.  In  1682  the  Tsar  Feodor  Alexeie- 
vitch  proposed  the  establishment  of  12  metropolitan- 
ates and  72  dioceses;  but  a  council  of  bishops  reduced 
the  latter  number  to  34,  later  to  22,  and  thereafter  to 
14.  There  was  a  lack  of  funds  for  the  support  of  the 
new  dioceses,  and  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury the  patriarchate  of  Moscow  had  13  metropolitan- 
ates, 7  archbishoprics,  and  2  dioceses. 

Meanwhile  the  tsars,  seeing  the  growth  of  the  in- 
fluence and  power  of  the  Church  under  the  rule  of  the 
patriarchs,  adopted  the  policy  of  diminishing  the  pre- 
rogatives of  the  clergy.  The  Tsar  Alexis  Mikhailo- 
vitch  published  a  statute  (ulozhcnie)  which  prohibited 
the  further  acquisition  of  proi)erty  by  the  clergy. 
The  judicial  position  of  the  clergy  receivcfl  another 
blow  by  the  promulgation  of  the  so-called  mnnnslyr- 
skij  prikaz  (monasterial  ordinance).  The  clergy  re- 
ceived this  (liminutio  cnpUis  with  evident  displeasure; 
and  when  Nikon,  Metropolitan  of  Novgorod,  was 
raised  to  the  patriarchal  dignity  in  1652,  protests  were 
redoubled,  and  the  conflict  between  the  patriarch  and 
the  tsar  became  acute.  The  bishops,  who  were  par- 
tisans of  the  tsar,  had  the  support  of  the  Greek  hier- 
archy. The  Council  of  Moscow,  to  please  the  tsar, 
deposed  the  patriarch,  who  died  after  a  long  captivity, 
at  Bielo-ozero,  in  1681.  With  the  death  of  Nikon 
the  Russian  Church  was  yokerl  to  the  charif)t  of  the 
State.  Peter  the  Great  found  that  the  patriarchate 
was  useless,  and  in  fact  an  obstacle  in  tlie  way  of  the 
realization  of  his  purposes;  and  accordingly,  at  the 
death  of  Adrian  in  1700,  he  suppressed  it.  The 
Patriarchate  of  Moscow  had  succeeded  in  unifying 
the  Orthodox  Church  of  Russia.  After  the  conven- 
tion of  1686  between  Russia  and  Poland,  which  made 


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the  tsars  of  Moscow  masters  of  Kieff  and  Little  Russia, 
the  Patriarch  Joachim  named  Gedeon  Tchetvertinski 
metropohtan  of  Kieff,  and  in  1687  Dionysius,  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  recognized  the  dependency 
of  the  Metropolitanate  of  Kieff  upon  the  Patriarchate 
of  Moscow. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  under  the  Patriarch 
Nikon  a  great  schism  broke  out  in  the  Orthodox 
Church,  called  the  Schism  of  the  Old  Believers.  The 
liturgical  books  in  use  in  the  Russian  Church  were 
replete  with  errors.  Their  correction  was  an  urgent 
necessity,  and  had  been  undertaken  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  fanatics  opposed  this  "corruption"  of 
the  sacred  texts,  and  Maxim  the  Greek,  who  had 
worked  upon  it,  paid  for  his  participation  in  the  work 
with  a  long  imprisonment.  Under  Nikon  in  1654  a 
council  held  at  Moscow  recognized  the  necessity  of 
the  reform  in  question.  Accordingly  the  liturgical 
books  were  corrected,  but  many  Russians,  influenced 
by  the  monks,  refused  to  accept  the  corrected  versions. 
It  began  to  be  rumoured  that  Antichrist,  personified 
by  the  pope,  had  in  view  the  destruction  of  the  Or- 
thodox Russian  Church,  through  the  Latin  Catholics 
of  western  Russia.  But  a  council  held  at  Moscow 
in  1666  approved  the  reform  of  Nikon,  and  pro- 
nounced its  anathema  against  those  who  had  not  ac- 
cepted his  decisions.  Anathemas,  were  however,  like 
the  severity  of  the  government,  without  effect  against 
these  deserters  from  the  official  Church.  The  monks 
who  were  averse  to  the  reform  withdrew  to  solitary 
places,  and  founded  clandestine  monasteries,  among 
which  those  of  Vyg,  Starodub,  and  Vyatka  became 
famous.  The  more  violent  schismatics  were  burnt 
alive  or  decapitated.  But  persecutions  invigorated 
the  schism,  called  in  Russian  raskio,  whence  the  name 
of  its  adherents,  Raskolniki. 

The  fifth,  called  the  synodal,  period  begins  with 
1700,  and  extends  to  the  present  time.  At  the  death 
of  Adrian  (1700),  Stepan  Tavorski,  Metropolitan  of 
Ryazan,  and  a  learned  theologian,  was  appointed 
patriarchal  vicar,  and  charged  to  reform  the  entire 
constitution  of  the  Russian  Church.  .  Tavorski  found 
an  excellent  co-operator  in  Theophanus  Prokopovitch, 
who  was  Bishop  of  Pskof  in  1718,  and  who,  although 
educated  at  Lemberg,  Cracow,  and  Rome,  and  ac- 
cording to  some,  a  convert  to  Catholicism,  nourished 
a  bitter  hatred  for  Catholics.  Peter  the  Great  gave 
to  Prokopovitch  the  task  of  preparing  the  "Eccle- 
siastical Regulations"  which  became  the  Magna 
Carta  of  the  Russian  Church.  This  code  was  fin- 
ished in  1720.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts,  con- 
cerning respectively  the  functions  of  the  sj'nod,  the 
matters  put  under  its  jurisdiction,  and  the  duties  of 
its  members.  The  synod  was  solemnly  opened  on 
14  Feb.,  1721.  By  the  "Ecclesiastical  Regulations", 
the  tsar  is  the  supreme  judge  of  the  ecclesiastical  col- 
lege. His  representative  in  that  capacity  was  a  lay- 
man, who  in  a  document  of  1722  is  called  the  eye  of 
the  tsar.  This  functionary,  bearing  the  title  of  Ober- 
Prokuror,  was  to  be  chosen  preferably  from  the 
military  class. 

The  synod  in  the  early  period  of  its  existence  had 
ten  members,  besides  the  president,  and  maintained 
its  ecclesiastical  character.  After  the  death  of  Peter 
the  Great,  however,  that  ecclesiastical  character  was 
lost  by  degrees,  and  the  synod  became  a  vast  political 
bureaucracy.  The  bishops  were  at  the  mercy  of  the 
procurators-general,  who  at  times,  as  in  the  case  of 
Prince  Sharkhovski,  regarded  the  synod  as  a  political 
institution,  and  sometimes  maltreated  the  prelates 
who  formed  that  body.  There  were  procurators- 
general  who  made  public  profession  of  atheism,  as 
Tchebysheff  (1768-74),  or  of  rationalism,  as  Prince 
A.  Golycin  (1803).  The  Russian  Church  suffered 
humiliation  under  the  lay  rule  of  the  synod  (see  the 
important  work  of  Blagovidoff,  an  ex-professor  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  Academy  of  Kazan,  on  "The  Procura- 


tors of  the  Holy  Synod  ") .  In  1881  there  was  called  to 
the  government  of  the  synod  Konstantin  Pobiedon- 
ostseff,  a  man  of  great  culture  but  of  reactionary 
ideas,  who  wished  to  unite  all  the  religions  professed 
in  Russia  in  the  Orthodox  Church.  The  epoch  of 
Pobiedonostseff  was  one  of  complete  thraldom  for 
the  Russian  Church.  His  dictatorship  however  came 
to  an  end  in  1905,  when  the  edict  of  toleration  was 
promulgated.  The  Liberal  Russian  clergy  attacked 
the  synod  and  the  anti-canonical  constitution  of  the 
Russian  Church  in  the  Press,  and  demanded  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  patriarchate.  The  Government 
proposed  the  convocation  of  a  great  national  synod, 
to  return  its  liberties  to  the  Church  of  Russia  and  to 
give  it  a  new  constitution,  but  this  purpose  was  frus- 
trated by  the  friction  between  the  "white"  (secular) 
and  the  "black"  (regular)  clergy,  by  the  triumph  of 
the  revolutionary  parties,  and  by  the  outbreak  of 
the  revolution.  The  synod  continued  to  exercise 
its  deleterious  authority  under  various  procurators: 
Prince  Obolenski,  Izvolski,  Lukianoff  (a  mental 
specialist),  and  finally,  in  1911,  Carolus  Vladimiro- 
vitch  Sabler,  a  former  associate  of  Pobiedonostseff, 
but  a  man  of  broader  and  more  liberal  ideas. 

Other  changes  were  made  in  the  eparchies.  When 
the  synod  was  established,  there  were  18  eparchies  and 
2  vicariates  in  Russia;  in  1764,  the  number  of  the  for- 
mer had  increased  to  29,  and  to  36  at  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century;  which  latter  number  was  in- 
creased under  Nicholas  I,  and  became  65  in  our  day. 
The  eparchies  are  ruled  by  metropolitans  (St.  Peters- 
burg, Moscow,  and  Kieff),  archbishops,  and  bishops. 
According  to  the  most  recent  statistics,  there  were  133 
Russian  bishops,  including  the  bishop-vicars  of  the 
eparchies,  and  the  bishops  without  a  charge.  In  re- 
gard to  the  moral  character  of  the  Russian  episcopate, 
and  concerning  the  various  institutions  of  the  Russian 
dioceses,  see  the  present  writer's  work  "La  Chiesa 
rus.sa",  pp.  105-160.  The  Russian  clergy,  which  ia 
divided  into  two  castes,  the  "white"  clergy,  or  secu- 
lars, and  the  "black"  clergy,  or  regulars,  has  not  ac- 
quired, among  the  Russians,  the  moral  prestige  that 
the  Catholic  clergy  has  acquired  in  Catholic  countries. 
According  to  the  latest  statistics,  there  arc  in  the 
"white"  clergy  45,000  priests,  2400  archpriests,  15,000 
deacons,  and  44,000  singers,  while  there  are  60,000 
churches  and  chapels  in  the  country.  This  clergy 
exercises  its  ministry  over  more  than  90  millions  of 
Orthodox  faithful;  but  it  is  rendered  incapable  of 
accompli.shing  its  mission  by  poverty,  want  of  educa- 
tion, the  lack  of  sound  vocations,  the  oppression  of 
the  Government,  contempt  and  social  isolation,  family 
cares,  and  not  infrequently  by  drink.  Only  in  the 
cities  are  there  to  be  found  priests  of  culture  and  in 
comfortable  circumstances;  those  who  work  in  the 
rural  parishes  are  deserving  of  pity  and  compassion. 

In  the  eighteenth  century,  the  "black"  clergy  suf- 
fered vicissitudes  that  greatly  reduced  the  number 
of  monasteries  and  monks.  Peter  the  Great  espe- 
pecially  and  Anna  Ivanovna  treated  the  monks  with 
the  greatest  severity.  Nevertheless  the  "black" 
clergy  preserved  the  moral  and  economic  superiority 
in  Russia;  bi.shops,  rectors,  and  inspectors  of  acade- 
mies and  seminaries  are  taken  from  the  ranks  of  the 
"black"  clergy,  and  the  monasteries  still  po.s.sess  im- 
mense riches.  According  to  the  most  recent  statistics 
there  are  298  monasteries  that  are  recognized  and  sub- 
sidized by  the  Government,  while  there  are  154  not 
subsidized  (zasiatnij).  There  were  9317  monks  and 
8266  novices.  There  were  400  religious  houses  of 
women,  inhabited  by  12,652  nuns  and  40,275  novices. 
Many  of  these  religious  houses  are  of  the  Russian 
Sisters  of  Charity,  who  maintain  184  hospitals,  and 
148  asylums.  The  life  of  the  regular  clergy,  except 
in  a  few  monasteries  of  strict  observance,  is  very  lax. 

The  Orthodox  clergy  receives  its  education  in  the 
ecclesiastical  schools,  preparatory  for  the  seminaries 


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(dukhovnyja  utchilishsha)  of  which  there  are  185,  with 
1302  instructors,  and  which  are  maintained  at  an  ex- 
pense to  the  state  of  6,153,353  roubles  yearly;  in  the 
ecclesiastical  seminaries,  of  which  there  are  57,  with 
866  instructors  and  20,500  students;  and  also  in  the 
ecclesiastical  academies  of  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow, 
Kieff,  and  Kazan,  in  which  there  are  120  instructors 
and  862  students;  these  academies  possess  very  valu- 
able Ubraries,  and  have  professors  of  great  scientific 
merit.  The  seminaries  both  morally  or  intellectually 
are  in  a  WTctched  condition;  from  these  seminaries 
the  moral  and  intellectual  shortcomings  of  the  Ru.s- 
eian  clergy  are  derived,  their  students,  as  a  rule,  enter- 
ing the  priesthood  without  the  least  vocation.  In 
1906-08  these  institutions  became  hotbeds  of  revolu- 
tionists, and  even  of  anarchists.  The  ecclesiastical 
sciences  are  cultivated  in  the  academies,  which  pub- 
lish periodicals  of  great  merit,  as  the  "Khristianskoe 
Tchtenie"  (Christian  Reading)  at  St.  Petersburg; 
the  "Bogoslovski  Viestnik"  (Theological  Messenger) 
at  Sergievsk  Posad;  the  "Trudy"  (Works)  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  Academy  of  Kieff,  and  the  "Pravos- 
la\-nyi  Sobesiednik"  at  Kazan.  Other  im])ortant 
periodicals  are  the  "Strannik"  (St.  Petersburg  Travel- 
ler), the  "Tcherkovnij  Viestnik"  (Ecclesiastical  Mes- 
senger), the  "Cerkovnija  Viedomosti"  (Ecclesiastical 
News),  the  organ  of  the  synod  at  St.  Petersburg; 
" Dushepoleznoe  Tchtenie"  (Edifying  Reading),  at 
Moscow%  and  the  "Khristianin"  (The  Christian),  at 
Sergievsk  Posad.  Among  the  most  famous  professors 
of  the  ecclesiastical  academies  of  the  present  day, 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  great  exegete  Nikolai 
Glubokovski,  the  canonists  Zaozerski  and  Berdnikoff, 
the  historian  Znamenski,  etc.  The  most  famous  of 
them  all,  at  present,  is  the  archpriest  Malinovski.  A 
comprehensive  study  on  the  Russian  seminaries  and 
academies  may  be  found  in  the  work  "La  Chiesa 
russa",  pp.  541-679. 

The  educating  influence  of  the  Russian  clergy  upon 
the  people  is  very  slight.  On  the  other  hand  the 
bureaucracy  would  suppress  any  effort  of  the  clergy 
to  give  to  the  people  a  higher  sense  of  its  rights.  The 
clergy  maintains  a  great  many  elementary  schools, 
the  number  of  which  was  much  increased  in  the  time 
of  Pobiedonostseff .  These  establishments  are  divided 
into  schools  of  two  cla.sses,  and  schools  of  one  class; 
of  the  former  there  are  672,  with  77,000  students  of 
both  sexes;  while  there  are  25,425  one-class  schools, 
with  1,400,000  students  of  both  sexes;  and  in  addition 
13,6.50  schools  in  which  reading  is  taught,  with  436,000 
pupils.  There  are  426  secondary  schools,  with  22,300 
students,  the  j^early  maintenance  of  which  costs  a  sum 
of  17,000,000  roubles. 

The  apostolic  work  of  the  Russian  clergy  has  small 
result.  The  internal  missions  are  against  the  Raskol- 
niki,  the  mystic  and  the  rationalist  sects,  the  Moham- 
medans, the  Catholics,  the  Lutherans,  and  the  Jews. 
The  mi.ssionaries  direct  their  efforts  towards  the  con- 
version of  dissidents  to  Orthfxloxy  rather  by  the 
assistance  of  the  police  and  by  human  means  than  by 
a  supernatural  spirit  and  by  convincing  arguments. 
All  efforts,  not  excluding  deportation  to  Siberia,  have 
failed  to  secure  the  conversion  of  the  Raskolniki,  who 
since  1005  have  enjoyed  a  certain  liberty,  and  at  the 
presrmt  tiinr;  maintain  a  grf-at  propaganda.  Their 
number  is  estimatf-d  at  15,fXX),000.  Among  Catholics 
and  Lutherans  the  Ru.ssian  missions  are  without  effect; 
in  fact  since  1905  many  of  the  Orthodox  have  em- 
braced Catholicism  or  Lutheranism.  For  three  cen- 
turies Russian  missionaries  have  worked  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Mohammcflan  Tatars;  but  the  trivial 
nature  of  the  propaganrla  among  that  people  was 
shown  in  1905,  when  .5fK),000  Christian  Tatars  re- 
turned to  the  faith  of  Islam. 

TTie  foreign  missions  oi  Russia  are  in  North  and 
Sfjuth  America,  Japan,  Corea,  and  Persia.  In  North 
America  the  efforts  of  the  Orthodox  missionaries  are 


directed  to  the  conversion  of  the  Uniate  Ruthenians 
who  emigrate  to  that  continent.  In  other  countries 
their  efforts  are  almost  without  result,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Japan,  where  Ivan  Kasatkin,  who  is  now  an 
archbishop,  and  who  went  to  those  islands  in  1860, 
succeeded  in  establishing  a  Japanese  branch  of  the 
Orthodox  Church,  which  numbers  about  30,000  ad- 
herents and  about  40  native  priests  (cf.  "La  Chiesa 
rus.sa",  pp.  397-539). 

The  Church  of  Russia  is  the  support  and  strength 
of  Orthodoxy,  wdiich,  counting  Rus.sians,  Greeks,  and 
Rumanians,  has  more  than  110  millions  of  adherents. 
The  conversion  of  Russia  to  Catholicism,  therefore, 
would  end  the  Eastern  Schism.  But  the  hour  of  a 
reconciliation  between  the  East  and  the  West  is  yet 
far  distant,  however  much  desired  by  Catholics  and 
also  by  Russians,  such  as  Vladimir  Soloveff.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  among  the  cultured  classes  of  Russia 
there  are  to  be  found  persons  who  desire  this  union, 
and  who  readily  recognize  the  defects  of  their  national 
Church;  but  there  is  no  movement  towards  union  with 
Catholicism.  As  a  rule,  the  cultured  classes  of  Rus- 
sia are  contaminated  with  the  poison  of  infidelity; 
while  the  lower  classes  are  slaves  of  superstition  or 
ignorance,  and  most  attached  to  the  formalities  of 
their  rite.  They  are  the  easy  prey  of  the  rationalist 
or  mystic  Russian  sects.  Possibly  Russia  would  have 
been  Catholic  if,  after  the  Union  of  Brest,  politics  and 
human  passions  had  not  rendered  the  condition  of 
the  Uniates  most  unhappj^  and  placed  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  the  development  of  the  Ruthenian  clergy. 
But  it  is  useless  to  lament  the  past ;  and  every  effort 
should  be  made  that  the  latent  religious  forces  of 
Russia  may  some  day  find  their  full  development  in 
union  with  Catholicism  under  a  single  shepherd. 

The  Religion  of  Russia:  Catholicism;  Orthodox  Chiirch:  Prol- 
eslantism: — Euc^dius,  Aulceum  Dunaidum,  continens  seriem  ac 
successiones  archiepiscoporujn  Rigensium  in  Livonia  (Wittenberg, 
1564) ;  PossEViNUS,  Lettera  alia  Duchessa  di  Mantova  sopra  le  cose 
pertinenti  alia  religone  cattolica,  le  quali  desiderava  intendere  di 
Livonia,  di  Suetia,  et  di  Transilvania  (Mantua,  1580);  Idem,  Li- 
vonifE  commenlarius  (Riga,  1852) ;  Bellettds,  Visitationis  apos- 
tolicce  sanctw  Ecclesice  Vendensis  et  Livonice,  constitutiojies  (Vilna, 
1611);  Okolski,  Russia  florida  rosis  et  liliis  (Lemberg,  1646); 
Idem,  Chioviensium  et  Czernichoviensium  episcoporum  ordo  et  nu- 
merus  (Lemberg,  1646;  Cracow,  1853);  Ko}.\\.ov;icz,  Miscellanea 
rerum  ad  slatum  ecclcsiasticum  in  magna  Lithuanian  ducatu  per- 
tinentium  (Vilna,  1650) ;  Scarin,  Di^sertatio  historica  de  Sancto 
Henrico,  Fennorum  Apostolo  (Abo,  1737);  Orlowski,  Defensa  bis- 
kupstva  ij  dyecezyi  kiowskiej  (Lemberg,  1748) ;  Friesius,  De  epis- 
copatu  kioviensi  cuius  sedes  ohm  fuit  Kiovice,  nunc  vera  Zylomirice 
in  Ukraina  eiusque  prtesulibus  brevis  commentaiio  (Warsaw,  1763) ; 
CzARNEWSKi,  De  Semgallicc  episcopatu  nee  non  de  episcopis  Sem- 
gallice  seu  Selburgensibus  (Mitau,  1790) ;  Maciejowski,  Essai  his- 
torique  sur  VEglise  chritienne  primitive  des  deux  rites  chez  les  Slaves 
(Leipzig,  1840);  Theiner,  Die  neuesten  Zust&nde  der  katholischen 
Kirche  beider  ritus  in  Polen  und  Russland  (Augsburg,  1841); 
SzANTYR,  Zbior  wiadomosci  o  kosciele  i  religii  katolickiej  w  cesarst- 
wie  rossyiskiem  (Collection  of  Data  on  the  Catholic  Church  and 
the  Catholic  Religion  in  the  Russian  Empire)  (Posen,  1843); 
Tolstoi,  Le  Catholicism  romain  en  Russie  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1863-64) ; 
Lescceur,  L'Eglisecatholique  etle  gouvernement  russe  (Paris,  1903); 
BoTTiNOER,  Leiden  und  Verfolgungen  der  katholischen  kirche  in 
Russland  und  Polen  (Ratisbon,  1844);  Krasinski,  Histoire  te- 
ligeuse  des  peuples  slaves  (Paris,  1853);  Lescceur,  Le  schisme  mos- 
covite  et  la  Pologne  catholique  (Paris,  1859) ;  Idem,  L'Eglise  calho- 
lique  en  Pologne  sous  le  gouvernement  russe  (Paris,  1860) ;  Idem, 
L'Eglise  catholique  et  le  gouvernement  russe  (Paris,  1903) ;  (jAQArin, 
Tendances  catholiques  dans  la  society  russe  (Paris,  1860);  Slecz- 
KowsKi,  Wioflomosci  niektdre  do  dziejdw  kosciola  kalolickiego  w 
polsko-rossyiskikh  prowincyakh  od  rozbioru  Polski  az  do  najnow- 
szuch  czas6w  (Jaslo,  1861);  Tolstoi,  Le  catholicisme  romain  en 
Russie  (2  vols.,  Paris,  186.3-64);  Pierling,  Rome  et  Demetrius 
d'apris  des  documents  nouveaux  (Paris,  1878);  Idem,  Antonii  Pos- 
sevini  missio  moscovilicn  ex  annuls  litteris  S.  J.  exrerpta  et  adno- 
tationibus  illuslrata  (Paris,  1882);  Idem,  Rome  et  Moscou  (1883); 
Idem,  Un  nonce  du  Pape  en  Moscorie  (Paris,  1884);  Idem,  Le 
Saint-Sifge,  la  Pologne,  et  Moscou  (Paris,  188.5);  Idem,  Papes  et 
Tzars  (Paris,  1890);  Idem,  Lettre  de  Dmitri,  dil  le  faux,  d  CU- 
ment  VIII  (Paris,  1898);  Idem,  Les  relations  diplomatiques  entrele 
Saint-.'ii^oe  et  la  Russie  (24  vols.,  Paris.  1890-1907);  Serpionv, 
Un  arbitrage  pontifical  au  XVI  siMe  (Possevin)  (Paris,  1886); 
Vannutelli.  /va  Russia  e  la  Chiesa  cattolica  (Rome.  189.5)  ;Hilde- 
BBAND,  Sreriges  stftllning  till  Antonio  Possevinos  fredsemdling  mel- 
lan  Polen  och  Russland  (Stockholm,  1897);  MaRCOVItch,  Roma  ed 
i  Papi  (2  vols.,  Zagabria,  1902);  Abraham,  Powstanie  organizacyi 
kosciola  lacinskiego  na  Rusi  (Lemberg,  1904);  Cabykoff,  Posol- 
stvo  v  Rim  i  sluzhba  v  Moskvie  Pavla  Menezija  (The  Embassy  to 
Rome,  and  the  Acts  of  Paolo  Menesio  at  Moscow)  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1906). 


P     y 


.^  ^/ 


RUSSIA 


265 


RUSSIA 


Chytb-eus,  De  Russorum  religione  (Leipzig,  1586);  Prytz, 
Utrum  MoscovitcB  sint  christiani  (Stockholm,  1620) ;  Schwabe,  De 
religione  ritibusque  ecclesiasticis  moscovitarum  (Jena,  1665) ;  von 
Oppenbdsch,  Religio  Moscovitarum  (Strasburg,  1667);  Wahr- 
MCND,  La  religion  ancienne  et  moderne  des  Moscoviles  (Cologne, 
1698);  Kkook,  Exercitatio  hislorico-theologica  de  statu  Ecclesix  et 
religionis  moscoviticcs  (Leipzig,  1722) ;  Fenerlin,  Dissertatio  hia- 
torica  de  religione  Ruthenorum  hodierna  (Gottingen,  1745) ;  Bel- 
LEKMANN,  KuTzer  Abriss  der  russischen  Kirche  (Erfurt,  1788) ; 
Stbahl,  Zustand  der  griechisch-russischen  Kirche  in  dltester  und 
neuester  Zeit  (Tubingen,  1823) ;  Idem,  Geschichte  der  Griindung  und 
Ausbreitung  der  christlichen  Lehre  unter  den  Volkern  des  ganzen 
russischen  Reiches  (Halle,  1827);  Idem,  Beutrdi/r:  :ur  russisrhm 
Kirchengesch.  (Halle,  1827);  Idem,  Geschichte  dir  nis.<i.<rh.  „  Kirrhr 
(Halle,  1830);  Muraveff,  Istorija  rossiiskoi  rcrkri  (Hi,t.,ry  of  th(> 
Russian  Church)  (St.  Petersburg,  1845);  Gcr.  tr.  ( Kurlsniho, 
1857);  Philarbte,  Istorija  russkoi  cerkvi  (Tchernigoff,  1862); 
Ger.  tr.  (Frankfort,  1872) ;  Boissard,  L'Eglise  de  Russie  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1867);  Heard,  The  Russian  Church  (London,  1887); 
Frank,  Russisches  Christentum  (Paderborn,  1889) ;  Vannutelli, 
Studio  religioso  sopra  la  Russia  (2  vols.,  Rome,  1892);  Runke- 
VITCH,  Istorija  russkoi  cerkvi  pod  upravleniem  sv.  synoda  (History 
of  the  Russian  Church  under  the  Government  of  the  Holy  Synod) 
(St.  Petersburg,  1900) ;  Denisoff,  Pravoslavnye  monastyri  ros- 
siiskoi imperii  (The  Orthodox  Monasteries  of  the  Russian  Em- 
pire) (Moscow,  1908).  The  most  complete  history  of  the  Rus- 
sian Church  is  that  of  the  Metropolitan  Macarius,  Istorija 
russkoi  cerkvi  (12  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1883-1903).  A  complete 
bibliography  of  the  Orthodox  Russian  Church  is  to  be  found  in 
Palmibri,  La  Chiesa  russa  (Florence,  1908),  and  Idem,  Theologia 
dogmatica  orthodoxa,  I  (Florence,  1911). 

Semler,  De  primis  initiis  Christiana  religionis  inter  Russos 
(Halle,  1762) ;  Dissertatio  de  origine  christianw  religionis  in  Russia 
(Rome,  1826) ;  Goetz,  Staat  und  Kirche  in  AUrussland  (Beriin, 
1908) ;  BoTCHKAREFF,  Stoglov  i  istorija  sobora  (The  Council  of  the 
Hundred  Chapters  and  its  History)  (JukhnofI,  1906) ;  Kaptereff, 
Kharakter  otnoshenii  Rossii  ko  pravoslavnomu  vostoku  v  XVIi 
XVII  slolietijakh  (Nature  of  the  Relations  of  Russia  with  the 
Orthodox  East  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries) 
(Moscow,  1885);  Bacmeister,  Beytr&ge  zur  Lebensgeschichte  des 
Patriarchen  Nikon  (Riga,  1788);  HObbenet,  Istoritcheskoe  izsliedo- 
vanie  diela  patriarkha  Nikona  (Historical  Researches  on  the  Case 
of  the  Patriarch  Nikon)  (2  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1882-84);  Pai^ 
,  MER,  The  Patriarch  and  the  Tsar  (London,  1871),  73,  76;  Kap- 
tereff, Patriarkh  Nikon  i  car  Aleksiej  Mikhailovitch  (Sergievo, 
1909);  Blagovidofp,  Ober-prokurory  Svj.  Synoda  v  XVIII  i  v 
pervoi  polovinie  XIX  sloljetija  (The  Procurators  General  of  the 
Holy  Synod  in  the  eighteenth  and  the  first  part  of  the  nineteenth 
centuries)  (Kazan,  1900);  Titlinoff,  Praritelstto  imperatricy 
Anny  Joannovny  v  ego  otnoshenjiakh  k  dielam  pravoslavnoi  cerkv 
(The  Government  of  the  Empress  Anna  Joannovna  and  her  rela- 
tions with  the  Orthodox  Church)  (Vilna,  1905);  Theiner,  Die 
Staatskirche  Russlands  im  J.  1839  (Schaffhausen,  1844);  Golo- 
vine,  Memoires  d'un  pritre  russe  ou  la  Russie  religeuse  (Paris, 
1849);  Lenz,  De  Duchoborzis  (Dorpat,  1829);  Ignace,  Arch- 
bishop OF  Voronezh,  Istorija  o  reaskolakh  v  cerkvi  rossiiskoi  (His- 
tory of  the  sects  of  the  Russian  Church)  (St.  Petersburg,  1849) ; 
Le  raskol:  essai  historique  et  critique  sur  les  secies  religieuses  en 
Russie  (St.  Petersburg,  1859) ;  Orlof,  Quelques  reflexions  sur  les 
sectes  religieuses  en  Russie  (Paris,  1858,  1882);  Pfizmaier,  Die 
Gottesmenschen  und  Skopzen  in  Russland  (Vienna,  1883) ;  Idem, 
Die  GefUhlsdichtungen  der  Chlysten  (Vienna,  1885) ;  von  Gerbel, 
Embach,  Russische  Sektirer  (Heilbr  nn,  1883) ;  Tsakni,  La  Russie 
sectaire  (Paris,  1887) ;  Dalton,  Der  Stundismus  in  Russland 
(Giitersloh,  1896);  Gehrino,  GrundzUge  zur  Geschichte  der  rus- 
sischen Sekten  (Leipzig,  1898) ;  Idem,  Die  Sekten  der  russischen 
Kirche  (Leipzig,  1898);  Borozdin,  Protopop  Avvakum  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1898) ;  Grass,  Die  geheime  heilige  Schrift  der  Skopzen  (Leip- 
zig, 1904) ;  Idem,  Die  russischen  Sekten  (Leipzig,  1905) ;  S^v^rac, 
La  secle  russe  des  hommes  de  Dieu  (Paris,  1906);  Anderson,  Sta- 
roobrjadtchestvo  i  sektantsvo  (The  Old  Believers  and  the  Russian 
Sectarians)  (St.  Petersburg,  1908).  The  best  historical  works  on 
the  Russian  Raskol  are  those  of  Smirnoff  (St.  Petersburg,  1882) ; 
IvANOvsKij  (Kazan,  1905);  and  Plotnikoff  (St.  Petersburg, 
1905). 

BiJscHiNG,  Geschichte  der  evangelisch-lutherischen  Gemeinen  im 
russischen  Reich  (2  vols.,  Altona,  1766);  Grots,  Beytrag  zur  Ge- 
schichte der  evang.-lutherischen  Kirchen  in  Russland  (.1772) ;  Jung- 
BLUT,  Die  Griindung  der  evangelisch-luierischen  Kirchen  in  Russ- 
land (St.  Petersburg,  1855) ;  Frommann,  Die  evangelische  Kirche 
im  Russland  (Berlin,  1868) ;  Hunnius,  Die  evangelisch-lutherische 
Kirche  Russlands  (Leipzig,  1877);  IDalton,  Beytrdge  zur  Ge- 
schichte der  evangelischen  Kirche  in  Russland  (Gotha,  1887, 1889, 
1905) ;  Cvietaeff,  Protestanty  i  protestantsvo  v  Rossii  (Moscow, 
1890);  Dalton,  Zur  Geschichte  der  evangelischen  Kirche  in  Russ- 
land (Leipzig,  1903) ;  Eogers,  Die  evangelisch-lutherischen  Ge- 
meinden  in  Russland  (St.  Petersburg,  1909) ;  Gernet,  Geschichte 
der  allerhOchst  beslaligten  UnterstUtzungskasse  fiir  evangelisch- 
lutherische  Gemeinden  in  Russland  (St.  Petersburg,  1909). 

Russian  Language  and  Literature. — The  sub- 
ject will  be  treated  under  the  following  heads,  viz. 
I.  Russian  Language;  IL  Ancient  Popular  Lit- 
erature; in.  P^irst  Monuments  of  Russian 
Literature;  IV.  Literature  from  the  Eleventh 
TO  the  Thirteenth  Centuries;  V.  Literature 
FROM  THE  Fourteenth  to  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
turies; VI.  Literature  of  Little  Russia  and 
Great    Russia  in    the   Seventeenth    Century; 


VII.  Russian  Literature  ok  the  Time  of  Peter 
the  Great;  VIII.  Literature  of  Russia  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century;  IX.  Literature  of  Rus- 
sia IN  THE  Nineteenth  Century;  X.  Contem- 
porary Russian  Literature. 

I.  Russian  Language. — Russian  is  a  Slav  lan- 
guage belonging  to  the  Indo-European  family.  The 
dispersion  of  the  Slav  tribes  in  prehistoric  times 
resulted  in  the  formation  of  various  Slav  dialects,  of 
wliifli  Sliafarik  counted  twelve,  although  other  writers 
recognize  only  six  or  seven.  The  Slav  dialects  are 
divided  into  the  South-Eastern  dialects  and  the 
Western  dialects.  To  the  former,  which  culminate 
in  the  Bulgarian,  belongs  the  Russian,  or  rather  the 
three  Russian  dialects  of  Great  Russia,  Little  Russia, 
and  White  Russia.  Russian  has  many  affinities  with 
the  Bulgarian  and  Servian  languages,  because  Russia 
received  her  primitive  literature  from  the  Bulgarians 
and  Servians.  The  absence  of  documents,  however, 
makes  it  impossible  to  define  with  precision  the  char- 
acter of  the  primitive  language  of  Ru.ssia,  or  rather 
the  relations  between  that  language  and  the  Russian 
of  literature.  According  to  Sreznevski  and  Lavroff, 
the  similarity  between  the  two  languages  was  almost 
complete,  and  consisted  in  turns  of  expression  rather 
than  in  granunatical  forms,  l^cfore  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  literary,  ecclesiastical,  and  adminis- 
trative language  was  one.  But  in  the  fourteenth 
century  the  ecclesiastical  language  began  to  differ 
from  the  literary  language  and  this  difference  grew 
considerably  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 
The  PaljEOslavic  or  ecclesiastical  language,  however, 
varied  Uttle  in  either  case  from  the  language  of  the 
people.  In  time  Russian  underwent  local  changes 
of  form  that  gave  rise  to  the  dialects  of  Kieff,  Nov- 
gorod, Vladimir,  and  Moscow.  The  Vareghi,  the 
Greeks,  the  Tatars,  the  Lithuanians,  and  the  Poles 
left  traces  of  their  political  domination  on  the  lan- 
guage of  Russia,  and  in  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great 
many  words  were  added  from  German,  French,  and 
English.  The  question  of  the  primitive  language  of 
Russia  is  connected  with  the  ethnological  question, 
and  in  the  nineteenth  century  gave  rise  to  lengthy 
and  spirited  polemics  which,  however,  led  to  no  defi- 
nite results.  A  leading  work  for  the  study  of  this 
controvery  is  BuslaefT's  "Historical  Cirammar  of  the 
Russian  Language"  (1858).  Politi(;al  and  nation- 
alist questions  also  enter  into  the  philological  re- 
searches concerning  the  primitive  language  of  Russia. 
The  Ruthenians,  or  Little  Russians,  claim  that  their 
language  was  the  original  Russian,  and  therefore 
that  primitive  Russian  literature  should  rather  be 
called  Ruthenian.  On  the  other  hand  Sobolevski 
and  the  nationalists  of  Great  Russia  declare  that  the 
present  Ruthenian  is  not  the  primitive  language  of 
Kieff.  This  philological  controversy  between  the 
nationalists  of  Little  Russia  and  those  of  Great  Russia 
has  not  yet  terminated. 

II.  Ancient  Popular  Literature. — From  its  ear- 
liest history  Russia  has  possessed  a  literature  that 
was  handed  down  by  tradition  from  generation  to 
generation.  It  was  not  before  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury that  this  literature  took  a  written  form.  The 
collection  of  Russian  proverbs  was  begun:  in  the 
eighteenth  century  Daniloff  published  the  first  col- 
lection of  Russian  byline:  at  the  end  of  the  same  cen- 
tury and  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth,  Tchulkoff, 
Popoff,  and  Macaroff  published  the  first  collections 
of  popular  songs.  Upon  this  literature,  which  con- 
veys so  much  information  on  the  religious,  civil,  and 
social  life  of  primitive  Russia,  great  light  was  thrown 
by  the  studies  of  Kalaidovitch,  Snegireff,  Sakha- 
roff,  Kirieevski,  Bielinski,  Athanasieff,  Kostomoroff, 
Maikoff,  Buslaeff,  Bezsonoff,  and  Vselovski.  The 
popular  Russian  songs  are  divided  into  several  classes. 
There  are  the  mystic  or  ritual  songs  {ohriadmjia 
piesni),  which  were  sung  in  the  sacred  games,  and  on 


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266 


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other  solemn  occasions;  they  contain  many  memories 
of  the  ancient  pagan  feasts,  celebrating  the  glories 
of  Dazh-Bog  (the  sun-god),  of  Koliada  (traced  by 
Russian  ^vTiters  to  the  Latin  Calendae),  and  of  Ovsen. 
Others,  illustrating  the  promiscuity  of  pagan  tradi- 
tion, celebrate  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ  {sviatotchnyja 
piesni);  others  relate  to  the  spring  feasts  {vesnianki), 
or  accompany  the  dance  {khorovodnyja).  To  this 
same  class  belong  the  nuptial  songs  (svadebnyja), 
the  kupaVskija  (literally,  songs  of  the  baths),  the 
rusaVnyja,  in  honour  of  the  Rusalke,  a  term  that 
probably  served  to  designate  the  souls  of  the  de- 
parted. 

The  byline  are  the  most  beautiful  treasures  of  this 
popular  literature,  of  which  they  form  the  heroic 
cycle.  The  term  byline  is  derived  from  the  verb 
byl  (it  was),  and  et>Tnologically  signifies  the  recital 
of  that  which  happened  in  times  gone  by.  They  tell 
of  the  deeds  of  the  legendary  heroes  of  primitive 
Russia.  History,  legend,  and  mythology  toget her  fur- 
nish the  matter  of  these  epic  songs.  In  them  the 
Russian  heroes  are  called  bogatyr,  a  name  that  some 
believe  to  be  derived  from  Bog  (God),  as  if  they  were 
demigods;  others  believe  that  the  term  is  derived 
from  Tatar  or  Mongolian;  and  yet  others  from  the 
Sanskrit  {bhaga,  force,  happiness).  The  heroes  who 
are  immortalized  in  the  byline  belong  to  the  epoch 
of  Vladimir  the  Great,  or  to  more  ancient  times,  and 
partake  of  a  mythological  character.  These  heroes, 
who  act  together  with  those  of  the  time  of  Vladi- 
mir the  Great,  but  nevertheless  are  endowed  with  a 
mythological  character,  are  Sviatogor,  Mikula  Seli- 
aninovitfh,  Volga  Sviatoslavitch,  Sukhman  Odikh- 
mantt'vitch,  and  Don  Ivanovitch;  the  historians  of 
Russian  literature  designate  them  by  the  epithet  of 
starshie  ("ancient  heroes")-  The  "young  heroes" 
(mladshie)  belong  historically  to  the  epoch  of  Vladimir; 
their  names  are  Elia  Muromec,  Dobrynja  Nikititch, 
Alesha  Popovitch,  Solovei  Budimirovitch,  etc.  Kieff 
is,  so  to  speak,  their  geographical  centre,  and  Vlad- 
imir their  star.  In  the  Russian  chronicles  they  are 
mentioned  between  the  eleventh  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies. Elia  of  Murom  lived  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
centurj%  and  his  remains  rest  in  the  grotto  of  the  sanc- 
tuary of  Petcherskaia  at  Kieff.  They  combat  the  mon- 
sters that  assail  Russia  from  within  or  from  without, 
that  is,  paganism  and  thieves  among  the  first,  and 
the  Petchenegi,  the  Polovcy,  and  the  Chozari  among 
the  second.  The  historical,  philological,  and  poetical 
importance  of  these  ancient  monuments  of  literature 
is  very  great.  Othfr  byline  of  later  date,  more  com- 
monly called  historical  songs,  refer  to  the  Tatar  in- 
vasions, to  the  period  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  and  also 
to  that  of  Peter  the  Great.  The  songs  and  legends 
of  Little  Russia  are  called  dumy  (elegies,  ballads), 
and  celebrate  the  struggles  of  the  Cossacks  and 
Little  Russians  against  the  Turks  or  Tatars  and  the 
Poles,  and  the  union  of  Little  Russia  with  Great 
Ru.ssia.  The  songs  that  refer  to  domestic  life  are 
called  bylovyja  pie.sni.  They  sing  the  popular  feasts 
and  games,  and  the  sad  as  well  as  happy  events  of 
domestic  life,  while  they  preserve  many  traces  of 
paganism.  The  best  collections  of  them  are  those 
of  TchulkofT  (St.  Petersburg,  1 770-74);  Novikoff 
(Moscow,  1780-81);    and  SakharofT  (St.  Petersburg, 

To  popular  literature  belong  the  fanciful  novels 
called  nkazki,  which  resemble  somewhat  the;  stories 
of  the  Fat^'s.  Their  protagonists  are  strange  beings 
created  by  the  ardent  jmpular  fancy,  Baba-Iaga, 
serpents  with  six  or  twelve  heads,  stags,  hor.ses,  etc. 
The  forcf^H  of  nature  an;  personified.  At  times  th(; 
mythological  element  predominates  in  them  entirely; 
and  again  it  is  blended  with  Christianity.  The  old- 
est novfls  arf  characterized  by  their  simplicity  and  by 
the  repose  of  their  recital.  Some  of  them,  like  the 
one. entitled  "The  Judgment  of  Shemjaka",  are  satir- 


ical compositions.  Others  are  derived  from  Western 
novels,  especially  the  Italian.  The  proverbs  also  be- 
long to  popular  literature.  They  are  called  poslovicy, 
and  are  very  abundant,  the  first  complete  collection 
of  them  having  been  made  by  D.  Kniazhevitch  in 
1822.  They  are  the  spontaneous  product  of  the  wis- 
dom, caustic  spirit,  and  rudimentary  culture  of  the 
Russian  people,  and  reflect  the  various  historical 
ages  of  Russia.  Some  of  them  date  from  pagan  times, 
others  emanate  from  the  people's  knowledge  of  Holy 
Scripture,  and  others  originate  in  the  events  that 
produced  the  greatest  impressions  on  the  popular 
imagination.  To  popular  literature  belong  also  the 
enigmas  or  riddles  (?a^a(/A-0,  collected  bv  Khudiakoff 
(Moscow,  1861)  and  by  Sadovinikoff'  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1876);  the  incantations  (zagovory),  the  conjura- 
tions {zaklia(ia),  and  the  lullabies  (platchi),  which  are 
most  useful  for  the  study  of  Russian  folk-lore  and 
primitive  Russian  life. 

III.  First  Monuments  of  Russian  Literature. 
— The  first  written  literature  of  Russia  is  coincident 
with  the  conversion  of  Russia  to  Christianity.  Bul- 
garia was  the  first  Slav  educator  of  Russia,  and  the 
first  translations  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  liturgies 
were  Bulgarian.  The  most  ancient  monument  of 
Russian  literature,  and  at  the  same  time  of  the  ec- 
clesiastical Pala^oslavic  language  common  to  the 
primitive  Slav  Christians,  is  the  Gospel  called  "Ostro- 
mirovo",  written  at  Novgorod  in  1056-57  by  the 
Deacon  Gregor,  by  order  of  Ostromir,  first  magistrate 
(posadnik)  of  the  city.  This  valuable  document  was 
published  by  Vostokoff  in  1843.  Ancient  Russian 
literature  is  of  an  eminently  religious  character.  The 
greater  portion  of  its  monuments  are  sermons,  homi- 
lies, letters,  lives  of  saints,  pilgrimages;  even  the 
profane  works,  as  chronicles  and  voyages,  have  a 
religious  tone.  On  the  other  hand,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  Russians  received  their  Christianity  from 
Byzantium,  their  literature  was  openly  Byzantine 
in  character,  the  early  Russians  either  translating  the 
Byzantine  works,  or  being  inspired  by  the  spirit  of  those 
works,  and  writ  ing  as  if  they  were  Byzantines.  Primi- 
tive Russian  literature,  however,  was  subject  also  to 
other  influences.  The  Slav  influence  was  due  to  the 
Bulgarians  and  Servians,  who,  until  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, gave  many  cultured  men  to  Russia,  e.  g.,  the 
Metropolitan  Cyprian  and  Gregor  Camblak.  Greek 
influence  lasted  a  longer  time,  and  flourished  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 

Russian  literature  in  the  beginning  consisted  of 
translations  from  the  Greek  and  of  original  works. 
Its  development  was  very  slow,  because  the  prices  of 
codices  were  very  high.  The  copying  of  books  was 
considered  not  only  a  useful  contribution  to  culture, 
but  a  supernatural  work.  The  Princess  of  Polotsk, 
St.  Euphrosyne  (twelfth  century),  copied  books,  a 
work  to  which  monks,  and  even  bishops,  devoted 
themselves.  Russian  monks  were  wont  to  go  to 
Constantinople,  or  to  Mount  Athos,  and  there  to  be- 
come amanuenses  and  enrich  the  first  Russian  libra- 
ries by  their  work.  The  first  books  that  were  trans- 
lated wen;  thos(!  of  the  Holy  Script  ures  that  were  most 
used  by  the  pcoph;  (Psalms,  the  Gospels,  Proverbs, 
Wisdom  of  Solomon,  Ecclesia-stcs,  Wisdom  of  Jesus 
the  son  of  Sirach).  There  were  also  collections  of 
extracts  from  the  Holy  Scrijitures,  called  Farcmii. 
The  translation  of  all  the  books  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures in  a  single  codex  was  made  in  1499,  by  order  of 
Gennadius  GonzofT,  Archbishop  of  Novgorod  (1484- 
1504). 

Simultaneously  with  the  Holy  Scriptures,  the  writ- 
ings of  th(^  Fathers  of  the  Church  were  greatly  in 
vogue,  e8i)ecially  those  of  St.  John  Chrysostom. 
Highly  esteemed  also  were  the  dot^trinal  explana- 
tions of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  the  canons  of  St. 
Basil,  the  homilies  of  St.  Theodore  the  Studite,  the 
discourses  of  St.  Athanasius  against  Arianism,  the 


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267 


RUSSIA 


discourses  of  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  the  "Klimax" 
of  St.  John  Climacus,  and  the  works  of  St.  Isaac 
the  Syrian,  St.  Ephraem  the  Syrian,  and  St.  John 
Damascene.  Until  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
theological  writings  of  St.  John  Damascene  were  the 
sources  of  Russian  Orthodox  theology.  The  great 
popularity  of  the  works  of  the  Fathers  gave  rise  to  the 
formation  of  collections  of  extracts  from  their  dis- 
courses, and  to  annotated  copies,  with  explanations, 
for  the  study  of  their  writings,  called  sborniki,  of 
which  there  are  several:  "Zlatoust",  a  collection  of 
moral  sermons  and  homilies  (112),  mostly  from  St. 
John  Chrysostom;  "Margarit",  another  collection 
from  St.  John  Chrysostom,  included  in  the  monologue 
of  the  Metropolitan  Macarius,  and  published  for 
the  first  time  at  Ostrog  in  1596;  "Izmaragd",  a  col- 
lection of  sermons  and  homilies  from  St.  Basil,  St. 


in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  One  of 
the  most  famous  novels,  taken  from  the  literature  of 
Constantinople,  is  the  history  of  Barlaam  and  Josa- 
phat.  At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  in- 
fluence of  Polish  literature  helped  to  spread'in  Russia 
two  works  that  were  much  in  vogue  in  the  West,  the 
" Gesta  Romanorum ",  and  the  "Speculum  Magnum. " 
The  apocryphal  books  of  the  Old  Testament  (story 
of  Adam  and  Eve;  story  of  the  Tree  of  the  Cross; 
story  of  the  Just  Enoch,  etc.),  and  those  of  the  New 
Testament  (story  of  Aphroditian  on  the  miracles  in 
Persia;  dispute  of  Christ  with  the  Devil;  conversa- 
tion of  Adam  and  Lazarus  in  Limbo,  etc.)  were  also 
widely  disseminated  in  the  literature  of  that  time. 
There  were  also  translated  into  Palajorussian  the 
"Elucidarium  sive  dialogus  de  summa  totius  reli- 
gionis  Christiana?",  attributed  to  Honorius  of  Autun 


John   Chrysostom,    St.    Ephraem,    St.    Gregory   the     by  Migne;    books  of  magic  and  books  of  astrology 
Great,  and  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria;  "Andriatis",  a     ("Gromnik",  "Molnianik",  "Koliadnik",  etc).     Un- 


collection  of  the  homilies  recited  by  St.  John  Chrysos- 
tom at  Antioch;    "Zlataia  ciep"   (golden  chain),  a 


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1 

The  Laurentine  Chronicle 
From  the  Radziwil  Manuscript  (page  93) 

collection  of  discourses  on  the  moral  virtues,  taken 
from  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  and  from  Russian 
writers;  the  "Ptchely"  (bees),  a  collection  of  the 
literary  flowers  of  St.  Maximus  the  Confessor.  The 
famous  "Sbornik"  of  Sviatoslaff  Yaroslaffitch,  Prince 
of  TchernigolT,  which  was  translated  in  Bulgaria  from 
the  Greek,  for  the  Tsar  Simeon,  in  1073,  also  has  texts 
from  the  Fathers  and  from  profane  writers. 

The  Greek  synaxaria,  the  JlarepijAcd  of  Sinai  and 
Jerusalem,  translated  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries,  and  the  "Patericon"  of  the  Petcherskaia 
Shrine  of  Kieff,  which  is  very  valuable  for  the  study 
of  primitive  Russian  hagiology,  are  of  a  sacro-his- 
torical  character.  The  Greek  synaxaria  took  in 
Russian  the  name  of  np6Xo7oj.  Collections  of  dis- 
courses in  honour  of  the  feasts  of  Our  Lord,  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  and  of  the  saints  received  the  name 
of  "Torzhestvenniki".  An  historical  compendium  of 
the  Old  Testament,  called  "  Palei ",  from  woXatd  Siad^iKij, 
dates  from  the  earliest  times  of  Russian  Christianity. 
The  oldest  codices  of  the  "Palei"  are  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  but  their  origin  is  much  older.  To 
sacred  and  profane  literature  belong  the  so-called 
Xpop6ypa(poi,  collections  and  transformations  of  writ- 
ings of  Byzantine  chroniclers,  especially  of  Malala, 
Amartolos,  Manasses,  and  Zonaras,  as  also  the  Slav 
version  of  the  "Christian  Topography"  of  Cosmas 
Indicopleustes. 

Partly  to  sacro-profane  and  partly  to  profane 
literature  belong  many  novels  and  stories  translated 
from   Byzantine,    Servian,    and   Bulgarian  writings, 


...  .  ,    tc). 

der  the  influence  of  this  literature,  religious  songs  were 
created  that  became  very  popular  with  the  people 
(Dukhovnye  stikhi) .  These  little  poems  or  songs  treat 
of  the  most  varied  subjects,  and  it  is  verv  difficult 
to  divide  them  into  different  classes.  They  are  of  a 
moral  and  religious  character,  referring  to  the  Creation, 
to  St.  Michael  the  Archangel,  to  the  sufferings  of  the 
damned,  to  the  birth  or  passion  of  Jp.sus  Christ,  to  the 
Russian  saints,  etc.  And  beside  these  poetical  pro- 
ductions sprang  up  the  hagiological  legends,  of  which 
the  best  known  refer  to  St.  Nicholas  of  Alyra,  St. 
Parasceve,  and  St.  Cassian.  The  deep  researches 
of  ArkhangeLski  and  Sobolevski  throw  a  great  deal 
of  light  on  the  Russian  versions  of  the  Fathers  and 
of  the  Byzantine  writings. 

IV.  Literature  from  the  Eleventh  to  the 
Thirteenth  Centuries. — Russian  literature,  prop- 
erly so  called,  from  the  period  of  the  advent  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Russia  to  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great,  com- 
prises discourses,  instructions,  and  letters  that  are 
intended  to  infuse  Christian  sentiments,  and  to  draw 
the  pcojile  from  pagan  practices;  polemical  works, 
directed  at  first  against  the  Latins,  and  later  against 
the  first  Russian  heresies;  lives  of  saints,  chronicles, 
an<l  historical  works,  pilgrimages  and  voyages,  and 
juridical  monuments.  There  is  almost  a  total  ab- 
sence of  poetry.  The  first  centres  of  culture  were 
Kieff  and  Novgorod;  in  the  sixteenth  century,  Mos- 
cow. Among  the  writers  who  left  a  name  for  sacred 
eloquence  in  the  period  from  the  eleventh  to  the 
thirteenth  centuries,  mention  is  made  of  Luke 
Zhidiata,  Archbi.shop  of  Novgorod  (1035-59),  whose 
discourse  is  a  brief  recapitulation  of  the  truths  of  the 
Faith;  St.  Hilarion,  Metropolitan  of  Kieff  in  1051, 
whose  discourses  contain  very  valuable  data  for  the 
early  history  of  Russian  Christianity;  the  Blessed 
Theodosius  Petcherski,  who  wrote  discourses  for 
the  people  and  the  monks;  Nicephorus,  Metropoli- 
tan of  Kieff  (1104-20),  whose  discourses  and  letters, 
written  in  Greek,  were  translated  later  into  Russian; 
Cyril  of  Turoff  (1171-82),  a  brilliant  writer  who,  on 
account  of  his  natural  and  vigorous  eloquence, 
resembling  that  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  is  called 
the  Chrysostom  of  Russia.  His  discourses,  homilies, 
writings  on  monastic  life,  and  prayers  are  among  the 
most  important  monuments  of  the  ancient  ecclesias- 
tical literature  of  Russia. 

The  polemics  against  the  Latins  found  almost 
their  only  exponents  among  the  Greeks  who  in  the 
beginning  governed  the  Russian  dioceses.  Leontius, 
metropolitan  (992-1008),  wrote  against  the  Arians; 
George,  metropolitan  (1065-73),  wrote  a  "Dispute 
with  a  Latin",  in  which  the  various  pretended  in- 
novations of  the  Roman  Church  are  attacked; 
Ivan  II  (1186-89)  is  the  author  of  a  letter  to  Clement 
III,  in  which  the  Latins  are  reproved  only  on  account 
of  the  insertion  of  the  Filioque  in  the  Creed.  The 
letter  on  the  Faith  of  the  Vareghi  (or  Variazhskoi 


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268 


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vierie),  which  by  some  is  attributed,  although  with- 
out strong  arguments,  to  St.  Theodosius  Petcherski, 
is  believed  by  some  to  be  of  Russian  origin.  Among 
the  first  Russian  hagiologists  mention  should  be  made 
of  Jacob,  a  monk  of  the  Petcherskaia  hermitage,  who 
\\Tote  an  account  of  the  martyrdom  of  Sts.  Boris  and 
Cdieba,  and  the  panegyric  of  St.  Vladimir;  of  Nestor, 
the  most  famous  of  the  ancient  Russian  writers,  a 
monk  of  the  hermitage  of  Kieff,  who  died  in  1114. 
He  is  the  author  of  the  lives  of  Boris  and  Glieba,  of 
the  Blessed  Theodosius,  and  of  a  chronicle  ("Lie- 
topis")  The  original  of  the  chronicle  of  Nestor  has 
not  come  down  to  us;  the  most  ancient  copy  of  it  is 
that  of  the  monk  LawTence,  made  in  1377  for  Deme- 
trius Constantiuovitch,  Prince  of  Suzdal.  Nestor  was 
not  the  first  Russian  chronicler.  Other  chroniclers, 
whose  names  and  works  have  not  been  handed  down 
to  our  times,  vrrote  before  him  at  Novgorod.  The 
national  and  literary  importance  of  the  chronicle  of 
Nestor  is  very  great".  The  Russians  rightly  consider 
it  as  an  epic  history,  warm  with  the  love  of  country. 
It  finishes  with  the  year  1110,  but  was  continued  by 
other  \sTiters,  under  various  names,  as  "Chronicle 
of  KiefT",  "Chronicle  of  Volhynia",  "Chronicle  of 
Suzdal",  etc.  They  are  of  an  eminently  religious 
character,  and  abound  in  texts  from  the  Scriptures 
and  in  ascetic  considerations. 

Another  important  work  in  which  the  Russian  na- 
tional sentiment  predominates  is  the  journey  of  the 
higumeno  Daniel  (thirteenth  century)  to  the  Holy 
Places:  before  the  Holy  Sepulchre  he  prays  "for 
all  the  land  of  Russia".  Anthony,  Archbishop  of 
Novgorod,  visited  Constantinople  four  years  after  the 
taking  of  that  city  by  the  Latins  (1204),  and  left  a 
short  but  very  important  description  of  its  churches 
and  monasteries. 

To  profane  literature  belong  the  "Testament" 
of  Vladimir  Monomachus,  written  in  1099,  in  which 
its  author  gives  a  recital  of  his  enterprises;  and  the 
celebrated  account  of  the  battle  of  Igor  ("Slovo"  or 
"Polku  Igorevie"),  which  was  found  in  1795  in  the 
library  of  Count  Musin  Pushkin.  It  is  the  only 
poetical  work  of  the  Russia  of  the  princes,  and  re- 
lates the  military  expedition  of  Igor  Sviatoslavitch, 
Prince  of  Novgorod-Sieverski,  against  the  Polovcy 
(1185).  It  is  characterized  by  the  grandeur  of  its 
poetical  sentiment,  the  beauty  of  its  descriptions, 
and  love  of  country.  In  the  twelfth  century  was 
written  the  discourse  of  Daniel  Zatotchnik  (Captivus), 
who,  impri.soned  in  the  Government  of  Olonetz, 
writes  to  a  prince  to  ask  for  his  liberty,  making  a 
great  display  of  his  learning.  Among  the  juridical 
monuments  of  that  age  we  may  cite  the  "Ru.sskaia 
Pravda"  (Ru.ssian  code)  of  Prince  YaroslafT  I,  and 
the  Greek  Nomocanon,  translated  in  the  earliest 
times  of  PiU.ssian  Christianity,  and  qualified  with  the 
epithet  of  Kormtchaia  kniga,  corrcsjjonding  to  the 
Greek  iri75(iXtoi'.  To  the  nomocanon  were  added  the 
"Ecclesia-stical  Regulations"  ("Cerkovnye  ustavy") 
of  Vladimir  and  YaroslafT,  which  however  are  not 
of  those  princes,  at  least  in  the  form  in  which  they 
have  been  transmitted  to  us  in  codices  of  the  thir- 
teenth centur>'.  The  monasteries  were  centres  of  the 
literary  culture  of  Ru.ssia  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries;  and  the  Greco-Ru.ssian  cl(!rgy  laboured 
for  the  diffusion  of  it.  From  the  Greek  clergy  came 
the  poh-mical  works,  and  the  hatred  of  the  Latins 
that  becanie  fixed  in  the  hearts  of  the  liussian  people. 
The  first  (jreek  polemics  who  lived  in  Rvissia  spread 
the  most  absurd  calurnnir-s  against  the;  Latins,  and 
anathematized  as  heretical  the  most  simple  liturgi- 
cal customs:  the  Metropolitan  George  enumerated 
twenty-seven  j)oints  of  divergence  between  the  Greeks 
and  Latins.  The  thirt(;enth  century  is  very  poor 
from  the  stanrlpoint  of  literature.  The  Tatar  in- 
vasions stopped  the  progress  of  culture,  and  prevented 
intellectual  work.     Among  the  literary  monumente 


of  that  century  are  cited  a  letter  of  Simon,  Bishop  of 
Vladimir  (1215-26),  to  Polycarp,  a  monk  of  the 
Petcherskaia  hermitage;  the  life  of  Abraham  of 
Smolensk,  a  most  important  historical  document; 
the  sermons  of  Seraj)ion,  Bishoj:)  of  Vladimir  (1274- 
75),  and  a  synodal  and  canonical  decision  of  Cyril 
II,  Metropolitan  of  KiefT  (1243-80),  which  is  inserted 
in  the  Kormtchaia  kniga. 

V.    LiTEUATUUE    FROM    THE    FOURTEENTH    TO    THE 

Sixteenth  Centuries. — In  the  period  from  the 
fourteenth  to  the  sixteenth  centuries,  literarj'  culture, 
paralyzed  by  Tatar  oppression  in  the  region  of  Kieff, 
continued  to  flourish  at  Novgorod  and  Pskof,  and 
from  there  was  carried  to  other  centres,  viz.,  Vladi- 
mir, Rostoff,  Murom,  YaroslafT,  Tver,  Ryazan,  and 
finally  Moscow,  which  received  the  name  of  the 
Third  Rome.  In  the  fourteenth  century  sacred  ser- 
mons were  written  by  various  authors,  among  whom 
were  Peter,  Metropolitan  of  Moscow;  Alexei,  another 
metropolitan  of  Moscow  (1293-1377)  who,  in  a  codex 
of  the  Gospel  which  he  transcribed,  corrected  the 
ancient  Slav  version  in  many  points,  by  the  Greek 
original;  Matvei,  Bishop  of  Sarai;  the  metropohtan 
Cyprian  (1376-1406),  a  Servian  by  birth,  who  also 
left  various  letters  and  translated  the  Psalter,  the 
Missal  iSluzhcb7iik) ,  the  Nomocanon,  etc.;  the  Blessed 
Cyril,  founder  of  the  monastery  of  Bielozero,  the 
author  of  several  letters  to  the  sons  of  Prince  Deme- 
trius Donskoi;  Basil,  Archbishop  of  Novgorod  (1331- 
1352),  who  wrote  a  letter  to  Feodor,  Bishop  of  Tver, 
to  convince  him  of  the  existence  of  a  terrestrial  para- 
dise. Brief  descriptions  of  Constantinople  and  its 
churches  in  the  fourteenth  century  were  left  by 
Stephen,  a  monk  of  Novgorod,  by  Ignatius,  a  deacon 
of  Smolensk,  and  by  Alexandr  D'jak  ("judge", 
"magistrate").  Among  the  novels  special  mention 
should  be  made  of  the  "Zadonshina",  written  by 
Sofronio  or  Sofonio  of  Ryazan,  an  epic  story  that 
relates  the  military  acts  of  Prince  Demetrius  Donskoi, 
who  vanquished  the  Tatars  at  Kulikovo  (1380). 

In  the  fifteenth  century  the  beginning  of  heresies 
in  Russian  Christianity,  which  originated  in  the  deca- 
dence of  monastic  asceticism  as  well  as  in  the  gross 
ignorance  of  the  clergy  and  laity,  opened  up  new 
fields  to  Russian  religious  polemics.  Photius,  ]\Ietro- 
politan  of  Mo.scow  (1410-31)  and  Gregor  Camblak, 
Metropolitan  of  Kieff  (1416)  composed  letters  and 
moral  sermons;  Gennadius,  Archbishop  of  Novgo- 
rod (1485-1504),  wrote  against  the  sect  of  the  Ju- 
daizers,  which  originated  in  that  city  about  1471; 
the  higumeno  Josef  Sanin  of  Polotsk  assailed  the  same 
sect  in  his  tedious  work  "Prosvietitel"  ("the  illu- 
minator"). Nil  Sorski  (1433-1508),  founder  of  a 
hermitage  on  the  banks  of  the  Sora  River,  is  the  au- 
thor of  writ  ings  that  were  directed  towards  the  ref- 
ormation of  the  ideals  and  the  life  of  Russian 
monasticism.  Among  the  travellers  of  this  period 
Zosimus,  hiero-deacon  of  the  hermitage  of  St.  Sergius, 
and  a  merchant,  Basil,  left  accounts  of  their  pil- 
grimages to  the  Holy  Land.  Simeon,  hicro-monk  of 
Suzdal,  accompanied  Isidore,  Metroijolitan  of  Mos- 
cow, to  the  Council  of  Florence,  and  left  an  interest- 
ing recital  of  his  voyage  to  Italy,  and  a  short  but  im- 
portant account  of  the  council,  which  is  one  of  the 
monumentsof  the  Russian  polemics  against  the  Latins. 
Anthony  Nikitin,  a  merchant  of  Tver,  went  to  India 
through  Persia  in  1466,  returned  to  his  country  in 
1472,  and  in  the  account  of  his  travels  gave  imjjortant 
information  on  the  religious  bc^licifs  of  the  people  of 
India.  In  historical  literature,  besides  the  valuable 
sketch  of  the  Council  of  Florence,  there  should  be 
mention(Hl  the  at^count  of  the  foundation  and  the 
taking  of  Constantinople,  which  was  very  popular 
among  the  Russians. 

The  sixteenth  century,  as  Porfir^ff  rightly  states, 
was  one  of  criticism  and  restoration.  Its  literature, 
always  eminently  religious,  proposed  to  revive  the 


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269 


RUSSIA 


ancient  customs,  and  the  ancient  traditions,  and  to 
restore  religion  and  the  family.  The  most  famous 
and  most  learned  champion  of  these  reforms  was 
Maximus  the  Greek,  born  at  Arta,  in  Albania,  and 
educated  in  Italy.  He  entered  monastic  life  on 
Mount  Athos,  and  in  1518  repaired  to  Russia,  where 
he  took  an  active  part  in  the  religious  life  of  the  coun- 
try, and  in  the  correction  of  the  hturgical  books; 
he  suffered  a  painful  imprisonment  in  various  monas- 
teries, from  1525  to  1553,  and  died  at  the  hermitage 
of  St.  Sergius  in  1556.  A  most  learned  theologian, 
he  wrote  polemical  works  against  the  Gentiles,  the 
Jews,  the  Judaizers,  the  Mohammedans,  and  the 
Latins,  especially  in  opposition  to  the  supremacy  of 
the  pope  and  to  the  Filioque;  he  combatted  astrology, 
and  wrote  short  works  and  discourses  on  moral  sub- 
jects. Among  the  Russian  prelates  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  Daniel,  elected  Metropolitt^n  of  Moscow  in 
1522,  acquired  fame.  He  was  the  author  of  sixteen 
discourses  that  prove  him  to  have  read  assiduously, 
and  to  have  had  a  profound  knowledge  of  patristic 
literature.  The  most  important  monument  of  the 
literature  of  the  sixteenth  century  is  the  "  Domostroi", 
attributed  to  Sylvester,  a  priest  who  was  the  con- 
temporary of  Ivan  the  Terrible;  Sylvester  was,  how- 
ever, the  compiler  rather  than  the  author  of  the 
work.  It  is  a  book  of  a  moral  character,  in  which  are 
propounded  the  rules  for  living  according  to  the  pre- 
cepts of  the  Faith  and  Christian  piety,  the  duties 
of  man  as  a  member  of  the  family,  and  the  way  to 
govern  the  home  well  and  to  care  for  domestic  econ- 
omy. The  "  Domostroi ",  therefore,  is  a  compendium 
of  the  duties  of  a  Christian  man,  and  at  the  same  time 
a  true  picture  of  the  social  and  domestic  organiza- 
tion of  Russia  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Another 
great  work,  which  had  remained  unpublished  until 
now,  but  which  the  Archa-ographical  Commission  of 
St.  Petersburg  is  now  bringing  to  light,  is  the 
"Tchet'y  Minei"  of  the  Metropolitan  Macarius  of 
M0.SC0W  (1542-64).  From  the  beginnings  of  its  lit- 
erature, Russia  possessed  lives  of  saints,  the  num- 
ber of  which  increased  from  century  to  century. 
The  Metropolitan  Macarius  collected  into  a  vast 
work  the  lives  of  all  the  saints  of  the  Greco-Russian 
Church,  adding  panegvrics  and  discourses  in  their 
honour,  and  al.so  whole  Vjooks  of  Scripture,  with  com- 
mentaries, writings  of  the  Fathers,  and  synaxaria, 
so  that  his  menr)l()gies  are  almost  a  compl(;te  r6per- 
toire  of  the  ancient  literatureof  Russia,  rather  than  a 
simple  hagiological  collection.  To  the  same  century 
belong  the  hagiological  legends,  which  are  lives  of  the 
saints,  or  epi.sodes  in  them,  embellished  by  popular 
fancy,  examples  of  which  are  the  legends  of  the 
Tsarevitch  Peter  (thirteenth  century),  of  St.  Mer- 
curius,  of  Martha  and  Mary,  of  Prince  Peter  of 
Murom,  and  of  his  consort,  Febronia. 

Prince  Andrew  Kurbski,  a  warm  defender  of  the 
Orthodox  Church,  translated  the  dialectics  and  the 
111777;  yvdxj-eojs  of  St.  John  Damascene,  and  wrote  a 
brief  history  of  the  Council  of  Florence  and  a  history 
of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  with  whom  he  was  in  corre- 
spondence; these  letters  are  preserved  to  our  day.  An 
important  work  of  religious  polemics  was  written  by 
the  monk  Zinovii  of  Otna,  who  refuted  the  heretical 
and  Judaistic  doctrines  of  Kosoi.  The  title  of  the  work 
i8"Istiny  pokazanie"  (demonstration  of  the  truth), 
and  it  consists  of  fifty-six  chapters.  Of  the  sixteenth 
century  there  are  also  two  small  works,  written  in 
refutation  of  Protestantism,  which  at  that  time  was 
beginning  to  spread  in  Russia.  Among  the  Russian 
pilgrims  who  visited  the  Holy  Places  and  who  wrote 
an  account  of  their  travels  the  most  distinguished  are 
Trifon  Korobeinikoff  and  George  Grekoff,  who  went 
to  Jerusalem  in  1583. 

VI.  Literature  of  Little  Russia  and  Great 
Russia  in  the  Seventeenth  Century. — The  seven- 
teenth century  witnessed  the  Renaissance  of  Little 


Russia,  which  became  the  instructor  of  Great  Russia. 
Under  CathoUc  and  Polish  influence  Little  Russia 
drew  near  to  the  West,  a.ssimilated  Western  science, 
and  modelled  its  schools  upon  tho.se  of  the  Latins. 
The  "Union"  of  Brest  in  1596  gave  an  efficient  im- 
pulse to  Orthodox  culture.  Confraternities  were  es- 
tablished to  open  schools  and  printing-offices  for 
the  publication  and  dissemination  of  polemical  works; 
among  them  those  of  Lemberg,  Vilna,  and  Kieff  were 
famous.  Scholastic  theology  and  philosophy  en- 
tered into  and  dominated  the  Russian  academies 
and  seminaries.  Latin  became  the  official  language 
in  the  teaching  of  theology.  Peter  Mogilas,  Metro- 
politan of  Kieff,  transformed  into  a  superior  school 
of  theology  the  school  established  by  the  Confra- 
ternity of  the  Church  of  the  Apparition  of  the  Lord. 
The  works  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  exercised  a  great 
influence  on  Orthodox  theology,  and  in  the  academy 
of  Kieff  the  Immaculate  Conception  was  upheld. 
The  literature  of  the  religious  polemics  against  the 
Latins,  to  which  the  Union  of  Brest  gave  rise,  is 
very  rich.  In  1597  was  published  the  "Ekthesis", 
or  Orthodox  history  of  the  Union  of  Brest;  Kris- 
tofor  Bronski,  under  the  pseudonym  of  Filalete, 
wrote  the  "Apokrisis"  against  Peter  Skarga,  and 
later  the  "Perestroga"  (admonishment).  Meletius 
Smotricki,  Archbishop  of  Polotsk  (d.  1633),  wrote 
the  "Threnos"  and  other  works  of  religious  polemic, 
and  finally  embraced  Catholicism;  in  1622  Zacharias 
Kopystenski  wrote  the  "Palinodia",  the  most  im- 
portant work  in  this  polemical  literature.  The 
writings  of  Meletius  Smotricki  in  defence  of  Catholi- 
cism, which  he  had  on  other  occasions  so  strenuously 
opposed,  were  confuted  by  Andrew  Muzkilovski, 
by  Job  Borecki,  Metropolitan  of  Kieff,  and  by 
Gelasius  Diplic.  Joannikius  Galiatovski,  rector  of 
the  academy  of  Kieff  (d.  1688),  wrote  several  works 
against  the  Catholics,  one  of  them  against  the 
Filioque,  confuted  the  Hebrews  in  his  work  "The 
True  Messias",  and  also  wrote  several  works  in  ref- 
utation of  the  Koran.  Another  polemic  against  the 
Latins  was  Lazarus  Baranovitch,  Archbishop  of 
Tchernigoff  (d.  1694);  in  a  work  that  was  directed 
against  the  Jesuit  Boyme,  he  opposed  the  supremacy 
of  the  pope  and  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
from  the  Son. 

The  first  Orthodox  catechisms  appeared  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  written  by  Laurence  Zizanii  and 
by  Peter  Mogilas;  the  latter,  in  the  work  Ai^os  (attrib- 
uted to  him),  defends  the  Orthodox  Church  against 
the  charge  of  Protestantism;  he  is  considered  to  be 
the  author  of  the  famous  Orthodox  Confession  of  the 
Eastern  Church,  approved  by  the  special  Council 
of  Jassy  in  1643.  Among  the  preachers  whom  the 
sacred  orators  of  the  East  sought  to  imitate,  mention 
may  again  be  made  of  Joannikius  Galiatovski, 
who  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  art  of  oratory,  entitled 
"Kliutch  razumienia";  Anthony  Radivilovski,  higu- 
meno  of  the  hermitage  of  Kieff;  and  Lazarus  Bara- 
novitch. In  1591  there  was  published  at  Lemberg 
the  first  Slavo-Greek  grammar;  Lawrence  Zizanii 
wrote  a  Slav  grammar  in  1596,  and  the  grammar  of 
Meletius  Smotricki  was  published  in  1619.  Zizanii 
added  a  small  Slav  dictionary  to  his  grammar,  but 
the  first  Slavo-Ilussian  lexicon  was  pubhshed  by 
Berjmda,  hiero-monk  of  Kieff,  in  1627.  Western 
influence  is  revealed  also  in  the  poetry  of  the  academy 
of  Kieff.  Besides  the  sacred  cantata,  the  "  Mysteries" 
were  introduced  to  the  schools  and  colleges;  these 
"Mysteries"  were  sacred  plaj's,  modelled  upon  those 
of  the  Jesuit  colleges.  Among  the  historical  works 
of  Little  Russia,  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
"Sj'nopsis"  of  the  history  of  Russia  by  Innocent 
Gizel,  Archimandrite  of  Kieff,  the  "Enegcsis"  or 
history  of  the  school  of  Kieff,  and  the"  Paterikon " 
of  the  Petcherskaia  hermitage  by  Sylvester  Kossoff, 
Metropolitan  of  Kieff  (d.  1657). 


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From  Kieff  Western  culture  was  carried  to  Moscow, 
to  which  city  masters  and  learned  men  of  Little 
Russia  were  called  to  organize  schools,  compose 
works,  and  print  books;  but  they  did  not  receive 
a  friendly  welcome.  Their  orthodoxy  was  suspected ; 
the  more  so  since  several  of  the  most  illustrious  theo- 
logians of  Kieff  admitted  with  the  Latins  the  dog- 
matic truth  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  and  the 
efficacy  of  the  words  of  consecration  alone  to  effect 
Transubst  ant  iat  ion .  The  suspicion  against  the  purity 
of  their  theological  teachings  became  so  strong  that 
the  Russians  turned  to  the  Greeks  for  masters.  In 
16S5  the  Greek  school  was  established  at  Moscow, 
and  in  time  took  the  name  of  Greco -Slav-Latin 
Academy.  Its  first  masters  were  the  Greek  hiero- 
monks  Joannikius  and  Sophronius  Likhudes,  who  had 
studied  in  Italy,  and  who  taught  Greek  literature 
at  Moscow  from  1685  to  1694.  They  wrote  many 
polemical  works  against  the  Latins,  against  Prot- 
estants, and  against  the  theologians  of  Little  Russia 
who  leaned  towards  the  Latins,  especially  against 
Sylvester  Medviedeff .  In  ecclesiastical  literature  the 
most  distinguished  authors  were  Epiphanius  Slavi- 
necki,  the  first  of  Russian  bibliographers;  Arsenius  Su- 
khanoflf,  author  of  "A  Voyage  to  the  Holy  Land" 
("ProskATiitarion");  Simon  Polocki  (of  Polotsk), 
author  of  one  of  the  first  systematic  treatises  on  Or- 
thodox theology  ("Vienec  viery"),  and  also  of  ser- 
mons that  are  highly  prized,  of  sacred  poems,  and  of 
sacred  plays;  St.  Demetrius  of  Rostoff  (1651-1709), 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  bishops  of  the  Russian 
Church,  a  theologian,  historian,  poet,  polemic,  and 
hagiologist.  He  was  the  author  of  two  Orthodox 
catechisms,  of  a  very  strong  work  against  the  Ras- 
kolniki  ("Rozj-sk"),  of  a  diary  of  his  life,  the  "Tcheti 
minei"  (menologies),  a  work  upon  which  he  spent 
twenty  years;  many  sacred  discourses  that  are  ap- 
preciated for  the  simplicity  of  their  style  and  for 
their  depth  of  religious  sentiment,  and,  finally,  of 
several  sacred  plays,  one  of  the  most  interesting  of 
■which  is  the  "Birthday". 

Epiphanius  Slavinecki  and  an  unnamed  priest  of 
Orel  were  also  distinguished  as  sacred  orators.  The 
former  rendered  a  great  service  to  Patristic  literature 
by  translating  into  Russian  a  great  many  of  the 
writings  of  the  Fathers  (St.  Justin,  St.  Gregory  of 
Nazianzus,  St.  Basil,  and  St.  John  Damascene). 
One  of  his  scholars,  Eutimius,  wrote  a  polemical  work, 
called  "Osten",  against  the  theories  of  Sylvester 
Med\-iedeff,  who  sided  with  the  Latins  in  the  ques- 
tion of  the  Epiklesis.  Against  the  Raskolniki,  be- 
sides St.  Demetrius  of  Rostoff,  there  wrote  Simeon 
of  Polotsk  in  1666  ("Zhely  pravlenija");  in  1682  the 
Patriarch  of  Moscow,  Jacob  ("Uviet  dukhovnii"): 
likewise,  the  Metropolitan  of  Siberia,  Ignatius,  and 
George  Krizhanitch.  The  latter,  who  was  a  student 
of  the  Greek  College  of  St.  Athanasius  at  Rome 
(1640),  became  famous  on  account  of  his  theories 
of  the  cause  of  the  schism  between  East  and  West, 
which  he  attributed  to  poUtics  and  the  antagonism 
between  Greeks  and  Latins,  due  to  Panslavist  ideas 
and  political  doctrines.  The  learned  Sergius  Bielo- 
kuroff  devoted  four  volumes  to  the  life  and  works  of 
Krizhanitch.  In  the  seventeenth  century  there  be- 
gan to  be  published  the  first  Greco-Latin  lexicons, 
and  also  the  first  scientific  books,  arithmetics  and 
geographies.  Historical  literature  is  represented  by 
the  chronicle  of  the  Patriarch  Nicomachus,  which 
is  brought  down  to  1631;  by  the  chronicle  called 
"Voskresjcnski",  after  the  monastery  where  it  was 
written,  of  which  the  relation  finishes  with  the  year 
1560;  and  by  several  special  chronicles,  as  the  account 
of  the  siege  of  the  Shrine  of  St.  Sergius  by  the  Poles 
in  1610,  by  Abraham  Polycin,  and  by  others  of  the 
diak  Feodor  GriboiedofI,  of  the  deacon  Timothy 
Kamevevitch  Rvovski,  of  Andrew  LyzlofT,  a  priest 
of  Smolensk,  and  of  Sergius  Kubasofif. 


VII.  Russian  Literature  of  the  Time  of 
Peter  the  Great. — Under  Peter  the  Great  there 
began  a  new  period  in  Russian  literature.  The 
foundation  of  St.  Petersburg  put  Russia  in  more 
direct  contact  with  the  West.  Peter  the  Great,  by 
violence  and  absolutism,  dragged  Russia  out  of  her 
isolation,  and  directed  her  upon  a  new  way.  A  new 
and  more  simple  alphabet  took  the  place  of  the  old 
Slav  alphabet,  the  new  characters  being  adapted  from 
the  Latin.  The  first  book  that  was  printed  with  the 
new  characters  is  a  treatise  on  geometry  (1708). 
In  arithmetical  books,  Arabic  figures  were  substituted 
for  the  Slav  letters  that  represented  numerals  (1703). 
Schools  of  navigation,  of  miUtary  science,  and  of 
medicine  were  established.  Peter  the  Great  de- 
termined to  establish  an  academy  of  sciences  at  St. 
Petersburg,  and  Catherine  I  carried  out  his  project  in 
1726.  Many  foreign  books  were  translated  into 
Russian,  and  the  most  intelligent  students  were  sent 
to  foreign  countries  to  complete  their  studies.  Rus- 
sian literature  lost  its  ecclesiastical  character  and 
assumed  a  lay  form;  and  in  ecclesiastical  literature 
itself  there  was  efi'ected  a  transformation  towards 
the  modern,  due  to  the  reforms  of  Peter  the  Great. 

The  first  period  of  this  new  literature  begins  with 
Peter  the  Great,  and  closes  with  Lomonosoff  and 
SumarokofT.  In  the  realm  of  sacred  literature  there 
became  famous  Stephen  Javorski  (1658-1723),  pa- 
triarchal vicar  and  Metropolitan  of  Ryazan,  and 
Theophanus  Procopovitch,  Archbishop  of  Novgorod 
(1681-1736).  The  former,  in  his  "Kamen  viery" 
(Rock  of  Faith),  wrote  a  most  learned  refutation  of 
Protestantism,  taking  much  from  Bellarmine;  the 
second,  who  was  the  author  of  the  "Ecclesiastical 
Regulations"  of  Peter  the  Great,  wrote  a  voluminous 
course  of  Orthodox  theology  in  Latin,  and  acquired 
fame  as  a  man  of  letters  and  orator.  In  profane 
literature  the  influence  of  the  French  entirely  pre- 
dominated. There  began  the  period  of  the  new 
Russian  poetry,  the  rules  of  which  were  propounded 
by  Tredianovski  (1703-69),  who  translated  into  Rus- 
sian the  "Ars  Poetica"  of  Horace,  and  the  work 
bearing  the  same  title  by  Boileau.  Prince  Antiochus 
Dmitrievitch  (1708-44),  a  Rumanian  in  the  service 
of  Russia,  inaugurated  the  era  of  classicism  in  Rus- 
sian poetry  with  his  satires,  which  are  often  servile 
imitations  of  Horace,  Juvenal,  and  Boileau.  Michael 
Vasilevitch  Lomonosoff  (1711-65)  deserves  to  be 
called  the  Peter  the  Great  of  Russian  literature  on 
account  of  his  versatility,  of  the  multiplicity  of  his 
works,  and  of  his  great  literary  influence:  he  wrote 
a  treatise  on  Russian  poetry  (1739),  on  rhetoric 
(1748),  on  grammar  (1755);  he  composed  an  epic 
poem  on  Peter  the  Great,  two  tragedies  (Tamira  and 
Salim,  and  Damofonte) ;  he  translated  the  Psalms 
into  verse  and  wrote  lyric  poems,  among  which  the 
ode  to  the  Empress  Elizabeth  has  remained  fa- 
mous. Alexander  Petrovitch  SumarokofT  composed 
many  tragedies,  some  of  them  with  Russian  sub- 
jects (Yaropolk  and  Dimisa,  Vysheslaff,  Demetrius, 
Mstislav) ;  he  founded  the  national  Russian  drama, 
wrote  the  comedies  "Opekun"  (The  Tutor),  and 
"Likhoimec"  (The  Concussionist),  composed  satires, 
and  in  1759  established  the  first  Russian  literary 
periodical,  the  "Trudoliubivaia  Ptchela"  (The 
Working  Bee). 

Among  the  prose  writers,  Ivan  Pososhkoff  (1670- 
1725),  in  his  "Zavicshanie  otetcheskoe"  (testament 
of  the  Fatherland),  shows  the  necessity  of  well- 
ordered  reforms  in  Russia,  and  in  his  book  on  poverty 
and  wealth  ("Kniga  o  skudosti  i  bogatstvie")  he 
develops  in  an  original  way  his  theories  on  politi- 
cal and  social  economy.  Basil  Nikititch  Tatisnsheff 
(1685-1750)  gathered  the  chronicles,  the  aynaxaria, 
and  the  historical  documents,  and  subjecting  them  to 
critical  analysis,  wrote  the  "History  of  Russia". 
The  academician  Schlotzer  spent  forty  years  elucidat- 


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271 


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ing  the  origin  and  the  historical  problems  of  the 
primitive  national  chronicles  of  Russia.  In  1728 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  began  the  publication  of  the 
"S.  Petersburgskija  Viedomosti",  under  the  direction 
of  the  academician  Miiller,  who  in  1755  also  founded 
the  first  scientific-literary  periodical,  called  the 
"Ezhemiesatchnyja  sotchinenia". 

VIII.  Literature  of  Russia  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century. — During  the  reign  of  Catherine  II  French 
influence  upon  Russian  literature  became  greater 
instead  of  decreasing.  The  writings  of  the  French 
Encyclopedists  and  materialist  philosophy  became 
popular;  Voltaire  and  Rousseau  were  much  esteemed, 
and  Catherine  II  became  entirely  imbued  with  a 
Voltairean  spirit.  She  did  not  limit  herself  to  favour- 
ing scientific  institutions,  and  to  creating  new  ones, 
but  aspired  to  literary  laurels.  She  wrote  spelling- 
books,  stories  for  children,  letters  on  education, 
comedies,  newspaper  articles,  and  several  volumes 
of  memoirs  in  French,  in  which,  with  a  cynical  sim- 
plicity of  style,  she  relates  some  of  the  ugliest  episodes 
of  her  unchaste  life.  During  her  reign  many  liter- 
ary publications  were  established.  The  empress  her- 
self did  not  disdain  to  contribute  to  the  "Vsiakaja 
v.siatchina"  (General  Miscellany).  Dionysius  Ivano- 
vitch  Fonvizin  (1744-92)  wrote  comedies  which,  like 
the  "Brigadier",  and  the  "Nedorosl"  (Pupil),  be- 
came popular  in  Russia.  Gabriel  Romanovitch  Der- 
zhavin  (1743-1816),  of  Tatar  origin,  assimilated  the 
classical  and  modern  literatures,  and  as  a  lyric  poet 
sought  to  rise  to  the  height  of  Horace  and  Pindar. 
His  encomiastic  odea  are  an  apotheosis  of  the  reign 
of  Catherine  II.  In  his  religious  songs,  with  his 
"Ode  to  God"  (1784),  which  the  Russians  regard 
as  the  most  beautiful  monument  of  their  national 
poetry,  he  perhaps  attains  sublimity  of  inspiration. 
His  moral  and  philosophical  odes  and  his  Anacreontic 
verses  reveal  in  him  a  great  poetical  genius.  His 
tragedies  "Pozharski",  "Tiemnji"  and  "Euprassia" 
do  not  join  dramatic  quality  to  their  elegance  of  form. 
Mikhail  Matveievitch  Kheraskoff,  of  Wallachian 
origin,  by  his  poems  "Rossiada"  and  "Vladimir", 
which  have  been  forgotten,  deserves  the  title  of 
the  Virgil  or  the  Homer  of  Russia.  Ippolit  Feo- 
dorovitch  Bogdanovitch  (1743-1803),  in  his  poem 
"Dushenka",  imitated  La  Fontaine's  "Amours  de 
Psychd  et  de  Cupidon".  Basil  Ivanovitch  Maikoff 
(1728-78  )distinguished  himself  as  a  writer  of  comic 
poetry;  Kniazhnin  (1742-91)  wrote  tragedies  and 
comedies;  "labeda"  (The  Calumny),  a  comedy  by 
Kapnist  (1757-1828),  was  also  among  the  plays  that 
became  popular. 

The  scientific  movement  was  greatly  promoted  by 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  St.  Petersburg,  by  the 
University  of  Moscow,  and  by  the  Russian  Academy, 
which  was  opened  in  1783.  Among  those  who  dis- 
tinguished themselves  in  historical  work  or  in  the 
study  of  the  social  and  political  conditions  of  Russia 
were  Shsherbatoff  (1733-90),  who  wrote  six  volumes 
of  a  "History  of  Russia";  Boltin  (1735-92),  whose 
learned  volumes  of  "Observations  on  the  History 
of  Russia",  edited  by  Leclerc,  were  much  praised 
by  Soloveff;  Radishsheff  (1749-1802),  whose  "Jour- 
ney from  St.  Petersburg  to  Moscow",  describing  the 
miseries  of  the  peasants  and  the  abuses  of  the  Rus- 
sian bureaucracy  cost  its  author  an  exile  of  ten  years 
in  Siberia.  The  archpriest  of  Moscow,  Alekseieff, 
wrote  the  first  ecclesiastical  encyclopedia,  while  the 
Bishop  Damascenus  Rudneeff,  who  died  in  1795, 
published  his  "Russian  Library",  which  contains  an 
account  of  Russian  literature,  from  its  origin  to  the 
eighteenth  century.  Tchulkoff  and  Mikhail  Popoff 
collected  the  monuments  of  the  popular  literature 
of  their  country. 

IX.  Literature  of  Russia  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century. — In  the  nineteenth  century,  Russian 
literature  freed  itself  little  by  little  from  the  yoke  of 


foreign  imitation,  perfected  the  language,  making  it 
a  most  adequate  means  for  the  expression  of  the 
highest  conceptions  of  the  mind  and  the  most  delicate 
affections  of  the  heart,  and  through  a  number  of  men  of 
genius,  won  a  place  of  honour  in  the  history  of  uni- 
versal literature.  The  merit  of  this  transformation, 
of  this  new  direction  of  Russian  thought,  is  in  great 
measure  due  to  Nikolai  Mikhailovitch  Karamzin 
(1766-1826),  who  acquired  a  great  fame  in  his  coun- 
try through  his  letters  on  travels  that  he  made  in 
Europe,  his  novels,  and  tlie  part  that  he  took  in  the 
establishment  of  tlie  periodicals  "  Moskovski  Zhurnal" 
and  the  "Viestnik  Europy"  (Courier  of  Europe). 
But  his  greatest  claim  to  glory  is  the  "Istorija  go- 
sudarstva  rossiiskago "  (History  of  the  Ru-ssian  Em- 
pire), a  masterpiece  of  style,  exposition,  and  elo- 
quence, which  contributed  more  than  anything  else 
to  the  formation  of  Russian  prose.  Historical  crit- 
icism may  find  more  to  say  of  this  work,  but  the 
literary  merit  of  it  will  never  be  eclipsed.  Tlic  work 
formed  a  literary  school,  to  which  belong  Ivan 
Ivanovitch  Dmitrieff  (1760-1S37),  an  exponent  of 
elegance  in  poetry,  author  of  poetical  stories,  satires, 
and  fables;  and  Izmailoff,  who  became  famous 
through  his  "Journey  in  Southern  Russia"  etc.  In  the 
realm  of  dramatic  poetry,  there  became  famous 
Ozeroff,  by  his  tragedy  "(Edipus  in  Athens"  (1804); 
"Fingal"  (1805);  "Dmitri  Donskoi"  (1807),  and 
"Polissena"  (1809);  the  most  noted  satirists  were 
Gortchakoff  and  Nakhimoff.  But  the  greatest  po- 
etical glory  of  this  period  was  Vassih  Andreievitch 
Zhukovski  (1783-1852),  the  master  of  romanticism 
in  Russia,  author  of  the  Russian  national  hymn 
"Bozhe,  carja  Khrani",  and  an  indefatigable  trans- 
lator of  Homer,  Schiller,  Goethe,  Burger,  Uhland, 
Riikkert,  Byron,  and  Scott.  His  elegies  are  full  of 
passion  and  sentiment;  his  ballads,  imitations  of  the 
German,  became  popular;  they  reveal  in  him  a 
vivid  poetical  imagination. 

Ivan  Andreievitch  Kryloff  (1768-1844)  owes  his 
celebrity  rather  to  his  comedies  than  to  his  fables, 
which,  it  is  true,  are  imitations  of  La  Fontaine, 
but  are  written  with  so  much  simplicity,  elegance, 
and  richness  of  style,  with  such  variety  of  rhythm 
and  expression,  that  they  form  a  veritable  literary 
jewel,  the  value  of  which  can  be  appreciated  only  by 
those  who  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Russian. 
His  comedies,  "Modnaja  lavka"  (The  Custom  Shop) 
and  "Urok  dotchkam"  (A  Lesson  to  Girls),  are  of 
less  literary  merit.  As  a  writer  of  comedy,  Alexan- 
der Sergeievitch  Griboiedoff  (1790-1829)  rose  to  the 
pinnacle  of  the  art  in  a  play  that  is  the  masterpiece 
of  Russian  theatrical  composition,  "Gore  ot  uma" 
(The  Misfortune  of  Having  Talent),  a  work  which  is 
full  of  pessimism  on  the  social  conditions  of  Russia 
and  civilization  generally;  many  of  its  verses  have 
become  proverbs. 

The  epoch  of  Nicholas  I,  which  was  one  of  fierce 
absolutism,  was  nevertheless  one  of  glory  in  the 
development  of  Russian  literature.  Russian  genius 
being  oppressed,  withdrew  within  itself,  and  revealed 
to  the  world  the  treasures  of  the  esthetic  sentiments 
of  the  Russian  soul.  Among  the  greatest  poets  of 
this  period  there  stands  pre-eminent  Alexander 
Pushkin  (1799-1837),  whose  career  was  brought  to 
an  end  in  a  duel,  when  his  genius  was  at  its  height. 
Melchior  Vogiie  rightly  considers  him  one  of  the  great- 
est poets  that  ever  lived.  He  began  his  literary 
career  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  when  he  was  a  student  in 
the  lyceum  of  Tsarskoye  Selo.  His  first  lyric  poems 
bear  the  date  of  1814,  and  are  a  revelation  of  his 
genius.  He  adopted  Byron  and  Zhukovski  for  his 
models.  Among  those  lyric  poems  his  invective 
against  the  calumniators  of  Russia  ("K  klevetnikam 
Rossii"),  written  in  1831,  is  famous.  Of  his  epic 
works  we  may  cite  the  famous  "  Rusalka,  the  Prisoner 
of  the  Caucasus"  ("Kavkazski  pliennik")  in  1821; 


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the  "Fountain  of  Bakhtchiserai "  (1822-23);  the 
"Tzigani"  (1824);  "Poltava"  (1828),  one  of  Pushkin's 
most  perfect  poems,  written  in  glorification  of  Peter 
the  Great;  " Eugene  Oniegin "  (1823-31),  an  original 
imitation  of  Byron's  "Cliilde  Harold",  admirable 
on  account  of  the  freshness  of  its  inspiration  and  of 
its  exquisite  versification;  and  finally  "The  Hussar" 
(1833).  .-Vmong  his  romances,  three  became  popular 
at  once,  the  "Dubrovski  (1832-33),  "The  Daughter 
of  the  Captain"  (1833-36),  and  "Pikovaja  dama" 
(The  Queen  of  Spades),  a  work  that  is  admirable 
on  account  of  the  subtihty  of  its  psychological 
analysis.  In  the  realm  of  dramatic  poetry  Pushkin 
gave  to  his  country  a  great  masterpiece,  the  tragedy 
"Boris  Godunoff"  (1825-31),  and  in  that  of  drama, 
"Skupoi  rycar"  (The  Avaricious  Knight),  "Mozart 
and  Salery",  and  "Rusalka".  Among  his  works  in 
prose,  mention  should  be  made  of  the  "Outlines  of 
the  History  of  Peter  the  Great",  and  of  the  "His- 
tory' of  the  Sedition  of  Pugatcheff".  Pushkin  was 
the  first  great  original  poet  of  Russia,  and  the  one 
who  excelled  in  chissic  style.  At  the  same  time  he 
was  the  author  of  a  school  that  has  among  its  members 
Ivan  Ivanovitch  Kozloff,  author  of  two  most  touch- 
ing poems,  "Tchernec"  (The  Monk)  and  "NataUa 
Dolgorukaja";  Delvin  (1798-1831);  JazykofT  (1803- 
46),  and  Eugene  Baratynski  (1800-44). 

Nikolai  Vassilievitch  Gogol  (1808-52),  a  native 
of  Little  Russia,  was  another  genius  of  the  Russian 
literature  of  the  nineteenth  century.  His  comedy, 
"The  Reviser",  published  in  1836,  is  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  the  Russian  theatre,  a  true  portrait 
of  the  malversations  of  the  bureaucracy.  Among 
his  romances  and  novels,  he  acquired  merited  fame 
through  "Taras  Bul'ba",  an  historical  romance  of 
Southern  Russia,  "The  Dispute  between  Ivan 
Ivanovntch  and  IvanNikiforovitch",  "The  Portrait", 
"The  Arabesques",  "Kohaska"  (The  Calash),  "Za- 
piski  sumasshedshago "  (Memoirs  of  a  Madman), 
and  lastly  "Mertvyja  dushi"  (The  Dead  Souls),  in 
two  parts,  a  masterpiece  in  the  romantic  literature 
of  Russia,  which  makes  its  author  the  rival  of  Cer- 
vantes and  Lesage.  It  is  a  suggestive  and  faithful 
picture  of  Russian  society:  a  vast  theatre  in  which 
the  most  varied  types  of  the  Russian  people  are  in 
action.  Mikhail  Yurievitch  Lermontoff  (1814-41) 
is  also  of  the  school  of  Pushkin  and  Byron.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  delicate  lyric  poets  of  modern  Russia, 
whose  lyric  poetry,  tinged  with  sadness,  touches  the 
deepest  chords  of  the  heart,  and  exhibits  the  soft 
melody  of  the  literary  language  of  Russia  in  its 
fullness.  The  most  famous  of  his  epic  poems  are 
"The  Demon",  which  is  based  upon  a  Georgian 
legend,  and  in  which  the  beauties  of  the  Caucasus 
are  described  in  admirable  verses;  "Ismail  Bey"; 
"Khadzhi-Abrek,  the  Boyard  Orsha",  an  episode 
of  the  times  of  Ivan  the  Terrible;  "Mcyr",  a  legend 
of  the  Caucasus.  Lermontoff  is  the  author  of  the 
very  popular  romanc(!  "Geroi  nashego  vremeni"  (A 
Hero  of  our  Times),  which  reveals  him  as  one  of 
the  masters  of  Russian  prose,  and  as  having  a  pro- 
found knowledge  of  the  human  heart.  He  died  at  the 
age  of  twenty-seven  years,  and  like  Pushkin,  in  the 
plenitude  of  his  intellectual  activity.  Alexei  Vas- 
silievitch Kolcoff  (1809-42)  also  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  lyric  poet  of  the  school  of  Pushkin  and 
Lermontoff.  He  was  the  poet  of  the  peasants  and  of 
nature,  and  the  invcintor  of  a  spticial  kind  of  poffms 
(Dumy),  in  which  a  question  to  be  resolved  is  proposed 
and  is  answer(;d-  Other  poets  who  also  were  orna- 
ments of  Russian  literaturr;,  although  they  did  not 
attain  the  height  of  thosr;  already  iruiutioned,  were 
Odoevski,  Count  Sollogub,  Marlinski,  Weltmann, 
Polevoi,  and  Kukolnik,  a  prolific  writer  of  historic 
dramas. 

History,  philology,  and  critical  studies  had  a  period 
of  growing  prosperity  during  the  reign  of  Nicholas 


I.  Pogodin,  Butkoff,  Ivanoff,  Venelin,  Grigor'eff, 
and  Muravieff  worked  to  defend  the  Russian  chron- 
icles against  the  charge  of  lack  of  authenticity,  to 
throw  light  on  the  origin  of  the  Russian  nation,  and 
to  investigate  the  historical  past  of  Russia  and  the 
various  European  nations.  In  the  study  of  the  an- 
cient Slav  language,  and  of  the  primitive  literature 
of  Russia,  and  in  the  collection  of  ancient  texts, 
fundamental  works  that  are  yet  esteemed  were  writ- 
ten by  Kalaidovitch,  Vostokoff,  Undolski,  Kliutcha- 
reff,  Maximovitch,  Certeleff,  Snegireff,  Sakharoff, 
and  Bodianski.  This  class  of  studies  were  greatly 
promoted  by  the  Society  of  Russian  History  •  and 
Antiquities,  established  at  Moscow  in  1814  and  still 
flourishing.  Eugene  Bolkhovitinoff,  Metropolitan  of 
Kieff,  prepared  two  historical  lexicons  of  the  clerical 
and  lay  writers  of  Russia;  Polevoi,  Shevyreff,  and 
Nikitenko  wrote  histories  of  Russian  literature; 
while  Prince  A.  Viazemski,  Nadezhdin,  and  especially 
Bessarion  Grigorievitch  Bielinski  (1810-48)  were  the 
chief  literary  critics.  Literary  and  scientific  progress 
was  assisted  by  the  periodicals  "Viestnik  Evropy", 
"Russki  Viestnik",  "Syn  Otetchestva"  (The  Son 
of  the  Fatherland),  "Sievernaja  Ptchela"  (The  Bee 
of  the  North),  "Russki  Invalid",  and  "Otetchest- 
vennyja  zapiski"  (Memoirs  of  the  Fatherland). 

During  the  reign  of  Alexander  II  the  literary  genius 
of  Russia  continued  to  shine  brightly,  and  to  assume 
always  a  more  national  character,  although  the 
influence  of  foreign  writers,  especially  of  Dickens, 
George  Sand,  and  Balzac,  was  felt.  There  appeared 
the  school  of  Slavophils,  the  most  illustrious  repre- 
sentatives of  which  are  the  two  Kireievski  (Ivan  and 
Peter),  Khomiakoff,  Valueff,  Konstantin  and  Ivan 
Aksakoff,  Kosheleff,  Elagin,  Tiuttcheff,  Grigorieff, 
Strakhoff,  and  Danilevski.  This  school  was  domi- 
nated by  a  spirit  of  stingy  patriotism;  it  invaded  the 
domain  of  theology,  preached  the  superiority  of 
Orthodo.xy  over  Catholicism,  and  in  the  person  of 
their  theological  legislator,  Alexei  Khomiakoff,  a 
genial  poet,  historian,  and  philosopher,  it  proclaimed 
that  Orthodoxy  is  the  ex-pression  of  the  religious  ideal 
of  Christianity.  The  religious  and  political  para- 
doxes of  the  Slavophils  found  their  opponents  in  the 
school  of  the  Occidentalists  {Zapadniki).  The  philos- 
opher Tchaadaeff,  in  his  philosophical  letters  pub- 
lished in  1836,  wrote  of  Russian  barbarity,  and  pro- 
claimed Catholicism  to  be  the  only  means  of  bringing 
Russia  into  the  civilization  of  the  nations  of  the 
West. 

The  most  illustrious  representatives  of  this  school, 
which  had  not  many  followers,  were  Hercen  (1812- 
70),  who  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  Nihilism; 
the  poet  Ogareff,  Granovski,  Soloveff,  Kavelin, 
Kalatchoff,  and  Pavloff,  illustrious  names  in  the 
realms  of  Russian  history  and  Russian  philosophy. 

The  most  famous  writer  of  the  time  of  Alexander 
II  was  Ivan  Sergeievitch  Turgenieff  (1818-83),  the 
magician  of  Ru.ssian  prose.  As  a  poet  his  title  to 
fame  rests  on  the  poems  "Parasha",  "Yakoff 
Pasynkoff",  "Rudin",  "Faust",  "Asja",  "A  Nest 
of  Nobles".  In  1862  he  published  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  Russian  novels,  "Otcy  i  dieti"  (Fathers 
and  Sons).  Among  the  other  novels  of  Turgenieff, 
the  most  successful  were  "Zapiski  Okhotnika"  (Me- 
moirs of  a  Huntsman),  rich  in  admirable  descriptions 
of  nature;  "Dym"  (Smoke);  "Nov"  (Virgin  Soil); 
and  among  his  stories:  "Lear  of  th(!  St('i)p("", 
"Waters  of  Spring",  "The  Brigadier",  "The  Dream", 
"The  Story  of  Father  Alexis",  "The  Song  of  Trium- 
phant Love",  "The  Desperado"  etc.  He  enriched 
Russian  literature  with  H('veral  plays,  among  which 
the  most  beautiful  is  called  "Zavtraku  predvo- 
ditelja"  (Th(!  Collation  with  th((  Marshal  of  the 
Nobility).  Ivan  Alexandrovitch  Gontcharoff  (1812- 
91)  acquired  no  less  fame  as  a  novelist  through  his 
novels  "Obyknovennaja  istorija"  (A  Simple  Story), 


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"Oblomoff",  which  personifies  the  want  of  initiative 
and  semi-fatalism  of  the  Russian  character,  and 
"Obryff"  (The  Precipice),  which  was  considered  a 
decadent  production.  Greater  fame  was  acquired 
by  Feodor  Mikhailovitch  Dostoievski  (1822-81), 
whose  first  novel,  "Biednye  liudi"  (Poor  People), 
published  in  1846,  made  its  author  famous,  at  once, 
by  the  depth  of  its  psychological  analysis.  After 
four  years  of  a  most  painful  imprisonment  and  exile 
to  Siberia,  he  wrote  the  "Zapiski  iz  Mertvago  Doma" 
(Memoirs  of  the  House  of  the  Dead),  in  which  he 
describes  the  tortures  of  the  exiles  with  a  most  ef- 
fective vigour  of  style ;  the  famous  novel ' '  Prestuplenie 
Nakazanie"  (Crime  and  Punishment),  a  psychological 
masterpiece,  "The  Idiot",  "Biezy"  (The  Possessed), 
and  "The  Brothers  KaramazofT". 

To  romantic  literature  also  belong  Dimitri  Vassi- 
lievitch  Grigorovitch,  an  imitator  of  George  Sand, 
and  a  faithful  portrayer  of  the  sufferings  of  the  lower 
classes,  in  his  romances  and  novels,  among  which 
we  will  mention  "Derevnia"  (The  Village),  "An- 
thony Goremyka",  "The  Valley  of  Smiedoff",  "The 
Fishermen",  and  "The  Colonists".  In  other  novels 
he  described  the  life  and  condition  of  the  middle 
and  higher  classes,  as  in  "Neudavshaajasja  zhizn" 
(An  Uneventful  Life),  "Suslikoff  the  Kapelmeister", 
"The  School  of  Hospitality",  etc.  The  naturalist 
school  was  represented  by  Alexei  Teofilaktovitch 
Pisemski  (1820-81).  In  the  novel  "Bojarshshina" 
(The  Time  of  the  Boyars),  he  preached  free  love: 
the  censorship  prohibited  the  circulation  of  the  book. 
In  another  novel,  "Tiufiak"  (The  Plaster),  his  realism 
goes  beyond  that  of  Zola.  His  best  novel  is  "Tys- 
jatcha  dush"  (A  Thousand  Souls),  a  gloomy  butfaith- 
ful  picture  of  the  corruption  of  Russian  society,  which 
is  portrayed  also  in  his  novel  "  Vzgalamutchennoe 
More"  (Tempestuous  Sea);  his  novel  "Liudi  so- 
korovykh  godoff"  (Men  of  Forty  Years)  deals  with 
the  agrarian  question.  His  play  "Gorkaja  sudbina" 
(Bitter  Destiny)  places  him  in  a  high  position  among 
Russian  dramatists.  Other  writers  proposed  to  scourge 
the  corrupters  of  society,  to  pierce  them  with  the 
arrows  of  their  satire.  They  form  a  literary  school 
known  in  Russia  as  obliichilel  naja  (accusing,  refut- 
ing). The  master  of  this  school  was  Mikhail  Evgra- 
fovitch  Saltykoff  (1826-88),  better  known  by  the 
pseudonym  of  Shshedrin.  The  characters  in  his 
novels  recall  those  of  Gogol,  but  his  pessimism  is 
much  more  bitter  and  exaggerated.  Among  the 
best-known  of  his  novels  and  other  writings  are 
"Protivorietckia"  (Contradictions),  "Gubernskie 
otcherki"  (Sketches  of  Government  Personages), 
"Tashkency"  (The  Lords  of  Tashkend),  and  "The 
Brothers  Golovleff",  a  novel  that  is  considered  the 
best  work  of  Saltykoff,  but  is  displeasing  on  account 
of  the  cynicism  of  its  characters.  Other  writers 
worked  with  the  same  end  of  laying  bare  the  moral 
and  social  defects  of  the  Russian  people;  the  most 
famous  among  them  are  Pomialovski  (1835-63), 
whose  novel  "Otcherki  bursy"  is  famous;  it  describes 
in  dark  colours  the  methods  of  education  that  ob- 
tain in  the  ecclesiastical  seminaries  of  Russia;  A. 
Sliepcoff,  author  of  the  novel  "Trudnoe  Vremja" 
(Difficult  Times);  A.  Mikhailoff,  the  pseudonym 
of  Scheller,  who  wrote  the  novels  "Gnilyja  bolota" 
(Putrid  Swamps),  and  "The  Life  of  Shupoff"; 
Zasodimski;  Bazhin;  ThedorofT;  Staniukovitch;  and 
Girs.  More  moderate  in  their  criticism  of  Rus- 
sian society  were  the  novelists  Boborykin,  MarkofT, 
Nemirovitch-Dantchenko,  and  Terpigoreff  (better 
known  by  his  pseudonym  of  Atava),  SalofT,  Akhsh- 
arumoff,  Leikin,  Kliushnikoff,  LieskofT,  Krestovski, 
Prince  Meshsherki,  Markevitch,  Avsieensko,  Golovin, 
and  Avenarius. 

The  most  noted  authors  of  lyric  and  satirical 
poetry  were:  Nikolai  Alexeievitch  NekrasofT  (1821- 
76),  whose  muse,  as  he  himself  wrote,  was  one  of 
XIII.— 18 


sobs  and  pains,  the  muse  of  the  hungry  and  the 
mendicant;  of  his  songs,  there  became  famous 
"Moroz  Krasnyi  Noz"  (Red-nosed  Frost),  a  per- 
sonification of  the  Russian  winter,  "Troika",  and 
"The  Sons  of  the  Peasants'';  in  his  poems  he  has 
a  predilection  for  popular  types;  A.  PleshsheefT,  who 
to  his  lyric  poems  added  beautiful  translations  of  the 
principal  German  and  English  lyric  poets;  Kurot- 
chkin,  who  translated  Beranger,  and  Minaeff.  The 
most  noted  of  the  dramatists  was  Alexander  Nico- 
laevitch  Ostrovski  (1823-86),  whose  theatrical  com- 
positions, admirable  for  the  richness  of  their  lan- 
guage, are  partly  original,  and  partly  imitations  of 
Shakespeare  and  Goldoni.  The  best  known  one  ia 
"Groza"  (The  Tempest),  which  describes  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Russian  family;  it  was  written  in 
1860.  Two  of  his  comedies  that  obtained  great  suc- 
cess are  "We  will  agree  among  ourselves",  and 
"Each  one  in  his  place".  The  number  of  his  the- 
atrical works  is  very  great.  Another  among  the  best 
of  Russian  dramatists  was  A.  Palm  (1822-85),  au- 
thor of  the  drama  "Alexis  Slobodin",  and  of  the 
comedies  "Staryi  barin"  (The  Old  Lord),  and  "Our 
Friend  Nekliuzheff".  Mention  should  be  made  also 
of  A.  Potiekhin,  N.  TchernyshefT,  N.  Soloveff, 
Sukhovo-Kobylin,  Sollogub,  DiakonofT,  Ustrialoff, 
Mann,  Diatchenko,  Shpazhinski,  and  Kryloff. 
Women  also  distinguished  themselves  in  the  literary 
life  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  best  known 
among  those  who  wrote  poetry  and  novels  were 
Elizabeth  Kulmann,  Countess  Rostoptchina,  N. 
Khboshshinska  (1825-89),  who  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Krestovski  wrote  many  novels  to  describe  pro- 
vincial life;  Sokhanska  (1825-84),  who  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Kokhanovska  acquired  celebrity 
through  her  novels  "After  Dinner  Among  the  Gues^^s" 
and  "Provincial  Portrait  Gallery". 

Among  the  writers  who  became  distinguished  in 
the  realm  of  historical  fiction  were  N.  Kostomaroff, 
whose  story  "The  Son"  (1865)  presents  a  vigorous 
picture  of  the  agrarian  revolt  of  Stenko  Razin; 
Count  Alexe'  Tolstoi  (1817-75)  achieved  fame  with 
his  novel  "Prince  Serebrany",  and  his  trilogy  "Ivan 
the  Terrible"  (1858),  "Tsar  Feodor  Ivanovitch" 
(1868),  and  "Tsar  Boris"  (1869);  G.  Danilevski, 
author  of  the  novels  "Mirovitch"  (1879),  "The 
Fire  of  Moscow"  (1885-86),  and  "Tchernyi  god" 
(The  Black  Year);  Mordovceff,  whose  novels  "Deme- 
trius the  Tsarevitch"  and  "  Fall  of  Poland  "  deal  with 
the  history  of  Little  Ru.ssia;  Karnovitch,  Salias-de- 
Tournemir,  Mei  (1822-62),  author  of  several  his- 
torical dramas  based  upon  the  primitive  history  of 
Russia;  and  finally  Averkieff.  Among  the  lyric 
poets  who  did  not  treat  of  the  social  conditions  of 
their  country,  who  loved  their  art  for  its  own  sake, 
the  most  famous  are  A.  Tolstoi,  an  imitator  of  Dante, 
Heine,  and  Goethe;  Maikoff,  a  passionate  admirer 
of  ancient  Rome,  the  struggle  of  which  with  Chris- 
tianity he  essayed  to  depict  in  his  tragedy  "Dva 
mira"  (Two  Worlds);  A.  Feth,  author  of  light  poems 
and  madrigals;  Polonski,  whose  poem  "Kuznievitch- 
Muzykant"  (The  Musical  Cricket)  became  popular, 
and  whose  poetry  is  distinguished  by  the  beauty  of  its 
style  and  the  harmony  of  its  verse;  Zhadovski, 
Shsherbin,  Herbel,  Weinberg,  and  Nadsohn. 

X.  Contemporary  Russia.v  Literature. — The 
literature  from  the  death  of  Alexander  II  to  the  pres- 
ent day  is  essentially  one  of  novels.  The  novel, 
in  view  of  the  severity  of  Russian  censorship,  seema 
to  be  the  most  adequate  literary  channel  for  the  dif- 
fusion of  political,  social,  and  moral  theories.  The 
most  salient  character  of  all  the  writers  of  the  reign 
of  Alexander  II,  and  of  more  recent  times  by  the  force 
of  his  genius  and  the  sharpness  of  his  psychological 
analysis,  was  Count  Lyeff  (Leo)  Tolstoi,  b.  at 
Yasnaja  Poliana,  28  Aug.,  1828;  d.  at  Astapovo,  20 
Nov.,  1910.     He  inaugurated  his  literary  career  by 


RUSSIA 


274 


RUSSIA 


the  publication  of  his  autobiographical  memoirs, 
which  appeared  in  the  "  Sovremennik "  of  St.  Peters- 
burg in  1852;  they  are  a  masterpiece  of  psychological 
analysis  of  the  mind  of  a  child.  This  work  was  fol- 
lowed by  "Adolescence",  "Youth",  "The  Cossacks", 
and  "Recollections  of  Sebastopol",  all  of  which  are 
filled  'w-ith  horror  of  the  sights  he  beheld  at  Sebas- 
topol. But  the  masterpieces  among  his  novels  are 
"War  and  Peace",  a  powerful  romance  that  for  all 
its  apparent  confusion  and  disorder  is  an  epic  and 
imposing  picture  of  the  Napoleonic  war  in  Russia; 
"Anna  Karenina",  a  prof  oimd  analysis  of  the  feminine 
soul  that,  led  astray  by  passion,  forgets  dignity 
and  family  for  adultery,  and  finds  its  punishment  in 
its  sin;  "Resurrection",  a  novel  that  is  a  study  of 
the  rehabilitation  of  the  culprit.  There  is  also  the 
play  "The  Power  of  Darkness",  strong  in  its  vigour 
and  dramatization.  And  yet  this  genius,  who  made 
Russian  literature  popular  all  over  the  world,  at- 
tained religious,  ethical,  and  political  nihilism:  in 
the  "Kreutzer  Sonata"  he  preaches  the  abjection 
of  woman;  "The  Gospels"  is  a  criticism  of  dogmatic 
theolog>',  while  "My  Religion",  "The  Church  and 
the  State",  and  "The  Theories  of  the  Apostles" 
strip  Christian  revelation  from  its  base,  and  for- 
swear the  Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ,  His  Church,  and 
His  sacraments;  in  the  book  "WTiat  is  Art?",  he 
disparages  the  most  illustrious  intellects  of  the  human 
race;  his  work  "The  Kingdom  of  God  Is  within 
you"  preaches  non-resistance  to  evil.  Political  and 
religious  conceptions  took  Tolstoi  out  of  his  orbit, 
and  transformed  him  into  a  visionary,  an  incen- 
diary, so  to  speak,  of  all  institutions,  Divine  and 
human. 

Among  the  other  modem  novelists,  mention  should 
be  made  of:  A.  Novodvorski,  author  of  "Ni  pavy,  Ni 
Vorony"  (Neither  Peacock  nor  Crow),  and  of  other 
stories;  B.  Garshin,  who  in  his  principal  novels 
is  sometimes  a  follower  of  Tolstoi  and  sometimes 
of  TurgeniefT.  Those  works  are  "Tchetyre  dnja" 
(The  Four  Days),  "Trus"  (The  Coward),  "Krasnyj 
cvietok"  (The  Red  Flower),  "Attalea  princeps", 
"Vstrietcha"  (The  Encounter),  and  "Nadezhda 
Nikolaevna";  I.  Yasinski  was  famous  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Maxim  Bielinski;  his  most  important 
works  are  "The  City  of  the  Dead",  and  "The 
Guiding  Star";  M.  Alboff ;  K.  Barantchevitch;  A.Ertel; 
Matohtet;  Korolenko,  a  beautiful  story-teller,  who 
reminds  his  readers  of  Dostoievski  and  Tolstoi  in 
his  novels  "The  Dream  of  Macarius"  (a  fantastic 
story),  "The  Sketches  of  a  Tourist  in  Siberia", 
"Easter  Night,"  "The  Old  Music  Player",  and 
"S  dvukh  storon"  (Two  Points  of  View);  Ignatius 
Potapenko,  who  views  life  in  the  light  of  optimism, 
and  not  with  the  pessimism  so  much  in  vogue  among 
Rassian  \\Titers;  one  of  his  novels,  "Sviatoe  iskus- 
stvo",  describes  the  Bohemia  of  the  students  of  St. 
Petersburg;  Demetrias  Mamin,  under  the  pseudo- 
nym of  Siberian,  describes  the  customs  of  Western 
Siberia;  and  finally  Prince  Galitzin.  Among  novel- 
ists of  the  new  school  are  Anton  Pavlovitch  Tche- 
hoff  (1860-1904),  whose  novel  "Skutchnaja  istorija" 
hari  a  great  success.  He  is  without  a  superior  in 
the  narrative  of  his  novels;  the  heroes  of  his  stories 
are  always  morally  cr>rrupt,  and  of  distracted  minds. 
Alexei  ^iak8imovitch  Picshkoff,  better  known  by  the 
pseudonym  of  Maxim  Gorky  (b.  1869);  he  ia  the 
novelist  of  the  beggars  and  the  populace,  whose 
works  cf>ntain  pag&s  of  nauseating  naturalism,  and 
shameful  immorality.  Vincent  Smidlvski,  b.  at  Tula, 
1867;  under  the  pwMidonym  of  Veresaeff  he  came 
to  celebrity  through  his  work  "Zapiski  vratcha" 
(Memoirs  of  a  Doctor),  which  elicited  violent  re- 
criminations in  the  medical  profession.  One  of  the 
most  famous  of  the  Russian  writers  of  the  present 
day  is  Leonid  Andreeff,  b.  at  Orel  in  1881.  He  is 
the  novelist  of  the  degenerate.     His  novels  "The 


Red  Laughter",  "The  Thought",  "The  Cloud", 
"Silence",  etc.  are  to  be  condemned  from  every 
point  of  view,  religious  and  moral,  and  the  Russian 
religious  press  has  blamed  him  for  them  in  vehement 
language. 

Among  writers  of  the  present  day  mention  should  be 
made  of  Sofija  Ivanovna  Smirnova,  who  wrote  the 
novels  "Salt  of  the  Earth",  and  "Force  of  Character"; 
Valentine  Dmitrieva,  writer  of  stories;  Olga  Andreevna 
Shapir,  who  wrote  "Without  Love",  and  "Tin- 
sel"; Lydja  Veselitskaja,  Alexandra  Shabelskaja, 
Anastasia  Verbickaja,  who  wrote  "The  History 
of  a  Life".  Among  tho.se  who  achieved  fame  as 
lyric  poets  are  Simon  Frug  (of  Jewish  origin), 
Nikolai  Maksimovitch  Vilenkin,  famous  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Minski,  Dimitri  Merezhkovski,  whose 
poems  have  the  defect  of  too  much  rhetorical  effort; 
Alexei  Apukhtin,  Konstantin  Rozanoff,  Arsenius 
Golenishsheff-Kutuzoff,  Sergei  Andreevski,  etc.  These 
poets,  however,  are  not  original;  their  works  recall 
too  much  the  great  poets  who  preceded  them.  The 
fiction  of  Russia  generally  ases,  as  a  channel  of  pub- 
lication, the  literary  periodicals,  among  which  some 
that  were  famous  in  the  nineteenth  century  have 
now  disappeared,  as  the  "Sovremennik"  (The  Con- 
temporary), the  "Otetchestvennyja  Zapiski",  and 
the  "Moskvitjanin".  The  best-known  of  those 
that  are  yet  published  are  the  "Viestnik  Evropy", 
and  the  "Pycck  mysl". 

The  historical  literature  of  Russia  in  the  second 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  furnishes  illustrious 
names.  Sergei  Soloveff  is  the  author  of  a  "History 
of  Russia",  in  thirty  volumes,  which  begins  with  the 
most  ancient  times,  and  terminates  with  the  reign 
of  Alexander  I;  it  is  a  work  of  greater  historical 
than  literary  merit;  Zabielin  devoted  his  studies  by 
preference  to  the  Russia  of  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries;  A.  Nikitski  wrote  on  the  historical 
past  of  Novgorod  and  Pskof;  Kostomaroff  wrote  on 
Little  Russia;  the  historical  monographs  of  this 
author  are  held  in  high  esteem,  as  also  his  "History 
of  Russia",  composed  of  biographical  narratives. 
P3Tjin  devoted  his  researches  to  the  reign  of  Alexan- 
der I;  Shsapoff  studied  the  social  and  educational 
development  of  Russia;  Bruckner  dealt  with  the 
life  of  Peter  the  Great;  Bestuzheff-Riumin  wrote  a 
classic  history  of  Russia,  and  Biblasoff  a  life  of  Cath- 
arine II.  We  cannot  name  the  great  number  of  his- 
torians who,  like  Ilovaiski,  Lambin,  Kliutchevski, 
Golubinski,  etc.  have  thrown  light  on  the  history  of 
Russia,  but  we  cannot  omit  to  mention  the  Impe- 
rial Historical  Society  of  St.  Petersburg,  the  Archeo- 
graphic  Commission,  and  the  Society  of  Russian 
History  and  Antiquity  of  Moscow,  which,  with  hun- 
dreds of  learned  publications,  and  especially  of  the 
Russian  chronicles,  have  greatly  facilitated  the  task 
of  the  student.  Yushkcvitch,  Yakushkin,  Metlinski, 
Ribnikoff,  KhudiakofT,  and  BansofT  distinguished 
themselves  in  the  collection  of  ancient  Russian  liter- 
ary documents,  upon  which  light  was  thrown  by 
Buslaeff,  Miller,  Stasoff,  Maikoff,  Kolosoff,  Rozoff, 
Dashkevitch,  Vselovski,  and  above  all  Sreznevski. 
who  for  several  years  edited  the  "Izviestija",  ana 
the  "Utchenyja  Zapiski"  of  St.  Petersburg  (Academy 
of  Sciences).  Buslaeff,  with  his  "Historical  Chres- 
tomathy",  wove  together  the  literary  annals  of 
Russia.  Pekarski  related  the  scientific  and  literary 
transactions  of  Peter  the  Great,  Pypin  and  Porfireff 
wrote  full  and  classic  histories  of  the  literature  of 
Russia.  Special  works  on  the  greatest  Russian 
writers  are  so  numerous  that  the  "Bibliography  of 
the  Russian  Literature  of  the  Nineteenth  Century", 
ed.  Mezier,  St.  Petersburg,  1902,  devotes  650  octavo 
pages  to  the  titles  of  those  works  alone. 

In  philosophy  Russian  works  until  now  hav«  not 
been  original.  They  have  been  produced  under  the 
supreme  influence  of  German  philosophy,  inspired 


RUSSIAN 


275 


RUSTICUS 


by  Kant,  Hegel,  and  Schelling.  Positivism,  Material- 
ism, and  Spiritualism  have  succeeded  each  other 
without  developing  originality.  Galitch,  professor  of 
philosophy  at  St.  Petersburg  (d.  1848),  was  an  atheist; 
Davidoff  (d.  1862)  reduced  philosophy  to  psychology 
alone.  The  philosophy  of  Schelling  influenced  even 
ecclesiastical  writers,  as  Skvorcoff  and  the  archi- 
mandrite Theophanus  Avseneff.  Orest.  Novicki  is 
a  convinced  partisan  of  the  system  of  Fichte;  he  was 
a  professor  of  the  University  of  Kieff.  Hegelianism, 
however,  was  the  most  popular  of  all,  and  was  at 
once  accepted  by  the  Occidentalists  Stankevitch, 
Granovski,  Bielinski,  and  Ogareff,  and  by  the  Slavo- 
philes Kirieevski,  Khomjakoff,  Samarin,  and  Aksakoff . 
Between  1859  and  1873  Professor  Gogocki  of  the 
ecclesiastical  academy  of  Kieff  published  his  philo- 
sophical dictionary.  The  materialist  theories  of 
Moleschott  and  Biichner  were  defended  by  M.  An- 
tonovitch  and  D.  Pisareff,  and  refuted  by  Yurkevitch, 
Strakhoff,  Kudriavceff,  Samarin,  and  Vladislaveff. 
Darwinism  found  defenders  in  Timiriazeff  and 
Famincyn,  and  opponents  in  Troicki,  DokutchaefT, 
Guseff,  Popoff,  and  Strakhoff.  The  Positivism  of 
Comte  was  upheld  by  de  Roberti  and  Mikhailovski. 
The  most  original  philosophers  of  Russia  were: 
Kavelin  (1818-85),  who  dealt  more  especially  with 
psychological  problems,  an  historian  and  profound 
psychologist,  to  whom  Russia  owes  the  establish- 
ment of  the  "  Voprosy  filosofii  i  psikhologii",  a  period- 
ical devoted  to  philosophy,  which  is  held  in  very  high 
esteem;  Kudriavceff-Platonoff,  who  excels  in  reli- 
gious philosophy,  and  whose  studies  in  apologetics  are 
admirable  for  their  vigour  and  power  of  argument; 
Vladimir  Soloveff,  an  ardent  defender  of  Catholic 
principles  in  Russia,  and  a  spiritual  philosopher,  the 
most  eminent  that  Russia  has  produced.  His  ex- 
tensive treatise  on  ethics,  "Opravdanie  dobra" 
(Justification  of  the  Good),  is  a  masterpiece  of  specula- 
tion; Prince  Troubetzkoi,  a  follower  of  Soloveff ;  and 
finally,  Nesmieloff,  professor  of  the  ecclesiastical 
academy  of  Kazan,  whose  work  "The  Science  of 
Man"  gives  to  him  the  first  place  among  the  Christian 
philosophers  of  Russia  at  the  present  time. 

Otto,  Lehrbuch  der  russischen  Lilleratur  (Leipzig,  1837) ;  Pole- 
voi, Otcherki  russkoi  literatury  (Essays  on  Ru.ssian  Literature) 
(2  vols.,  St.  Petersburg.  1839);  Neveroff,  Blick  auf  die  Ge- 
sckichte  der  russischen  Literatur  (Riga,  1840) ;  Jordan,  Geschichte 
der  russischen  Literatur  (Leipzig,  1846) ;  Shevireff,  Istorija  rus- 
skoi literatury  (4  vols.,  Moscow,  1858-60) ;  Minzloff,  Beitrdge  zur 
Kennlniss  der  poetischen  und  wissenschaftlichen  Literatur  Russ- 
lands  (Berlin,  1854);  P^troff,  Tableau  de  la  litth-ature  russe  de- 
puis  ses  origines  jusqu'd,  nos  jours  (Paris,  1872);  Honegger, 
Russische  Literatur  und  Kultur  (Leipzig,  1880);  Wiskowatoff, 
Geschichte  der  russischen  Literatur  (Dorpat,  1881);  Haller,  Ge- 
schichte der  russischen  Literatur  (Rigsi,  1882);  Smitb,  Russisk  Lit- 
eraturhistorie  (Copenhagen,  1882);  vo.v  Rei.nholdt,  Geschichte  der 
russischen  Literatur  (Leipzig,  1885);  Maikoff,  Otcherki  iz  istorii 
russkoi  literatury  X  VII  i  X  VIII  stoliettii  (Essay  on  the  History  of 
the  Russian  Literature  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies) (St.  Petersburg,  1889);  Wauszewski,  Litterature  russe 
(Paris,  1900);  tr.  (London,  1900);  Wolynskij,  Die  russische  Lit- 
eratur der  Gegenwart  (Rerlin,  1902);  Petroff,  Russlands  Dichter 
und  Schriftsteller  (Halle,  1905);  Bruckner,  Geschichte  der  rus- 
sischen Literatur  (Leipzig,  1905);  tr.  (London,  1908).  The  best 
histories  of  Russian  literature  in  Russian  are  those  of  Pypin, 
Istorija  russkoi  literatury  (4  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1908-1910); 
Porfireff,  Istorija  russkoi  slovesnosti  (4  vols.,  Kazan,  1898,  1904, 
1907);  Polevoi  (12  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1903). 

Monographs: — Woelffing,  Stricturce  de  statu  scientiarum  el 
artium  in  imperio  russico  (Tubingen,  1766) ;  Konig,  Literarische 
Bilder  aus  Russland  (Berlin,  1840);  Vakcel,  Quadras  da  liltera- 
iura,  das  sciencias  e  artes  na  Russia  (Funchal,  1868) ;  CouRRifeRE, 
Histoire  de  la  litterature  contemporaine  en  Russie  (Paris,  1875) ; 
Evstrafieff,  Novaja  russkaja  literatura  (St.  Petersburg,  1877) ; 
Palander,  Uebersicht  der  neueren  russischen  Literatur  (Tavaste- 
hus,  1880) ;  Zabel,  Literarische  Streifzilge  durch  Russland  (Ber- 
lin, 1885) ;  Strakhoff,  Iz  istorii  literaturnago  nihilisma  (St.  Pe- 
tersburg, 1890) ;  Bauer,  Naturalismus,  Nihiliimus,  Idealismus  in 
der  russischen  Dichtung  (Berlin,  1890) ;  Skabitchevskij,  Istorija 
rwviejshej  russkoi  literatury  (History  of  Contemporary  Ru.ssian 
Literature)  (St.  Petersburg,  1891) ;  Soloveff,  Otcherki  po  istorii 
russkoi  literatury  XIX  vieka  (St.  Petersburg,  1902);  Vengeroff, 
Kritiko-biografitcheskij  slovar  russkih  pisatelej  (Critico-Biographi- 
cal  Dictionary  of  Russian  Writers)  (7  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1889- 
1903);  DoBRTV,  Biografii  russkih  pisatelej  (Biographies  of  the 
Russian  Writers)  (St.  Petersburg,  1900) ;  OssiP-LouRif ,  La  psycho- 
logie  des  romanciers  russes  du  XIX  siicU  (Paris,  1905) ;  Sipovbkij, 
Ittorija  notoi  russkoi  literatury  (History  of  the  New  Russian  Lit- 


erature) (St.  Petersburg,  1907) ;  Savodnik,  Otcherki  po  istorii  rus- 
skoi literatury  XIX  vieka  (Essays  on  the  History  of  the  Russian 
Literature  of  the  nineteenth  century)  (Moscow,  1908). 

POKROVSKIJ,  Nikolaj  Vasilevitch  Gogol  (Moscow,  1908) ;  Flach, 
Un  grand  poete  russe:  Alexandre  Pouchkine  (Paris,  1894) ;  Du- 
chesne, Michel  Jourievitch  Lermontov;  sa  vie  et  ses  aeuvres  (Paris, 
1910);  PoKROVSKiJ,  Ivan  Alexandrovitch  Gontcharoff  (Moscow, 
1907);  Brandes,  Dostojewski:  ein  Essay  (Berlin,  1889);  Sait- 
8CHIK,  Die  Weltanschauung  Dostojewski's  und  Tolstoi's  (Leipzig, 
1893) ;  Hoffmann,  Eine  biographische  Studie  (Berlin,  1899) ;  Mi-L- 
LER,  Dostojewski,  Ein  Charakterbild  (Munich,  1903);  Loygree, 
Un  homme  de  genie;  Th.-M.  Dostojewski  (Lyons,  1904);  Pokrov- 
8KIJ,  Theodor  Mikhailovitch  Dostoevskij  (Moscow,  1908) ;  Zavit- 
NEViTCH,  Aleksiej  Stepanovitch  Khomjakoff  (2  vols.,  Kieff,  1902); 
LowENTHAL,  Anton  Schehoff  (Moscow,  1906);  Pokrovskij,  An- 
ton Pavlovitch  Tchehoff  (Moscow,  1907) ;  Ernst,  Leo  Tolstoi  und 
der  slavische  Roman  (Berlin,  1889) ;  Merezhkovskij,  Tolstoi  % 
Dostojevskij  (St.  Petersburg,  1901-02);  Ger.  tr.  (Leipzig,  1903); 
Berneker,  Graf  Leo  Tolsioj  (Leipzig,  1901);  Zabel,  L.  N.  Tol- 
stoi (Leipzig,  1901);  Bitovt,  Graf.  L.  Tolsioj  v  literaturie  i  is- 
kusstve  (Count  L.  Tolstoi  in  literature  and  in  art)  (Moscow,  1903) ; 
Crosby,  Tolstoi  and  His  Message  (New  York,  1903);  Birjukoff, 
Leo  N.  Tolstoi:  Biographic  und  Memoiren  (Vienna,  1906) ;  Lub- 
BEN,  Leo  Tolstoi:  der  Fuhrer  von  Jung-Russland  (Berlin,  1907) ; 
Staub,  Graf  L.  N.  Tolstois  Leben  und  Werke  (Kempten,  1908); 
Maude,  The  Life  of  Tolstoi  (2  vols.,  London,  1908-10);  Persky, 
Tolstoi  intime  (Paris,  1909);  Isaeff,  Graf  N.  Tolstoi  kak  myslitel 
(Count  N.  Tolstoi  as  a  thinker)  (St.  Petersburg,  1911);  Glagau, 
Die  russische  Literatur  und  Ivan  Turgueniev  (Berlin,  1872);  Jous- 
80UP0FF,  Ivan  Tourguiniev  et  I'esprit  de  son  temps  (Paris,  1883); 
Zabel,  Ivan  Tourgucniev  (Leipzig,  1884) ;  Kuhnemann,  Tourgue- 
nev  und  Tolstoi  (Berlin,  1893);  Borkovskij,  Tourgeniev  (Berlin, 
1903);  Gutjahr,  Ivan  S.  Turgenev  (Jurev,  1907);  Splettstosser, 
Maxim  Gorki:  eine  Studie  ilber  die  Ursachen  seiner  Popularitat 
(Charlottenburg,  1904);  Ostwald,  Maxim  Gorki  (Berlin,  1904); 
Usthal,  Maxim  Gorki  (Berlin,  1904);  Meincke,  Maxim  Gorki, 
Seine  Personlichkeit  und  seme  Schriften  (Hamburg,  1908);  Bara- 
NOFF,  Leonid  Andreev,  kak  khudozhnik  i  myslitel  (Leonidas  An- 
dreeff,  as  an  artist  and  as  a  thinker  )  (Kieff,  1907);  Rejsner,  L. 
Andreev  i  ego  socialnaja  ide  ologija  (Leonidas  Andreeff  and  his  so- 
cial ideology)  (St.  Petersburg,  1909);  Martynoff  and  Snegi- 
REFF,  Russkaja  starina  v  pamjatnikakh  cerkovnago  igrazhdanskago 
zodtchestva  (Russian  antiquity  in  the  monuments  of  civil  and 
religious  architecture)  (Moscow,  1851-57) ;  Rovinskij,  Istorija 
russkikh  shkolikonopisanija  do  konca  X  Vll  C  (History  of  the  Rus- 
sian schools  of  iconography  to  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century) 
(.St.  Petersburg,  1856);  Petrofp,  Sbornik  materialov  dlja  istorii 
imp.  akademii  khudozhestv  (Collection  of  materials  for  the  history 
of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Arts)  (St.  Petersburg,  1864-66); 
ViOLLET  le  Due,  L'art  russe,  ses  origines,  ses  elements  constitutifs, 
son  apogie,  son  avenir  (Paris,  1877);  Hasselblatt,  Historischer 
Ueberblick  der  Entwickelung  des  kaiserlich-russischen  Akademie  der 
Kunste  (St.  Petersburg,  1886);  Prakhoff,  Kiev  skie  pamjalniki 
vizantiisko-russkago  isskistva  (The  Russo-Byzantine  monuments 
of  arts  at  Kieff)  (Moscow,  1887) ;  Bulgakoff,  Nashi  khudozhniki 
(Our  Artists)  (St.  Petersburg,  1890) ;  Pavlinoff,  Drevnosti  jaros- 
lavskija  i  rostovskija  (The  Antiquities  of  Yaroslaff  and  Rostoff) 
(Moscow,  1892) ;  Idem,  Istorija  russkoj  arkhitektury  (Moscow, 
1894). 

EvDOKiMOFF,  Russkaja  zhivopis  v  XVIII  viekie  CRussinnVsLint- 
ing  in  the  eighteenth  century)  (St.  Petersburg,  1902) ;  Wrangel, 
Podrobnyi  illjuslrirovannyi  Katalog  vystavski  russkoi  portretnoj 
zitopisi  za  150  liet  (Complete  and  illustrated  catalogue  of  the  Ex- 
positions of  Russian  portraits  from  1700  to  1850)  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1902) ;  RoviNSKij,  Obozrienie  ikonopisanija  v  Rossii  do 
konca  X  VII  vieka  (Sketch  of  the  painting  of  icons  in  Russia  to  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  centun,')  (St.  Petersburg,  1903) ;  Uspen- 
BKIJ,  Carskie  ikonopiscy  v  XVII  v.  (The  Imperial  painters  of 
icons  in  the  seventeenth  century)  (St.  Petersburg,  1906). 

A.  Palmiehi. 

Russian  Orthodox  Church.  See  Greek  Church  ; 
Russia. 

Rusticus  of  Naxbonne,  Saint,  b.  either  at  Mar- 
seilles or  at  Narbonnaise,  Gaul;  d.  26  Oct.,  461.  Ac- 
cording to  biographers,  Rusticus  is  the  one  to  whom 
St.  Jerome  (about  411)  addressed  a  letter,  commend- 
ing him  to  imitate  the  virtues  of  St.  Exuperius  of 
Toulouse  and  to  follow  the  advice  of  Procule,  then 
Bishop  of  Marseilles.  When  he  had  completed  his 
education  in  Gaul,  Rusticus  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
soon  gained  a  reputation  as  a  public  speaker,  but  he 
wished  to  embrace  the  contemplative  life.  He  wrote 
to  St.  Jerome,  who  advised  him  to  continue  his  studies. 
Then  Rusticus  entered  the  monastery  of  St.  Vincent 
of  L^rins.  He  was  ordained  at  Marseilles,  and  on 
3  Oct.,  430  (or  427)  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Nar- 
bonne.  With  all  his  zeal,  he  could  not  prevent  the 
progress  of  the  Arian  heresy  which  the  Goths  were 
spreading  abroad.  The  siege  of  Narbonne  by  the 
Goths  and  dissensions  among  the  Catholics  so  dis- 
heartened him  that  he  wrote  to  St.  Leo,  renounc- 
ing the  bishopric,  but  St.  Leo  dissuaded  him.  He 
then  endeavoured  to  consolidate  the  Catholics.     In 


RUTH 


276 


RUTH 


444-48,  he  built  the  church  of  Xarbonne;  in  451,  he 
assisted  at  the  convocation  of  forty-four  bishops  of 
Gaul  and  approved  St.  Leo's  letter  to  Flavian,  con- 
cerning Xestorianism ;  he  was  present  also  at  the 
Council  of  .-Vrles,  with  thirteen  bishops,  to  decide  the 
debate  between  Theodore,  Bishop  of  Frejus,  and  the 
Abbey  of  Lcrins.  A  letter  from  Ravennius,  Bishop  of 
Aries,  sent  to  Rusticus,  proves  the  high  esteem  in 
which  he  was  held.  His  letters  are  lost,  with  the 
exception  of  the  one  to  St.  Jerome  and  two  others 
to  St.  Leo,  written  either  in  452  or  in  458.  His 
feast  is  celebrated  on  20  October. 

AcHARD,  Hommes  ill.  Provence,  II  (Paris,  1787),  184-5;  Hist, 
litt.  de  France.  II  (Paris,  1735),  362-5;  Le  Blant.  Inscriptions 
chrei.,  Gaule.  II  (Paris,  1865),  765-71;  de  Rey,  SS.  egl.  Mar- 
seiUe  (Paris,  1885),  299-303;  Tillemont,  Mem.  hist.  eccL,  XV 
(Paris,  1711),  401-09. 

Joseph  Dedieu. 

Ruth,  Book  of,  one  of  the  proto-canonical  writ- 
ings of  the  Old  Testament,  which  derives  its  name 
from  the  heroine  of  its  exquisiteh'  beautiful  story. 

I.  Contents. — The  incidents  related  in  the  first 
part  of  the  Book  of  Ruth  (i-iv,  17)  are  briefly  as 
follows.  In  the  time  of  the  judges,  a  famine  arose 
in  the  land  of  Israel,  in  consequence  of  which  Elime- 
lech  with  Xoemi  and  their  two  sons  emigrated  from 
Bethlehem  of  Juda  to  the  land  of  Moab.  After 
Elimelech's  death  Mahalon  and  Chelion,  his  two 
sons,  married  Moabite  wives,  and  not  long  after  died 
without  children.  Noemi,  deprived  now  of  her  hus- 
band and  children,  left  Moab  for  Bethlehem.  On  her 
journey  thither  she  dissuaded  her  daughters-in-law 
from  going  with  her.  One  of  them,  however,  named 
Ruth,  accompanied  Noemi  to  Bethlehem.  The 
barley  harvest  had  just  begun  and  Ruth,  to  relieve 
Noemi's  and  her  own  poverty,  went  to  glean  in  the 
field  of  Booz,  a  rich  man  of  the  place.  She  met  with 
the  greatest  kindness,  and  following  Noemi's  advice, 
she  made  known  to  Booz,  as  the  near  kinsman  of 
Elimelech,  her  claim  to  marriage.  After  a  nearer 
kinsman  had  solemnly  renounced  his  prior  right, 
Booz  married  Ruth  who  bore  him  Obed,  the  grand- 
father of  David.  The  second  part  of  the  book  (iv, 
18-22)  consists  in  a  brief  genealogy  which  connects 
the  line  of  David  through  Booz  with  Phares,  one  of 
the  sons  of  Juda. 

II.  Pl.^ce  in  the  Canon. — In  the  series  of  the 
sacred  writings  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  short 
Book  of  Ruth  occupies  two  different  principal  places. 
The  Septuagint,  the  Vulgate,  and  the  English  Ver- 
sions give  it  immediately  after  the  Book  of  Judges. 
The  Hebrew  Bible,  on  the  contrary,  reckons  it  among 
the  Hagiographa  or  third  chief  part  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Of  the.se  two  places,  the  latter  is  most  likely  the 
original  one.  It  is  attested  to  by  all  the  data  of 
Jewi.sh  tradition,  namely,  the  oldest  enumeration  of 
the  Hagiographa  in  the  Talmudic  treatise  "Baba 
Bathra",  all  the  Hebrew  MSS.  whether  Spanish  or 
German,  the  printed  edifirtns  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
and  the  testimony  of  St.  Jerome  in  his  Preface  to  the 
Book  of  Danifl,  according  to  which  eleven  books  are 
included  by  the  Hebrews  in  the  Hagiographa.  The 
pre.«ence  of  the  Book  of  Rut  h  aft  er  that  of  Judges  in  the 
Septuagint,  whence  it  pa.s.sed  into  the  Vulgate  and  the 
P>nglish  Versions,  is  easily  explained  by  the  systematic 
arrangement  of  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  that  ancient  Greek  Version.  As  the  episode 
of  Ruth  is  connected  with  the  period  of  the  judges 
by  its  opening  words  "in  the  days  .  .  .  when 
the  judges  ruled",  its  narrative  was  made  to  follow 
the  Book  of  Judges  a-s  a  sort  of  complement  to  it.  The 
same  place  assigned  to  it  in  the  lists  of  St.  Melito, 
Origen,  St.  Jerome  (Prol.  Galeatus),  is  traceable  to 
the  arrangement  of  the  inspired  writings  of  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  .Septuagint,  injismuch  as  the.se  lists 
bespeak  in  various  ways  the  influence  of  the  nomen- 
clature and  grouping' of  the  sacred  books  in  that 


Version,  and  consequently  should  not  be  regarded  as 
conforming  strictly  to  the  arrangement  of  those  books 
in  the  Hebrew  Canon.  It  has  indeed  been  asserted 
that  the  Book  of  Ruth  is  really  a  third  appendix  to 
the  Book  of  Judges  and  was,  therefore,  originally 
placed  in  immediate  connexion  with  the  two  narra- 
tives which  are  even  now  appended  to  this  latter 
book  (Judges,  xvii-xviii;  xix-xxi);  but  this  view  is 
not  probable  owing  to  the  differences  between  these 
two  works  with  respect  to  style,  tone,  subject,  etc. 

III.  Purpose. — As  the  precise  object  of  the  Book 
of  Ruth  is  not  expressly  given  either  in  the  book  it- 
self or  in  authentic  tradition,  scholars  are  greatly 
at  variance  concerning  it.  According  to  many,  who 
lay  special  stress  on  the  genealogy  of  David  in  the 
second  part  of  the  book,  the  chief  aim  of  the  author 
is  to  throw  light  upon  the  .origin  of  David,  the  great 
King  of  Israel  and  royal  ancestor  of  the  Messias. 
Had  this,  however,  been  the  main  purpose  of  the 
wTiter,  it  seems  that  he  should  have  given  it  greater 
prominence  in  his  work.  Besides,  the  genealogy  at 
the  clo.se  of  the  book  is  but  loosely  connected  with  the 
preceding  contents,  so  it  is  not  improbably  an  ap- 
pendix added  to  that  book  by  a  later  hand.  Ac- 
cording to  others,  the  principal  aim  of  the  author  was 
to  narrate  how,  in  opposition  to  Dent.,  xxiii,  3,  which 
forbids  the  reception  of  Moabites  into  Yahweh's 
assembly,  the  Moabitess  Ruth  was  incorporated  with 
Yahweh's  people,  and  eventually  became  the  an- 
cestress of  the  founder  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy. 
But  this  second  opinion  is  hardly  more  probable  than 
the  foregoing.  Had  the  Book  of  Ruth  been  written 
in  such  full  and  distinct  view  of  the  Deuteronomic 
prohibition  as  is  affirmed  by  the  second  ojMnion,  it  is 
most  likely  that  its  author  would  have  placed  a 
direct  reference  to  that  legislative  enactment  on 
Noemi's  lips  when  she  endeavoured  to  dissuade  her 
daughters-in-law  from  accompanying  her  to  Juda,  or 
particularly  when  she  received  from  Ruth  the  pro- 
testation that  henceforth  Noemi's  God  would  be  her 
God.  Several  recent  scholars  have  regarded  this 
short  book  as  a  kind  of  protest  against  Nehemias's 
and  Esdras's  efforts  to  suppress  intermarriage  with 
women  of  foreign  birth.  I3ut  this  is  plainly  an  in- 
ference not  from  the  contents  of  the  book,  but  from 
an  assumed  late  date  for  its  composition,  an  inference 
therefore  no  less  uncertain  than  that  date  itself. 
Others  finally,  and  indeed  with  greater  probability, 
have  maintained  that  the  author's  chief  purpose  was 
to  tell  an  edifying  story  as  an  example  to  his  own  age 
and  an  interesting  sketch  of  the  past,  efTecting  this 
by  recording  the  exemplary  conduct  of  his  various 
personages  who  act  as  simple,  kindly.  God-fearing 
people  ought  to  act  in  Israel. 

IV.  Historical  Character. — The  charming  Book 
of  Ruth  is  no  mere  "idyll"  or  "poeticjd  fiction".  It  is 
plain  that  the  Jews  of  old  regarded  its  contents  as 
historical,  since  th(\v  iiiehided  its  narrative  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint witliiii  tlie  i)roplietic  histories  (Josue-Kings). 
Tlie  fact  tlijit  .Josephus  in  framing  his  account  of  the 
Jewish  y\.nti(iuities  utiUzes  the  data  of  tlie  Book  of 
Rutli  in  exactly  the  s;iine  manner  ;is  he  does  those  of 
the  historical  hooks  of  the  Old  Testament  shows  that 
this  inspired  writing  was  then  considered  as  no  mere 
fiction.  Again,  the  mention  by  St.  Matthew  of  sev- 
eral personages  of  the  episode  of  Ruth  (Booz,  Ruth, 
Obecl),  among  (he  actual  ancestors  of  Chri.st  (Matt., 
i,  5),  points  in  the  same  direction.  Intrinsic  data 
agree  with  these  testimonies  of  ancient  tradition. 
The  book  records  thi\  intermarriage  of  an  Israelite 
with  a  Moabitess,  which  shows  that  its  narrative  does 
not  belf)ng  to  the  region  of  the  poetical.  The  his- 
tf)ric;il  clKinicter  of  the  work  is  also  confirmed  by  the 
friendly  intercourse  between  David  and  the  King  of 
Moal)  whicli  is  described  in  I  Kings,  xxii,  3,  4;  by  the 
writer's  distinct  reference  to  a  Jewish  custom  as 
obsolete  (Ruth,  iv,  7),  etc. 


RUTHENIAN 


277 


RUTHENIAN 


In  view  of  this  concordant,  extrinsic  and  intrinsic, 
evidence,  little  importance  is  attached  by  scholars 
generally  to  the  grounds  which  certain  critics  have 
put  forth  to  disprove  the  historical  character  of  the 
Book  of  Ruth.  It  is  rightly  felt,  for  instance,  that 
the  symbolical  meaning  of  the  names  of  several  persons 
in  the  narrative  (Noemi,  Mahalon,  Chelion)  is  not  a 
conclusive  argument  that  they  have  been  fictitiously 
accommodated  to  the  characters  in  the  episode,  any 
more  than  the  similar  symbolical  meaning  of  the 
proper  names  of  well  known  and  fully  historical  per- 
sonages mentioned  in  Israel's  annals  (Saul,  David, 
Samuel,  etc.).  It  is  rightly  felt  likewise  that  the 
striking  appropriateness  of  the  words  put  on  the  lips 
of  certain  personages  to  the  general  purpose  of  edifica- 
tion apparent  in  the  Book  of  Ruth  does  not  necessarily 
disprove  the  historical  character  of  the  work,  since 
this  is  also  noticeable  in  other  books  of  Holy  Writ 
which  are  undoubtedly  historical.  Finally,  it  is 
readily  seen  that  however  great  the  contrast  may  ap- 
pear between  the  general  tone  of  simplicity,  repose, 
purity,  etc.,  of  the  characters  delineated  in  the  episode 
of  Ruth,  and  the  opposite  features  of  the  figures  which 
are  drawn  in  the  Book  of  Judges,  both  writings  describe 
actual  events  in  one  and  the  same  period  of  Jewish 
history;  for  all  we  know,  the  beautiful  scenes  of 
domestic  life  connected  in  the  Book  of  Ruth  with  the 
period  of  the  judges  may  have  truly  occurred  during 
the  long  intervals  of  peace  which  are  repeatedly 
mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Judges. 

V.  Author  and  Date  of  Composition. — The 
Book  of  Ruth  is  anonymous,  for  the  name  which  it 
bears  as  its  title  has  never  been  regarded  otherwise 
than  that  of  the  chief  actor  in  the  events  recorded.  In 
an  ancient  Beraitha  to  the  Talmudic  treatise  "Baba 
Bathra"  (Babylonian  Talmud,  c.  i),  it  is  definitely 
stated  that  "Samuel  wrote  his  book,  Judges,  and 
Ruth";  but  this  ascription  of  Ruth  to  Samuel  is 
groundless  and  hence  almost  universally  rejected  at 
the  present  day.  The  name  of  the  author  of  the  book 
of  Ruth  is  unknown,  and  so  is  also  the  precise  date  of 
its  composition.  The  work,  however,  was  most  likely 
written  before  the  Babylonian  exile.  On  the  one 
hand,  there  is  nothing  in  its  contents  that  would  com- 
pel one  to  bring  down  its  origin  to  a  later  date;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  comparative  purity  of  its  style 
stamps  it  as  a  pre-exilic  composition.  The  numerous 
critics  who  hold  a  different  view  overrate  the  im- 
portance of  its  isolated  Aramaisms  which  are  best 
accounted  for  by  the  use  of  a  spoken  patois  plainly 
independent  of  the  actual  developments  of  literary 
Hebrew.  They  also  make  too  mucli  of  the  place  oc- 
cupied by  the  Book  of  Ruth  among  the  Hagiographa, 
for,  as  can  be  easily  realized,  the  admi.s.sion  of  a 
writing  into  this  third  division  of  the  Hebrew  Canon 
is  not  necessarily  contemporary  with  its  origin.  But, 
while  the  internal  data  supplied  by  the  Book  of  Ruth 
thus  point  to  its  pre-exilic  origin,  they  remain  inde- 
cisive with  regard  to  the  precise  date  to  which  its 
composition  should  be  referred,  as  clearly  appears 
from  the  conflicting  inferences  which  have  been  drawn 
from  them  by  recent  Catholic  scholars. 

Commentaries. — Catholic:  Clair  (Paris,  1878);  von  Hum- 
MELAUKR  (Paris,  1888) ;  Fillion  (Paris,  1889) ;  Vioouroux 
(Paris,  1901);  Cramponi.  Protestant:  Wright  (London,  1864); 
Keil  (Leipzig.  1874);  Bertheau  (Leipzig,  1883);  Oettle 
(Nordlingen,  1889);Bertholet  (Freiburg,  1898) ;  Nowack  (Goet- 


tingen,  1902). 


Francis  E.  Gigot. 


Ruthenian  Rite. — There  is,  properly  speaking,  no 
separate  and  distinct  rite  for  the  Ruthenians,  but 
inasmuch  as  the  name  is  often  used  for  the  modifica- 
tions which  the  Ruthenians  have  introduced  in  the 
Byzantine  or  Greek  Rite  as  used  by  them,  a  brief 
description  of  them  is  proper.  These  modifications 
have  come  about  in  two  ways.  In  the  first  place,  the 
ancient  Slavonic  missals  used  in  Russia  and  in  Little 
Russia  (Ruthenia)  differed  in  many  instances  from 


the  Greek  as  used  at  Constantinople,  and  the  correc- 
tion of  these  differences  by  the  Patriarch  Nikon  gave 
rise  to  the  Old  Ritualists  (see  Raskolniks).  When, 
therefore,  the  Ruthenians  came  into  union  with  the 
Holy  See  in  1595,  they  brought  with  them  in  their 
liturgical  books  several  of  the  usages  and  formulse 
which  Nikon  afterwards  corrected  at  Moscow  in  the 
Orthodox  Church.  Where  these  diff(>rences  presented 
no  denial  or  contradiction  of  the  faith  the  Holy  See 
allowed  them  to  remain,  just  as  they  have  allowed 
the  rites  of  many  religious  orders.  In  the  second  place, 
after  the  union  had  become  a  fi.xed  fact,  numbers  of 
the  Polish  Latin  clergy  and  laity  seemed  to  find  in 
the  Greek  ceremonies  and  forms  of  language  some 
apparent  contradictions  of  the  faith  as  more  fully 
elaborated  in  the  Roman  Rite.  This  seemed  to  them 
to  indicate  a  lack  of  unity  of  the  faith,  and  the  Greek 
Ruthenian  clergy  in  the  Synod  of  Zamosc  (1720) 
made  a  number  of  changes  in  the  Byzantine  Rite, 
particularly  that  of  the  Mass,  so  as  more  clearly  to 
e.xpress  the  unity  and  identity  of  their  faith  with  that 
of  their  brethren  of  the  Roman  Rite.  These  changes 
ar(>  sometimes  bitterly  spoken  of  by  Russian  authors 
as  "latinizing",  and  the  majority  of  them  were  prob- 
ably unnecessary.  When  we  consider  that  the  Mel- 
chites,  Rumanians,  and  Italo-Greeks  have  kept  the  old 
forms  thus  changed,  it  does  not  seem  that  they  were 
required  in  order  to  ex-press  the  complete  unity  of  the 
faith.  Nevertheless  they  were  sufficient  to  cause  them 
to  be  spoken  of  as  the  Ruthenian  Rite,  as  distinguished 
from  the  older  form  of  the  Byzantine  Rite  (see  Con- 
stantinople, Rite  of;  Greek  Catholics  in  Amer- 
ica; Greek  Church). 

The  chief  modifications  introduced  were  the  addi- 
tion of  the  Filioque  {i  ol  Syria)  to  the  Creed,  and  the 
commemoration  of  "the  holy  universal  Chief  Bishop 
N.  the  Pope  of  Rome",  in  the  Ektcnc  and  in  the 
general  commemoration  at  the  Great  Entrance; 
while  the  emphivsis  laid  on  the  words  of  consecration 
rather  than  on  the  Kpiklesis  (invocittion)  may  be 
said  to  also  constitute  a  difference  from  the  Orthodox 
Rite.  The  addition  of  the  Filioque  is  not  required 
even  in  Italy,  for  at  Rome  the  Creed  is  still  said  in 
Greek  without  it;  but  there  it  is  simply  an  ancient 
custom  and  no  indication  of  any  difference  in  doctrine. 
As  to  the  prayers  for  the  pope,  the  various  Orthodox 
Churches  of  Russia  and  Eastern  Europe  have  never 
hesitated  to  change  the  Byzantine  liturgy  in  order  to 
insert  prayers  for  the  Holy  Synod,  imperial  family, 
etc.,  even  carrying  them  out  to  great  length.  The 
Ruthenians  however  differ  from  the  other  Greek 
Catholic  nationalities  and  from  the  Orthodox  churches 
in  many  other  peculiarities  of  rite. 

In  the  Proskomide  of  the  Divine  Liturgy  the  Ruthe- 
nians are  allowed  to  prepare  for  Mass  with  one  altar- 
bread  (prosphora)  or  with  three,  cr  even  with  the  dry 
Agnctz  (the  square  Greek  host)  if  no  prosphoroe  can 
be  had,  instead  of  requiring  five  prosphone.  Then  too 
the  Ruthenian  priest  may  omit  the  full  number  of 
particles  to  be  placed  on  the  paten,  and  may  place 
only  one  for  the  various  ranks  he  is  required  to  com- 
memorate, or  in  exceptional  cases  where  there  are  no 
particles  "the  priest  may  celebrate  with  the  Agnetz 
alone"  (Decretum  Syn.  Leopoliensis,  p.  83).  The 
number  of  the  saints  to  be  commemorated  has  also 
been  cut  down  to  a  few  principal  names.  When  the 
Mass  of  the  Catechumens  or  public  part  of  the  Divine 
Liturgy  begins,  the  Royal  Doors  of  the  Iconostasis 
are  thrown  wide  open  and  continue  so  during  the 
entire  Mass.  There  are  no  rubrics  directing  them  to 
be  open  and  shut  during  the  service,  nor  is  there  any 
veil  to  be  drawn.  Formerly  this  was  the  practice  in 
the  old  Slavonic  Churches  and  Missals,  and  is  still 
followed  in  the  Court  Church  until  after  the  Great 
Entrance  is  completed.  The  custom  of  reverencing 
during  the  singing  of  the  Edinorodny  Syne  (Filius 
unigenitus)  and  the  Creed  at  the  word  vocheloviech- 


RUTHENIANS 


278 


RUTHENIANS 


ahasia  {Homo  foetus  est)  and  the  addition  of  the  i  ot 
Syna  (Filioque)  were  adopted  to  conform  to  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Roman  Rite.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
practice  of  covering  the  chahce  while  on  the  altar, 
and  this  in  turn  has  made  the  ripidia  or  fans  disappear 
as  altar  utensils.  In  the  prayer  of  contrition  before 
communion  the  Ruthenian  priest  strikes  his  breast 
three  times  as  in  the  Roman  Rite.  Among  the  special 
modifications  in  the  Liturg>-  by  the  Ruthenians  is  the 
order  of  the  antiphons.  The  three  week-day  antiphons, 
Psalms  xci,  xcii,  xciv,  are  introduced  directly  into 
the  text  of  the  Missal,  while  on  Sundays  in  their  stead 
(when  there  is  no  feast-day  having  special  antiphons) 
Psalms  Lxv,  bc\-i,  and  xciv  take  their  place.  The 
Typika,  Psalms  cii  and  cxlv,  as  well  as  the  Blazhenni 
(beatitudes)  are  not  said  except  in  monasteries  and 
monastic  churches.  At  the  recital  of  the  Creed  the 
priest  holds  up  the  aer  without  moving  it  to  and  fro. 
Just  before  the  ante-communion  prayer  the  priest 
performs  an  ablution  of  the  tips  of  his  fingers.  The 
Ruthenians  do  not  add  hot  water  to  the  chalice  after 
the  Fraction,  as  all  other  Greeks  do,  for  this  was 
abolished  by  the  Synod  of  Zamosc  (tit.  iii,  sec.  iv). 
They  have  also  abolished  the  use  of  the  sponge  in 
purifying  the  paten  and  chalice,  and  use  instead  the 
finger  for  the  paten  and  a  veil  on  the  chahce.  A  final 
ablution  is  introduced,  and  the  holy  vessels  remain  on 
the  altar  until  the  Mass  is  finished,  instead  of  being 
carried  to  the  side  altar  {prothesis)  as  in  the  Byzantine 
Rite. 

The  absence  of  the  deacon  or  deacons  in  the  Ruthe- 
nian Mass  will  be  particularly  noticed,  for  that  is  the 
rule  except  in  cases  of  cathedral  Masses  or  pontifical 
Masses,  corre.sponding  to  the  usages  of  the  Roman 
solemn  high  Mass,  and  then  the  deacon  is  usually  a 
priest  who  reverts  to  his  former  order.  The  diaconate 
among  the  Ruthenians  is  now  chiefly  a  grade  to  the 
priesthood,  and  not  a  permanent  order  for  parochial 
work.  There  is  no  distribution  of  the  antidoron  or 
blessed  bread  at  the  end  of  the  Ma,ss  in  the  Ruthe- 
nian Rite.  Nor  do  they  have  the  custom  of  giving 
communion  (by  a  tiny  drop  from  the  chahce)  to 
infants  and  children  under  four  years,  as  in  the 
Russian  Orthodox  Church.  The  clergy  among  the 
Ruthenians  usually  follow  the  Roman  rule  and  are 
shaven,  unlike  the  general  rule  among  the  Greek 
clerg>'  of  other  countries,  whether  CathoUc  or  Or- 
thodox. They  do  not  wear  the  kamilafka  or  straight 
cyhndrical  Greek  biretta,  but  have  invented  for 
themselves  a  round  headpiece  or  crown,  something 
Uke  the  mitre  of  a  Greek  bishop,  and  they  also  wear 
the  close-fitting  cassock  of  the  Roman  Rite,  instead 
of  the  loose  robe  with  flowing  sleeves  used  by  the 
Greeks  in  other  countries. 

BociAN,  De  modificationihus  apwl  Ruthenos  subxntrodxictis  in 
ChryHoatomika  (Rome,  1908),  929-69;  Khoinatbki,  Zapadno- 
Rwrnkaya  Tserkovnaya  Unia  v  yeya  Bogosluzkenii  »  Obriadakh 
(Kieff.  1871);  Pelesz,  Geschichte  der  Union,  11  (Vienna,  1880); 
Lilurgia  St.  loanria  Zlalouxtaho  (Zolkieff,  1906). 

Andrew  J.  Shipman. 


Ruthenians  (Ruthenian  and  Russian:  Rusin, 
plural  Rwiini),  a  Slavic  people  from  Southern  Russia, 
Galicia  and  Bukowina  in  Austria,  and  North-eastern 
Hungary.  They  are  a,\n<)  called  in  Russian,  Maloros- 
siani,  Little  Russians  (in  allusion  to  their  stature), 
and  in  the  Hungarian  dialect  of  their  own  language, 
RuHHuifikH.  They  occupy  in  Russia  the  provinces  or 
governments  of  Lublin  (Poland)  Volhynia,  Podolia, 
KiefT,  Tchemigoff,  Kharkoff,  and  Poltava,  in  Russia, 
and  number  now  about  18,000,f)00.  In  Austria  they 
occupy  the  whole  of  Ea.stem  Galicia  and  Bukowina, 
and  in  Hungary  the  northern  and  north-eastern 
countif'H  of  Hungary:  Szepes,  Saros,  Abauj,  Zemplin, 
Ung,  Maramaros,  and  Bereg,  and  amount  to  about 
4,5f)(J,fXK)  more.  The  Ruthenians  along  the  border- 
land of  the  ancient  Kingdom  of  Poland  and  the  present 
boundary  separating  Austria  from  Russia  proper  are 


also  called  Ukrainians  {u,  at  or  near,  and  krai,  the 
border  or  land  composing  the  border),  from  the 
Ukraine,  comprising  the  vast  steppes  or  plains  of 
Southern  Russia  extending  into  Galicia.  In  the 
Austro-Hungarian  Empire  the  Ruthenians  are 
separated  from  one  another  by  the  Carpathian 
Mountains,  wliich  leave  one  division  of  them  in 
Gahcia  and  the  other  in  Hungar}\  The  Ruthenians 
or  Little  Russians  in  Russia  and  Bukowina  belong 
to  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church,  whilst  those  of 
Galicia  and  Hungary  are  Greek  Catholics  in  unity 
with  the  Holy  See.  For  this  reason  the  word 
Ruthenian  has  been  generally  used  to  indicate  those 
of  the  race  who  are  Catholics,  and  Little  Russian 
those  who  are  Greek  Orthodox,  although  the  terms 
are  usually  considered  as  fairly  interchangeable. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  in  the  Russian  and 
Ruthenian  languages  (unlike  in  English)  there  are 
two  words  which  are  often  indiscriminately  trans- 
lated as  Russia,  but  which  have  quite  different 
meanings.  One  is  Russ,  which  is  the  generic  word 
denoting  an  abstract  fatherland  and  all  who  speak 
a  Russo-Slavic  tongue,  who  are  of  Russo-Slavic  race 
and  who  profess  the  Greek-Slavonic  Rite;  it  is  of 
wide  and  comprehensive  meaning.  The  other  word 
is  Rossia,  which  is  a  word  of  restricted  meaning  and 
refers  only  to  the  actual  Russian  Empire  and  its 
subjects,  as  constituted  to-day.  The  former  word 
Ru^s  may  be  applied  to  a  land  or  people  very  much 
as  our  own  word  "Anglo-Saxon"  is  to  English  or 
Americans.  It  not  only  includes  those  who  live  in 
the  Russian  Empire,  but  millions  outside  of  it,  who 
are  of  similar  race  or  kin,  but  who  are  not  politically, 
religiously,  or  governmentally  united  with  those 
within  the  empire.  From  the  word  Russ  we  get  the 
derivative  Russky,  which  may  therefore  be  translated 
in  English  as  "Ruthenian"  as  well  as  "Russian", 
since  it  is  older  than  the  present  Ru.ssian  Empire. 
From  Rossia  we  have  the  derivative  Rossiisky,  which 
can  never  be  translated  otherwise  than  by  "Russian", 
pertaining  to  or  a  native  of  the  Ru.ssian  Empire. 
Indeed  the  word  "Ruthene"  or  "Ruthenian"  seems 
to  have  been  an  attempt  to  put  the  word  Rusin 
into  a  Latinized  form,  and  the  medieval  Latin  word 
Rulhenia  was  often  used  as  a  term  for  Russia  itself 
before  it  grew  so  great  as  it  is  to-day. 

The  name  Ruthenian  {Rutheni)  is  found  for  the 
first  time  in  the  old  Polish  annalist,  Martinus  Gallus, 
who  wrote  towards  the  end  of  the  eleventh  and  the 
beginning  of  the  twelfth  century;  he  uses  tliis  name 
as  one  already  well  known.  The  Danish  liistorian, 
Saxo  Grammaticus  (1203),  also  uses  it  to  describe  the 
Slavs  living  near  the  Baltic;  Sea.  These  Slavs  were 
already  converted  to  Christianity  and  th(;  name  was 
probably  used  to  distingui.sli  them  from  the  pagans. 
The  term  Ruthenian  was  well  known  in  the  eleventh 
century  and  its  origin  seems  to  be  considerably  older. 
It  is  said  to  have  really  originated  in  the  southern  part 
of  Gaul  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  Wl\en  the  Huns 
overran  Europe  in  the  fifth  century,  they  subdued 
the  Slavic  tribes  with  whom  they  came  in  contact  and 
made  them  a  part  of  their  victorious  army.  Under 
Attila's  leadership  they  pressed  still  farther  west, 
devastating  everything  in  their  path,  and  penetrated 
into  Northern  Italy  and  the  south-eastern  part  of 
Gaul.  In  the  great  battle  at  Chalons  the  Christian 
armies  overcame  them;  a  portion  of  the  Huns'  forces 
was  slaughtered,  hu1  other  ]K)rt  ions  wcrr- dividcfl  and 
scattered  in  small  detachincnts  througliout  the  coun- 
try, and  the  greater  part  of  these  were  the  Slavs  who 
had  been  made  captive  and  forced  to  join  the  army. 
After  the  death  of  Charlemagne  they  had  settled 
largely  throughout  the  land,  and  their  names  are  still 
retained  in  various  Latin  names  of  places,  as  Rouerge 
(Protfincia  Ruthenorum),  Rodez  {Segdunum  Rutheni), 
and  Auvergne  {Augusta  Ruthenorum).  As  these  Slavic 
tribes  furnished  the  name  for  the  Latin  writers  of 


RUTHENIANS 


279 


RUTHENIANS 


Italy  and  France,  this  same  word  was  also  used  later 
in  describing  them  in  their  native  land,  where  descrip- 
tions came  to  be  written  by  western  writers  who  first 
came  in  contact  with  them.  Indeed  the  word  "  Ruthe- 
nian "  is  considerably  older  than  the  word  "Russian", 
in  describing  Slavic  nationality;  for  the  term  Russia 
(Rossia),  indicating  the  political  state  and  govern- 
ment, did  not  come  into  use  until  the  fourteenth  or 
fifteenth  century. 

The  Ruthenians  may  well  claim  to  be  the  original 
Russians.  Theirs  was  the  land  where  Sts.  Cyril  and 
Methodius  converted  the  Slavic  peoples,  and  that 
land,  with  Kieff  as  the  centre,  became  the  starting 
point  of  Greco-Slavic  Christianity,  and  for  centuries 
that  centre  was  the  religious  and  political  capital  of 
the  present  Russia.  Great  Russia  was  then  merely  a 
conglomerate  of  Swedish,  Finnish,  and  Slavic  tribes, 
and  although  it  has  since  become  great  and  has  sub- 
dued its  weaker  brethren,  it  does  not  represent  the 
historic  race  as  does  the  Ruthenian  in  the  south.  They 
were  never  so  thoroughly  under  the  rule  of  the  con- 
quering Tatar  as  the  Great  Russians  of  Moiicow, 
Vladimir,  and  Kazan.  Besides,  Little  Russia  was 
separated  from  Great  Russia  and  was  for  nearly  five 
centuries  subject  to  Poland  and  Lithuania.  Yet  Great 
Russia  has  become  in  Russia  the  norm  of  Russian 
nationality,  and  has  succeeded  largely  in  suppressing 
and  arresting  the  development  of  the  Little  Russians 
within  the  empire.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the  old 
dreams  of  Mazeppa,  Chmielnicki,  and  Shevchonko  of 
Little  Russia,  independent  both  of  Russia  and  Poland, 
have  found  a  lodgment  in  the  hearts  of  the  Southern 
Russians;  the  same  feeling  ha.s  gained  ground  among 
the  Ruthenians  of  Galicia  and  Hungary,  surrounded 
as  they  are  by  the  German,  Polish,  and  Hungarian 
peoples.  However,  the  milder  and  more  equitable 
rule  of  Austria-Hungary  has  prevented  direct  political 
agitation,  although  there  is  occasional  trouble.  The 
resultant  of  such  forces  among  the  Ruthenians  of 
Galicia  and  Hungary  has  been  the  formation  of  polit- 
ical parties,  which  they  have  brought  to  America 
with  them.  These  may  be  divided  into  three  large 
groups:  the  Ukraintzi,  those  who  believe  in  and  foster 
the  development  of  the  Ruthenians  along  their  own 
lines,  quite  independent  of  Russia,  the  Poles  or  the 
Germans,  and  who  actually  look  forward  to  the  inde- 
pendence of  Little  Russia,  almost  analogous  to  the 
Home  Rulers  of  Ireland;  the  Moscophiles,  those  who 
look  to  present  Russia  as  the  norm  of  the  Russo- 
Slavic  race  and  who  are  partisans  of  Panslavism; 
these  may  be  likened  to  the  Unionists  of  Ireland,  in 
order  to  round  out  the  comparison;  the  Ugro-Russki, 
Hungarian  Ruthenians,  who  while  objecting  to  Hun- 
gary, and  particular  phases  of  Hungarian  rule,  have 
no  idea  of  losing  their  own  peculiar  nationality  by 
taking  present  Russia  as  their  standard;  they  hold 
themselves  aloof  from  both  the  other  parties,  the  ideas 
of  the  Ukraintzi  being  particularly  distasteful  to  them. 
(See  Greek  Catholics  in  America.)  In  Russia  all 
political  agitation  for  Little  Russia  and  for  Little 
Russian  customs  and  peculiarities  is  prohibited;  it  is 
only  since  1905  that  newspapers  and  other  publica- 
tions in  the  Little  Russian  language  have  been  per- 
mitted. It  was  Little  Russia  which  united  with  the 
Holy  See  in  1595,  in  the  great  reunion  of  the  Greek 
Church;  and  it  was  in  Little  Russia  where  the  press- 
ure of  the  Russian  Government  was  brought  to  bear 
in  1795,  1839,  and  1875,  whereby  the  Greek  Catholics 
of  Little  Russia  were  utterly  wiped  out  and  some 
7,000,000  of  the  Uniats  there  were  compelled,  partly 
by  force  and  partly  by  deception,  to  become  part  of 
the  Greek  Orthodox  Church. 

In  some  indefinable  manner  the  Ruthenian  or 
Little  Russian  speech  is  considered  as  leading  away 
from  Russian  unity,  whether  of  State  or  Church;  the 
prompt  return  of  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  Little  Rus- 
sians to  Catholicism  in  1905-06,  at  the  time  of  the  decree 


of  toleration,  perhaps  lends  countenance  to  the  belief 
in  Russian  minds.  The  Ruthenian  language  is  very 
close  to  the  Russian  and  both  are  descendants  of  the  an- 
cient Slavonic  tongue  which  is  still  used  in  the  Mass 
and  in  the  liturgical  books.  The  Ruthenian,  however, 
in  the  form  of  its  words,  is  much  nearer  the  Church 
Slavonic  than  the  modern  Russian  language  is.  Still 
it  does  not  differ  much  from  the  modern  Russian  or 
the  so-called  Great  Russian  language ;  it  bears  some- 
what the  same  relation  to  the  latter  as  the  Lowland 
Scotch  does  to  English  or  the  Plattdeutsch  to  German. 
The  Ruthenians  in  Austria-Hungary  and  the  Little 
Russians  in  Russia  use  the  Russian  alphabet  and  wTite 
their  language  in  almost  the  same  orthography  as  the 
Great  Russian,  but  in  many  cases  they  pronounce  it 
differently.  It  is  almost  like  the  case  of  an  Englishman 
and  a  Frenchman  who  write  the  word  science  exactly 
alike,  but  each  pronounces  it  in  a  different  manner. 
Many  words  are  unlike  in  Ruthenian  and  Russian,  for 
example,  bachiti,  to  see,  in  Ruthenian,  becomes  videt 
in  Russian;  pershy,  first,  in  Ruthenian,  is  perry  in 
Russian.  All  this  tends  to  differentiate  the  two  lan- 
guages, or  extreme  dialects,  as  they  might  be  called. 
In  late  years  a  recession  of  the  Russian  alphabet  in 
Galicia  and  Bukowina  has  provoked  much  dissension. 
For  the  purpose  of  more  closely  accommodating  the 
Russian  alphabet  to  the  Ruthenian,  they  added  two 
new  letters  and  rejected  three  old  ones,  then  spelled 
all  the  Ruthenian  or  Little  Russian  words  exactly 
as  thej'  are  pronounced.  This  "phonetic"  alphabet 
differentiates  the  Ruthenian  more  than  ever  from  the 
Russian.  It  has  divided  Ruthenian  writers  into  two 
great  camps:  the  "etymological",  which  retains  the 
old  system  of  spelling,  and  the  "phonetic",  which 
advocates  the  new  system.  It  has  even  been  made  a 
basis  of  political  action,  and  the  phonetic  system  of 
orthography  is  still  strongly  opposed,  partly  because 
it  was  an  Austrian  governmental  measure  and  partly 
because  it  is  regarded  as  an  effort  to  detach  the  Ru- 
thenians from  the  rest  of  the  Russian  race  and  in  a 
measure  to  Polonize  them.  The  phonetic  system  of 
wTiting  has  never  been  adopted  among  the  Hungarian 
Ruthenians,  and  it  is  only  within  the  last  two  or  three 
years  that  anyone  has  dared  to  use  it  in  Little  Russian 
publications  issued  in  the  Russian  Empire.  Yet  in 
many  parts  of  Hvmgary  the  Ruthenian  language  is 
printed  in  Roman  letters  so  as  to  reach  those  who  are 
not  acquainted  with  the  Russian  alphabet.  The  lan- 
guage question  has  led  to  many  debates  in  the  Austrian 
parliament  and  has  been  taken  up  by  many  Ruthenian 
magazines  and  reviews.  The  Ruthenians  have  also 
brought  their  language  and  political  difficulties  with 
them  to  America  (see  Greek  Catholics  in  America, 
under  snhtMe  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics),  where  they 
encounter  them  as  obstacles  to  racial  progress.  Not 
only  in  history  but  in  literature  have  the  Ruthenians 
or  Little  Russians  held  an  honourable  place.  Their 
chief  city,  Kieff,  was  the  capital  of  the  country  before 
Moscow  was  founded  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century.  A  portion  of  them  led  the  wild,  stirring  life 
of  the  Cossacks,  painted  in  Gogol's  romance  of  "Taras 
Bulba";  their  revolt  under  Chmielnicki  in  1648  is 
pictured  by  Sienkiewicz  in  his  historical  romance 
"With  Fire  and  Sword";  that  of  half  a  century  later 
under  Mazeppa  is  made  known  to  most  of  us  by 
Byron's  verse.  They  had  free  printing  presses  for 
secular  as  well  as  religious  literature  in  the  sixteenth 
century;  still  many  of  their  best  writers,  such  as 
Gogol,  have  used  the  Great  Russian  language  even 
when  their  themes  were  Little  Russian,  just  as  so 
much  of  the  text  of  Scott's  Scotch  novels  is  pure 
English.  The  Ruthenian  language,  however,  has  been 
employed  by  authors  of  international  repute,  the 
greatest  of  whom  is  the  poet  Shevchenko.  Other 
authors  of  widening  reputation  have  followed  in  the 
present  century,  and  some  like  Gowda  have  trans- 
ferred their  literary  efforts  to  American  soil. 


RUTTER 


280 


RUYSBROECK 


The  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  Church  in  Austria- 
Hungary  is  represented  by  one  province  in  Galicia, 
Austria,  and  three  dioceses  in  Hungarj'.  The  former 
is  composed  of  the  Greek  Archdiocese  of  Lemberg 
with  the  two  subordinate  dioceses  of  Przemysl  and 
Stanislau.  In  Hungary  there  are  the  separate  dio- 
ceses of  Eperies  and  Munkacs  in  the  north  and  the 
Diocese  of  Kreutz  (Crisium,  Kriievac)  in  the  south. 
These  northern  two  arc  subject  to  the  Latin  Arch- 
bishop of  Gran,  and  the  southern  one  to  the  Latin 
Archbishop  of  Agram.  The  Ruthenian  immigration  to 
America  comes  almost  wholly  from  these  dioceses, 
and  their  efforts  and  progress  in  solidly  establishing 
themselves  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  have  been 
described.  They  have  built  many  fine  and  flourishing 
churches,  have  established  schools  and  now  have  a 
bishop  here  of  their  own  rite  (see  Greek  Catholics 
IN  America).  Some  of  them  are  becoming  wealthy, 
and  in  some  places  in  Pennsylvania  are  reckoned  as  a 
factor  in  American  politics.  Nevertheless,  they  have 
been  subjected  in  America  to  strenuous  proselyting, 
both  on  the  part  of  the  Russian  Orthodox  mission 
churches,  which  preach  Panslavism  in  its  most  alluring 
forms,  and  which  are  at  times  bitterly  hostile  to  Ca- 
tholicism (see  Greek  Orthodox  Church  in  America, 
under  Russian  Orthodox),  and  on  the  part  of  various 
Protestant  missionary  activities,  which  have  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  in  many  localities  "independ- 
ent" Ruthenian  communities  apparently  practising 
the  Greek  Rite  in  connexion  with  the  Presbyterian, 
Baptist,  and  other  churches.  Much  has  been  effected 
by  both  proselyting  parties  because  of  a  lack  of  a  suit- 
able Ruthenian  Catholic  press  and  literature,  and  of 
sufficient  priests.  P'or  instance,  there  is  a  Protestant 
catechism  using  the  name  of  the  Catholic  Church  and 
teaching  the  seven  sacraments,  and  there  are  Protes- 
tant so-called  evangelical  missionaries  who  use  vest- 
ments, candles,  censers,  crucifixes,  and  holy  water,  with 
apparently  all  the  Greek  Catholic  ritual,  having  even 
the  official  Greek  Catholic  mass-books  on  the  altar. 
The  Russian  Orthodox  clergy  find  the  task  even  easier, 
for  thej'  appeal  to  the  Slavic  national  feeling  and  adopt 
the  usual  religious  practices  of  the  Greek  Catholic 
clergy,  and  are  thus  enabled  to  win  over  many  an  im- 
migrant by  offering  sympathy  in  a  strange  land. 

Hruszewski,  Gesch.  den  Ukrainischen  (Ruthenischen)  Volkes 
(Leipzig,  1906) ;  Romanczuk,  Die  Ruthenen  u.  ihre  Gegner  in 
Galizien  (Vienna,  1902);  Jandaurek,  Das  Konigreich  Galizien 
u.  LodoTtierien,  u.  das  Herzogthum  Bukowina  (Vienna,  1884) ; 
Pelesz,  Ge^ch.  der  Union,  I  (Vienna,  1878);  Sembratowicz,  Das 
Zarenlhum  im  Kamp/e  mil  der  Civilisation  (Vienna,  1905);  Fban- 
Z08,  Aus  Halh-Asien;  Cullurbilder  arts  Galizien,  der  Bukowina  u. 
Sad  Rusaland  (Berlin,  1878);  Charities,  Xlll  CSew  York,  Dec, 
1904);  The  Messenger.  XLII,  Sept.-Dec.  (New  York,  1904); 
Gbubhevskt,  Istoria  Ukraini-Rusi  (Lemberg,  1904-11). 

Andrew  J.  Shipman. 

Rutter  (vere  Banister),  Henry,  b.  26  Feb., 
17.5.5;  d.  17  September,  1838,  near  Dodding  Green, 
Westmoreland.  He  was  the  son  of  Adam  Banister 
of  Hesketh  Bank  and  Agnes,  daughter  of  Richard 
Butler,  of  Mawde.sley  (Lancashire).  On  26  Sept., 
1768,  he  went  to  Douai  College,  where  he  found  his 
uncle.  Rev.  Robert  Banister.  In  May,  1781,  he  be- 
came professor  at  St.  Omer's  College  for  the  secular 
clergj'.      On  the  English  mission,  he  served  several 

? laces  in  the  north  before  his  appointment  in  1817  to 
ealand  (Lancashire),  where  he  remained  till  Jan., 
18^i4.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  at  Dodding 
Green.  The  "Orthodox  Journal"  (VII,  223)  gives  a 
sympathetic  notice  of  this  sterling  priest,  character- 
ized by  his  old-world  learning  and  solid  piety.  Rutter 
wrote  an  "Evangelical  Harmony",  re-edited  (18.57) 
by  Husenbeth.  His  other  works,  chiefly  scriptural 
exegeses  and  devotional  translations,  are  enumerated 
ami  described  by  Gillow.  The  "An.swer  to  Dr. 
Southey"  (the  poet-laureate)  is  a  contribution  to 
the  controversy  provoked  by  Southey's  "Book  of 
the  Church"  (1S24),  in  which  Charles  Butler  (q.  v.) 
was  the  Catholic  protagonist.  Patrick  Ryan. 


Ruvo  and  Bitonto,  Diocese  of  (Rubensis  et 
BiTTJNTiNENSis),  in  the  Province  of  Bari,  Aquileia, 
Southern  Italy.  Ruvo,  the  ancient  Rubi,  situated  on 
a  calcareous  hill,  contains  a  fine  Norman  cathedral  of 
the  eleventh  century.  Outside  of  the  city  are  the 
ruins  of  a  more  ancient  cathedral,  possiblj^  of  the  late 
fourth  or  early  fifth  century.  According  to  a  legend 
St.  Peter  preached  the  Faith  here  and  appointed  to 
the  see  as  its  first  bishop  St.  Cletus,  later  pope.  We 
read  also  of  a  St.  Procopius,  Bishop  of  Ruvo,  of  un- 
known date;  Bishop  Joannes,  spoken  of  in  493,  is  the 
first  prelate  of  the  city  known  with  certainty;  of  the 
others  mention  may  be  made  of  Pictro  Ruggieri 
(17.59-1804);  Bishop  Anderano  (about  734)  belonged 
either  to  Bitonto  or  Bisignano;  Arnolfo  (10S7),  the 
first  undoubted  Bishop  of  Bitonto;  Enrico  Minutolo 
(1382),  later  cardinal;  Cornelio  Musso  (1544),  a  Con- 
ventual, ('istinguished  at  the  Council  of  Trent; 
Fabrizio  Carafa  (1622),  founder  of  a  literary  academy; 
Alessandro  Crescenti  (1652),  later  cardinal.  In  1818 
the  Diocese  of  Ruvo,  which  comprised  only  the  com- 
mune of  Ruvo,  was  united  (rque  principaliter  to  the 
See  of  Bitonto,  which  included  onlj^  the  commune  of 
Bitonto.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral  with  four  rows  of 
beautiful  marble  columns.  The  chief  historic  events 
relating  to  the  dioceses  are  the  capture  of  Ruvo  in 
1503  by  Gonsalvo  di  Cordova,  who  defeated  the 
French,  and  the  battle  of  Bitonto  (1734)  in  which 
the  Austrians  were  defeated  by  the  Spaniards.  The 
united  dioceses  contain  25,000  inhabitants,  a  Fran- 
ciscan friary,  7  houses  of  religious,  3  of  which  are 
enclosed,  2  having  hospitals  attached,  and  2  others 
charitable  establishments. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  XVI  (Venice,  1857). 

U.  Benigni. 

Ruysbroeck,  John,  Blessed,  surnamed  the  Ad- 
mirable Doctor,  and  the  Divine  Doctor,  undoubtedly 
the  foremost  of  the  Flemish  mvstics,  b.  at  Ruysbroeck, 
near  Brussels,  1293;  d.  at  Grbenendael,  2  Dec,  1381. 
He  was  blessed  with  a  devout  mother,  w'ho  trained 
him  from  infancy  in  the  ways  of  piety  and  holiness. 
Of  his  father  we  know  nothing;  John's  only  family 
name,  van  Ruysbroeck,  is  taken  from  his  native  ham- 
let. At  the  age  of  eleven  he  forsook  his  mother,  de- 
parting without  leave  or  warning,  to  place  himself 
under  the  guidance  and  tuition  of  his  uncle,  John 
Hinckaert,  a  saintly  priest  and  a  canon  of  St.  Gudule's, 
Brussels,  who  with  a  fellow-c^anon  of  like  mind,  Francis 
van  Coudenberg,  was  following  a  manner  of  life 
modelled  on  the  simplicity  and  fervour  of  Apostolic 
days.  This  uncle  provided  for  Ruj'sbroeck's  educa- 
tion with  a  view  to  the  priesthood.  In  due  course, 
Blessed  John  was  presented  with  a  prebend  in  St. 
Gudule's,  and  ordained  in  1317.  His  mother  had  fol- 
lowed him  to  Brussels,  entered  a  Beguinage  there,  and 
made  a  happy  end  shortly  before  his  ordinat  ion.  For 
twenty-six  years  Ruy.shrocck  contiimed  to  lead,  to- 
gether with  his  uncle  Hinckaert  and  van  Couden- 
berg, a  life  of  extreme  austerity  and  retirement.  At 
Chat  time  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit  were  causing 
con.siderable  trouble  in  the  Netherlands,  and  one  of 
them,  a  woman  named  Bloemardiiiiie,  was  particu- 
larly active  in  Brussels,  projiagating  her  fal.se  tenets 
chiefly  by  means  of  popular  pamphlets.  In  defence 
of  the  Faith  Ruysbroeck  responded  with  pamphlets 
also  written  in  the  native  tongue.  Nothing  of  these 
treatises  remains;  but  the  effect  of  the  controversy 
was  so  far  permanent  with  Ruysbroeck  that  his  later 
writings  bear  constant  reference,  direct  and  indirect, 
to  the  heresies,  especially  the  false  mysticism,  of  the 
day,  and  he  composed  always  in  the  idiom  of  the 
country,  chiefly  with  a  view  to  counteracting  the  mis- 
chief of  the  hercitical  writings  scattered  broadcast 
among  the  peoi)l(!  in  th(ur  own  tongue. 

The  desire  for  a  more  retired  life,  and  possibly  also 
the  persecution  which  followed  Ruysbroeck's  attack 
on  Bloemardinne,  induced  the  three  friends  to  quit 


RUYSBROECK 


281 


RUYSBROECK 


Brussels  in  1343,  for  the  hermitage  of  Groenendael,  in 
the  neighbouring  forest  of  Soignes,  which  was  made 
over  to  them  by  John  III,  Duke  of  Brabant.  But 
here  so  many  discii)le.s  joined  the  little  company  that 
it  was  found  expcnlient  to  organize  into  a  duly- 
authorized  religious  body.  The  hermitage  was 
erected  into  a  community  of  canons  regular,  13 
March,  1319,  and  eventually  it  became  the  mother- 
house  of  a  congregation,  which  bore  its  name  of  Groe- 
nendael. Francis  van  Coudenberg  was  appointed 
first  provost,  and  Blessed  John  Ruy.sbroeck  prior. 
John  Hin(!kaert  refrained  from  making  the  canonical 
profession  lest  the  discipline  of  the  house  should  suffer 
from  the  exemptions  required  by  the  infirmities  of 
his  old  age;  he  dwelt,  therefore,  in  a  cell  outside  the 
cloister,  and  there  a  few  years  later  happily  passed 
away.  This  period,  from  his  religious  profession 
(1349)  to  his  death  (1381),  was  the  mo.st  active  and 
fruitful  of  Ruysbroeck's  career.  To  his  own  com- 
nuinity  his  lif(>  and  words  were  a  constant  source  of 
insi)ir;ition  and  encouragement.  His  fame  as  a  man 
of  God,  as  a  sublime  contemplative  and  a  skilled  di- 
rector of  souls,  spread  bej-ond  the  bounds  of  Flanders 
and  Brabant  to  Holland,  German}-,  and  P'ranee.  All 
sorts  and  conditions  of  men  sought  his  aid  and  coun- 
sel. His  WTitings  were  eagerly  caught  up  and  rapidly 
multiplied,  especially  in  the  cloisters  of  the  Nether- 
lands and  Germany;  early  in  the  fifteenth  century 
they  are  to  be  found  also  in  England.  Among  the 
more  famous  visitors  to  Groenendiiel  mention  is  made 
of  Tauler,  but  though  the  German  preacher  certainly 
knew  and  appreciated  his  writings,  it  is  not  estab- 
lished that  he  ever  actually  saw  Ruysbroeck.  Ge- 
rard Groote  in  particular  venerated  him  as  a  father 
and  loved  him  as  a  friend.  And  through  Groote, 
Ruysbroeck's  influence  hcljjed  to  mould  the  spirit  of 
the  W'indesheiin  School,  which  in  the  next  generation 
found  its  most  faiiious  exjjonent  in  Thoma.s  a  Kempis. 
Just  now  strenuous  cfTorts  are  being  made  to  discover 
authentic  Flemish  MSS.  of  Blessed  John  Ruysbroeck's 
works;  but  uj)  to  the  jH-esent  the  standard  edition  is 
the  Latin  version  of  Surius,  all  imperfect  and  probablj' 
incomplete  as  this  is.  Of  the  various  treatises  here 
preserved,  the  best-known  and  the  most  characteristic 
is  that  entitled  "The  Spiritual  Espousals".  It  is  di- 
vided into  three  books,  treating  respectively  of  the 
active,  the  interior,  and  the  contemplative  life;  and 
each  book  is  subdivided  into  four  parts  working  out 
the  text;  Ecce  Sponsus  ve?iit,  exile  obviam  ei,  as  fol- 
lows: (1)  Ecce,  the  work  of  the  vision,  man  must  turn 
his  eyes  to  God;  (2)  Sponsus  vcrtil,  the  divers  com- 
ings of  the  Bridegroom;  (3)  exite,  the  soul  going  forth 
along  the  paths  of  virtue;  and  finally  (4)  the  embrace 
of  the  soul  and  the  heavenly  S])OUse. 

Literally,  Ruysbrocn^k  wrote  as  the  spirit  moved 
him.  III!  loved  to  wantler  and  meditate  in  the  soli- 
tude of  the  forest  adjoining  the  cloister;  he  was  ac- 
customed to  (larry  a  tablet  with  him,  and  on  this  to  jot 
down  his  thoughts  as  he  felt  inspired  so  to  do.  Late 
in  life  he  was  able  to  declare  that  he  had  never  com- 
mitteil  aught  to  writing  save  by  the  motion  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  In  no  one  of  his  treatises  do  we  find 
anything  like  a  complete  or  detailed  account  of  his 
system;  perhaps,  it  would  be  correct  to  say  that  he 
himself  was  not  conscious  of  elaborating  any  system. 
In  his  dogmatic  writings  he  is  emphatically  a  faithful 
son  of  the  Catholic  Church,  ex])laining,  illustrating, 
and  enforcing  her  traditional  teachings  with  remark- 
able force  and  lucidity;  this  fact  alone  is  quite  sufii- 
cient  to  dispose  of  the  contention,  still  cherished  in 
certain  quarters,  that  Ruy.sbroeck  was  a  forerunner  of 
the  Reformation,  etc.  In  his  ascetic  works,  his  fa- 
vourite virtues  are  detachment,  humility,  and  char- 
ity; he  loves  to  dwell  on  such  themes  as  flight  from 
the  world,  meditation  upon  the  Life,  especially  the 
Passion  of  Christ,  abandonment  to  the  Divine  Will, 
and  an  intense  personal  love  of  God.     But  naturally 


it  is  in  his  mystical  writings  that  the  peculiar  genius 
of  Ruysbroeck  shines  forth.  Yet  here  again  it  is  the 
manner  rather  than  the  matter  that  is  new,  and  it  is 
especially  in  the  freshness,  originality,  boldness,  vari- 
ety, detail,  and  truth  of  his  imag(>ry'and  comparisons 
that  the  individuality  of  Ruysbroeck  stands  out. 
Students  of  mysticism  from  the  pages  of  the  Are- 
opagite  onwards  will  scarcely  discover  anything  for 
which  they  cannot  recall  a  parallel  elsewhere.  But 
there  are  many  who  maintain  that  Blessed  John 
stands  alone,  unrivalled,  in  his  grasp  of  what  we  may 
term  the  metaphysics  of  mysticism,  in  the  delicate- 
ness  and  surencss  of  his  touch  when  describing  the 
phenomena  and  progress  of  the  mystic  union,  and  in 
the  combined  beauty,  simplicity,  and  loftiness  of  his 
language  and  style. 

In  common  with  most  of  the  German  mystics  Ruys- 
broeck starts  from  God  and  comes  down  to  man,  and 
thence  rises  again  to  God,  showing  how  the  two  are  so 
clo.sely  united  as  to  become  one.  But  here  he  is  care- 
ful to  protest:  "There  where  I  assert  that  we  are  one 
in  God,  I  must  be  understood  in  this  .sense  that  we  are 
one  in  love,  not  in  essenc-e  and  nature. "  Despite  this 
declaration,  however,  and  other  similar  saving  clauses 
scattered  over  his  pages,  some  of  Ruysbroeck's  ex- 
pressions are  certainly  rather  unusual  and  startling. 
The  sublimity  of  his  subject-matter  was  such  that  it 
could  scarcely  be  otherwise.  His  devoted  friend, 
Gerard  Groote,  a  trained  theologian,  confessed  to  a 
feeling  of  uneasiness  over  certain  of  his  phrases  and 
passages,  and  begged  him  to  change  or  modify  them 
for  the  sake  at  least  of  the  weak.  Later  on,  Jean  Ger- 
son  and  then  Bo.ssuet  both  professed  to  find  traces  of 
unconscious  pantheism  in  his  works.  But  as  an  off- 
set to  these  we  may  mention  the  enthusiastic  com- 
mendations of  his  contemporaries,  Groot(%  Tauler, 
h.  Kempis,  Scoenhoven,  and  in  subsequ(>nt  times  of  the 
Franciscan  van  Herp,  the  Carthusians  Denys  and 
Surius,  the  Carmelite  Thomas  of  Jesus,  the  Benedic- 
tine Louis  de  Blois,  and  the  Jesuit  Lessius.  In  our 
own  days  Ernest  Hello  and  especially  Maeterlinck 
have  done  much  to  make  his  writings  known  and  even 
popular.  .\nd  at  present,  particularly  since  his  beati- 
fication, there  is  a  strong  revival  of  interest  in  all  that 
concerns  Ruysbroeck  in  his  native  Belgium. 

A  word  of  warning  is  needed  against  the  assump- 
tion of  some  writers  who  would  exalt  the  genius  of 
Ruysbroeck  by  dwelling  on  what  they  term  his  illit- 
eracy and  ignorance.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  works 
of  Blessed  John  manifest  a  mastery  of  the  sacred 
sciences,  and  a  considerable  acquaintance  even  with 
the  natural  science  of  his  day.  His  adaptation  of  the 
slender  resources  of  his  native  tongue  to  the  exact 
expression  of  his  own  unusual  experiences  and  ideas 
is  admirable  beyond  praise;  and  though  his  verse  is 
not  of  the  best,  his  prose  writings  are  vigorous  and 
chaste,  and  eviden(!e  not  only  the  intellect  of  a  meta- 
physician, but  the  soul  also  of  a  true  and  tender  poet. 

Bles.sed  John's  relics  were  carefully  preserved  and 
his  memory  honoured  as  that  of  a  saint.  When  Groe- 
nendael Priory  was  suppressed  by  Jo.seph  II  in  1783, 
the  relics  were  transferred  to  St.  Gudule's,  Brussels, 
where,  however,  they  were  lost  during  the  French 
Revolution.  A  long  and  oft-interrupted  series  of  at- 
tempts to  secure  official  acknowledgiru^nt  of  his  heroic 
virtues  from  Rome  was  crowned  at  length  by  a  De- 
cree, 1  Dec,  1908,  confirming  to  him  under  the  title  of 
"Blessed"  his  cultus  ah  immemorahili  tempore.  And 
the  Office  of  the  Beatus  has  been  granted  to  the  clergy 
of  Mechlin  and  to  the  Canons  Regular  of  the  Lateran. 
No  authentic  portrait  of  Ruysbroeck  is  known  to  ex- 
ist; but  the  traditional  picture  represents  him  in  the 
canonical  habit,  seated  in  the  forest  with  his  writing 
tablet  on  his  knee,  as  he  was  in  fact  found  one  day  by 
the  brethren — rapt  in  ecstasy  and  enveloped  in  flames, 
which  encircle  without  consuming  the  tree  under 
which  he  is  resting. 


RUYSCH 


282 


RYAN 


Arthuk,  The  Founders  of  the  New  Devotion  (London,  1905); 
Bailue,  Reflections  from  the  Mirror  of  a  Mystic  (London,  1905); 
Scully,  Life  of  Bl.  John  Ruyshroeck  (London,  1910);  Stoddart, 
Ruysbroeck  and  the  Mystics  by  Maurice  Maeterlinck  (London, 
1S94);  UxDERHiLL,  Mysticism  (London,  1911);  Auger,  Etudes 
sur  les  Mystiques  des  Pays-Bas  au  moyen  Age  in  Acad.  Roy.  de  Belg.. 
torn,  xh-i;  Auger,  De  doctrina  et  meritis  Joannis  tan  Ruysbroeck 
(Louvain,  1892) ;  BorRGioNON,  Le  b.  Jean  Rusbrok  (Li^ge,  1910) ; 
ExGELH.\RDT,  Richard  von  St.  Victor  und  Joannes  Rusbroek  (Er- 
langen,  1838);  Fori,  Vita  e  Dottrine  del  B.  G.  Rusbrochio  (Rome, 
1909);  Gebson,  Opera  (Antwerp,  1708);  Grube,  Gerhard  Groot 
und  seine  Stiftungen  (Cologne,  1883);  Hello,  Ruysbroeck  I' Ad- 
mirable (Paris,  1902) ;  Maeterlinck,  L'ornement  des  noces  spiri- 
tuelles  de  Ruyshroeck  l' Admirable  (Brussels,  1908);  Mierlo,  arti- 
cles in  Dietsche  Warande  en  Belfort,  Feb.-Nov.  (Antwerp,  1910); 
MuLLEK,  Jan  ran  Ruysbroeck,  Van  den  VII  Trappen  (Brussels, 
1911);  Pensottus,  Ordinis  canonicorum  historia  tripartita  (Co- 
logne, 1630);  PoMERius,  in  Bollandists,  torn.  IV;  Surius,  Opera 
(Cologne,  1692);  Thomas  A  Kempis,  Opera  (Freiburg,  1901); 
Ullmaxn,  Reformatoren  tor  der  Reformation  (Hamburg,  1842); 
Vreese,  Jean  de  Ruysbroeck  (Brussels,  1909);  Proces.<iu.t.  anno 
16 2^  .  .  .  de  rita  et  miraculis  Ruysbrochii,  in  Mechlin  archives; 
Decretum  Mechlin  confirmationis  cuUils  (Rome,  1909). 

Vincent  Scully. 

Ruysch,  John,  astronomer,  cartographer,  and 
painter,  b.  at  Utrecht  about  1460;  d.  at  Cologne,  1533. 
Little  is  knowTi  of  his  early  hfe.  He  became  a  secular 
priest,  but  joined  the  Benedictine  Order  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Martin's  at  Cologne,  where  he 
made  his' profession  in  1492.  He  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  astronomy  and  to  painting,  in  which  art 
he  acquired  much  skill.  He  gave  proof  of  his  talent 
by  decorating  the  refectory  of  the  monastery  with 
artistic  designs,  representing  the  lunar  month  and  the 
signs  of  the  zodiac.  He  went  to  Rome  about  1508  and 
received  a  post  in  the  pontifical  palace.  While  here 
he  pubhshed  his  famous  map  of  the  world  entitled 
"Nova  et  universalior  orbis  cogniti  tabula".  It  con- 
tains in  particular  the  new  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
discoveries  in  America.  He  assisted  Raphael  in  his 
great  paintings  in  the  Vatican.  Leaving  Rome  he 
journeyed  to  Portugal,  where  he  became  known  to  the 
king,  who  esteemed  him  highly  on  account  of  his 
knowledge  of  astronomy  and  cosmography,  and  made 
him  astronomer  to  the  fleet.  He  finally  returned  to 
Cologne  and  spent  his  last  years  in  the  monastery  of 
his  profession.  He  possessed  considerable  mechanical 
skill,  and  left  a  number  of  astronomical  instruments 
of  his  own  construction.  He  was  also  the  author  of 
the  "Admonitiones  ad  spirituaha  trahentes",  which 
he  wrote  in  1494,  and  of  a  treatise  on  the  mixing  of 
colours  and  on  painting  on  canvas. 

HoLTHAUsEN,  Chronicon  Breve  Sti  Martini  apud  Ubios  (about 
155G);    Hartzheim,  Bibliotheca  Coloniensis  (1746). 

Henry  M.  Brock. 

Ryan,  Abram  J.,  the  poet^priest  of  the  South,  b. 
at  Norfolk,  Va.,  15  Aug.,  1839;  d.  at  Louisville,  Ky., 
22  April,  1886.  He  inherited  from  his  parents,  in  its 
most  poetic  and  religious  form,  the  strange  witchery 
of  the  Iri.sh  temper.  Fitted  for  the  priesthood  by  a 
nature  at  once  mystic  and  spiritual,  he  was  ordained 
just  before  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  entered 
the  Confederate  army  as  a  chaplain,  and  served  in 
this  capacity  until  the  end  of  the  war.  In  the  hour 
of  defeat  he  won  the  heart  of  the  entire  South  by 
his  "Conquered  Banner,"  whose  exquisite  measure 
was  taken,  as  he  told  a  friend,  from  one  of  the  Gre- 
gorian hymns.  The  Marseillaise,  as  a  hymn  of 
victory,  never  more  profoundly  stirred  the  heart  of 
Trance  than  did  this  hymn  of  defeat  the  hearts  of 
those  U)  whom  it  was  addressed.  It  was  read  or  sung 
in  every  Southern  household,  and  thus  became  the 
apothwjsis  of  the  "Ivost  Cause".  While  much  of  his 
later  war  poetry  was  notable  in  its  time,  his  first 
effort,  which  fixed  his  fame,  was  his  finest  production. 
The  only  other  themes  upon  which  he  sang  were  those 
inspired  by  religious  feeling.  Among  his  poems  of 
that  class  are  to  be  found  bits  of  the  most  weird  and 
exquisite  imagery.  Within  the  limits  of  the  Southern 
Confederacy  and  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Unit*;*! 
States,  no  ix>et  was  more  popular.     After  the  war  he 


exercised  the  ministry  in  New  Orleans,  and  was  editor 
of  "The  Star,"  a  Catholic  weekly;  later  he  founded 
"The  Banner  of  the  South"  in  Augusta,  Ga.,  a  reh- 
gious  and  political  weekly;  then  he  retired  to  Mobile. 
In  1880  he  lectured  in  several  Northern  cities.  As 
a  pulpit  orator  and  lecturer,  he  was  always  interesting 
and  occasionally  brilliant.  As  a  man  he  had  a  subtle, 
fascinating  nature,  full  of  magnetism  when  he  saw 
fit  to  exert  it;  as  a  priest,  he  was  full  of  tenderness, 
gentleness,  and  courage.  In  the  midst  of  pestilence 
he  had  no  fear  of  death  or  disease.  Even  when  he 
was  young  his  feeble  body  gave  him  the  appearance 
of  age,  and  with  all  this  there  was  the  dream j'  mysti- 
cism of  the  poet  so  manifest  in  the  flesh  as  to  impart 
to  his  personality  something  which  marked  him  oflf 
from  all  other  men.  His  "  Poems,  Patriotic,  Religious, 
and  Miscellaneous"  have  reached  a  twenty-fourth 
edition. 

Rutherford,  The  South  in  Hist,  and  Lit.  (.\tlanta,  1907); 
Manly,  Southern  Lit.  (Richmond,  1895);  Irish  Monthly,  xix 
(Dublin,   029). 

Hannis  Taylor. 
Ryan,  James.    See  Alton,  Diocese  op. 

Ryan,  Patrick  John,  sixth  Bishop  and  second 
Archbishop  of  Philadelphia,  b.  at  Thurles,  County 
Tipperary,  Ireland,  20  February,  1831;  d.  at  Phila- 
delphia, 11  February,  1911.  His  early  education 
was  received  at  the  school  of  the  Christian  Brothers 
in  his  native  town.  In  his  twelfth  year  he  entered 
the  select  school  of  Mr.  J.  L.  Naughton,  Richmond 
Street,  Dublin,  where  he  began  his  Classical  studies. 
In  1844,  while  a  pupil  at  Mr.  Naughton's  school, 
he  headed  a  delegation  of  students,  and  in  their  name 
made  an  address  to  Daniel  O'Connell,  then  a  prisoner 
in  Richmond  Bridewell  Prison.  It  is  said  that  the 
great  Liberator  complimented  the  young  speaker, 
and  predicted  a  brilliant  future  for  him.  In  1847 
he  was  adopted  for  the  Diocese  of  St.  Louis  in  the 
United  States  by  Archbishop  Peter  Richard  Kenrick, 
and  entered  St.  Patrick's  College,  Carlow.  In  1852 
he  finished  his  course  and  was  advanced  to  deacon's 
orders,  but  being  too  young  to  be  ordained  priest, 
he  set  out  for  St.  Louis  with  Rev.  Patrick  Feehan, 
a  subject  of  the  same  diocese,  and  afterward  Arch- 
bishop of  Chicago,  and  on  his  arrival  was  appointed 
to  teach  in  the  Diocesan  Seminary  at  Carondelet. 
On  account  of  his  exceptional  ability  as  a  public 
speaker.  Archbishop  Kenrick  permitted  the  young 
deacon  to  preach  frequently  in  the  cathedral.  His 
fame  went  forth  at  once,  and  he  drew  large  audiences, 
made  up  not  only  of  the  regular  members  of  the 
congregation,  but  of  the  most  prominent  people  of 
all  denominations  from  various  parts  of  the  city 
and  more  distant  points.  On  8  September,  1853, 
by  special  dispensation,  he  was  ordained  priest  and 
was  appointed  assistant  rector  at  the  cathedral.  He 
served  there  as  assistant  and  as  rector  until  1861, 
when  he  was  appointed  to  build  the  Church  of  the 
Annunciation  at  St.  Louis.  Having  completed  this 
task  promptly  and  successfully,  he  was  transferred 
to  the  rectorship  of  St.  John's  parish  at  St.  Louis. 
During  all  these  years  he  was  noted  for  his  zeal  in 
the  work  of  the  ministry,  for  his  faithfulness  in 
attending  the  military  prisoners  in  Gratiot  Street 
Pri.son  during  the  Civil  War,  for  the  frequency  and 
effect  ivcnc.s.s  of  his  sermons,  and  for  the  large  number 
of  converts,  many  of  them  persons  of  note,  who  by 
his  influence  were  brought  into  the  Church. 

In  1866  he  attended  the  Second  Plenary  Council 
of  Baltimore  as  one  of  Archbishop  Kenrick's  theo- 
logians, and  was  one  of  three  priests  chosen  to  j)r('ach 
on  that  occasion,  the  others  being  Arclil)iKhop  John 
Lancaster  Spalding,  and  the  late  Rev.  Isaac  Hecker, 
C.S.P.  In  1868  he  spent  a  year  in  Europe  with 
Archbishop  Kenrick.  His  fame  as  an  orator  had 
preceded  him,  and  he  received  calls  from  all  sides. 
At  Rome,  at  the  request  of  Pope  Pius  IX,  he  deliv- 


RYDER 


283 


BTDER 


ered  the  English  Lenten  course  for  that  year.  Arch- 
bishop Kcnrick  appointed  him  vicar-general  and 
administrator  of  the  diocese,  during  his  attendance 
at  the  Vatican  Council.  On  14  February,  1872,  he 
was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Tricomia,  and 
Coadjutor  Bishop  of  St.  Louis  with  right  of  suces- 
sion.  After  serving  faithfully  and  successfully  in 
this  capacity  for  twelve  years,  he  was  made  titular 
Archbishop  of  Salamis  on  6  January,  1884. 

In  the  meantime  the  See  of  Philadelphia  had  be- 
come vacant  by  the  death  of  Archbishop  Wood,  and 
on  8  June,  1884,  Archbishop  Ryan  was  appointed 
to  succeed  him.  During  his  reign  in  Philadelphia 
the  Church  grew  rapidly,  as  can  be  seen  by  the 
following  table: — 

In  1884     In  1911 

Churches 127  297 

Priests 260  582 

Nuns    1020  2565 

Schools     59  141 

Pupils 22,000         63,612 

Orphans  supported   998  3,230 

Catholic  population 300,000       525,000 

During  that  time  also  the  Roman  Catholic  High 
School  for  Bo}\s,  which  was  endowed  by  Mr.  Thomas 
Cahill,  was  built,  and  put  in  operation;  high  school 
centres  for  girls  taught  by  the  different  communities 
were  established;  a  new  central  high  school  for  girls 
was  partly  endowed  and  begim;  St.  Francis'  Indu.s- 
trial  School  for  Hoys  wjis  endowed  and  successfully 
operated;  the  Philadelphia  Protectory  for  Boys  was 
erected:  it  has  since  been  enlarged,  at  a  cost  of  over 
half  a  million  dollars  and  with  capacity  for  six  hun- 
dred; St.  Joseph's  Home  for  Working  Boys  was 
founded;  a  new  foundling  asylum  and  maternity 
hospital  was  built;  a  new  St.  Vincent's  Home  for 
younger  orphan  children  was  purchased  with  the 
archbishop's  Golden  Jubilee  Fund  of  $200,000  ;  a 
third  Home  for  the  Aged  was  erected;  a  Memorial 
Library  Building,  dedicated  to  the  Archbishop,  was 
begun  at  St.  Charles'  Seminary,  Overbrook;  and  the 
three  Catholic  hospitals  of  the  city  doubled  their 
capacity.  The  extent  of  the  archbishop's  zeal  is 
shown  by  his  care  for  the  emigrants  who  came  into 
the  diocese  during  his  time.  In  1884  there  were  very 
few  foreign  churches  in  the  diocese;  now  there  are 
20  for  the  Italians,  23  for  the  Poles,  18  for  the  Greeks, 
15  for  the  Slovacs,  6  for  the  Lithuanians,  and  several 
for  other  nationalities. 

The  archbishop  took  special  interest  in  the  Indians 
and  negroes.  He  established  two  congregations  for 
the  latter  in  Philadelphia,  and  invited  the  Holy 
Ghost  Fathers  to  build  their  college  and  mother- 
house  at  Cornwclls,  near  the  city.  Under  his  direc- 
tion Mother  Katharine  Drexel  founded  the  Sisters 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  who  devote  themselves 
entirely  to  the  Indians  and  negroes,  with  their  mother- 
house,  novitiate  and  orphan  asylum  at  Comwells, 
and  several  convents  and  schools  in  the  West  and 
South.  Another  proof  of  this  interest  is  found  in  the 
archbishop's  attendance  at  the  Lake  Mohonk  con- 
ferences, and  at  the  meetings  of  the  U.  S.  Indian 
Commission,  to  which  he  had  been  appointed  by 
President  Roosevelt.  By  his  prudence  and  tact  he 
removed  much  prejudice  against  the  Church,  and 
obtained  special  privileges  for  Catholics  in  public 
institutions.  His  great  reputation  as  an  orator 
brought  him  invitations  to  speak,  not  only  at  the 
most  important  ecclesiastical  functions,  but  also 
on  secular  occasions.  In  addition  to  his  monthly 
sermons,  in  St.  Louis  on  the  first  Sunday,  and  in 
Philadelphia  on  the  second,  he  preached  frequently 
at  the  laying  of  comer-stones,  at  the  consecration  of 
bishops,  and  churches,  and  at  funerals.  Some  of 
the  more  remarkable  instances  were  the  dedication 
of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New  York,  the  conferring 


of  the  pallium  on  Archbishop  Corrigan,  and  his 
funeral  sermon ;  the  consecration  and  funeral  of  Arch- 
bishop Hennessy  of  Dubuque;  and  the  funeral  of 
Archbishop  Kenrick  of  St.  Louis.  He  addressed  the 
St.  Louis  Legislature  twice;  opened  the  St.  Louis 
University  on  two  occasions;  spoke  before  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  United  States  Senate  on  Indian  affairs; 
opened  the  Republican  National  Convention  in 
Philadelphia  in  1900,  and  was  the  principal  speaker 
at  the  McKinley  Memorial  service  in  Philadelphia, 
after  the  president's  assassination. 

He  lectured  on  various  occasions,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  his  lectures  probably  being  on  "What  Cath- 
olics do  not  beheve",  St.  Louis,  1877,  and  on  "Agnos- 
ticism", Philadelphia,  1894.  He  received  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Laws  from  the  University  of  St.  Louis 
and  from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Under 
his  guidance  the  Catholic  "Standard  and  Times" 
of  Philadelphia,  his  official  organ,  obtained  a  reputa- 
tion unexcelled  in  CathoUc  joumahsm;  and  under  his 
editorial  direction  the  "American  Catholic  Quarterly 
Review  "  preserved  and  extended  the  reputation  which 
it  had  already  made  as  a  leading  exponent  of  Catholic 
thought.  The  celebrations  of  the  Silver  Jubilee  of 
the  archbishop  in  the  episcopacy,  1897,  and  of  his 
Golden  Jubilee  in  the  priesthood,  1903,  proved  the 
esteem  in  which  he  was  held  by  the  whole  community, 
irrespective  of  creed,  because  the  whole  city  rejoiced; 
while  his  death  showed  how  universally  he  was  loved, 
for  the  whole  city  wept.  The  archbishop  was  best 
known  as  an  orator  and  a  wit.  He  was  adorned  most 
by  strong  faith  and  piety,  by  great  meekness  and 
humility,  and  by  a  prudence  that  was  far-reaching 
and  admirable.  He  has  left  no  published  works 
except  some  lectures.  These  are:  "Modern  Reli- 
gious Skepticism";  "What  Catholics  do  not  Believe"; 
"Christian  Civilization";  and  "Agnosticism":  all 
are  published  by  the  CathoHc  Truth  Society  of  San 
Francisco  as  well  as  by  similar  organizations  in  this 
country  and  London.  There  is  a  fifth  lecture  on 
"ReHgion  and  the  Fine  Arts". 

O'Hanlon,  Life  and  Scenery  in  Missouri  (Dublin,  1800); 
Cowley,  The  Episcopal  Silver  Jubilee  of  the  Most  Reverend  Patrick 
John  Ryan,  D.D.,  LL.D.  (Philadelphia,  1897);  Kirun,  Life  of 
AfoslRev.  P.  J.  Ryan,  D.D.,LL.D.  (Phi\&de\phm,  1903);  Turner, 
The  Late  Archbishop  Ryan  in  The  Catholic  World  (April,  1911); 
Halvey,  Bas  Le  Mor  Mar  Cluidh,  Personal  Reminiscences  of 
Archbishop  Ryan  in  Good  Counsel  Magazine  (Philadelphia, 
March,  1911). 

James  P.  Turner. 

Ryder,  Henry  Ignatius  Dudley,  English  Orato- 
rian  priest  and  controversialist,  b.  3  Jan.,  1837;  d.  at 
Edgbaston,  Birmingham,  7  Oct.,  1907;  was  the  eldest 
son  of  George  Dudley  Ryder,  one  of  the  numerous 
clergymen  of  the  Established  Church  of  England  who 
followed  in  the  steps  of  Newman.  He  was  received 
into  the  Catholic  Church  at  Rome  in  1846.  The  grand- 
father, Henry  Dudley  Ryder,  a  son  of  the  first  Lord 
Harrowby,  was  a  prominent  Evangelical  in  the  early 
years  of  the  last  century,  and  was  the  first  of  the  party 
to  be  raised  to  the  episcopate.  He  was  successively 
Bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Lichfield  and  Coventry.  His 
kneeling  statue  by  Chantrey  will  be  remembered  by  all 
visitors  of  Lichfield  cathedral.  Newman,  in  his  "Apol- 
ogia", speaks  of  the  veneration  in  which  he  held 
Bishop  Ryder.  George  Ryder  married  Sophia,  a 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  John  Sargent.  The  three  other 
Misses  Sargent  married  respectively  Samuel  Wilbor- 
force,  who  became  Bishop,  first  of  Oxford,  and  then  of 
Winchester;  Henry  Wilbcrforce;  and  Henry  Edward 
Manning,  the  future  cardinal  and  Archbishop  of 
Westminster. 

Father  Ryder's  lifelong  connexion  with  Newman 
and  the  Oratory  began  as  a  private  pupil,  when  he 
was  about  twelve  years  old.  The  only  interruption 
was  a  year  at  the  English  College  at  Rome  and  a  few 
months  at  the  Catholic  University  at  Dublin,  of 
which    Newman    was    rector,    before   he    began    in 


RYKEN 


284 


RYKEN 


December,  1856,  his  Oratorian  novitiate.  In  1863 
he  was  ordained  priest.  After  Cardinal  Newman's 
death  he  was  elected  superior  of  the  Birmingham 
Orator>-  and  held  this  office  till  his  health  gave 
way.  He  was  the  last  surxnvor  of  "my  dearest 
brothers  of  this  House,  the  Priests  of  the  Birming- 
ham Oratorj'"  to  whom  Newman  dedicated  his 
"Apologia".  His  grave  is  mth  theirs  and  Cardinal 
Newman's  at  Rednal,  a  small  country  house  belong- 
ing to  the  Birmingham  Oratorj',  about  seven  miles 
from  Birmingham.  His  life  was  uneventful.  He  cared 
little  for  notoriety 
or  even  fame. 
Once  only  did  he 
push  himself  for- 
ward, and  then 
it  was  to  incur 
obloquy  rather 
than  applause. 
This  was  in  1867- 
8,  when  he  at- 
tacked W.  G. 
Ward,  at  that  time 
editor  of  "  The 
Dublin  Review", 
and  a  leading  spirit 
among  an  influen- 
tial section  of 
English  Catholics 
who  were  singu- 
larly intolerant  to- 
wards those  who 
differed  from 
them.  Ward 
seemed  to  think  of  the  pope  as  unceasingly  exer- 
cising his  ver>'  highest  prerogative.  All  doctrinal 
instructions  contained  in  papal  documents,  such 
as  encycUcals  and  the  Uke  were  infallible  utter- 
ances. The  Syllabus,  together  with  all  the  documents 
which  it  quotes,  was  certainly  infallible.  So  also, 
most  probably,  were  the  doctrinal  Decrees  of  the  Index 
and  the  Holy  Office,  when  sanctioned  by  the  pope  and 
promulgated  by  his  order.  These  opinions  were  put 
forward  not  tentatively,  but  as  the  only  possible  ones 
for  a  loyal  Catholic.  In  other  words,  the  doctrine 
of  Infallibility  was  caricatured  by  its  would-be  de- 
fender in  almcst  exactly  the  same  way  that  it  was 
caricatured  a  few  years  later  by  the  Old  Catholic 
Scliulte  (see  Fesslek).  Against  these  extravagances 
Kydcr  delivered  his  protest  in  three  pamphlets,  re- 
markable both  for  their  literary  style  and  the  theo- 
logical knowledge  they  displayed.  He  earned  for  his 
reward,  as  he  him.self  in  later  years  expressed  it, 
"the  prophet's  portion  of  stones";  but  time  has 
shown  that  he  was  mainly  in  the  right;  within  a  very 
few  years  his  opponent  had  to  retract  many  of  his 
more  pronounced  opinions  in  deference  to  the  teach- 
ing of  Rfjman  theologians.  It  should  be  added  that 
Ryder  fully  beli(;ved  in  the  doctrine  of  Papal  Infalli- 
bility before  it  was  defined. 

His  literary  output  was  small.  Apart  from  a 
riiimbfrof  articles  in  American  and  English  magazines, 
he  published  "Idealism  in  Thwjlogy,  a  Review  of  Dr. 
Sard's  Scheme  of  Dogmatic  Authority"  (London, 
1867J;   "A  Letter  to  W.  G.  Ward  on  his  Theory  of 


Henky  Ignatius  Dudley  Ryder 


InfaUible  Instruction"  (London,  1868);  "Post- 
scriptum  to  Letter,  etc."  (London,  1S6S);  "A  Cri- 
tique upon  Mr.  Foulkes'  Letter"  (London,  1869); 
"Cathohc  Controversy",  a  reply  to  Littledale's 
"Plain  Reasons"  (London,  1880);  "Poems  Original 
and  Translated"  (DubHn,  1882).  There  is  besides 
"Essays  of  the  Rev.  H.  I.  D.  Ryder,  edited  by  Francis 
Bacchus"  (London,  1911).  "His  Hterary  ideal", 
writes  Mr.  Wilfrid  Ward,  "was  so  high;  his  self- 
criticism  so  unsparing,  that  much  which  might  have 
secured  him  a  wider  reputation  was  set  aside.  Quan- 
tity was  sacrificed  in  preference  to  letting  the  world 
see  anything  which  he  himself  felt  to  fall  short  of  his 
own  high  standard  in  quaUty." 

Wilfrid  Wakd,  Fnllier  Ignalius  Ryder  in  The  DiMin  Review 
(January,  1S9S),  republished  in  Idem,  Ten  Pergonal  Studies 
(London,  1908);  Chapman,  Dr.  Ryder's  Essays  in  The  Dublin 
Review  (April,  1911). 

J.  F.  Bacchus. 

Ryken,  Theodore  James,  known  as  Brother 
Francis  Xavier,  founder  of  the  Xaverian  Brothers, 
b.  at  Elshout,  North  Brabant,  Holland,  30  August, 
1797;  d.  at  Bruges,  1871.  His  parents,  who  were 
devout  Catholics,  died  while  he  was  yet  a  child,  and 
a  pious  uncle  reared  him.  Even  in  j^outh  he  loved 
works  of  charity  and  zeal,  and  at  nineteen  he  became 
a  catechist.  At  twenty-five  he  became  secretary  to 
a  well-known  convert,  M.  Le  Sage-ten-Broek,  and 
acted  in  that  capacity  for  four  years,  until  cholera 
broke  out  at  Groningen.  While  helping  to  nurse  the 
patients,  he  caught  the  infection,  and  came  near  to 
death.  In  1826  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  and 
Leo  XII  gave  him  a  medal  in  commemoration.  He 
made  a  second  visit  in  1838,  and  had  an  audience  with 
Gregory  XVI.  In  1827  he  entered  a  Trappist  mon- 
astery in  Germany  but,  as  his  confessor  told  him  that 
God  had  other  designs  for  him,  his  stay  was  short. 
Ryken  came  to  America  in  1831,  and  remained  for 
three  years.  His  observations  in  the  United  States 
convinced  him  that  Catholic  teachers  were  needed, 
and,  returning  to  Europe,  he  planned  to  establish  a 
teaching  institute.  In  1837  he  returned  to  America 
and  obtained  written  approval  from  seven  bishops. 
Thereupon  he  asked  permission  from  Bishop  Boussen, 
of  Bruges,  to  found  a  congregation.  Tiic  bishop  con- 
sented, but,  before  the  actual  foundation,  rcciuired 
Ryken  to  pass  a  year's  novitiate,  which  he  fulfilled 
with  the  Redemptorists. 

The  Xaverian  Brothers  (q.  v.)  were  established  at 
Bruges  in  1839.  The  beginning  was  hard,  the  founder 
having,  with  two  or  three  coinijanions,  lo  struggle 
against  disheartening  obstacles,  (courage  and  energy 
prevailed,  and  after  a  few  years  came  brighter  days. 
Brother  Francis  pronounced  the  vows  of  religion  in 
1846.  In  1860,  after  holding  the  office  of  Superior 
General  of  the  Xaverians  for  twenty-seven  years,  he 
was  relieved  of  his  duties  on  account  of  failing 
strength.  At  the  time  of  his  death  the  Xaverians 
were  firmly  settled  in  Belgium,  England,  and  the 
United  States.  In  Ryken's  character  the  conspicuous 
traits  were  optimistic  faith,  rigour  towards  self,  and 
zeal  for  the  observance  of  tlie  rule. 

BiioTFiKK  i'lMsriH  XwiKii  {Tlii,„lori'  James  Ryken):  A  Life 
Sk-rlch  (IJaltirnori',  1901);  Va.n  Toukmiout,  Fraf/mcnls  from  the 
History  of  the  Xaverian  Brothers  (lialliniore,  1911). 

Brother  Isidore. 


Sa  (Saa),  Manoel  de,  a  Portuguese  theologian  and 
exegete,  b.  at  Villa  do  Conde  (Province  Entre-Minho- 
e-Douro),  1530;  d.  at  Arona  (Italy),  30  Dec,  1596. 
He  distinguished  himself  as  a  student  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Coimbra,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  joined  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  He  soon  afterwards  taught  philos- 
ophy, first  at  Coimbra,  and  next  at  Gandia,  where  he 
also  acted  as  tutor  to  St.  Francis  Borgia,  then  Duke 
of  Gandia.  In  1557,  he  became  one  of  the  early  pro- 
fessors of  the  Roman  College,  and  commented  for  two 
years  on  the  prophecies  of  Osee  and  the  "Summa" 
of  St.  Thomas.  Exhausted  by  his  labours,  he  discon- 
tinued his  lectures,  and  visited  the  houses  of  the 
Society  in  Tuscany.  Restored  to  health,  he  returned 
to  the  Roman  College,  where  he  filled  the  chair  of 
exegesis,  and  found  time  to  give  missions  in  various 
places,  preaching  with  an  eloquence  truly  apostolic. 
His  reputation  for  s(;holar.ship  induced  Pius  V  to  ap- 
point him  as  a  member  of  the  commission  in  charge  of 
preparing  the  authentic  edition  of  the  Septuagint. 
This  did  not  prevent  him  from  continuing  his  apos- 
tolic labours  and  from  founding  several  hou.ses  of  his 
order  in  Upper  Italy.  After  residing  for  a  time  at 
Genoa,  he  withdrew  to  the  professed  house  of  Arona 
(Diocese  of  Milan),  where  he  died.  His  exegetical 
works  are:  "Scholia  in  QuatuorEvangelia"  (Antwerp, 
1596),  and  "  Notationes  in  totam  Scripturam  Sacram  " 
(Antwerp,  1598),  both  of  which  passed  through  several 
editions.  However  short,  Sa's  annotations  clearly 
set  forth  the  literal  sense  of  Holy  Writ,  and  bespeak 
a  solid  erudition,  despite  a  few  inaccuracies  which 
have  been  sharply  rebuked  by  Protestant  critics. 
His  theological  treatise  entitled  "Aphorismi  Con- 
fessariorum  ex  Doctorum  sententiis  collecti"  (Venice, 
1595),  however  remarkable,  was  censured  in  1603, 
apparently  because  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace 
treated  some  of  its  maxims  as  contrary  to  opinions 
commonly  received  among  theologians,  but  it  was 
later  corrected  and  has  recent  Iv  licen  removed  from 
the  Roman  Index  (1900).  Sa's  life  of  John  of  Texeda, 
the  Capuchin  confes.sor  of  St.  Francis  of  Borgia,  when 
Duke  of  Gandia,  has  not  been  published. 

Dr  Backer,  Biblioth.  des  Ecriiains  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jisus 
(LiSge,  1853);  Hurter,  Nomenclator  (Innsbruck,  1907). 

Francis  E.  Gigot. 

Saavedra  Remirez  de  Baquedano,  Angel  de, 
Spanish  poet  and  statesman,  b.  at  Cordova,  10 
March,  1791;  d.  at  Madrid,  22  June,  1865.  He  was 
the  second  son  of  Juan  Martin  de  Saavedra,  Duque  de 
Rivas,  and  succeeded  to  the  title  upon  the  death 
without  issue  of  his  elder  brother  in  1834.  At  eleven 
he  entered  the  Seminario  de  Nobles  at  Madrid  but 
left  at  sixteen  to  join  the  army.  From  1808  to  1813 
he  took  an  active  part  in  the  Spanish  War  of  In- 
dependence. From  1813  to  1820  he  lived  quietly 
in  Seville,  devoting  his  time  to  literary  pursuits,  and 
from  1820  to  1823  he  distinguished  himself  as  a 
member  of  the  Cortes.  He  sided  with  the  revolu- 
tionary party,  and  as  a  result,  when  Ferdinand  VII 
came  into  power,  he  was  forced  to  flee,  escaping  with 
difficulty  to  C^.ibraltar.  From  there  he  proceeded  to 
London,  and  later  to  Malta  where  he  remained  five 
years  during  which  he  continued  his  literary  activities, 
and  then  went  to  live  in  France.  Upon  the  death  of 
Ferdinand  VII,  he  was  able  to  return  to  Spain(1834). 
In  1836,  he  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  the 
cabinet  headed  by  Isturiz,  and  in  1844  he  was  sent 


285 


as  ambassador  to  Naples  where  he  remained  until 
1850.  Besides  being  a  poet  of  great  merit,  Saavedra 
had  considerable  skill  as  a  painter,  and  during  his 
exile  in  France,  earned  a  living  for  himself  and  family 
by  conducting  a  school  for  painting  and  by  selling 
his  pictures.  But  it  is  as  a  poet  that  he  is  best  known. 
He  pubhshed  his  first  volume  of  "Poesias"  in  1813 
and  in  1814,  two  tragedies,  "Ahatur"  and  "El 
Duque  de  Aquitania".  Only  the  first  was  presented. 
The  works  which  place  him  in  the  front  rank  of 
Spanish  poets  are  "El  moro  exp6sito",  a  narrative 
poem  breathing  a  spirit  of  patriotism  (1834),  and  the 
tragedy  "Don  Alvaro"  (1835),  presented  with  great 
success  in  Madrid  and  considered  his  best  work.  A 
complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published  (5 
vols.,  Madrid,  1854),  under  the  title  "Obras  Com- 
pletas",  and  in  1885  a  complete  edition  with  illus- 
trations appeared  at  Barcelona  in  two  volumes. 

De  Bena  in  La  Bihlioleca  de  Autore.t  Esparloles,  II  (Madrid, 
184S);    Canete,  Autores  dramdlicos  contempordneos,  I  (Madrid, 

1881). 

Ventura  Fuentes. 

Saba  and  Sabeans.— This  Saba  (Sheba)  must  not 
be  confounded  with  Saba  (Seba)  in  Ethiopia  of  Is., 
xliii,  3;  xlv,  14.  It  lies  in  the  Southern  Arabian 
Jof  about  200  miles  north-west  of  Aden.  The 
Sabeans  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  a  distant 
people  (Joel,  iii,  8),  famous  traders  (Ez.,  xxvii,  22-3; 
xxxviii,  13;  Job,  vi,  19),  who  exi^orted  gold  (Is., 
Ix,  6;  Ps.,  Ixxii,  15  (R.  V.);  Ez.,  xxxviii,  13),  precious 
stones  (Ez.,  xxvii,  22),  perfumes  (Jer.,  vi,  20),  incense 
(Is.,  Ix,  6),  and  perhaps  slav(>s  (Joel,  ibid.),  and  prac- 
tised brigandage.  The  genealogies  of  Genesis  con- 
nect them  now  with  Dadan,  as  sons  of  Regma  (x, 
7;  cf.  I  Par.,  i,  9)  and  of  Jecsan  (xxv,  3;  cf.  I  Par., 
i,  32),  now  with  Asarmoth  (Hadhramot),  as  sons  of 
Jecsan  (x,  26-8,  cf.,  I  Par.,  i,  20-22).  These  details 
point  to  two  Sabas,  one  in  the  south  contiguous  to 
Hadhramot,  another  in  the  north  near  Taima  (Job, 
i,  15;  vi,  19)  and  El  'Ela  (cf.  "Comptes  rendus  de 
I'Academie  des  Inscriptions"  etc.,  June,  1910);  but 
which  was  the  original  home  of  the  Sabeans,  cannot 
.yet  be  decided.  Hommel indeed  i)lacesit  in  the  north, 
near  Idumean  Dedan,  and  idcnfilics  it  with  .\rii)i- 
Yareb  (whose  queens  figure  in  Assyrian  inscriptions), 
with  the  Saba,  whose  queen  vi.sited  Solomon  (III 
Kings,  x),  which  is  probably  mentioned  as  tributary 
to  Theglathphalasar  III  (745-27  n.  c),  and  whose 
ruler,  Ithamara,  paid  tribute  to  Sargon  in  715  b.  c. 
Thence  (according  to  Glaser)  the  Sabeans  moved 
south  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century  and  estab- 
lished their  kingdom  on  the  ruins  of  the  Mintean 
power.  This  theory  is  plausible  and  solves  the  dif- 
ficulty of  III  Kings,  x;  but  the  identification  of  Saba 
with  Aribi-Yareb  is  arbitrary,  and  all  present  evi- 
dence disproves  the  existence  of  kings  in  Saba  till 
much  later.  Sargon,  who  lavish(!s  the  title  of  King 
on  his  tributaries,  refuses  it  to  Ithamara,  the  Yetha- 
mara  of  Sabean  inscriptions,  and  these  ins(Tiptions 
point  to  a  long  period  of  rule  by  Mukarribs  (priest- 
kings),  ten  of  whose  names  have  been  preserved. 

Their  capital  was  C'irwah.  Authorities  agree  in 
dating  their  rule  from  the  beginning  of  the  tenth 
century  b.  c,  and  in  making  the  advent  of  the  kings 
contemporaneous  with  the  destruction  of  the  Mina?an 
kingdom.  Here  agreement  ceases.  Glaser,  e.  g. 
dates   the  Sabean  kings  from  820,  Mullcr  from  750, 


SABAISM 


286 


SABBAS 


and  they  can  certainly  not  be  placed  later  than  500 
B.  c,  since  at  least  seventeen  of  them  reigned  before 
115  B.  c.  At  that  date  a  new  era  begins.  The 
Himyarites  (Homeritie  of  classical^geography)  over- 
threw in  that  year  the  Kingdom  of  Saba,  and  founded 
the  "Kingdom  of  Saba  and  Raidan".  In  25  b.  c. 
the  army  of  .Elius  Gallus  failed  miserably  before  the 
walls  of  Marib,  the  Sabean  capital.  About  a.  d.  300 
the  ever-increasing  Abyssinian  immigrants  over- 
threw the  Hinayarite  d\-nasty,  and  inaugurated  the 
"Kingdom  of  Saba,  Raidan,  Hadhramot,  and 
Yemen",  which,  after  yielding  place  for  an  interval 
to  a  Judaeo-Sabean  kingdom  and  violent  religious 
persecution  (cf.  Peretra,  "Historia  dos  MartjTcs  de 
Nagran",  Lisbon,  1899),  was  re-established  by 
Byzantine  intervention  in  525.  After  the  rout  of 
the  Vicero}-  Abraha  at  Mecca  in  570,  the  Persians 
seized  their  opportunity,  and  Southern  Arabia  be- 
came a  Persian  province  till  its  incorporation  in 
Islam. 

Modern  discoveries  confirm  the  classical  and 
Biblical  accounts  of  Sabean  prosperity.  Ruins 
of  fortresses  and  walled  towns,  of  temples  and  irri- 
gation-works, cover  the  land.  Of  the  immense  dams 
the  most  famous  is  that  of  the  capital,  Marib,  which 
did  service,  after  repeated  restoration,  down  to  the 
sixth  century  of  our  era.  Thanks  to  irrigation, 
agriculture  flourished.  Gold,  too,  abounded,  with 
silver  and  precious  spices.  Brigandage  reinforced 
the  natural  products.  But  the  chief  source  of  wealth 
was  the  trade  route  from  India  to  EgjTDt  and  Northern 
S\Tia,  which  passed  through  the  Sabean  capital 
(cf.  !NIiiller,  "Der  Islam  im  Morgen-  und  Abend- 
land",  I,  24  sqq.).  Accordingly',  when,  in  the  first 
century  after  Christ,  the  Ptolemies  exchanged  the 
Southern  Arabian  route  for  a  direct  road  from 
Alexandria  to  Egj^pt,  the  decline  of  Sabean  pros- 
perity began.  Thus  the  bursting  of  the  dam  of 
Alarib  was  the  consequence,  not,  as  Arabic  legend  pre- 
tended, the  cause,  of  the  disintegration  of  the  Sabean 
tribes.  The  Sabean  polity  seems  to  have  been  based 
on  the  feudal  system.  Two  kings  appear  to  have 
shared  the  supreme  power,  but  the  monarchy  was 
not  hereditary,  and  passed  on  the  king's  death  to  the 
first  male  born  during  the  reign  to  one  of  the  leading 
families.  The  heads  of  these  families  shared  with 
the  king  the  exclusive  right  to  sanction  the  building 
of  castles,  and  are  even  called  kings  of  their  own  tribes. 
Of  other  magistrates — e.  g.  the  eponymous  magis- 
trates— we  know  little  more  than  the  names.  A  wide 
principle  of  individual  equality  seems  to  have  pre- 
vailed; strangers  were  admitted  as  clients;  slaves 
abo^inded.  ^^'omen  appear  to  have  enjoyed  equal 
rights  with  their  con.sorts  and  are  sometimes  called 
"mi.stress  of  the  castle".  Concubinage  prevailed, 
but  not  y)olygamy.  Sabean  art  has  in  some  respects 
merit (•(!  liigh  praise,  but  it  lacks  originality,  and  be- 
trays at  different  periods  the  influence  of  the  sur- 
rounding civilizations.  The  coins,  the  king's  head 
with  an  owl  on  th('  reverse,  are  sometimes  of  fine 
workmanship  (cf .  Schlumberger,  "  Le  trdsor  de  San'a 
Darifi",  1880).  The  earliest  date  from  the  fifth 
century  B.  c.  Many  recent  writers  attribute  to  the 
Sabeans  the  invention  of  the  Semitic  alphabet. 

The  supreme  god  of  Saba  was  Il-Mukah,  to  whom 
was  joined  in  the  inferior  capacity  of  spoase  or  daugh- 
ter, the  sun-goddess  Shamsh.  Other  deities  were 
Athtar,  the  morning  or  evening  star,  Ta'lab,  "Patron 
of  Ptiyam",  Haubas,  Rammam,  and  others — names 
which  may  be  merely  epithets  of  the  moon-god. 
Submission  towards  and  intimate  affinity  to  the  deity 
is  the  characteristic  of  the  Sabean  n^ligion.  The 
inscriptions  commr-morate  gratitude  for  success  in 
arms,  "man-slaying",  health,  preservation,  safe  re- 
turn, booty,  and  rich  crops.  Worshippers  offer  to 
the  gods  themselves  and  their  children,  register  vows, 
and  attest  their  fulfilment.     Votive  offerings  consisted 


in  gilt  images  of  the  object,  and  one  king  dedicated 
as  many  as  thirty  golden  (gilt?)  statues  on  one  oc- 
casion. We  can  only  make  a  passing  allusion  to  the 
predominant  influence  attributed  by  some  savants 
to  Southern  Arabia  on  the  formation  of  the  Mosaic 
institutions.  Especial  stress  is  laid  on  the  Arabian 
origin  of  the  Divine  name  and  of  manj^  religious  terms, 
on  the  scruple  of  the  Arabians  about  using  the 
Divine  name,  their  designation  of  priests  as  Levites, 
their  laws  of  ceremonial  purity,  their  imageless  wor- 
ship, their  sin-offerings  etc.,  especially  when  viewed 
in  the  light  of  Abraham's  ancestry,  and  of  the  inti- 
mate connexion  of  Moses  with  Midian.  Apart,  how- 
ever, from  the  fact  that  the  question  belongs  to  the 
Minsean  rather  than  to  the  Sabean  problem,  the 
materials  at  present  at  our  disposal  do  not  warrant 
any  probable  solution  of  the  question. 

Classical  Geographers:  Gl.vser,  Skizze  der  Geschichte  u.  Geo- 
(/rap^te /IrabtCTis  (Berlin,  1890).  Arabic  Geographers:  see  espe- 
cially MuLLER,  Die  Burgen  u.  Schlosser  Sudarabiens  nach  dem  Ikltl 
des  Hamddrti  (Vienna,  1879).  Sabean  Inscriptions:  Corpus  Inscr. 
Semit.,  IV  (Paris,  1889 — ) ;  Hommel,  Siidarabische  Chreslomathie 
(Munich,  1892);  Muller  and  Mordtmann,  Sabdische  Denk- 
maler  (Vienna,  1883);  Muller,  Sudarabische  AUerthiimer  im 
Kunsthislorische  Hofmuseum  (Vienna,  1889). 

General  Reference:  Hommel,  AufsdUe  u.  Abhandlungen  (Mu- 
nich, 1892);  Weber,  Arahien  vor  dem  Islam  (Leipzig,  1901)! 
Idem,  Stxidien  zur  Sudarab.  Altertumskunde,  I-III  (Berlin, 
1901-7);  Gbimme,  Mohammed  (Munster,  1895);  Konig,  Filnf 
neue  Landschaftenamen  im  a.  Test.  (Berlin,  1902) ;  Hartmann, 
Der  islamische  Orient,  II  (Leipzig,  1909) ;  Hastings,  Diet,  of  the 
Bible. 

For  Biblical  Aspect:  Hommel,  Ancient  Hebrew  Tradition  (New 
York  and  London,  1897);  Idem  in  Hilprecht,  Explorations  tn 
Bible  Lands  (Edinburgh,  1903),  741-52;  Landsdorfer,  Die 
Bibel  u.  die  siidnrab.  Alterlumsforschung  (Munster,  1910) ; 
Grimme  in  Zeitschrift  der  morgenldndischen  Geschichte,  LXI, 
38  sqq. 

Sabsean  Religion:  Nielsen,  Die  altarab.  Mondreligion 
(Strasburg,  1904);  Idem,  Der  Sabdische  Gott  Il-Mukah  (Leipzig, 
1910). 

Modern  Explorations:  Hommel  in  Hilprecht,  op.  cit.,  697-726; 
Weber,  Forschungsreisen  in  Sildarabien  bis  zum  Auftreten  Glasera 
(Leipzig,  1906);  Idem,  E.  Glasers  Forschungsreisen  in  Sildarabien 
(Leipzig,  1908). 

J.  A.  Hartigan. 
Sabaism.     See  Nasor^ans. 

Sabaoth(niN'2U,plur.of  K2:i=hostorarmy).— The 
word  is  used  almost  exclusively  in  conjunction  with 
the  Divine  name  as  a  title  of  majesty:  "the  Lord  of 
Hosts",  or  "the  Lord  God  of  Hosts".  The  origin 
and  precise  signification  of  the  title  are  matters  of 
more  or  less  plausible  conjecture.  According  to  some 
scholars  the  "hosts"  represent,  at  least  primitively, 
the  armies  of  Israel  over  whom  Jehovah  exercised  a 
protecting  influence.  Others  opine  that  the  word 
refers  to  the  hosts  of  heaven,  the  angels,  and  by  meta- 
phor to  the  stars  and  entire  universe  (cf.  Gen.,  ii,  1). 
In  favour  of  the  latter  view  is  the  fact  that  the  title 
does  not  occur  in  the  Pentateuch  or  Josue  though  the 
armies  of  Israel  are  often  mentioned,  while  it  is  quite 
common  in  the  prophetic  writings  where  it  would 
naturally  have  the  more  exalted  and  universal  mean- 
ing. 

vo.v  Hummelauer,  Comment,  in  Genesim,  ii,  I;  Vigouroux, 
Did.  de  la  Bible,  s.  v. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Sabbas  (Sabas),  Saint,  hermit,  b.  at  Mutalaska 
near  Cajsarea  in  Cappadocia,  439;  d.  in  his  laura  5 
Dec,  532.  He  entered  a  Basilian  monastery  at  the 
age  of  eight,  came  to  Jerusalem  in  456,  lived  five  years 
in  a  cavern  as  a  disciple  of  St.  Euthymius,  and,  after 
spending  some  time  in  various  monasteri(>s,  founded 
(483)  th(!  Laura  Mar  Saba  (restored  in  1840)  in  the 
gorges  of  the  Cedron,  south-east  of  Jerusalem.  Be- 
cause some  of  his  monks  opposed  his  rule  and  demanded 
a  priest  as  their  abbot,  Patriarch  Salustius  of 
Jerusalem  ordained  him  in  491  and  appointed  him 
archimandrite  of  all  tlu;  monasteries  in  Palestine 
in  494.  The  opposition  cf)ntinued  and  he  withdrew 
to  the  new  laura  which  he  had  built  near  Thekoa. 
A  strenuous  opponent  of  the  Monophysites  and  the 
Origenists  he  tried  to  influence  the  emperors  against 


SABBATARIANS 


287 


SABBATH 


them  by  calling  personally  on  Emperor  Anastasius  at 
Constantinople  in  511  and  on  Justinian  in  531.  His 
authorship  of  "Typicon  S.  Sabse"  (Venice,  1545),  a 
regulation  for  Divine  worship  throughout  the  year, 
as  well  as  his  authorship  of  a  monastic  rule  bearing 
the  same  title  (Kurtz  in  "Byzant.  Zeitschrift",  III, 
Leipzig,  1894,  167-70),  is  doubtful.  After  him  was 
named  the  Basilica  of  St.  Sabas  with  its  former  monas- 
tery on  the  Aventine  at  Rome.  His  feast  is  on  5 
December.  Other  saints  of  this  name  are:  St. 
Sabbas,  a  Goth,  martyred  12  April,  372,  by  being 
drowned  in  the  Musjeus,  a  tributary  of  the  Danube; 
St.  Sabbas,  also  a  Goth,  martyred  with  about 
seventy  others  at  Rome,  under  Aurelian;  St.  Julianus 
Sabbas,  a  hermit  near  Edessa,  d.  about  380;  St. 
Sabbas  the  Younger,  a  Basilian  abbot,  d.  6  Feb., 
990  or  991,  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Cajsarius  in  Rome; 
St.  Sabbas,  Archbishop  of  Servia,  d.  at  Trnawa, 
14  January,   1237. 

A  Life  in  Greek  by  Cyril  of  Scythopous  was  edited  by 
CoTELiER  in  Eccl.  GrcEca  Monum.,  Ill  (Paris,  1686),  220-376, 
and  by  Ponjalovskij  together  with  an  Old-Slavonian  version 
(St.  Petersburg,  1890) ;  another  old  Life  in  Greek  was  edited  by 
KoiKLYDES   (Jerusalem,    1905).  MiCHAEL  OtT. 

Sabbataxians,  Sabbatarianism  (Heb.  r\ZZ'  rest). 
— The  name,  as  appears  from  its  origin,  denotes  those 
individuals  or  parties  who  are  distinguished  by  some 
peculiar  opinion  or  practice  in  regard  to  the  observ- 
ance of  the  Sabbath  or  day  of  rest.  In  the  first 
place  it  is  applied  to  those  rigorists  who  apparently 
confound  the  Christian  Sunday  with  the  Jewish 
Sabbath  and,  not  content  with  the  prohibition  of 
servile  work,  will  not  allow  manj^  ordinary  and  inno- 
cent occupations  on  the  Sunday.  This  form  of 
Sabbatarianism  has  chiefly  prevailed  among  Scottish 
and  English  Protestants  and  was  at  one  time  ver>^ 
common.  Of  late  years  it  has  sensibly  declined;  and 
there  is  now  a  tendency  towards  the  opposite  extreme 
of  laxity  in  observing  the  law  of  Sunday  rest.  These 
Sabbatarians  never  formed  a  distinct  sect;  but  were 
merely  a  party  of  rigorists  scattered  among  many  and 
various  Protestant  denominations.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  not  only  in  their  name  that  they  have  some- 
thing in  common  with  the  distinctive  sects  of  Sab- 
batarians properly  so-called,  for  their  initial  error 
in  neglecting  the  distinction  between  the  Christian 
weekly  festival  and  the  Jewish  Sabbath  is  hkewise 
the  starting-point  of  the  Sabbatarian  sects;  and  these 
carry  their  mistaken  principle  to  its  logical  conclusion. 

This  logical  development  of  judaizing  Sabba- 
tarianism is  curiously  illustrated  in  the  history  of  a 
sect  of  Sabbatarian  Socinians  founded  in  Transylvania 
in  Hungary  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Their  first  principle,  which  led  them  to  separate  from 
the  rest  of  the  Unitarian  body,  was  their  belief  that 
the  day  of  rest  must  be  observed  with  the  Jews  on 
the  seventh  day  of  the  week  and  not  on  the  Christian 
Sunday.  And  as  we  learn  from  Schrodl  the  greater 
part  of  this  particular  Sabbatarian  sect  joined  the 
orthodox  Jews  in  1874,  thus  carrying  out  in  practice 
the  judaizing  principle  of  their  founders.  Although 
there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  immediate  or  obvious 
connexion  between  the  observance  of  the  seventh  day 
and  the  rejection  of  infant  baptism,  these  two  errors 
in  doctrine  and  discipline  are  often  found  together. 
Thus  Sabbatarianism  made  many  recruits  among  the 
Mennonite  Anabaptists  in  Holland  and  among  the 
English  Baptists  who,  much  as  they  differ  on  other 
points  of  doctrine,  agree  in  the  rejection  of  pa-do- 
baptism.  And  it  is  presumably  a  result  of  this  con- 
tact with  Anabaptism  that  Sabbatarianism  is  also 
found  in  association  with  fanatical  views  on  political 
or  social  questions.  The  most  conspicuous  of  English 
Sabbatarian  Baptists  was  Francis  Bampfield  (d.  1683), 
brother  of  a  Devonshire  baronet  and  originally  a 
clergyman  of  the  English  Church.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  works  and  ministered  to  a  congregation  of 


Sabbatarian  Baptists  in  London.  He  suffered  im- 
prisonment for  his  heterodoxy  and  eventually  died  in 
Newgate.  In  America  the  Baptists  who  profess  Sab- 
batarianism are  known  as  Seventh-Day  Baptists. 

But  if  the  greater  number  of  Sabbatarians  have 
come  from  the  Baptists,  the  most  amazing  of  them 
was  at  one  time  associated  with  the  Wesleyan  Metho- 
dists. This  was  the  prophetess  Joanna  Southcott 
(1750-1814),  like  Bampfield  a  native  of  Devonshire, 
who  composed  many  spiritual  poems  and  prophetical 
writings,  and  became  the  mother  of  a  sect  of  Sabba- 
tarians, also  known  as  Southcottians  or  Joannas. 
Modern  Englishmen  who  are  apt  to  smile  at  medieval 
credulity  can  scarcely  find  in  Catholic  countries  in 
the  "darkest"  days  of  ignorance  any  instance  of  a 
more  amazing  credulity  than  that  of  Joanna  South- 
cott's  disciples,  who  confidently  awaited  the  birth  of 
the  promised  Messiah  whom  the  prophetess  of  sixty- 
four  was  to  bring  into  the  world.  They  gave  practical 
proof  of  their  faith  by  preparing  a  costly  cradle. 
Nor  did  they  abandon  all  hope  when  the  poor  deluded 
woman  died  of  the  disease  which  had  given  a  false 
appearance  of  pregnancy.  The  sect  survived  for 
many  years;  and  when  in  1874  her  tombstone  was 
shattered  by  an  accidental  explosion,  the  supposed 
portent  re-enkindled  the  faith  of  her  followers. 

The  American  sect  of  Seventh-Day  Adventists  may 
be  added  to  the  list  of  Sabbatarian  communities,  among 
which  their  large  numbers  should  give  them  a  con- 
spicuous place.  To  these  may  be  added  the  Jewish 
sect  of  Sabbatarians,  though  these  derive  their  name 
not  from  the  Sabbath,  but  from  their  founder,  Sab- 
batian  Zebi  or  Zevi  (1626-76).  His  teaching  was 
not  concerned  with  any  special  observance  of  the 
Sabbath,  but  as  a  form  of  false  Messianism  it  may  be 
compared  with  the  mission  of  Joanna  Southcott. 
The  two  stories  show  some  strange  points  of  resem- 
blance especially  in  the  invincible  credulity  of  the 
disciples  of  the  pretended  Jewish  Messiah  and  of  the 
deluded  Devonshire  prophetess.  (See  bibliography 
of  Adventists.) 

W.  H.  Kent. 

Sabbath  (Pif,  sM?)6a</i,  cessation,  rest;  Gr.  a-d^pa- 
Tov;  Lat.  sabbatum),  theseventh  day  of  the  week  among 
the  Hebrews,  the  day  being  counted  from  sun.set  to 
sunset,  that  is,  from  Friday  evening  to  Saturday 
evening. — Prescriptions  concerning  the  Sabbath. — The 
Sabbath  was  a  day  of  rest  "sanctified  to  the  Lord" 
(Ex.,  xvi,  23;  xxxi,  15;  Deut.,  v,  14).  All  work 
was  forbidden,  the  prohibition  including  strangers 
as  well  as  Israelites,  beasts  as  well  as  men  (Ex.,  xx, 
8-10;  xxxi,  13-17;  Deut.,  v,  12-14).  The  following 
particular  actions  are  mentioned  as  forbidden :  cook- 
ing (Ex.,  xx\,  23);  gathering  manna  (xvi,  26  sqq.); 
plowing  and  reaping  (xxxiv,  21);  lighting  a  fire 
(for  cooking,  xxxv,  3);  gathering  wood  (Num.,  xv, 
32  sqq.) ;  carrying  burdens  (Jer.,  xvii,  21-22) ;  press- 
ing grapes,  bringing  in  sheaves,  and  loading  animals 
(IIEsd.,xiii,  15);  trading  (ibid.,  15  sqq.).  Travelling, 
at  least  with  a  religious  object,  was  not  forbidden,  the 
prohibition  of  Ex.,  xvi,  29,  referring  only  to  leaving 
the  camp  to  gather  food;  it  is  implied  in  the  institu- 
tion of  holy  assemblies  (Lev.,  xxiii,  2-3,  Heb.  text), 
and  was  customarj"  in  the  time  of  the  kings  (IV  Kings, 
iv,  23).  At  a  later  period,  however,  all  movement  was 
restricted  to  a  distance  of  2000  cubits  (between  five 
and  six  furlongs),  or  a  "  sabbath  day's  journey  "  (Acts, 
i,  12).  Total  abstention  from  work  was  prescribed 
only  for  the  Sabbath  and  the  Day  of  Atonement ;  on 
the  other  feast-days  servile  work  alone  was  prohibited 
(Ex.,  xii,  16;  Lev.,  xxiii,  7  sqq.).  Wilful  violation  of 
the  Sabbath  was  punished  with  death  (Ex.,  xxxi, 
14-15;  Num.,  xv,  32-36).  The  prohibition  of  work 
made  it  necessary  to  prepare  food,  and  whatever  might 
be  needed,  the  day  before  the  Sabbath,  hence  known 
as  the  day  of  preparation,  or  Parasceve  {ira.pa<rK€vfi\ 


SABBATH 


288 


SABBATH 


Matt.,  xxv-ii.  62;  Mark,  xv,  42;  etc.).  Besides  ab- 
stention from  work,  special  religious  observances 
were  prescribed,  (a)  The  daily  sacrifices  were 
doubled,  that  is  two  lambs  of  a  year  old  without 
blemish  were  offered  up  in  the  morning,  and  two  in 
the  evening,  with  twice  the  usual  quantity  of  flour 
tempered  with  oil  and  of  the  wine  of  libation  (Num., 
xx\-iii,  3-10).  (b)  New  loaves  of  proposition  were 
placed  before  the  Lord  (Lev.,  xxiv,  5;  I  Par.,  ix,  32). 
(c)  A  sacred  assembly  was  to  be  held  in  the  sanctuary 
for  solemn  worship  (Lev.,  xxiii,2-3,Heb.  text;  Ezech., 
xl\-i,  3).  We  have  no  details  as  to  what  was  done  by 
those  living  at  a  distance  from  the  sanctuarj'.  Syna- 
gogal  worship  belongs  to  the  post-ExiUc  period;  still 
it  is  probably  a  development  of  an  old  custom.  In 
earlier  davs  the  people  were  wont  to  go  to  hear  the 
instructions  of  the  Prophets  (IV  Kings,  iv,  23),  and  it 
is  not  unlikely  that  meetings  for  edification  and  prayer 
were  common  from  the  oldest  times. 

Meaning  of  the  Sabbath. — The  Sabbath  was  the  con- 
secration of  one  day  of  the  weekly  period  to  God  as 
the  Author  of  the  universe  and  of  time.  The  day  thus 
being  the  Lord's,  it  required  that  man  should  abstain 
from  working  for  his  own  ends  and  interests,  since  by 
working  he  would  appropriate  the  day  to  himself, 
and  that  he  should  devote  his  activity  to  God  by 
special  acts  of  positive  worship.  After  the  Sinaitic 
covenant  God  stood  to  Israel  in  the  relation  of  Lord 
of  that  covenant.  The  Sabbath  thereby  also  became 
a  sign,  and  its  observance  an  acknowledgment  of  the 
pact:  "See  that  thou  keep  my  sabbath:  because  it  is 
a  sign  between  me  and  you  in  your  generations:  that 
you  may  know  that  I  am  the  Lord,  who  sanctify  you" 
(Ex.,  xxxi,  13).  But  while  the  Sabbath  was  primarily 
a  religious  day,  it  had  a  social  and  philanthropic  side. 
It  was  also  intended  as  a  day  of  rest  and  relaxation, 
particularly  for  the  slaves  (Deut.,  v,  14).  Because 
of  the  double  character,  religious  and  philanthropic, 
of  the  day,  two  different  reasons  are  given  for  its 
observance.  The  first  is  taken  from  God's  rest  oe 
the  seventh  day  of  creation:  "For  in  six  days  the 
Lord  made  heaven  and  earth,  .  .  .  and  rested 
on  the  seventh  day:  therefore  the  Lord  blessed  the 
seventh  day,  and  sanctified  it"  (Ex.,  xx,  11;  xxxi,  17). 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  Sabbath  was  instituted 
at  the  Creation,  as  some  commentators  have  thought, 
but  that  the  Israelites  were  to  imitate  God's  example 
and  rest  on  the  day  which  He  had  sanctified  by  His 
rest.  The  Sabbath  as  the  sign  of  the  Sinaitic  covenant 
recalled  the  deliverance  from  the  bondage  of  Egypt. 
Hence,  in  the  .second  place,  the  Israelites  are  bidden 
to  remember  that  they  were  once  slaves  in  Egj^pt,  and 
should  therefore  in  grateful  remembrance  of  their 
deliverance  rest  them.selves  and  allow  their  bond- 
servants to  rest  (Deut.,  v,  14,  15).  As  a  reminder  of 
God's  benefits  to  Israel  the  Sabbath  was  to  be  a  day 
of  joy  (Is.,  Iviii,  13),  and  such  it  was  in  practice  (cf. 
Csee,  ii,  11;  Lam.,  ii,  6).  No  fasting  was  done  on 
the  Sabbath  (Judith,  viii,  6),  on  the  contrary  the 
choicest  meals  were  served  to  which  friends  were  in- 
vited (cf.  Luke,  xiv,  1;. 

Origin  of  the  Sabbath. — The  Sabbath  is  first  met 
with  in  connexion  with  the  fall  of  the  manna  (Ex., 
xvi,  22  sqq.),  but  it  there  appears  as  an  institution 
alrea/ly  known  to  the  Israelites.  The  Sinaitic  legis- 
lation therefore  only  gave  the  force  of  law  to  an  exist- 
ing custom.  The  origin  of  this  custom  is  involved 
in  obscurity.  It  wa«  not  borrowed  from  the  Egyp- 
tians, a«  the  wef;k  of  seven  days  closing  with  a 
day  of  H'st  was  unknown  to  them.  In  recent  years 
a  Babylonian  origin  has  been  a<Ivocated.  A  lexi- 
crjgraphical  tablet  gives  sh/ibattu  as  the  equivalent 
of  fi/n  nHh  litM,  "day  of  the  appeasement  of  the 
heart"  (of  the  gods).  Furthermore,  a  religious 
calendar  of  the  intercalary  month  Elul  and  of  the 
month  Marchesvan  mentions  the  7th,  14th,  2lHt, 
28th,  and  19th  days,  the  latter  probably  because  it 


was  the  49th  (7  x  7)  day  from  the  beginning  of  the 
preceding  month,  as  days  on  which  the  king,  the 
magician,  and  the  physician  were  to  abstain  from  cer- 
tain acts.  The  king,  for  instance,  w:xs  not  to  eat  food 
prepared  with  fire,  put  on  bright  garincnls,  ride  in  a 
chariot,  or  e.xercise  acts  of  authority.  These  days 
were,  then,  days  of  propitiation,  and  therefore 
shabatla  days.  We  have  thus  periods  cf  seven  days 
the  last  day  of  which  is  marked  by  abstention  from 
certain  actions,  and  called  s^habattn,  in  other  words 
the  equivalent  of  the  Sabbath.  A  Babylcmian  ori- 
gin is  not  in  itself  improbable,  since  Chaldca  was  the 
original  home  of  the  Hebrews,  but  there  is  no  proof 
that  such  is  actually  the  case.  The  reading  shabattu 
is  uncertain,  shapattu  being  at  least  equally  probable. 
Besides,  there  is  no  evidence  that  these  days  were 
called  shabattu;  the  signs  so  read  are  found  affixed 
only  to  the  15th  day  of  the  month,  where,  however, 
sha  patti,  "division"  of  the  month,  is  the  more 
probable  reading.  These  days,  moreover,  differed 
entirely  from  the  Sabbath.  They  were  not  days  of 
general  rest,  business  being  transacted  as  on  other 
days.  The  abstention  from  certain  acts  had  for 
object  to  appease  the  anger  of  the  gods;  the  days 
were,  therefore,  days  of  penance,  not  of  joy  like  the 
Sabbath.  Lastly,  these  days  followed  the  phases 
of  the  moon,  whereas  the  Sabbath  was  independent 
of  them.  Since  the  Sabbath  always  appears  as  a 
weekly  feast  without  connexion  with  the  moon,  it 
cannot  be  derived,  as  is  done  by  .some  writers,  from 
the  Babylonian  feast  of  the  full  moon,  or  fifteenth 
day  of  the  month,  which,  moreover,  has  only  a 
doubtful  claim  to  the  designation  shabattu. 

Observance  of  the  Sabbath. — Violations  of  the  Sab- 
bath seem  to  have  been  rather  common  before  and 
during  the  exile  (Jer.,  xvii,  19  sqq.,  Ezech.,  xx,  13, 
16,  21,  24;  xxii,  8;  xxiii,  38);  hence  the  Prophets 
laid  great  stress  on  its  proper  observance  (Amos, 
viii,  5;  Is.,  i,  13;  Iviii,  13-14;  Jer.,  loc.  cit.;  Ezech., 
XX,  12  sqq.).  After  the  Restoration  the  day  was  openly 
profaned,  and  Nehemias  found  some  difliculty  in 
stopping  the  abuse  (II  Esd.,  xiii,  15-22).  Soon, 
however,  a  movement  set  in  towards  a  meticulous 
observance  which  went  far  beyond  what  the  law  con- 
templated. At  the  time  of  the  Machabees  the  faith- 
ful Jews  allowed  themselves  to  be  massacred  rather 
than  fight  on  the  Sabbath  (I  Mach.,  ii,  35-38) ;  Matha- 
thias  and  his  followers  realizing  the  folly  of  such  a 
policy  decided  to  defend  themselves  if  attacked  on  the 
Sabbath,  though  they  would  not  Ji.s.sume  the  offensive 
(I  Mach.,  ii,  4()-41 ;  II  Mach.,  viii,  26).  Under  the  in- 
fluence of  Pharisaic  rigorism  a  system  of  minute  and 
burdensome  regulations  was  elaborated,  while  the 
higher  purpo.se  of  the  Sal)hatli  was  lost  sight  of.  The 
Mishna  treatise .S/K/Ww/Zicnuincratcs  tliirty-nine  main 
heads  of  forbidden  actions,  each  with  subdivisions. 
Among  the  main  heads  are  such  trifling  actions  as 
weaving  two  threads,  sewing  two  stitches,  writing  two 
letters,  etc.  To  pluck  two  ears  of  wheat  was  considered 
as  reaping,  while  to  rub  them  was  a  species  of  thresh- 
ing (cf.  Matt.,  xii,  1-2;  Mark,  ii,  23-24;  Luke,  vi,  1-2). 
To  carry  an  object  of  the  weight  of  a  fig  was  carrying  a 
burden;  hence  to  carry  a  bed  (John,  v.  10)  was  a  gross 
breach  of  th(!  Sabbath.  It  was  unlawful  to  cure  on  the 
Sabbath,  or  to  ajjply  a  remedy  unless  life  was  endan- 
gered (cf.  Matt.,  xii,  10  sqq.;  Mark,  iii,2sqq.;  Luke, 
vi,  7  sqq.).  Thisexi)hiins  why  the  sick  were  brought 
to  Chri.st  after  sumlow  ii  (.Mark",  i,  :',2).  It  was  even  for- 
bidden to  use  a  medicaiiient  the  i)re('c<ling  day  if  it 
produced  its  effect  on  the;  Sabbath.  In  the  time  of 
Christ  it  was  allowed  to  lift  an  animal  out  of  a  pit 
(Matt.,  xii,  11;  Luke,  xiv,  5),  but  this  was  later 
modified  so  that  it  w;is  not  permitted  to  lay  hold  of 
it  and  lift  it  out,  though  it  might  be  h(lpe<l  to  come 
out  of  it.self  by  means  of  mattresses  and  cushions. 
These;  exampK's,  and  they  are  not  the  worst,  show 
the  narrowness  of  the  system.     Some  of  the  rules 


SABBATH 


289 


SABBATINE 


were,  however,  found  too  burdensome,  and  a  treatise 
of  the  Mishna  (Erubin)  tempers  their  rigour  by  subtle 
devices. 

The  Sabbath  in  the  New  Testament. — Christ,  while 
observing  the  Sabbath,  set  himself  in  word  and  act 
against  this  absurd  rigorism  which  made  man  a 
slave  of  the  day.  He  reproved  the  scribes  and 
Pharisees  for  putting  an  intolerable  burden  on  men's 
shoulders  (Matt.,  xxiii,  4),  and  proclaimed  the  prin- 
ciple that  "the  sabbath  was  made  for  man,  and  not 
man  for  the  sabbath"  (Mark,  ii,  27).  He  cured  on 
the  Sabbath,  and  defended  His  disciples  for  plucking 
ears  of  corn  on  that  day.  In  His  arguments  with  the 
Pharisees  on  this  account  He  showed  that  the  Sab- 
bath is  not  broken  in  cases  of  necessity  or  by  acts  of 
charity  (Matt.,  xii,  3  sqq. ;  Mark,  ii,  25  sqq. ;  Luke,  vi, 
3  sqq.;  xiv,  5).  St.  Paul  enumerates  the  Sabbath 
among  the  Jewish  observances  which  are  not  obligatory 
on  Christians  (Col.,  ii,  16;  Gal.,  iv,  9-10;  Rom.,  xiv, 
5).  The  gentile  converts  held  their  religious  meetings 
on  Sunday  (Acts,  xx,  7;  I  Cor.,  xvi,  2),  and  with  the 
disappearance  of  the  Jewish  Christian  churches  this 
day  was  exclusively  observed  as  the  Lord's  Day. 
(See  Sunday.) 

Edersheim,  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  II  (New  York,  1897), 
52-62,  777  sqq.;  Schurek,  Hist,  of  the  Jewish  People  (New  York, 
1891),  see  index;  Pinches,  Sapattu,  the  Babylonian  Sabbath  in 
Proceed,  of  Soc.  of  Bibl.  Archttol.  (1904),  51-56;  Lagrange, 
Relig.  semit.  (Paris,  1905),  291-5;  Dhorme  in  Rev.  bibl.  (1908), 
462-6;  Hehn,  Siebenzahl  und  Sabbath  bei  den  Babyloniern  un  im  A, 
T.  (Leipzig,  1907);  Idem,  Der  Israelilische  Sabbath  (MQnster, 
1909);  Keil,  Babel  und  Bibelfrage  (Trier,  1903),  38-44;  Lotz, 
QucBstiones  de  histor.  sahbati  (1883);  LEsfeTRE  in  Vigouboux, 
Diet,  de  la  bible,  s.  v.  Sabbat. 

F.  Bechtel. 
Sabbath  Observance.    See  Sunday. 
Sabbatical  Year  Cl'r^*^'  .T-  (shendth  shdbbdthon), 

"year  of  rest";  Sejlt.  inavrbi  dvaTrai/o-ews;  Vulg. 
annus  requuiionis) ,  the  seventh  year,  devoted  to 
cessation  of  agriculture,  and  holding  in  the  period 
of  seven  years  a  place  analogous  to  that  of  the  Sab- 
bath in  the  week;  also  called  "year  of  remission". 
Three  prescriptions  were  to  be  observed  during  the 
year  (Ex.,  xxiii,  10-11;  Lev.,  xxv,  1-7;  Deut., 
XV,  1-11;  xxxi,  10-13).  (1)  The  land  was  to  lie 
fallow  and  all  agricultural  labor  was  to  be  suspended. 
There  was  to  be  neither  plowing  nor  sowing,  nor  were 
the  vines  and  olives  to  be  attended  to.  The  spon- 
taneous yield  was  not  to  be  garnered,  but  was  to  be 
left  in  the  fields  for  common  u.se,  and  what  was  not 
used  was  to  be  abandoned  to  the  cattle  and  wild 
animals  (Ex.,  xxiii,  10-11;  Lev.,  xxv,  1-7).  Of  the 
fruit  trees  the  olive  is  alone  mentioned,  becau.se  its 
oil  was  one  of  the  three  great  agricultural  yiroducts; 
but  the  law  probably  a])plied  also  to  other  trees. 
The  law  prescribed  rest  for  the  land,  not  for  man. 
Hence  work  other  than  agricultural  was  not  forbidden, 
nor  even  work  in  the  fic'lds  which  had  no  direct  con- 
nexion with  raising  crojis,  such  as  building  walls  of 
enclosure,  digging  wells,  etc. 

(2)  No  crops  being  reaped  during  the  sabbatical 
year,  the  payment  of  debts  would  have  been  a  great 
hardship,  if  not  an  imi)ossibility,  for  many.  Hence 
the  creditor  was  commanded  "to  withhold  his  hand" 
and  not  to  exact  a  debt  from  an  Israelite,  though  he 
might  demand  it  of  strangers,  who  were  not  bound 
to  abstain  from  agricultural  pursuits  (Deut.,  xv, 
1-3,  Heb.  text).  The  Talmudists  and  many  after 
them  understand  the  law  to  mean  the  remission  of 
the  debt;  but  modern  commentators  generally  hold 
that  it  merely  suspended  the  obligation  to  pay  and 
debarred  the  creditor  from  exacting  the  debt  during 
the  year.  The  Douay  translation  "He  to  whom 
anything  is  owing  from  his  friend  or  neighbour  or 
brother,  cannot  demand  it  again"  is  incorrect. 
(3)  During  the  sabbatical  year  the  Law  was  to  be 
read  on  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  to  all  Israel,  men, 
women,  and  children,  as  well  as  to  the  strangers  within 
XIIL— 19 


the  gates,  that  they  might  know,  and  fear  the  Lord, 
and  fulfill  all  the  words  of  the  Law  (Deut.,  xxxi,  10- 
13).  The  law  concerning  the  release  of  Hebrew 
slaves  in  the  seventh  year  (Ex.,  xxi,  2  sqq.;  Deut., 
XV,  12  sqq.)  is  wrongly  connected  by  some  writers 
with  the  sabbatical  year.  That  there  was  no  special 
connexion  between  the  two  is  sufficiently  shown  by 
the  requirement  of  six  years  of  servitude,  the  be- 
ginning of  which  was  not  affixed  to  any  particular 
year,  and  by  the  law  prescribing  the  liberation  of 
Hebrew  slaves  in  the  year  of  jubilee,  which  imme- 
diately followed  the  seventh  sabbatical  year  (Lev., 
xxv,  39  sqq.). 

Since  the  sabbatical  year  was  preceded  by  six 
sowings  and  six  harvests  (Ex.,  xxiii,  10),  it  began  with 
autumn,  the  time  of  sowing,  and  probably  coincided 
with  the  civil  year,  which  began  with  the  month  of 
Tishri  (Sept.-Oct.);  some  commentators,  however, 
think  that  like  the  year  of  jubilee  it  began  on  the 
tenth  of  the  month.  The  year  was  not  well  observed 
before  the  Captivity  (cf.  II  Par.,  xxxvi,  21  and  Lev., 
xxvi,  34,  35,  43).  After  the  return,  the  people 
covenanted  to  let  the  land  lie  fallow  and  to  exact  no 
debt  in  the  seventh  year  (II  Esd.,  x,  31),  and  there- 
after it  was  regularly  kept.  The  occurrence  of  a 
sabbatical  year  is  mentioned  in  I  Mach.,  vi,  49,  53, 
and  its  observance  is  several  times  referred  to  by 
Josephus  (Bell.  Jud.,  I,  ii,  4;  Ant.,  XI,  viii,  5,  6;  XIII, 
viii,  1;  XIV,  xvi,  2).  The  absence  of  any  allusion 
to  the  celebration  of  the  sabbatical  year  in  pre-exilic 
times  has  led  modern  critics  to  assert  that  it  was 
instituted  at  the  time  of  the  Restoration,  or  that  at 
least  the  custom  of  allowing  all  fields  to  lie  fallow 
simultaneou-sly  was  then  introduced.  But  it  is 
hardly  credible  that  the  struggling  community  would 
have  adopted  a  custom  calculated  to  have  a  seriously 
<Iisturbing  effect  on  economic  conditions,  and  without 
example  among  other  nations,  unless  it  had  the  sanc- 
tion of  venerable  antiquity.  The  main  object  for 
which  the  sabbatical  year  was  instituted  was  to 
bring  home  to  the  people  that  the  land  was  the  Lord's, 
and  that  they  were  merely  His  tenants  at  will  (Lev., 
xxv,  23).  In  that  year  He  exercised  His  right  of 
sovereign  dominion.  Secondarily  it  was  to  excite 
their  faith  and  reliance  on  God  (ibid.,  20-22),  and 
to  stimulate  their  faithfulness  to  His  Law  (Deut., 
xxxi,  10-13). 

Hdmmelauer,  Comm.  in  Ex.  et  Lev.;  Comm.  in  Deut.;  and 
other  commentaries  on  the  texts  cited;  Sch0rer,  Hist,  of  Jewish 
People  (New  York,  1891),  I,  i,  41-43;  Keil,  Man.  of  Bibl. 
Archceol.  (Edinburgh,  1887-88),  H,  10-13;  Zuckermann. 
Ueber  Sabbathjahrcyklus  u.  Jobelperiode  (Breslau,  1857) ;  Ca8- 
PARi,  Die  geschichtlichen  Sabbatjahre  inStudien  u.  Kritiken  (1876), 
181-190;  LesIitre  in  VioouRonx,  Did.  d.  I.  Bib.,  V,  1302sqq.; 
Jewish  Encyc,  X,  605  sqq. 

F.  Bechtel. 

Sabbatine  Privilege.— The  name  Sabbatine  Privi- 
lege is  derived  from  the  apocryphal  Bull  "Sacratissimo 
uti  culmine"  of  John  XXII,  3  March,  1322.  In  this 
Bull  the  pope  is  made  to  declare  that  the  Mother  of 
God  appeared  to  him,  and  most  urgently  recommended 
to  him  the  Carmelite  Order  and  its  confratres  and  con- 
sorores.  The  Blessed  Virgin  asked  that  John,  as  Christ's 
representative  on  earth,  should  ratify  the  indulgences 
which  He  had  already  granted  in  heaven  (a  plenary 
indulgence  for  the  members  of  the  Carmelite  Order 
and  a  partial  indulgence,  remitting  the  third  part  of 
the  temporal  punishment  due  to  their  sins,  for  the 
members  of  the  confraternity);  she  herself  would 
graciously  descend  on  the  Saturday  {Sabbath)  after 
their  death  and  liberate  and  conduct  to  heaven  all 
who  were  in  purgatory.  Then  follow  the  conditions 
which  the  confratres  and  consorores  must  fulfill.  At 
the  end  of  the  Bull  the  pope  declares:  "Istam  ergo 
sanctam  Indulgentiam  accepto,  roboro  et  in  terris 
confirmo,  sicut,  propter  merita  Virginis  Matris, 
gratiose  Jesus  Christus  concessit  in  ccelis"  (This  holy 
indulgence  I  therefore  accept;  I  confirm  and  ratify 


SABELLIUS 


290 


SABINA 


it  on  earth,  just  as  Jesus  Christ  has  graciously  granted 
it  in  heaven  on  account  of  the  merits  of  the  Virgin 
Mother).  Our  first  information  of  this  Bull  is  de- 
rived from  a  work  of  the  Carmelite  Balduinus  Leersius 
("Collectaneum  cxemplorum  et  miraculorum"  in 
"Bibliotheca  Carmelit.",  I,  Orleans,  1752,  p.  210), 
who  died  in  1483.  The  authenticitj'  of  the  Bull  was 
keenly  contested  especially  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
but  was  vigorously  defended  by  the  Carmelites. 
The  chief  ojiiionents  of  its  authenticity  were  Joannes 
Launov  and  the  BoUandist,  Daniel  Papebroch,  both 
of  whom  published  works  against  it.  To-day  it  is 
universally  regarded  by  scholars  as  inauthentic,  even 
the  "Moiiumenta  histor.  Carmcl."  of  the  Carmelite 
B.  Zimmerman  (I,  Lerins,  1907,  pp.  356-63)  joining 
in  rejecting  it. 

In  1379,  in  consequence  of  the  hostility  still  shown 
to  their  order  and  especially  to  its  name,  the  Carmel- 
ites besought  Urban  \l  to  grant  an  indulgence  of 
3  years  and  3  quarantines  to  all  the  faithful  who 
designated  them  and  their  order  "Ordinem  et  Fratres 
B.  MariiE  Genetricis  Dei  dc  Monte  Carmeli"  (Bullar. 
Carmelit.,  I,  141);  this  was  granted  by  Urban  on  26 
April,  1379.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  why,  in- 
stead of  asking  for  this  indulgence,  they  did  not  appeal 
to  the  old  promise  and  the  recent  "Bulla  sabbatina", 
if  the  scapular  was  then  known  and  the  promise 
to  St.  Simon  Stock  and  this  Bull  were'  genuine  and 
incontestable.  "\Miile  the  Bull  of  John  XXII  was 
ratified  by  some  later  popes  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury (cf.  Bullar.  Carmelit.,  II,  47,  141),  neither  the 
Bull  itself  in  its  wording  nor  its  general  contents 
were  thereby  declared  authentic  and  genuine.  On 
the  contrary,  the  ratification  by  Gregory  XIII  on 
18  September,  1577  (Bullar.  Carmelit.,  II,  196),  must 
be  interpreted  quite  in  the  sense  of  the  later  Decree 
of  the  Holy  Office.  This  Decree,  wiiich  appeared  in 
1613,  expresses  no  opinion  concerning  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  Bull,  but  confines  itself  to  declaring  what 
the  Carmelites  may  preach  of  its  contents.  The  Bull 
forbids  the  painting  of  pictures  representing,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  wording  of  the  Bull,  the  Mother 
of  God  descending  into  purgatory  (cum  descensione 
beataj  Virginis  ad  animas  in  Purgatorio  liberandas). 
It  must  be  also  remembered  that  the  latest  authentic 
summary  of  indulgences  of  the  Carmelite  Order  of 
31  July,  1907  (Acta  S.  Sedis,  XL,  753  sqq.),  approved 
by  the  Congregation  of  Indulgences,  says  nothing 
either  of  the  Bull  of  John  XXII,  of  the  indulgences 
granted  by  him,  or  of  the  Sabbatinc  privilege  for  the 
Carmelites.  To  learn  the  meaning  and  importance  of 
the  Sabbatine  privilege,  we  may  turn  only  to  the 
above-mentioned  Decree  of  the  Holy  Office.  It  was 
in.serted  in  its  entirety  (except  for  the  words  forbid- 
ding the  painting  of  the  pictures)  into  the  list  of  the 
indulgences  and  privileges  of  the  Confraternity  of  the 
Scapular  of  Mount  Carmel. 

We  rei)roduce  here  the  whoh;  passage  dealing  with 
the  Sabljatine  privilege,  as  it  aj)j)ears  in  the  summary 
approved  by  the  Congregation  of  Indulgences  on  4 
July,  1908.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  Bull  of  John 
XXII,  which  was  still  mentioned  in  the  previous 
summary  approved  on  1  December,  1866,  is  no  longer 
referred  to  (cf.  "Re.script.  authent.  S.  C.  Indulg.", 
Rati.sbon,  1885,  p.  475).  Among  the  privileges, 
which  are  mentioned  after  the  indulgences,  the  fol- 
lowing occurs  in  the  first  place:  "The  privilege  of 
Pope  John  XXII,  commonly  [vulgo]  known  as  the 
Sabbatine,  which  wa«  approved  and  confirmed  by 
Clement  VII  r"Ex  dementi",  12  August,  1530),  St. 
PiuB  V  ("Superna  dispositione",  18  Feb.,  1566), 
Gregory  XIII  ("Ut  laudes",  18  Sept.,  1577),  and 
others,   and  al.so  by  the   Holy   Roman  General   In- 

Juisition  under  Paul  V  on  20  January,  1613,  in  a 
)ecree  to  the  following  effect: 
"  'It  is  permit  ted  to  thr- Carmelite  Fathers  to  preach 
that  the  Christian  people  may  piously  believe  in  the 


help  which  the  sovils  of  brothers  and  members,  who 
have  departed  this  life  in  charity,  have  worn  through- 
out life  the  scapular,  have  ever  observed  chastity, 
have  recited  the  Little  Hours  [of  the  Blessed  Virgin], 
or,  if  they  cannot  read,  have  observed  the  fast  days 
of  the  Church,  and  have  abstained  from  flesh  meat  on 
Wednesdays  and  Saturdays  (except  when  Christmas 
falls  on  such  days),  may  derive  after  death — especially 
on  Saturdays,  the  day  consecrated  by  the  Church  to 
the  Blessed  Virgin — through  the  unceasing  interces- 
sion of  Mary,  her  pious  petitions,  her  merits,  and  her 
special  protection.'  " 

With  this  explanation  and  interpretation,  the 
Sabbatine  privilege  no  longer  presents  any  difficulties, 
and  Benedict  XIV  adds  his  desire  that  the  faithful 
should  rely  on  it  (Opera  omnia,  IX,  Venice,  1767, 
pp.  197  sqq.).  Even  apart  from  the  Bull  and  the 
tradition  or  legend  concerning  the  apparition  and 
promise  of  the  Mother  of  God  the  interpretation  of 
the  Decree  cannot  be  contested.  The  Sabbatine 
privilege  thus  consists  essentially  in  the  early  libera- 
tion from  purgatory  through  the  special  intercession 
and  petition  of  Mary,  which  she  graciously  exercises 
in  favour  of  her  devoted  servants  preferentially — as 
w^e  may  assume — on  the  day  consecrated  to  her, 
Saturday.  Furthermore,  the  conditions  for  the  gain- 
ing of  the  privilege  are  of  such  a  kind  as  justify  a 
special  trust  in  the  assistance  of  Mary.  It  is  espe- 
cially required  of  all  who  wish  to  share  in  the  privilege 
that  they  faithfully  preserve  their  chastity,  and  recite 
devoutly  each  day  the  Little  Hours  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  However,  all  those  who  are  bound  to  read 
their  Breviary,  fulfil  the  obligation  of  reciting  the 
Little  Hours  by  reading  their  Office.  Persons  who 
cannot  read  must  (instead  of  reciting  the  Little 
Hours)  observe  all  the  fasts  prescribed  by  the  Church 
as  they  are  kept  in  their  home  diocese  or  place  of 
residence,  and  must  in  addition  abstain  from  flesh 
meat  on  all  W^ednesdays  and  Saturdays  of  the  year, 
except  when  Christmas  falls  on  one  of  these  days. 
The  obligation  to  read  the  Little  Hours  and  to  abstain 
from  flesh  meat  on  Wednesday  and  Saturday  may 
on  important  grounds  be  changed  for  other  pious 
works:  the  faculty  to  sanction  this  change  was 
granted  to  all  confessors  by  Leo  XIII  in  the  Decree 
of  the  Congregation  of  Indulgences  of  11  (14)  June, 
1901. 

For  the  text  of  the  Bull  see  Bullarium  Carmelit.,  I  (Rome, 
1715),  61  aq.;  for  its  defence  cf.  Carmelite  authors,  e.  g.  Brocard, 
Recueil  d' instructions  (4th  ed.,  Ghent,  1875) ;  Raynaud,  Scapu- 
lare  Partheno-Carmeliticum  (Cologne,  1658).  For  the  explana- 
tion of  the  privilege,  consult  Berinoer,  Die  Ablasse  (1.3th  ed.), 
C.'j'J  sqci. 

Joseph  Hilgers. 
Sabellius  and   Sabellianism.    See  Monarchi- 

ANS. 

Saben.     See  Brixen,  Diocese  of. 

Sabina,  Saint,  widow  of  Valentinus  and  daughter 
of  Herod  Metallarius,  sufTered  martyrdom  about  r2t>. 
According  to  the  Acts  of  the  martyrdom,  which  how- 
ever have  no  historic  value,  she  lived  at  Rome  and 
was  converted  to  Christianity  by  her  female  slave 
Serapia.  Serapia  was  put  to  death  for  her  faith  and 
later,  in  the  same  year,  Sabina  suffered  martyrdom. 
In  430  her  relics  were  brought  to  the  Aventin(>,  where 
a  basilica,  which  is  very  interesting  in  the  history  of 
art,  is  called  after  St.  Sabina.  Originally  the  church 
was  dedicated  to  both  saints.  The  feast  of  St.  Sabina 
is  celebratefi  on  29  August. 

Acta  .S'.S'.,  VI,  Augu.st,  4!)6-.')04;  Bibliotheca  hagiogra-phica 
latina  (Brussels,  18!)8-1'.)0()),  1075. 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Sabina  (SATnNP:Nsis),  a  suburbicarian diocese,  with 
residence  in  Magliano  Sahino,  formed  from  the  terri- 
tory of  the  three  .uicicMt  dioceses:  I<\jrum  novum  (S. 
Maria  in  Vescovio),  Cures  (Coresc),  and  Nomentum 


SABINIANUS 


291 


SABRAN 


(Mentana).  When  these  sees  were  united,  the  diocese 
was  called  Sabina  because  it  included  that  part  of 
Sabina  which  at  the  time  of  the  Lombard  invasion 
remained  united  to  the  Roman  territory  (Sabina 
Romana),  while  the  remainder  became  part  of  the 
Duchy  of  Spoleto.  Cures  was  the  ancient  capital  of 
the  Sabines,  which  territory  lay  between  the  Tiber, 
the  Anio,  and  the  Apennines  (Gran  Sasso  e  Maiella). 
Nomentum  is  frequently  mentioned  in  ancient  Roman 
history.  After  Charlemagne,  Sabina  was  ruled  by  a 
count;  later  its  territory  was  divided  between  some 
barons  and  the  Abbot  of  Farfa;  the  Senate  of  Rome 
exercised  feudal  jurisdiction  over  its  territory,  e.  g. 
Magliano.  During  the  persecutions  Nomentum  had 
two  cemeteries,  one  at  St.  Restitutus,  a  third  century 
martyr,  at  the  sixteenth  mile  on  the  Via  Nomentana, 
belonging  to  Justa,  a  pious  matron,  and  one  at  Sts. 
Primus  and  Felicianus,  martyrs  under  Diocletian,  at 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  miles.  Bishop  Stephanus, 
a  contemporary  of  St.  Restitutus,  is  mentioned  in  the 
Acts  of  the  martyr.  Ursus  is  the  first  known  Bishop 
of  Nomentum  (415).  Others  are  known  from  Grati- 
anus  (593)  till  St.  Gregory  the  Great  united  the  Sees 
of  Cures  and  Nomentum.  Tiberius  (465)  was  the 
first  Bishop  of  Cures,  "called  also  bishops  of  Sabina 
or  of  St.  Anthimus,  as  that  martyr's  basilica,  adjoining 
the  bishop's  residence,  was  all  that  remained  of  the 
town  in  the  fifth  century".  It  was  destroyed  in  870, 
and  the  city  fell  into  decay.  The  last  Bishop  of 
Nomentum  was  Joannes,  who  assisted  at  the  Council 
of  Rome  (964).  The  small  town  of  Mentana  arose 
around  the  castle  of  the  Crescenzi  and  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  Orsini.  Here  Garibaldi  was  defeated  by 
the  pontifical  and  French  tnjops  (1S67). 

In  984  Nomentum  was  united  fo  the  See  of  Forum 
Novum, called  also  Vicosabinas,  situated  on  the  Via  Sal- 
aria,  having  bishops  from  the  fifth  century,  e.  g.  Paulus 
(465).  The  dignity  of  "  hebdomadary  "  bishop  of  the 
Lateran  basilica  was  then  conferred  on  the  Bishop 
of  Nomentum,  the  closest  to  Rome;  later  the  Bishop 
of  Sabina  became  a  cardinal-bishop.  The  following 
deserve  mention :  Joannes  (1044),  afterwards  Antipope 
Sylvester  III;  Gregory,  legate  to  Emperor  Henry  IV 
in  1078;  Cintius  (1106)  planned  the  imprisonment  of 
Paschal  II;  Conrad  (1153),  later  Anasta.sius  IV;  Con- 
rad of  Wittelsbach  (1163),  legate  in  the  Holy  Land 
and  Germany;  John  (1202),  legate;  Peter  (1216), 
legate  against  the  Albigenscs  and  in  Syria;  Gaufredo 
Castighoni  (1237),  later  Celcsfine  IV;  Guglielmo 
(1244),  Bishop  of  IModena  and  apostle  of  Livonia  and 
Lithuania;  Guido  Gros  (1261),  later  Clement  IV; 
Egidio  Albornoz  (1355);  Guillaume  d'Aigrefeuille 
(1768).  During  the  Western  Schism,  the  Avignon 
popes  also  creat(>d  cardinal-bishops  of  Sabina:  the 
transference  of  Giordano  Orsini  (1427)  to  the  See  of 
Ostia  (1439)  was  the  first  example  of  the  oplatio  still 
existing  in  regard  to  suburbicarian  sees;  Bessarione 
(1443);  Amadeus  of  Savoy  (1449-51),  previously 
Antipope  P'elix  V;  Isidore  (1452),  former  metropolitan 
of  Kieff ;  John  Torquemada  (1464).  Forum  Novum, 
having  recovered  from  its  destruction  in  the  Gothic 
war,  was  again  destroyed  in  876  by  the  Saracens  and 
remained  deserted  for  fifty-eight  years.  The  basilica, 
at  first  dedicated  to  S.  Valentine,  was  later  restored 
under  the  title  of  S.  Maria  al  Vescovio,  but  remained 
unimportant. 

During  the  Avignon  period  only  a  few  inhabitants 
remained,  so  Cardinal  Oliviero  Caraffa  (1479)  induced 
Alexander  VI  (1495)  to  transfer  the  episcopal  resi- 
dence to  Magliano,  erecting  the  collegiate  church  of 
that  city  into  the  cathedral.  Magliano  (Manlianum) 
overlooks  the  valley  of  the  Tiber,  on  which  river  the 
inhabitants  formerly  carried  on  an  extensive  trade 
with  Rome.  Sixtus  V  caused  the  Ponte  Felice  to  be 
constructed.  The  jealousy  of  the  other  Sabina  cities 
caused  Leo  X  to  restore  the  title  of  cathedral  to  the 
church  of  Vescovio.    Cardinal  Paleotti  established  a 


convent  for  Reformed  Friars  Minor,  later  replaced  by 
the  Order  of  Mercy.  In  1733  Clement  XII  suppressed 
the  chapter.  In  the  subterranean  crypt  of  the  church 
are  many  traces  of  frescoes  which  have  been  brought 
to  light  through  the  munificence  of  the  present  cardi- 
nal-bishop, among  whose  predecessors  may  be  men- 
tioned: Alessandro  Farnese  (1523),  later  Paul  III; 
Lorenzo  Campeggio  (1537);  G.  P.  Caraffa  (1546), 
later  Paul  IV;  Giovanni  Morone  (1561);  Cristoforo 
Madruzzi  (1562);  Gio.  Antonio  Serbelloni  (1578); 
Gabr.  Paleotto  (1591),  a  reformer  of  discipline  and 
founder  of  the  seminary;  Pietro  Aldobrandini  (1620); 
Scipio  Borghese  (1629),  who  procured  an  auxiliary; 
Francesco  Barberini  (1645);  Blessed  Nicolo  Albergati 
(1677) ;  Pietro  Ottoboni  (1681),  later  Alexander  VIII; 
Carlo  Pio  of  Savoy  (1683);  Paluzio  Altieri  (1689); 
Ippolito  Vincenti  Carreri  (1805),  who  died  in  exile  in 
Paris;  Lorenzo  Litta  (1814);  Venerable  Carlo  Ode- 
scalchi  (1833);  Luigi  Lambruschini  (1842).  In  1841 
the  territory  now  forming  the  Diocese  of  Poggio 
Mirteto  was  separated  from  Sabina.  The  Diocese  of 
Sabina  contains  35  parishes  with  55,000  inhabitants, 
56  secular  and  32  regular  priests,  4  houses  of  reli- 
gious, and  13  monks. 

Cajpelletti,  Le  chiese  d'ltalia,  I;  Tomassetti  and  Bia- 
8IOTTI,  La  diocesi  di  Sabina  (Rome,  1909). 

U.  Benigni. 

Sabinianus,  Pope.— The  date  of  his  birth  is  un- 
known, but  he  was  consecrated  pope  probably  13  Sept., 
604,  and  died  22  Feb.,  606.  The  son  of  Bonus,  he  wag 
born  at  Blera  (Bieda)  near  Viterbo.  In  593  he  was  sent 
by  St.  Gregory  I  as  apocrisiarius  or  Apostolic  nuncio 
to  Constantinople;  but  in  some  respects  his  admin- 
istration of  the  office  did  not  come  up  to  Gregory's 
ex7)ectations.  He  was  not  astute  enough  for  the  rulers 
of  Byzantium.  He  returned  to  Rome  in  597,  and  was 
chosen  to  succeed  Gregory  soon  after  the  death  of 
that  great  pontiff;  but  as  the  imperial  confirmation 
of  his  election  did  not  arrive  for  some  months,  he 
was  not  consecrated  till  September.  The  difficulties 
of  his  pontificate  were  caused  by  fear  of  the  Lom- 
bards and  by  famine.  When  the  Lombard  danger 
had  passed,  Sabinianus  opened  the  granaries  of  the 
Church,  and  sold  corn  to  the  people  at  one  solidus 
(twelve  shillings)  for  thirty  pecks.  Because  ho  was 
unable  or  unwilling  to  allow  the  pcopl(>  to  have  the 
corn  for  little  or  nothing,  there  grew  up  in  later  times 
a  number  of  idle  legends  in  which  his  predecessor 
was  represented  punishing  him  for  avarice.  He  is 
reputed  to  have  restored  to  the  secular  clergy  posts 
which  St.  Gregory  had  filled  with  monks.  He  was 
buried  in  St.  Peter's. 

Liber  Pontificalis,  ed.  Duchesne,  I  (Paris,  1886),  315;  Epp. 
Grcnorii  I,  ed.  Ewald  (Berlin,  1891);  Mann,  Lines  of  the  Popes 
in  the  early  Middle  Ages,  I,  251  sq. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Sabran,  Louis  de,  Jesuit;  b.  in  Paris,  1  March, 
1652;  d.  at  Rome,  22  Jan.,  1732.  His  father,  after- 
wards a  marquis,  was  attached  to  the  P'rencli  (>mbassy 
in  London  during  the  Commonwealth,  and  piously 
visited  the  martyrs  Corby  and  Duckett  (q.  v.)  before 
their  deaths.  He  married  an  English  lady  (a  Go- 
ring?), and  Louis  was  sent  to  the  English  college  of 
St.  Omer,  and  entered  among  the  English  Jesuits. 
Distinguished  for  many  talents,  he  became  one  of 
the  royal  chaplains  to  King  James  II,  in  1685, 
preached  with  great  diligence  and  was  engaged  in 
controversy  with  William  Sherlock,  dean  of  St. 
Paul's,  and  Edward  Gee.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution  in  1688  he  was  first  sent  to  Portsmouth 
with  the  infant  Prince  of  Wales,  and  then  became 
involved  in  many  adventures.  He  was  repeateiily 
seized  by  the  mob  and  maltreated,  but  as  often 
escaped,  and  finally  managed  to  slip  over  to  France. 
He  was  subsequently  appointed  visitor  of  the  Nea- 
politan Jesuits,  and  represented  his  province  at  Rome 
in  the  congregation  of  1693,  when  the  case  of  Father 


SABRATA 


292 


SACRAMENT  ALS 


Gonzdlez  (q.  v.)  was  discussed.  In  1699  the  Prince- 
Bishop  of  Liege  appointed  him  president  of  his  epis- 
copal seminary,  which  excited  a  fm-ious  attack  from  the 
Jansenistic  party,  and  the  bishop  had  to  enforce  order 
with  soldiers.  But  once  the  crisis  was  past,  Father 
Sabran's  rule  became  perfectly  successful,  and  in 
1708  or  1709,  he  was  made  provincial.  He  then 
wrote  to  Father  Medcalfe,  a  Jesuit  in  the  North, 
about  the  progress  of  Jansenism,  but  his  letter  was 
intercepted,  and  was  declared  by  some  to  portend 
that  he  intended  to  gain  possession  of  Douai  College, 
as  he  had  done  that  of  Liege.  A  long-drawn  and  some- 
what bitter  controversy  ensued.  After  his  provincial- 
ship  he  became  rector  of  St.  Omer  (1712-5),  then 
spiritual  director  at  the  English  College,  Rome,  till 
death.  The  titles  of  his  controversial  tracts,  will 
be  found  in  Sommervogel,  and  he  is  alleged  to  have 
written  a  paper  "Artes  Bajanae"  about  1701  against 
Jansenism. 

Sommervogel,  Bibl.  de  la  comp.  de  Jisus,  VII  (Paris,  1896), 
359;  Foley,  Records  of  the  English  Province  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
VII  (London,  1883),  676;  Kirk,  Biographies  of  English  Catholics 
in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  ed.  Pollen  (London,  1903),  203; 
MSS.  at  Stonyhurst,  etc. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Sabrata,  a  titular  see  in  Tripolitana.  Sabrata  was 
a  Phoenician  town  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa, 
between  the  two  Syrta.  With  Oca  and  Leptis  Magna 
it  caused  the  Greek  name  Tripolis  to  be  given  to  the 
region.  Its  Phoenician  name,  which  occurs  on  coins 
and  in  an  inscription  at  Thevesta,  was  hellenized 
Abrotomon,  though  PUny  (V,  4)  makes  these  two 
separate  to'mis.  Sabrata  became  a  Roman  colony; 
Flavia  Domitilla,  Vespasian's  first  wife,  was  the 
daughter  of  Statilius  Capella  of  Sabrata.  Justinian 
fortified  the  town  and  built  there  a  beautiful  church. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  it  continued  to  be  an  important 
market,  to  which  the  natives  of  the  interior  brought 
their  corn;  the  Arab  writers  call  it  Sabrat  en-Nefousa, 
from  a  powerful  tribe,  the  Nefousa,  formerly  Chris- 
tian. Sabrata  is  now  represented  by  Zouagha,  a 
small  town  called  by  Europeans  Tripoli  Vecchia,  in 
the  vilayet  of  TripoU,  fifty  miles  west  of  the  town  of 
Tripoli.  Its  ruins  lie  a  little  north  of  the  village;  they 
consist  of  crumbled  ramparts,  an  amphitheatre,  and 
landing-stage.  Four  of  its  bishops  are  known:  Pom- 
pey  in  255;  Nados,  present  at  the  Conference  of 
Carthage,  411;  Vincent,  exiled  by  Genseric  about 
450;  Leo,  exiled  by  Huneric  after  the  Conference  of 
Carthage,  484. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geog.,  s.  v.  Sabrata  and 
Abrolonum,  with  a  bibliography  of  ancient  authors;  Barth, 
Wanderungen,  277  ■,TovvoiTE,  Geographic  de  V Afrique  chretienne 
(Montreuil,  1894),  258-60;  Diehl,  L' Afrique  hyzarUine  (Paris, 
1896),  patsim. 

S.    PfiTRIDfcs. 

Sabunde,  Raymond  of.    See  Raymond  op  Sa- 

BtJNDE. 

Saccsis,  Ammonius.    See  Neo-platonism. 

Sacchoni,  Rainerio  (Reiner),  a  learned  and 
zealous  Dominican,  b.  at  Piacenza  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  thirteenth  century;  d.  about  1263.  It  is 
generally  said  that  he  died  in  1258  or  1259,  but  this 
is  an  error,  an  we  learn  from  the  Brief  of  Urban  IV, 
by  which  he  was  called  to  Rome,  21  July,  1262. 
Little  is  known  aa  to  his  youth  and  early  manhood. 
That,  however,  at  an  early  age,  he  was  perverted  by 
the  Cathari,  became  one  of  their  bishops,  and  re- 
maincKi  amongst  th(!m  for  seventeen  years,  we  are 
assured  by  his  own  humble  avowal  ("Summa  contra 
Waldenses  ",  vi) .  He  was  led  back  to  the  Faith,  most 
probably,  by  the  preaching  of  St.  Peter  Martyr, 
joined  the  Order  of  Prea^ihers,  then  recently  established, 
and  laboured  zealously  for  many  years  among  the 
heretics  of  Upper  Italy.  After  the  martyrdom  of 
St.  Peter  he  wan  marlc;  inquisitor  for  Lombarfly  and 
the  Marches  of  Ancona.     Being  enraged  against  him, 


and  yet  unable  to  put  him  to  death,  the  heretics 
finally  succeeded  in  having  him  sent  into  exile. 
Thereafter  we  have  no  further  mention  of  him  except 
in  the  Brief  of  Urban  IV.  The  "Summa  de  catharis 
et  leonistis,  sive  pauperibus  de  Lugduno"  (Paris, 
1548,  and  by  Martene  in  "Thes.  Anecd.",  V,  1759) 
is  the  only  authentic  work  ascribed  to  him.  This 
work  is  a  collection  of  the  heretical  doctrines  of  his 
time,  and  was  regarded  as  a  great  authority  during 
the  Nliddle  Ages.  The  edition  of  Gretser  (Ratisbon, 
1738)  is  much  interpolated. 

EcHARD,  Script.  Ord.  Pnrd.,  I,  154  sq.;  Hurter,  Nomenclator, 
II,  336  sq.;  Touron,  Hist,  des  hommes  ill.,  I  (Paris,  1743), 
313  sq. 

Chas.  J.  Callan. 

Sacra  Jam  Splendent,  the  opening  words  of  the 
hymn  for  Matins  of  the  Feast  of  the  Holy  Family. 
The  Holy  See  instituted  the  feast  in  1893,  making 
it  a  duplex  majus  (greater  double)  and  assigning 
it  to  the  third  Sunday  after  Epiphany.  Leo  XIII 
composed  the  three  hymns  (Vespers,  Matins,  Lauds) 
of  the  Breviary  Office.  The  hymn  for  Matins  con- 
tains nine  Sapphic  stanzas  of  the  classical  type  of  the 
first  stanza: 

Sacra  jam  splendent  decorata  lychnis 
Templa,  jam  sertis  redimitur  ara, 
Et  pio  fumant  redolentque  acerrse 
Thuris  honore. 

(A  thousand  lights  their  glory  shed 
On  shrines  and  altars  garlanded. 
While  swinging  censers  dusk  the  air 
With  perfumed  prayer.) 

The  hymns  for  Vespers  (O  lux  beata  caelitum) 
and  Lauds  (O  gente  felix  hospita)  are  in  classical 
dimeter  iambics,  four-lined  stanzas,  of  which  the 
Vespers  hymn  contains  six  and  the  Lauds  hymn 
seven  exclusive  of  the  usual  Marian  doxology  (Jesu 
tibi  sit  gloria).  All  three  hymns  are  replete  with 
spiritual  unction,  graceful  expression,  and  classical 
dignity  of  form.  They  reflect  the  sentiment  of  the 
pope  in  his  letter  establishing  a  Pious  Association  in 
honour  of  the  Holy  Family  and  in  his  Encyclical  deal- 
ing with  the  condition  of  working-men. 

Translations  of  the  three  hymns  are  given  in  Henry,  Poems, 
Charades,  Inscriptions  of  Leo  XIII  (Philadelphia,  1902),  with 
Latin  text,  pp.  104-15,  and  comment.,  pp.  282-84.  The  hymns 
for  Vespers  and  Lauds  are  translated  by  Bagshawe,  Breviary 
Hymns  and  Missal  Sequences  (London,  s.  d.),  nos.  .52,  53. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Sacramental  Character.  See  Character;  Sac- 
raments. 

Sacramentals. — In  instituting  the  sacraments 
Christ  did  not  determine  the  matter  and  form  down 
to  the  slight(!st  detail,  leaving  this  task  to  the  Church, 
which  should  determine  what  rites  were  suitable 
in  the  administration  of  the  sacraments.  These 
rites  are  indicated  by  the  word  Sacramenialia,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  manifest  the  respect  due  to  the 
sacrament  and  to  secure  the  sanctification  of  the  faith- 
ful. They  belong  to  widely  different  categories, 
e.  g.:  substance,  in  the  mingling  of  water  with 
Eucharistic  wine;  quantity,  in  the  triple  baptismal 
effusion;  quality,  in  the  condition  of  unleavened 
bread;  relation,  in  tlie  capacity  of  the  minister;  time 
and  place,  in  feast-days  and  churches;  habit,  in  the 
liturgical  vestmc^nts;  posture,  in  genuflexion,  pros- 
trations; action,  in  chanting  etc.  So  many  external 
conditions  connect  the  sacramentals  with  the  virttie 
of  religion,  their  object  being  indicated  by  the  Council 
of  Trent  (Sess.  XXII,  15),  that  it  is  asserted  that  apart 
from  their  ancicmt  origin  and  traditional  maintenance: 
ceremonies,  bUissings,  lights,  incense  etc.  enhance  the 
dignity  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  and  arouse  the  piety 
of  llie  faithful.  Moreover  the  sacrament als  help  to 
distinguish  the  members  of  the  Church  from  heretics, 


SACRAMENT  ALS 


293 


SACRAMENTALS 


who  have  done  away  with  the  sacramentals  or  use 
them  arbitrarily  and  with  httle  intelUgence. 

Sacramental  rites  are  dependent  on  the  Church 
which  established  them,  and  which  therefore  has  the 
right  to  maintain,  develop,  modify,  or  abrogate  them. 
The  ceremonial  regulation  of  the  sacraments  in 
Apostolic  times  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  words  of 
St.  Paul  to  the  Corinthians  with  regard  to  the 
Eucharist:  "Cetera  autem,  cum  venero,  disponam" 
[the  rest  I  will  set  in  order  when  I  come  (I  Cor., 
xi,  34)],  which  St.  Augustine,  on  what  ground  we 
know  not,  supposes  to  refer  to  the  obligation  of  the 
Eucharistic  fast  (Ep.  hv,  "Ad  Januarium",  c.  6, 
n.  8,  in  P.  L.,  XXXIII,  203).  The  Fathers  of  the 
Church  enumerate  ceremonies  and  rites,  some  of 
which  were  instituted  by  the  Apostles,  others  by  the 
early  Christians  (cf.  Justin  Martyr,  "Apol.  I",  n. 
61,  65  in  P.  G.,  VI,  419,  427;  Tertullian,  "De 
baptismo",  vii  in  P.  L.,  I,  1206;  St.  Basil,  "De 
Spiritu  Sancto",  I,  xxvii,  n.  67  in  P.  G.,  XXXII,  191). 
The  Catholic  Church,  which  is  the  heiress  of  the 
Apostles,  has  always  used  and  maintained  against 
heretics  this  power  over  sacramentals.  To  her  and 
to  her  alone  belongs  the  right  to  determine  the  matter, 
form,  and  minister  of  the  sacramentals.  The  Church, 
that  is,  the  supreme  authority  represented  by  its 
visible  head,  alone  legislates  in  this  matter,  because 
the  bishops  no  longer  have  in  practice  the  power  to 
modify  or  abolish  by  a  particular  legislation  what  is 
imposed  on  the  universal  Church.  What  concerns 
the  administration  of  the  sacraments  is  contained  in 
detail  in  the  Roman  Ritual  and  the  Episcopal 
Cseremoniale. 

Apart  from  the  ceremonies  relating  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  sacraments  the  Church  has  in- 
stituted others  for  the  purpose  of  private  devotion. 
To  distinguish  between  them,  the  latter  are  named 
sacramentals  because  of  (he  resemblance  between 
their  rites  and  those  of  the  sacraments  properly 
so-called.  In  ancient  times  the  term  sacrament  alone 
was  used,  but  numerous  confusions  resulted  and  the 
similarity  of  rites  and  terms  led  many  Christians  to 
regard  both  as  sacraments.  After  Peter  Lombard 
the  use  and  definition  of  the  word  "sacramental" 
had  a  fixed  character  and  was  exclusively  apolir-able 
to  those  rites  presenting  an  external  resemblance  to 
the  sacraments  but  not  applicable  to  the  sensible 
signs  of  Divine  institution.  St.  Thomas  Aquinas 
makes  use  of  the  terms  sacra  and  sacrnmentalia 
(Summa  I-II,  Q.  cviii,  a.  2,  ad  2um;  HI,  Q.  Ixv,  a. 
1,  ad  8um)^  which  the  theologians  of  a  later  period 
adopted,  so  that  at  present  sacramcnlalia  is  ex- 
clusively reserved  for  those  rites  which  are  practised 
apart  from  the  administration  of  the  seven  sacra- 
ments, for  which  the  word  ceremonies  is  used. 

The  number  of  the  sacramentals  may  not  be  limited; 
nevertheless,  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  determine 
their  general  principles  or  rather  applications  in  the 
verse:  "Orans,  tinctus,  edens,  confessus,  dans, 
benedicens".  Orans  indicates  public  prayer,  whether 
liturgical  or  private;  tinctus,  the  use  of  holy  water 
and  the  unctions  in  use  at  various  consecrations; 
edens,  the  eating  of  blessed  foods;  confessus,  the 
general  avowal  of  faults  which  is  made  in  the  Con- 
fiteor  recited  at  Mass,  at  Communion,  in  the  Divine 
Office;  dans,  alms;  benedicens,  papal  and  episcopal 
blessings  etc.,  blessings  of  candles,  ashes,  palms  etc. 
Another  distinction  classifies  sacramentals  according 
to  whether  they  are  acts,  e.  g.  the  Confiteor  men- 
tioned above,  or  things,  such  as  medals,  holy  water 
etc.  The  sacramentals  do  not  produce  sanctifying 
grace  ex  opere  operato,  by  virtue  of  the  rite  or  sub- 
stance employed,  and  this  constitutes  their  essential 
difference  from  the  sacraments.  The  Church  is 
unable  to  increase  or  reduce  the  number  of  sacra- 
ments as  they  were  instituted  by  Christ,  but  the 
sacramentals  do  not  possess  this  dignity  and  privi- 


lege. Theologians  do  not  agree  as  to  whether  the 
sacramentals  may  confer  any  other  grace  ex  opere 
operantis  through  the  action  of  the  one  who  uses 
them,  but  the  negative  opinion  is  more  generally 
followed,  for  as  the  Church  cannot  confer  sanctifying 
grace  nor  institute  signs  thereof,  neither  can  she 
institute  efficacious  signs  of  the  other  graces  which 
God  alone  can  give.  Moreover,  as  experience 
teaches,  the  sacramentals  do  not  infallibly  produce 
their  effect.  Finally  in  the  euchologic  formulas  of 
the  sacramentals  the  Church  makes  use,  not  of 
affirmative,  but  of  deprecatory  expressions,  which 
shows  that  she  looks  directly  to  Divine  mercy  for 
the  effect. 

Besides  the  efficacj'  which  the  sacramentals  possess 
in  common  with  other  good  works  they  have  a  special 
efficacy  of  their  own.  If  their  whole  value  proceeded 
from  the  opus  operantis,  all  external  good  works 
could  be  called  sacramentals.  The  special  virtue 
recognized  by  the  Church  and  experienced  by 
Christians  in  the  sacramentals  should  consist  in  the 
official  prayers  whereby  we  implore  God  to  pour 
forth  special  graces  on  those  who  make  use  of  the 
sacramentals.  These  prayers  move  God  to  give 
graces  which  He  would  not  otherwise  give,  and  when 
not  infallibly  acceded  to  it  is  for  reasons  known  to  His 
Wisdom.  God  is  aware  of  the  measure  in  which 
He  should  bestow  His  gifts.  All  the  sacramentals 
have  not  the  same  effect;  this  depends  on  the  prayer 
of  the  Church  which  docs  not  make  use  of  the  same 
urgency  nor  have  recourse  to  the  same  Divine  sources 
of  merit.  Some  sacramentals  derive  no  special 
efficacy  from  the  prayer  of  the  Church;  such  are 
those  which  are  employed  in  worship,  without  a 
blessing,  or  even  with  a  blessing  which  does  not 
specify  any  particular  fruit.  This  is  the  case  with 
the  blessing  of  vessels  meant  to  contain  the  holy 
oils:  "Give  ear  to  our  prayers,  most  merciful  Father, 
and  deign  to  bless  and  sanctify  these  purified  vessels 
prepared  for  the  use  of  the  sacred  ministry  of  Thy 
Church".  On  the  other  hand,  some  sacramentals, 
among  them  one  of  those  most  frequently  used, 
holy  water,  are  the  object  of  a  benediction  which 
details  their  particular  effects. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  effects  of  sacramentals 
is  the  virtue  to  drive  away  evil  spirits  whose  myste- 
rious and  baleful  operations  affect  sometimes 
the  physical  activity  of  man.  To  combat  this  occult 
power  the  Church  has  recourse  to  exorcism  and 
sacramentals.  Another  effect  is  the  delivery  of  the 
soul  from  sin  and  the  penalties  therefor.  Thus  in  the 
blessing  of  a  cross  the  Church  asks  that  this  sacred 
sign  may  receive  the  heavenly  blessing  in  order  that 
all  those  who  kneel  before  it  and  implore  the  Divine 
Majesty  may  be  granted  great  compunction  and  a 
general  pardon  of  faults  committed.  This  means 
remission  of  venial  sins,  for  the  sacraments  alone, 
with  perfect  contrition,  possess  the  efficacy  to  remit 
mortal  sins  and  to  release  from  the  penalties  attached 
to  them.  St.  Thomas  is  explicit  on  this  point: 
"The  episcopal  blessing,  the  aspersion  of  holy  water, 
every  sacramental  unction,  prayer  in  a  dedicated 
church,  and  the  like,  effect  the  remission  of  venial 
sins,  implicitly  or  explicitly"  (Summa  III,  Q.  Ixxxvii, 
a.  3,  ad  lum).  Finally  the  sacramentals  may  be  em- 
ployed to  obtain  temporal  favours,  since  the  Church 
herself  blesses  objects  made  use  of  in  every-flay  life, 
e.  g.  the  blessing  of  a  house  on  which  is  called  down  the 
abundance  of  heavenly  dew  and  the  rich  fruit fuln(>ss 
of  the  earth;  so  likewise  in  the  benediction  of  the 
fields,  in  which  God  is  asked  to  pour  dowm  His  bless- 
ings on  the  harvests,  so  that  the  wants  of  the  needy 
may  be  supplied  by  the  fertile  earth. 

Probst,  Sakramente  u.  Sakramentalien  (Tubingen,  1872), 
IjKTAYiitia,  Siacramentnls  of  the  Holy  Catholic  Church  (New  York, 
1892);    Beringer  Les  Indulgences  (Paris,   1905), 

H.  Leclercq. 


SACRAMENTARY 


294 


SACRAMENTO 


Sacramentaxy.     See  Liturgical  Books. 

Sacramentines.  See  Perpetual  Adorers  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament. 

Sacramento,  Diocese  of  (Sacramextensis), 
was  formed  out  of  the  Vicariate  of  Marysville,  which 
comprised  the  regions  lying  between  the  parallels 
of  latitude  39°  and  42°  N.,  and  between  the  Pacific 
Ocean  on  the  west  and  the  Colorado  River  on  the 
east.  The  diocese  at  present  covers  54,449  square 
miles  in  California,  and  38,162  square  miles  in  Nevada. 
It  includes  the  counties  of  Alpine,  Amadok,  Butte, 
Colusa,  Calaveras,  Del  Norte,  Eldorado,  Humboldt, 
Lassen,  Mariposa,  IModoc,  Mono,  Nevada,  Placer, 
Plumas,  Sacramento,  Shasta,  Sierra,  Siskij'ou, 
Sutter,  Toulumne,  Tehama,  Trinity,  Yolo,  and 
Yuba  in  California;  and  the  counties  of  Churchill, 
Douglas,  Esmeralda,  Humboldt,  Lyon,  Ormsby, 
Storey,  and  Washoe  in  Nevada. 

The  Vicariate  of  Marysville  {Marysvillensis)  was 
formed  in  1S61;  four  priests  were  in  the  territory. 
There  are  now  65  priests  and  about  50,000  Catholic 
people  within  the  Diocese  of  Sacramento.  Grass 
Valley,  Marysville,  and  Virginia  City,  Nevada,  were 
the  inost  populous  and  notable  of  the  early  missions. 
Amongst  the  pioneer  priests,  the  names  of  Very  Rev. 
T.  J.  Dalton,  vicar-general  for  fifteen  years,  and  Rev. 
J.  J.  Callan  stand  out  prominently.  The  Very  Rev.  C. 
^L  LjTich,  vicar-general  and  pastor  of  St.  Patrick's, 
Grass  Valley,  who  figured  largely  since  1864  in  the 
pioneer  work,  chiefly  in  the  mining  country,  died  on 
29  Sept.,  1911.  The  site  of  the  first  permanent  church 
at  Sacramento  was  given  by  the  Governor  of  Cali- 
fornia, Peter  H.  Burnett,  a  devout  convert  and  a 
brilliant  lawyer.  The  early  mission  centres  were 
chiefly  in  the  gold  and  silver  regions.  The  rich  pas- 
ture, timber,  fruit,  and  agricultural  lands  began 
later  to  attract  settlers,  until  these  at  present  form 
the  most  populous  parts  of  the  diocese.  The  Rev. 
Eugene  O'Connell  was  chosen  the  first  Vicar  Apos- 
tolic of  Marysville  in  1861.  Until  that  time  the  terri- 
tory was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  .Archbishop  of 
San  Francisco.  Bishop  O'Connell  was  born  in  June, 
1815,  at  Kingscourt,  in  the  Diocese  of  Mcath,  Ire- 
land; he  studied  and  was  ordained  in  St.  Patrick's 
College,  Maynooth,  in  June,  1842.  He  taught  for 
several  years  in  Navan  seminary,  which  he  left  to 
direct  a  college  at  Santa  Inez,  California,  in  1851,  and 
spent  one  year  there.  He  was  next  sent  to  take  charge 
of  the  theological  seminary  of  St.  Thomas  near  San 
Francisco,  where  he  remained  three  years.  In  1854 
he  returned  to  Ireland,  was  dean  and  taught  theology 
in  All  Hallows  College.  From  .there  he  was  con- 
secrated titular  Bishop  of  Flaviopolis  and  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Marysville  by  Cardinal  Cullen  at 
Dublin,  3  February,  1861.  He  was  installed  at  St. 
Joseph's  Pro-Cathedral,  Marysville,  by  Archbishop 
Alemany,  28  March,  1862. 

Pius  IX  formed  the  vicariate  into  the  Diocese  of 
Grass  Valley  (Vallispratensis)  on  29  March,  1868. 
Bent  with  work  and  care  the  learned  and  apostolic 
prelate  of  Marvsville  resigned  his  see,  17  March,  1884, 
was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Joppa,  and  retired 
to  the  hospital  of  thr-  Sisters  of  Charity  in  Los  Angeles 
where  he  died,  4  December,  1891.  His  remains  lie 
in  Calvary  Cemetery,  Ix)3  Angeles.  The  R(!v. 
Patrick  Manogue,  then  pastor  of  Virginia  City, 
Nevada,  wa«  appointed  coadjutor  and  titular  Bishop 
of  Ceramos,  and  was  consecrated,  16  January,  1881, 
in  St.  Mary's  Cathedral,  San  Franci.sco^  by  Arch- 
bi.shop  J.  S.  Alemany.  He  was  born  m  1831  at 
Desart,  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  of  a  family  that  numbered 
many  distinguished  ecclesiastics.  He  rec^rived  his 
early  education  at  Callan,  came  to  the  United  States 
and  settled  in  New  England,  and  later  engaged  in 
mining  in  California.  After  some  years  he  n-turned 
to  St.  Mary's  of  the  Lake,  Chicago,  to  prepare  for 


the  priesthood,  and  from  there  went  to  St.  Sulpice, 
Paris,  for  his  ecclesiastical  studies.  He  was  ordained 
there  by  Cardinal  Morlot  in  1861,  and  returned  to 
California.  Father  Manogue  was  sent  to  work  in 
the  territory  of  Nevada  about  1864.  He  devoted 
himself  to  the  Indian  tribes  and  attained  great  re- 
sults in  gaining  converts.  His  usual  way  of  teaching 
them  Christianity  was  to  assemble  the  roving  bands 
in  the  church  and  explain  the  stations,  the  altar, 
statuarj'',  etc.  He  succeeded  to  the  see,  17  March, 
1884.  Leo  XIII  changed  the  boundaries  of  the 
diocese,  16  May,  1886,  and  the  episcopal  see  was 
moved  to  Sacramento.  Bishop  Manogue  built 
there  a  cathedral  in  the  Italian  Renaissance  style 
with  a  seating  capacity  of  over  sixteen  hundred.  The 
architect  was  Mr.  Brian  J.  Clinch.  Bishop  Manogue 
took  a  leading  part  in  public  affairs  and  was  a  suc- 
cessful arbitrator  between  the  mine  owners  and  the 
miners  in  their  conflicts.  He  was  of  large  stature, 
of  a  humorous  turn  of  mind,  and  a  good  musician. 
He  died  on  27  February,  1895,  and  lies  buried  in  St. 
Joseph's  Cemetery,  Sacramento,  surrounded  by  the 
remains  of  eleven  priests.  The  Rev.  Thomas  Grace 
succeeded  Bishop  Manogue.  He  was  preconized  as 
bishop  on  27  February,  1896.  He  was  born  at  Wex- 
ford, Ireland,  on  2  Aug.,  1841 ;  educated  at  St.  Peter's 
College,  Wexford;  made  his  ecclesiastical  studies 
at  All  Hallows  College,  Dublin,  and  was  ordained  on 
11  June,  1876.  He  came  to  California  the  same  year 
by  the  way  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  in  company  with 
Fathers  M.  Coleman,  L.Kennedy,  V.  G.,  and  J.  J.Claire. 
He  was  rector  at  Mar>'sville  for  eight  years,  pastor 
at  Sacramento  (1881-96),  and  was  consecrated  bishop 
on  16  June,  1896,  in  the  Cathedral  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  Sacramento. 

Statistics. — The  diocese  was  incorporated  on  24  Nov., 
1897.  Its  legal  title  is  "The  Roman  Catholic  Dio- 
cese of  Sacramento";  the  bishop  is  the  corporation 
sole;  53  priests  are  from  Ireland,  3  from  Italy,  2 
from  Portugal,  3  German,  and  2  American.  All 
Hallows  College,  Dublin,  has  supplied  by  far  the  largest 
number  of  priests  and  continues  to  do  so.  In  the 
episcopal  city  there  are  distinct  parishes  for  Por- 
tuguese, Italians,  and  Germans.  Four  priests  minister 
at  the  cathedral.  Nine  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools  teach  a  primary  and  high  school  adjacent  to 
the  cathedral.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy  conduct  a 
primary  school  and  academy.  The  Sisters  of  St. 
Francis  (Lewiston,  New  York)  conduct  two  parochial 
schools.  In  all  about  1100  children  att(>nd  Catholic 
schools  in  the  city.  The  Notre  Dame  Sisters,  Sisters 
of  the  Holy  Cross,  Dominican  Sisters,  and  Sisters 
of  Mercy  conduct  schools  in  various  parts  of  the 
diocese.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy  also  conduct  a  home 
for  destitute  children  at  Sacramento,  a  home  for  the 
aged,  and  a  hospital  for  75  j^atieiits,  with  a  training 
school  for  nurses  attached;  the  classes  contain  36  at 
present.  At  Grass  Valley  they  have  two  orphanages 
providing  for  100  boys  and  123  girls.  The  State 
makes  an  allowance  for  each  orphan  and  half  orphan. 
The  state  prison  at  Folsom  has  a  priest  for  chaplain. 
The  largest  towns  in  the  dioc(>se  are  Sacramento, 
which  has  12  priests  and  a  population,  including 
suburbs,  of  56,000;  lOureka,  2  churches  and  2  priests, 
population,  11,845;  Marysville,  2  priests  and  1 
church,  5430;  Grass  Valley,  1  church  and  1  priest, 
62.50;  Reno,  1  church  and  1  priest,  10,867;  Chico,  1 
priest  and  1  church,  11,775.  A  Catholic  weekly 
paper  is  published  at  Sacramento.  A  public  library 
is  attached  to  the  cathedral,  and  works  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  state  and  city  libraries.  A  clerical  aid 
fund  helps  to  maintain  infirm  and  aged  priests.  The 
Friars  Minor  (St.  Louis  province)  have  a  church 
at  Sacramento.  Annual  collections  are  made  for 
Indian  and  negro  missions,  orphanages,  the  Catholic 
University,  Pctcrspencr,  ;iiid  Holy  Land  .slirines.  The 
Priests'    Eucharistic  League  meets  annually  at   the 


SACRAMENTS 


295 


SACRAMENTS 


Cathedral  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  The  priests 
make  a  retreat  every  year  at  the  House  of  Retreats, 
Grass  Valley.  The  following  confraternities  are  in 
the  diocese:  Men's  SodaUty  of  the  B.  V.  M.;  Wom- 
en's Sodality  of  the  B.  V.  M.;  Holy  Angels;  and 
the  Holy  Childhood;  St.  Aloysius  Society;  Altar 
Societies;  Apostleship  of  Prayer;  Catholic  Truth 
Society;  Catholic  Ladies'  Aid  Society;  Young 
Ladies'  Institute;  Young  Men's  Institute;  Catholic 
Library  Association;  and  Knights  of  Columbus. 
The  growth  of  the  Catholic  population  is  steady. 
Converts  are  many. 

Shea,  The  Hierarchy  of  the  Cath.  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (New 
York,  1886);  Shea,  Hist,  of  the  Cath.  Church  in  the  United 
States,  IV  (New  York,  1886-93);  Catholic  Directory  (1911); 
Lives  of  American  Prelates  in  Mem.  Vol.  3rd  Plenary  Council 
(Baltimore,  1SS5);  Sacramento  Union,  files;  Catholic  Herald 
(Sacramento,  26  Dec,  1908);  Monitor  (San  Francisco,  16  July, 
1910);  Statistics  of  Population  of  California,  compiled  for  the 
use  of  the  Legislature  (1911);  Missiones  Catholicm  (Rome,  1901). 

John  Henry  Ellis. 

Sacraments,  outward  signs  of  inward  grace,  insti- 
tuted by  Christ  for  our  sanctification  (Catechismus 
concil.  Trident.,  II,  n.  4,  ex  S.  Aug.  "De  catechi- 
zandis  rudibus").  The  subject  may  be  treated 
under  the  following  headings:  (I)  The  necessity 
and  the  nature  of  a  sacramental  system.  (II)  The 
nature  of  the  sacraments  of  the  new  law.  (Ill)  The 
origin  (cause)  of  the  sacraments.  (IV)  The  number 
of  the  sacraments.  (V)  The  effects  of  tlie  sacraments. 
(VI)  The  minister  of  the  sacraments.  (VII)  The 
recipient   (subject)   of  the  sacraments. 

I.  Necessity  and  Nature.  (1)  In  what  sense 
necessary. — Almighty  God  can  and  does  give  grace 
to  men  in  answer  to  their  internal  aspirations  and 
prayers  without  the  use  of  any  external  sign  or  cere- 
mony. This  will  always  be  possible,  because  God, 
grace,  and  the  soul  are  spiritual  beings.  God  is  not 
restricted  to  the  use  of  material,  visible  symbols  in 
dealing  with  men;  the  sacraments  are  not  necessary 
in  the  sense  that  they  could  not  have  been  dispensed 
with.  But,  if  it  be  shown  that  God  has  appointed 
external,  visible  ceremonies  as  the  means  by  which 
certain  graces  are  to  be  conferred  on  men,  then  in 
order  to  obtain  those  graces  it  will  be  necessary  for 
men  to  make  use  of  those  Divinely  appointed  means. 
This  truth  theologians  express  by  saying  that  the 
sacraments  are  necessary,  not  absolutely  but  only 
hypothetically,  i.  e.,  in  the  supjiosition  that  if  we  wish 
to  obtain  a  certain  supernatural  end  we  must  use  the 
supernatural  means  appointed  for  obtaining  that 
end.  In  this  sense  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.VII, 
can.  4)  declared  heretical  those  who  assert  that  the 
sacraments  of  the  New  Law  are  superfluous  and  not 
necessary,  although  all  are  not  necessary  for  each 
individual.  It  is  the  teaching  of  the  Catholic  Church 
and  of  Christians  in  general  that,  whilst  God  was 
nowise  bound  to  make  use  of  external  ceremonies 
as  symbols  of  things  spiritual  and  sacred,  it  has 
pleased  Him  to  do  so,  and  this  is  the  ordinary  and 
most  suitable  manner  of  dealing  with  men.  Writers 
on  the  sacraments  refer  to  this  as  the  necessitas  con- 
venienticB,  the  necessity  of  suitableness.  It  is  not 
really  a  necessity,  but  the  most  appropriate  manner 
of  dealing  with  creatures  that  are  at  the  same 
time  spiritual  and  corporeal.  In  this  assertion  all 
Christians  are  united:  it  is  only  when  we  come  to 
consider  the  nature  of  the  sacramental  signs  that 
Protestants  (except  some  Anglicans)  differ  from  Catho- 
lics. "To  sacraments  considered  merely  as  outward 
forms,  pictorial  representations  or  symbolic  acts, 
there  is  generally  no  objection",  wrote  Dr.  Morgan 
Dix  ("The  Sacramental  System^',  New  York,  1902, 
p.  46).  "Of  sacramental  doctrine  this  may  be  truly 
said,  that  it  is  co-extensive  with  historic  Christianity. 
Of  this  there  is  no  reasonable  doubt,  as  regards  the 
very  ancient  days,  of  which  St.  Chrysostom's  treatise 
on  the  priesthood  and  St.  Cyril's  catechetical  lectures 


may  be  taken  as  characteristic  documents.  Nor 
was  it  otherwise  with  the  more  conservative  of  the 
reformed  bodies  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Martin 
Luther's  Catechism,  the  Augsburg,  and  later  the 
Westminster,  Confessions  are  strongly  sacramental 
in  their  tone,  putting  to  shame  the  degenerate  fol- 
lowers of  those  who  compiled  them"  (ibid.,  p.  7,  8). 

(2)  Why  the  sacramental  system  is  most  appropriate. 
— -The  reasons  underlying  a  sacramental  system  are 
as  follows:  (a)  Taking  the  word  "sacrament"  in  its 
broadest  sense,  as  the  sign  of  something  sacred  and 
hidden  (the  Greek  word  is  "mystery"),  we  can  say 
that  the  whole  world  is  a  vast  sacramental  system, 
in  that  material  things  are  unto  men  the  signs  of 
things  spiritual  and  sacred,  even  of  the  Divinity. 
"The  heavens  shew  forth  the  glory  of  God,  and  the 
firmament  declareth  the  work  of  his  hands  "(Ps. 
xviii,  2).  "The  invisible  things  of  him  [i.  e.  God], 
from  the  creation  of  the  world,  are  clearly  seen,  being 
understood  by  the  things  that  are  made;  his  eternal 
power  also,  and  divinity"  (Rom.,  i,  20).  (b)  The 
redemption  of  man  was  not  accomplished  in  an  in- 
visible manner.  God  renewed,  through  the  Patriarchs 
and  the  Prophets,  the  promise  of  salvation  made 
to  the  first  man ;  external  symbols  were  used  to  express 
faith  in  the  promised  Redeemer:  "all  these  things 
happened  to  them  [the  Israelites]  in  figure"  (I  Cor., 
X,  II;  Heb.,  x,  1).  "So  we  also,  when  we  were  chil- 
dren, were  serving  under  the  elements  of  the  world. 
But  when  the  fulness  of  the  time  was  come,  God  sent 
his  Son,  made  of  a  woman"  (Gal.,  iv,  3,  4).  The 
Incarnation  took  place  because  God  dealt  with  men 
in  the  manner  that  was  best  suited  to  their  nature, 
(c)  The  Church  established  by  the  Saviour  was  to 
be  a  visible  organization  (see  Church:  The  Visibility 
of  the  Church):  consequently  it  should  have  exter- 
nal ceremonies  and  symbols  of  things  sacred,  (d) 
The  principal  reason  for  a  sacramental  system  is 
found  in  man.  It  is  the  nature  of  man,  writes  St. 
Thomas  (III,  Q.  Ixi,  a.  1),  to  be  led  by  things  corporeal 
and  sense-perceptible  to  things  spiritual  and  intelli- 
gible; now  Divine  Providence  provides  for  everything 
in  accordance  with  its  nature  {secundum  modum  suce 
condilionis);  therefore  it  was  fitting  that  Divine 
Wisdom  should  provide  means  of  salvation  for  men 
in  the  form  of  certain  corporeal  and  sensible  signs 
which  are  called  sacraments.  (For  other  reasons 
see  Catech.  Cone.  Trid.,  II,  n.  14.) 

(.3)  Existence  of  sacred  symbols. — (a)  No  sacra- 
ments in  state  of  innocence. — According  to  St.  Thomas 
(1.  c,  a.  2)  and  theologians  generally  there  were  no 
sacraments  before  Adam  sinned,  i.  e.,  in  the  state 
of  original  justice.  Man's  dignity  was  so  great  that 
he  was  raised  above  the  natural  condition  of  human 
nature.  His  mind  was  subject  to  God;  his  lower 
faculties  were  subject  to  the  higher  part  of  his  mind; 
his  body  was  subject  to  his  soul;  it  would  have  been 
against  the  dignity  of  that  state  had  he  been  depen- 
dent, for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  or  of  Divine 
grace,  on  anything  beneath  him,  i.  e.  corporeal 
things.  For  this  reason  the  majority  of  theologians 
hold  that  no  sacraments  would  have  been  instituted 
even  if  that  state  had  lasted  for  a  long  time. 

(b)  Sacraments  of  the  law  of  nature. — Apart  from 
what  was  or  might  have  been  in  that  extraordinary 
state,  the  use  of  sacred  symbols  is  universal.  St. 
Augustine  says  that  every  religion,  true  or  false,  has 
its  visible  signs  or  sacraments.  "In  nullum  nomen 
religionis,  seu  verum  seu  falsum,  coadunari  homines 
possunt,  nisi  aliquo  signaculorum  seu  sacramentorum 
visibilium  con.sortio  colligantur"  (Cont.  Faust., 
XIX,  xi).  Commentators  on  the  Scriptures  and  theo- 
logians almost  unanimously  assert  that  there  were 
sacraments  under  the  law  of  nature  and  under  the 
Mosaic  Law,  as  there  are  sacraments  of  greater  dig- 
nity under  the  Law  of  Christ.  Under  the  law  of  nature 
— so  called  not  to  exclude    supernatural  revelation 


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296 


SACRAMENTS 


but  because  at  that  time  there  existed  no  written 
sujH'rnatural  hvw — salvation  was  granted  through 
faith  in  the  promised  Redeemer,  and  men  expressed 
that  faith  by  some  external  signs.  What  those 
signs  should  be  God  did  not  determine,  leaving  this 
to  the  people,  most  probably  to  the  leaders  or  heads 
of  families,  who  were  guided  in  their  choice  by  an 
interior  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  This  is  the 
conception  of  St.  Thomas,  wlio  says  that,  as  under 
the  law  of  nature  (when  there  was  no  written  law), 
men  were  guided  by  interior  inspiration  in  worshiping 
God,  so  also  they  determined  what  signs  should  be 
used  in  the  external  acts  of  worship  (III,  Q.  Ix,  a.  5, 
ad  3um).  Afterwards,  however,  as  it  was  necessary  to 
give  a  ■wTitten  law:  (a)  because  the  law  of  nature  had 
been  obscured  by  sin,  and  (b)  because  it  was  time  to 
give  a  more  explicit  knowledge  of  the  grace  of  Christ, 
then  also  it  became  necessary  to  determine  what 
external  signs  should  be  used  as  sacraments  (ibid.,  and 
Q.  Ixi,  a.  3,  ad  2"'").  This  was  not  necessary  imme- 
diately after  the  Fall,  by  reason  of  the  fullness  of  faith 
and  knowledge  imparted  to  Adam.  But  about  the 
time  of  Abraham,  when  faith  had  been  weakened, 
many  had  fallen  into  idolatry,  and  the  light  of  reason 
had  been  obscured  by  indulgence  of  the  passions, 
even  unto  the  commission  of  sins  against  nature,  God 
intervened  and  appointed  as  a  sign  of  faith  the  rite 
of  circumcision  (Gen.,  xvii;  St.  Thomas,  III,  Q.  Ixx, 
a.  2,  ad  1"™;  see  Circumcision). 

The  vast  majority  of  theologians  teach  that  this 
ceremony  was  a  sacrament  and  that  it  was  instituted 
as  a  remedy  for  original  sin;  consequently  that  it 
conferred  grace,  not  indeed  of  itself  (ex  opere  operato), 
but  by  reason  of  the  faith  in  Christ  which  it  ex- 
pressed. "In  circumcisione  conferebatur  gratia,  non 
ex  virtute  circumcisionis,  sed  ex  virtute  fidei  pas- 
sionis  Christi  futurae,  cujus  signum  erat  circumcisio 
— quia  scilicet  justitia  erat  ex  fide  significata,  non  ex 
circumcisione  significante "  (St.  Thomas,  III,  Q. 
Ixx,  a.  4).  Certainly  it  was  at  least  a  sign  of  some- 
thing sacred,  and  it  was  appointed  and  determined  by 
God  himself  as  a  sign  of  faith  and  as  a  mark  by  which 
the  faithful  were  distinguished  from  unbelievers. 
It  was  not,  however,  the  only  sign  of  faith  used  under 
the  law  of  nature.  It  is  incredible,  writes  St.  Augus- 
tine, that  before  circumcision  there  was  no  sacrament 
for  the  relief  (justification)  of  children,  although  for 
some  good  reason  the  Scriptures  do  not  tell  us  what 
that  sacrament  was  (Cont.  Jul.,  Ill,  xi).  The  sacri- 
fice of  Melchisedech,  the  sacrifice  of  the  friends  of 
Job,  the  various  tithes  and  oblations  for  the  service 
of  God  are  mentioned  by  St.  Thomas  (III,  Q.  Ixi,  a. 
3,  ad  Sum;  Q.  ixv,  a.  1,  ad  7"™)  as  external  observ- 
ances which  may  be  considered  as  the  sacred  signs 
of  that  time,  prefiguring  future  sacred  institutions: 
hence,  he  adds,  they  may  be  called  sacraments  of  the 
law  of  nature. 

(c)  Sacraments  of  the  Mosaic  Law. — As  the  time 
for  Christ's  coming  dn;w  nearer,  in  order  that  the 
Israehtcs  might  be  better  instructed  (iod  spoke  to 
Moses,  revealing  t«  him  in  detail  the  sacred  signs  and 
ceremonies  by  which  they  were  to  manifest  more 
explicitly  their  faith  in  the  future  Redeemer.  Those 
signs  and  ceremonies  were  the  sacraments  of  the 
Mosaic  Law,  "which  are  compared  to  the  sacraments 
which  were  before  the  law  as  something  determined 
to  something  undetermined,  because  before  the  law 
it  had  not  been  deterininr;d  what  signs  men  should 
uw;"  (St.  Thomas,  III,  Q.  Ixi,  a.  3,  ad  2um).  With 
the  Angelic  D(x-Ujr  (I-II,  Q.  cii,  a.  5)  theologians 
usually  divide  the;  saeraments  of  this  period  into 
three  daswis:  (1)  The  cfiremonies  by  wliich  men  were 
ma/le  and  signed  as  worshippers  or  ministers  of  (Jod. 
Thus  we  have  Caj  circumcision,  instituterl  in  the  time 
of  Abraham  (Gen.,  xvii),  renewed  in  the  time  of  Moses 
(lyfv.,  xii,  3)  for  all  thr-  j)eople;  and  (b)  the  sacred 
rites  by  which  the  Levitical  priests  were  consecrated. 


(2)  The  ceremonies  which  consisted  in  the  use  of 
things  pertaining  to  the  service  of  God,  i.  e.  (a) 
the  paschal  lamb  for  all  the  people,  and  (b)  the  loaves 
of  proposition  for  the  ministers.  (3)  The  ceremonies 
of  i)urification  from  legal  contamination,  i.  e.  (a) 
for  the  people,  various  expiations,  (b)  for  the  priests, 
the  Wiishing  of  hands  and  feet,  the  shaving  of  the  head, 
etc.  St.  Augustine  says  the  sacraments  of  the  Old 
Law  were  abolished  because  they  had  been  fulfilled 
(cf.  Matt.,  V,  17),  and  others  have  been  instituted 
which  are  more  efficacious,  more  useful,  easier  to 
administer  and  to  receive,  fewer  in  number  ("virtute 
majora,  utilitate  meliora,  actu  faciliora,  numero  pau- 
ciora",  Cont.  Faust.,  XIX,  xiii).  The  Council  of  Trent 
condemns  those  who  say  that  there  is  no  difference 
except  in  the  outward  rite  between  the  sacraments  of 
the  Old  Law  and  those  of  the  New  Law  (Sess. 
VII,  can.  ii).  The  Decree  for  the  Armenians,  pub- 
lished by  order  of  the  Council  of  Florence,  says  that 
the  sacraments  of  the  Old  Law  did  not  confer  grace, 
but  only  prefigured  the  grace  which  was  to  be  given 
by  the  Passion  of  Christ.  This  means  that  they 
did  not  give  grace  of  themselves  (i.  e.  ex  opere  operato) 
but  only  by  reason  of  the  faith  in  Christ  which  they 
represented — "ex  fide  significata,  non  ex  circumci- 
sione significante"  (St.  Thomas,  loc.  cit.). 

II.  Nature  of  the  Sacraments  of  the  New 
Law. — (1)  Definition  of  a  sacrament. — The  sacra- 
ments thus  far  considered  were  merely  signs  of  sacred 
things.  According  to  the  teaching  of  the  Cathohc 
Church,  accepted  to-day  by  many  Episcopalians, 
the  sacraments  of  the  Christian  dispensation  are  not 
mere  signs;  they  do  not  merely  signify  Divine  grace, 
but  in  virtue  of  their  Divine  institution,  they  cause 
that  grace  in  the  souls  of  men.  "Signum  sacro  sanc- 
tum efficax  gratia;" — a  sacrosanct  sign  producing 
grace,  is  a  good,  succinct  definition  of  a  sacrament 
of  the  New  Law.  Sacrament,  in  its  broadest  accep- 
tation, may  be  defined  as  an  external  sign  of  some- 
thing sacred.  In  the  twelfth  century  Peter  Lombard 
(d.  1164),  known  as  the  Master  of  the  Sentences, 
author  of  the  first  manual  of  systematizeri  theology, 
gave  an  accurate  definition  of  a  sacrament  of  the  New 
Law:  A  sacrament  is  in  such  a  manner  an  outward 
sign  of  inward  grace  that  it  bears  its  image  (i.  e. 
signifies  or  represents  it)  and  is  its  cause — "Sacra- 
mentum  proprie  dicitur  quod  ita  signum  est  gratiae 
Dei,  et  invisibilis  gratiae  forma,  ut  ipsius  imaginem 
gerat  et  causa  existat"  (IV  Sent.,  d.  I,  n.  2).  This 
definition  was  adopted  and  perfected  by  the  medieval 
Scholastics.  From  St.  Thomas  we  have  the  short 
but  very  expressive  definition:  The  sign  of  a  sacred 
thing  in  so  far  as  it  sanctifies  men — "Signum  rei 
sacrie  in  quantum  est  sanctificans  homines"  (III,  Q. 
Ix,  a.  2). 

All  the  creatures  of  the  universe  proclaim  some- 
thing sacred,  namely,  the  wisdom  and  the  goodness 
of  God,  as  they  are  sacred  in  themselves,  not  as  they 
are  sacred  things  sanctifying  nu>n,  hence;  they  can- 
not be  called  sacraments  in  the  sense  in  which  we 
speak  of  sacraments  (ibid.,  ad  lum).  The  Council 
of  Trent  includes  the  substance  of  these  two  defini- 
tions in  the  following:  "Symbolum  rei  sacnc,  et  in- 
visibihs  gratiie  forma  visibilis,  sanctificandi  vim 
habens" — A  symbol  of  something  sacred,  a  visible 
form  of  invisibU;  grace,  having  the  power  of 
sanctifying  (Sess.  XIII,  cap.  3).  The  "Catechism 
of  the  Council  of  Trent"  gives  a  more  com- 
plete definition:  Something  perceptible  by  the 
senses  which  by  Divine  institution  has  the  power 
both  U)  signify  and  to  effect  sanctity  and  justice 
(II,  n.  2).  Catholic  catechisms  in  English  usually 
have  the  follfjwing:  An  outward  sign  of  inward  grace, 
a  sacrerl  and  mysterious  sign  or  ceremony,  onlained 
by  Christ,  by  which  grace  is  conveyed  to  our  souls. 
Anglican  ;ind  Ej)iscopaIian  theologies  and  catechisms 
give  definitions  which  Catholics  could  accept  (see, 


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297 


SACRAMENTS 


e.  g.  Mortimer,  "Catholic  P"'aith  and  Practice", 
New  York,  1905,  part  I,  p.  120). 

In  every  sacrament  three  things  are  necessary : 
the  outward  sign;  the  inward  grace;  Divine  institu- 
tion. A  sign  stands  for  and  represents  something 
else,  either  naturally,  as  smoke  represents  fire,  or 
by  the  choice  of  an  intelligent  being,  as  the  red  cross 
indicates  an  ambulance.  Sacraments  do  not  natu- 
rally signify  grace;  they  do  so  because  they  have  been 
chosen  by  God  to  signify  mysterious  effects.  Yet 
they  are  not  altogether  arbitrary,  because  in  some 
cases,  if  not  in  all,  the  ceremonies  performed  have  a 
quasi-natural  connexion  with  the  effect  to  be  produced. 
Thus,  pouring  water  on  the  head  of  a  child  readily 
brings  to  mind  the  interior  purification  of  the  soul. 
The  word  "sacrament"  {sacramenlum) ,  even  as  used 
by  profane  Latin  writers,  signified  something  sacred, 
viz.,  the  oath  by  which  soldiers  were  bound,  or  the 
money  deposited  by  litigants  in  a  contest.  In  the 
writings  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  the  word  was 
used  to  signify  something  sacred  and  mysterious, 
and  where  the  Latins  use  mcramentum  the  CJreeks 
use  ixviTT-qpiov  (mystery).  The  sacred  and  mysterious 
thing  signified  is  Divine  grace,  which  is  the  formal 
cause  of  our  justification  (see  Grace),  but  with  it  we 
must  a.ssociate  the  Passion  of  Christ  (efficient  and 
meritorious  cause)  and  the  end  (final  cause)  of  our 
sanctification,  viz.,  eternal  hfe.  The  significance  of 
the  sacraments  according  to  theologians  (e.  g.  St. 
Thomas,  III,  Q.  Ix,  a.  3)  and  the  Roman  Catechism 
(II,  n.  13)  extends  to  these  three  sacred  things,  of 
which  one  is  past,  one  present,  and  one  future.  The 
three  are  aptly  expressed  in  St.  Thomas's  beautiful 
antiphon  on  the  Eucharist:  "O  sacrum  convivium, 
in  quo  Christus  .sumitur,  recolitur  memoriu  i)a,ssionis 
ejus,  mens  impletur  gratia,  et  futura^  gloria'  nobis 
pignus  datur — O  sacred  banquet,  in  which  Christ 
is  received,  the  memory  of  the  passion  is  recalled, 
the  soul  is  filled  with  grace,  and  a  pledge  of  future  life 
is  given  to  us". 

(2)  Errors  of  Protestants. — Protestants  generally 
hold  that  the  sacraments  arc  signs  of  .something 
sacred  (grace  and  faith),  but  deny  that  they  really 
cause  Divine  grace.  Episcopalians,  however,  and 
Anglicans,  especially  the  Ritualists,  hold  with  Catho- 
lics that  the  sacraments  are  "etTectual  signs"  of 
grace.  In  article  XXV  of  the  \\'estminster  Confes- 
sion we  read:  "Sacraments  orflained  of  (!od  be  not 
only  badges  or  tokens  of  Christian  men's  profession, 
but  rather  they  be  certain  sure  witnesses  and  effectual 
signs  of  grace  and  CJod's  good  will  towards  us  by 
which  He  doth  work  invisibly  in  us,  and  doth  not  only 
quicken  but  strengthen  and  confirm  our  faith  in  Him" 
(cf.  art.  XXVII).  "The  Zwin^lian  theory",  writes 
Morgan  Dix  (op.  cit.,  p.  73),  "that  sacraments  are 
nothing  but  memorials  of  ChrLst  and  badges  of  Chris- 
tian jirofession,  is  one  that  can  by  no  possifjlc  juggler}^ 
witli  the  English  tongue  be  reconciled  with  the  for- 
mularies of  our  cliurch."  Mortimer  adopts  and 
exi)lains  the  Catholic  formula  "ex  opere  operato" 
(loc.  cit.,  p.  122).  Luther  and  his  early  followers 
rejected  this  conception  of  the  sacraments.  They  do 
not  cause  grace,  but  are  merely  "signs  and  testimo- 
nies of  God's  good  will  towartls  us  "  (Augsburg  Confes- 
sions) ;  they  excite  faith,  and  faith  (fiduciary)  causes 
justification.  Calvinists  and  Presbyterians  hold 
substantially  the  same  doctrine.  Zwinglius  lowered 
still  further  the  dignity  of  the  sacraments,  making 
them  signs  not  of  God's  fidelity  but  of  our  fidelity. 
By  receiving  the  sacraments  we  manifest  faith  in 
Christ:  they  are  merely  the  badges  of  our  profession 
and  the  pledges  of  our  fidelity.  Fundamentally 
all  these  errors  ari.se  from  Luther's  newly-invented 
theory  of  righteousness,  i.  e.  the  doctrine  of  justi- 
fication by  faith  alone  (see  Grack).  If  man  is  to  be 
sanctified  not  by  an  interior  renovation  through  grace 
which  will  blot  out  his  sins,  but  by  an  extrinsic  impu- 


tation through  the  merits  of  Christ,  which  will  cover 
his  soul  as  a  cloak,  there  is  no  place  for  signs  that  cause 
grace,  and  those  used  can  have  no  other  purpose 
than  to  excite  faith  in  the  Saviour.  Luther's  con- 
venient doctrine  on  justification  was  not  adopted  by 
all  his  followers  and  it  is  not  baldly  and  boldly  pro- 
claimed by  all  Protestants  to-day:  nevertheless  they 
accept  its  consequences  affecting  the  true  notion  of 
the  sacraments. 

(3)  Catholic  Doctrine. — Against  all  innovators  the 
Council  of  Trent  declared:  "If  any  one  say  that 
the  sacraments  of  the  New  Law  do  not  contain  the 
grace  which  they  signify,  or  that  they  do  not  confer 
grace  on  those  who  place  no  obstacle  to  the  same,  let 
him  be  anathema"  (Sess.  viii,  can.  vi).  "If  any  one 
say  that  grace  is  not  conferred  by  the  sacraments  ex 
opere  operato,  but  that  faith  in  God's  promises  is  alone 
sufficient  for  obtaining  grace,  let  him  be  anathema" 
(ibid.,  can.  viii;  cf.can.iv,  v,  vii).  The  phrase  "  ex  opere 
operato",  for  which  there  is  no  equivalent  in  English, 
probably  was  used  for  the  first  time  by  Peter  of  Poi- 
tiers (d.  1205),  and  afterwards  by  Innocent  III  (d. 
1216;  de  myst.  missa;.  III,  v),  and  by  St.  Thomas  (d. 
1274;  IV  Sent.,  dist.  1,  Q.  i,  a.  5).  It  was  happily  in- 
vented to  express  a  truth  that  had  always  been  taught 
and  had  been  introduced  without  objection.  It  is 
not  an  elegant  formula  but,  as  St.  Augustine  remarks 
(In  Ps.  cxxxviii) :  It  is  better  that  grammarians  should 
object  than  that  the  people  should  not  understand. 
"Ex  opere  operato  ",  i.  e.  by  virtue  of  the  action,  means 
that  the  efficacy  of  the  action  cf  the  sacraments  does 
not  depend  on  anything  human,  but  solely  on  the  will 
of  God  as  expressed  by  Christ's  institution  and  promise. 
"  Ex  opere  operantis  ",  i.  e.  by  reason  of  the  agent,  would 
mean  that  the  action  of  the  sacraments  depended  on 
the  worthin<>sseitlu'rof  the  minister  or  of  the  recii)ient 
(see  Pourrat,  "Theology  of  the  Sacraments",  tr.,  St. 
Louis,  1910,  1(')2  sqq.).  Prot(>stants  cannot  in  good 
faith  object  to  the  phrase  as  if  it  meant  that  the  mere 
outward  ceremony,  apart  from  God's  action,  causes 
grace.  It  is  well  known  that  Catholics  teach  that  the 
sacraments  are  only  the  instrumental,  not  the  princi- 
pal, causes  of  grace.  Neither  can  it  be  (claimed  that 
the  phra.se  adopted  by  the  council  does  away  with  all 
dispositions  nec(\ssary  on  the  part  of  the  recipient,  the 
sacraments  acting  like  infallible  charms  causing  grace 
in  those  who  are  ill-disposed  or  in  grievous  sin.  The 
fathers  of  the  council  were  careful  to  note  that  there 
must  be  no  obstacle  to  grace  on  the  part  of  the  re- 
cipients, who  nmst  receive  them  rile,  i.  e.  rightly  and 
worthily;  and  they  declare  it  a  calumny  to  assert  that 
they  require  no  previous  dispositions  (Sess.  XIV,  de 
pa>nit.,  cap.  4).  Dispositions  are  required  to  pre- 
pare the  subject,  but  they  are  a  condition  {conditio 
sine  qua  non),  not  the  causes,  of  the  grace  conferred. 
In  this  case  the  sacraments  differ  from  the  sacranien- 
tals,  which  may  cause  grace  ex  opere  operantis,  i.  e. 
by  reason  of  the  prayers  of  the  Church  or  the  good, 
pious  sentiments  of  those  who  use  them  (see  Sacra- 
mentals). 

(4)  Proofs  of  the  Catholic  Doctrine. — In  examining 
proofs  of  the  Catholic  doctrine  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  our  rule  of  faith  is  not  simply  Scripture, 
but  Scripture  and  tradition,  (a)  In  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture we  find  expressions  which  clearly  indicate  that 
the  sacraments  are  more  than  mere  signs  of  grace  and 
faith:  "Unless  a  man  be  born  again  of  water  and  the 
Holy  Ghost,  he  cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom  of 
God"  (John,  iii,  5);  "He  saved  us,  by  the  laver  of 
regeneration,  and  renovation  of  the  Holy  Ghost" 
(Tit.,  iii,  5) ;  "Then  they  laid  their  hands  upon  them, 
and  they  received  the  Holy  Ghost"  (Acts,  viii,  17); 
"He  that  eateth  my  flesh,  and  drinketh  my  blood, 
hath  everlasting  life  • .  .  .  For  my  flesh  is  meat  indeed : 
and  my  blood  is  drink  indeed"  (John,  vi,  55,  50). 
These  and  similar  expressions  (see  articles  on  each 
sacrament)  are,  to  say  the  least,  very  much  exagger- 


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ated  if  they  do  not  mean  that  the  sacramental  cere- 
mony is  in  some  sense  the  cause  of  the  grace  conferred, 
(b)  Tradition  clearly  indicates  the  sense  in  which 
they  have  been  interpreted  in  the  Church.  From 
the  numerous  expressions  used  by  the  Fathers  we 
select  the  following:  "The  Holy  Ghost  comes  down 
from  heaven  and  hovers  over  the  waters,  sanctifying 
them  of  Himself,  and  thus  they  imbibe  the  power  of 
sanctifying  "  (Tertullian,  De  bapt .,  c.  iv.) .  "  Baptism 
is  the  expiation  of  sins,  the  remission  of  crimes,  the 
cause  of  renovation  and  regeneration"  (St.  Gregory 
of  Xyssa,  "Orat.  in  Bapt.'').  "Explain  to  me  the 
manner  of  nativity  in  the  flesh  and  I  will  explain  to 
you  the  regeneration  of  the  soul  .  .  .  Throughout, 
"by  Divine  power  and  efficacy,  it  is  incomprehensible: 
no  reasoning,  no  art  can  exjilain  it"  (ibid.).  "He  that 
passes  through  the  fountain  [baptism]  shall  not  die 
but  rises  to  new  life"  (St.  Ambrose,  De  sacr.,  I,  iv). 
'"WTience  this  great  power  of  water",  exclaims  St. 
Augustine,  "that  it  touches  the  body  and  cleanses  the 
soul?"  (Tr.  80  in  Joann).  "Baptism",  writes  the 
same  Father,  "consists  not  in  the  merits  of  those 
by  whom  it  is  administered,  nor  of  those  to  whom 
it  is  administered,  but  in  its  own  sanctity  and 
truth,  on  account  of  Him  who  instituted  it"  (Cont. 
Cres.,  IV).  The  doctrine  solemnly  defined  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  had  been  announced  in  previous 
councils,  notably  at  Constantinople  (381 ;  Symb.  Fid.), 
at  Mileve  (416;  can.  ii)  in  the  Second  Council  of 
Orange  (529;  can.  xv);  and  in  the  Council  of  Florence 
(1439;  Deer.  pro.  Armen.,  see  Denzinger-Bannwart, 
nn.  86,  102,  200,  695).  The  early  Anghcan  Church 
held  fa-st  to  the  true  doctrine:  "Baptism  is  not  only 
a  sign  of  profession  and  a  mark  of  difference,  whereby 
christened  men  are  discerned  from  those  that  be  not 
christened,  but  is  also  a  sign  of  regeneration  or  New- 
Birth,  whereby  as  by  an  instrument  they  that  receive 
Baptism  rightly  are  grafted  into  the  church"  (Art. 
XXVII). 

(c)  Theological  Argument. — The  Westminster 
Confession  adds:  "The  Baptism  of  children  is  in  any 
wise  to  be  retained  in  the  church  as  most  agreeable 
with  the  institution  of  Christ."  If  baptism  does  not 
confer  grace  ex  opere  operato,  but  simply  excites  faith, 
then  we  may  a.sk:  (1)  Of  what  use  would  this  be  if  the 
language  u.sed  be  not  understood  by  the  recipient,  i.  e. 
an  infant  or  an  adult  that  does  not  understand  Latin? 
In  such  ca.ses  it  might  be  more  beneficial  to  the  by- 
standers than  to  the  one  baptized.  (2)  In  what  does 
the  baptism  of  Christ  surpass  the  baptism  of  John, 
for  the  latter  could  excite  faith?  Why  were  those 
baptized  by  the  baptism  of  John  rebaptized  with  the 
baptism  of  Christ?  (Acts,  xix).  (3)  How  can  it  be 
said  that  baptism  is  strictly  necessary  for  salvation 
since  faith  can  be  excited  and  expressed  in  many  other 
ways?  Finally  Episcopahans  and  Anglicans  of  to- 
day would  not  revert  to  the  doctrine  of  grace  ex  opere 
operalo  unless  they  were  convinced  that  the  ancient 
faith  was  warranted  by  Scripture  and  Tradition. 

(5)  Mfitler  and  Form  of  the  Sacraments. — Scho- 
la.stic  writers  of  the  thirteenth  century  introduced  into 
their  explanations  of  the  sacraments  terms  which  were 
flerived  from  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle.  William 
of  Auxerre  (d.  1223)  was  the  first  to  apply  to  them  the 
words  matter  (nuiteria)  and  form  Cjorma).  As  in 
physical  bodies,  so  also  in  the  sacramental  rite  we  find 
two  elements,  one  unfic'tcrrnined,  wliicli  is  called  the 
matter,  the  other  flefermining,  called  the  form.  For 
instance,  water  may  be  u.sed  for  drinking,  or  for  cool- 
ing or  cleansing  the  body,  but  the  words  pronounced 
by  the  minister  when  he  pours  water  on  the  head  of 
the  child,  with  the  intention  of  doing  what  the  Church 
docs,  determinf«  the  meaning  of  the  act,  so  that  it 
signifies  the  purification  of  the  m)\i\  by  grace.  The 
matter  and  form  (the  re«  et  x)erha)  make  up  the  exter- 
nal rite,  whieh  has  its  special  significance  and  efficacy 
from  the  institution  of  Christ.     The  words  arc   the 


more  important  element  in  the  composition,  because 
men  express  their  thoughts  and  intentions  principally 
by  words.  "Verba  inter  homines  obtinuerunt  prin- 
cipatum  significandi"  (St.  Augustine,  "De  doct. 
Christ. ",  II,  hi;  St.  Thomas,  III,  Q.  Ix,  a.  6).  It  must 
not  be  supposed  that  the  things  used  for  the  acts  per- 
formed, for  they  are  included  in  the  res,  remarks 
St.  Thomas  (loc.  cit.,  ad  2uin)  have  no  significance. 
They  too  may  be  symbolical,  e.  g.  anointing  the  body 
with  oil  relates  to  health;  but  their  significance  is 
clearly  determined  by  the  words.  "In  all  the  com- 
pounds of  matter  and  form  the  determining  element  is 
the  form"  (St.  Thomas,  loc.  cit.,  a.  7). 

The  terminology  was  somewhat  new,  the  doctrine 
was  old:  the  same  truth  had  been  expressed  in  former 
times  in  different  words.  Sometimes  the  form  of  the 
sacrament  meant  the  whole  external  rite  (St.  Augus- 
tine, "De  pecc.  et  mer. ",  xxxiv;  Cone.  Milev.,  De 
bapt.).  What  we  call  the  matter  and  form  were  re- 
ferred to  as  "mystic  symbols " ;  "  the  sign  and  the  thing 
invisible";  "the  word  and  the  element"  (St.  Augus- 
tine, tr.  SO  in  Joann.).  The  new  terminology  imme- 
diately found  favour.  It  was  solemnly  ratified  by 
being  used  in  the  Decree  for  the  Armenians,  which  was 
added  to  the  Decrees  of  the  Council  of  Florence,  yet 
has  not  the  value  of  a  concihar  definition  (see  Den- 
zinger-Bannwart, 695;  Hurter,  "Theol.  dog.  comp.", 
I,  441 ;  Pourrat,  op.  cit.,  p.  51).  The  Council  of  Trent 
used  the  words  matter  and  form  (Sess.  XIV,  cap.  ii, 
iii,  can.  iv),  but  did  not  define  that  the  sacramental 
rite  was  composed  of  these  two  elements.  Leo  XIII, 
in  the  "Apostolicse  Cura;"  (13  Sept.,  1896)  made  the 
Scholastic  theory  the  basis  of  his  declaration,  and  pro- 
nounced ordinations  performed  according  to  the  an- 
cient Anglican  rite  invalid,  owing  to  a  defect  in  the 
form  used  and  a  lack  of  the  necessary  intention  on 
the  part  of  the  ministers.  The  hylomorphistic  theory 
furnishes  a  very  apt  comparison  and  sheds  much  light 
on  our  conception  of  the  external  ceremony.  Never- 
theless our  knowledge  of  the  sacraments  is  not  depend- 
ent on  this  Scholastic  terminologv,  and  the  comparison 
must  not  be  carried  too  far.  The  attempt  to  verify 
the  comparison  (of  sacraments  to  a  body)  in  all  de- 
tails of  the  sacramental  rite  will  lead  to  confusing 
subtilities  or  to  singular  opinions,  e.  g.,  Melchior 
Cano's  (De  locis  theol.,  VIII,  v,  3)  opinion  as  to  the 
minister  of  matrimony  (see  Marriage  ;  cf .  Pourrat, 
op.  cit.,  ii). 

III.  Origin  (cause)  of  the  Sacraments. — It 
might  now  be  asked :  in  how  far  was  it  necessary  that 
the  matter  and  form  of  the  sacraments  should  have 
been  determined  by  Christ?  (1)  Power  of  God. — 
The  Council  of  Trent  defined  that  the  seven  sacra- 
ments of  the  New  Law  were  instituted  by  Christ 
(Sess.  VII,  can.  i).  This  settles  the  question  of  fact 
for  all  Catholics.  Reason  tells  us  that  all  sacraments 
must  come  originally  from  God.  Since  they  are  the 
signs  of  sacred  things  in  as  far  as  by  these  sacred 
things  men  are  sanctified  (St.  Thomas,  III,  Q.  Ix,  a.  2 
c.  et  ad  I);  since  the  external  rite  (matter  and  form) 
of  itself  cannot  give  grace,  it  is  evident  that  all  sacra- 
ments properly  so  called  must  originate  in  Divine 
appointment.  "Since  the  sanctification  of  man  is 
in  the  power  of  God  who  sanctifies",  writes  St. 
Thomas  (loc.  cit.,  a.  5),  "it  is  not  in  the  competency 
of  man  to  choose  the  things  by  which  he  is  to  be  sanc- 
tified, but  this  must  be  determined  by  Divine  insti- 
tution". Add  to  this  that  grace  is,  in  some  sense,  a 
participation  of  the  Divine  nature  (see  Grace)  and 
our  doctrine  becomes  unassailable:  God  alone  can 
decree  that  by  exterior  ceremonies  men  shall  be  par- 
takers of  His  nature. 

(2)  Power  of  Christ. — God  alone  is  the  principal 
cause  of  the  sacraments.  He  alone  authoritatively 
and  by  innate  power  can  give  to  external  material 
rites  the  power  to  confer  grace  on  men.  Christ  as 
God,  equally  with  the  Father,  possessed  this  principal, 


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SACRAMENTS 


authoritativo,  innate  power.  As  man  He  had  another 
power  which  St.  Thomas  calls  "the  power  of  the  prin- 
cipal ministry"  or  "the  power  of  excellence"  (III, 
Q.  Ixiv,  a.  3).  "Christ  produced  the  interior  effects 
of  the  sacraments  by  meriting  them  and  by  effecting 
them.  .  .  .  The  passion  of  Christ  is  the  cause  of  our 
justification  meritoriously  and  effectively,  not  as  the 
principal  agent  and  authoritatively,  but  as  an  instru- 
ment, inasmuch  as  His  Humanity  was  the  instru- 
ment of  His  Divinity"  (ibid.;  of.  Ill,  Q.  xiii,  aa.  1,  3). 
There  is  theological  truth  as  well  as  piety  in  the  old 
maxim:  "From  the  side  of  Christ  dying  on  the  cross 
flowed  the  sacraments  by  which  the  Church  was 
eaved"  (Gloss.  Ord.  in  Rom.  5;  St.  Thomas,  III,  Q. 
Ixii,  a.  5).  The  principal  efficient  cause  of  grace  is 
God,  to  Whom  the  Humanity  of  Christ  is  as  a  con- 
joined instrument,  the  sacraments  being  instruments 
not  joined  to  the  Divinity  (by  hypostatic  union): 
therefore  the  saving  power  of  the  sacraments  passes 
from  the  Divinity  of  Christ,  through  His  Humanity 
into  the  sacraments  (St.  Thomas,  loc.  cit.).  One  who 
weighs  well  all  these  words  will  understand  why  Catho- 
lics have  great  reverence  for  the  sacraments.  Christ's 
power  of  excellence  consists  in  four  things:  (1)  Sacra- 
ments have  their  efficacy  from  His  merits  and  suffer- 
ings; (2)  they  are  sanctified  and  they  sanctify  in  His 
name;  (3)  He  could  and  He  did  institute  the  sacra- 
ments; (4)  He  could  produce  the  effects  of  the  sacra- 
ments without  the  external  ceremony  (St.  Thomas, 
Q.  Ixiv,  a.  3).  Christ  could  have  communicated  this 
power  of  excellence  to  men:  this  was  not  absolutely 
impos.sible  (ibid.,  a.  4).  But,  (1)  had  He  done  so 
men  could  not  have  possessed  it  with  the  same  per- 
fection as  Christ:  "He  would  have  remained  the  head 
of  the  Church  principally,  others  secondarily"  (ibid., 
ad  3).  (2)  Christ  did  not  communicate  this  power, 
and  this  for  the  good  of  the  faithful:  (a)  that  they 
might  place  their  hope  in  God  and  not  in  men;  (b) 
that  there  might  not  be  different  sacraments,  giving 
ri.se  to  divisions  in  the  Church  (ibid.,  ad  1).  This 
second  reason  is  mentioned  by  St.  Paul  (I  Cor.,  i, 
12,  13):  "every  one  of  you  saith:  I  indeed  am  of 
Paul;  and  I  am  of  Apollo;  and  I  of  Cephas;  and 
I  of  Christ.  Is  Christ  divided?  Was  Paul  then 
crucified  for  you?  Or  were  you  baptized  in  the  name  of 
Paul?  " 

(3)  Immediate  or  Mediate  Institution. — The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  did  not  define  explicitly  and  formally  that 
all  the  sacraments  were  instituted  immediately  by 
Christ.  Before  the  council  great  theologians,  e.  g. 
Peter  Lombard  (IV  Sent.,  d.  xxiii),  Hugh  of  St. Victor 
(De  sac,  II,  ii),  Alexander  of  Hales  (Summa,  IV,  Q. 
xxiv,  1)  held  that  some  sacraments  were  instituted  by 
the  Apostles,  using  power  that  had  been  given  to  them 
by  Jesus  Chri.st.  Doubts  were  raised  especially  about 
confirmation  and  extreme  unction.  St.  Thomas  re- 
jects the  opinion  that  confirmation  was  instituted  by 
the  Apostles.  It  was  instituted  by  Christ,  he  holds, 
when  he  promised  to  send  the  Paraclete,  although  it 
was  never  administered  whilst  He  was  on  earth,  be- 
cause the  fullness  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  not  to  be 
given  until  after  the  Ascension:  "Christus  instituit 
hoc  sacramentum,  non  exhibendo,  sed  promittendo" 
(III,  Q.  Ixii,  a.  1,  ad  lum).  The  Council  of  Trent 
defined  that  the  sacrament  of  Ex-treme  Unction  was 
instituted  by  Christ  and  promulgated  by  St.  James 
(Sess.  XIV,  can.  i).  Some  theologians,  e.  g.  Becanus, 
Bellarmine,  Vasquez,  Gonet,  etc.  thought  the  words 
of  the  council  (Sess.  VII,  can.  i)  were  ex-plicit  enough 
to  make  the  immediate  institution  of  all  the  sacra- 
ments by  Christ  a  matter  of  defined  faith.  They  are 
opposed  by  Soto  (a  theologian  of  the  council),  Estius, 
Gotti,  Toumely,  Berti,  and  a  host  of  others,  so  that 
now  nearly  all  theologians  unite  in  saying:  it  is  theo- 
logically certain,  but  not  defined  {de  fide)  that  Christ 
immediately  instituted  all  the  sacraments  of  the  New 
Law.     In  the  Decree  "Lamentabili",  3  July,  1907, 


Pius  X  condemned  twelve  propositions  of  the  Mod- 
ernists, who  would  attribute  the  origin  of  the  sacra- 
ments to  some  species  of  evolution  or  development. 
The  first  sweeping  proposition  is  this:  "The  sacra- 
ments had  their  origin  in  this  that  the  Apostles,  per- 
suaded and  moved  by  circumstances  and  events, 
interpreted  some  idea  and  intention  of  Christ"  (Den- 
zinger-Bannwart,  2040).  Then  follow  eleven  proposi- 
tions relating  to  each  of  the  sacraments  in  order  (ibid., 
2041-51).  These  propositions  deny  that  Christ  im- 
mediately instituted  the  sacraments,  and  some  seem 
to  deny  even  their  mediate  institution  by  the  Saviour. 

(4)  What  does  Immediate  Institution  Imply  f 
Poiver  of  the  Church. — Granting  that  Christ  immedi- 
ately instituted  all  the  sacraments,  it  does  not  neces- 
sarily follow  that  personally  He  determined  all  the 
details  of  the  sacred  ceremony,  prescribing  minutely 
every  iota  relating  to  the  matter  and  the  form  to  be 
used.  It  is  sufficient  (even  for  immediate  institution) 
to  say:  Christ  determined  what  special  graces  were 
to  be  conferred  by  means  of  external  rites:  for  some 
sacraments  (e.  g.  baptism,  the  Eucharist)  He  deter- 
mined minutely  (in  specie)  the  matter  and  form:  for 
others  He  determined  only  in  a  general  way  (in  ge- 
nere)  that  there  should  be  an  external  ceremony,  by 
which  special  graces  were  to  be  conferred,  leaving  to 
the  Apostles  or  to  the  Church  the  power  to  determine 
whatever  He  had  not  determined,  e.  g.  to  prescribe 
the  matter  and  form  of  the  Sacraments  of  Confirma- 
tion and  Holy  Orders.  The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXI,  cap.  ii)  declared  that  the  Church  had  not  the 
power  to  change  the  "sub.stance"  of  the  sacraments. 
She  would  not  be  claiming  power  to  alter  the  substance 
of  the  sacraments  if  she  used  her  Divinely  given  au- 
thority to  determine  more  precisely  the  matter  and 
form  in  so  far  as  they  had  not  been  determined  by 
Christ.  This  theory  (which  is  not  modern)  had  been 
adopted  by  theologians:  by  it  we  can  solve  historical 
difficulties  relating,  principally,  to  confirmation  and 
Holy  orders. 

(5)  May  we  then  say  that  Christ  in.stituted  some 
sacraments  in  an  implicit  state?  That  Christ  was 
satisfied  to  lay  down  the  essential  principles  from 
which,  after  a  more  or  less  protracted  development, 
would  come  forth  the  fully  developed  sacraments? 
This  is  an  application  of  Newman's  theory  of  develop- 
ment, according  to  Pourrat  (op.  cit.,  p.  300),  who  pro- 
poses two  other  formuhe;  Christ  instituted  all  the  sac- 
raments immediately,  but  did  not  himself  give  them 
all  to  the  Church  fully  constituted;  or  Jesus  instituted 
immediately  and  explicitly  baptism  and  Holy  Euchar- 
ist: He  instituted  immediately  but  implicitly  the  five 
other  sacraments  (loc.  cit.,  p.  301).  Pourrat  himself 
thinks  the  latter  formula  too  absolute.  Theologians 
probably  will  consider  it  rather  dangerous,  and  at 
least ' '  male  sonans  " .  If  it  be  taken  to  mean  more  than 
the  old  expression,  Christ  determined  in  genere  only 
the  matter  and  the  form  of  some  sacraments,  it  grants 
too  much  to  development.  If  it  means  nothing  more 
than  the  expression  hitherto  in  use,  what  is  gained 
by  admitting  a  formula  which  easily  might  be  mis- 
understood? 

IV.  Number  of  the  Sacraments.  (I)  Catho- 
lic Doctrine:  Eastern  and  Western  Churches. — The 
Council  of  Trent  solemnly  defined  that  there  are 
seven  sacraments  of  the  New  Law,  truly  and  properly 
so  called,  viz.,  baptism,  confirmation.  Holy  Eucharist, 
penance,  extreme  unction,  orders,  and  matrimony. 
The  same  enumeration  had  been  made  in  the  Decree 
for  the  Armenians  by  the  Council  of  Florence  (1439), 
in  the  Profession  of  Faith  of  Michael  Palieologus,  of- 
fered to  Gregory  X  in  the  Council  of  Lyons  (1274) 
and  in  the  council  held  at  London,  in  1237,  under 
Otto,  legate  of  the  Holy  See.  According  to  some 
writers  Otto  of  Bamberg  (1139),  the  Apostle  of  Pome- 
ran  ia,  was  the  first  who  clearly  adopted  the  number 
seven  (see  Tanquerey,  "De  sacr.").     Most  probably 


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300 


SACRAMENTS 


this  honour  belongs  to  Peter  Lombard  (d.  1164)  who 
in  his  fourth  Book  of  Sentences  (d.  i,  n,  2)  defines  a 
sacrament  as  a  sacred  sign  which  not  only  signifies  but 
also  causes  grace,  and  then  (d.  ii,  n.  1)  enumerates 
the  seven  sacraments.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that,  al- 
though the  great  Scholastics  rejected  many  of  his 
theological  opinions  (list  given  in  app.  to  Migne  edi- 
tion, Paris,  ISll),  this  definition  and  enumeration 
were  at  once  universally  accepted,  proof  positive  that 
he  did  not  introduce  a  new  doctrine,  but  merely  ex- 
pressed in  a  convenient  and  precise  formula  what  had 
always  been  held  in  the  Church.  Just  as  many  doc- 
trines were  beUeved,  but  not  always  accurately  ex- 
pressed, until  the  condemnation  of  heresies  or  the 
development  of  religious  knowledge  called  forth  a 
neat  and  precise  formula,  so  also  the  sacraments  were 
accepted  and  used  by  the  Church  for  centuries  before 
Aristotelean  philosophy,  applied  to  the  systematic 
explanation  of  Christian  doctrine,  furnished  the  ac- 
curate definition  and  enumeration  of  Peter  Lombard. 
The  earlier  Christians  were  more  concerned  with  the 
use  of  sacred  rites  than  with  scientific  formula?,  being 
like  the  pious  author  of  the  "Imitation  of  Christ", 
who  wrote :  "  I  had  rather  feel  compunction  than  know 
its  definition"  (I,  i). 

Thus  time  was  required,  not  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  sacraments — except  in  so  far  as  the 
Church  may  have  determined  what  was  left 
under  her  control  by  Jesus  Christ — but  for  the  growth 
of  knowledge  of  the  sacraments.  For  many  centuries 
all  signs  of  sacred  things  were  called  sacraments,  and 
the  enumeration  of  these  signs  was  somewhat  arbi- 
trary. Our  seven  sacraments  were  all  mentioned  in 
the  "Sacred  Scriptures,  and  we  find  all  of  them  men- 
tioned here  and  there  by  the  Fathers  (see  Theology; 
and  articles  on  each  sacrament).  After  the  ninth 
century,  writers  began  to  draw  a  distinction  between 
sacraments  in  a  general  sense  and  sacraments  y)rop- 
erly  so  called.  The  ill-fated  Abelard  ("Introd.  ad 
Theol.",  I,  i,  and  in  the  "Sic  et  Xon")  and  Hugh  of 
St.  Victor  (De  sacr.,  I,  part  9,  chap,  viii;  cf.  Pourrat, 
op.  cit.,  pp.  34,  35)  prepared  the  way  for  Peter  Lom- 
bard, who  proposed  the  precise  formula  which  the 
Church  accepted.  Thenceforward  until  the  time  of 
the  so-called  Reformation  the  Eastern  Church  joined 
with  the  Latin  Church  in  saying:  by  sacraments 
proper  we  understand  efficacious  sacred  signs,  i.  e. 
ceremonies  which  by  Divine  ordinance  signify,  contain 
and  confer  grace;  and  they  are  seven  in  number.  In 
the  history  of  conferences  and  councils  held  to  effect 
the  reunion  of  the  Greek  with  the  Latin  Church,  we 
find  no  record  of  objcu-tions  made  to  the  doctrine  of 
seven  sacraments.  On  the  contrary,  about  1576, 
when  the  Ileformors  of  Wittenberg,  anxious  to  draw 
the  Eastern  Churches  into  their  errors,  sent  a  Greek 
translation  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  to  Jeremias, 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  he  replied:  "The  mys- 
teries received  in  this  same  Catholic  Church  of  ortho- 
dox Christians,  and  the  sacred  ceremonies,  are  seven 
in  number — just  seven  and  no  more"  (Pourrat,  op. 
cit.,  p.  289).  The  consensus  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
Churchfis  on  this  subject  is  clearly  shown  by  Arca- 
dius,  "De  con.  ecc.  Occident,  et  orient,  in  sept.  sacr. 
admini.str."  (1619);  Goar  (q.  v.)  in  his  "  Euchologion  " 
by  Mart^ne  (q.  v.)  in  his  work  "De  antiquis  ecdcsiaj 
ritibus",  by  I^naudot  in  his  "Perp6tuit6  de  la  foi 
sur  sacraments"  (1711),  and  this  agreement  of  the 
two  Churches  funiishes  recent  writers  (pjpiscopalians) 
with  a  strong  argument  in  support  of  their  appeal  for 
the  acceptance  of  seven  sacraments  (cf.  Tanquerey, 
"De  sacr.",  i,  24;  Potirrat,  op.  cit.,  pp.  84,  85). 

(2)  ProldHUint  Errom. — Luther's  capital  errors, 
viz.  private  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  and  jus- 
tification by  faith  alorif,  logically  led  to  a  rejection  of 
the  Catholic  doctrinr-  on  the  sacraments  (see  Lt'tiiek; 
Grace).  Glafily  would  he  have  swept  them  all  away, 
but  the  words  of  Scripture  were  too  convincing  and 


the  Augsburg  Confession  retained  three  as  "having 
the  commantl  of  God  and  the  promise  of  the  grace  of 
the  New  Testament".  These  three,  baptism,  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  penance  were  admitted  by  Luther 
and  also  by  Cranmer  in  his  "Catechism"  (see  Dix, 
"op.  cit.",  p.  79).  Henry  VIII  protested  against 
Luther's  innovations  and  received  the  title  "Defender 
of  the  Faith"  as  a  reward  for  pubhshing  the  "  As.scrtio 
septem  sacramentorum"  (recently  re-edited  by  Rev. 
Louis  O'Donovan,  New  York,  190S).  Followers  of 
Luther's  princii>lcs  surpassed  their  leader  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  sacraments.  Once  granted  that  they  were 
merel}'  "signs  and  testimonies  of  God's  good  will 
towards  us",  the  reason  for  great  reverence  was  gone. 
Some  rejected  all  sacraments,  since  God's  good  will 
could  be  manifested  without  these  external  signs. 
Confession  (penance)  was  soon  dropped  from  the  list 
of  those  retained.  The  Anabaptists  rejected  infant 
baptism,  since  the  ceremony  could  not  excite  faith  in 
children.  Protestants  generally  retained  two  sacra- 
ments, baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  latter 
being  reduced  by  the  denial  of  the  Real  Presence  to  a 
mere  commemorative  service.  After  the  first  fervour 
of  destruction  there  was  a  reaction.  Lutherans  re- 
tained a  ceremony  of  confirmation  and  ordination. 
Cranmer  retained  three  sacraments,  yet  we  find  in 
the  Westminster  Confession:  "There  are  two  Sacra- 
ments ordained  of  Christ  Our  Lord  in  the  Gospel,  that 
is  to  say,  Baptism,  and  the  Supper  of  the  Lord.  "Those 
five  commonly  called  sacraments,  that  is  to  say  Con- 
firmation, Penance,  Orders,  Matrimony,  and  Extreme 
Unction,  are  not  to  be  counted  for  sacraments  of  the 
Gospel,  being  such  as  have  grown  partlj'  of  the  corrupt 
following  of  the  Apostles,  partly  are  states  of  life  al- 
lowed in  the  Scriptures  but  yet  have  not  like  nature 
of  sacraments  with  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper, 
for  that  they  have  not  any  visible  sign  or  ceremony 
ordained  of  God"  (art.  XXV).  The  Wittenberg 
theologians,  by  way  of  compromise,  had  shown  a 
wilhngness  to  make  such  a  distinction,  in  a  second 
letter  to  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  but  the 
Greeks  would  have  no  compromise  (Pourrat,  loc.  cit., 
290). 

For  more  than  two  centuries  the  Church  of  England 
theoretically  recognized  only  two  "sacraments  of  the 
Gospel"  yet  permitted,  or  tolerated  other  five  rites. 
In  practice  these  five  "lesser  sacraments"  were  ne- 
glected, especially  penance  and  extreme  unction.  An- 
glicans of  the  nineteenth  century  would  have  gladly 
altered  or  abolished  the  twenty-fifth  article.  There 
has  been  a  strong  desire,  dating  chiefly  from  the  Trac- 
tarian  Movcsment,  and  the  days  of  Pusey,  Newman, 
Lyddon,  (^tc.  to  reintroduce  all  of  the  sacraments. 
Many  Eiiiscopalians  and  Anglicans  to-day  make 
heroic  efforts  to  .show  that  the  twenty-fifth  article 
repudiated  the  lesser  sacraments  only  in  so  far  as  they 
had  "grown  of  the  corrupt  following  of  the  Apostles, 
and  were  administered  'more  Romamensium'",  after 
the  Roman  fashion.  Thus  Morgan  Dix  reminded  his 
contemporaries  that  the  finst  book  of  Edward  yi  al- 
lowed "auricular  and  secret  confession  to  the  priest", 
who  could  give  absolution,  as  well  as  "ghostly  coun- 
sel, advice,  and  comfort",  but  did  not  make  the  prac- 
tice obligatory:  therefore  the  sacrament  of  Ab.solu- 
tion  is  not  to  be  "obtruded  upon  men's  consciences  as 
a  matter  necessary  to  salvation"  (op.  cit.,  pp.  99,  101, 
102,  103).  He  cites  authorities  who  state  that  "one 
cannot  doubt  that  a  sacramental  use  of  anointing  the 
sick  has  been  from  the  beginning",  and  adds,  "There 
are  not  wanting,  among  tlic  l)isliops  of  the  American 
Church,  some  who  concur  in  deploring  the  loss  of  this 
primitive  ordinance  and  i)rc(licting  its  restoration 
among  usatsoinci)n)piti()Us  time"  (ibid„p.  105).  At 
a  convention  of  I'^piscopalians  held  at  Cincinnati,  in 
1910,  unsuccessful  (effort  was  marie  to  obtain  aj)pro- 
bation  for  the;  pracficf!  of  anointing  the  sick.  High 
Church  pastors  and  curates,  especially  in  England, 


SACRAMENTS 


301 


sac: 


NTS 


frequently  are  in  conflict  with  their  bishops  because 
the  former  use  all  the  ancient  rites.  Add  to  this  the 
assertion  made  by  Mortimer  (op.  cit.,  I,  122)  that  all 
the  sacraments  cause  grace  ex  opere  operato,  and  we 
see  that  "advanced"  Anglicans  are  returning  to  the 
doctrine  and  the  practices  of  the  Old  Church.  Whether 
and  in  how  far  their  position  can  be  reconciled  with 
the  twenty-fifth  article,  is  a  question  which  they  must 
settle.  Assuredly  their  wanderings  and  gropings 
after  the  truth  prove  the  necessity  of  having  on  earth 
an  infallible  interpreter  of  God's  word. 

(3)  Division  and  Comparison  of  the  Sacraments. — 
(a)  All  sacraments  were  instituted  for  the  spiritual 
good  of  the  recipients;  but  five,  viz.  baptism,  confirma- 
tion, penance,  the  Eucharist,  and  extreme  unction, 
primarily  benefit  the  individual  in  his  private  char- 
acter, whilst  the  other  two,  orders  and  matrimony, 
Primarily  affect  man  as  a  social  being,  and  sanctify 
im  in  the  fulfillment  of  his  duties  toward  the  Church 
and  society.  By  baptism  we  are  born  again,  confirma- 
tion makes  us  strong,  perfect  Christians  and  soldiers. 
The  Eucharist  furni.shes  our  daily  spiritual  food. 
Penance  heals  the  soul  wounded  by  sin.  Extreme 
unction  removes  the  last  remnant  of  human  frailty, 
and  prepares  the  soul  for  eternal  life,  orders  supplies 
ministers  to  the  Church  of  God.  Matrimony  gives 
the  graces  necessary  for  those  who  are  to  rear  children 
in  the  love  and  fear  of  God,  members  of  the  Church 
militant,  future  citizens  of  heaven.  This  is  St. 
Thomas's  explanation  of  the  fitness  of  the  number 
seven  (III,  Q.  Iv,  a.  1).  He  gives  other  explanations 
offered  by  the  Schoolmen  (see  Pourrat,  op.  cit.,  pp. 
177,  sqq.)  but  does  not  bind  himself  to  any  of  them. 
In  fact  the  only  really  sufficient  reason  for  the  existence 
of  seven  sacraments,  and  no  more,  is  the  will  of  Christ : 
there  are  seven  because  He  in.stituted  seven.  The 
explanation  and  adaptions  of  theologians  serve  only 
to  excite  our  admiration  and  gratitude,  by  showing 
how  wisely  and  beneficiently  God  has  provided  for 
our  spiritual  needs  in  these  seven  efficacious  sings  of 
grace. 

(b)  Baptism  and  penance  are  called  "sacraments 
of  the  dead",  because  they  give  life,  through  sancti- 
fying grace  then  called  "first  grace",  to  those  who  are 
spiritually  dead  by  reason  of  original  or  actual  sin. 
The  other  five  are  "sacraments  of  the  living",  be- 
cause their  reception  presupposes,  at  least  ordinarily, 
that  the  recipient  is  in  the  state  of  grace,  and  they 
give  "second  grace",  i.  e.  increase  of  sanctifying  grace 
(q.  v.).  Nevertheless,  since  the  sacraments  always 
give  some  grace  when  there  is  no  obstacle  in  the  recipi- 
ent, it  may  happen  in  cases  explained  by  theologians 
that  "second  grace"  is  conferred  by  a  sacrament  of 
the  dead,  e.  g.  when  one  who  has  only  venial  sins  to 
confess  receives  absolution  and  that  "first  grace"  is 
conferred  by  a  sacrament  of  the  living  (see  St.  Thomas, 
in,  Q.  Ixxii,  a.  7  ad  2  um;  m,  Q.  bcxix,  a.  3).  Con- 
cerning extreme  unction  St.  James  exphcitly  states 
that  through  it  the  recipient  may  be  freed  from  his 
sins:  "If  he  be  in  sins,  they  shall  be  forgiven  him" 
(James,  v.  15). 

(c)  Comparison  in  dignity  and  necessity. — The 
Council  of  Trent  declared  that  the  sacraments  are 
not  all  equal  in  dignity;  also  that  none  are  superfluous, 
although  all  are  not  necessary  for  each  individual 
(Ses.s.  VII,  can.  3,  4).  The  Eucharist  is  the  first  in 
dignity,  because  it  contains  Christ  in  person,  whilst 
in  the  other  sacraments  grace  is  conferred  by  an  in- 
strumental virtue  derived  from  Christ  (St.  Thomas, 
III,  Q.  Ivi,  a.  3).  To  this  reason  St.  Thomas  adds 
another,  viz.,  that  the  Eucharist  is  as  the  end  to  which 
the  other  sacraments  tend,  a  centre  around  which  they 
revolve  (loc.  cit.).  Baptism  is  always  first  in  neces- 
sity; Holy  orders  comes  next  after  the  Eucharist  in 
the  order  of  dignity,  confirmation  being  between  these 
two.  Penance  and  extreme  unction  could  not  have 
a  first  place  because  they  presuppose  defects  (sins). 


Of  the  two  penance  is  the  first  in  necessity:  extreme 
unction  completes  the  work  of  penance  and  prepares 
souls  for  heaven.  Matrimony  has  not  such  an  im- 
portant social  work  as  orders  (loc.  cit.,  ad  1  um).  if 
we  consider  necessity  alone — the  Eucharist  being  left 
out  as  our  daily  bread  and  God's  greatest  gift — three 
are  simply  and  strictly  necessary,  baptism  for  all, 
penance  for  those  who  fall  into  mortal  sin  after  re- 
ceiving baptism,  orders  for  the  Church.  The  others 
are  not  so  strictly  necessary.  Confirmation  completes 
the  work  of  baptism;  extreme  unction  completes  the 
work  of  penance;  matrimony  sanctifies  the  procrea- 
tion and  education  of  children,  which  is  not  so  im- 
portant nor  so  necessary  as  the  sanctification  of  minis- 
ters of  the  Church  (St.  Thomas,  loc.  cit.,  a,  4). 

(d)  Episcopahans  and  Anglicans  distinguish  two 
great  sacraments  and  five  lesser  sacraments  because 
the  latter  "have  not  any  visible  sign  or  ceremony 
ordained  by  God"  (art.  XXV).  Then  they  should 
be  classed  among  the  sacramentals  since  God  alone 
can  be  the  author  of  a  sacrament  (see  above  III). 
On  this  point  the  language  of  the  twenty-fifth  article 
("commonly  called  sacraments")  is  more  logical  and 
straightforward  than  the  terminology  of  recent  An- 
glican writers.  The  Anglican  Catechism  calls  bap- 
tism and  Eucharist  sacraments  "generally  (i.  e.  uni- 
versally) necessary  for  salvation".  Mortimer  justly 
remarks  that  this  ex^pression  is  not  "entirely  ac- 
curate", because  the  Eucharist  is  not  generally  neces- 
sary to  salvation  in  the  same  sense  as  Baptism  (op. 
cit.,  I,  127).  The  other  five  he  adds  are  placed  in  a 
lower  class  because,  "they  are  not  necessary  to  salva- 
tion in  the  same  sense  as  the  two  other  sacraments, 
since  they  are  not  necessary  for  everyone"  (loc.  cit., 
128).  Verily  this  is  interpretation  extraordinary; 
yet  we  should  be  grateful  since  it  is  more  respectful 
than  saying  that  those  five  are  "such  as  have  grown 
partly  of  the  corrupt  following  of  the  Apostles,  partly 
are  states  of  life  allowed  in  the  Scriptures"  (art.  XXV). 
Confusion  and  uncertainty  will  be  avoided  by  accept- 
ing the  declaration  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (above.) 

V.  Effects  of  the  Sacraments. — (I)  Catholic 
Doctfine. — (a)  The  principle  effect  of  the  sacrament 
is  a  two-fold  grace:  (1)  the  grace  of  the  sacrament 
which  is  "first  grace",  produced  by  the  sacraments 
of  the  dead,  or  "second  grace  ",  produced  by  the  sacra- 
ments of  the  living  (supra,  IV,  3,  b) :  (2)  The  sacra- 
mental grace,  i.  e.,  the  special  grace  needed  to  attain 
the  end  of  each  sacrament.  Most  probably  it  is  not 
a  new  habitual  gift,  but  a  special  vigour  or  efl^cacy 
in  the  sanctifying  grace  conferred,  including  on  the 
part  of  God,  a  promise,  and  on  the  part  of  man  a  per- 
manent right  to  the  assistance  needed  in  order  to  act 
in  accordance  with  the  obligations  incurred,  e.  g.,  to 
live  as  a  good  Christian,  a  good  priest,  a  good  husband 
or  wife  (cf.  Pourrat,  op.  cit.,  199;  St.  Thomas,  III,  Q. 
Ixii,  a.  2).  (b)  Three  sacraments,  baptism,  confir- 
mation, and  orders,  besides  grace,  produce  in  the  soul 
a  character,  i.  e.  an  indelible  spiritual  mark  by  which 
some  are  consecrated  as  servants  of  God,  some  as 
soldiers,  some  as  ministers.  Since  it  is  an  indelible 
mark,  the  sacraments  which  impress  a  character  can 
not  be  received  more  than  once  (Cone.  Trid.,  sess. 
VII,  can.  9;  see  Charactek). 

(2)  How  the  Sacraments  cause  Grace. — Theological 
controversies.  Few  questions  have  been  so  hotly 
controverted  as  this  one  relative  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  sacraments  cause  grace  (St.  Thomas,  IV, 
Sent.,  d.  1,  Q.  4,  a  1.).  (a)  All  admit  that  the  sacra- 
ments of  the  New  Law  cause  grace  ex  opere  operato, 
not  ex  opere  operantis  {supra,  II,  2,  3).  (b)  All  admit 
that  God  alone  can  be  the  principal  cause  of  grace 
(supra  3,  I),  (c)  All  admit  that  Christ  as  man,  had 
a  special  pwwer  over  the  sacraments  (supra,  3,  2). 
(d)  All  admit  that  the  sacraments  are,  in  some  sense, 
the  instrumental  causes  either  of  grace  itself  or  of 
something  else  which  will  be  a  " title  exigent  of  grace" 


SACRAMENTS 


302 


SACRAMENTS 


(infra  e).  The  principal  cause  is  one  which  produces 
an  effect  by  a  power  which  it  has  by  reason  of  its  own 
nature  or  by  an  inherent  faculty.  An  instrumental 
cause  produces  an  effect,  not  by  its  own  power,  but 
Ijy  a  power  which  it  receives  from  the  principal  agent. 
Vdien  a  carpenter  makes  a  table,  he  is  the  principal 
cause,  his  tools  are  the  instrumental  causes.  God  alone 
can  cause  grace  as  the  principal  cause;  sacraments 
can  be  no  more  than  his  instruments  "for  the}'  are 
applied  to  men  bv  Di^'ine  ordinance  to  cause  grace 
in  them"  (St.  Thomas.  III.  Q.  Ixii,  a.  1).  No  theo- 
logian of  to-day  defends  Occasionalism  (see  C.\use) 
i.  e.  the  sj'stem  which  taught  that  the  sacraments 
caused  grace  by  a  kind  of  concomitance,  they  being 
not  real  causes  but  the  caus(p  siue  quibus  non:  their 
reception  being  mereh'  the  occasion  of  conferring 
grace.  This  opinion,  according  to  Pourrat  (op.cit., 
167),  was  defended  by  St.  Bonaventure,  Duns  Scotus, 
Durandus,  Occam,  and  all  the  Nominalists,  and  "en- 
joyed a  real  success  until  the  time  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  when  it  was  transformed  into  the  modern  sys- 
tem of  moral  causality".  St.  Thomas  (loc.  cit.,  Ill, 
Q.  bdi,  aa.  1,  4;  and  "Quodlibeta",  12,  a.  14),  and 
others  rejected  it  on  the  ground  that  it  reduced  the 
sacraments  to  the  condition  of  mere  signs. 

(e)  In  solving  the  problem  the  next  step  was  the 
introduction  of  the  system  of  dispositive  instrumental 
causality,  explained  by  Alexander  of  Hales  (Summa 
theol.,  iV,  Q.  v,  membr.  4),  adopted  and  perfected 
by  St.  Thomas  (IV  Sent.,  d.  1,  Q.  i,  a.  4),  defended  by 
many  theologians  down  to  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
re\-ived  in  our  daj^s  by  Father  Billot,  S.  J.  ("De  eccl. 
sacram.",  I,  Rome,  1900,  pp.  96  sq.,  107  sq.).  For 
controversy  on  this  subject,  see  "Irish  Eccles.  Rec- 
ord", Nov.,  1899;  "Amer.  Eccl.  Review",  May  and 
June.  1900,  Jan.  and  May,  1901.  According  to  this 
theorj'  the  sacraments  do  not  efficiently  and  immedi- 
ately cause  grace  itself,  but  they  cause  ex  opere  op- 
eralo  and  instrumentally,  a  something  else — the  char- 
acter (in  some  cases)  or  a  spiritual  ornament  or  form — 
which  will  be  a  "disposition"  entithng  the  soul  to 
grace  ("di.spositio  exigitiva  gratia;";  "titulus  exigi- 
tivus  gratiae".  Billot,  loc.  cit.).  It  must  be  admitted 
that  this  theory  would  be  most  convenient  in  explain- 
ing "re\'iviscence"  of  the  sacraments  (infra,  VII,  c). 
Again.st  it  the  following  objections  are  made:  (a) 
From  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Trent  down  to  recent 
times  little  was  heard  of  this  system.  (i3)  The  "orna- 
ment", or  "disposition",  entitling  the  soul  to  grace 
is  not  well  e\-plained,  hence  explains  very  little.  (7) 
Since  this  "disposition"  must  be  something  spiritual 
and  of  the  supernatural  order,  and  the  sacraments 
can  cau.se  it,  why  can  they  not  cause  the  grace  itself? 
(5)  In  his  "Summa  theologica"  St.  Thomas  does  not 
mention  this  di.spositive  causality:  hence  we  may  rea- 
sonably believe  that  he  abandoned  it  (for  controversy, 
see  reviews  sup.  cil.). 

(f)  Since  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Trent  theolo- 
gians almost  unanimously  have  taught  tliat  the  sacra- 
ments are  the  efficient  instrumental  cause  of  grace 
itself.  The  definition  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  that 
the  sacraments  "contain  the  grace  which  they  sig- 
nify", that  they  "confer  grace  ex  opere  operato"  (Sess. 
VII,  can.  6,  8;,  seemed  to  justify  the  assertion,  which 
waH  not  contested  until  quite  recently.  Yet  the  end 
of  the  controversy  had  not  come.  What  was  the 
nature  of  that  causality?  Did  it  belong  to  the  phy- 
sical or  to  the  moral  order?  A  physical  cause  really 
and  immediaUily  produces  its  effects,  either  as  the 
principal  agent  or  as  the  instrument  used,  as  when  a 
Bculptf)r  U8f«  a  f;hi.sel  to  carve  a  statue.  A  moral 
cause  is  one  which  mfjve>i  or  entreats  a  physical  cause 
to  act.  It  also  can  be  principal  or  instrumental,  e.  g., 
a  bishop  who  in  perw)n  successfully  plea^ls  for  the 
liberation  of  a  prisoner  is  the  principal  moral  cause,  a 
letter  sent  by  hirn  would  be  the  instrumental  moral 
cause,  of  the  freedom  granted.     The  expressions  used 


by  St.  Thomas  seem  clearlj-  to  indicate  that  the  sacra- 
ments act  after  the  manner  of  physical  causes.  He 
says  that  there  is  in  the  sacraments  a  virtue  produc- 
tive of  grace  (III,  Q.  Ixii,  a.  4)  and  he  answers  objec- 
tions against  attributing  such  power  to  a  corporeal 
instrument  by  simply  stating  that  such  power  is  not 
inherent  in  them  and  does  not  reside  in  them  per- 
manently, but  is  in  them  only  so  far  and  so  long  as 
they  are  instruments  in  the  hands  of  Almighty  God 
(loc.  cit.,  ad  lum  and  3ui").  Cajetan,  Suarez,  and 
a  host  of  other  great  theologians  defend  this  system, 
which  is  usually  termed  Thomistic.  The  language  of 
the  Scripture,  the  expressions  of  the  Fathers,  the  De- 
crees of  the  councils,  they  say,  are  so  strong  that  noth- 
ing short  of  an  impossibility  will  justify  a  denial  of 
this  dignity  to  the  sacraments  of  the  New  Law. 
Many  facts  must  be  admitted  which  we  cannot  fully 
explain.  The  body  of  man  acts  on  his  spiritual  soul; 
fire  acts,  in  some  way,  on  souls  and  on  angels.  The 
strings  of  a  harp,  remarks  Cajetan  (In  III,  Q.  Ixii) 
touched  b}'-  an  unskilled  hand,  produce  nothing  but 
sounds:  touched  by  the  hands  of  a  skilful  musician 
they  give  forth  beautiful  melodies.  Why  cannot  the 
sacraments,  as  instruments  in  the  hands  of  God, 
produce  grace? 

Many  grave  theologians  were  not  convinced  by 
these  arguments,  and  another  school,  improperly 
called  the  Scotistic,  headed  by  Melchior  Cano,  De 
Lugo,  and  Vasquez,  embracing  later  Henno,  Tournely, 
Franzelin,  and  others,  adopted  the  system  of  instru- 
mental moral  causality.  The  principal  moral  cause 
of  grace  is  the  Passion  of  Christ.  The  sacraments 
are  instruments  which  move  or  entreat  God  effec- 
tively and  infallibly  to  give  his  grace  to  those  who  re- 
ceive them  with  proper  dispositions,  because,  says 
Melchior  Cano,  "the  price  of  the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ 
is  communicated  to  them"  (see  Pourrat,  op.  cit., 
192,  193).  This  system  was  further  developed  by 
Franzelin,  who  looks  upon  the  sacraments  as  being 
morally  an  act  of  Christ  (loc.  cit.,  p.  194) .  The  Thom- 
ists  and  Suarez  object  to  this  system:  (a)  Since  the 
sacraments  (i.  e.  the  external  rites)  have  no  intrinsic 
value,  they  do  not,  according  to  this  explanation,  exert 
any  genuine  causality;  they  do  not  really  cause  grace, 
God  alone  causes  the  grace:  the  sacraments  do  not 
operate  to  produce  it ;  tliey  are  only  signs  or  occasions 
of  conferring  it.  (/3)  The  Fathers  saw  something 
mysterious  and  inexplicable  in  the  sacraments.  In 
this  system  wonders  cease  or  are,  at  least,  so  much  re- 
duced that  the  expressions  used  by  the  Fathers  seem 
altogether  out  of  place.  (7)  This  theory  does  not  suffi- 
ciently distinguisli,  in  efficacy,  fhe  sacraments  of  the 
Gospel  from  tlie  sacraments  of  the  Old  Law  (cf.  Bil- 
luart,  "Sunuiia  St.  Tliomie",  ed.  Le(juette,  tome  VI, 
p.  137).  Nevertheless,  because  it  avoids  certain  dif- 
ficulties and  obscurities  of  the  physical  causality 
theory,  the  system  of  moral  cau.sality  has  found  many 
defenders,  and  to-day  if  we  consider  numbers  alone, 
it  has  authority  in  its  favour. 

Heceiitlj'  both  of  the.se  systems  have  been  vigor- 
ously attacked  by  Father  Billot  (op.  cit.,  107  sq.), 
who  proposes  a  new  explanation.  He  revives  the  old 
theory  that  the  sacraments  do  not  immediately  cause 
grace  itself,  but  a  disposition  or  title  to  grace  (supra 
e).  This  disposition  is  produced  by  the  sjwiraments, 
neither  physically  nor  morally,  but  imperatively. 
Sacraments  are  practical  signs  of  an  intentional  order: 
they  manifest  God's  intention  to  give  spiritual  bene- 
fits; this  manifestation  of  the  Divine  intention  is  a 
title  exigent  of  grace;  (op.  cit.,  59  sq.,  123  sq.;  Pourrat, 
op.  cit.,  104;  Cronin  in  reviews,  sup.  cil.).  Father 
liillot  defends  his  oi)inions  with  remarkable  acumen. 
Patrons  of  the  jjliysical  causality  gratefully  iinte  his 
attaek  ag.'iinsl  the  moral  causality,  but  object  to  the 
new  explanation,  that  the;  imperative  or  the  int('ntional 
causality,  as  distinct  from  the  action  of  signs,  occasions, 
moral  or  physical  instruments  (o)  is  conceived  with 


SACRAMENTS 


303 


SACRAMENTS 


difficulty  and  (/3)  does  not  make  the  sacraments  (i.  e. 
the  external,  Divinely  appointed  ceremonies)  the  real 
cause  of  grace.  Theologians  are  perfectly  free  to  dis- 
pute and  differ  as  to  the  manner  of  instrumental  caus- 
ality.    Lis  est  adhuc  sub  judice. 

VI.  Minister  of  the  Sacraments. — (1)  It  was 
altogether  fitting  that  the  ministration  of  the  sacra- 
ments be  given,  not  to  the  angels,  but  to  men.  The 
efficacy  of  the  sacraments  comes  from  the  Passion  of 
Christ,  hence  from  Christ  as  a  man;  men,  not  angels, 
are  like  unto  Christ  in  His  human  nature.  Miracu- 
lously God  might  send  a  good  angel  to  administer  a 
sacrament  (St.  Thomas,  III,  Q.  Ixiv,  a.  7).  (2)  For 
administering  Baptism  validly  no  special  ordination 
is  required.  Any  one,  even  a  pagan,  can  baptize, 
provided  that  he  use  the  proper  matter  and  pronounce 
the  words  of  the  essential  form,  with  the  intention 
of  doing  what  the  Church  does  (Deer,  pro  Armen.,  Den- 
zinger-Bannwart,  696).  Onty  bishops,  priests,  and  in 
some  cases,  deacons  may  confer  baptism  solemnly 
(see  Baptism).  It  is  now  held  as  certain  that  in 
matrimony  the  contracting  parties  are  the  ministers 
of  the  sacrament,  because  they  make  the  contract  and 
the  sacrament  is  the  contract  raised  by  Christ  to  the 
dignity  of  a  sacrament  (cf.  Leo  XIII,  Encycl. 
"Arcanum",  10  Febr.,  1880;  see  Matrimony).  For 
the  validity  of  the  other  five  sacraments  the  minister 
must  be  duly  ordained.  The  Council  of  Trent  anathem- 
atized those  who  said  that  all  Christians  could  ad- 
minister all  the  sacraments  (Sess.  VII,  can.  10).  Only 
bishops  can  confer  sacred  orders  (Council  of  Trent, 
sess.  XXIII,  can.  7).  Ordinarily  only  a  bishop  can 
give  confirmation  (.see  Confirmation).  The  priestly 
order  is  required  for  the  valid  administration  of  pen- 
ance and  extreme  unction  (Cone.  Trid.,  sess.  XIV, 
can.  10,  can.  4).  As  to  the  Eucharist,  those  only  who 
have  priestly  orders  can  consecrate,  i.  e.  change  bread 
and  wine  into  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ.  Con- 
secration presuppo.sed,  any  one  can  distribute  the 
Eucharistic  species  but,  out.side  of  very  extraordinary 
circumstances  this  can  be  lawfully  done  only  by  bish- 
ops, priests,  or  (in  some  cases)  deacons.  (3)  The 
care  of  all  those  sacred  rites  has  been  given  to  the 
Church  of  Christ.  Heretical  or  schismatical  minis- 
ters can  administer  the  sacraments  validly  if  they  have 
valid  orders,  but  their  ministrations  are  sinful  (see 
Billot,  op.  cit.,  thesis  16).  Good  faith  would  excuse 
the  recipients  from  sin,  and  in  ca.ses  of  nec(!ssity  the 
Church  grants  the  jurisdiction  necessary  for  penance 
and  extreme  unction  (see  Excommunication:  V,  Ef- 
fects OF  Excommunication). 

(4)  Due  reverence  for  the  sacraments  requires  the 
minister  to  be  in  a  state  of  grace:  one  who  .solemnly 
and  officially  administers  a  sacrament,  being  himself 
in  a  state  of  mortal  sin,  would  certainly  be  guilty  of  a 
sacrilege  (cf.  St.  Thomas,  III,  Q.  Ixiv,  a.  6).  Some 
hold  that  this  sacrilege  is  committed  even  when  the 
minister  does  not  act  officially  or  confer  the  sacra- 
ment solemnly.  But  from  the  controversy  between 
St.  Augustine  and  the  Donatists  (q.  v.)  in  the  fourth 
century  and  especially  from  the  controversy  between 
St.  Stephen  and  St.  Cyprian  (q.  v.)  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, we  know  that  personal  hoUness  or  the  state  of 
grace  in  the  minister  is  not  a  prerequisite  for  the  valid 
administration  of  the  sacrament.  This  has  been 
solemnly  defined  in  several  general  councils  including 
the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VII,  can.  12,  ibid.,  de  bapt., 
can.  4).  The  reason  is  that  the  sacraments  have  their 
efficacy  by  Divine  institution  and  through  the  merits 
of  Christ.  Unworthy  ministers,  validly  conferring  the 
sacraments,  cannot  impede  the  efficacy  of  signs  or- 
dained by  Christ  to  produce  grace  ex  opere  operato 
(cf.  St.  Thomas,  III,  Q.  Ixiv,  aa.  5,  9).  The  knowl- 
edge of  this  truth,  which  follows  logically  from  the 
true  conception  of  a  sacrament,  gives  comfort  to  the 
faithful,  and  it  should  increase,  rather  than  diminish, 
reverence  for  those  sacred  rites  and  confidence  in  their 


efficacy.  No  one  can  give,  in  his  own  name,  that  which 
he  does  not  possess;  but  a  bank  cashier,  not  possessing 
2000  dollars  in  his  own  name,  could  write  a  draft 
worth  2,000,000  dollars  by  reason  of  the  wealth  of  the 
bank  which  he  is  authorized  to  represent.  Christ 
left  to  His  Church  a  vast  treasure  purchased  by  His 
merits  and  sufferings:  the  sacraments  are  as  creden- 
tials entitUng  their  holders  to  a  share  in  this  treasure. 
On  this  subject  the  Anglican  Church  has  retained 
the  true  doctrine,  which  is  neatly  proved  in  article 
XXVI  of  the  Westminster  Confession:  "Although  in 
the  visible  church  the  evil  be  ever  mingled  with  the 
good,  and  sometimes  the  evil  hath  the  chief  authority 
in  the  ministration  of  the  Word  and  Sacraments,  yet 
forasmuch  as  they  do  not  the  same  in  their  own  name, 
but  in  Christ's,  and  do  minister  by  His  commission  and 
authority,  we  may  use  their  ministry  both  in  hearing 
the  Word  of  God  and  in  receiving  the  Sacraments. 
Neither  is  the  effect  of  Christ's  ordinance  taken  away 
by  their  wickedness  nor  the  grace  of  God's  gifts  from 
such  as  by  faith,  and  rightly,  do  receive  the  sacra- 
ments ministered  unto  them;  which  be  effectual,  be- 
cause of  Christ's  institution  and  promise,  although 
they  be  administered  by  evil  men  "  (cf .  BiUuart,  de 
sacram.,  d.  5,  a.  3,  sol.  obj.) 

(5)  Intention  of  the  Minister. — (a)  To  be  a  minister 
of  the  sacraments  under  and  with  Christ,  a  man  must 
act  as  a  man,  i.  e.  as  a  rational  being;  hence  it  is  abso- 

•lutely  necessary  that  he  have  the  intention  of  doing 
what  the  Church  does.  This  was  declared  by  Eu- 
gene IV  in  1439  (Denzinger-Bannwart,  695)  and  was 
solemnly  defined  in  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VII, 
can.  II).  The  anathema  of  Trent  was  aimed  at  the 
innovators  of  the  sixteenth  century.  From  their 
fundamental  error  that  the  sacraments  were  signs  of 
faith,  or  signs  that  excited  faith,  it  followed  logically 
that  their  effect  in  no  wise  depended  on  the  intention 
of  the  minister.  Men  are  to  be  "ministers  of  Christ, 
and  the  dispensers  of  the  mysteries  of  God"  (I  Cor.,  iv, 
1),  and  this  they  would  not  be  without  the  intention, 
for  it  is  by  the  intention,  says  St.  Thomas  (III,  Q. 
Ixiv,  a.  8,  ad  l^m)  that  a  man  subjects  and  unites 
himself  to  the  principal  agent  (Christ).  Moreover, 
by  rationally  pronouncing  the  words  of  the  form,  the 
minister  must  determine  what  is  not  sufficiently  de- 
termined or  expressed  by  the  matter  applied,  e.  g. 
the  significance  of  pouring  water  on  the  head  of  the 
child  (St.  Thomas,  loc.  cit.,  a.  8).  One  who  is  de- 
mented, drunk,  asleep,  or  in  a  stupor  that  prevents  a 
rational  act,  one  who  goes  through  the  external  cere- 
mony in  mockery,  mimicry,  or  in  a  play,  does  not 
act  as  a  rational  minister,  hence  cannot  administer 
a  sacrament,  (b)  The  necessary  object  and  quali- 
ties of  the  intention  required  in  the  minister  of  the 
sacrament  are  explained  in  the  article  Intention. 
Pourrat  (op.  cit.,  ch.  7)  gives  a  history  of  all  contro- 
versies on  this  subject.  Whatever  may  be  said  specu- 
latively about  the  opinion  of  Ambrosius  Catherinus 
(see  Politi,  Lancelot)  who  advocated  the  sufficiency 
of  an  external  intention  in  the  minister,  it  may  not  be 
followed  in  practice,  because,  outside  of  cases  of  neces- 
sity, no  one  may  follow  a  probable  opinion  against 
one  that  is  safer,  when  there  is  question  of  something 
required  for  the  validity  of  a  sacrament  (Innoc.  XI, 
1679;  Denzinger-Bannwart,  1151). 

(6)  Attention  in  the  minister. — Attention  is  an  act 
of  the  intellect,  viz.  the  application  of  the  mind  to 
what  is  being  done.  Voluntary  distraction  in  one 
administering  a  sacrament  would  be  sinful.  The  sin 
would  however  not  be  grave,  unless  (a)  there  be  dan- 
ger of  making  a  serious  mistake,  or  (b)  according  to 
the  common  opinion,  the  distraction  be  admitted  in 
consecrating  the  Eucharistic  species.  Attention  on 
the  part  of  the  minister  is  not  necessary  for  the  valid 
administration  of  a  sacrament,  because  in  virtue  of 
the  intention,  which  is  presupposed,  he  can  act  in  a 
rational  manner,  notwithstanding  the  distraction. 


SACRAMENTS 


304 


SACRAMENTS 


VII.  Recipient  of  the  Sacraments.— When  all 
conditions  required  by  Di\Tne  and  ecclesiastical  law 
are  complied  mth,  the  sacrament  is  received  validly 
and  licitly.  If  all  conditions  required  for  the  essential 
rite  are  observed,  on  the  part  of  the  minister,  the  re- 
cipient, the  matter  and  form,  but  some  non-essential 
condition  is  not  complied  with  by  the  recipient,  the 
sacrament  is  received  validly  but  not  hcitly ;  and  if  the 
condition  wilfully  neglected  be  grave,  grace  is  not  then 
conferred  by  the  ceremony.  Thus  baptized  persons 
contracting  "matrimony  whilst  they  are  in  the  state  of 
mortal  sin  would  be  validly  (i.  e.  really)  married,  but 
would  not  then  receive  sanctifying  grace. 

(1)  Conditions  for  Valid  Reception —{a)  The  pre- 
vious reception  of  baptism  (by  water)  is  an  essential 
condition  for  the  valid  reception  of  any  other  sacra- 
ment. Only  citizens  and  members  of  the  Church 
can  come  under  her  influence  as  such;  baptism  is  the 
door  by  which  we  enter  the  Church  and  thereby  be- 
come members  of  a  mystical  bodj^  united  to  Christ 
our  head  (Catech.  Trid.,  de  bapt.,  nn.  5,  52).  (b) 
In  adults,  for  the  valid  reception  of  any  sacrament  ex- 
cept the  Eucharist,  it  is  necessary  that  they  have  the 
intention  of  receiving  it.  The  sacraments  impose 
obligations  and  confer  grace:  Christ  does  not  wish  to 
impose  those  obligations  or  confer  grace  without  the 
consent  of  man.  The  Eucharist  is  excepted  because, 
in  whatever  state  the  recipient  may  be,  it  is  always  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  (see  Intention;  cf.  Pourrat,* 
op.  cit.,  392).  (c)  For  attention,  see  supra,  VI,  6. 
By  the  intention  man  submits  himself  to  the  opera- 
tion of  the  sacraments  which  produce  their  effects 
ex  opere  operato,  hence  attention  is  not  necessary  for 
the  valid  reception  of  the  sacraments.  One  who 
might  be  distracted,  even  voluntarily,  during  the  con- 
ferring, e.  g.  of  baptism,  would  receive  the  sacrament 
validly.  It  must  be  carefully  noted,  however,  that 
in  the  case  of  matrimony  the  contracting  parties  are 
the  ministers  as  well  as  the  recipients  of  the  sacra- 
ments; and  in  the  sacrament  of  Penance,  the  acts  of 
the  penitent,  contrition,  confession,  and  willingness 
to  accept  a  penance  in  satisfaction,  constitute  the 
proximate  matter  of  the  sacraments,  according  to  the 
commonly  received  opinion.  Hence  in  those  cases 
Buch  attention  is  required  as  is  necessary  for  the  valid 
apphcation  of  the  matter  and  form. 

(2)  Conditions  for  the  Licit  Reception. — (a)  For  the 
licit  reception,  besides  the  intention  and  the  atten- 
tion, in  adults  there  is  required  (1)  for  the  sacraments 
of  the  dead,  supernatural  attrition,  which  presupposes 
acts  of  faith,  hope,  and  repentence  (see  Attrition 
and  Justification);  (2)  for  the  sacraments  of  the 
living  the  state  of  grace.  Knowingly  to  receive  a 
sacrament  of  the  living  whilst  one  is  in  the  state  of 
mortal  sin  would  be  a  sacrilege,  (b)  For  the  licit  re- 
ception it  is  also  necessary  to  observe  all  that  is  pre- 
scribed by  Divine  or  ecclesiastical  law,  e.  g.  as  to 
time,  place,  the  minister,  etc.  As  the  Church  alone 
has  the  care  of  the  sacraments  and  generally  her  duly 
appointed  agents  alone  have  the  right  to  administer 
them,  except  baptism  in  some  cases,  and  matrimony 
(supra  VI,  2),  it  is  a  general  law  that  application  for 
the  sacraments  should  be  ma<^ie  to  worthy  and  duly 
appointed  ministers.  (For  exceptions  see  Excom- 
munication.) 

(3)  Reviviscence  of  the  Sacraments. — Much  atten- 
tion has  been  given  by  theologians,  especially  recently, 
to  the  revival  of  efTects  which  were  impeded  at  the 
time  when  a  sacrament  was  received.  The  question 
arises  whenever  a  sacrament  is  received  validly  but 
unworthily,  i.  e.  with  an  obstacle  which  prevents  the 
infusion  of  I>ivine  grace.  The  obstacle  (mortal  sin) 
is  positive,  when  it  is  known  and  voluntary,  or  nega- 
tive, when  it  is  involuntary  by  reascjn  of  ignorance  or 
good  faith.  One  who  thus  receives  a  sacrament  is 
said  to  receive  it  feigncdly,  or  falsely  (ficte),  because 
by  the  very  act  of  receiving  it  he  pretends  to  be  prop- 


erly disposed;  and  the  sacrament  is  said  to  be  validum 
sed  informe, — valid,  but  lacking  its  proper  form,  i.  e. 
grace  or  charity  (see  Love).  Can  such  a  person  re- 
cover or  receive  the  effects  of  the  sacraments  ?  The 
term  reviviscence  (reviviscentia)  is  not  used  by  St. 
Thomas  in  reference  to  the  sacraments  and  it  is  not 
strictly  correct  because  the  effects  in  question  being 
impeded  by  the  obstacle,  were  not  once  "living" 
(cf.  Billot,  op.  cit.,  98,  note).  The  expression  which 
he  uses  (III,  Q,  Ixix,  a.  10),  viz.,  obtaining  the 
effects  after  the  obstacle  has  been  removed,  is  more 
accurate,  though  not  so  convenient  as  the  newer  term. 

(a)  Theologians  generally  hold  that  the  question 
does  not  apply  to  penance  and  the  Holy  Eucharist. 
If  the  penitent  be  not  sufficiently  disposed  to  receive 
grace  at  the  time  he  confesses  his  sins  the  sacrament  is 
not  validly  received  because  the  acts  of  the  penitent 
are  a  necessary  part  of  the  matter  of  this  sacrament, 
or  a  necessary  condition  for  its  reception.  One  who 
unworthily  receives  the  Eucharist  can  derive  no  bene- 
fit from  that  sacrament  unless,  perhaps,  he  repent  of 
his  sins  and  sacrilege  before  the  sacred  species  have 
been  destroyed.  Cases  that  may  occur  relate  to  the 
five  other  sacraments,  (b)  It  is  certain  and  admitted 
by  all,  that  if  baptism  be  received  by  an  adult  who  is 
in  the  state  of  mortal  sin,  he  can  afterwards  receive 
the  graces  of  the  sacrament,  viz.  when  the  obstacle 
is  removed  by  contrition  or  by  the  sacrament  of 
Penance.  On  the  one  hand  the  sacraments  always 
produce  grace  unless  there  be  an  obstacle ;  on  the  other 
hand  those  graces  are  necessary,  and  yet  the  sacra- 
ment can  not  be  repeated.  St.  Thomas  (III.  Q,  Ixix, 
a.  10)  and  theologians  find  a  special  reason  for  the  con- 
ferring of  the  effects  of  baptism  (when  the  "fiction" 
has  been  removed)  in  the  permanent  character  which 
is  impressed  by  the  sacrament  validly  administered. 
Reasoning  from  analogy  thoy  hold  the  same  with 
regard  to  confirmation  and  Holy  orders,  noting  how- 
ever that  the  graces  to  be  received  are  not  so  necessary 
as  those  conferred  by  baptism. 

(c)  The  doctrine  is  not  so  certain  when  applied  to 
matrimony  and  extreme  unction.  But  since  the 
graces  impeded  are  very  important  though  not  strictly 
necessary,  and  since  matrimony  cannot  be  received 
again  whilst  both  contracting  parti(>s  are  living,  and 
extreme  unction  cannot  be  rejx^atcd  whilst  the  same 
danger  of  death  lasts,  tlieologiaiis  adoj)!  as  more  prob- 
able the  opinion  which  liolds  that  (iod  will  frrant  the 
graces  of  those  sacraments  wIkmi  tlie  ()l:)sta('le  is  re- 
moved. The  "revivi.scence"  of  the  effects  of  sacra- 
ments received  validly  but  with  an  obstacle  to  grace 
at  the  time  of  their  reception,  is  urged  as  a  strong 
argument  against  the  system  of  the  physical  causality 
of  grace  (supra,  V,  2),  especially  by  Billot  (op.  cit., 
thesis,  VII,  116,  126).  For  his  own  system  he  claims 
the  merit  of  establishing  an  invariable  mode  of  caus- 
ality, namely,  that  in  every  case  by  the  sacrament 
validlv  received  there  is  conferred  a  "title  exigent  of 
grace  .  If  there  be  no  obstacle  the  grace  is  conferred 
then  and  there:  if  there  be  an  obstacle  the  "title" 
remains  calling  for  the  grace  which  will  be  conferred 
as  soon  as  t  lie  ohst  aclc  is  removed  (op.  cit.,  th.  VI,  VII). 
To  this  his  oi)p()n('n(s  reply  that  exceptional  cases 
might  well  call  for  an  exceptional  mode  of  causality. 
In  the  case  of  three  sacraments  the  character  suffi- 
ciently explains  the  revival  of  effects  (cf.  St.  Thomas, 
III,  Q.  66,  a.  1;  Q.  3,  Q.  66,  a.  Ixix,  aa.  9,  10).  The 
doctrine  as  applied  to  extreme  unction  and  matri- 
mony, is  not  certain  enough  to  furnish  a  strong  argu- 
ment for  or  against  any  system  (see  "Irish.  Theol. 
Record";  "Amer.  Eccl.  Review",  cited  above  V,  2). 
Future  efforts  of  theologians  may  dispel  the  obscurity 
and  uncertainty  now  prevailing  in  this  interesting 
chapter. 

Literature  on  the  sacranrientg  is  very  extensive:  we  can  give 
only  a  few  of  the  most  important  or  most  interesting  works  on 
the  sacraments  in  general.      (For  each  sacrament  sec  special 


SACRED 


305 


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OflBcial  declarations  of  Catholic  doctrine  are  found  principally 
in  the  Decrees  of  the  Council  of  Florence  and  the  Council  of 
Trent.  Other  authentic  declarations  are  given  by  Denzinger- 
Bannwart,  Enchiridion  symbolarum  (11th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1911). 
The  Calechismus  ex  deer.  Cone.  Trid.  ad  Parochos,  quasi-official, 
Eng.  tr.  by  Donovan,  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (New 
York) ;  new  French  tr.  with  excellent  commentaries  by  Bareille, 
Le  catechisme  romain  (Montrejeau,  1906  sq.)  is  a  mine  of  informa- 
tion. On  this  see  Doctrine,  Christian;  Roman  Catechism. 
For  definitions,  Polman,  Breviarium  theologicum  (Milan,  1SS3)  is 
unsurpassed. 

Patristic  Age. — Justin,  I  Apologia,  xxix,  and  St.  Ignatius, 
Ep.  ad  Smyr.,  treat  especially  of  baptism  and  the  Eucharist; 
St.  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Paed.,  I,  vi;  Origen,  Cont.  Cels.; 
Idem,  In  Malt.;  Idem,  In  Joan.;  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
Catech.  mystag.,  iv,  3,  7,  9;  St.  Basil,  In  Matt.;  St.  Gregory 
Nazianzus,  Oral.,  xl,  8;  St.  Cyprian,  Epist.,  Ixx;  Tertullian, 
De  bapt.,  I;  Idem,  Adv.  Marc,  IV,  xxxiv;  St.  Chrysostom, 
Horn,  in  Matt.,  Ixxxii,  2,  4;  St.  Ambrose,  De  Spir.  Sancto,  I, 
Ixxxviii;  Idem,  De  mysteriis,  xix;  and  especially  St.  Augustine, 
De  doct.  Christ.,  I,  i,  4;  Idem,  De  civ.  Dei,  X,  v;  Idem,  In  Joann., 
tr.  Ixxx,  3;  Idem,  Contr.  Fauslum,  XX,  xiii,  laboured  to  explain 
the  notion  of  a  sacrament,  called  "  sacramentum "  first  by  Ter- 
tullian, called  "signum  rei  sacrae"  by  St.  Augustine.  On  the 
efficacy  of  the  sacramental  rite  according  to  the  Fathers  see 
above,  II,  (4),  (b).  Many  other  texts  could  be  adduced,  see  works 
of  theology  "Sacramenta  causant  gratiam  ex  opere  operate  ". 

Scholastic  Period. — .St.  John  Damascene,  De  fide  orthodoxa, 
IV,  xiii,  and  St.  Anselm,  De  sacrm.  divers.,  were  the  forerunners 
of  the  Scholastics.  St.  Peter  Damian,  Op.  VI,  serm.  69,  and 
St.  Bernard,  Serm.  in  Coena  Domini,  accepted  the  word  sacra- 
ment in  a  broad  sense  (see  textbooks  of  theology,  "De  numero 
sacramentorum ") ;  Abelard,  Introd.  ad  theol.;  Sic  et  Non;  but 
especially  Hugh  of  St.  Victor,  De  sacramentis,  continued  to 
develop  the  conception  of  a  sacrament.  Peter  Lombard  in  his 
Fourth  Book  of  Sentences  gave  to  Catholic  doctrine  the  definite 
and  accurate  expressions  which  it  has  since  retained  (.substan- 
tially). St.  Thomas  gives  a  treatise  De  sacramentis,  which  for 
conciseness,  clearness,  and  comprehensiveness  has  been  unex- 
celled, in  his  Summa  theol..  Ill,  Q.  Ix  sq.;  and  his  Con.  Genles, 
IV,  Ivi  sq.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  Decree  to  the  Ar- 
menians is  a  summary  of  a  chapter  of  one  of  the  Opuscula  of  this 
great  doctor:  De  articulis  fidei  et  sacramentis  ecclesim  (Paris, 
1856).  Contemporaneous  with  St.  Thomas  were  St.  Bonaven- 
TURE,  Comm.  in  IV lib.  Sent.,  and  later  Duns  Scotus,  Comm.  in 
IV  lib.  Sent.  These  theologians  were  followed  by  the  great  com- 
mentators: Salimanticenses,  Cursus  theol.  (18  vols.,  Paris, 
1880);  Cajetan;  Ferrarie.nsis;  Suarez,  De  sacramentis; 
Bellahmine,  Controv.  de  sacram.  in  gen.;  Billuart,  Summa  de 
sacr.,  and  a  host  of  others.  A  list  may  easily  be  procured  from 
most  of  our  manuals  of  theology  before  the  tract  "De  Sacra- 
mentis in  genere",  e.  g.,  Tanquerey,  Pohle.  etc. 

Other  theological  treatises  on  the  Sacraments  in  general  are: 
Drouvenius,  De  re  sacramentaria  contra  perduellos  hwreticoa 
(Venice,  1737);  Muszka,  De  sacr.  novce  legis  (Vienna,  17.58); 
Katchthaler,  Theol.  dogm.  specialis,  IV  (Ratisbon,  1884); 
Franzelin,  De  sacramentis  in  genere  (Rome,  1888) :  de  Au- 
GU8TINI8,  De  re  sacramentaria  (Rome,  1889);  Billot,  De  eccl. 
sacr.,  I  (Rome,  1907);  Sasse,  De  sacr.  eccl,  I  (Freiburg,  1897); 
Lahousse,  De  sacr.  in  genere  (Bruges,  1900);  Paquet,  De  sacr., 
I  (Quebec,  1900);  Noldin,  De  sacr.  (Innsbruck,  1901);  Capre- 
OLUS,  Comm.  in  IV  lib.  Sent.;  John  of  St.  Thomas,  Theol.  de 
sacr.;  M.irtInez  de  Prado,  De  sacrum,  in  genere;  Go.net,  De 
sacr.  in  communi;  Sylvius,  In  3  par.  s.  Thomw;  Jocobatus, 
Doctr.dogm.de  sacram.;  Gotti,  De  sacr.;  Drouin,  De  re  socrawi.; 
Wirceburgenses,  De  sacramentis;  Tournely,  De  sacramentis; 
Gerbert,  Principia  theol.  sacram. 

ScHANZ,  Die  Lehre  non  der  Sakramenten  der  kath.  Kirche  (Frei- 
burg, 1893) ;  Oswald,  Die  dogmatische  Lehre  von  den  hi.  Sakra- 
menten (Munster,  1894) ;  Heinrich-Guthberlet,  Dogmatische 
Theol.,  IX  (Maiuz,  1901);  Gihr,  Die  hi.  Sakramenten,  I  (Frei- 
burg, 1902) ;  Probst,  Sacramenten  und  Sakramentalien  in  der 
ersten  drei  Jahrhunderten  (Tubingen,  1872);  Hahn,  Die  Lehre 
von  den  Sakramenten  (1864);  Shatzler,  Die  Lehre  von  der 
Wirksamkeit  der  Sakramenten  ex  opere  operato  (Munich,  1860); 
Bach,  Die  siebenzahl  der  sakramente  (Ratisbon,  1864);  Haas, 
Die  nothwendige  Intentionen  des  Ministers  (Bamberg,  1903); 
Besson,  Les  sacremenls  ou  la  grace  de  I'Homme-Dieu  (Paris,  1876) ; 
HuGON,  La  causaliti  instrumental  (Paris,  1907),  iv;  Monsabre, 
Sacraments  in  Exposition  du  dogme  catholique  (Paris,  1883). 

For  historical  treatises  on  the  sacraments  see  the  following: 
Hahn,  Doctrinm  Roma:  de  numero  sacr.  septen.  rationes  historicce 
(Breslau,  1859,  Protestant) ;  Juenin,  De  sacr.  comment,  his- 
toricus  et  dogmaticus;  Grone,  Sacramentum  oder  Begriff  und 
Bedeutung  vom  Sakrament  in  der  alte  Kirche  bis  zur  scholastik 
(Brilon,  1853);  Schmalzl,  Die  Sakramente  des  Alt.  Test.  (Eich- 
stadt,  1883) ;  Schanz,  Der  Begriff  des  Sakr.  bei  den  Vaentern 
(Tubingen,  1891);  Merlin,  TraitS  histor.  et  dogmat.  sur  les 
paroles  ou  les  formes  des  sacr.  de  I'Eglise  ;  Chardon,  Hisl.  des 
sacr.;  Turmel,  Hist,  de  la  Theol.  pos.;  Schwane,  Ilistoire  dts 
dogmes;  Diet,  d'arch.  chret.  et  de  Lit.;  Hefele,  Hist,  of  the 
Councils ;  Harnack,  History  of  Dogma;  Moehler,  Symbolism 
(London,  1906).  D.    J.    KENNEDY. 

Sacred  College.    See  Cardinal. 

Sacred  Congregations.  See  Roman  Congrega- 
tions. 

Sacred  Heart,  Brothers  of  the,  a  congregation 
founded  in  1821  by  Pere  Andre  Coindre,  of  the  Diocese 
of  Lyons,  France.  Its  constitutions  were  modelled 
XIII.— 20 


upon  the  constitutions  of  St.  Ignatius  based  upon  the 
Rule  of  Saint  Augustine.  Its  members  bind  them- 
selves for  life  by  the  simple  vows  of  religion.  There  are 
no  priests  in  the  congregation,  the  objective  purpose 
of  which  is  the  Christian  education  of  boys  in  asylums, 
parochial  and  select  schools,  and  commercial  colleges. 
The  growth  of  the  congregation  was  slow.  At  the 
period  of  its  origin  the  political  condition  of  France 
was  very  unfavourable.  It  was  a  day  of  political 
agitation  and  revolution.  Lyons,  the  cradle  of  the 
congregation,  suffered  sorely  in  these  revolutions. 
But  a  more  hampering  difficulty  to  its  growth  lay  in 
the  ill-defined  government  imposed  upon  the  congrega- 
tion. Pere  Andre  Coindre  was  the  superior-general 
and  continued  such  till  his  death  in  1821.  Pere 
Vincent  Coindre,  his  brother,  succeeded  him  in  this 
office. 

In  1840  Pere  Coindre  assembled  the  general  chapter 
of  the  congregation.  During  the  discussions  of  the 
chapter,  opinion  among  the  brothers  was  unanimous 
that  it  was  necessary  for  the  success  of  the  congrega- 
tion that  its  temporal  affairs  should  be  in  the  hands 
of  the  brothers  themselves,  and  that  one  of  their  num- 
ber should  be  superior-general.  The  question  waa 
referred  to  Mgr  de  Bonald,  Archbishop  of  Lyons, 
who,  after  an  exhaustive  examination,  judged  it  ad- 
visable that  Pere  Coindre  should  resign  the  office. 
On  13  Sept.,  1841,  Brother  Polycarp  was  unanimously 
chosen  by  the  brothers  as  their  superior-general.  He 
reconstructed  the  government  of  the  community  and 
gave  it  stability  and  permanency.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  in  1859,  there  w^re  in  France  alone  seventy- 
three  establishments,  an  increase  of  sixty  during  his 
administration.  He  had,  moreover,  in  1846  opened 
up  in  the  United  States,  at  Mobile,  Ala.,  a  new  field 
of  labour  for  the  institute.  In  1872  the  province  of 
the  United  States  extended  its  schools  into  Canada, 
and  in  1880  transferred  its  novitiate  from  Indianapolis 
to  Arthabaskaville,  P.  Q.,  Canada.  The  growth  of 
the  congregation  was  here  so  rapid  that  it  was  deemed 
advisable  to  erect  the  establishments  in  Canada  into 
a  separate  province.  This  was  effected  by  a  decree  of 
the  general  chapter  of  the  society  held  at  Paradis, 
near  Le  Puy,  France,  in  1900.  About  the  same  time 
a  house  of  studies  for  postulants  and  a  novitiate  for 
the  United  States  province  were  established  at 
Metuchen,  N.  J. 

The  congregation  has  at  the  present  time  (1907)  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  forty-eight  establish- 
ments directed  by  460  brothers,  educating  more  tluin 
9000  pupils.  Just  previous  to  the  French  Law  of  1901, 
suppressing  religious  communities  in  France,  there 
were  in  that  country  alone  1100  brothers,  150  schools, 
academies,  colleges,  asylums,  deaf  and  dumb  institu- 
tions, with  25,000  pupils,  in  twenty  dioceses.  Owing 
to  the  present  religious  persecution  in  France,  the 
congregation  has  been  obliged  to  seek  new  fields  of 
labour,  and  twenty  establishments  have  recently  been 
founded  in  Spain  and  Belgium. 

Brother  Charles. 

Sacred  Heart  Abbey.     See  Oklahoma. 

Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus.  See  Heart  of  Jesus, 
Devotion  to  tue. 

Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  Missionary  Sisters  op 
the,  a  reUgious  congregation  having  its  general  mother- 
house  at  Rome,  founded  in  1880  by  Mother  Francis 
Xavier  Cabrini,  who  is  still  Uving.  The  aim  of  the  in- 
stitute is  to  spread  devotion  to  the  Heart  of  Jesus  by 
means  of  the  practice  of  spiritual  and  corporal  works 
of  mercy.  The  sisters  conduct  homes  for  the  aged 
and  the  sick,  orphanages,  industrial  schools,  sewing 
classes;  they  visit  ho.spitals  and  prisons,  and  give  re- 
ligious instruction  in  their  convents,  which  are  open 
to  women  desirous  of  making  retreats.  The  congre- 
gation has  spread  rapidly  in  Europe  and  America.  In 
1899,  at  the  suggestion  of  Leo  XIII,  the  sisters  came  to 


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306 


SACRED 


New  York,  and  have  since  opened  convents  in  the 
Dioceses  of  Brooklyn,  Cliicago,  Denver,  Los  Angeles, 
Newark,  Scranton,  and  Seattle.  At  tlie  beginning  of 
1911  the  institute  had  in  the  United  States:  253  sis- 
ters; 11  schools  \s-ith  4S50  pupils;  6  orphanages  with 
713  orphans;  2  hospitals  with  about  3520  patients  an- 
nuaUy;  and  1  dispensary  where  21,630  persons  were 
treated  during  the  preceding  years. 

This  congregation  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus, 
founded  by  Father  Hubert  Linckens,  provincial  of 
the  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Hiltrup,  near 
^Iiinster,  on  3  August,  1S99,  and  approved  episco- 
pally  in  1900.  The  latter  sisters  are  engaged  teach- 
ing in  New  Guiana,  New  Pomerania,  and  the  Marshall 
Islands,  in  the  districts  confided  to  the  care  of  the 
Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  Missionaries  of  the 
(Issoudun). — A  religious  congregation  of  priests  and 
lay  brothers  with  the  object  of  promoting  the  knowl- 
edge and  practice  of  devotion  to  the  Heart  of  Jesus, 
as  embodied  in  the  revelations  of  Our  Lord  to  Blessed 
Margaret  Marj'  Alacoque,  and  of  offering  personal 
reparation  to  the  Divine  Heart.  The  society's 
motto  is,  "Ametur  ubique  terrarum  Cor  Jesu  Sacra- 
tissimum"  (Maj-  the  most  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  be 
loved  everj'where).  It  was  founded  at  Issoudun, 
in  the  Archdiocese  of  Bourges,  France,  by  the  Abbe 
Jules  Chevalier.  Until  very  recent  years  the  mother- 
house  was  in  the  above-named  towTi,  but  since  the 
separation  of  Church  and  State  in  France  the  society 
has  its  headquarters  in  Rome.  The  origin  of  the 
Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart  is  closely  connected 
with  the  Papal  definition  of  the  dogma  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  of  the  B.  V.  M.,  the  means  to 
lay  their  foundation  being  the  outcome  of  special 
prayers  addressed  to  the  Mother  of  God  during  the 
nine  days  preceding  the  great  religious  event  of  8 
Dec,  1854.  The  founder  had  pledged  himself  to 
honour  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  a  special  manner.  He  re- 
deemed his  promise  the  following  year  by  erecting 
a  shrine  dedicated  to  the  honour  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  under  the  title  of  "Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred 
Heart". 

In  1864  an  association  of  prayer  was  founded  which 
has  since  been  honoured  with  the  official  title  of  Uni- 
versal Archconfratemity  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  and  enriched  with  numerous  indulgences. 
The  central  governing  body  is  at  Rome,  with  local 
directors  in  various  countries.  The  official  centre  for 
the  United  States  is  at  Watertown,  New  York;  those 
for  other  Engli.sh-speaking  countries  are  at  Glaston- 
bury, Somerset,  England;  Sydney,  New  South  Wales, 
and  Cork,  where  the  society's  first  hou.se  in  Ireland 
was  founded,  and  an  ecclesiastical  college  opened, 
in  1909. 

On  2  Oct.,  1867,  an  apostolic  school  was  founded 
bv  Fathc-  Vandel  at  Chezal-Benoit  in  France,  with 
twelve  pupils.  It  grew  and  prospered,  and  in  course 
ot  time  other  similar  institutions  arose  in  difTerent 
countries.  From  the.se  the  priests  of  the  society  are 
chiefly  recruited.  The  work  is  represented  in  the 
United  States  by  St.  Joseph's  Apostolic  School  at 
Watertown,  N.  Y. 

The  pfr.s<^jnnel  of  the  society  is  composed  of  825 
proffis,sf;d  religious,  with  provincial  houses  in  Italy, 
Germany,  Holland,  Australia,  and  a  Provincial 
Superior  residing  in  Paris,  who  rules  over  the  dis- 
persed members  of  the  French  Province,  and  its 
establishments  in  Switzerland;  Belgium;  Canada — 
Quebr-c;  Beauport,  Province  of  Quebec;  South 
Qu'Appelle,  Medicine  Hat,  Saskatchewan,  and  North 
Cobalt,  Ont. 

The  Fathers  at  Quebec  direct  the  Archconfra- 
temity of  Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  publish  the 


Annals,  its  monthly  bulletin,  and  conduct  five  missions 
and  retreats.  They  also  have  a  public  chapel. 
The  novitiate  for  Canada  and  the  States  is  at  Beau- 
port.  The  other  Canadian  communities  are  engaged 
in  parochial  and  missionary  work.  In  England, 
besides  Glastonbury,  the  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  have  communities  at  St.  Albans,  Herfordshire, 
and  at  Braintree,  Essex.  They  engage  in  parish 
work  and  act  as  chaplains. 

In  the  United  States  the  Society  has  communities 
at  Watertowm,  N.  Y.;  Natick,  R.  I.;  Onawa,  Iowa; 
Cazenovia  and  Sioux  City,  Wis.,  this  last  being 
a  dependency  of  the  German  Province;  the  first 
four  form  an  American  Quasi-Province  with  head- 
quarters at  Natick.  In  all  these  places  the  leathers 
have  charge  of  parishes,  except  those  at  Sioux  City, 
who  preach  missions,  supplj^  the  places  of  absent 
priests,  and  assist  the  clergy.  The  Natick  community 
supplies  chaplains  to  St.  Joseph's  Hospital  for  tuber- 
cular patients  at  Hills  Grove,  and  to  the  Rhode  Island 
State  charitable  and  correctional  institutions  at 
Howard,  Cranston,  and  Sackanosset. 

For  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  the  efforts  of  the 
Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart  have  been  expended 
chiefly  in  foreign  mission  fields.  On  1  Sept.,  1881, 
three  Fathers  set  out  from  Barcelona  for  the  South 
Sea  Islands  at  the  request  of  Leo  XIII,  and  es- 
tablished a  station  in  New  Britain — now  New 
Pomerania.  To-day  the  priests  and  brothers  doing 
missionary  work  in  divers  islands  and  archipelagoes 
of  the  South  Pacific  number  upward  of  300,  exclusive 
of  the  new  mission  lately  opened  in  Mindanao, 
Philippine  Islands — where  thirty  or  more  apostoUc 
labourers  from  the  Dutch  Province  are  already  em- 
ployed— and  the  vast  territory  comprised  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Port  Victoria  and  Palmerston,  South  Australia, 
in  charge  of  Father  F.  X.  Gsell  as  Administrator 
Apostolic,  with  residence  at  Port  Darwin.  The 
Bishop  of  Ponso-Alegre  has  just  entrusted  the  direc- 
tion of  his  episcopal  college  to  the  congregation. 

Chevalier,  Le  Sacri-Caeur  de  Jesus  dans  ses  rapports  avec 
Marie,  ou  Notre  Dame  du  Sacre-Caeur  (Paris,  18S4);  Vaudon, 
Afgr  Henry  Verjus  (Paris,  1899);  CabriI;re,  Le  P.  J(an  Vandel 
(Issoudun,  1908);  Album  societatis  missionariorum  SSmi 
Cordis  Jesu  (Rome,  1911). 

Z6PHYRIN   P^LOQUIN. 

Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  Society  of  the  (Pac- 
canarists). — This  society  was  founded  by  two  young 
seminarists  of  Saint-Sulpire  who  had  emigrated  to 
Belgium  during  the  French  Revolution,  Fran^ois- 
Eleonor  de  Tourndly  and  Prince  Charles  de  Broglie, 
a  son  of  the  marshal.  Their  object  was  to  form  a 
society  similar  in  all  respects  to  the  order  founded  by 
St.  Ignatius  Loyola.  Their  first  residence  was  the 
old  country  house  of  the  Louvain  Jesuits,  into  which 
the  community  under  Toum^ly  entered  8  May,  1794, 
numbering  four  members.  These  four  were  the  two 
founders  and  two  young  officers  of  the  army  of  Cond6, 
Xavier  de  Tourndly,  brother  of  the  superior,  and 
Pierre-Charles  Le  Blanc.  The  victory  of  the  French 
forces  at  Fleurus  (26  June,  1794)  obliged  them  to 
leave  Belgium  just  as  they  were  joined  by  a  recruit 
who  was  (lestined  to  play  a  part  of  great  importance, 
Joseph  Varin  de  Solmon,  who  had  also  been  in  the 
army  of  Cond6.  The  fugitives  lived  for  some  time 
at  Leutershofen  near  Augsburg.  In  the  church  of 
the  Benedictines  at  Augsburg,  on  15  Oct.,  1794,  they 
consecrated  themselves  by  a  special  vow  to  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  and  the  Most  Holy  Heart  of 
Mary,  to  continue  the  work  they  had  begun,  to  offer 
themsfrlves  to  the  sovereign  pontiff,  and  to  obey  him 
as  St.  Ignatius  and  his  companions  had  done.  When 
it  had  to  leave  Augsburg,  the  Society  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  numbered  sixteen  subjects.  It  wandered 
about  for  some  time  in  Southern  Germany  and 
several  of  its  members,  Father  Varin  among  them, 
were  ordained  priests.     At  length,  on  Easter  Tuesday, 


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1797,  it  settled  in  the  village  of  Hagenbriinn,  three 
leagues  from  Vienna.  There  the  founder,  not  more 
than  thirty  years  of  age,  fhed  of  smallpox,  9  July, 
1797,  and  Father  Varin,  but  twenty-eight  years  of 
age,  was  chosen  his  successor. 

The  new  superior  submitted  the  statutes  of  the 
society  for  the  endorsement  of  the  exiled  French 
bishops  in  Germany  and  the  approbation  of  Pius 
VI,  then  detained  at  Florence.  The  number  of 
postulants  having  greatly  increased,  a  novitiate  was 
opened  at  Prague  under  the  protection  of  the  Arch- 
duchess Maria  Anna,  and  Hagenbriinn  was  con- 
verted into  a  boarding-school.  This  was  at  the  close 
of  the  year  1798.  Nicholas  Paccanari,  a  native  of 
Valsugnana,  near  Trent,  had  at  one  time  been  a 
sergeant  in  the  garrison  of  S.  Angelo,  had  then  be- 
come a  merchant  and,  having  met  with  financial 
disaster,  was  reduced  to  earn  his  living  as  a  sort  of 
guide  or  cicerone.  Though  entirely  without  educa- 
tion, he  possessed  a  remarkable  natural  gift  of  elo- 
quence. 

At  about  this  period  Paccanari  was  attached 
to  the  Oratory  of  the  Caravita,  a  pious  association 
at  Rome  under  the  direction  of  Father  Gravita,  who 
had  been  a  Jesuit.  Here  Paccanari  conceived  a 
desire  to  re-constitute  the  Society  of  Jesus.  He  won 
over  to  his  project  those  priests  who  were  his  asso- 
ciates at  the  Caravita:  Joseph  della  Vedova,  a  doc- 
tor of  the  Sapienza;  Halnat,  of  the  Diocese  of  Rennes, 
formerly  a  missionarj^  in  ^ladagascar;  Epinette,  of 
the  Diocese  of  Le  Mans.  He  drew  up  a  rule  of  life 
for  them  and  shut  himseK  up  at  Loreto  in  a  retreat 
which  lasted  eleven  months.  Returning  to  Rome 
in  May,  1797,  he  obtained  for  his  project  the  approval 
of  Cardinal  della  Somaglia,  the  pope's  vicar,  and  on 
15  August,  in  the  Chapel  of  the  Caravita,  the  founder 
and  his  three  companions  made  the  three  vows  of 
religion  and  the  vow  of  obedience  to  the  sovereign 
pontiff.  They  adopted  the  habit  of  the  original 
Jesuits  and  settled  themselves  at  Spoleto.  In 
August,  1798,  Paccanari,  having  been  received  by 
Pius  VI  who  was  then  at  Sienna,  obtained  from  the 
pope  several  privileges  and  a  Rescript  in  which  the 
society  was  designated  "The  Company  of  the  Faith 
of  Jesus".  The  pope  charged  him  with  the  care 
of  the  Propaganda  students  who  had  been  ex-pelled 
from  their  seminary. 

Paccanari  made  three  journeys  to  Rome  to  collect 
these  young  men;  the  third  time  he  and  his  compan- 
ions were  arrested  by  the  French  military'  authorities 
and  lodged  in  the  Castle  of  S.  Angelo.  They  re- 
mained there  four  months,  were  then  expelled  from 
the  Roman  Republic  and  retired  to  Parma,  where 
many  of  the  former  Jesuits  had  established  them- 
selves under  the  protection  of  the  duke.  Father 
Halnat,  having  learned  of  the  existence  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  Fathers,  suggested  to  Paccanari  the  idea  of 
one  foundation  for  the  two  institutes  devoted  to  the 
same  object.  Negotiations  were  opened,  but  were  in- 
terrupted by  the  imprisonment  of  Paccanari,  and  were 
resumed  in  1799.  The  founder  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
Faith,  after  a  visit  to  Pius  VI  who  heartily  encour- 
aged his  project,  repaired  to  Vienna.  The  society 
numbered  about  a  score  of  members,  only  three  of 
them  priests.  It  had  at  first  been  well  received  by 
the  Jesuits  of  Parma  and  of  Venice,  but  its  leader's 
lukewarmness  towards  the  idea  of  union  with  the 
Jesuits  of  Russia  rendered  it  suspect  to  those  re- 
ligious. 

Fusion  with  the  French  community  at  Hagenbriinn 
therefore  offered  the  only  opportunity  for  its  devel- 
opment. Conferences  were  inaugurated  at  Hagen- 
briinn, 9  April,  1799,  and  lasted  nine  days.  Father 
Sineo  della  Torre,  one  of  the  Sacred  Heart  Fathers, 
acting  as  interpreter  between  Father  Varin  and 
Paccanari,  who  knew  neither  French  nor  Latin.  The 
encouragement  given  by  Pius  VI  was  accepted  by 


the  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  as  a  command,  and 
their  already  numerous  congregation  allowed  itself 
to  be  absorbed  by  Paccanari's  little  society.  On 
18  April,  Paccanari,  still  only  a  tonsured  cleric,  was 
received  as  superior-general,  and  the  name  Fathers 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  was  changed  to  that  of  Fathers 
of  the  Faith.  The  general,  deeming  the  manner  of 
life  of  the  Hagenbriinn  Fathers  too  austere  and  too 
confined,  shortened  their  hours  of  prayer,  increased 
the  time  devoted  to  studies  and  recreation,  and 
launched  his  subjects  on  the  external  life  and  the 
work  of  preaching.  Having  been  introduced  by 
Father  Varin  to  the  Archduchess  Maria  Anna,  Pac- 
canari gained  an  extraordinary  ascendency  over  that 
princess,  through  whose  good  offices  he  received  minor 
orders,  the  subdiaconate,  and  the  diaconate  from  the 
hands  of  the  nuncio  at  Vienna. 

At  the  request  of  his  new  subjects,  who  were  al- 
ready beginning  to  be  uneasy  about  his  tendencies, 
he  gave  out  (11  Aug.,  1799)  a  somewhat  vague  state- 
ment of  his  intentions  in  regard  to  the  original  Jesuits. 
At  last  he  left  Germany,  but  only  after  distributing 
his  men  among  the  different  countries  of  Western 
Europe.  A  college  was  opened  at  Dillingen,  a  foun- 
dation which  lasted  five  or  six  years  was  made  at 
Amsterdam,  and  Fathers  Rozaven  and  de  Broglie 
with  some  scholastics  set  out  for  England,  where, 
in  March,  1800,  they  opened  a  boarding-school 
at  Kensington.  Paccanari  himself,  returning  to 
Italy,  established  a  novitiate  at  Cremona,  then  at 
Este. 

He  scattered  many  of  his  religious  among  the  hos- 
pitals— at  that  time  overcrowded  with  wounded 
soldiers — in  Italy  and  Germany.  In  the  midst  of 
his  labours  he  was  ordained  priest  at  Padua,  and 
soon  after  this  he  received  from  the  new  pope,  Pius 
VII,  permission  to  have  a  house  at  Rome.  The  Arch- 
duchess Maria  Anna  bought  from  the  Theatinea 
the  Church  of  St.  Sylvester,  with  its  convent  and 
gardens,  at  Monte-Cavallo;  and  in  1801  the  pope 
in  person  came  to  install  the  Fathers  there.  In  the 
month  of  August,  1802,  the  first  congregation  was 
held;  with  some  temporary  modifications,  the  old 
constitution  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  was  adopted. 
In  1803  and  1804  Paccanari  summoned  to  the  College 
of  St.  Sylvester  the  young  rchgious  of  the  society, 
and  the  courses  in  philosophy  and  theology,  as  well 
as  the  solemn  theses,  of  this  house  of  studies  shed 
great  lustre  upon  the  nascent  order.  At  that  time 
there  were  110  religious  at  St.  Sylvester.  In  the 
beginning  of  1804,  again  under  the  archduchess's 
patronage,  the  Salviati  Palace,  near  St.  Peter's,  was 
opened  as  a  boarding-school  for  young  nobles,  the 
institution  being  named,  after  its  benefactress,  the 
"Collcgio  Mariano". 

Throughout  Italy,  but  particularly  at  Spoleto,  the 
Paccanarists  gave  missions  with  great  success.  In 
Nov.,  1805,  the  Council  of  the  Repubhc  of  Le  Valaia 
offered  Paccanari  the  College  of  Sion,  which  was 
accepted.  To  Father  Varin  France  had  been  assigned 
as  the  field  of  his  apostolate;  he  returned  thither  in 
the  spring  of  1800  and  began  by  preaching  to  the  sick 
in  the  hospitals  of  Bicetre  and  la  Salpetriere.  It  was 
at  this  time  that,  with  Blessed  Sophie  Barat,  he  es- 
tablished the  Society  of  the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  (21  Nov.,  1800).  The  Fathers  of  the  Faith 
rapidly  increased  in  number;  in  1801  they  were  able 
to  open  at  Lyons  a  boarding-school,  which  was  trans- 
ferred in  the  following  year  to  the  old  Jesuit  college 
at  Belley.  Lamartine  was  educated  there.  Another 
school  was  established  in  1802  at  Amiens,  and  then 
another  at  Roanne  in  1804.  These  foundations 
aroused  the  suspicions  both  of  Fouche,  the  minister 
of  pohce,  and  of  Napoleon;  but  Portalis  and,  still 
more.  Cardinal  Fesch  quieted  them  for  a  time.  Mis- 
sions were  preached  with  brilliant  success;  at  the 
first  mission,  at  Tours,  the  extraordinary  power  which 


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308 


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Father  Enfantin  exercised  over  the  crowds  was 
unexpectedly  revealed;  at  the  second,  at  Amiens, 
more  than  six  hundred  marriages  were  rehabili- 
tated. 

Meanwhile  Paccanari's  administration,  his  taste 
for  display,  his  festivals,  and  the  premature  thrusting 
of  his  subjects  into  pubUcity  displeased  the  Fathers 
of  the  Faith.  Besides,  Father  Kozaven,  the  provin- 
cial of  England,  who  had  learned  in  1S02  certain 
un.savoury  details  of  the  general's  private  hfe,  pur- 
sued his '  inquiries,  and,  having  attained  certainty, 
visited  Rome  in  1803  to  communicate  the  melan- 
choly facts  to  Pius  VII.  During  his  absence  most 
of  his  brethren  in  London  UTOte  to  Father  Griiber, 
the  Vicar-General  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  Russia, 
to  obtain  admission  individually.  Father  Rozaven 
on  his  return  to  England  imitated  their  example, 
and  in  March,  1804,  he  set  out  for  Russia.  Only 
Father  Charles  de  Broghe  remained  in  London,  as  a 
secular  priest;  he  broke  with  his  former  friends, 
allied  himself  closely  with  the  anti-concordataire 
bishop?,  and  persisted  in  his  protestations  against 
the  act  of  Pius  VII  as  late  as  1842.  Father  Varin, 
apprised  of  the  course  of  events  by  Father  Rozaven, 
referred  the  matter  to  the  cardinal-legate  in  France, 
and  on  21  June,  1804,  broke  with  Paccanari.  His 
society,  having  become  independent,  remained  in 
France  on  the  advice  of  the  legate  and  of  Pius  VII 
himself.  It  flourished  in  that  country'  until  1807; 
missions  were  given  at  Grenoble,  Poitiers,  Niort, 
Bordeaux,  and  elsewhere;  seminaries  were  opened 
at  Roulers  (Gand),  Marvejols  (Mende),  Bazas 
(Bordeaux),  and  a  college  at  Argentiere  (Lyons). 
This  progress  alarmed  Fouche;  Napoleon  issued  an 
order  for  the  suppression  of  the  congregation,  which 
wa-s  executed  in  Nov.,  1807;  the  connivance  of 
local  authorities  enabled  it  to  continue  the  work 
of  the  seminaries,  but  its  missions  were  stopped. 
Many  of  the  Fathers  entered  the  parochial  minis- 
try. 

In  August,  1806,  Father  Sineo  della  Torre  and  the 
Fathers  in  Switzerland  in  their  turn  abandoned  Pac- 
canari. In  1810  they  were  received  as  a  body  into 
the  Societj'  of  Jesus,  though  only  in  joro  interno, 
the  official  aggregation  not  taking  place  until  1814. 
Also  about  the  year  1806  some  of  the  Fathers  of  Spo- 
leto,  Padua,  Lombardy,  and  Amsterdam  seceded. 
The  Society  of  Jesus  having  been  restored  at  Naples 
by  Pius  VII  (31  July,  1804),  many  Fathers  of  the 
Collegio  Mariano  went  there  and  were  admitted  as 
novices. 

In  July,  1807,  Paccanari  received  positive  commands 
from  the  pope  to  retire  to  Spoleto.  A  first  canonical 
process  was  begun  during  the  winter.  Relegated  to 
the  convent  of  the  Franciscans  at  Assisi,  the  general 
made  a  confession  of  his  whole  hfe  and  appeared 
penitent.  At  the  end  of  five  months  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  prisons  of  the  Holy  Office.  A  new  trial 
resulted,  in  August,  1806,  in  a  sentence  of  ten  years' 
imprisonment.  The  sentence  paid  a  tribute  to  the 
innocence  and  virtue  of  the  other  Fathers  of  the  Faith; 
nevertheless  it  was  the  annihilation  of  their  soceity. 
In  1809,  when  the  French  army  opened  the  pontif- 
ical pri.sons,  Paccanari  at  first  refused  to  go  out,  but 
eventually  left  and  disappeared.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  he  withdr(;w  to  Switzerland  under  an  as- 
sumed name,  as  sfjme  have  asserted,  or  whether, 
under  homv  regrettable  circumstances,  he  was  stabbed 
by  a  domejitic  servant  and  his  body  thrown  into  the 
Tiber,  as  another  traxlition  has  it.  No  one  knows 
what  his  end  was. 

The  Archduchess  Maria  Anna,  who,  in  spite  of  the 
commands  of  her  brother  the  Emperor  Leopold,  had 
at  first  refusfxJ  to  abandon  Paccanari  and  his  work, 
was  obliged  to  submit,  overcome  by  the  miserable 
life  which  her  brother  allowed  her  to  live  and  the 
shame  of  her  condemnation.     She  retired  to  Styria 


to  die  a  holy  death.  She  obtained  permission  for 
the  last  remnants  of  the  Paccanarists  to  live,  though 
without  the  religious  habit,  in  the  house  of  St.  Syl- 
vester. The  Collegio  Mariano  was  sold,  and  in  1814 
most  of  the  Paccanarists  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus. 

As  for  the  French  Fathers,  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
enabled  them  to  meet  in  Paris  and  deliberate  as 
to  what  course  they  should  take.  Father  de  Clor- 
iviere,  one  of  the  old  Jesuits,  and  Monsignori  di  Gre- 
gorio  and  della  Genga  (the  latter  afterwards  Leo 
XII),  the  pope's  representatives,  advised  them  to 
remain  in  France.  Father  Varin,  however,  had  al- 
ready set  out  for  Russia  to  ask  the  general  to  appoint 
a  commissary  to  re-establish  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
France,  when  the  commission  was  given  to  Father 
Cloriviere  himself.  Father  Varin  was  received  by 
him  into  the  Society  on  19  July,  1814.  Nearly  all 
the  former  Fathers  of  the  Faith  followed  him;  the 
rest  remaining  among  the  secular  clergy. 

GuiD^E,  Vie  du  p.  Joseph  Varin  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1860);  Idem, 
Notices  hist,  sur  quelgues  membres  de  la  Soc.  des  Peres  du  Sacri- 
Coeur  et  de  la  C.  de  J.  (Paris,  1860) ;  Speil,  Leonor  v.  Tournely  u. 
die  Gesellschaft  des  hi.  Herzens  Jesu  (Breslau,  1874). 

Marc  Dubruel. 

Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  Congrega- 
tion OF  THE,  AND  OF  THE  PERPETUAL  ADORATION  OP 

THE  Blessed  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  better  known 
as  the  Congregation  of  Picpus,  was  founded  by 
Father  Coudrin,  b.  at  Coursay-les-Bois,  in  Poiton  on 
1  March,  1768.  He  was  only  deacon  when  the  perse- 
cution, directed  against  the  clergy,  dispersed  the  stu- 
dents of  the  seminary  of  Poitiers,  where  he  was  being 
trained.  Having  learned  that  Mgr  de  Bonald,  Bishop 
of  Clermont,  was  in  Paris  and  would  confer  Holy 
Orders  upon  him,  he  set  out  for  that  city,  and  on  4 
March,  1792,  was  ordained  priest  in  the  Irish  Sem- 
inary. The  ordination  took  place  in  the  library,  be- 
cause the  revolutionaries  had  invaded  the  chapel  in 
which  they  were  actually  holding  their  meetings. 
After  ordination  he  returned  to  Coursay,  but  the 
violence  of  the  persecution  soon  compelled  him  to  hide 
elsewhere.  During  October  of  the  same  year,  dis- 
guised, he  laboured  in  the  Dioceses  of  Poitiers  and 
Tours. 

Father  Coudrin  gathered  around  him  a  few  com- 
panions, to  whom  he  communicated  his  views  to 
promote  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and 
of  Mary,  and  who  were  also  willing  to  assist  him  in 
his  great  work.  On  Christmas  night,  1800,  he  sol- 
emnly made  his  religious  vows,  tlevoting  himself 
entirely  to  the  love  of  the  Sacred  Hearts.  During  the 
year  180.5  Father  Coudrin  bought  some  dilapidated 
houses  in  the  Rue  Picpus  in  Paris,  and  there  estab- 
lished himself  with  a  few  of  his  religious.  A  college 
for  the  training  of  youths  and  a  seminary  were 
soon  started.  "The  Good  Father",  as  his  religious 
used  to  call  him,  governed  his  congregation  with 
tact  and  prudence,  and  in  spite  of  many  difficul- 
ties, his  work  prospered.  Several  new  monasteries 
and  colleges  were  founded  and  opened  in  various 
towns. 

In  182.5  the  evangelization  of  the  Sandwich  Islands 
in  the  I'acific  Occiui  was  entrusted  by  the  Holy  Sec  to 
the  (>)iigr('gati()n  of  the  Sacred  Hearts,  and  tin' follow- 
ing year  the  first  band  of  missionaries  of  the  Sacred 
Hearts  left  France  to  carry  tlic  I''aitli  to  the  inhabi- 
tants. In  1833  the  Archipelagos  of  Orient.al  Occanica 
were  likewise  confided  to  the  same  Congregation  and 
immediately  missionaries  were  sent  to  the  (Jambier 
Islands;  some  of  these  fathers  established  hou.ses  of 
the  congregation  in  Peru  and  Chile,  South  America. 
Not  long  afterwards  other  evangelical  labourers  were 
sent  to  the  Marquesa  Islands  at  the  death  of  the 
founder  in  1837.  The  perpetual  adoration  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  was  made  day  and  night  in  nineteen 


SACRIFICE 


309 


SACRIFICE 


houses,  while  several  other  houses  had  also  been 
founded  abroad. 

In  1817  it  was  formally  approved  by  Pius  VII,  in 
1825  by  Leo  XII,  and  in  1840  by  Gregory  XVI,  under 
the  name  of  Congregation  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of 
Jesus  and  Mary  and  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration  of  the 
Most  Holy  Sacrament  of  the  Altar.  Its  special  aim 
is  to  honour  and  imitate  the  four  ages  of  our  Lord: 
His  infancy  by  the  instruction  of  children,  and  by  the 
formation  of  youths  for  the  priesthood;  His  hidden 
life  by  the  exercise  of  the  Adoration;  His  pubhc  life, 
by  preaching  and  by  missionary  work;  His  crucified 
life  by  the  works  of  Christian  mortification.  At  the 
present  day  the  missions  confided  to  the  Congregation 
of  the  Sacred  Hearts  comprise  three  Apostolic  Vicar- 
iates: the  Tahiti  Islands,  Marquesa  Islands,  and  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  where  Father  Damien  fell  a  victim 
to  his  humble  and  generous  devotion  for  the  poor 
lepers  of  Molokai.  The  Congregation  of  the  Sacred 
Hearts,  which  depends  directly  upon  the  Propaganda, 
is  governed  by  a  Superior  General,  who  is  elected  for 
life.  The  members  make  p(>rp(>tual  but  simple  vows 
after  a  probation  of  eighteen  montlis'  novitiate.  In  1898 
the  Congregation  was  divided  into  tliree  provinces. 
The  Belgian  province,  under  wliich  England  and  the 
United  States  of  America  are  ('(jinpriscd,  has  a  novi- 
tiate and  a  house  of  studies  at  Courtray.  The  pro- 
vincial has  his  residence  in  the  monastery  of  the 
Sacred  Hearts  in  Louvain,  Mount  St.  Antoine, 
Belgium.  The  superior  in  England  is  in  the  Damien 
house  of  Eccleshall  in  Staffordshire;  in  the  United 
States  in  the  monastery  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  at  Fair- 
haven  in  Massachusetts. 

Heimbuchkr,  Die  Orden  u.  Kongregationen  (2nd  ed.,  Pader- 
born,   1908),  471. 

William  De  Broeck. 

Sacrifice  (Lat.  sacrificium;  Ital.  sacrificio;  French 
sacrifice). — This  term  is  identical  with  the  English 
offering  (Latin  offerre)  and  the  German  Opfer;  the 
latter  is  derived,  not  from  offerre,  but  from  operari 
(Old  High  German  opfdron ;  Middle  High  German 
opperu,  opparon),  and  thus  means  "to  do  zealously,  to 
serve  God,  to  offer  sacrifice"  (cf.  Kluge  "Etymolo- 
gisches  Worterbuch  der  deutschen  Sprache",  Strass- 
burg,  1899,  p.  288).  By  sacrifice  in  the  real  sense  is 
universally  understood  the  offering  of  a  sense-per- 
ceptible gift  to  the  Deity  as  an  outward  manifestation 
of  our  veneration  for  Him  and  with  tlie  object  of  at- 
taining communion  with  Him.  Strictly  speaking, 
however,  this  offering  does  not  become  a  sacrifice  until 
a  real  change  has  been  effected  in  the  visible  gift 
(e.  g.  by  slaying  it,  shedding  its  blood,  burning  it,  or 
pouring  it  out).  As  the  meaning  and  importance  of 
Bacrifice  cannot  be  established  by  a  priori  methods, 
every  admissible  theory  of  sacrifice  must  shape  itself 
in  accordance  with  the  sacrificial  systems  of  the  pagan 
nations,  and  especially  with  those  of  the  revealed  re- 
ligions, Judaism  and  Christianity.  Pure  Buddhism, 
Mohammedanism,  and  Protestantism  here  call  for  no 
attention,  as  they  have  no  real  sacrifice;  apart  from 
these  there  is  and  has  been  no  developed  religion 
which  has  not  accepted  sacrifice  as  an  essential  por- 
tion of  its  cult.  We  shall  consider  successively:  I. 
Pagan  Sacrifice;  II.  Jewish  Sacrifice;  III.  Christian 
Sacrifice;  IV.  Theory  of  Sacrifice. 

I.  Pagan  Sacrifice. — (1)  Among  the  Indians. — 
The  Vedism  of  the  ancient  Indies  was,  to  an  extent 
never  elsewhere  attained,  a  sacrificial  religion  con- 
nected with  the  deities  Agni  and  Soma.  A  Vedic 
proverb  runs:  "Sacrifice  is  the  navel  of  the  world". 
Originally  regarded  as  a  feast  for  the  gods,  before 
whom  food-offerings  (cakes,  milk,  butter,  meat,  and 
the  soma  drink)  were  set  on  the  holy  grass  before  the 
altar,  sacrifice  gradually  became  a  magical  agency 
for  influencing  the  gods,  such  as  might  be  expressed 
in  the  formula,  "  Do  ut  des",  or  in  the  Vedic  proverb: 
"Here  is  the  butter;  where  are  thy  gifts? "     The  Ve- 


dic sacrificial  prayers  express  no  spirit  of  humility  or 
submission;  even  the  word  "thank"  is  unknown  in 
the  Vedic  language.  The  gods  thus  sank  to  the  level 
of  mere  seVvants  of  man,  while  the  high-priests  or 
Brahmins  entrusted  with  the  complicated  rites  gradu- 
ally acquii-ed  an  almost  divine  dignity.  In  their 
hands  the  sacrificial  ceremonial,  developed  to  the  e.x- 
tremest  detail,  became  an  irresistible  power  over  the 
gods.  A  proverb  says:  "The  sacrificer  hunts  Indra 
like  game,  and  holds  him  fast  as  the  fowler  does  the 
bird;  the  god  is  a  wheel  which  the  singer  understands 
how  to  turn."  The  gods  derive  their  whole  might 
and  power  from  the  sacrifice  as  the  condition  of  their 
existence,  so  that  the  Brahmins  are  indispensable  for 
their  continued  existence. 

However,  that  the  feods  w  ere  not  entirely  indifferent 
to  man,  but  gave  him  their  assistance,  is  proved 
among  other  things  by  the  serious  expiatory  char- 
acter which  was  not  quite  eliminated  from  the  Vedic 
sacrifices.  The  actual  offering  of  the  sacrifices,  which 
was  never  effected  without  fire,  took  place  either  in  the 
houses  or  in  the  open  air;  temples  were  unknown. 
Among  the  various  sacrifices  two  were  conspicuous: 
the  snnm  offering  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  horse.  The 
offering  of  t  he  ^oma  (Agnistotna) — a  nectar  obtained  by 
the  pressing  of  some  plants — took  place  in  the  spring; 
the  sacrifice  lasted  an  entire  day,  and  was  a  universal 
holiday  for  the  people.  The  triple  pressing  of  the 
soma,  performed  at  certain  intervals  during  the  day, 
alternated  with  the  offering  of  sacrificial  cakes,  liba- 
tions of  milk,  and  the  sacrifice  of  eleven  he-goats  to 
various  gods.  The  gods  (especially  Indra)  were  eager 
for  the  intoxicating  soma  drink:  "As  the  ox  bellows 
after  the  rain,  so  does  Indra  desire  the  soma."  The 
sacrifice  of  the  horse  {agvamedha),  executed  at  the 
command  of  the  king  and  participated  in  by  the 
whole  people,  required  a  whole  year's  prepara- 
tion. 

It  was  the  acme,  "the  king  of  the  sacrifices",  the 
solemnities  lasting  three  days  and  being  accompanied 
by  all  kinds  of  public  amusements.  The  idea  of  this 
sacrifice  was  to  provide  the  gods  of  light  with  another 
steed  for  their  heavenly  yoke.  At  first,  instead  of  the 
sacrifice  of  the  horse,  human  sacrifice  seems  to  have 
been  in  vogue,  so  that  here  also  the  idea  of  substitu- 
tion found  expression.  For  the  later  Indians  had  a 
saying:  "At  first  the  gods  indeed  accepted  men  as 
sacrificial  victims.  Then  the  sacrificial  efficacy  passed 
from  them  to  the  horse.  The  horse  thus  became  effi- 
cacious. They  accepted  the  horse,  but  the  sacrificial 
efficacy  went  to  the  steer,  sheep,  goat,  and  finally  to 
rice  and  barley:  Thus  for  the  instructed  a  sacrificial 
cake  made  of  rice  and  barley  is  of  the  same  value  as 
these  [five]  animals"  (cf.  Hardy,  "Die  vedisch-brah- 
manische  Periode  der  Religion  des  alten  Indiens", 
Munster,  1892,  p.  150).  Modern  Hinduism  with  its 
numberless  sects  honours  Vishnu  and  Shiva  as  chief 
deities.  As  a  cult  it  is  distinguished  from  ancient 
Vedism  mainly  by  its  temple  service.  The  Hindu 
temples  are  usually  artistic  and  magnificent  edifices 
with  numerous  courts,  chapels,  and  halls,  in  which 
repres(>ntations  of  gods  and  idols  are  exposed.  The 
smaller  i)agodas  serve  the  same  purpose.  Although 
the  Hindu  religion  centres  in  its  idolatry,  sacrifice  has 
not  been  completely  evicted  from  its  old  place.  The 
symbol  of  Shiva  is  the  phallus  {linga);  linga  stones 
are  indeed  met  throughout  India  (especially  in  the 
holy  places)  in  extraordinary  numbers.  The  darker 
shades  of  this  superstition,  degenerated  into  fetichism, 
are  somewhat  relieved  by  the  piety  and  elevation 
of  many  Hindu  hymns  or  songs  of  praise  {stolras), 
which  surpass  even  the  old  Vedic  hymns  in  religious 
feeling. 

(2)  Among  the  Iranians. — The  kindred  religion 
of  the  ancient  Iranians  centres,  especially  after  its 
reform  by  Zoroaster,  in  the  service  of  the  true  god 
Ormuzd  (Ahura  Mazda),  whose  will  is  the  right  and 


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310 


SACRIFICE 


whose  kingdom  is  the  good.  This  ethically  very 
elevated  religion  promotes  especially  a  life  of  purity, 
the  conscientious  fulfilment  of  all  liturgical  and 
moral  precepts,  and  the  positive  renunciation  of  the 
Devil  and  all  demoniacal  powers.  If  the  ancient 
Indian  religion  was  essentially  a  religion  of  sacrifice, 
this  religion  of  the  ancient  Persians  maj-  be  described 
as  a  religion  of  observance.  Inasmuch  as,  in  the 
old  Avesta  (q.  v.),  the  sacred  book  of  the  Persians, 
the  war  between  the  good  god  Ormuzd  and  the 
Devil  ends  eschatologically  with  the  complete  victory 
of  the  good  god,  we  ma}-  designate  the  earliest  Par- 
seeism  as  Monotheism.  However,  the  theological 
Dualism  taught  in  the  later  Avesta,  where  the  wicked 
anti-god  Ahriman  is  opposed  to  the  good  god  Ormuzd 
as  an  absolute  principle,  is  already  foreshadowed  and 
prepared  for  in  manj^  didactic  poems  (gdlhas)  of  the 
old  Avesta.  Sacrifice  and  prayer  are  intended  to 
paralyze  the  diabolical  machinations  of  Ahriman  and 
liis  demons.  The  central  feature  of  the  Avestic 
divine  ser\nce  was  the  worship  of  fire,  a  worship, 
however,  unconnected  with  special  fire-temples. 
Like  the  modern  Mobeds  in  India,  the  priests  car- 
ried portable  altars  with  them,  and  could  thus  offer 
sacrifice  everywhere.  Special  fire-tempIes  were,  how- 
ever, early  erected,  in  which  five  times  daily  the 
priests  entered  the  sacred  fire-chamber  to  tend  the 
fire  in  a  metal  vessel,  usually  fed  with  odoriferous 
wood.  In  a  roomy  antechamber  the  intoxicating 
haoma  (the  counterpart  of  the  Indian  soma  drink) 
was  brewed,  the  holy  water  prepared,  and  the  sacri- 
fice of  flesh  {myazda)  and  cakes  (darun)  ofTered  to  the 
gods.  The  precious  haoma,  the  drink  of  immor- 
tality, not  only  conduced  in  the  case  of  mankind  to 
eternal  Ufe,  but  was  likewise  a  drink  for  the  gods 
themselves.  In  the  later  Avesta  this  drink,  origi- 
nally onh-  a  medium  of  cult,  was  formally  deified, 
and  identified  with  the  divinity;  nay  even  the  very 
vessels  used  in  the  fabrication  of  this  drink  from  the 
liaoma  branches  were  celebrated  and  adored  in 
hj-mns  of  praise.  Worthy  of  mention  also  are  the 
sacrificial  twigs  {baresman,  later  barsom),  which  were 
used  as  praying  twigs  or  magical  wands  and  solemnly 
stretched  out  in  the  hand.  After  the  reduction  of 
the  kingdom  of  the  Sassanids  by  the  Arabians  (a.  d. 
642)  the  Persian  religion  was  doomed  to  decay, 
and  the  vast  majority  of  its  followers  fell  away  into 
Islamism.  Besides  some  small  remnants  in  modern 
Persia,  large  communities  still  exist  on  the  west  coast 
of  India,  in  Guzerat  and  Bombay,  whither  many  Par- 
sees  then  immigrated. 

(3 J  Among  the  Greeks. — The  universal  religion 
of  ancient  Greece  was  a  gla<l  and  joyous  Polytheism 
most  closely  connected  with  civic  life.  Even  the 
ancient  Amphictyonic  Council  was  a  confederacy  of 
statf«  with  the  object  of  maintaining  in  common  a 
certain  shrine.  The  object  of  the  religious  functions, 
whir."h  consisted  in  prayer,  sacrifice,  and  votive  offer- 
ings, was  the  winning  of  the  favour  and  assistance 
of  the  gods,  which  were  always  received  with  feel- 
ings of  awe  and  gratitude.  The  sacrificial  offerings, 
bloody  and  unbloody,  were  generally  taken  from 
articles  of  human  food;  to  the  gods  above  pastry, 
Ba<^-rificial  cakes,  pap,  fruits,  and  wine  were  offered, 
but  to  the  nether  gods,  cakes  of  honey  and,  as  a  drink, 
a  mixture  of  milk,  honey,  and  water.  The  sacrifi- 
cial consficration  often  consisted  merely  in  th(!  exyw- 
sition  of  the  foods  in  fKjts  on  the  roadsides  or  on  the 
funeral  mounfls  with  the  idea  of  entertaining  the 
gods  or  the  dea^l.  I'sually  a  jMjrtion  was  retained 
wherewith  to  solemnize  a  sacrificial  feast  in  union 
with  the  gods;  of  the  sacrifices  to  the  nether  gods  in 
Ha/les,  however,  nothing  was  retained.  Great 
banquets  of  the  gods  (Otok^vLa)  were  well  known  to 
the  Greeks  as  were  the  Leotislernia  to  the  Ilomans. 
As  a  rule,  however,  the  8a/Tificc«  were  burned  on  the 
altar,  at  times  as  holocausts.     Idccdsc  was  added  as 


a  subsidiary  offering  with  most  sacrifices,  although 
there  were  also  special  offerings  of  incense.  The 
offerer  of  sacrifice  wore  clean  clothes  and  chaplets 
around  his  head,  sprinkled  his  hands  and  the  altar 
with  holy  water,  and  strewed  with  solemn  prayers 
sacrificial  meal  over  the  heads  of  the  victims  (pigs, 
goats,  and  cocks).  Flutes  were  played  while  the 
victim  was  being  slain,  and  the  blood  w;is  allowed 
to  drop  through  holes  into  the  sacrificial  trenches. 
The  meritoriousness  of  the  sacrifice  was  regarded  as 
to  a  great  extent  dependent  on  its  costliness.  The 
horns  of  the  victims  were  gilded,  and  on  great  festi- 
vals whole  hecatombs  were  slain;  sacrifices  of  twelve, 
and  especially  of  three  victims  {rpiTTijes)  were  the  most 
usual.  In  times  of  great  affliction  human  sacrifices 
were  offered  even  down  to  the  historical  era.  The 
sacrifice  was  the  centre  of  the  Greek  cult,  and  no 
meal  was  partaken  of  until  a  libation  of  the  wine 
about  to  be  consumed  was  poured  out  to  the  gods. 
Among  the  characteristic  peculiarities  of  the  Greek 
religion  may  be  mentioned  the  votive  offerings 
(dvaOriuaTa),  which  (besides  firstlings,  tithes,  votive 
tablets,  and  objects  of  value)  consisted  chiefly  of  chap- 
lets,  cauldrons,  and  the  popular  tripods  {Tpiir65es). 
The  number  of  the  votive  offerings,  which  were  fre- 
quently hung  up  on  the  sacred  oaks,  grew  in  time 
so  immeasurabl}'  that  various  states  erected  their 
special  treasuries  at  Olympia  and  Delphi. 

(4)  Among  the  Romans. — To  a  still  greater  extent 
than  among  the  Greeks  was  religion  and  the  whole 
sacrificial  system  a  business  of  the  state  among  the 
ancient  Romans.  Furthermore,  no  other  people 
of  antiquity  developed  Polytheism  to  such  extremes. 
Peopling  the  world  with  gods,  genii,  and  lares,  they 
placed  almost  every  action  and  condition  under  a 
speciallj'-conceived  deity  (god  or  goddess).  The 
calendar  prepared  by  the  pontifices  gave  the  Romans 
detailed  information  as  to  how  they  should  conduct 
themselves  with  respect  to  the  gods  throughout  the 
year.  The  object  of  sacrifice  was  to  win  the  favour 
of  the  gods  and  to  ward  off  their  sinister  influence. 
Sacrifices  of  atonement  (piacida)  for  perpetrated 
crimes  and  past  errors  were  also  scheduled.  In  the 
earliest  times  the  ancient  Indo-Germanic  sacrifice  of 
the  horse,  and  also  sacrifices  of  sheep,  pigs,  and  oxen 
were  known.  That  human  sacrifices  must  have  been 
once  usual  may  be  concluded  from  certain  customs 
of  a  later  period  (e.  g.  from  the  projection  of  straw 
puppets  into  the  Tiber  and  the  hanging  of  woollen 
puppets  at  the  crossways  and  on  the  doors  of  the 
houses).  Under  the  empire  various  foreign  cults 
were  introduced,  such  as  the  veneration  of  the  Egyp- 
tian deities  Isis  and  Osiris,  the  Syrian  Astarte,  the 
Phrygian  goddess  Cybele,  etc.  The;  Roman  Pan- 
theon united  in  peace  the  most  incongruous  deities 
from  every  land.  Finally,  however,  no  cult  was  so 
popular  as  that  of  the  Indo-lranian  Light-god  Mithra, 
to  whom  especially  the  soldiers  and  officials  of  the 
empire,  even  in  such  distant  i)laces  as  the  Danube 
and  the  Rhine,  offered  their  sacrifices.  In  honour 
of  the  steer-killing  Mithra  the  so-called  taurobolia 
were  introduced  from  the  East;  by  laurobolium  is 
meant  the  loathsome  ceremony  wherein  the  wor- 
shippers of  Mithra  let  the  warm  blood  of  a  just- 
slaughtered  steer  flow  over  their  naked  backs  as  they 
lay  in  a  trench  with  the  idea  of  attaining  thereby 
not  only  physical  strength,  but  also  mental  renewal 
and  regeneration. 

(.5)  Among  the  Chinese. — The  religion  of  the 
Chinese,  a  peculiar  mixture  of  nature  and  ancestor- 
worship,  is  indi.ssolubly  connected  with  the  consti- 
tution of  the  state.  The  oldest  Sinism  was  a  perfect 
Moriotlx'ism.  However,  we  arc  best  acquainted 
with  th(;  Chincise  sacrificial  system  in  the  form  which 
was  giv(;n  it  by  the  great  reformer,  Confucius  (sixth 
century  before  Christ),  and  which  it  has  retained 
practically  unaltered  after  more  than  two  thousand 


SACRIFICE 


311 


SACRIFICE 


years.  As  the  "Son  of  Heaven"  and  the  head  of 
the  State  religion,  the  Emperor  of  China  is  also  the 
high-priest  who  alone  may  offer  sacrifice  to  heaven. 
The  chief  sacrifice  takes  place  annually  during  the 
night  of  the  winter  solstice  on  the  "altar  of  heaven" 
in  the  southern  section  of  Peking.  On  the  highest 
terrace  of  this  altar  stands  a  wooden  table  as  the 
symbol  of  the  soul  of  the  god  of  heaven ;  there  are  in 
addition  many  other  "soul  tables"  (of  the  sun,  moon, 
stars,  clouds,  wind,  etc.),  including  those  of  the  ten 
immediate  predecessors  of  the  emperor.  Before 
every  table  are  set  sacrificial  offerings  of  soup,  flesh, 
vegetables,  etc.  To  the  ancestors  of  the  emperor, 
as  well  as  to  the  sun  and  moon,  a  slaughtered  ox  is 
offered;  to  the  planets  and  the  stars  a  calf,  a  sheep, 
and  a  pig.  Meanwhile,  on  a  pyre  to  the  south-east 
of  the  altar,  a  sacrifice  of  an  ox  lies  ready  to  be  burned 
to  the  highest  god  of  heaven.  While  the  ox  is  being 
consumed,  the  emperor  offers  to  the  soul-table  of 
heaven  and  the  tables  of  his  predecessors  a  staff  of 
incense,  silk,  and  some  meat  broth.  After  the  per- 
formance of  these  ceremonies,  all  the  articles  of  sac- 
rifice are  brought  to  special  furnaces  and  there  con- 
sumed. Similarly  the  emperor  sacrifices  to  the  earth 
at  the  northern  wall  of  Peking,  the  sacrificial  gifts 
being  in  this  case  not  burned,  but  buried.  The 
gods  of  the  soil  and  of  corn,  as  well  as  the  ancestors 
of  the  emperor,  have  also  their  special  places  and  days 
of  sacrifice.  Throughout  the  empire  the  emperor  is 
represented  in  the  sacrifices  by  his  state  officials.  In 
the  classical  book  of  ritual,  "Li-ki",  it  is  expressly 
stated:  "The  son  of  heaven  sacrifices  to  the  heaven 
and  the  earth;  the  vassals  to  the  gods  of  the  soil  and 
of  corn."  Besides  the  chief  sacrifices,  there  are  a 
number  of  others  of  the  second  or  third  rank,  which 
are  usually  performed  by  state  officials.  The  popu- 
lar religion  with  its  innumerable  images,  which  have 
their  special  temples,  is  undisgui.sed  idolatry. 

(6)  Among  the  Egyidian^. — The  ancient  religion 
of  the  Egyptians,  with  its  highly  developed  priest- 
hood and  its  equally  extensive  sacrificial  system, 
marks  the  transition  to  the  religion  of  the  Semites. 
The  EgjTDtian  temple  contained  a  dark  chapel  with 
the  image  of  the  deity;  before  it  was  a  pillared  hall, 
(hypostyle)  faintly  lit  by  a  small  window  under  the 
roof,  and  before  this  hall  a  spacious  court-yard, 
enclosed  by  a  circular  series  of  pillars.  The  ground- 
plan  proves  that  the  temple  was  not  used  either  for 
assemblies  of  the  people  or  as  the  residence  of  the 
priests,  but  was  intended  solely  for  the  preservation 
of  the  images  of  the  gods,  the  treasures,  and  the 
sacred  vessels.  To  the  sanctuary  proper  only  the 
priests  and  the  king  were  admitted.  The  sacrifices 
were  offered  in  the  great  court-yard,  where  also  the 
highly  popular  processions,  in  which  the  images  of 
the  gods  were  borne  in  a  ship,  took  place.  The 
rites  of  the  daily  service  of  the  temple,  the  move- 
ments, words,  and  prayers  of  the  officiating  priest, 
were  all  regulated  down  to  the  smallest  detail.  The 
image  of  the  god  was  entertained  daily  with  food  and 
drink,  which  were  placed  on  the  sacrificial  table. 
At  the  laying  of  the  foundation-stone  of  a  new  tem- 
ple human  sacrifices  were  offered,  being  abolished 
only  in  the  era  of  the  Ramassides;  a  trace  of  this 
repulsive  custom  survived  in  the  later  ceremony  of 
impressing  on  the  sacrificial  victim  a  seal  bearing  the 
image  of  a  man  in  chains  with  a  knife  in  his  throat. 
To  the  favourite  god  of  the  Egj-ptians,  Ammon-Ra, 
the  rulers  of  the  New  Empire  made  such  extraordinarily 
numerous  and  costly  votive  offerings  that  the  state 
became  almost  bankrupt.  The  Egj-ptian  religion, 
which  finally  developed  into  abominable  bestiolatry, 
fell  into  decay  with  the  destruction  of  the  Serapeum 
in  Alexandria  by  the  Eastern  Emperor,  Theodosius 
I  (391). 

(7)  Among  the  Semites. — Among  the  Semites  the 
Babylonians  and  Assyrians  deserve  first  mention. 


The  Babylonian  temple  contained  in  the  sanctuary 
the  image  of  the  god  to  whom  it  was  consecrated, 
and  in  adjoining  chambers  or  chapels  the  images  of 
the  other  gods.  The  Babylonian  priests  were  a 
private  caste,  the  mediators  between  the  gods  and 
man,  the  guardians  of  the  sacred  literature,  and  the 
teachers  of  the  sciences.  In  Assyria,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  king  was  the  high-priest,  and  offered  up 
sacrifice.  According  to  the  Babylonian  idea,  sac- 
rifice (libations,  offerings  of  foods,  bloody  sacrifices) 
is  the  due  tribute  of  mankind  to  the  gods,  and  is  as 
old  as  the  world;  sacrifices  are  the  banquets  of  the 
gods,  and  the  smoke  of  the  offerings  is  for  them  a 
fragrant  odour;  a  joyous  sacrificial  banquet  unites 
the  sacrificers  with  their  divine  guests.  Both  burnt 
and  aromatic  offerings  were  common  to  the  Baby- 
lonians and  the  Assyrians.  The  sacrificial  gifts 
included  wild  and  tame  animals,  fowl,  fish,  fruit, 
curds,  honey,  and  oil.  Sacrificial  animals  were 
usually  of  the  male  sex;  they  had  to  be  without 
defects,  strong  and  fat,  for  only  the  unblemished  is 
worthy  of  the  gods.  Only  in  the  rite  of  purification 
were  female  animals  allowed,  and  only  in  the  lesser 
ceremonies  defective  animals.  The  offering  of  bread 
on  tables  (showbread)  was  also  usual.  To  the  sac- 
rifices was  attributed  a  purifying  and  atoning  force, 
and  the  idea  of  substitution,  the  sacrificial  victim 
being  substituted  for  man,  was  clearly  expressed. 
In  the  Babylonian  penitential  psalms  especially,  the 
deep  consciousness  of  sin  and  guilt  often  finds  touch- 
ing expression.  Men  were  slain  only  with  lamenta- 
tions for  the  dead. 

The  demonstration  that  the  Chanaanites  origi- 
nally came  from  Arabia  (that  ancient  home  of  the 
races)  to  Palestine,  and  there  disseminated  the  cul- 
ture of  the  ancient  Arabians,  is  an  achievement  of 
modern  investigators.  While  the  Babylonian  reli- 
gion was  governcfl  by  the  course  of  the  stars  (astrol- 
ogy), the  s])ir:tuul  horizon  of  the  Chanaanites  was 
fixed  by  the  periodical  changes  of  dying  and  reawak- 
ening nature,  and  thus  depended  secondarily  on  the 
vivifying  influence  of  the  stars,  especially  of  the  sun 
and  the  moon.  Wherever  the  force  of  nature 
revealed  evidence  of  life,  there  the  deity  had  his  seat. 
At  fountains  and  rivers  temples  arose,  because  water 
brings  life  and  drought,  death.  Feeling  themselves 
nearest  to  the  deity  on  mountains,  hill-worship 
(mentioned  also  in  the  Old  Testament)  was  the  most 
popular  among  the  Chanaanites.  On  the  height 
stood  an  altar  with  an  oval  opening,  and  around  it 
was  made  a  channel  to  carry  off  the  blood  of  the 
sacrificial  victim.  To  the  cruel  god  Moloch  sacri- 
fices of  children  were  offered — a  horrible  custom 
against  which  the  Bible  so  sternly  inveighs.  The 
kindred  cult  of  the  Phoenicians  originated  in  a  low 
idea  of  the  deity,  which  inclined  towards  gloominess, 
cruelty,  and  voluptuousness.  We  need  only  men- 
tion the  worship  of  Baal  and  Astarte,  Phallism  and 
the  sacrifice  of  chastity,  the  sacrifice  of  men  and 
children,  which  the  civilized  Romans  vainly  strove 
to  abolish.  In  their  sacrificial  system  the  Phoe- 
nicians had  some  points  in  common  with  the  Israel- 
ites. The  "sacrificial  table  of  Marseilles",  which, 
like  the  similar  "sacrificial  table  of  Carthage",  was  ol 
Phoenician  origin,  mentions  as  sacrificial  victims, 
steers,  calves,  stags,  sheep,  she-goats,  lambs,  he- 
goats,  fawns,  and  fowl,  tame  and  wild.  Sick  or 
emaciated  animals  were  forbidden.  The  Phoenicians 
were  also  acquainted  with  holocausts  (kalil),  wfiich 
were  always  supplicatory  sacrifices,  and  partial 
offerings,  which  might  be  sacrifices  of  either  sup])li 
cation  or  thanks.  The  chief  efficacy  of  the  sacrifice 
of  men  and  animals  was  regarded  as  lying  m  the 
blood.  When  the  victim  was  not  entirely  consumed, 
the  sacrificers  participated  in  a  sacrificial  banquet  with 
music  and  dancing. 

Concerning  pagan  sacrifice  in  general  see  Cbeuzer,  SymboUk  u. 


SACRIFICE 


312 


SACRIFICE 


Mythologie  der  alten  Vdlker  (3rd  ed.,  Darmstadt.  1877);  Werneb, 
Die  Rfligionen  u.  Kulte  des  vorchristl.  Heidentums  (Ratisbon, 
1888) ;  VoLLERS,  Die  Weltreligionen  in  ihremgeschichtl.  Zusammen- 
hang  (Jena,  1909) ;  de  La  Sacssaye,  Lehrbuch  der  Religionsgesch. 
(2  vols.,  3rd  ed.,  Tubingen,  1905).  Concerning  the  sacrifices  of 
the  ancient  Indians  see  Muller,  llihberl  Lectures  on  the  Origin 
and  Growth  of  Religion  as  illuslraied  by  the  Religion  of  India  (Lon- 
don, 1878) ;  Lindner,  Die  Dtkshd  oder  die  Weihe  fUr  das  Somaop- 
fer  (1878);  Bebgaigse,  La  religion  vedigue  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1S7S- 
83);  Weber,  Zur  Kennlnis  des  retl.  OpferrituaU'm  Indisrhe  Stu- 
dien,  X  and  XIII;  Hillebrandt,  Das  aUind.  Neu-  u.  Volhnonds- 
op/cr  (1879);  lotiii,  RUual-Literatur,  ted.  Opfer  u.  Zaubcr  {1897); 
MciR,  Original  Sanscrit  Texts,  III-V  (London,  1890);  Hopkins, 
The  Religions  of  India  (London,  1893);  Hardy,  Die  vedisch- 
brahmanisehe  Periode  der  Religion  des  alien  Indiens  (1893);  Idem, 
Indische  Religion^gesch.  (1898);  Oldenberg,  Die  Religion  des 
Veda  0894);  Schwab,  Das  altindische  Tieropfer  (1896);  Mac- 
DONELL,  Vedic  Mythology  (1897) ;  Dahlmann,  Der  Idealismus  der 
indischen  Religionsphilos.  im  Zeitalter  der  Opfermystik  (Freiburg, 
1901);  RorssELL,  La  religion  rediqtie  (Paris,  1909).  Concern- 
ing Hinduism  consult:  Monier- Williams,  Brahmanism  and 
Hinduism  (London,  1891);  Guru  Prosad  Sen,  An  Introduction 
to  the  Study  of  Hinduism  (Calcutta,  1893) ;  Crooke,  Introduction 
to  the  Popular  Religion  and  Folklore  of  Northern  India  (London, 
1896);  Dubois,  Hindu  Manners,  Customs  and  Ceremonies  (Ox- 
ford, 1897) ;  Slater,  The  higher  Hinduism  in  relation  to  Christi- 
anity (London,  1902).  Concerning  the  Iranians,  cf.  Hyde,  His- 
toria  religionis  veterum  Persarum  (Oxford,  1700) ;  Windischmann, 
Zoroastrische  Studien  (1863);  Spiegel,  Eranische  Altertums- 
kunde,  II  (1878);  de  Harlez,  Les  origines  du  Zoroastrisme  (Paris, 
1879) ;  Haug,  Essays  on  the  Sacred  Language,  Writings  and  Re- 
ligion of  the  Parsis  (London,  1884);  Dosabhai  Franiji  Karaka, 
History  of  the  Parsis,  including  their  Manners,  Customs,  Religion 
and  Present  Position  (2  vols.,  London,  1884);  Casartelli,  La 
philos.  religeuse  du  Mazdeisme  sous  les  Sassanides  (Paris,  1884) ; 
Jackson,  Zoroaster,  the  Prophet  of  Ancient  Iran  (New  York,  1899). 
Concerning  the  Greeks,  cf.  Maury,  Hist,  des  religions  de  la  Grhce 
antique  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1857-9);  Girard,  Le  sentiment  religieux 
en  Grice  d'Homere  a  Eschyle  (Paris,  1879);  Roscher,  Ausfuhr- 
liches  Lexikon  der  griech.  u.  rdm.  Mythologie  (1884);  Reisch, 
Griechische  Weihegeschenke  (Vienna,  1890) ;  Stengel,  Die  griech. 
SakralallertHmer  (1890) ;  Rhodb,  Psyche  ll891);  Gardener  and 
Jevons,  Manual  of  Greek  Antiquities  (London,  1895) ;  Usener, 
Gdtternamen  (1896);  Farnell,  Cults  of  the  Greek  Slates  (2  vols., 
London,  1896);  Gruppe,  Griech.  Mythologie  u.  Religionsgesch. 
(Munich,  1897-1906);  Rouse,  Greek  Votive  Offerings  (Cam- 
bridge, 1910);  Reitzenstein,  Die  hellenistischen  Mysterienre- 
ligionen  (1910);  Pieper.s,  Qumstiones  anathematicce  (Leiden, 
1903).  Concerning  the  Romans,  cf.  Bouch^-Leclerc,  Manuel 
des  institutions  romaines  (Paris,  1896);  Wissowa,  Religion  u. 
Kultua  der  Rdmer  (Munich,  1902);  von  Pohlmann,  Die  rdm. 
Kaiserzeit  u.  der  Untergang  der  antiken  Welt  (1910);  Gasquet, 
Essai  sur  le  culte  et  les  mystkres  de  Mithra  (Paris,  1899) ;  Cumont, 
Die  Mysterien  des  Mithra  (Leipzig,  1903);  Preller,  Romische 
Mythologie  (3rd  ed.,  1881-83);  Beurlier,  Le  culte  rendu  aux 
empereurs  romains  (Paris,  1890);  Wendland,  Die  hellenist.- 
rdm.  Kuliur  in  ihren  Beziehungen  zum  Judentum  u,  Christen- 
tum  (1907);  Dieterich,  Eine  Mithrasliiurgie  (2nd  ed.,  1910). 
Concerning  the  Chinese,  cf.  Douglas,  Confucianism  and  Taoism 
(London,  1892);  de  Harlez,  Les  religions  de  la  Chine  (Brussels, 
1891);  Dvorak,  Chinas  Religionen  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1895-1903). 
Concerning  the  Egyptians,  cf.  Le  Page  Renouf,  Lectures  on  the 
Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion  as  illustrated  by  the  Religion  of  An- 
cient Egypt  (London,  1879) ;  Ebman,  Aegypten  u,  dgyptisches  Leben 
im  Altertum  (2  vols.,  1885-88);  Idem,  Die  dgyptische  Religion 
(2nd  ed.,  Berlin,  1909) ;  Brugsch,  Religion  u.  Mythologie  der  alien 
Aegypter  (1888);  Budge,  The  Mummy  (London,  1893);  Idem, 
The  Gods  of  the  Egyptians  (London,    1904);     Idem,   History  of 

Egypt  (8  vols.,  London,  1902 );   Wiedemann,  Die  Religion  der 

aUen  Aegypter  (1890);  Flinders  Petrie,  History  of  Egypt  (Lon- 
don, 1894);  Sayce,  Religions  of  Ancient  Egypt  and  Babylonia 
(London,  1902);  Otto,  Priester  u.  Tempel  im  hellenisl.  Aegypten 
(2  vols.,  1902-08).  Concerning  the  Semites,  cf.  von  Baudissin, 
Beitrdge  zur  semitischen  Religionsgesch.  (Berlin,  1875-78) ;  Rob- 
ebtson  Smith,  Lectures  on  the  Religion  of  the  Semites  (London, 
1899);  Lagbanoe,  Sur  les  religions  simitigues  (Paris,  1903); 
ZiMMER,  Beitrdge  zur  Kennlnis  der  babylon.  Religion  (1896); 
Hacpt,  Babylonian  Elements  in  the  Levitical  Ritual  (1900);  Hil- 
PBECHT,  Die  Ausgrabungen  im  Bel-Tempel  zu  Nippur  (1903); 
Jebemias,  Montheistische  StrOmungen  innerhalb  der  babylon- 
ischen  Religion  (1904);  Winckler,  Die  Geselze  Hammurabis 
(19(M);  Jastrow,  Die  Religion  Babyloniens  u.  Assyriens  (1905); 
Koldewey,  Die  Tempel  ton  Babylon  (191 1) ;  Movers,  Das  Opfer- 
wesen  der  Karlfiager  (1847);  Cheyne-Black,  Encycl.  biblica,  s.  v. 
Phttnicia;  Scholz,  Gdtzen/lienst  u.  Zauberwesen  bei  den  alien  He- 
braern  u.  benachbarten  Volkern  (1877);  Schanz,  Apologie  des 
Chriitenlums,  II  (1905).     See  also  the  literature  to  Priesthood. 

II.  Jewish  Sacrifice. — (1)  In  General. — That 
many  general  ideas  and  riteB,  which  are  found  in 
pagan  religions,  find  their  place  also  in  the  Jewish 
sacrificial  syst^Tii,  should  excite  as  little  surpri.sc  as 
the  fact  that  revealed  religion  in  general  does  not  re- 
ject at  all  natural  religion  and  ethics,  but  rather 
adopts  them  in  a  highr-r  form.  The  ethical  purity 
and  excellence  of  the  Jewish  sacrificial  system  is  at 
once  seen  in  the  circumstance  that  the;  rletestabU;  hu- 
man sacrifices  are  spumed  in  the  official  religion  of 
Jahweh  (cf.  Deut.,  xii,  31;  xviii,  10;.   Abraham's  trial 


(Gen.,  xxii,  1  sqq.)  ended  with  the  prohibition  of  the 
slaying  of  Isaac,  God  ordering  instead  the  sacrifice  of 
the  ram  caught  in  the  briers.  Among  the  Children  of 
Israel  human  sacrifice  meant  the  profanation  of  Jah- 
weh's  name  (Lev.,  xx,  1  sqq.,  etc.).  The  later 
prophets  also  raised  their  mighty  voices  against  the 
disgraceful  service  of  Moloch  with  its  sacrifice  of 
children.  It  is  true  that  the  baneful  influence  of  pa- 
gan environment  won  the  upper  hand  from  the  time 
of  King  Achaz  to  that  of  Josias  to  such  an  extent  that 
in  the  ill-omened  Valley  of  Hinnom  near  Jerusalem 
thousands  of  innocent  children  were  sacrificed  to  Mo- 
loch. To  this  infectious  pagan  example,  not  to  the 
spirit  of  the  religion  of  Jahweh,  is  also  to  be  referred 
the  sacrifice  which  Jephte,  in  consequence  of  his  vow, 
reluctantly  performed  by  slaying  his  own  daughter 
(Judges,  xi,  1  sqq.).  The  assertion  of  many  investi- 
gators (Ghilany,  Daumer,  Vatke)  that  even  in  the 
legitimate  service  of  Jahweh  human  sacrifices  oc- 
curred, is  historically  untenable;  for,  though  the 
Mosaic  Law  contained  the  provision  that,  not  only 
the  firstlings  of  beasts  and  fruits,  but  also  the  first- 
bom  of  men  were  due  to  Jahweh,  it  was  expressly  pro- 
vided that  these  latter  should  be  redeemed,  not 
sacrificed.  The  ofTering  of  the  blood  of  an  animal  in- 
stead of  a  human  life  originated  in  the  profound  idea 
of  substitution,  and  has  its  justification  in  the  prophet- 
ical metaphorical  references  to  the  unique  vicarious 
sacrifice  offered  by  Christ  on  Golgotha.  The  Israel- 
itic  blood  vengeance  (cherem),  in  accordance  with 
which  impious  enemies  and  things  were  utterly  ex- 
terminated (cf.  Jos.,  vi,  21  sqq.;  1  Kings,  xv,  15, 
etc.),  had  absolutely  nothing  to  do  with  human  sacri- 
fice. The  idea  of  the  blood  vengeance  originated,  not 
as  in  various  pagan  religions  in  the  thirst  of  God  for 
human  blood,  but  in  the  principle  that  the  powers 
hostile  tc  God  should  be  removed  by  a  bloody  chas- 
tisement from  the  path  of  the  Lord  of  Ufe  and  death. 
The  accursed  were  not  sacrificed  but  removed  from 
the  face  of  the  earth.  According  to  Jewish  tradition, 
sacrifice  in  its  bloody  and  its  unbloody  form  extends 
back  to  the  beginning  of  the  human  race.  Tlw  first 
and  oldest  sacrifice  mentioned  in  the  Bible  is  that  of 
Cain  and  Abel  (Gen.  iv,  3  sq.).  With  sacrifice  an 
altar  was  associated  (Gen.,  xii,  7  sq.).  Even  in  patri- 
archal times  we  meet  also  the  sacrificial  meal,  espe- 
cially in  connexion  with  treaties  and  the  conclusion 
of  peace.  The  conclusion  of  the  covenant  at  Mount 
Sinai  was  also  effected  under  the  auspices  of  a  solemn 
sacrifice  and  banquet  (Ex.,  xxiv.,  5  sqq.).  Subse- 
quently Moses,  as  the  envoy  of  Jahweh,  elaborated 
the  whole  sacrificial  system,  and  in  the  Pentateuch 
fixed  with  most  scrupulous  exactness  the  various 
kinds  of  sacrifice  and  their  ritual.  Like  the  whole 
Mosaic  cult,  the  sacrificial  system  is  governed  by  the 
one  central  idea,  peculiar  to  the  religion  of  Jahweh: 
"I3e  holy  because  I  am  holy"  (Lev.,  xi,  44). 

(2)  Material  of  the  Sacrifices. — The  general  name  for 
Jewish  sacrifice  was  originally  jninchah  (,""2*;,  dmcpopd, 
donum),  afterwards  the  special  technical  tcTin 
for  the  unbloody  food-offering.  To  the  latter  was 
opposed  the  bloody  sacrifice  (n2T,  Ov<nA,,  viclima). 
According  to  the  method  of  offering,  sacrific(«  were 
known  as  korban  (pip,  bringing  near)  or  'olah  (riVi'', 
ascending),  the  latter  term  being  used  especially  of 
the  holocaust  (q.  v.).  The  material  of  the  bloody 
sacrifice  must  be  taken  from  the  personal  po.ssessions 
of  the  offerer,  and  must  belong  to  the  category  of  clean 
animals.  Thus,  on  the  one  hand,  only  domestic 
animals  (oxen,  sheep,  goats)  from  the  stock  of  the 
sacrificer  were  allowed  (Lev.,  xxii,  19  sqq.),  and  h(^nco 
neith(!r  fi.sh  nor  wild  animals;  on  the  other  hand,  all 
unclean  animals  fe.  g.  dogs,  pigs,  asses,  camels)  were 
excluded,  even  though  th(\y  wen;  domestic  animals. 
Doves  wen;  about  t  Ik-  only  sort  of  birds  that  could  be 
used.  The  substitution  of  turtle  dov(«  or  young 
pigeons  for  the  larger  animals  was  allowed  to  the  poor 


SACRIFICE 


313 


SACRIFICE 


(Lev.,  V,  7;  xii,  S).  Concerning  the  sex,  age,  and 
physical  condition  of  the  animals  there  were  also  exact 
precepts;  as  a  rule,  they  had  to  be  free  from  (h^fect, 
since  only  the  best  were  fit  for  Jahwoh  (Lev.,  xxii,  20 
sqq.;  Mai.,  i,  13  sq.).  The  material  of  the  unbloody 
sacrifices  (usually  additions  to  the  bloody  sacrifice  or 
subsidiary  sacrifices)  was  chosen  from  either  the  solid 
or  the  liquid  articles  of  human  food.  The  fragrant 
incen.se,  the  symbol  of  prayer  ascending  to  God,  was 
an  exception.  The  sacrifice  of  solids  {minchah)  con- 
sisted partly  of  toasted  ears  of  corn  (or  shelled  grain) 
together  with  oil  and  incense  (Lev.,  ii,  14  sqq.),  partly 
of  the  finest  wheaten  flour  with  the  same  additional 
gifts  (Lev.,  ii,  1  .sqq.),  and  partly  of  unleavened  bread 
(Lev.,  ii,  4  sqq.).  Since  not  only  leaven,  but  also 
honey  produced  fermentation  in  bread,  which  suggests 
rottenness,  the  use  of  honey  was  also  forbidden  (Lev., 
ii,  11;  cf.  1  Cor.,  v,  6  sqq.).  Only  the  bread  of  the 
first  fruits,  which  was  offered  on  the  feast  of  Pente- 
cost, and  the  bread  added  to  many  sacrifices  of  praise 
were  leavened,  and  these  might  not  be  brought  to  the 
altar,  but  belonged  to  the  priests  (Lev.,  ii,  4  sqq.;  vii, 
13  sq.,  etc.).  On  the  other  hand  salt  was  regarded 
as  a  means  of  purification  and  preservation,  and  was 
prescribed  as  a  seasoning  for  all  food-offerings  pre- 
pared from  corn  (Lev.,  ii,  13).  Consequently,  among 
the  natural  productions  supplied  to  the  (later)Temple, 
was  a  vast  quantity  of  salt,  which,  as  "salt  of  Sodom ", 
was  asually  obtained  from  the  Dead  Sea,  and  stored 
up  in  a  special  salt  chamber  (Esd.,  vi,  9;  vii,  22;  Jo.se- 
phu.s,  "Antiquities",  XH,  iii,  3).  As  an  integral  por- 
tion of  the  food-offering  we  always  find  the  libation 
(]Z1,  ffirovBiiov^  lihamen),  which  is  never  offered 
independently.  Oil  and  wine  were  the  only  liquids 
used  (cf.  Gen.,  xxviii,  18;  xxxv,  14;  Num.,  xxviii,  7, 14) : 
the  oil  was  used  partly  in  the  preparation  of  the  bread, 
and  partly  burned  with  the  other  gifts  on  the  altar; 
the  wine  was  poured  out  before  the  altar.  Libations 
of  milk,  such  as  those  of  the  Arabs  and  the  Phoeni- 
cians, do  not  occur  in  the  Mosaic  Law. 

The  fact  that,  in  addition  to  the  subsidiary 
sacrifices,  unbloody  sacrifices  were  also  customary, 
has  been  unjustifiably  contested  by  some  Prot- 
estants in  their  polemics  against  the  Sacrifice 
of  the  Mass,  of  which  the  sacrifices  of  food  and 
drink  were  the  prototypes.  Passing  over  the  oldest 
sacrifices  of  this  kind  in  the  case  of  Cain  and 
Abel  (see  Mass,  Sacrifice  of  the),  the  Mosaic  cult 
recognized  the  following  independent  sacrifices  in  the 
sanctuary:  (a)  the  offering  of  bread  and  wine  on  the 
showbread  table;  (b)  the  incense  offering  on  the  altar 
of  incense;  (c)  the  light  offering  in  the  burning  lamps 
of  the  golden  candle-stick.  And  in  the  outer  court: 
(d)  the  daily  minchah  of  the  high-priest,  which,  like 
every  other  priestly  minchah,  had  to  be  entirely  con- 
sumed as  a  holocaust  (Lev.,vi,  20  sqq.  cf.  Josephus, 
"Antiquit.",  Ill,  X,  7);  (e)  the  bread  of  the  first 
fruits  on  the  second  day  of  the  Pasch ;  (f )  the  bread  of 
the  first  fruits  on  the  feast  of  Pentecost.  Of  the  in- 
dependent unbloody  sacrifices  at  least  a  portion  was 
always  burnt  as  a  memorial  (askara,  memoriale)  for 
Jahweh;  the  rest  belonged  to  the  priests,  who  consumed 
it  as  sacred  food  in  the  outer  court  (Lev.,  ii,  9  sq. ;  v, 
12sq.;  vi,  16). 

(3)  The  Riles  of  the  Bloody  Sacrifice.— The  ritual 
of  the  bloody  sacrifice  is  of  special  importance  for  the 
deeper  knowledge  of  Jewi.sh  sacrifice.  Despite  other 
differences,  five  actions  were  common  to  all  the  cate- 
gories: the  bringing  forward  of  the  victim,  the  impo- 
sition of  hands,  the  slaying,  the  sprinkling  of  the  blood, 
and  the  burning.  The  first  was  the  leading  of  the 
victim  to  the  altar  of  burnt  sacrifices  in  the  outer 
court  of  the  tabernacle  (or  of  the  Temple)  "before  the 
Lord"  (Ex.,  xxix,  42;  Lev.,  i,  5;  iii,  1;  iv,  6).  Then 
followed  on  the  north  side  of  the  altar  the  imposition 
of  hands  (or,  more  accurately,  the  resting  of  hands 
on  the  head  of  the  victim),  by  which  significant 


gesture  the  sacrificer  transferred  to  the  victim  his 
personal  intention  of  adoration,  thanksgiving,  peti- 
tion, and  especially  of  atonement.  If  sacrifice  was 
about  to  be  offered  for  the  whole  community,  the 
ancients,  as  the  representatives  of  the  people,  per- 
formed the  ceremony  of  the  imposition  of  hands 
(Lev.,  iv,  15).  This  ceremony  was  omitted  in  the 
case  of  certain  sacrifices  (first  fruits,  tithes,  the  pas- 
chal lamb,  doves)  and  in  the  case  of  bloody  sacrifices 
performed  at  the  instance  of  pagans.  From  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great  the  offering  of  burnt 
sacrifices  even  by  Gentiles  was  permitted  in  recogni- 
tion of  the  supremacy  of  foreign  rulers;  thus,  the 
Roman  Emperor  Augustus  required  a  daily  burnt 
offering  of  two  lambs  and  a  steer  in  the  Temple 
(ch.  Philo,  "Leg.  ad  Caj.,"  §10;  Josephus,  "Contra 
Ap.",  II,  vi).  The  withdrawal  of  this  permission 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Jewish  War  was  regarded  as 
a  public  rebellion  against  the  Roman  rule  (cf. 
Josephus,  "De  bello  jud.",  II,  xvii,  2).  The  cere- 
mony of  the  imposition  of  hands  was  usually  pre- 
ceded by  a  confession  of  sins  (Lev.,  xvi,  21;  v,  5  sq.; 
Num.,  V,  6  sq.),  which,  according  to  Rabbinic  tradi- 
tion, was  verbal  (cf.  Otho,  "Lex  rabbin.",  552).  The 
third  act  or  the  slaying,  wliich  effects  as  speedy  and 
complete  a  shedding  of  the  blood  as  possible  by  a 
deep  cut  into  the  throat,  had  also,  like  the  leading 
forward  and  the  imposition  of  hands,  to  be  performed 
by  the  sacrificer  himself  (Lev.,  i,  3  sqq.);  only  in  the 
ciuse  of  the  offering  of  doves  did  the  priest  perform 
the  slaying  (Lev.,  i,  15).  In  later  times,  however, 
the  slaying,  skinning,  and  dismemberment  of  the 
larger  animals  were  undertaken  by  the  priests  and 
Levites,  especially  when  the  whole  people  were  to 
offer  sacrifice  for  themselves  on  great  festivals  (II 
Par.,  xxix,  22  sqq.).  The  real  sacrificial  function 
began  with  the  fourth  act,  the  sprinkling  of  blood  by 
the  priest,  which,  according  to  the  Law,  pertained 
to  him  alone  (Lev.,  i,  5;  iii,  2;  iv,  5;  II  Par.,  xxix, 
23,  etc.).  If  a  layman  undertook  the  blood-sprink- 
ling, the  sacrifice  was  invalid  (cf .  Mischna  Sebachim, 
II,  1). 

The  oblation  of  the  blood  on  the  altar  by  the  priest 
thus  formed  the  real  essence  of  the  bloody  sacrifice. 
This  idea  was  indeed  universal,  for  "everywhere  from 
China  to  Ireland  the  blood  is  the  chief  thing,  the 
centre  of  the  sacrifice;  in  the  blood  lies  its  power  " 
(Biihr,  "Symbolik  des  mo.saischen  Kultus",  II, 
Heidelberg,  1839,  p.  62).  That  the  act  of  slaying 
or  the  destruction  of  the  victim  was  not  the  chiei 
element,  is  evident  from  the  precept  that  the  sacri- 
ficers  themselves,  who  were  not  priests,  had  to  care 
for  the  slaying.  Jewish  tradition  also  expressly 
designated  the  priestly  sprinkling  of  the  blood  on 
the  altar  as  "the  root  and  principle  of  the  sacrifice". 
The  ex-planation  is  given  in  Lev.,  xvii,  10  sq.:  "If 
any  man  whosoever  of  the  house  of  Israel,  and  of 
the  strangers  that  sojourn  among  them,  eat  blood, 
I  will  set  my  face  against  his  .soul,  and  will  cut  him 
off  from  among  his  people:  Because  the  life  of  the 
flesh  is  in  the  blood:  and  I  have  given  it  to  you,  that 
you  may  make  atonement  with  it  upon  the  altar  for 
your  souls,  and  the  blood  may  be  for  an  expiation 
of  the  soul."  Here  the  blood  of  the  victim  is  de- 
clared in  the  clearest  terms  to  be  the  means  of  pro- 
pitiation, and  the  propitiation  itself  is  associated 
with  the  application  of  the  blood  on  the  altar.  But 
the  propitiation  for  the  guilt-laden  soul  is  accom- 
plished by  the  blood  only  in  virtue  of  the  life  contained 
in  it,  which  belongs  to  the  Lord  of  death  and  life. 
Hence  the  strict  prohibition  of  the  "eating"  of  blood 
under  penalty  of  being  cut  off  from  among  the  people. 
But  inasmuch  as  the  blood,  since  it  bears  the  life 
of  the  victim,  represents  or  symbolizes  the  soul  or 
life  of  man,  the  idea  of  substitution  finds  clear  ex- 
pression in  the  sprinkling  of  the  blood,  just  as  it 
has  been  already  expressed  in  the  imposition  of  hands. 


SACRIFICE 


314 


SACRIFICE 


But  the  blood  obtained  by  the  slaying  exerts  its  ex- 
piatoiy  power  first  on  the  altar,  where  the  soul  of 
the  victim  symbolically  laden  with  sin  comes  into 
contact  with  the  purifying  and  sanctifjang  power  of 
God.  The  technical "  term  for  the  reconciliation 
and  remission  of  sin  is  kipper  "to  ex-piate"  ("isr, 
Piel  from  "ZZ  "to  cover"),  a  verb  which  is  con- 
nected rather  with  the  Assyrian  knppuru  (wipe 
off,  destroy)  than  with  the  Arabic  "to  cover, 
cover  up".  The  fifth  and  last  act,  the  burning, 
was  performed  differently,  according  as  the  whole 
victim  (holocaust)  or  only  certain  portions  of  it 
were  to  be  consumed  by  fire.  By  the  altar  and  the 
"consuming  fire"  (Deut.,  iv,  24)  Jahweh  sj^mboli- 
oally  appropriated,  as  through  His  Di\-ine  mouth, 
the  sacrifices  offered;  this  was  strikingly  manifested 
in  the  sacrifices  of  Aaron,  Gedeon,  and  Ehas  (cf.  Lev., 
ix,  24;  Judges,  vi,  21;  III  Kings,  xviii,  38). 

(4)  Different  Categories  of  the  Bloody  Sacrifices. — 
(a)  Among  the  various  classes  of  bloodj'  sacrifice, 
the  burnt  offering  takes  the  first  place.  It  is  called 
both  the  "ascent  sacrifice"  (olah)  and  the  "holocaust" 
{k-dlil) ;  Sept.  bXoKavTwim;  in  Philo,  oXi/cawro;'),  because 
the  whole  victim — with  the  exception  of  the  hip  muscle 
and  the  hide — is  made  through  fire  to  ascend  to  God  in 
smoke  and  vapour  (see  Holocaust).  Although  the 
idea  of  expiation  was  not  excluded  (Lev.,  i,  4),  it 
retired  somewhat  into  the  background,  since  in  the 
complete  destruction  of  the  victim  by  fire  the  abso- 
lute submission  of  man  to  God  was  to  find  expression. 
The  holocaust  is  indeed  the  oldest,  most  frequent, 
and  most  widespread  sacrifice  (cf.  Gen.,  iv,  4;  viii, 
20;  .xxii,  2  sqq.;  Job.,  i,  5;  xlii,  8).  As  the  "ever 
enduring"  sacrifice,  it  had  to  be  offered  twice  daily, 
in  the  morning  and  in  the  evening  (cf.  Ex.,  xxix, 
38  sqq.;  Lev.,  vi,  9  sqq.;  Num.,  xxviii,  3  sqq.,  etc.). 
As  the  sacrifice  of  adoration  par  excellence,  it  included 
in  itself  all  other  species  of  sacrifice.  [Concerning 
the  altar,  see  Altar  (in  Scripture).] 

(b)  The  idea  of  expiation  received  especially 
forcible  expression  in  the  expiatory  sacrifices,  of 
which  two  classes  were  distinguished,  the  sin  and  the 
guilt-offering.  The  distinction  between  these  lies 
in  the  fact  that  the  former  was  concerned  rather 
with  the  absolution  of  the  person  from  sin  (expiatio), 
the  latter  rather  with  the  making  of  satisfaction  for 
the  injury  done  {satisf actio) . 

(o)  Turning  first  to  the  sin-offering  (sacrificium  pro 
peccato,  rN'jn,  chatlalh),  we  find  that,  according  to  the 
Law,  not  all  ethical  delinquencies  could  be  expiated 
by  it.  Excluded  from  expiation  were  all  deliberate 
crimes  or  "sins  with  raised  hand",  which  involved 
a  breech  of  the  covenant  and  drew  upon  the  trans- 
gressor as  punishment  ejection  from  among  the  p«)ple 
becau.se  he  had  "been  rebellious  against  the  Lord" 
(Num.,  XV,  30  sq.).  To  such  sins  belonged  the 
omis.sion  of  circumcision  (Gen.,  xvii,  14),  the  dese- 
cration of  the  Sabbath  (Ex.,  xxxi,  14),  the  blasphem- 
ing of  Jahweh  (Lev.,  xxiv,  16),  failure  to  celebrate 
the  Pa,sch  (Num.,  ix,  2  sqq.),  the  "eating  of  blood" 
(Lev.,  vii,  26  sq.),  working  or  failure  to  fast  on  the 
Day  of  At<jnement  (Lev.,  xxiii,  21).  Expiation 
availed  only  for  misdeeds  committed  through  igno- 
rance, forgetfulness,  or  hastiness.  The  rites  were 
determined  not  so  much  by  the  kind  and  gravity  of 
the  tran.sgressions  as  by  the  quality  of  the  persons 
for  whom  the  sacrifice  of  expiation  was  to  be  offc^njd. 
Thus,  for  the  faults  of  the  high-priest  or  the  whole 
people  a  calf  was  prescribed  (Lev.,  iv,  3;  xvi,  3); 
for  thosr;  of  the  prince  of  a  tribe  (I^ev.,  iv,  23),  as  well 
as  on  certain  festivals,  a  he-goat;  for  those  of  the 
ordinary'  lKra<!lites,  a  she-goat  or  ewe  lamb  (Lev., 
iv,  28;  v,  i'))]  for  purification  after  child-birth  and 
certain  other  legal  unoleannesses,  turtle  doves  or 
young  pige<^>ns  (I^-v.,  xii,  6;  xv,  14,  29).  The  last- 
mentioned  might  also  be  used  by  the  poor  as  the 
substitute  for  one  of  the  small  cattle  (Lev.,  v,  7; 


xiv,  22).  The  very  poor,  who  were  unable  to  offer 
even  doves,  might  "in  the  case  of  ordinary  transgres- 
sions sacrifice  the  tenth  of  an  ephi  of  flour,  but  with- 
out oil  or  incense  (Lev.,  v,  11  sqq.).  The  manner 
of  the  application  of  the  blood  was  different  according 
to  the  various  degrees  of  sin,  and  consisted,  not  in 
the  mere  sprinkling  of  the  blood,  but  in  rubbing 
it  on  the  horns  of  the  altar  for  burnt  -  offerings  or 
the  incense  altar,  after  which  the  remainder  of  the 
blood  was  poured  out  at  the  foot  of  the  altar.  Con- 
cerning the  details  of  this  ceremony  the  handbooks 
of  Biblical  archaH)logy  should  be  consulted.  The 
usual  and  best  sacrificial  portions  of  the  victims 
(pieces  of  fat,  kidneys,  lobes  of  the  liver)  were  then 
burned  on  the  altar  of  burnt-offerings,  and  the  re- 
mainder of  the  victim  eaten  by  the  priests  as  sacred 
food  in  the  outer  court  of  the  sanctuary  (Lev.,  vi, 
18  sq.).  Should  any  of  the  blood  have  been  brought 
into  the  sanctuary',  the  flesh  had  to  be  brought  to  the 
ash-heap  and  there  likewise  burned  (Lev.,  iv,  1 
sqq.;  \'i,  24  sqq.). 

{P)  The  guilt-offering  {sacrificium  pro  delicto, 
ZZ'H,  asham)  was  sjjecially  appointed  for  sins  and 
transgressions  demanding  restitution,  whether  the 
material  interests  of  the  sanctuary  or  those  of  pri- 
vate persons  were  injured  —  e.g.  by  misappropriating 
gifts  to  the  sanctuary,  defrauding  one's  neighbour, 
retaining  the  property  of  another,  etc.  (cf.  Lev.,  v, 
15  sqq.;  vi,  2  sq.;  Num.,  v,  6  sqq.).  The  material 
restitution  was  reckoned  at  one-fifth  higher  than  the 
loss  inflicted  (six  fifths  had  thus  to  be  paid).  In  ad- 
dition, a  guilt-sacrifice  had  to  be  offered,  consisting 
of  a  ram  sacrificed  at  the  north  side  of  the  altar. 
The  blood  was  sprinkled  in  a  circle  around  the  altar, 
on  which  the  fatty  portions  were  burnt ;  the  rest  of 
the  flesh  as  sacrosanct  was  eaten  by  the  priests  in 
the  holy  place  (Lev.,  vii,  1  sqq.). 

(c)  The  third  class  of  bloody  sacrifice  embraced  the 
"  peace  off erings "  {victima  pacifica,  2*^2^^",  shelamim), 
which  were  sub-divided  into  three  classes:  the  sacrifice 
of  thanks  or  praise,  the  sacrifice  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow, 
and  entirely  voluntary  offerings.  The  peace  sacrifices 
in  general  were  distinguished  by  two  characteristics: 
(i)  the  remarkable  ceremony  of  "wave"  and  "heave"; 
(ii)  the  communal  sacrificial  meal  held  in  connexion 
with  them.  All  animals  allowed  for  sacrifice  (even 
female)  might  be  used  and,  in  the  case  of  entirely 
"voluntary  sacrifices",  even  such  animals  as  were 
not  quite  without  defects  (Lev.,  xxii,  23).  Until 
the  act  of  sprinkling  the  blood  the  rites  were  the 
same  as  in  the  burnt-sacrifice,  except  that  the  slay- 
ing did  not  necessarily  take  place  at  the  north  side 
of  the  altar  (Lev.,  iii,  1  sqq.;  vii,  11  sqq  ).  The 
usual  portions  of  fat  had,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sacri- 
fice of  expiation,  to  be  burned  on  the  altar.  In  the 
cutting  up  of  the  victim,  however,  the  breast  and 
the  right  shoulder  (S(!pt.  /Spax^w;  Vulg.  armus)  had 
to  be  first  separately  severed,  and  the  ceremony  of 
"wave"  (tenupha)  and  "heave"  {tcruma)  jxTformed 
with  them.  According  to  Talmudic  tnulilioii  the 
"wave"  was  performed  as  follows:  the  jjricst  i)la<'('d 
the  breast  of  the  victim  on  the  hands  of  the  off(!rer, 
and  then,  having  placed  his  own  hands  under  those 
of  this  person,  moved  them  backward  and  forward 
in  token  of  the  reciprocity  in  giving  and  receiving 
between  God  and  the  offerer.  With  the  right  shoul- 
der the  same  c(!n!mony  was  then  performed,  except 
that  the  "heave"  or  "teruma"  consisted  in  an  up- 
ward and  downward  movement.  The  breast  and 
shoulder  used  in  these  ceremonies  fell  to  the  share 
of  the  priests,  who  might  consume  them  in  a  "clean 
place"  (Lev.,  x,  14).  They  also  received  a  loaf 
from  the  supi)l(!mentary  food-offering  (Lev.,  vii, 
14).  The  offenjr  asscmVjled  his  friends  at  a  common 
m(;al  on  the  same  day  to  consume  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  sanctuary  the  fi(!sh  remaining  after  the  sacri- 
fice.    Levitically  clean  guests,  especially  the  Lovilcs 


SACRIFICE 


315 


SACRIFICE 


and  the  poor,  were  admitted  (Deut.,  xvi,  11;  Lev., 
19  sqq.),  and  wine  was  freely  drunk  at  this  meal. 
Whatever  remained  of  a  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving  or 
praise  had  to  be  burned  on  the  following  day;  only 
in  the  case  of  the  vowed  and  entirely  voluntary 
sacrifices  might  the  remainder  be  eaten  on  the  second 
succeeding  day,  but  all  that  thereafter  remained  had 
to  be  burned  on  the  third  day  (Lev.,  vii,  15  sqq.; 
xix,  6  sqq.).  The  idea  of  the  peace-offering  centres 
in  the  Divine  friendship  and  the  participation  at 
the  Divine  table,  inasmuch  as  the  offerers,  as  guests 
and  table-companions,  participated  in  a  certain 
manner  in  the  sacrifice  to  the  Lord.  But,  on  account 
of  this  Divine  friendship,  when  all  three  classes  of 
sacrifice  were  combined,  the  sacrifice  of  expiation 
usually  preceded  the  burnt-offering,  and  the  latter 
the  peace-offering. 

In  addition  to  the  periodical  sacrifices  just  de- 
scribed, the  Mosaic  Law  recognized  other  extraordi- 
nary sacrifices,  which  must  at  least  be  mentioned. 
To  these  belong  the  sacrifice  offered  but  once  on 
the  occasion  of  the  conclusion  of  the  Sinaitic  cove- 
nant (Ex.,  xxiv,  4  sqq.),  those  occurring  at  the  con- 
secration of  the  priests  and  Levites  (Ex.,  xxix,  1 
sqq.;  Lev.,  viii;  Num.,  viii,  5  sqq.),  and  certain  oc- 
casional sacrifices,  such  as  the  sacrifice  of  purification 
of  a  healed  leper  (Lev.,  xiv,  1  sqq.),  the  sacrifice  of 
the  red  cow  (Num.,  xix,  1  sqq.),  the  sacrifice  of  jeal- 
ou.sy  (Num.,  v,  12  sqq.),  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  Nazi- 
rites  (Num.,  vi,  9  sqq.).  On  account  of  its  extraor- 
dinary character  one  might  include  the  yearly 
sacrifice  of  the  paschal  lamb  (Ex.,  xii,  3  sqq.;  Deut., 
xvi,  1  sqq.)  and  that  of  the  two  he-goats  on  the  Day 
of  Atonement  (Lev.,  xvi,  1  sqq.)  among  this  class. 
With  the  appearance  of  the  Messias,  the  entire 
Mosaic  sacrifi(!ial  system  was,  according  to  the  view 
of  the  Rabbis,  to  come  to  an  end,  as  in  fact  it  did 
after  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  by  Titus  (A.  D. 
70).  Concerning  the  sacrificial  persons  see  Priest- 
hood. 

(5)  Modem  Criticism. — A  detailed  examination  of 
modern  criticism  concerning  Jewish  sacrifice  cannot 
be  attempted  here,  since  the  discussion  involves 
the  whole  Pentateuch  problem  (see  Pentateuch). 
What  is  called  the  " Graf-Wellhausen  hypothesis" 
denies  that  the  ritual  legislation  in  the  Pentateuch 
comes  from  Moses.  It  is  claimed  that  the  setting 
down  of  the  sacrificial  legislation  first  began  in  the 
exilic  period.  From  the  time  of  Moses  to  the  Baby- 
Ionian  Captivity  sacrifice  was  offered  frcsely  and 
without  any  legal  compulsion,  and  always  in  connex- 
ion with  a  joyous  sacrificial  meal.  The  strict  forms 
of  the  minutely-prescribed  sacrificial  rite  were  first 
established  by  the  Priest's  Code  (=P),  Divine 
authority  being  afterwards  claimed  for  them  by 
artificially  projecting  them  into  the  Mosaic  era.  Even 
during  the  time  of  the  Great  Prophets  nothing  was 
known  of  a  Mosaic  sacrificial  thora,  as  is  proved  by 
their  disparaging  remarks  concerning  the  worthless- 
ness  of  sacrifice  (cf.  Is.,  i,  11  sqq.;  Jer.,  vi,  19  sq.; 
Amos,  V,  21  sqq.;  Osee,  viii,  11  sqq.,  etc.).  With 
Ezechiel,  however,  a  change  is  visible,  the  ritual 
forms  of  sacrifice  being  highly  cheri.shed  as  a  Divine 
law.     But  it  is  impossible  to  refer  this  law  to  Moses. 

We  may  briefly  reply  that  the  disparaging  .state- 
ments of  the  pre-exilic  Prophets  are  no  proof  for  the 
assertion  that  in  their  time  there  was  no  sacrificial 
law  regarded  as  Mosaic.  Like  the  Psalms  (xl,  7 
sqq.;  1,  8  sqq.;  Ixix,  31  sq.),  the  Prophets  emphasized 
only  the  ancient  and  venerable  truth  that  Jahweh 
valued  most  highly  the  interior  sacrifice  of  obodionce, 
and  rejected  as  worthless  purely  external  acts  with- 
out pious  disjjositions.  He  demanded  of  Cain  the 
right  sentiment  of  sacrifice  (cf.  Gen.,  iv,  -1  sq.), 
and  proclaimed  through  Samuel:  "Obedience  is 
better  than  sacrifices"  (I  Kings,  xv,  22).  This 
requirement  of  ethical  dispositions  is  not  equivalent 


to  the  rejection  of  external  sacrifice.  Nor  can  one 
accept  the  statement  that  Mo.ses  did  not  legally 
regulate  the  Jewish  sacrificial  system.  How  other- 
wise could  he  have  been  regarded  among  the  Jews 
as  the  God-appointed  founder  of  the  religion  of  Jah- 
weh, which  is  inconceivable  without  Divine  service 
and  sacrifice?  That  during  the  centuries  after  Moses 
the  sacrificial  cult  underwent  an  internal  and  external 
development,  which  reached  its  climax  in  the  extant 
priest's  code,  is  a  natural  and  intelligible  assumption, 
indications  of  which  appear  in  the  Pentateuch  itself. 
The  whole  reorganization  of  the  cult  by  the  Prophet 
Ezechiel  shows  that  Jahweh  always  stood  above  the 
letter  of  the  law,  and  that  he  was  nowise  bound  to 
maintain  in  unalterable  rigidity  the  olden  regula- 
tions. But  the  changes  and  deviations  in  Ezechiel 
are  not  of  such  magnitude  as  to  justify  the  view  that 
not  even  the  foundation  of  the  sacrificial  code  origi- 
nated with  Moses.  The  further  statement  that  a 
sacrificial  meal  was  regularly  connected  with  the 
ancient  sacrifices,  is  an  unjustifiable  generalization. 
For  the  burnt-offering  {holocaustum,  'olah),  with 
which  no  meal  was  associated,  belonged  to  the  most 
ancient  sacrifices  (cf.  Gen.,  viii,  20),  and  is  at  least 
as  old  as  the  peace-offering  (shelamim),  which  always 
terminated  with  a  meal.  Again,  it  is  antecedently 
at  least  improbable  that  the  older  sacrifices  always 
had,  as  is  asserted,  a  gay  and  joyous  character, 
since  the  need  of  expiation  was  not  less,  but  rather 
more  seriously  felt  by  the  Israelites  than  by  the 
pagan  nations  of  antiquity.  Where  there  was  a 
consciousness  of  sin,  there  must  also  have  been 
anxiety    for    expiation. 

LiGHTFOOT,  Ministerium  templi  (Rotterdam,  1699) ;  Bahr, 
Symbolik  des  mosaischen  Kultus,  II  (HcidelberK,  1839);  Thal- 
HOFER,  Die  unblutigtn  Opfer  des  mosaischen  Kultus  (Ratisbon, 
1848);  RiEHM,  Der  Begriff  der  Silhne  im  A.  T.  (Gotha.  1876); 
Idem,  Handworterbuch  des  biblischen  Altertums  (Leipzig,  1884 — ) ; 
Idem,  Alltestamentl.  Theologie  (Halle,  1889);  Kurtz,  Sacrificial 
Worship  of  the  Old  Testament,  tr.  (Edinburgh,  1863);  Wanqe- 
MANN,  Das  Opfer  nach  der  hi.  Schrift  (1866) ;  Scholz,  Die  hi.  Alter- 
tiimer  des  Volkes  Israel  (Ratisbon,  1868);  Idem,  GOtzendienst  u. 
Zauberivesen  bei  den  alien  Hebrdern  (Ratisbon,  1877) ;  Hane- 
BERO,  Die  religidsen  AllertUmer  der  Bibel  (Munich,  1869) ;  Schegg, 
Biblisehe  Archdologie  (Freiburg,  1887) ;  Laouenan,  Du  Brahma- 
nisme  et  ses  rapports  avec  le  Judaisme  et  le  Christianisme  (Paris, 
1888) ;  Cave,  Scriptural  Doctrine  of  Sacrifice  and  Atonement 
(Edinburgh,  1890);  Schafer,  Die  religiosen  Alterttimer  der  Bibel 
(1891);  Schmoller,  Das  Wesen  der  Silhne  in  der  alltestamentlich. 
Opferthora  in  Studien  u.  Kriliken  (1891);  Nowack,  Hebraische 
Archdologie  (Freiburg,  1894);  Volck,  De  nonnullis  V.  T.  prophet, 
locis  ad  sacrificia  spectantibtis  (Leipzig,  1893) ;  Scott,  Sacrifice, 
its  Prophecy  and  Fulfilment  (Edinburgh,  1894) ;  Baxter,  Sanctu- 
ary and  Sacrifice  (London,  1895) ;  Schultz,  Old  Testament  Theol- 
ogy, tr.  (Edinburgh,  1898);  Frey,  Tod,  Seelenglaube  u.  Seelen- 
kult  im  alten  Israel  (1898) ;  Matthieu,  La  notion  de  sacrifice  dans 
I'ancien  Testament  et  son  evolution  (Toulouse,  1902);  Gold,  Sac- 
rificial Worship  (New  York,  1903);  NiKt^h,  Genesis  u.  Keilschrift- 
forschung  (Freiburg,  1903) ;  Schrader,  Die  Keilinschriften  u.  das 
A.  T.  (3rd  ed.,  Berlin,  1903) ;  Zapletal,  Alttestamentliches  (Frei- 
burg, 1903) ;  KoBERLE,  SUnde  u.  Gnade  im  religidsen  Leben  des 
Volkes  Israel  bis  auf  Christus  (Munich,  1905);  Herrmann,  Die 
Idee  der  Siihne  im  A.  T.  (Leipzig,  1905);  Schopfer,  Gesch.  des 
A.  T.  (4th  cd.,  1906);  Kent,  Israel's  Laws  and  Legal  Preced<^nts 
(New  York,  1907);  Benzinger,  Ilebrditche  Archdologie  (Frei- 
burg, 1907) ;  Mader,  Die  Menschenopfer  der  alten  Hebrder  u.  der 
benachbarten  Vdlker  (Freiburg,  1908);  Engblkemper,  Heiliglum 
u.  Opferstdtten  in  den  Gesetzen  des  Pentateuch  (Miinster,  1908); 
Smith,  The  Biblical  Doctrine  of  Atonement  in  Biblical  World, 
XXXI  (1908),  22  sqq.;  Kittel,  Gesch.  des  Volkes  Israel,  II 
(Gotha,  1909);  Peters,  Die  jUdische  Gemeinde  von  Elephantine- 
Syene  u.  ihr  Tempel  im  5.  Jahrh.  vor  Chr.  (Freiburg,  1910) ;  All- 
GEiER,  Ueber  Doppelberichte  in  der  Genesis.  Eine  kritische  Unter- 
suchung  u.  eine  primipielle  Priifung  (Freiburg,  1911). 

III.  Christian  Sacrifice. — Christianity  knows 
but  one  sacrifice,  the  sacrifice  which  was  once  offered 
by  Christ  in  a  bloody  manner  on  the  tree  of  the 
Cross.  But  in  order  to  apply  to  individual  men  in 
sacrificial  form  through  a  constant  sacrifice  the  merits 
of  redemption  d(;finitively  won  by  the  sacrifice  of 
the  Cross,  the  Redeemer  Himself  instituted  the  Holy 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  to  be  an  unbloody  continuation 
and  representation  of  the  bloody  sacrifice  of  Calvary. 
Concerning  this  eucharistic  sacrifice  and  its  relation 
to  the  sacrifice  on  the  Cross,  see  the  article  Mass. 
In  view  of  the  central  position  which  the  sacrifice 


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of  the  Cross  holds  in  the  whole  economy  of  salvation, 
we  must  briefly  discuss  the  realitv  of  this  sacrifice. 

(1)  The  Dogma  of  the  Sacrijiee  of  the  Cross.— The 
universal  conviction  of  Christianity  was  expressed 
by  the  Synod  of  Ephesus  (431),  when  it  declared 
that  the  Incarnate  Logos  "offered  Himself  to  God 
the  Father  for  us  for  an  odour  of  sweetness"  (in  Den- 
zinger-Bannwart,  "Enchiridion,"  n.  122),  a  dogma 
explicitly  confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXII.  cap.  i-ii;  can.'ii-iv).  The  dogma  is  indeed 
nothing  else  than  a  clear  echo  of  Holy  Writ  and  tra- 
dition. If  all  the  sacrifices  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  especially  the  bloody  sacrifice,  were  so  many 
types  of  the  bloody  sacrifice  of  the  Cross  (cf.  Heb., 
viii-x),  and  if  the" idea  of  vicarious  atonement  was 
present  in  the  Mosaic  bloody  sacrifices,  it  follows 
immediately  that  the  death  "on  the  Cross,  as  the 
antitype,  must  possess  the  character  of  a  vicarious 
sacrifice  of  atonement.  A  striking  confirmation  of 
this  reasoning  is  found  in  the  pericope  of  Isaias 
concerning  God's  "just  servant,"  wherein  three 
truths  are  clearly  expressed:  (a)  the  substitution  of 
the  innocent  Messias  for  guilty  mankind;  (b)  the 
deliverance  of  the  guilty  from  sin  and  punishment 
through  the  suffering  of  the  Messias;  (c)  the  manner 
of  this  suffering  and  satisfaction  through  the  bloody 
death  on  the  Cross  (cf.  Is.,  hii,  4  sqq.).  The  Mes- 
sianity  of  the  passage,  which  was  unjustifiably  con- 
tested by  the  Socinians  and  Rationalists,  is  proved 
by  the  express  testimony  of  the  New  Testament  (cf. 
Matt.,  viii,  17;  Mark,  xv,  28;  Luke,  xxii,  37;  Acts, 
viii,  28  sqq.;  1  Peter,  ii,  22  sqq.).  The  prophecy 
found  its  fulfilment  in  Christ.  For,  although  His 
whole  life  was  a  continuous  sacrifice,  yet  the  sacri- 
fice culminated  in  His  bloody  death  on  the  Cross, 
as  He  Himself  says:  "He  came  to  give  His  life  a 
redemption  for  many"  (Matt,  xx,  28).  Three 
factors  are  here  emphasized:  sacrifice,  vicarious 
oflfering,  and  expiation.  The  phrase,  "to  give  his 
life"  (Sovvai  TTiv  ^vxv"),  is,  as  numerous  parallel 
passages  attest,  a  Biblical  expression  for  sacrifice; 
the  words,  "for  many"  (avrl  woWQv),  express  the 
idea  of  vicarious  sacrifice,  while  the  term,  "redemp- 
tion" (XiJrpoy),  declares  the  object  of  the  expiation 
(cf.  Eph.,  V,  2;  II  Cor.,  v,  21).  Rationalism  (Soci- 
nus,  Ritschl)  seeks  in  vain  to  deny  that  St.  Paul  had 
this  idea  of  vicarious  expiation  on  the  ground  that 
the  expression  iinl  voWdv  (in  the  place  of  many)  is 
foreign  to  him.  For,  apart  from  the  fact  that  he 
clearly  expresses  in  other  terms  the  idea  of  substitu- 
tion (cf.  II  Cor.,  V,  1-5;  Gal.,  iii,  13),  his  phrase  "for 
many"  (inrip  iroXkSiv  instead  of  dvrl  iroWQv),  taken  in 
connexion  with  the  idea  of  sacrifice  current  in  his 
writings,  bears  the  pregnant  meaning  "instead  of 
many,  '  not  merely  "for  the  advantage  of  many". 
This  is  clearly  indicated  by  I  Tim.,  ii,  G:  "\Mio  gave 
himself  a  redemption  for  all  [ivTiXvTpov  vnkp  -irimuv]." 

As  in  the  Old  Testament  the  expiatory  power  of 
the  sacrifice  lay  in  the  blood  of  the  victim,  so  also 
the  expiation  for  the  forgiveness  of  Bins  is  ascribed 
to  the  "Blood  of  the  New  Testament"  (see  Mass, 
Sacrifice  of  the).  There  is  thus  nothing  more 
precious  than  the  Blood  of  Christ:  "...  you  were 
not  red<!emed  with  corruptible  things  as  gold  an(l 
silver  .  .  .  .  ,  but  with  the  precious  blood  of 
Christ,  as  of  a  lamb  unspotted  and  undefiled"  (I 
Peter,  i,  18  nt].).  While  the  foregoing  considerations 
refute  the  a.sw;rtion  of  modern  "critics"  that  the 
expiatory  sacrifice  of  (Christ  was  first  introduced  by 
Paul  into  the  Gospel,  it  is  still  true  that  the  bloody 
sacrifice  of  the  Cross  occiiy)ic'd  the  central  position  in 
the  Pauline  preaching.  He  speaks  of  the  Redeemer 
as  Him  "whom  Clod  liath  proposefl  to  be  a  propitia- 
tion \l\afff^piov].  through  faith  in  his  blood"  (Rom., 
iii,  2.5).  Referring  to  the  types  of  the Olfl Testament, 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  especially  elaborates  this 
idea:  "For  if  the  blood  of  goats  and  of  oxen,  and  the 


ashes  of  a  heifer  being  sprinkled,  sanctify  such  as 
are  defiled,  to  the  cleansing  of  the  flesh:  how  much 
more  shall  the  blood  of  Christ,  who  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  offered  himself  unspotted  unto  God,  cleanse 
our  conscience  from  dead  works"  (Heb.,  ix,  13 
sq.).  With  the  multiplicity  and  variety,  the  ineflS- 
cacy  and  inadequacy  of  the  Mosaic  bloody  sacrifices 
is  contrasted  the  uniqueness  and  eflScacy  of  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Cross  for  the  forgiveness  of  sins  (cf. 
Heb.,  ix,  28:  "So  also  was  Christ  once  [fiTra^]  offered 
to  exhaust  the  sins  of  many";  x,  10:  "In  the  which 
will  we  are  sanctified  by  the  oblation  of  the  body 
[5ia  T^y  irpo(r<popS.<i  tov  <rw/uoToj]  of  Jesus  Christ  once"). 
The  bloody  death  on  the  Cross  is  specially  charac- 
terized as  a  "sin  offering":  " But  this  man  offering 
one  sacrifice  for  sins  {/xiav  vir^p  anapriQv  irpoffev^yKas 
dvfflav],  for  ever  sitteth  on  the  right  hand  of  God" 
(Heb.,  x,  12;  cf.  II  Cor.,  v,  21).  The  "heavenly 
sacrifice"  of  Christ,  the  existence  of  which  is  assumed 
by  Thalhofer,  Zill,  and  Schoulza,  cannot  be  deduced 
from  the  F.pistle  to  the  Hebrews.  In  heaven  Christ 
no  longer  sacrifices  Himself,  but  simply,  through 
His  "priestly  intercession",  offers  the  sacrifice  of 
the  Cross  (Heb.,  vii,  25;  cf.  Rom.,  viii,  34). 

^^^lile  the  Apostolic  Fathers  and  the  apologist 
Justin  Martyr  merely  repeat  the  Biblical  doctrine 
of  the  sacrificial  death  of  Christ,  Irena;us  was  the 
first  of  the  early  Fathers  to  consider  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Cro.ss  from  the  standpoint  of  a  "vicarious 
satisfaction"  {satisfaclio  vicaria)  ;  this  expression, 
however,  did  not  come  into  frequent  use  in  ecclesias- 
tical writings  during  the  first  ten  centuries.  Irenaeua 
emphasizes  the  fact  that  only  a  God-Man  could  wash 
away  the  guilt  of  Adam,  that  Christ  actually  re- 
deemed mankind  by  His  Blood  and  offered  "His 
Soul  for  our  souls  and  His  Flesh  for  our  flesh"  ("Adv. 
hajr.",  V,  i,  1,  in  P.  G.  VII,  1121).  Though  Irenaus 
bases  the  redemption  primarily  on  the  Incarnation, 
through  which  our  vitiated  nature  was  restored  to 
its  original  holiness  ("mystical  interpretation"  of 
the  Greeks),  he  nevertheless  ascribes  in  a  special 
manner  to  the  bitter  Passion  of  the  Saviour  the  same 
effects  that  he  ascribes  to  the  Incarnation:  viz. 
the  making  of  man  like  unto  God,  the  forgiveness  of 
sin,  and  the  annihilation  of  death  (Adv.  ha;r.,  II, 
XX,  3;  III,  xviii,  8).  It  was  not  so  much  "under  the 
influence  of  the  Graeco-Oriental  mysteries  of  expia- 
tion" (Harnack)  as  in  close  association  with  Paul 
and  the  Mosaic  sacrificial  ritual,  that  Origen  regarded 
the  death  on  the  Cross  in  the  light  of  the  vicarious 
sacrifice  of  expiation.  But,  since  he  maintained  pref- 
erentially the  Biblical  view  of  the  "ran.som  and 
redemption",  he  was  the  originator  of  the  one-sided 
"old  patristic  theory  of  the  redemption".  Inci- 
dentally ("In  Matt.,  xvi,  8,"  in  P.  G.,  XIII.  1397 
sqq.)  he  makes  the  rash  statement  that  the  ransom 
rendered  on  the  Cross  was  paid  to  the  Devil  —  a 
view  which  Gregory  of  Nyssa  later  systematized. 
This  statement  was,  however,  repudiated  byAdaman- 
tius  ("De  recta  in  Deum  fide",  I,  xxvii,  in  P.  G., 
XI,  17r)r)  sq(j.)  as  "the  height  of  blasphemous  folly" 
(woWrj  p\d(T4)vtJ-oi  ifoia),  and  was  positively  rejected 
by  (jlregory  of  Nazianzus  and  John  of  Damascus. 
This  r(;[)ulsive  theory  never  became  general  in  the 
Church,  although  the  ifiea  of  the  supposed  "rights 
of  the  Devil"  (erroneously  derived  from  John,  xii, 
31;  xiv,  30;  II  Cor.,  iv,  4;  II  Peter,  ii,  19)  survived 
among  some  ecclesiastical  writ(!rs  (!ven  to  the  time 
of  B(!(l(!  and  Peter  Lombard.  Whatever  Origen 
anfl  Gr(!gorv  of  Nyssa  say  of  our  ransom  from  the 
Evil  Oii(>,  they  are  both  cl(!ar  in  their  statements  that 
Christ  offeTS  the  sacrifice  of  expiation  to  the  Heavenly 
F'ather  and  not  to  the  Devil;  the  redemption  from 
the  slavery  of  the  Devil  is  effected  by  Christ  thrroigh 
His  sacrifice  on  the  Cross.  As,  according  to  Har- 
nack's  admission,  the  idea  of  vicarious  exi)iation  "is 
genuine  among  the  Latins",  we  may  easily  dispcoBe 


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with  the  testimony  of  Latin  patristic  literature. 
While  the  Greek  Church  adhered  to  the  old  mystical 
conception  in  connexion  with  the  theory  of  ransom, 
the  doctrine  of  the  Redemption  received  a  further 
development  in  the  "juristic  theory  of  satisfaction" 
of  St.  Anselm  of  Canterbury  ("Cur  Deus  homo" 
in  P.  L.,  CLVIII,  359  sqq.);  this  was  freed  of  some 
crudities  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  and  deepened  by 
the  "ethical  theory  of  reconciliation".  A  compre- 
hensive theory,  employing  dialectically  all  the  Bibli- 
cal and  patristic  factors,  is  still  a  desideratum  in 
speculative  theology. 

(2)  Theological  Problems. — Other  difficult  ques- 
tions concerning  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross  have 
been  already  more  successfully  dealt  with  by  theolo- 
gians. On  account  of  the  remarkable  and  unique 
coincidence  of  the  priest,  victim,  and  acceptor  of 
the  sacrifice,  a  first  question  arises  as  to  whether 
Christ  was  victim  and  priest  according  to  His  Divine 
or  according  to  His  human  nature.  On  the  basis 
of  the  dogma  of  the  hypostatic  union  the  only  answer 
is:  although  the  God-Man  or  the  Logos  Himself 
was  at  once  both  priest  and  victim,  He  was  both, 
not  according  to  His  Divine  nature,  but  through  the 
function  of  His  humanity.  For,  since  the  Divine 
nature  was  absolutely  incapable  of  suffering,  it  was 
no  more  possible  for  Christ  to  act  as  priest  according 
to  His  Divine  nature,  than  it  was  for  God  the  Father 
or  the  Holy  Ghost.  As  regards  the  relation  bctwce^n 
the  priest  and  the  acceptor,  it  is  usually  stated  in 
explanation  that  Christ  acts  only  as  sacrificing  i)ri('st, 
and  that  God  the  Father  alone  receives  the  sacrifice. 
This  view  is  false.  Even  though  God  the  Father  is 
mentioned  as  the  only  acceptor  by  the  Council  of 
Trent  (Sess.  XXII,  cap.  i),  this  is  merely  an  appro- 
priation, which  excludes  neither  the  Son  nor  the 
Holy  Ghost  in  the  matter  of  acceptance.  The 
acceptor  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross  is  thus  the 
offended  God,  or  the  whole  Trinity,  to  which  Christ 
as  Logos  and  Son  of  God  also  belongs.  One  must, 
however,  distinguish  between  the  Divinity  and  the 
Humanity  of  Christ  and  say:  while  Christ  as  God, 
together  with  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
accepted  His  own  sacrifice  in  expiation  of  the  offended 
Deity,  He  off(>red  this  same  sacrifice  as  Man  vicari- 
ously to  the  Blesscul  Trinity.  While  this  coincidence 
of  the  three  functions  of  priest,  victim,  and  acceptor 
in  the  same  Christ  may  constitute  a  mystery,  it 
yet  contains  no  contradiction  (cf.  Augustine,  "De 
civ.  Dei",  X,  xx).  A  third  problem  of  great  impor- 
tance concerns  the  nature  of  the  actio  sacrifica  in 
the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross.  Did  the  sacrificial  act 
consist  in  the  slaying  of  Christ  on  the  Cross?  This 
qu(!stion  must  be  answered  with  a  decided  negative; 
otherwise  one  would  have  to  say  that  the  function  of 
high-priest  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross  was  exercised, 
not  by  Christ,  but  by  his  torturers  and  their  myrmi- 
dons, the  Roman  soldiers.  In  the  Mosaic  sacrifices 
also  the  essence  of  the  sacrifice  lay,  not  in  the  actual 
slaying  of  the  victim,  but  in  the  letting,  or  rather 
in  the  sprinkling,  of  the  blood.  Consequently,  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Cro.ss,  at  which  Christ  functions  as 
sole  priest,  must  likewise  be  referred  to  the  free 
offering  of  His  blood  for  us  men,  inasmuch  as  the 
Redeemer,  while  outwardly  submitting  to  the  forci- 
ble shedding  of  His  blood  by  His  executioners, 
simultaneously  offered  it  to  God  in  the  spirit  of 
sacrifice  (cf.  John,  x,  17  sq.;  Heb.,  ix,  22:  I  Peter, 
i,  2). 

Tanner,  Cruentum  Christi  sacrificium,  incruentum  Missa  sacri- 
ficium  explicatum  (Prague,  1669) ;  Condren,  Das  Priestertum  u. 
das  Opfer  Jesu  Christi  (Ratisbon,  1847) ;  von  Cichowski,  Das 
alttestamentl.    Pascha    in    seinem    Verhaltnis    zum    Opfer   Christi 


(Munich,  1849);  Thalhofer,  Die  Opfer  des  Hebraerbriefes  (Dil- 
lingen,  18.5.5);  Idem,  Das  Opfer  des  alien  u.  neuen  Bundes  (Ratis- 
bon, 1870);  BicKEL,  Messeu.  Pascha  (Mainz,  1871);  Pell,  Das 
Dogma  von  der  Siindi-  u.  Erlosung  im  Lichte  der  Vernunft  (Ratis- 
bon, 1S.S6);  Idem,  Die  Lehre  des  hi.  Athanasius  von  der  SUnde  u. 
Erlosung  (Passau,  1888) ;  Oswald,  Die  Erldsung  in  Christo  Jesu 


(2nd  ed.,  Paderborn,  1887);  Strater,  Die  Erlosungslehre  des  hi. 
Athanasim  (Freiburg,  1894);  Anrich,  Das  antike  Mysterien- 
wesen  u.  sein  Einfluss  auf  das  Christentum  (Gottingen,  1894); 
Schenz,  Die  priesterl.  Tdtigkeit  des  Messias  nach  dem  Propheten 
Isajas  (Ratisbon,  1892);  Seeberg,  Der  Tod  Christi  in  seiner  Be- 
deutung  far  die  Erldsung  (Leipzig,  1895) ;  Dorholt,  Die  Lehre 
von  der  Genugtuung  Christi  (Paderborn,  1896) ;  Charre,  Le  sa- 
crifice de  I'Homme-Dieu  (Paris,  1899) ;  Grimm,  Gesch.  des  Leidena 
Jesu,  I  (Ratisbon,  1903) ;  Funke,  Die  Satisfactionstheorie  des  hi. 
Anselm  (Munster,  1903);  Ritter,  Christus  der  Erloser  (Linz, 
1903);  Belser,  Gesch.  des  Leidens  u.  Sterbens,  der  Auferstehung 
u.  Himmelfahrt  des  Herrn  (Freiburg,  1903) ;  Jentsch,  Hellentum 
u.  Christentum  (Leipzig,  1903) ;  Muth,  Die  Heilstat  Christi  ala 
stellvertretende  Genugtuung  (Ratisbon,  1904) ;  Riviere,  Le  dogme 
de  la  Redemption  (Paris,  1905);  Crombrdgghe,  De  soteriologioB 
Christiana  primis  fontibus  (Louvain,  1905);  Kluge,  Das  Seelenlei- 
den  des  Welterlosers  (Mainz,  1905);  Weigl,  Die  Heilslehre  des  hi. 
Cyrill  von  Jerusalem  (Mainz,  1905);  Weiss,  Die  messianischen 
Vorbilder  im  A.  T.  (Freiburg,  1905);  Fiebig,  Babel  u.  das  N.  T. 
(Tubingen,  1905) ;  Feldmann,  Der  Knecht  Gottes  in  Isajas  Kap. 
40-00  (Freiburg,  1907) ;  Staab,  Die  Lehre  von  der  stellvertretenden 
Genugtuung  Christi  (Paderborn,  1908)  ;  Pohle,  Dogmatik,  II 
(Paderborn,  1909);  Bauer,  Vom  Griechentum  zum  Christentum 
(Leipzig,  1910);  Harnack,  Dogmengesch.,  I-II  (Tubingen,  1901). 
For  other  literature  see  Mass,  Sacrifice  of  the,  and  Priest- 


IV.  Theory  of  Sacrifice. — In  view  of  the  com- 
prehensive historical  material  which  we  have  gathered 
both  from  pagan  practice  and  from  the  religions 
Divinely  revealed,  it  is  now  possible  to  essay  a  scien- 
tific theory  of  sacrifice,  the  chief  lines  being  drawn 
naturally  from  the  Jewish  and  Christian  sacrificial 
.systems. 

(1)  Universality  of  Sacrifice. — One  of  the  specially 
characteristic  features  which  the  history  of  religions 
places  before  us  is  the  wide  diffusion,  even  the  univer- 
sality, of  sacrifice  among  the  human  race.  It  ia 
true  that  Andrew  Lang  ("The  Making  of  a  Religion", 
London,  1899)  maintains  the  improbable  view  that 
originally  the  supreme,  majestic,  and  heavenly  God 
was  as  little  venerated  with  sacrifices  as  He  is  to-day 
among  certain  tribes  of  Africa  and  Australia;  that 
even  in  the  Jahwehism  of  the  Israelites  the  sacrificial 
cult  was  rather  a  degeneration  than  an  ethico-reli- 
gious  advance.  In  agreement  with  this  (other  in- 
vestigators add)  is  the  fact  that  in  many  features 
the  Mosaic  sacrificial  ritual  was  simply  borrowed 
from  the  pagan  ritual  of  the  Egyptians,  Babylonians, 
and  other  Semitic  peoples.  It  is  remarkabh!  also 
that  many  leathers  of  the  Church  (e.  g.  Chrysostom) 
and  Scholastics,  and  among  the  Jews,  Maiinonides 
represented  the  Mosaic  sacrifices  as  merely  a  conces- 
sion which  God  made  to  the  weakness  of  the  Jewish 
character  in  order  to  restrain  the  Chosen  People 
from  the  horrors  of  bloody  sacrifice  to  idols.  This 
one-sided  view,  however,  cannot  be  maintained 
before  the  bar  of  the  history  or  the  psychology  of 
rehgion.  Nothing  is  psychologically  so  intelligible 
as  the  derivation  of  sacrifice  from  the  naturally 
religious  heart  of  man,  and  the  history  of  all  peoples 
similarly  proves  that  scarcely  a  single  religion  has 
ever  existed  or  exists  to-day  without  some  sacrifice. 
A  religion  entirely  without  sacrifice  seems  almost  a 
psychological  impossibility,  and  is  at  least  unnatural. 
It  is  the  complete  want  of  sacrifice  among  some  Afri- 
can and  Australian  tribes,  rather  than  the  numerous 
sacrifices  of  Mosaism,  that  has  resulted  from  degen- 
eration. Had  God  conceded  the  bloody  sacrifices 
simply  on  account  of  the  weakness  of  the  Israelites, 
as  above  asserted.  He  would  have  promoted,  rather 
than  checked,  the  spread  of  pagan  idolatrj',  espe- 
cially if  the  sacrificial  ritual  were  also  taken  from 
pagan  religions.  Here  as  elsewhere  parallels  in 
other  religions  prove  no  borrowing,  unless  such  is 
supported  by  strict  historical  evidence,  and  even  the 
actual  borrowings  may  in  their  new  home  have  been 
inspired  with  an  entirely  new  spirit.  The  adoption 
of  the  substance  of  paganism  into  Mosaism  is  dis- 
proved especially  by  the  anti-pagan  and  unique 
idea  of  holiness  with  which  the  whole  Jewish  cult 
is  stamped  (cf.  Lev.,  xi,  44),  and  which  shows  the 
sacrificial  thora  as  of  one  piece.     A  later  editor  could 


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318 


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never  have  imprinted  the  stamp  of  hoUness  on  a 
ritual  composed  of  pagan  fragments  without  the 
pure  paganism  peeping  through  the  seams  and  join- 
ings. One  must  therefore,  both  before  and  after 
the  Priest's  Code  (save  for  later  additions  and  accom- 
modations to  new  circumstances),  regard  the  sacri- 
ficial tlwra  as  truly  Mosaic,  and  see  in  them  the 
expression  not  only  of  human  nature,  but  also  of 
the  Divine  will.  A  remarkable  exception  from  the 
general  rule  is  Islamism,  which  knows  neither  sacri- 
fice nor  priest ;  sacrifice  is  replaced  by  a  strict  ritual 
of  prayer,  with  which  rehgious  ablutions  and  alms- 
giving* are  associated.  Again,  while  genuine  Bud- 
dhism rejects  sacrifice,  this  rule  was  far  from  obtaining 
in  practice,  for  Lamaism  in  Tibet  has  sacrifices 
for  the  dead,  and  the  average  Buddhist  of  the  people 
offers  unbloody  sacrifices  to  his  buddha.  The 
Hindu  ofi"ers  flowers,  oil,  food,  and  incense  to  his 
idols,  and  slays  victims  to  the  god  Shiva  and  his 
spouse.  And  not  even  the  believing  Protestant  is 
without  a  sacrifice,  since,  in  spite  of  his  rejection 
of  the  Mass,  he  at  least  recognizes  Christ's  death 
on  the  Cross  as  the  great  sacrifice  of  Christianity. 
(2)  Species  of  Sacrifice. — The  two  chief  kinds  of 
sacrifice,  the  bloody  and  the  unbloody,  were  sug- 
gested to  mankind  by  nature  itself,  and  were  thus 
known  in  the  earliest  times.  To  which  of  the  two 
historical  priority  is  to  be  conceded,  can  scarcely 
be  decided.  For  the  greater  antiquity  of  the  un- 
bloody sacrifice  equally  good  grounds  can  be  offered 
as  for  that  of  the  bloody  sacrifice.  The  earliest  his- 
torical mentions  of  sacrifice  found  in  the  Bible 
would  make  them  coeval,  for  Cain  as  the  husband- 
man oflfered  the  fruits  of  the  field,  while  his  brother 
Abel  as  the  shepherd  offered  bloody  victims  (Gen., 
iv,  3  sq.).  As  regards  pagan  religions,  many  histo- 
rians of  religion  plead  for  the  priority  of  the  unbloody 
sacrifice.  Porphyrins  and  Theophrastus  also  ex- 
pressed the  view  that  the  first  sacrifices  consisted  of 
plants  and  flowers,  which  were  burned  in  honour 
of  the  Deity.  The  soma-haoma,  a  drink-offering 
common  to  both  Indian  Vedism  and  Iranian  Parsee- 
ism,  must  be  dated  back  to  primeval  times,  when 
the  Indians  and  the  Iranians  still  formed  one  great 
people.  How  the  Indians  came  to  offer  their  very 
ancient  horse  sacrifice  is  unknown.  It  is  a  mere 
surmise  to  suppose  that  perhaps  the  general  transi- 
tion from  a  vegetable  to  a  flesh  diet,  as  related  by 
Noe  (cf.  Gen.,  ix,  3  sqq.),  occasioned  the  rise  of 
animal  sacrifices.  The  rare  occurrence  of  slaying 
an  animal  was  turned  into  a  festival,  which  was  cele- 
brated with  sacrific(;s.  Among  the  earliest  Hebrews 
sebach  (bloody  sacrifice)  was  a  "slaying  festival", 
with  which  bloody  sacrifice  was  inseparably  asso- 
ciated. The  introduction  of  bloody  sacrifices  among 
the  Iranians  is  more  easily  explained,  since,  espe- 
cially in  Zoroastrianism,  it  was  esteciricd  a  great  merit 
to  destroy  the  harmful  animals  belonging  to  the 
wicked  god  Ahriman,  and  eventually  to  sacrifice 
them  to  the  good  god  CJrmuzd.  Further  than  sur- 
mises, however,  we  are  unable  to  go.  That  the 
unbloody  sa^;rifice  wa«  practised  among  the  ancient 
Greeks,  cla-ssical  archaeologists  maintain  with  good 
reawjn,  arguing  that  in  Homer  the  word  O^eiv  (Lat. 
suffire)  did  not  mean  "to  .slay"  or  "to  offer  as  a 
bloody  sacrifice"  (as  it  did  in  post-Homeric  Greek), 
but  rather  to  "offer  a  smoking  sacrifice"  (incense). 
It  in  not  impossible  that  evc^n  the  cruel  and  volup- 
tuous cults  of  Anterior  Asia  also  offered  at  first  only 
vegetable  sacrifices,  since  the  fundamental  idea  of 
their  religion,  the  death  and  rtmascence  of  nature, 
is  expressed  most  evidently  anfl  impressively  in  the 
plant  world.  All  this  is  however  purely  h ypot  hct  ical. 
The  observation  that  human  sacrifice  onc(^  extended 
over  the  whole  earth,  leaves  room  also  for  the  siif)- 
position  that  the  bloody  sacrifice  in  the  form  of 
slaughtered  men  claims  chronological  priority,  the  hid- 


eous custom  being  replaced,  as  civilization  advanced, 
by  the  sacrifice  of  animals.  But  among  many  peo- 
ples (e.  g.  the  Chanaanites,  Phoenicians,  and  the 
ancient  Mexicans)  not  even  the  possession  of  a  high 
culture  succeeded  in  abohshing  the  detestable  human 
sacrifices.  But,  whatever  view  may  be  taken  of 
the  priority  question,  it  is  undoubted  that  both  the 
bloody  and  the  unbloody  sacrifices  reach  back  to 
prehistoric  times. 

Not  without  its  significance  for  the  scientific  idea 
of  sacrifice  is  the  fact  that  the  material  of  the  bloody 
and  unbloody  sacrifices  was  regularly  taken  from 
things  used  as  food  and  drink,  and  indeed  from  the 
best  of  these  commodities.  This  very  general  cir- 
cumstance affords  evidence  that  the  sacrificial  gift 
must  be  taken  from  the  belongings  of  the  sacrificer 
and  must  be  associated,  as  a  means  of  sustenance, 
with  his  physical  life.  The  independent  sacrifice 
of  incense  alone  requires  another  explanation;  this 
is  supphed  by  the  fragrant  odour,  which  symbolizes 
either  the  sweetness  of  the  ascending  offering  of 
prayer  or  the  gracious  acceptance  of  the  sacrifice 
by  the  Deity.  The  bloody  sacrifice,  on  account 
of  its  symbohcal  connexion  with  the  life  of  man, 
was  especially  expressive  of  complete  self -oblat  ion 
to  the  Divinity.  In  the  cruder  views  of  naive 
natural  man,  the  ascending  odour  of  the  incense 
offering  soothed  the  olfactory  organs  of  the  gods. 
Especially  crude  was  this  unworthy  materializing 
of  sacrifice  in  Indian  Vedism  (the  soma  drink)  and 
in  the  Babylonian  story  of  the  Flood,  where  it  is 
said:  "The  gods  suck  in  the  fragrant  odour;  like 
flies,  the  gods  gathered  over  the  sacrificer."  Even 
the  Old  Testament  expression,  "a  sweet  savour  for 
God"  {odor  suavitaiis),  was  originally  an  accommoda- 
tion to  the  ingenuous  ideas  of  the  uncultured  nomadic 
people  (cf.  Gen.,  viii,  21;  Lev.,  i,  17,  etc.),  an  anthro- 
pomorphism which  was  ever  more  clearly  recognized 
as  such  according  as  the  Israelites  progressed  in 
their  ethical  refinement  of  the  idea  of  God.  Not  on 
the  greatness  or  material  worth  of  the  sacrificial 
gifts  should  store  be  laid,  since  Jahweh  was  above 
necessity,  but  on  the  true  sentiment  of  sacrifice, 
without  which,  as  declared  by  the  Prophets  (cf. 
Is.,  i,  11  sqq.;  Osee,  iv,  8;  Mai.,  i,  10),  all  external 
sacrifices  were  not  only  worthless,  but  even  repre- 
hensible. 

(3)  Rites  of  Sacrifice. — While  sacrifice  itself  origi- 
nates spontaneously  in  the  natural  prompting  of 
rehgious-minded  man,  the  particular  rites,  dependent 
on  law  and  custom,  display  a  manifold  variety  at 
different  times  and  places.  Among  the  different 
peoples  the  ceremonial  of  sacrifice  offers  indeed  a  very 
variegated  picture.  If  we  emphasize  only  that  which 
was  general  and  common  to  all,  the  simplest  sacrificial 
rite  consists  in  the  men^  exposition  of  th<!  gifts  in  a 
holy  place,  as  for  exanii)le  the  sliow-hread  (panis 
proposilionis)  of  the  Lsraclifcs  and  Hal)yIonians,  or 
the  votive  offerings  {annlhcindhi)  of  tlie  Greeks.  Fre- 
quently the  idea  of  eritcrtaiiiiiig  the  gods  or  the  dead 
is  evidently  associatcul  with  the  offering  of  food  and 
drink,  e.  g.  among  th(!  Indians,  Egyptians,  and 
Greeks.  Even  in  the  oldest  history  of  Israel  this 
idea  of  entertainment,  although  spiritualized,  is 
perceptible  (Judges,  vi,  17  sqq.;  xiii,  15  sqq.).  As 
true  sacrifices  in  the  strict  sense  were  regarded  only 
tho.se  in  which  a  real  alt(Tation  was  eff(!cted  in  the 
sacrificial  gift  at  the  time  of  offering  it.  By  this 
immutation  the  gifts  were  not  only  withdrawn  from 
all  profane  usage,  but  wcire  also  completely  given 
over  to  t  he  service  and  pos.session  of  God  or  the  gods. 
With  this  object  in  view  edibles  or  sacrificial  victims 
were  either  completely  or  partly  burned,  while 
libations  were  poured  out  as  <lrink  offerings.  The 
earliest  form  seems  to  have  been  t.he  whole  or  burnt - 
offering  (holocaust).  While  only  special  portions  of 
the  victims  (for  the  most  part  the  best  portions)  were 


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319 


SACRIFICE 


burned,  the  remainder  of  the  flesh  was  regarded 
as  holy  sacrificial  food,  and  was  eaten  either  by  the 
priests  or  by  the  offerers  in  a  holy  place  (or  even  at 
home)  with  the  idea  of  entering  into  communion. 
The  chief  element  in  the  sacrifice,  however,  was  not 
the  sacrificial  meal,  .but  rather  the  sprinkhng  of  the 
blood,  which,  as  the  bearer  of  life,  was  clearly  in- 
tended in  many  religions  to  represent  man  himself. 
This  idea  of  substitution  is  seen  with  overwhelming 
clearness  in  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  on  the  Cross. 
Among  all  peoples  the  sacrifice,  as  the  chief  and  most 
perfect  function  of  religion,  was  surrounded  with  the 
greatest  pomp  and  solemnity;  the  celebration  was 
usually  of  a  light  and  joyous  character,  especially 
in  the  case  of  the  sacrifices  of  praise,  petition,  and 
thanksgiving.  With  joyous  heart  man  consecrated 
himself  to  the  Deity  through  the  medium  of  the 
gifts  he  offered.  External  adornment,  music,  song, 
prayer,  and  dance  heightened  the  festive  joy.  On 
the  other  hand  the  expiatory  sacrifice  was  of.  a  serious 
character,  whether  it  was  intended  to  atone  for  mis- 
deeds or  to  avert  misfortune.  Not  every  private 
person  was  competent  to  offer  sacrifice;  this  function 
pertained  only  to  certain  persons  or  priests,  whose 
office  was  immediately  connected  with  the  sacrifices. 
In  the  earliest  time  the  head  of  the  family  or  tribe 
performed  the  functions  of  priest  —  in  ancient  Egypt 
the  king,  as  even  to-day  the  emperor  in  China  (see 
Priesthood).  Sacrifice  and  altar  (q.v.)  are,  like 
sacrifice  and  priest,  correlative  terms.  Originally 
the  altar  consisted  of  a  single  stone,  which  by  conse- 
cration became  the  dwelling  of  God  (cf.  Gen.,  xii, 
7  sq.;  xiii,  4;  xxviii,  18  sqq.).  Among  many  peoples 
the  place  of  sacrifice  was  either  the  house  (for  private 
sacrifices)  or  the  open  air  (for  public  sacrifices). 
In  the  latter  case  specially  selected  places  (trees, 
groves,  heights)  in  an  elevated  position  were  preferred 
for  sacrifice.  Among  the  Romans  altar  and  hearth 
(ara  et  focus)  were  regarded  as  indispensable  requi- 
sites for  sacrifice. 

(4)  Origin  of  Sacrifice. — Since  sacrifice  is  a  regular 
concomitant  of  every  religion,  sacrifice  must,  accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  causalitj',  have  originated  simultane- 
ously with  religion.  Consequently,  sacrifice  is  as  old 
as  religion  itself.  It  is  evident  that  the  nature  of 
the  explanation  given  of  sacrifice  will  depend  on  the 
views  one  takes  of  the  origin  of  religion  in  general. 

(a)  Widely  held  to-day  is  the  theory  of  evolution, 
which,  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  Darwin, 
endeavours  to  trace  th(!  origin  of  religion  from  the 
degraded  stage  of  the  half-animal,  religionless  prime- 
val man,  and  its  gradual  development  to  higher 
forms.  The  scheme  of  development  is  naturally 
different  according  to  the  personal  standpoint  of  thf; 
investigator.  As  the  starting-point  for  the  comjiara- 
tive  study  of  the  lowest  religious  forms  is  usually 
taken  the  uncivilized  savage  of  to-day,  the  true  por- 
trait of  the  primeval  man  (Lubbock,  Tylor,  etc.). 
An  attempt  is  made  to  construct  an  ascending  scale 
from  the  crudest  Fetichism  to  naturalistic  Polythe- 
ism, from  which  develops  ethical  Monotheism,  as  the 
highest  and  purest  product.  Until  recently  the 
Animism  (q.  v.)  proposed  by  Tylor  was  the  prevalent 
theory;  this  traced  religion  from  the  ancient  worship 
of  souls,  ghosts,  spirits  of  ancestors,  etc.  (under  the 
influence  of  fear).  At  this  original  stage  sacrifice 
had  no  other  purpose  than  the  feeding  and  enter- 
taining of  these  deified  beings,  or  their  appeasement 
and  conciliation,  if  hostile  dispositions  were  ascribed 
to  them  (demons).  In  recent  times  this  explanation, 
once  honoured  as  dogma  in  the  history  of  religions, 
is  most  vigorously  combated  by  the  experts  them- 
selves as  untenable.  It  has  been  recognized  that 
Animism  and  the  kindred  Fetichism  and  Totemism 
represent  only  secondary  elements  of  many  nature- 
religions,  not  the  essence.  "In  any  case,"  says 
Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye,  "a  purely  animistic  basis 


of  religion  can  nowhere  be  shown"  ("Lehrbuch  der 
Rehgionsgeschichte",  I,  Tubingen,  1905,  p.  12). 
But  if  the  origin  of  the  idea  of  God  cannot  be  ex- 
plamed  from  Animism,  entertainment  cannot  have 
been  the  original  idea  of  sacrifice,  especially  since, 
according  to  the  most  recent  investigations,  the 
primeval  religions  seem  to  converge  rather  towards 
Monotheism.  Just  as  in  the  consciou.sness  of  all 
sacrificHig  peoples  the  gods  remained  sublime  above 
souls,  spirits,  and  demons,  sacrifice  as  a  religious  gift 
far  transcended  food  and  drink.  But,  wherever  the 
gods  are  represented  as  companions  at  the  banquet, 
there  always  appeared  the  right  idea,  that  by  his 
participation  in  the  sacrificial  gifts  man  enters  into 
communion  with  the  gods,  and  (e.  g.  in  the  case  of 
the  ancient  Indian  sotna  drink)  even  partakes  of 
divine  strength.  The  obscuring  of  this  idea  by  an- 
thropomorphic errors,  fostered  by  priestly  deceit,  did 
indeed  here  and  there  lead  to  the  one-sided  "feeding  of 
the  gods"  (cf.  Dan.,  xiv,  2  sqq.),  but  this  may  by  no 
means  be  regarded  as  a  primitive  institution.  Ani- 
mism (q.  V.)  is  most  successfully  refuted  by  Andrew 
Lang  ("The  Making  of  a  Religion",  London,  1898). 

(b)  A  second  naturalistic  explanation,  which  may 
be  called  the  "social  theory",  derives  religion  from 
social  instincts  and  accordingly  sacrifice  from  the 
communal  meal  which  was  established  to  strengthen 
and  seal  in  religious  manner  the  tribal  community. 
These  communal  meals  are  supposed  to  have  given  the 
first  impulse  to  sacrifice.  These  fundamental  thoughts 
may  be  developed  in  several  ways.  As  Totemism, 
in  addition  to  its  religious,  has  also  a  distinctly  social 
element,  and  in  this  respect  is  on  a  far  higher  level 
than  Animism,  some  authors  (especially  W.  Robert- 
son Smith,  "The  Religion  of  the  Semites",  London, 
1894)  believe  that  the  origin  of  animal  sacrifices  can 
be  traced  back  to  Totemism.  When  the  different 
clans  or  divisions  of  a  tribe  partook  at  the  communal 
meal  of  the  sacred  animal  (totem),  which  represented 
their  god  and  ancestors,  they  believed  that  by  this 
meal  they  participated  in  the  divine  life  of  the  animal 
itself.  Sacrifice  in  the  sense  of  offering  gifts  to  the 
Deity,  the  symbolic  replacing  of  human  life  by  an 
animal,  the  idea  of  ex-piation,  etc.,  are  declared  to  be- 
long to  a  much  later  period  of  the  history  of  sacrifice. 
Originally  the  gifts  of  cereals  had  rather  the  character 
of  a  tribute  due  to  the  gods,  and  this  idea  was  later 
transferred  to  the  animal  sacrifices.  It  is  however 
very  questionable  whether  this  totemistic  theory, 
notwithstanding  some  excellent  suggestions,  entirely 
meets  the  facts.  Certainly  the  social  force  of  religion 
and  its  significance  in  the  formation  of  communities 
should  not  be  underestimated;  but,  apart  from  the 
fact  that  Totemism  is  not,  any  more  than  Animism, 
an  explanation  of  the  origin  of  religion,  the  hypothesis 
is  contradicted  by  the  certain  fact  that  in  the  earliest 
epoch  the  whole  or  burnt  offering  existed  side  by  side 
with  the  communal  meal,  the  former  being  equally 
old,  if  not  older  than  the  latter.  In  the  consciousness 
of  the  peoples  the  sacrificial  meal  constituted  not  so 
much  an  element  of  the  sacrifice,  as  the  participation, 
confirmation,  and  completion  of  the  same.  On  the 
same  ground  what  is  called  the  "banquet  theory"  of 
the  late  Bishop  Bellord  must  also  be  rejected;  this 
theory  refers  the  essence  of  the  sacrifice  to  the  meal, 
and  declares  a  sacrifice  without  a  meal  impossible 
(cf.  The  Ecclesiastical  Review,  XXXIII,  1905,  pp.  1 
sqq.,  258  sqq.).  This  theory  is  not  in  accordance 
with  the  facts;  for,  as  it  is  compelled  to  refer  the  es- 
sence of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  solely  to  the  priest's 
communion,  instead  of  to  the  twofold  transubstan- 
tiation,  the  truth  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross  can  be 
maintained  only  on  the  forced  and  false  supposition 
that  the  Last  Supper  in  its  organic  connexion  with  the 
Crucifixion  imprinted  on  the  latter  its  sacrificial  char- 
acter.    (For  further  particulars,  see  Mass,  Sacrifice 

OF  THE.) 


SACRIFICE 


320 


SACRIFICE 


(c)  So  far  as  we  may  gather  from  revelation,  the 
most  natural  and  probable  ^•iew  seems  to  be  that 
sacrifice  originated  in  the  positive  comniand  of  God, 
since,  by  the  original  revelation  in  Panuiise,  the  whole 
rehgion  of  mankind  appears  to  have  been  established 
in  advance  on  a  supernatural  basis.  The  Greek 
legend  of  the  invention  of  sacrifice  by  Prometheus  and 
the  giant  Chiron,  together  with  similar  legends  of 
Asiatic  religions,  might  be  interpreted  as  reminiscences 
of  the  Divine  origin  of  sacrifice.  The  i)ositive  com- 
mand to  sacrifice  might  even  after  the  Fall  have  been 
preserved  by  tradition  among  the  descendants  of 
Adam,  and  thus  spread  among  the  pagan  nations  of  all 
lands.  The  idolatrous  deviations  from  the  paradisaic 
idea  of  sacrifice  would  thus  appear  as  regrettable 
errors. •which,  however,  would  not  be  more  difficult  to 
explain  than  the  general  fall  of  the  human  race.  But, 
however  plausible  and  probable  this  hj-pothesis  may 
be.  it  is  unprovable,  and  indeed  unnecessary  for  the 
explanation  of  sacrifice.  Regarding  sacrifice  in  Para- 
dise the  Bible  gives  us  no  information;  for  the  explana- 
tion of  "eating  of  the  Tree  of  Life"  as  a  sacramental 
food  offering  is  a  later  theologumenon  which  the 
acuteness  of  theologians,  following  Augustine's  lead, 
has  devised.  But  without  recurring  to  a  Divine  or- 
dinance, the  origin  of  sacrifice  may  easily  be  explained 
by  purely  psychological  motives.  In  consideration 
of  the  relation  of  son  ship  between  man  and  God, 
which  was  felt  more  deeply  in  primitive  times  than 
subsequently,  the  only  eA-idence  of  sincere  inner 
adoration  that  the  creature  could  give  was  by  sacri- 
ficing some  of  his  own  possessions,  thus  visibly  ex- 
pressing his  absolute  submission  to  the  Divine 
Majesty.  Nor  was  it  less  in  keeping  with  the  inner 
promptings  of  man  to  declare  his  gratitude  to  God 
by  gifts  offered  in  return  for  benefits  received,  and 
to  give  through  the  medium  of  sacrificial  presents 
expression  to  his  petitions  for  new  favours.  Finally, 
the  sinner  might  hope  to  free  himself  of  the  oppressive 
consciousness  of  guilt,  when  in  the  spirit  of  contrition 
he  had  to  the  best  of  his  abihty  repaired  the  wrong 
done  to  the  Divinity.  The  more  childhke  and  in- 
genuous the  conception  of  God  formed  by  primitive 
man,  the  more  natural  and  easy  was  for  him  the  in- 
troduction of  sacrifice.  A.  trulj^  good  child  offers  little 
gifts  to  his  parents,  though  he  does  not  know  what 
they  will  do  with  them.  The  psychological  theory 
thus  seems  to  offer  the  best  explanation  of  the  origin 
of  sacrifice. 

(.5)  Object  of  Sacrifice. — As  its  "metaphysical  form", 
the  object  first  gives  sacrifice  its  full  spiritual  content, 
and  quickens  the  external  rites  with  a  living  soul. 
The  developed  pagan  religions  agree  with  revealed 
religion  in  the  idea  that  sacrifice  is  intended  to  give 
symbolical  expression  to  man's  complete  surrender 
of  himself  into  the  hands  of  the  Supreme  God  in  order 
to  obtain  communion  with  Him.  In  the  recognition 
of  the  absfjlute  supremacy  of  God  lies  the  juridical, 
and  in  the  correlative  absolute  subjection  to  God  the 
ethical  side  of  sacrifice.  In  both  moments  the  latreu- 
tic  character  of  the  sacrifice  stands  out  clearly,  since 
to  God  alone,  as  the  First  Cause  (Causa  prima)  and 
the  Last  End  (Finis  uUimus)  of  all  things,  may  sacrifice 
be  offered.  Even  the  idolatrous  sacrifices  of  pagans 
did  not  entirely  lo.se  sight  of  this  fundamental  idea, 
since  they  esteemed  their  idols  as  gods.  Even  sacri- 
fices of  thanksgiving  and  petition  never  exclude  this 
es.s(intial  latreutir;  feature,  since  they  concern  thanks- 
givings and  p(;titions  io  the  ever-adorable  Divinity. 
From  our  sinful  condition  arises  the  fourth  object  of 
sacrifice,  i.  e.  the  appeasing  of  the  Divine  an|5er. 
The  fourfold  object  of  sacrifice  supplies  an  immediate 
explanation  of  tlie  four  kinds  of  sacrifice  (cf.  St. 
Thomas,  I-II,  Q.  cii,  a.  'i).  With  the  sentiments  of 
sacrifice  incorporated  in  thcs(;  objects  is  closely  con- 
nected the  high  imp<jrtanc^  of  prayer,  which  accom- 
panies the  rite  of  sacrifice  in  all  the  higher  religions; 


Grimm  thus  simply  declares:  "Sacrifice  is  only  a 
prayer  offered  with  gifts."  Where  we  are  to  seek 
the  culminating  point  of  the  sacrificial  act  (actio 
sacn'fica),  in  wliich  the  object  of  sacrifice  is  especially 
expressed,  is  the  most  freely  debated  question,  and 
concerning  it  the  theorists  are  not  in  agreement. 
While  some  see  the  culmination  of  the  sacrifice  in 
the  real  alteration  (pnmutatio),  and  especially  in  the 
destruction  of  the  gift,  others  refer  the  essence  of  the 
sacrificial  act  to  the  external  oblation  of  the  gift, 
after  it  has  been  subjected  to  any  change  whatsoever; 
a  third,  but  not  very  numerous  party  make  the  sacri- 
ficial meal  the  chief  element.  This  last  view  has  al- 
ready been  set  aside  as  untenable.  That  the  meal  is 
not  essential  is  likewise  showni  by  numerous  sacrifices, 
with  which  no  meal  is  associated  (e.  g.  the  primitive 
burnt-sacrifice,  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross).  Again, 
the  importance  of  the  blood,  which  as  a  means  of 
nourishment  was  avoided,  spurned  by,  and  even  for- 
bidden to  the  Jews,  finds  no  ex-pression  in  the  banquet- 
theory.  That  the  destruction  of  the  gift  (especially 
the  slaying)  cannot  constitute  the  essence  of  the 
sacrifice  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  the  sprinkling  of 
the  blood  (aspersio  sanguinis)  was  regarded  as  the 
culmination,  and  the  killing  as  onlj^  the  preparation 
for  the  real  sacrificial  act.  In  fact  the  "destruction 
theory",  settled  in  Cathohc  theology  since  the  time 
of  Vasquez  and  Bellarmine,  harmonizes  neither  with 
the  historical  pagan  conception  of  sacrifice  nor  with 
the  essence  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  on  the  Cross,  nor 
finally  with  the  fundamental  ideas  of  the  Mosaic  cult. 
The  destruction  is  at  most  the  material,  and  the 
oblation  the  formal  element  of  the  sacrifice.  Con- 
sequently, the  idea  of  sacrifice  lies  in  the  self -surrender 
of  man  to  God,  not  with  the  object  of  (symbolical) 
self-destruction,  but  of  final  transformation,  glorifica- 
tion, and  deification.  Wherever  a  meal  is  associated 
with  the  sacrifice,  this  signifies  merely  the  confirma- 
tion and  certification  of  the  communion  with  God,  al- 
ready existing  or  reacquired  by  expiation.  We  may 
thus  define  sacrifice  as  the  external  oblation  to  God 
by  an  authorized  minister  of  a  sense-perceptible 
object,  either  through  its  destruction  or  at  least  its 
real  transformation,  in  acknowledgement  of  God's 
supreme  dominion  and  for  the  appeasing  of  His 
wrath.  In  so  far  as  this  definition  refers  to  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  Mass,  see  Mass,  Sacrifice  of  the. 

Becanus,  De  triplici  sacrificio  naturcE,  legis,  gratia;  (Lyons, 
1631);  OuTRAM,  De  sacrificiis  libri  duo  (Amsterdam,  1078); 
Stockl,  Das  Opfer  nach  seinem  Wesen  u.  seiner  Gesch.  (Mainz, 
1861);  VON  La.saulx,  Ueber  die  Gebete  der  Griechen  u.  Romer 
(Wiirzburg,  1842);  Idem,  Die  Silknopfer  der  Griechen  u.  R6mer 
u.  ihr  Verhaltnis  zum  Einen  auf  Golgalha  (Ratisbon,  1854);  Db 
Maistke,  Eclaircissements  sur  le  sacrifice  (Paris,  1862);  D6l<- 
LiNGER,  Heidentum  u.  Judentum  (2nd  ed.,  Ratisbon,  1868); 
Wangemann,  Das  Opfer  nach  der  Lehre  der  hi.  Schrift  des  A.u.  N. 
Teslamentes  (Berlin,  1866);  LtJKEN,  Die  Traditionen  des  Men- 
schengeschlechls  (Munstcr,  1869);  Schui.tze,  Der  Fetischismits 
(Leipzig,  1871);  MOller,  Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Religion 
(London,  1873) ;  Idem,  Lectures  on  the  Origin  of  Religion  (London, 
1878);  Idem,  Natural  Religion  (London,  1899);  Idem,  Physical 
Religion  (London,  1890);  Idem,  Anthropological  Religion  (Lon- 
don, 1892) ;  Fairbairn,  Studies  in  the  Philosophy  of  Religion  atul 
History  (I^ndon,  1876);  Freeman-Clarke,  Ten  Great  Religions 
(2  vols.,  London,  1871-83);  Cairo,  An  Introduction  to  the  Philos- 
ophy of  Religion  (London,  1880) ;  von  Hartmann,  Das  religiose 
Bewusslsein  der  Mensrheit  in  Stufengang  seiner  Enttvickelung 
(Berlin,  1882);  Lippert,  Allgemcine  Gesch.  des  Priestertums  (2 
vols.,  Berlin,  1883);  Schneider,  Die  Naturvdlker  (  2  vols.,  Pader- 
born,  1885-86) ;  Pfleiderer,  Religions  philosophic  auf  geschichtl. 
Grundlage  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1883-89);  Koppler,  Priester  u.  Op- 
fergabe  (Mainz,  1886);  Robertson-Smith,  Lectures  on  the  Re- 
ligion of  the  Semites  (London,  1889) ;  Kelloq,  The  Genesis  and 
Growth  of  Religion  (New  York,  1892);  Siebbck,  Lehrbuch  dei-  Re- 
ligionsgesch.  (Freiburg,  1883);  Jevons,  An  Introduction  to  the  His- 
tory of  Religion  (London  and  New  York,  1896);  Sabatier,  Im 
doctrine  de  iexpiation  el  son  ivolution  historique  (Paris,  1896); 
Tiele,  Elements  of  the  Science  of  Religion  (New  York,  1890) ; 
Brinton,  Religions  of  Primitive  Peoples  (New  York,  1897); 
Lang,  The  Making  of  a  Religion  (London  and  New  York,  1898); 
De  la  Grasherie,  Aa  psychologie  des  religions  (Paris,  1899);  Le> 
tourneau,  L'imhttion  retigieuse  (Paris,  1897);  von  Orelli.  AW- 
gemeine  Religionsgesch.  (Bonn,  1899);  Frazer,  The  Golden 
Hough  (Ixjndon  anrl  New  York,  1900);  Idem,  Totemism  ani  Et- 
ogamy  (I>ondon  1910);  Borchert,  Der  Animismus  oder  Ursprung 
der  Religion  aus  dem  Seelen-,  Ahnen-  u.  Geislerkult  (I^eipzig,  1900); 
Zapletal,   Der   Totemismua  u.  die  Religion  Israels   (Freiburg, 


SACRILEGE 


321 


SACRIS 


1900);  Morris-Jastrow,  The  Study  of  Religion  (London,  1901); 
Renz,  Die  Gesch.  des  Messopferbegriffs,l  (Freising,  1901);  Lub- 
bock, The  Oriyin  of  Civilization  and  the  Primitive  Condition  of 
Man  (6th  ed.,  London,  1902);  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture  (2  vela., 
6th  ed.,  London,  1902) ;  Bousset,  jDos  Wesen  der  Religion 
(Leipzig,  1903) ;  Dorner,  Grundriss  der  Religionsphilonophie 
(Leipzig,  1903) ;  Pohle,  Dogmatik,  III  (Paderborn,  1910),  317-27; 
Pell,  Noch  ein  Losungsversuch  zur  Messopferfrage  unter  Revision 
des  Opferhegriffs  (2nd  ed.,  Passau,  1911).  Cf.  Gourd  in  Revue  de 
metaphysique  el  de  morale  (1902),  131  sqq.;  Meschler  in  Stimmen 
aus  Maria-Laach,  LXIX  (190.5),  156  sqq.;  Zeitschr.  fur  Religions- 
psychologie,  II  (1908),  81  sqq.  J.   PoHLE. 

Sacrilege  (Lat.  sacrilegium,  robbing  a  temple, 
from  sacer,  sacred,  and  legere,  to  purloin)  is  in  general 
the  violation  or  injurious  treatment  of  a  sacred  object. 
In  a  less  proper  sense  any  transgression  against  the 
virtue  of  religion  would  be  a  sacrilege.  Theologians 
are  substantially  agreed  in  regarding  as  sacred  that 
and  that  only  which  by  a  public  rite  and  by  Divine 
or  ecclestiastical  institution  has  been  dedicated  to  the 
worship  of  God.  The  point  is  that  the  public  au- 
thority must  intervene;  private  initiative,  no  matter 
how  ardent  in  devotion  or  praiseworthy  in  motive, 
does  not  suffice.  Attributing  a  sacred  character  to  a 
thing  is  a  juridical  act,  and  as  such  is  a  function  of  the 
governing  power  of  the  Church.  It  is  customary  to 
enumerate  three  kinds  of  sacrilege,  personal,  local,  and 
real.  St.  Thomas  teaches  (Summa,  II-II,  Q.,  xcix) 
that  a  different  sort  of  holiness  attaches  to  persons, 
places,  and  things.  Hence  the  irreverence  offered  to 
any  one  of  them  is  specifically  distinct  from  that 
which  is  exhibited  to  the  others.  Suarez  (De  Re- 
ligione,  tr.  iii,  1-3)  does  not  seem  to  think  the  division 
very  logical,  but  accepts  it  as  being  in  accord  with  the 
canons.  Personal  sacrilege  means  to  deal  so  irrever- 
ently with  a  sacred  person  that,  whether  by  the  injury 
inflicted  or  the  defilement  caused,  there  is  a  breach  of 
the  honour  due  to  such  person.  This  sacrilege  may 
be  committed  chiefly  in  three  ways:  (a)  by  laying 
violent  hands  on  a  cleric  or  religious.  This  consti- 
tutes an  infraction  of  what  is  known  as  the  privilege 
of  the  canon  iprivUegium  canonis),  and  is  visited  with 
the  penalty  of  excommunication;  (b)  by  violating  the 
ecclesiastical  immunity  in  so  far  as  it  still  exists. 
Clerics  according  to  the  old-time  discipline  were  en- 
titled to  exemption  from  the  jurisdiction  of  lay  tri- 
bunals iprivUegium  fori) .  The  meaning,  therefore,  is 
that  he  who  despite  this  haled  them  before  a  ci\'il 
court,  otherwise  than  as  provided  by  the  canons,  was 
guilty  of  sacrilege  and  was  excommunicated;  (c)  by 
any  sin  against  the  vow  of  chastity  on  the  part  of 
those  who  are  consecrated  to  God — such  are  those  in 
sacred  orders  (in  the  Latin  Church)  and  religious, 
even  those  with  simple  vows,  if  these  are  perpetual. 
The  weight  of  opinion  amongst  moralists  is  that  this 
guilt  is  not  contracted  by  the  violation  of  a  private!}'- 
made  vow.  The  reason  seems  to  be  that,  while  there 
is  a  breach  of  faith  with  Almighty  God,  still  such  a 
vow,  lacking  the  indorsement  and  acceptance  of  the 
Church,  does  not  make  the  person  formally  a  sacred 
one;  it  does  not  in  the  juridical  sense  set  such  an  one 
apart  for  the  worship  of  God.  It  need  hardly  be 
noted  that  the  partners  of  sacred  persons  in  sins  of 
this  kind  are  to  be  adjudged  equally  guilty  of  sac- 
rilege even  though  their  status  be  a  purely  lay  one. 

Local  sacrilege  is  the  violation  of  a  sacred  place. 
Under  the  designation  "sacred  place"  is  included  not 
only  a  church  properly  so-called,  even  though  it  be  not 
consecrated,  but  merely  blessed,  but  also  public  ora- 
tories as  well  as  cemeteries  canonically  established  for 
the  burial  of  the  faithful.  Four  species  of  this  crime 
are  ordinarily  distinguished :  ( 1 )  the  theft  of  some- 
thing found  in  and  specially  belonging  to  the  church ; 
(2)  the  infringing  of  the  immunity  attaching  to  sacred 
places  in  so  far  as  this  prerogative  still  prevails.  It 
should  be  observed  that  in  this  case  the  term  "sacred 
place"  receives  a  wider  comprehension  than  that  in- 
dicated above.  It  comprises  not  only  churches,  pub- 
lic chapels,  and  cemeteries,  but  also  the  episcopal 
XIII.— 21 


palace,  monasteries,  hospitals  erected  by  episcopal 
authority  and  having  a  chapel  for  the  celebration  of 
the  Holy  Sacrifice,  and  also  the  person  of  the  priest 
when  he  is  carrying  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  To  all 
of  these  was  granted  the  right  of  asylum,  the  out- 
raging of  which  was  deemed  a  sacrilege;  (3)  the  com- 
mission within  the  sacred  precincts  of  some  sinful  act 
by  which,  according  to  canon  law,  the  edifice  is  es- 
teemed polluted.  These  acts  are  homicide,  any  shed- 
ding of  blood  reaching  to  the  guilt  of  a  grievous  sin, 
any  consummated  offence  against  chastity  (including 
marital  intercourse  which  is  not  necessary),  the 
burial  within  the  church  or  sacred  place  of  an  un- 
baptized  person  or  of  one  who  has  been  excommuni- 
cated by  name  or  as  a  notorious  violator  of  the  priv- 
ilege of  the  canon;  (4)  the  doing  of  certain  things 
(whether  sins  or  not),  which,  either  by  their  own 
nature  or  by  special  provision  of  law,  are  particularly 
incompatible  with  the  demeanour  to  be  maintained  in 
such  a  place.  Such  would  be  for  instance  turning  the 
church  into  a  stable  or  a  market,  using  it  as  a  banquet 
hall,  or  holding  court  there  indiscriminately  for  the 
settlement  of  purely  secular  affairs.  Real  sacrilege  is 
the  irreverent  treatment  of  sacred  things  as  dis- 
tinguished from  places  and  persons.  This  can  hap- 
pen first  of  all  by  the  administration  or  reception  of 
the  sacraments  (or  in  the  case  of  the  Holy  Eucharist 
by  celebration)  in  the  state  of  mortal  sin,  as  also  by 
advertently  doing  any  of  those  things  invalidly.  In- 
deed deliberate  and  notable  irreverence  towards  the 
Holy  Eucharist  is  reputed  the  worst  of  all  sacrileges. 
Likewise  conscious  maltreatment  of  sacred  pictures  or 
relics  or  perversion  of  Holy  Scripture  or  sacred  vessels 
to  unhallowed  uses,  and  finally,  the  usurpation  or  di- 
verting of  property  (whether  movable  or  immovable) 
intended  for  the  maintenance  of  the  clergy  or  serving 
for  the  ornamentation  of  the  church  to  other  uses,  con- 
stitute real  sacrileges.  Sometimes  the  guilt  of  sac- 
rilege may  be  incurred  by  omitting  what  is  required 
for  the  proper  administration  of  the  sacraments  or 
celebration  of  the  sacrifice,  as  for  example,  if  one  were 
to  say  Mass  without  the  sacred  vestments. 

Slater,  Manual  of  Moral  Theology  (New  York,  1908) ;  Rick- 
ABY,  Moral  Teaching  of  St.  Thomas  (London,  1896) ;  Ballerini, 
Opus  theologicum  morale  (Prato,  1899) ;  d'Annibale,  Summula 
theologiw  moralis  (Rome,  1908);  Spelman,  The  History  and  Fate 
o/Sacri/pffe  (London,  1888).  JoSEPH   F.    DeLANY. 

Sacris  Solemniis,  the  opening  words  of  the  hymn 
for  Matins  of  Corpus  Christi  (q.  v.)  and  of  the 
Votive  Oflice  of  the  Most  Blessed  Sacrament,  com- 
posed by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.  The  rhythmic 
stanza  imitates  the  classical  measures  found  in 
Horace  and  in  several  hymns  of  the  Roman  Breviary 
(see  Sanctorum  Meritis);  but  for  whatever  ex- 
cellence the  hymn  lacks  in  respect  of  classical  prosody 
it  compensates  in  the  interesting  and  intricate  rhymic 
scheme.  This  niay  be  illustrated  by  breaking  up  the 
stanza  of  four  lines  into  seven.  The  sixth  stanza, 
which  is  sometimes  employed  as  a  separate  hymn  at 
Benediction,  will  serve  to  illustrate: 
Panis  angelicus 

Fit  panis  hominum: 
Dat  panis  coelicus 
Figuris  terminum: 
O  res  mirabilis! 
Manducat  Dominum 

Pauper,  servus,  et  humilis. 
The  incisio  (i.  e.  the  coincidence  of  the  end  of  a  word 
with  the  end  of  a  foot)  is  perfect  throughout  all  the 
stanzas.  With  what  rhythm  should  the  hymn  be 
recited?  Translators  vary  much  in  their  concejjtion 
of  an  appropriate  English  equivalent.  The  first 
words  suggest  by  the  tonic  accents  English  dactylics: 
Lo!  the  Angelic  Bread 

Feedeth  the  sons  of  men: 
Figures  and  types  are  fled 
Never  to  come  again. 


SACRISTAN 


322 


SACRISTY 


O  what  a  wondrous  thing! 
Lowly  and  poor  are  fed, 

Banqueting  on  their  Lord  and  King. 
The  fehcitous  Anghcan  translator    the  Rev.  Dr.  J. 
M.  Neale,  used  iambic  metre: 

He  ordered  in  this  wise 
Our  Holy  Offering, 

To  be  the  Sacrifice 
Which  Priests  alone  should  bring; 

For  whom  is  meet  and  fit 
That  they  should  eat  of  it, 

And  in  their  turn  to  others  give. 
This  fifth  stanza  is  interesting  for  its  ow  sake,  as  it 
calls  attention  to  the  plan  of  the  Eucharistic  sacrifice. 
Dr.  Neale's  translation  does  not  follow  strictly  the 
rh3'mic  scheme,  which  is  better  observed  in  a  transla- 
tion given  in  "Sursum  Corda"  (1908,  p.  6).  Ship- 
ley ("Annus  Sanctus",  London,  1874,  p.  192),  gives 
Wallace's  translation,  the  first  stanza  of  which  illus- 
trates another  metric  form: 

"Sing  of  that  solemn  eve 

When,  as  true  hearts  believe, 

Christ  gave  the  lamb  and  the  paschal  bread 

Unto  the  chosen  band 

Met  for  the  high  command 

God  had  of  old  on  the  fathers  laid." 
Caswall   (Lyra  Catholica,  1849)  gave  a  condensed 
translation: 

"Let  us  with  hearts  renewed, 

Our  grateful  homage  pay; 

And  welcome  with  triumphant  songs 

This  ever  blessed  day." 
In  his  "Hymns  and  Poems"   (1873)  it  appears  re- 
vised as: 

"Let  old  things  pass  away; 

Let  all  be  fresh  and  bright; 

And  welcome  we  with  hearts  renewed 

This  feast  of  new  delight." 
The  revision  (which  also  includes  the  change  of 
"night"  into  "eve",  and  changes  in  the  third  and 
fourth  lines  of  the  sixth  stanza)  appears  in  the 
"Lyra"  of  1884,  in  Shipley's  "Annus  Sanctus", 
and  in  the  Marquess  of  Bute's  translation  of  the 
Roman  Breviary;  the  revision  is  interesting  as  illus- 
trating Caswall's  zeal  for  literal  betterment  of  the 
translation.  Wagner  ("Origine  et  developpement  du 
chant  liturgique",  translation  of  Bour,  Tournai, 
1904,  p.  169)  speaks  of  the  gradual  substitution  of 
rhythm  for  metre  in  the  hymns,  and  refers  to  the 
"Sacris  solemniis"  as  illustrative  of  "the  two  con- 
ceptions of  verse  .  .  .  where  the  old  verse  and 
the  rhythmic  disposition  of  syllables  meet  peaceably 
together.  Rhyme,  also,  was  gradually  introduced; 
this  same  hymn  offers  very  instructive  examples  of  it. 
It  is  a  device  of  punctuation  for  the  ear.  Birkle 
("Vatican  Chant",  translation  of  Lemaistre,  New 
York,  1904,  p.  103)  says:  "The  first  three  lines  have 
three  accents  ear;h — a  weak  accent  upon  the  second 
and  seventh  syllable  and  the  chief  accent  upon  th(! 
tenth.  The  first  half  of  the  line  concludes  with  the 
sixth  syllable,  which  must  be  noticeable  in  the  chant- 
ing. In  the  last  verse  the  chief  accent  must  be  placed 
urx>n  the  sixth  syllable"  (but  in  the  illustration  he 
pl'diCA-ii  an  accent  also  upon  the  third  syllable). 

OjriHult  PiMONT,  Leu  hymnes  du  hreviaire  ronuiin,  11  (Paris, 
18H4).  177-S8,  for  ti;xt  and  extensive  comment;  Hymruirium 
SarUhurieniie  (I»nrJon,  18.51),  119,  for  Utxt.  variant  rea/JinK«, 
and  very  simpleplainwinK.  The  text  and  the  two  official  plainsong 
melo<lieM  are  Kiven  in  the  Vniicnn  (Irtuhuilf  (Ad  proceHHionem 
CorpurU  ChrUti).  Cf.  also  Julian,  hirl.  of  Hymnolooy  (2nd 
ed.,  I>jndon,  1907);  Hknry  in  Sumum  Corda  (1908),  0,  transla- 
tion and  comment;  Dreveh,  AruiUrMi  hymnicn,  XVI  (I>eipziK), 
p.  38  (In  dKHiaUume  urbin  OraruUre),  TTt  (De  Anyrlo  Cuntode), 
103  (De  S.  Duma),  for  fifteenth-sixtcenth-oentury  imitations  of 
the  hymn.     Kee  alMO  bibhograpby  to  Sanctorum  Meritis. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Sacristan,  an  officer  who  is  charged  with  the  care 
of  the  Hacri.sty,  the  (;}iurch,  and  their  contents.  In 
ancient    times   many   duties   of   the   sacristan    were 


performed  by  the  doorkeepers  {ostiarii),  later  by  the 
mansiotiarii  and  the  treasurers.  The  Decretals  of 
Gregory  IX  (lib.  I,  tit.  xxvi,  "De  officio  sacristie") 
speak  of  the  sacristan  as  if  he  had  an  honourable 
office  attached  to  a  certain  benefice,  and  say  that  his 
duty  was  to  care  for  the  sacred  vessels,  vestments, 
lights,  etc.  Nowadays  the  sacristan  is  elected  or 
appointed.  The  "  Ca;remoniale  episcoporum"  pre- 
scribes that  in  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches  the 
sacristan  should  be  a  priest,  and  describes  his  duties 
in  regard  to  the  sacristy,  the  Blessed  Eucharist,  the 
baptismal  font,  the  holy  oils,  the  sacred  relics,  the 
decoration  of  the  church  for  the  different  seasons  and 
feasts,  the  preparation  of  what  is  necessary  for  the 
various  ceremonies,  the  pregustation  in  pontifical 
Mass,  the  ringing  of  the  church  bells,  the  preservation 
of  order  in  the  church,  and  the  distribution  of  Ma.sses; 
and  finally  it  suggests  that  one  or  two  canons  be  ap- 
pointed each  year  to  supervise  the  work  of  the 
sacristan  and  his  assistants. 

The  under-sacristan  (cuslos)  is  also  mentioned  in 
the  Decretals  (lib.  I,  tit.  xxvii,  "De  officio  custodis"). 
He  was  the  assistant  of  the  sacristan,  was  subject 
to  the  archdeacon,  and  discharged  duties  very  similar 
to  those  of  the  sacristan.  Now  the  office  is  hardly 
ever  attached  to  a  benefice,  but  is  usually  a  salaried 
position.  The  Council  of  Trent  desired  that,  ac- 
cording to  the  old  canons,  clerics  should  hold  such 
offices;  but  in  most  churches,  on  account  of  the  dif- 
ficulty or  impossibility  of  obtaining  clerics,  laymen 
perform  many  of  the  duties  of  the  sacristan  and 
under-sacristan. 

Cceremoniale  episcoporum,  I  (Ratisbon,  1902),  vi. 

J.    F.    GOGGIN. 

Altar  Societies. — There  are  altar  societies  in  con- 
nexion with  most  parish  churches.  The  duties  of 
members  vary  according  to  circumstances,  in  some 
instances  including  those  which  ordinarily  fall  within 
the  sacristan's  province,  such  as  the  vestmi^nts  and 
altar  vessels,  making  ready  for  the  priest's  Mass,  and 
BO  on,  but  as  a  general  thing  they  consist  of  the  pay- 
ment of  yearly  dues  into  a  fund  for  the  maintenance 
and  repair  of  the  acces.sories  used  in  the  ceremonies 
of  the  Church  and  usually  also  of  a  certain  amount  of 
labor  for  this  purpose.  Altar  societies  differ  from 
tabernacle  societies  in  that  their  work  is  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  church  to  which  they  are  attached.  (See 
Tabernacle  Societies). 

The  Sodality  of  St.  John  Berchmans,  known  as  the 
Pious  Association  of  Servers  of  Mass  and  Sacristans, 
was  founded  by  Vincent  Basile,  S.J.,  missionary 
Apostolic  among  the  southern  Slavs,  for  lay  acolytes, 
choir  boys,  sacristans,  and  all  who  have  any  duty  to 
perform  in  the  services  of  the  Church.  Its  object 
is  to  induce  all  its  members  to  perform  their  duties 
piously  and  in  a  manner  befitting  the  ceremonies  in 
which  they  participate,  for  the  glory  of  Goil  and  the 
edification  of  the  faithful.  The  rules  compiled  bj'^ 
Father  Basile  bind  the  members  to  ab.solute  silence 
in  church,  devout  giMiuflexion  when  passing  before 
the  Bhwsed  Sacrament,  and  the  clear  pronunciation 
of  the  words  of  the  liturgical  prayers.  This  same  cir- 
cumspection is  expected  to  characterize  their  conduct 
even  in  the  sacristy,  and  they  are  required  to  attend 
a  monthly  meeting  and  to  receive  Holy  Communion 
at  least  once  a  month.  The  director  .should  be  either 
the  pastor  or  a  priest  appointed  by  him.  Altliough 
it  is  not  a  confraternity  properly  so-called,  this  sodal- 
ity was  approved  by  Pope  Pius  IX,  21  Sept.,  1SG.5, 
and  indulgences  were  accorded  to  its  members,  sub- 
ject to  the  usual  conditions. 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 

Sacristy  (I^.  ma-nstia,  vestry),  a  room  in  the 
church  or  attached  thereto,  where  the  v(!stments, 
church  furnishings  and  the  like,  sacred  ves.'wls,  and 
other  treasures  are  kept,  and  where  the  clergy  meet 


SADDUCEES 


323 


SADLIER 


and  vest  for  the  various  ecclesiastical  functions.  It 
corresponds  to  the  secretarium  or  diaconicuyn  of  old. 
At  present  the  almost  universal  practice  is  to  have 
the  sacristy  directly  beliind  the  main  altar  or  at 
either  side.  The  sacristy  should  contain  cases, 
properly  labelled,  for  the  various  vestments  in  all 
the  liturgical  colors;  a  crucifix  or  other  suitable 
image  in  a  prominent  position  to  which  the  clergy 
bow  before  going  to  the  sanctuary  and  on  returning 
(Ritus  celebrandi  missam,  II,  i);  a  lavatory,  where 
the  officiating  clergy  may  wash  their  hands  (op.  cit. 
I,  i);  a  copy  of  the  Decree  of  Urban  VIII  prohibiting 
certain  offices  and  masses  (S.  R.  C,  460  ad  6;  5.55 
§  Et  ne);  a  book  containing  the  obligations  of  the 
Church  regarding  foundations  and  their  fulfillment 
(Innocent  XII,  Nuper,  §  26,  21  Dec,  1699).  It  is 
customary  to  have  a  holy  water  font,  and  a  bell  to 
admonish  the  congregation  of  the  advent  of  the  clergy, 
at  the  door  leading  to  the  sanctuary.  The  sacristy 
is  not  blessed  or  consecrated  together  with  the  church, 
and  consequently  is  not  a  sacred  place  in  the  canonical 
sense.  However,  except  where  penalties  are  con- 
cerned, it  enjoys  on  the  whole  the  same  prerogatives 
as  the  church.  When  a  sacristy  directly  behind  the 
sanctuary  has  two  entrances,  the  clergy  enter  the 
sanctuary  at  the  gospel  side,  and  leave  by  the  epistle 
side  (S.  R.  C,  3029  ad  12).  A  double  sacristy  is 
sometimes  provided,  one  for  the  clergy,  one  for  the 
altar  boys.  Canons  too  usually  have  their  own 
sacristy.  In  cathedrals,  where  there  is  no  .special 
chapel  for  this  purpo.se,  there  should  be  a  s('j)arate 
sacristy  {secretarium)  with  an  altar,  where  the  bishop 
may  assist  at  Tcrce  and  prepare  for  pontifical  Mass 
(Cajrem.  Episcoporum,  I,  137;  II,  74;  see  Sac- 
ristan). 

St.  Charles  Borrommeo,  Instructiones  Fabricie  Eccl.  1,  28  in 
Acta  Eccles.  Medial.  (Paris,  1645),  206  sq.;  Raym.  Antonii  In- 
structio  Pastoralis,  8,  1,  ed.  Eyst.  (1877),  116  .sq. 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Sadducees. — A  politico-religious  sect  of  the  Jews 
during  the  late  post-Exilic  and  New-Testament 
period.  The  older  derivation  of  the  name  from 
tsaddiqim,  i.  e.  the  righteous;  with  assumed  reference 
to  the  adherence  of  the  Sadducees  to  the  letter  of  the 
Law  as  opposed  to  the  pharasaic  attention  to  the 
superadded  "traditions  of  the  elders",  is  now  gen- 
erally discredited  mainly  on  philological  grounds  and 
the  term  is  associated  with  the  proper  name  "Sadoc", 
Sadducee  being  equivalent  to  Sadokite.  They  be- 
came the  dominant  priestly  party  during  the  Greek 
and  Roman  period  of  Jewish  historj',  and  the  name, 
whether  bestowed  seriously  or  in  irony,  originated 
doubtless  in  their  pretensions  to  be  the  descendants 
of  Sadoc,  the  high-priest  prominent  in  the  times  of 
David  and  Solomon  (III  Kings,  i,  8,  26,  32;  ii,  35; 
I  Par.,  xxix,  22;  cf.  Ezech.,  xl,  46;  xliii,  19;  etc.). 
As  a  prominent  political  party  they  first  appear  in  the 
reign  of  John  Hyrcanus  (135-105  n.  c).  They  es- 
poused the  hellenizing  tendencies  of  the  Asmonean 
princes  in  which  they  were  strongly  opposed  by  the 
Pharisees  (q.  v.),  or  Separatists,  a  party  evolved  from 
the  earlier  Assideans,  and  which  abhorred  all  forms 
of  Greek  culture  as  detrimental  to  the  religious  in- 
terests of  the  Jewish  nation.  Under  Aristobulus  I 
and  Alexander  Jannajus,  the  immediate  successors 
of  John  Hyrcanus,  the  power  of  the  Sadducees  was 
supreme,  and  though  the  opposing  faction  of  the 
Pharisees  came  into  favour  during  the  regency  of 
Alexandra  Salome  (78-69  b.  c),  the  Sadducees  re- 
gained their  ascendancy  under  Ari.stobulus  II  (69- 
63  B.  c.)  whom  they  supported  in  his  conflicts  with 
Hyrcanus  II,  Antipater,  and  the  Romans.  When 
Pompey  captured  Jerusalem  (63  b.  c.)  he  executed 
many  of  their  leaders,  as  did  also  Herod  the  Idumean 
on  his  accession  to  power  (37  b.  c).  The  Sadducees 
retained,  however,  their  traditional  priestly  functions 
and  also  a  varying  preponderance  in  the  Sanhedrin, 


but  even  in  this  respect  their  influence  was  much 
diminished  through  the  policy  of  Herod  and  later  of 
the  Roman  procurators  of  Judea,  who,  arbitrarily 
and  mainly  for  political  reasons,  appointed  and  re- 
moved the  high-priests  at  will. 

During  this  period  and  down  to  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  the  Sadducees  were  naturally  unpopular 
with  the  masses  because  of  their  marked  tendency 
to  side  closely  with  the  ruling  power,  while  the  patri- 
otic and  exclusive  Pharisees  became  more  and  more 
the  leaders  of  the  people.  Among  the  religious  dif- 
ferences between  the  two  parties  may  be  mentioned 
the  denial  on  the  part  of  the  Sadducees  of  the  resur- 
rection, the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the  existence 
of  angels  (Matt.,  xxii,  23;  Mark,  xii,  18;  Acts,  xxiii, 
8).  They  rejected  likewise  the  oral  traditions  which 
the  Pharisees  maintained  and  emphasized  as  a  Di- 
vinely ordained  supplement  to  the  written  law.  While 
the  tenacity  and  exclusiveness  and  other  characteris- 
tics of  the  Pharisees  have  been  indelibly  impressed 
on  all  subsequent  generations  of  Judaism,  the  in- 
fluence of  the  indifferent  and  materialistic  Sadducees 
vanished  completely  as  soon  as  the  Jews  ceased  to  be 
a  nation. 

GiGOT,  Outlines  of  New  Testament  History  (New  York,  1902), 
74  sqq. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Sadler,  Thomas  Vincent  Fausttjs,  b.  1604;  d. 
at  Dieulward,  Flanders,  19  Jan.,  1680-1.  He  was 
received  into  the  Church  at  the  age  of  seventeen  by 
his  uncle,  Dom  Walter  Sadler,  and  joined  the  Bene- 
dictines at  Dieulward,  being  professed  in  1622.  Little 
is  known  of  his  missionary  labours,  but  probably  he 
was  chaplain  to  the  Sheldons  of  Weston  and  the 
Tichbornes  in  Hampshire  before  going  to  London, 
where  he  worked  many  years.  He  edited  several 
spiritual  books,  often  collaborating  with  Dom  Anselm 
Crowther,  and  signing  himself  T.  V.  His  chief  pub- 
lications are  "The  Christian  Pilgrim  in  his  Spiritual 
Conflict  and  Conquest"  (1652);  "Jesus,  Maria, 
Joseph"  (1657);  "The  Daily  Exercise  of  the  Devout 
Rosarists"  (1657),  which  was  afterwards  developed 
into  a  well-known  prayer  book,  "The  Daily  Exercise 
of  the  Devout  Christian";  "A  Guide  to  Heaven", 
translated  from  Bona's  "Manuductio"  (1672); 
"The  Holy  Desires  of  Death",  translated  from  Lalle- 
mant  (1678).  Wood  attributes  to  him  "The  Childe's 
Catechism"  (1678). 

Wblldon,  Chronological  Notes  on  the  English  Benedictine 
Congregation  (London,  1881);  Snow,  Necrology  of  the  English 
Congregation  O.  S.]B.  (London,  188.3);  Wood,  Athence  Oxonienses, 
ed.  Bus.s  (London,  1813-20);  Oliver,  Collections  (London, 
1857) ;  GiLLOW  in  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.;  Cooper  in  Diet.  Nat. 
Biog. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Sadlier,  Mary  Anne  Madden,  authoress,  b.  at 
Cootehill,  Co.  Cavan,  Ireland,  30  Dec,  1820;  d.  at 
Montreal,  Canada,  5  April,  1903.  Her  father,  Fran- 
cis Madden,  a  merchant  of  fine  tastes,  encouraged  her 
literary  aspirations,  and  her  first  efforts  were  printed 
in  a  London  magazine,  while  she  was  still  a  girl.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  her  father  she  emigrated  to  Montreal 
(1844).  Here,  two  years  later,  she  became  the  wife  of 
James  Sadlier,  member  of  the  firm,  and  manager  of  the 
Montreal  branch  of  the  New  York  pubhshing  house 
of  D.  &  J.  Sadlier  &  Co.  During  the  fourteen  years 
that  followed  she  continued  to  live  in  Montreal,  and 
did  most  of  the  literary  work  that  made  her  name 
famous.  The  family  then  moved  to  New  York,  where 
her  husband  died  nine  years  later.  The  Sadliers 
owned  a  weekly  paper  ("The  Tablet"),  and  in  it  the 
majority  of  her  stories  appeared.  She  contributed 
regularly  also  to  its  editorial  columns.  Her  stories 
and  translations  number  more  than  sixty  volumes, 
and  in  their  day  enjoyed  a  well-deserved  popularity 
among  the  rapidly-growing  Irish- American  commu- 
nity, on  whose  character,  in  its  constructive  period, 


SADOLETO 


324 


SAGARD 


thej'  exerted  a  powerful  influence.  Many  of  them, 
admirably  wrought  out  in  simplicity  of  style  and  the 
naturalness  of  the  characters,  were  wTitten  for  a  special 
purpose.       "The 


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vm" 

1^  -ft^ 

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^e  " 

.-S 

m- 

'  ^^~ 

r 

-  / 

,%. , 

' 

Blakes    and    Flana- 
gans" dealt  with  the 

il      n  11  (->  s  t  i  n  n 


school  que  stion 
"Bessy  Conway 
with  the  trials  of  the 
Irish  immigrant  girl; 
"Aunt  Honor's 
Keepsake"  with  the 
sa\dng  of  the  desti- 
tute Cathohc  chil- 
dren of  New  York 
for  whom  the  great 
protectory  was  then 
founded.  Irish  his- 
tory also  supplied 
her  with  a  constant 
source  of  inspiration 
which  resulted  in 
"The  Red  Hand  of 
Ulster",  "The  Con- 
federate Chieftains", 
"Maureen  Dhu", 
"Life  in  Gal  way", 
Maky  .\n-xe  Madden  Sadlieb  "MacCarthy More", 
"The  Old  House  by  the  Boyne"  and  other  tales. 
She  translated  Orsini's  "Life  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin", and  de  Ligny's  "  Christ "  and  other  works,  and 
compiled  a  "Catechism  of  Sacred  Historj^".  After 
her  husband's  death  Mrs.  Sadlier  remained  several 
years  in  New  York,  and  then  returned  to  Canada, 
where  she  spent  the  remainder  of  her  days. 

Allibone,  Dirtionary  of  Authors,  a.  v.;  The  Messenger  (New 
York,  Mav,  190.3);  The  Ave  Maria  (Notre  Dame,  Indiana),  files; 
The  Catholic  News  (New  York),  files. 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Sadoleto,  .Jacopo,  cardinal,  humanist,  and  re- 
former, b.  at  Modena,  1477;  d.  at  Rome,  1547.  His 
father,  a  distinguished  lawyer,  intended  him  for  his 
own  profession ; 
but  Jacopo  de- 
voted himself  to 
classical  and  phil- 
osophical studies. 
At  Rome  he.  en- 
joyed the  favour 
of  Cardinal  Car- 
affa,  and  after- 
wards of  Leo  X, 
who  made  him  his 
secretary.  In 
1.517  he  was  ap- 
pointed Bi.shop  of 
Carpcntras  near 
Avignon.  Unlike 
many  of  the  hu- 
manists, he  was  a 
man  of  blameless 
life  and  attentive 
U}  all  his  duties 
as  a  priest  and 
bishop.  It  was 
only  at  the  ex- 
press command  of  the  succeasive  popes  whom  he  served 
that  he  would  cxjnsent  to  absent  himself  even  for  a  time 
from  his  dioce.se.  In  him  were  combined  in  an  eminent 
degree  the  qualities  of  a  man  of  piety,  a  man  of  letters, 
and  a  man  of  action.  Aspoet,orat<jr,  theologian,  and 
philos<^)pher  he  wfis  in  the  foremost  rank  of  his  time. 
His  poem  on  the  recently  discovered  Laocoon  first 
brought  liim  to  the  notice  of  the  learned.  His  mild 
and  gentle  rharacter,  nliunning  all  extn'mes,  and  his 
profound  learning  fitted  him  for  the  difficult  task  of 
conciliating  the  Protectants.    Indeed,  his  commentary 


Jacopo  Sadoleto,  Cardinal  Bishop  of 
Carpe.vtras 


on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  considered  to  favour 
them  too  much,  and  the  publication  of  it  was  for- 
bidden at  Rome  until  it  had  undergone  correction. 
He  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  persecuting  the 
heretics.  In  1536  he  was  summoned  to  Rome  by 
Paul  III  to  be  a  member  of  a  special  commission  for 
the  reform  of  the  Church.  In  the  following  December 
he  received  the  cardinal's  hat,  at  the  same  time  as 
Caraflfa  (afterwards  Paul  IV)  and  Pole,  also  members 
of  the  commission.  With  Cardinal  Contarini  (q.  v.), 
the  president  of  the  commission,  they  drew  up  the 
famous  "Consilium  de  emendanda  Ecclesia",  which 
they  presented  to  the  pope.  Sadoleto  was  sent  as 
legate  to  Francis  I  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation 
between  him  and  Charles  V  (1542),  but  his  mission 
failed.  After  1543,  when  a  coadjutor  was  appointed 
to  govern  Carpentras,  he  was  constantlj^  at  the  side 
of  Paul  III,  ever  urging  the  pontiff  in  the  path  of 
peace  and  reform.  Sadoleto's  works  were  published 
at  Verona  in  four  volumes  (1737-8),  and  at  Rome 
(1759). 

JoLY,  Etude  sur  Sadolet  (Caen,  1856);  Tiraboschi,  Storia 
della  letteratura  italiana,  XVIII  (Venice,  1824) ;  Pastor,  Geschichte 
der  Pdpste,  IV-V  (Freiburg,  1906-9).  It  is  only  by  perusing  this 
last-named  work  that  the  extent  of  Sadoleto's  activity  and  in- 
fluence in  the  counter-Reformation  can  be  estimated. 

T.    B.    SCANNELL. 

Sagalassus,  a  titular  see  in  Pisidia,  suflfragan  of 
Antioch.  Sagalassus  was  one  of  the  chief  towns  of 
Pisidia,  near  the  no^th-west  boundary  of  that  prov- 
ince, in  a  fertile  plain  surrounded  by  hills,  situated 
on  the  banks  of  an  affluent  of  the  Cestrus,  a  river 
which  is  represented  on  its  coins.  Alexander  stormed 
it,  after  defeating  its  inhabitants  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. Cneius  Manlius  ravaged  the  district  and  made 
it  pay  a  heavy  war  indemnity.  After  being  subject 
to  Amyntas,  Tetrarch  of  Lycaonia  and  Galatia,  it  be- 
came part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Pisidia.  Nothing 
else  is  known  of  its  history,  though  it  is  mentioned  by 
most  of  the  ancient  geographers;  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
Strabo  (XII,  569)  places  it  less  accurately  in  Isauria, 
and  Ptolemy  (V,  iii,  6)  locates  it  erroneously  in  Lycia. 
Until  the  thirteenth  century  the  "Notitia)  epis- 
copatuum"  mention  it  as  the  first  suffragan  see  of 
Antioch  in  Pisidia.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christianus, 
I,  1041)  mentions  four  of  its  bishops:  Jovius,  present 
at  the  Council  of  Constantinople,  381;  Frontianus, 
at  Chalcedon,  451;  Theodosius,  at  Nica-a,  787;  Leo, 
at  Constantinople,  869.  This  formerly  wealthy  and 
fortified  city  is  now  a  poor  village,  called  Aghkussoun 
by  the  Turks,  about  twenty-three  miles  south  of 
Lsbarta,  in  the  vilayet  of  Koniah,  containing  some 
hundred  inhabitants.  It  has  immense  ruined  monu- 
ments, all  later  than  the  second  century  a.  d.:  a 
theatre,  vast  portico,  gymnasium,  ramparts,  tombs, 
sarcophagi,  churches,  etc. 

Arundell.  a  Visit  to  the  Seven  Churches,  132  seq.;  Hamilton, 
Researches  in  Asia  Minor,  I,  486  seq.;  Fellows,  Asia  Minor,  164 
seq.;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Gcog.,  b.  v.,  with  bibliog- 
raphy of  ancient  authors;  Texier,  Asie  mineure,  Tl.'j;  MOller 
(ed.  bidot),  Notes  d  Ptolemy,  I,  483. 

S.  P^tridJis. 

Sagard,  Th6odat-Gabriel,  Recollect  lay  brother, 
missionary,  and  historian,  b.  in  France  at  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century;  d.  towards  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth.  In  1623,  with  Nicolas  Vicl,  the  future 
martyr,  he  was  sent  to  Canada  on  the  Huron  mission. 
Anne  of  Austria,  the  consort  of  Louis  XIII,  had  pro- 
vided them  with  a  portable  altar  and  vestments.  On 
his  way  to  the  Ilurons,  he  acquired  from  .Joseph  Le 
Caron,  his  superior,  the  first  nidiincnts  of  their  difli- 
cult  tongue,  so  that  on  reaching  his  ixist  he  began  to 
catechize  and  bai)tize  the  Indians.  He  shared  in  the 
incredible  hardshijjs  of  his  companions,  "^riie  pro- 
vision of  mass  wine  having  been  exhausted,  they  had 
recourse  to  tin;  juice  of  the  wild  grape  (Vitin  Cana- 
densiH).  In  one  year's  residence  he  won  the  affection 
of  his  neophytes  and  acfjuired  a  certain  ascendency 


SAHAGUN 


325 


SAHAGUN 


over  them.  When  appointed,  in  the  spring  of  1624, 
to  descend  to  Quebec  for  provisions,  he  was  allowed 
by  the  Indians  to  depart  on  the  express  condition  that 
he  would  return.  A  letter  of  his  superior,  ordering 
him  back  to  France,  thwarted  his  most  ardent  desire. 
He  presented  a  memoir  concerning  the  state  of  re- 
ligion to  the  Due  de  Montmorency,  Viceroy  of  New 
France,  inveighing  against  the  agents  of  the  trading 
companies  whose  evil  influence  paratyzed  the  zeal  of 
the  missionaries.  He  convinced  his  superiors  of  the 
necessity  of  introducing  a  more  powerful  and  influen- 
tial religious  order  to  cope  with  the  difficult  situation. 
The  Jesuits  having  been  suggested,  the  choice  of 
them  was  ratified  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  in  1625.  In 
16S6,  Sagard  published  a  history  of  Canada  under  the 
title:  "Histoire  du  Canada  ct  voyages  que  les  Freres 
Mineurs  Recollets  ont  faits  pour  la  conversion  des 
infideles".  It  is  a  clear  and  simple  account  of  all  he 
saw  or  heard  mentioned  in  this  new  land.  Charle- 
voix criticises  his  Huron  vocabulary  as  inaccurate 
compared  with  later  studies  of  the  language,  but 
gives  him  credit  for  his  good  judgment  and  zeal  for 
the  conversion  of  souls  and  the  progress  of  the  colony. 

Charlevoix,  Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle-France  (Paris,  1744) ; 
SixTE  Le  Tac,  Histoire  chronoloyique  de  la  Nouvelle-France 
(Paris,  1888);  Beadbien,  Le  Sault-au-Recollet  (Montreal,  1898); 
GossELiN,  La  mission  du  Canada  avant  Mgr  de  Laval  (Evreux, 
1909). 

Lionel  Lindsay. 

Sahagtin,  Bernardino  de,  missionary  and  Aztec 
archaeologist,  b.  at  Sahagun,  Kingdom  of  Le6n, 
Spain,  in  or  before  the  year  1500;  d.  at  Mexico,  23 
Oct.,  1590.  He  studied  at  the  convent  of  Salamanca, 
where  he  took  the  vows  of  the  order,  and  in  1529  was 
sent  out  to  Mexico,  being  one  of  the  earliest  mission- 
aries assigned  to  that  country,  where  he  laboured  until 
his  death  more  than  sixty  years  later.  He  was  as- 
signed to  the  college  of  Santa  Cruz  in  Tlaltelolco,  near 
the  City  of  Mexico,  and  took  up  th(>  work  of  preach- 
ing, conversion,  and  the  instruction  of  the  native 
youth  in  Spanish  and  Latin,  science,  music,  and  reli- 
gion, while  by  close  study  and  years  of  daily  practice 
he  him.self  acquired  such  mastery  of  the  Aztec  lan- 
guage as  has  never  since  been  attained  by  any  other 
student.  Although  several  times  filling  administrative 
positions,  he  preferred  to  devote  his  attention  solely 
to  the  work  of  instruction  and  investigation.  His 
zeal  and  pre-eminent  ability  in  respect  to  the  Indian 
language  and  religion  attracted  the  attention  of  his 
superior,  who  directed  him  to  compile  in  the  Aztec 
language  a  compendium  of  all  things  relating  to  the 
native  history  and  custom  that  might  be  useful  in  the 
labour  of  Christianizing  the  Indians.  The  work  thus 
undertaken  occupied  some  seven  years,  in  collabora- 
tion with  the  best  native  authorities,  and  was  ex- 
panded into  a  history  and  description  of  the  Aztec 
people  and  civilization  in  twelve  manuscript  books, 
together  with  a  grammar  (Arte)  and  dictionary  of 
the  language. 

Various  delays  enabled  the  author  to  continue  re- 
visions and  additions  for  several  years.  One  of  these 
delays  hinged  upon  the  question  of  the  hiring  of  cleri- 
cal assistance  as  inconsistent  with  the  Franciscan  vow 
of  poverty,  although  Father  Sahagun,  by  reason  of 
age  and  the  trembhng  of  his  hand,  was  then  unable 
to  write  himself.  After  five  years  of  waiting  it  was 
decided  in  favour  of  the  author,  who  was  given  the 
help  he  needed,  and  the  complete  Aztec  manuscript, 
with  the  grammar  and  dictionary,  was  finished  in 
15G9.  In  the  meantime  a  preliminary  manuscript 
draft  had  been  carried  to  Spain,  where  it  became 
known  to  Ovando,  president  of  the  Council  of  the 
Indies,  on  whose  request  the  Franciscan  delegate- 
general  directed  Father  Sahagun  to  make  a  complete 
Spanish  translation,  furnishing  all  necessary  assist- 
ance. On  account  of  the  fear  of  encouraging  the 
educated  natives  to  dwell  upon  their  heathen  past — 


a  very  real  danger  at  the  time — and  on  account  also  of 
the  author's  strictures  upon  the  methods  of  the  Can- 
quistadores,  it  was  not  pubhshed,  but  was  consulted 
in  manuscript,  being  sent  from  one  to  another  college 
of  the  order,  until  finally  carried  to  Spain  and  de- 
posited in  the  convent  of  Tolosa,  where  it  was  found, 
and  a  copy  made,  by  the  archivist  Munoz  shortly 
before  1800.  It  was  published  under  the  title 
"Historia  general  de  las  cosas  de  Nueva  Espaiia", 
in  three  volumes  at  Mexico  in  1829,  and  in  volumes 
five  and  seven  of  Kingsborough's  "Mexican  An- 
tiquities", London,  1831. 

Father  Sahagun  thus  describes  the  inception  of  the 
work:  "I  was  commanded  in  all  holy  obedience  by 
my  chief  prelate  to  write  in  the  M(\xi('an  language 
that  which  appeared  to  me  to  be  useful  for  the  doc- 
trine, worship,  and  maintenance  of  Christianity  among 
these  natives  of  New  Spain,  and  for  the  aid  of  the 
ministers  and  workers  that  taught  them.  Having 
received  this  commandment,  I  made  in  the  Spanish 
language  a  minute  or  memorandum  of  all  the  matters 
that  I  had  to  treat  of,  which  matters  are  what  is 
written  in  the  twelve  books  .  .  .  which  were 
begun  in  the  pueblo  of  Tepeopulco.  ...  I  got 
together  all  the  principal  men,  together  with  the  lord 
of  the  place,  who  was  called  Don  Diego  de  Mendoza, 
of  great  distinction  and  ability,  well-experienced  in 
things  ecclesiastic,  military,  political,  and  even  re- 
lating to  idolatry.  They  being  come  together,  I  set 
before  them  what  I  proposed  to  do,  and  prayed  them 
to  appoint  me  able  and  experienced  persons  with 
whom  I  might  converse  and  come  to  an  understanding 
on  such  (jucstions  as  I  might  propose.  They  answered 
me  that  they  would  talk  the  matter  over  and  give  their 
answer  on  another  day;  and  with  this  tlicy  took  their 
departure.  So  on  another  day  the  lonl  and  his  prin- 
cijial  men  came  and  having  conferri'd  together,  with 
great  .solemnity,  as  they  were  accustomed  at  that 
time  to  do,  they  chose  out  ten  or  twelve  of  the  prin- 
cipal old  men,  and  told  me  that  with  these  I  might 
communicate  and  that  these  would  instruct  me  in 
any  matters  I  should  inquire  of.  Of  these  there  were 
as  many  as  four  instructed  in  Latin,  to  whom  I,  some 
few  years  before,  had  myself  taught  grammar  in  the 
college  of  Santa  Cruz  in  Tlaltelolco.  With  these  ap- 
pointed principal  men,  including  the  four  instructed 
in  grammar,  I  talked  many  days  during  about  two 
years,  following  the  order  of  the  minute  I  had  al- 
ready made  out.  On  all  the  subjects  on  which 
we  conferred  they  gave  me  pictures — which  were 
the  writings  anciently  in  use  among  them  —  and 
th(;se  the  grammarians  interpreted  to  me  in  their 
language,  writing  the  interpretation  at  the  foot  of 
the  picture." 

Besides  the  "Historia",  the  "Arte"  and  the 
"  Diccionario  "  (the  last  in  Aztec,  Spanish,  and  Latin), 
he  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  lesser  works,  mostly 
religious  and  in  the  Aztec  language,  among  which  may 
be  noted  a  volume  of  sermons;  an  explanation  of  the 
Epistles  and  Gospels  of  the  Mass;  a  history  of  the 
coming  of  the  first  Franciscans  to  Mexico,  in  two 
volumes;  a  Christian  psalmody  in  Aztec,  for  the  use 
of  the  neophytes  in  church  (Mexico,  1.5S3-84),  and 
a  catechism  in  the  same  language.  He  died  at  the 
age  of  ninety  years,  sixty-one  of  which  had  been  de- 
voted to  missionary  labour  and  research.  At  his 
funeral,  which  was  attended  by  all  the  religious  and 
students  of  the  city,  the  Indians  also  attended,  shed- 
ding tears.  In  Sahagun  we  have  the  ideal  missionary 
priest  and  scholar.  As  a  young  man  he  was  noted  for 
his  beauty  and  grace  of  person,  and  from  childhood 
was  given  to  prayer  and  self-restraint.  His  rehgious 
companions  affirmed  that  he  went  into  frequent 
ecstasies.  He  was  most  exact  in  the  duties  of  his 
order,  never  missing  Matins,  even  in  his  old  age.  Al- 
ways and  to  all  persons  he  was  gentle,  humble,  and 
courteous.     In  over  sixty  years  as  college  professor 


SAHAK 


326 


SAHAPTIN 


he  rested  not  for  a  day  "teaching  civihzation  and  good 
customs,  reading,  writing,  grammar,  music,  and  other 
things  in  the  servnce  of  God  and  the  state".  In  ad- 
dition to  his  unequalled  masterj-  of  the  Mexican  lan- 
guage, it  was  said  of  him  that  he  excelled  in  all  the 
sciences. 

Bancboft,  Natite  Races  of  the  Pacific  States:  III,  Myths  and 
Languages  (S&xiFTSincisco,  ISSG);  Beristain  t  Souza,  Biblioteca 
Hispano  Americana  Seientrional,  111  (Amecameca,  1883) ;  Pres- 
COTT.  Conquest  of  3/fxtco,  I  (New  York,  1843) ;  Vetancurt,  Me- 
nologio  Franciscano  (Mexico,  1871). 

James  Moonet. 

Sahak  the  Great.     See  Isaac  of  Armenia. 

Sahaptin  Indians,  a  prominent  tribe  formerly 
holding  a  considerable  territory  in  Western  Idaho  and 
adjacent  portions  of  Oregon  and  Washington,  in- 
cluding the  lower  Snake  River,  ^\-ith  its  tributaries  the 
Salmon,  Clearwater,  and  Grande  Ronde,  from  about 
45°  down  nearly  to  the  entrance  of  the  Palouse,  and 
from  the  Blue  Mountains  of  Oregon  on  the  west  to  the 
main  di\nde  of  the  Bitter-root  ^Iountains  on  the  east. 
They  are  of  the  Shahaptian  linguistic  stock,  to  which 
belong  also  the  Palouse,  Umatilla,  Tenino  (Warm- 
springs),  YakimS  and  others  farther  to  the  west,  with 
whom  they  maintained  close  friendly  relations,  while 
frequently  at  variance  with  the  Salishan  tribes  on 
their  northern  border — the  Flatheads,  Coeur  d'Alene 
and  Spokan — and  in  chronic  warfare  with  the  Black- 
feet,  Crows,  and  Shoshoni  on  the  east  and  south.  They 
call  themselves  Numipu,  meaning  simply  "people". 
The  name  Sahaptin  or  Saptin  comes  through  the  Sali- 
shan tribes.  By  Lewis  and  Clark  (1805)  they  were 
called  Chopunnish,  possibly  another  form  of  Saptin. 
Their  popular  and  official  name  of  Nez  Percys, 
"Pierced  Noses",  originally  bestowed  by  the  French 
trappers,  refers  to  a  former  custom  of  wearing  a  den- 
tahum  shell  through  a  hole  bored  in  the  septum  of  the 
nose.  When  first  known  (1805)  they  numbered,  ac- 
cording to  the  most  reliable  estimates,  probably  over 
6000,  but  have  greatly  decreased  since  the  advent  of 
the  whites,  and  are  still  steadily  on  the  decline.  Con- 
tributing causes  are  incessant  wars  with  the  more  pow- 
erful Blackfeet  in  earlier  years;  a  wasting  fever,  and 
mea^tles  epidemic  (1847)  from  contact  with  immi- 
grants; smallpox  and  other  diseases  following  the  oc- 
cupation of  the  country  by  miners  after  1860;  losses 
in  the  war  of  1877  and  subsequent  removals;  and 
wholesale  spread  of  consumption  due  to  their  changed 
condition  of  living  under  civilization.  In  1848  they 
were  officially  estimated  at  3000;  in  1862  they  were 
reported  at  2800;  in  1893  the  census  showed  2035;  in 
1910  they  were  officially  reported  at  1530,  including 
all  mixed  bloods,  all  upon  the  Fort  Lapwai  (allotted) 
reservation  in  northern  Idaho,  excepting  the  remnant 
of  Joseph's  band,  numbering  then  only  97,  upon  Col- 
\nlle  reservation  in  north-eastern  Washington.  Of 
their  numerous  former  bands,  this  one,  formerly  cen- 
tring in  Wallowa  (or  Willewah)  valley,  Oregon,  was 
perhaps  the  most  important,  numbering  originally 
about  500.  In  their  primitive  condition  the  Nez 
Percys,  although  semi-sedentary,  were  without  agricul- 
ture, depending  on  hunting,  fishing,  and  the  gathering 
of  wild  roots  and  berries.  Their  permanent  houses 
were  communal  structures,  sometimes  circular,  but 
more  oft«n  oblong,  about  twenty  f(!et  in  width  and 
sixty  to  ninety  fec;t  in  length,  with  framework  of  poles 
cxjvered  by  rush  mats,  with  floor  sunk  below  the  ground 
level,  and  earth  banked  up  around  the  sides,  and  with 
an  open  space  along  the  centre  of  the  roof,  for  the  es- 
cape of  the  smoke.  On  the  inside  were  ranged  fires 
along  the  centre  at  a  distance  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  apart, 
each  fire  serving  two  families  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
house,  the  family  sections  being  sometimes  sej)arated 
by  mat  curtains.  One  house  might  thus  shelter  more 
than  one  hundred  persons.  I^'wis  and  Clark  nu-ntion 
one  large  enough  to  m;commodate  nearly  fifty  families. 
On  temporary  exjxiditirinK  they  used  the  ordinary 
buffalo-ekin  tipi  or  brush  shelter.     They  had  also 


sweat-houses  and  menstrual  lodges.  The  permanent 
sweat-house  was  a  shallow  subterranean  excavation, 
roofed  with  poles  and  earth  and  bedded  with  grass,  in 
which  the  young  and  unmarried  men  slept  during  the 
winter  season,  and  occasionally  sweated  themselves 
by  means  of  steam  produced  by  pouring  water  upon 
hot  stones  placed  in  the  centre.  The  temporary 
sweat-house  used  by  both  sexes  was  a  framework  of 
willow  rods,  covered  with  blankets,  with  the  heated 
stones  placed  inside.  The  menstrual  lodge,  for  the 
seclusion  of  women  during  the  menstrual  period  and 
for  a  short  period  before  and  after  childbirth,  was  a 
subterranean  structure,  considerably  larger  than  the 
sweatr-house,  and  entered  by  means  of  a  ladder  from 
above.  The  occupants  thus  secluded  cooked  their 
meals  alone  and  were  not  allowed  even  to  touch  any 
articles  used  by  outsiders.  Furniture  consisted  chiefly 
of  bed  platforms,  baskets  and  bags  woven  of  rushes  or 
grass,  wooden  mortars  for  pounding  roots  and  spoons 
of  horn.  The  woman  had  also  her  digging  stick  for 
gathering  roots;  the  man  his  bow,  lance,  shield,  and 
fishing  equipment.  The  Nez  Perce  bow  of  mountain- 
sheep  horn  backed  with  sinew  was  the  finest  in  the 
West.  The  ordinary  dress  was  of  skins,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  a  fez-shaped  basket  hat  for  the  woman  and  a 
protective  skin  helmet  for  the  warrior.  Aside  from 
fish  and  game,  chiefly  salmon  and  deer,  their  prin- 
cipal foods  were  the  roots  of  the  camas  {Ca7nassia 
esculenta)  and  kouse  {Lomatium  kous,  etc.),  the  first 
being  roasted  in  pits  by  a  peculiar  process,  while  the 
other  was  ground  in  mortars  and  molded  into  cakes 
for  future  use.  The  gathering  and  preparing  devolved 
upon  the  women.  Marriage  occurred  at  about  the 
age  of  fourteen  and  was  accompanied  by  feasting  and 
giving  of  presents.  Polygamy  was  general,  but  kin- 
ship prohibition  was  enforced  even  to  the  third  degree. 
Inheritance  was  in  the  male  fine.  "The  standard  of 
moraUty,  both  before  and  after  marriage  seems  to  have 
been  conspicuously  high  "  (Spinden).  Interment  was 
in  the  ground,  the  personal  belongings  of  the  de- 
ceased being  deposited  with  the  body,  and  the  house 
torn  down  or  removed  to  another  spot.  The  new 
house  was  ceremonially  purified  and  the  ghost  exor- 
cised, and  the  mourning  period  was  terminated  with 
a  funeral  feast.  Sickness  and  death,  especially  of 
children,  were  frequently  ascribed  to  the  work  of 
ghosts.  The  religion  was  animistic,  with  a  marked 
absence  of  elaborate  myth  or  ritual.  The  principal 
religious  event  in  the  life  of  the  boy  or  girl  was  the 
dream  vigil,  when,  after  solitary  fasting  for  several 
days,  the  fevered  child  had  vision  of  the  spirit  animal 
which  was  to  be  his  or  her  tutelary  through  life. 
Dreams  were  the  great  source  of  spiritual  instruction. 
The  principal  ceremonial  was  the  dance  to  the  tutelary 
spirit,  next  to  which  in  importance  was  the  scalp 
dance.  The  clan  system  was  unknown.  Chiefs  were 
elective  rather  than  hereditary,  governing  by  assist- 
ance of  the  council,  and  there  was  no  supreme  tribal 
chief.  They  were  considerably  under  the  influence  of 
the  so-called  "Dreamer  religion"  of  the  upper  Colum- 
bia tribes,  but  had  no  part  in  the  later  "ghost  dance". 
Previous  to  th<;  visit  of  the  American  explorers,  Lewis 
and  Clark  (1K()5),  the  Nez  Percys  had  had  no  direct 
acquaintance  with  wiiitc;  men,  although  aware  of  their 
pr{!sence  beyond  th(!  mountains  and  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  They  alrea<ly  had  horses  from  the  South.  A 
few  years  later  trading  posts  were  established  in  the 
upper  Columbia  region,  and  from  the  Catholic  Cana- 
dian and  Iroquois  employees  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  traders  they  first  learned  of  Christianity 
and  as  early  as  1820  both  they  and  the  Flatheads  had 
voluntarily  adopted  many  of  the  Catholic  forms.  Of 
the  Nez  Perc/;H  it  has  been  said:  "They  seemed  to 
realize  the  paucity  of  their  religious  traditions  and 
from  the  first  eagerly  s(!con<led  the  efforts  of  the  mis- 
sionaries to  instruct  them  in  th(^  C'hristian  faith." 
As  a  result  of  urgent  a[)peals  from  the  Flathead  In- 


SAHARA 


327 


SAHARA 


dians  (q.  v.)  for  missionaries,  a  Presbyterian  mission 
was  established  (1837)  among  the  Nez  Perces  at  Lap- 
wai,  near  the  present  Lewistown,  Idaho,  under  Rev- 
erend H.  H.  Spaulding,  who,  two  years  later,  set  up  a 
printing  press  from  which  he  issued  several  small  pub- 
lications in  the  native  language.  Regular  Catholic 
work  in  the  same  region  began  with  the  advent  of 
Fathers  Blanchet  and  Demers  on  the  Columbia  (1838) 
and  of  De  Smet  and  the  Jesuits  in  the  Flathead  coun- 
try (1840).  The  establishment  of  the  Oregon  trail 
through  the  country  of  the  Nez  Perces  and  allied 
tribes  led  (1849)  to  the  introduction  of  an  epidemic 
disease,  by  which  they  were  terribly  wasted,  particu- 
larly the  Cayuse,  who,  holding  responsible  Dr.  Whit- 
man, in  charge  of  the  Presbyterian  mission  in  their 
tribe,  attacked  and  destroyed  the  mission,  murdering 
Whitman  and  his  wife  and  eleven  others.  The  Cath- 
olic Bishop  Brouillet,  who  was  on  his  way  at  the  time 
to  confer  with  Whitman  for  the  purchase  of  the  mis- 
sion property,  was  not  molested,  but  was  allowed  to 
bury  the  dead  and  then  found  opportunity  to  warn 
Spaulding  in  time  for  him  to  ntach  safety.  In  coase- 
quence  of  these  troubles  all  the  Presbyterian  missions 
in  the  Columbia  region  were  discontinued  but  the 
work  was  resumed  in  later  years  and  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  Nez  Perc6s  are  now  of  that  denomi- 
nation. In  1855  they  sold  by  treaty  a  large  part  of 
their  territory.  In  the  general  outbreak  of  1855-6, 
sometimes  designated  as  the  Yakima  war,  the  Nez 
Percys,  almost  alone,  remained  friendly.  In  the 
year  1863,  in  consequence  of  the  discovery  of  gold, 
another  treaty  was  negotiated  by  which  they  surren- 
dered all  except  the  Lapwai  reservation.  Joseph, 
whose  band  held  the  Wallowa  valley  in  North-East- 
ern  Oregon,  refused  to  be  a  party  to  the  treaty, 
and  his  refusal  led  to  the  memorable  Nez  Perces  war 
(1877).  After  successfully  holding  in  check  for  some 
months  the  regular  troops  under  General  Howard  and 
a  large  force  of  Indian  scouts,  Joseph  conducted  a 
masterly  retreat  for  over  a  thousand  miles  across  the 
mountains,  but  was  finally  intercepted  by  General 
Miles  when  within  a  short  distance  of  the  Canadian 
frontier.  Despite  the  promise  that  he  should  be  re- 
turned to  his  own  country,  Joseph  and  the  remnant  of 
his  band  were  deported  to  Oklahoma,  where  they 
wasted  away  so  rapidly  that  in  ISSo  the  few  who  sur- 
vived were  transferred,  not  toLai)wai,  but  to  theCol- 
ville  reservation  in  Wiushington.  Throughout  the  en- 
tire retreat  no  outrage  was  committed  bj^  Joseph's 
warriors.  The  main  portion  of  the  tribe  took  no  part 
in  the  war.  In  1893  those  of  Lapwai  were  given  in- 
dividual allotments  and  the  reservation  was  thrown 
open  to  white  settlement.  The  CathoUc  work  in  the 
tribe  is  in  charge  of  the  Jesuits,  aided  by  the  Sisters  of 
Saint  Joseph,  and  centring  at  St.  Joseph's  mission, 
Slickpoo,  Idaho.  For  fifty  years  it  was  conducted  by 
Fr.  Joseph  Cataldo,  S.  J.,  who  gave  attention  also  to 
the  neighbouring  cognate  tribes.  The  Catholic  In- 
dians are  reported  at  over  500,  edifying  and  faithful  in 
their  religious  duties,  in  spite  of  the  general  tribal 
aversion  to  education  and  civilization.  The  material 
condition  of  the  tribe,  however,  is  not  promising. 
While  maintaining  their  old  reputation  for  honesty 
and  generosity,  they  are  non-progressive  and  are 
rapidly  withering  away  under  consumption,  which 
threatens  their  speedy  extinction.  Aside  from  the 
Spaulding  publications  already  noted  the  most  valu- 
able contributions  to  the  study  of  the  Nez  Perc6 
language  are  a  grammar  by  Father  Cataldo  and  a 
dictionary  by  Father  Van  Gorp.  The  most  important 
study  of  a  cognate  language  is  probably  the  "Gram- 
mar and  Dictionary  of  the  Yakama  Language"  by  the 
Oblate  Father  Pandosy  (see  YakimX). 

Bancroft,  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States:  I,  Wild  Tribes;  III, 
Myths  and  Languages  (San  Francisco,  1886);  Idem,  Hist.  Wash- 
ington, Idaho  and  Montana  (San  Francisco,  1890),  Annual  Re- 
ports of  Bureau  of  Catholic  Indian  Missions  (Washington); 
Cataldo,  .4  Numipu  or  Nez  Perci  Grammar  (De  Smet,   1891) ; 


Chittenden,  American  Fur  Trade  (New  York,  1902),  Annual 
Reports  of  the  Commissioner  Indian  Affairs  (Washington) ;  Cox, 
Adventures  on  the  Columbia  (New  York,  1832);  De  Smet,  Li/e, 
Letters,  and  Travels,  ed.  Chittenden  and  Richardson  (4  vols.] 
New  York,  1905) ;  Henry  and  Thompson,  New  Light  on  the  Early 
History  of  the  Greater  Northwest,  ed.  Coues  (3  vols.,  New  York, 
1897);  Irving,  Rocky  Mountains  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1837); 
Idem,  Astoria  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1836);  Lewis  and  Clark, 
Original  Journals  (1804-6),  ed.  Thwaites,  7  vols,  and  atlas 
(New  Ycrk,  1904-.5);  McBbth,  Nez  Percis  since  Lewis  and  Clark 
(New  York,  1908);  Mooney,  The  Ghost-Dance  Religion,  14th 
Rept.  Bur.  Am.  Ethnology,  II  (Washington,  1896);  Parker,  Jour- 
nal of  Tour  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains  (Auburn,  1846);  Ross, 
Adventures  on  the  Columbia  (London,  1849),  reprint  in  Thwaites, 
Early  Western  Travels,  VII  (Cleveland,  1904);  Idem,  Fur  Hunters 
of  the  Far  West  (2  vols.,  London,  1855);  Spaulding,  Nez  Percis 
First  Book  (Lapwai,  1839);  Idem,  Primer  in  the  Nez  Perces  Lan- 
guage (Lapwai,  1840);  Idem,  Gospel  of  Matthew  in  Nez  Percis 
Language  (Clearwater,  Lapwai,  1845);  Spinden,  Myths  of  the  Nez 
Perce  Inds.  in  Jour.  Arri.  Folk  Lore,  XXI  (Boston,  1908);  Idem, 
The  Nez  Perce  Indians  in  Memoirs  Am.  Anthrop.  Assn.,  II,  pt.  iii 
(Lancaster,  1908) ;  Stevens,  Report  in  Rept.  Comsner.  Ind.  Affairs 
for  1854  (Washington,  1855);  Idem,  Narrative  and  final  Report  in 
Pacific  R.R.  Reports,  XII,  B.  1  (Washington,  1860) ;  Van  Gorp, 
Dictionary  of  the  Numipu  or  Nez  Perci  Language  (St.  Ignatius, 
Montana,  1895);  Wyeth,  Correspondence  and  Journals,  ISSl-B; 
Sources  of  the  History  of  Oregon,  1,  pts.  iii-vi  in  Oregon  Hist.  Soc. 
(Eugene,  Oregon,  1899). 

James  Mooney. 

Sahara,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. — The  Sahara  is 
a  vast  desert  of  northern  Africa,  measuring  about  932 
miles  from  north  to  south  and  2484  miles  from  east  to 
west,  and  dotted  with  oases  which  are  centres  of  pop- 
ulation. Eight  years  after  the  journey  of  the  famous 
Duveyrier  (1859-61),  which  had  important  scientific 
results,  Pius  IX  (6  Aug.,  1868)  appointed  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Algiers,  Mgr  Lavigerie,  delegate  Apostolic 
of  the  Sahara  and  the  Sudan.  In  the  same  year  the 
Jesuits  established  themselves  at  Laghouat,  the  ex- 
tremity occupied  by  French  arms.  In  1871  they 
sent  to  Mgr  Lavigerie  a  long  report  in  which  they  ad- 
vocated the  establishment  of  dispensaries  and  schools. 
In  1872  Father  Charmetant  and  two  other  White 
leathers  (Missionary  Fathers  of  Africa  of  Algi(>rs)  re- 
placed the  Jesuits  at  Laghouat.  In  1873  the  White 
Fathers  established  themselves  at  Biskra,  Ouargla, 
Touggart,  and  Gerryville.  Later  a  station  was 
founded  at  Melili  in  Mzab.  Two  successive  attempts 
were  made  by  the  White  Fathers  to  reach  the  Sudan 
by  crossing  the  Sahara,  thus  reaching  Timbuktu,  a 
large  market  for  black  slaves,  there  to  join  in  the 
st  niggle  against  slavery.  The  first  attemi)t  was  made 
in  December,  1878,  by  Fathers  Menoret,  Paulmier,  and 
Bouchand;  they  were  slain  in  April,  1876,  by  their 
Touarag  guides,  being  the  first  martyrs  of  the  Society 
of  White  Fathers,  and  the  cause  of  their  beatification 
was  introduced  at  Rome  in  1909.  After  this  disaster 
the  White  Fathers  founded  two  stations,  not  farther 
north  in  the  desert,  but  to  the  north-east,  at  Tripoli 
and  Ghadames.  The  massacre  of  the  explorer  Flat- 
ters and  his  companions  (1880-81)  did  not  discourage 
the  White  Fathers  in  their  second  attempt  to  cross  the 
Sahara.  In  1881  Father  Richard  set  out  from  Gha- 
dames, having  become  so  Arabian  in  speech  and  bear- 
ing that  no  one  suspected  his  nationality.  He  in- 
tended to  establish  himself  with  Fathers  Morat  and 
Pouplard  at  Ghat  in  the  midst  of  the  desert,  but  all 
thr(>e  were  assassinated. 

The  White  Fathers  then  left  Ghadames.  On  25 
March,  1890,  while  the  Brussels  conference  against 
slavery  was  being  held,  Mgr  Lavigerie  explained  in  a 
letter  to  Keller  that  to  eradicate  in  Africa  the  great 
corporation  of  the  Senoussi,  which  protected  the 
slave-trade,  the  Sahara  must  be  crossed,  and  he  an 
nounced  the  opening  at  Biskra,  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Sahara,  of  a  house  whic-h  he  called  the  House  of  God, 
intended  for  the  formation  of  the  "Brothers  of  the 
Sahara",  or  "Pioneers  of  the  Sahara",  who  would  be 
engaged  in  charitable  works  and  in  extending  hospi- 
tality to  travellers,  the  sick,  and  fugitive  slaves.  The 
Pioneers  of  the  Sahara  had  to  live  as  religious,  but 
without  monastic  vows.  As  early  as  February,  1891, 
the  station  at  Ouargla,  suppressed  in  1876,  was  re- 


SAIDA 


328 


SAINCTES 


established,  and  in  October  Father  Harquard  sent 
thither  six  armed  "pioneers"  who  wrote  to  the  car- 
dinal: "We  shall  endeavour  to  hold  high  the  banner 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  and  the  flag  of  France."  The 
\Miite  Sisters  founded  hospitals  at  Ghardaia  and  El 
Tbiod  Sidi  Cheikh,  thus  gaining  the  confidence  of 
populations  which  were  hostile  to  France.  The  Fou- 
rean-Laniy  expedition  of  1S9S,  which  succeeded  in 
crossing  the  desert  as  far  as  Lake  Tchad,  opened 
wider  avenues  to  the  Catholic  apostolate.  The  Pre- 
fecture ApostoUc  of  the  Sahara  and  the  Sudan  became 
a  vicariate  Apostohc  on  6  March,  1891,  and  in  1901 
received  new  boundaries  bj'  which  the  Prefecture 
Apostohc  of  Ghardaia  was  separated  from  it.  The 
twentieth  degree  of  latitude  forms  the  boundary  be- 
tween them.  The  vicariate  governs  1000  European 
Catholics,  600  negro  Catholics,  4000  catechumens,  40 
missionaries,  15  sisters,  35  catechists;  it  has  12 
churches  or  chapels,  10  schools,  7  orphanages,  3  leper- 
houses,  2  hospitals.  The  population  of  the  Sahara  is 
estimated  at  4,000,000. 

V'fiLLOT,  L' exploration  du  Sahara,  etude  historique  el  geo- 
graphique  (Paris.  1895);  Bernard  axd  Lacroix,  La  penetration 
saharaienne  (Algiers,  1909);  BaUnaRD,  Le  cardinal  Lavigerie 
(Paris,  1896,  1898);  Annates  de  la  propagation  de  la  Foi  (1909), 
333-40;  Piolet,  La  France  au  dihors,  V  (Paris,  1902). 

Georges  Goyau. 
Saida.     See  Sidon. 

Sailer,  Johaxn  Michael,  professor  of  theology  and 
Bishop  of  Ratisbon,  b.  at  Aresing  in  Upper  Bavaria, 
17  October,  1751;  d.  20  May,  1832,  at  Ratisbon.  Sailer 
was  the  son  of  a  poor  shoemaker.  Until  his  tenth 
year  he  attended  the  primar3'^  school  in  his  native 
place;  aft«r  this  he  was  a  pupil  in  the  gymnasium  at 
Munich.  In  1770  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at 
Landsberg  in  Upper  Bavaria  as  a  novice;  upon  the 
suppression  of  the  Society  in  1773  he  continued  his 
theological  and  philosophical  studies  at  Ingolstadt. 
In  1775  he  was  ordained  priest;  1777-80  he  was  a 
tutor  of  philosophy  and  theology,  and  from  1780  sec- 
ond professor  of  dogmatics  at  Ingolstadt.  Along  with 
many  others,  he  lost  his  position  in  1781  when  the 
Elector  Charles  Theodore  transferred  theological  in- 
struction to  the  monasteries.  In  the  years  1781-84 
while  engaged  in  literary  work  he  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  elector  and  Bishop  Clement  Wence.slaus. 
In  1794  the  latter  called  Sailer  to  Dillingen  as  pro- 
fessor of  pastoral  theology  and  ethics,  a  position  which 
Sailer  held  for  ten  years  and  which  brought  him  a  high 
reputation.  His  opponents,  professors  of  Dillingen, 
and  Ro.ssle,  the  principal  of  the  school  at  Pfaffen- 
hausen,  succeeded  in  limiting  Sailer's  activities  in 
1793  and  in  securing  his  sudden  dismissal  in  1794. 
Sailer  now  went  to  visit  his  friend  Winkelhofer  at 
Munich,  and  pursued  there  by  his  opponents,  went 
*o  the  hou.se  of  his  friend  Beck  at  Ebersberg.  Here  he 
devoUid  himself  to  literary  work  until,  in  1799,  he 
was  called  to  a  profc.s.sorHhip  at  Ingolstadt.  In  1800 
he  was  transferred  along  with  the;  university  to  Land- 
shut.  Here  he  taught  p:istoral  and  moral  theology, 
Eedagogics,  homiletics,  liturgy,  and  catechetics;  cele- 
rated  as  a  tf^acher  and  a  writer  he  was  repeatedly 
called  U)  other  positions,  was  on  terms  of  friendship 
with  distinguished  Catholics  and  Protestants,  and  was 
universally  revered  by  his  pupils,  among  whom  was 
the  Crown  Prince  Louis,  later  King  of  Bavaria.  In 
1818  Sailer  declined  the  offer  of  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment to  have  him  appointed  Archbishop  of  Cologne; 
in  1819  the  Bavarian  Government,  through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Crown  Prince  Ix>uis,  nominated  him 
as  Bishop  of  Augsburg,  but  the  nomination  was  re- 
jected by  Rome.  In  1821,  however,  after  he  had 
sufficiently  justified  himself,  he  was  appointed  cathe- 
dral canon  of  Ratisbon,  in  1822  auxiliary  bishop  and 
coafljut<jr  with  right  <jf  succession,  in  1825  cathedral 
provost,  and  in  182(^  Bishop  of  Ratisbon. 

The  age  in  which  Sailer  Uved  was  dominated  by 


the  "Enhghtenment",  which  in  its  radical  form 
disputed  the  fundamental  dogmas  of  Christianity, 
and  was  characterized  by  externalism,  contempt  for 
Christian  mysticism,  worldliness  of  the  clergy,  deg- 
radation of  the  pulpit  by  the  treatment  of  secular 
topics,  relaxation  of  ecclesia-stical  discipline,  denial 
of  the  primacy  of  papal  jurisdiction,  efforts  of  the 
State  to  gain  control  of  the  Church,  turbulent  reforms 
within  the  Church,  and  a  one-sided  training  of  the 
mind  in  education.  In  opposition  to  these  de- 
structive tendencies  Sailer  came  to  the  defence  of 
faith  in  Christ  and  in  the  fundamental  principles 
of  Christianity,  striving  for  an  inner,  living,  practical 
Christianit}',  for  a  faith  that  should  manifest  itself 
in  charity,  for  the  maintenance  of  godliness  (Chris- 
tian mysticism),  and  for  the  training  of  a  pious  and 
intelligent  clerg3\  He  also  insisted  that  the  pulpit 
should  be  reserved  solely  for  the  preaching  of  the  Gos- 
pel, and  that  the  bishops  should  be  in  union  with 
the  pope;  he  upheld  the  primacy  of  the  papal  juris- 
diction, and  defended  the  freedom  and  rights  of  the 
Church  against  the  encroachments  of  the  State. 
Ecclesiastical  reform  he  ardently  desired,  not,  how- 
ever, through  unauthorized  agencies  but  by  the 
appointed  organs  of  the  Church;  and  he  demanded 
that  education  should  aim  at  training  both  mind 
and  will.  Sailer  laboured  for  the  Christian  ideal  by 
his  winning  personahty,  by  his  utterances  as  teacher, 
parish  priest,  and  preacher,  and  bj'  his  numerous 
works  that  were  philosophical,  theological,  devotional, 
and  biographical  in  character. 

Thus  Sailer  brought  back  large  numbers  of  people 
to  Christianity  and  the  Church.  Notwithstanding 
his  fruitful  activity  and  his  benevolence.  Sailer  had 
antagonists  who  opposed  him  partly  from  jealousy, 
partly  from  misunderstanding  and  ill-will;  he  was 
accused  of  heterodoxy,  indifferentism,  and  mysticism. 
If  Sailer  is  judged  in  connexion  with  his  times,  these 
reproaches  are  without  foundation.  In  his  day 
Sailer  was  a  pillar  of  the  Church.  A  perfectly  correct 
judgment  of  Sailer  has  been  expressed  by  Goyau  in 
"L'AlIemagne  religieuse"  (Paris,  1905):  "With  Sailer 
German  piety,  both  Protestant  and  Catholic,  learned 
again  to  pray.  This  is  the  peculiar  characteristic 
of  his  activity.  Do  not  expect  from  him  any  reli- 
gious polemics;  he  abhorred  them;  what  he  really 
cherished  was  the  idea  of  a  sort  of  cooperation  of 
the  various  Christian  bodies  against  the  negations 
of  infidehty.  Sailer  made  a  breach  in  Rationali.sm, 
by  opposing  to  it  a  piety  in  which  both  Christian 
bodies  could  unite"  (pp.  294,  295).  The  best  edition 
of  his  works  is  "J.  ^I.  Sailers  stimtliche  Werke  unter 
Anleitung  fles  Verfas.sers ",  ed.  Joseph  Widmer, 
40  vols.,  Sulzbach,  1830-41;  supplementary  volume, 
1845. 

Sailer,  Selbntbiographie  (1819),  vol.  XIX  of  colleoted  works; 
VON  ScHENK,  Die  BischOfe  Sailer  u.  Witlmann  in  Charitas  (1838); 
VON  ScHMiD,  Erinnerungen  au.i  meinem  Letten  (2  vols.,  Augsburg, 
18.53) ;  LCtolf,  Lehen  u.  Bekennlnisse  des  Jos.  L.  Schiffmann,  ein 
Beilrag  zur  Charakterintik  Sailers  u.  seiner  Schule  in  der  Schweiz 
(Lucerne,  I860);  Aichinger,  J.  M.  Sailer  (Freising,  1865); 
JocHAM,  Dr.  Alois  Buchner,  ein  Lehennhild  zur  Verstdndigung  ilbtr 
J.  M.  Sailers  Prieslerschule  (A\icsl)urg,  1K70);  von  MOller, 
Jean  Paul  u.  Sailer  als  Erziehir  drr  deutxrhen  Nation  (Munich, 
1908);  Kl^TZ,  Sailer  ah  Moral, >hilosoj,h  (Paderborn.  1908); 
Radlmaiek,  J.  M.  Sailer  als  P/idagog  (Berlin,  1909);  StOlzle, 
J.  M.  Sailer  u.  seine  Bedeutung  in  Hochland  (1910);  Idem,  J.  M. 
Sailers  Sehriften,  ausgewahlt  u.  eingeleitet  (Kenipten  and  Munich, 
1910):  Idem,  J.  M.  Sailer,  seine  Massregelung  an  der  Akademie 
zu  Dillinaen  u.  seine  Berufung  nach  Jngolsladt;  ein  Beitrag  zu 
(Irlehrte.ngesrh.  aus  dem  ZeitaUer  der  Aufkldrung  (Kempten  and 
Munich,  1910). 

R.  Stolzle. 

Sainctes,  Claude  de,  French  controversialist,  b. 
at  Perche,  1.525;  d.  at  Crevecrrur,  l.'')91.  At  the  age  of 
fifteen  he  joined  the  Canons  Regular  of  Saint-Ch(''ron, 
and  was  sent  to  the  College  of  Navarre  in  Paris,  where 
he  rec«(ived  the  degnH'  of  Doctor  of  Theology  (15,55). 
On  account  of  the  erudition  of  his  early  works  and  the 
aptitude  which  he  showed  for  controversy,  he  was 


I 


SAINT  ALBANS 


329 


SAINT  ALBERT 


called  to  the  Conference  of  Poissy  held  in  1561  be- 
tween the  Catholics  and  the  Huguenots,  at  which 
Theodore  of  Beza  and  Father  Lainez,  general  of  the 
Jesuits,  were  present.  He  was  afterwards  deputed  to 
the  Council  of  Trent  to  represent,  with  Simon  Vigor, 
the  University  of  Paris.  Upon  his  return  he  acquired 
a  notable  reputation  by  his  sermons  and  his  discussions 
with  Protestants.  He  published  a  work  against  their 
spoUation  of  Catholic  churches  and  a  vigorous  dec- 
laration against  the  doctrines  of  Calvin  and  Theodore 
of  Beza;  the  latter  replied  and  drew  upon  himself  a 
new  attack  from  Claude  de  Sainotes.  At  the  same 
time  he  charged  the  King  of  France  by  his  treatise  on 
"L'ancien  naturel  des  Frangais"  never  to  tolerate 
heretics  and  against  these  latter  he  defended  the 
dogma  of  the  Church  by  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  the 
Eucharist.  Through  the  patronage  of  the  Cardinal  of 
Lorraine,  he  was  appointed  to  the  Bi.shopric  of  Evreux 
(1575).  He  was  very  zealous  in  his  efforts  to  convert 
Protestants.  He  assisted  at  the  provincial  Council  of 
Rouen  (1581)  and  published  its  records  in  P>ench. 
When  the  League  became  active  he  took  sides  with  it 
and  worked  to  gain  partisans;  but  the  royal  troops 
took  possession  of  Evreux  and  the  bishop  was  forced 
to  flee.  Unfortunately  for  him  there  were  found 
among  his  papers  writings  in  which  he  approved  the 
murder  of  Henry  III  and  maintained  that  one  could 
likewise  kill  his  successor.  Arrested  and  arraigned 
before  the  Parlement  of  Caen,  lie  was  condenmed  to 
death  as  guilty  of  high  treiuson.  At  the  request  of  the 
Cardinal  of  Bourbon  and  of  several  bishops,  Henry  IV 
commuted  his  sentence  to  life  imprisonment,  and  he 
was  confined  in  the  chateau  of  Crevccoeiir  where  he 
died  two  months  later.  His  works  were  published, 
some  in  Latin  and  others  in  J'rench.  The  more  im- 
portant are:  "Liturgia;  sive  missa;  SS.  Patrum  Ja- 
fobi,  Basilii  J.  Chry.sostomi "  (Greek-Latin,  Paris, 
15fi0);  "Discours  sur  le  saccagement  des  eglises  cath- 
oliques  par  les  heretiques  anciens  et  nouveaux  cal- 
vinistes"  (Paris,  1562);  "Traite  de  Tancien  naturel 
des  Frangais  en  hi  religion  chn'tlenne"  (Paris,  1567); 
"Declaration  d'anciens  atlirisincs  lic  la  doctrine  (U> 
Calvin  et  de  Beze  contre  les  premiers  fontienicnts  de  !a 
chretiente"  (Paris,  1567);  "De  rebus  Eucharistiaj 
controversis  libri  X"  (Paris,  1575). 

PUPIN.  flist.  des  auteurs  erclesiastiques  du  X  VI'  fiiicli',  IV 
(Paris,  1703),  539;   Hurter,  Nomencl. 

AxToixE  Degert 

Saint  Albans,  Abbey  of,  in  Hertfordshire, 
England,  founded  about  793  by  Offa,  king  of  the 
Mercians.  Venerable  Bede  (Hist.  Eccles..  I,  vii), 
writing  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  speaks 
of  a  church,  existing  at  that  date,  of  v/ondei-ful  work- 
manship and  worthy  of  the  martyrdom  it  commem- 
orated. Offa's  monaster^'  seems  to  have  been  at- 
tached to  this  church,  which  he  repaired,  having 
personally  obtained  the  papal  approval  for  his 
foimdation.  Willcgod,  a  relation  of  the  king,  was 
made  abbot.  By  the  year  1000  the  old  church  was 
evidently  in  a  dilapidated  state  again  and  Ealdred 
and  Eadmer,  the  eighth  and  ninth  abbots,  collected 
materials  to  build  a  new  church  from  the  ruins  of  the 
Roman  city  of  Verulam.  The  actual  building  w;is 
only  begun  in  1077,  when  Abbot  Paul  of  Caen,  a 
relative  of  Archbishop  Lanfranc,  undertook  the  work 
with  such  energy  that  the  whole  church  was  com- 
pleted in  eleven  years;  a  large  part  of  this  church 
still  remains.  The  abbey  increased  in  wealth  and 
importance;  Adrian  IV  exempted  it  from  episcopal 
jurisdiction  and  gave  it  precedence  over  all  other 
English  abbeys.  In  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  St.  Albans 
suffered  much,  and  the  unsettled  state  of  the  country 
involved  the  abbey  in  a  long  series  of  lawsuits  by 
which  it  was  much  impoverished.  In  1521  Cardinal 
Wolsey  became  abbot  in  commendam.  the  only  in- 
stance of  this  practice  known  in  England.     On  his 


disgrace  in  1529  Robert  Catton,  prior  of  Norwich, 
was  elected  abbot,  but  was  deprived  in  1538  to  make 
room  for  a  nominee  of  Henry  VIII,  Robert  Boreman, 
by  whom  the  abbey  was  surrendered  to  the  king  in 
the  following  year.  The  list  of  abbots  may  be  found 
in  Dugdale.  Matthew  Paris  is  probably  the  most 
famous  monk  of  the  foundation,  which  is  notorious 
for  refusing  to  accept  Nicholas  Breakspere,  after- 
wards Adrian  IV,  when  he  begged  for  admission  as  a 
novice.  The  church  of  St.  Albans  escaped  destruc- 
tion at  the  dissolution  of  the  abbey,  and  in  1553 
was  purchased  from  the  Crown  for  £400  by  the  mayor 


St.  Albans  Abbey  CHrRCH 

and  burgesses  of  the  town,  to  be  used  as  a  parish 
church.  Of  the  church  built  by  Paul  of  Caen  most 
of  the  nave,  transepts,  and  pre^sbytery  still  exist, 
but  portions  fell  and  were  rebuilt  in  the  style  of  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The  eastern 
part  of  the  presbytery  with  the  Lady  chapel  bej'ond  it 
al.so  belong  to  the  latter  periods.  In  the  second  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  late  Lord  Grimthorpe 
vmdertook  to  restore  the  building  at  his  own  expense. 
In  spite  of  all  remonstrance  he  did  this  in  such  a  way 
that  "to  grimthorpe"  has  now  become  an  active  verb 
signifying  the  unintelligent  iuutilati(m  of  an  ancient 
building  under  the  cloak  of  restoration.  The  church 
is  550  feet  long,  and  190  wide  across  the  transepts, 
the  central  tower  being  144  feet  high.  It  contains 
a  famous  reredos  of  the  late  fifteenth  century,  the  re- 
constructed ba.se  of  St.  Alban's  shrine,  and  several 
fine  c-hantries  and  monuments.  Of  the  conventual 
buildings  only  the  gatehouse  now  remains. 

Dugdale,  Monnstiron  Anulicaiium,  II  (London,  1846),  178- 
2.5.5;  Newcomk,  Ifislory  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Albanx  (London, 
179.5);  BccKLER,  HUtori/  of  the  Architecture  of  the  Abbeij  Church 
of  St.  A.  (London,  1817);  Brow.ve  Willis,  History  of  the  Mitred 
Abbies,  I  (London,  1718).  13-27;  Co.myns-Carr,  Abbey  Church  of 
St.  A.  (London,  1877);  Perkins.  Cathedral  Church  of  St. 
Albou.-:  (Lon.lon,  1910). 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Saint  Albert,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Alberti). — 
The  immense  territories,  known  to-day  as  the  Prov- 
inces of  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  and  Alberta, 
formed  till  1871  only  one  diocese  under  the  name  of 
St.  Boniface.  On  22  Sept.,  1871,  St.  Boniface  having 
been  elevated  to  the  rank  of  archdiocese,  the  new 
Diocese  of  St.  Albert  was  canonically  erected  and 
Right  Rev.  Vital  J.  Grandin,  O.M.I,  (consecrated 
30  Nov.,  1859,  Bishop  of  Satala  and  appointed  co- 
adjutor of  the  Bishop  of  St.  Boniface),  was  transferred 
to  the  new  see.  The  first  Bishop  of  St.  Albert  died  on 
3  June,  1902,  after  a  long  episcopate  of  nearly  forty- 
five  years,  and  half  a  centurj'  of  missionary  life. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Right  Rev.  Emil(>  J.  Legal, 
O.M.I,  (consecrated  Bishop  of  Pogla,  17  June,  1897, 
and  coadjutor  of  St.  Albert,  3  June,  1902).  This 
diocese,  even  after  having  been  subdivided  in  1891 
to  form  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Saskatchewan, 
comprises  the  southern  half  of  Province  of  Alberta 
and  the  western  part  of  Saskatchewan,  an  area  of 
some  150,000  square  miles.     It  is  bounded  on  the  east 


SAINT  ANDREWS 


330 


SAINT  ANDREWS 


by  the  UOth  degree  of  longitude;  on  the  west  by  the 
Rocky  Mountains;  on  the  south  by  the  Unitfcd 
States;  and  on  the  north  by  the  55th  degree  of 
latitude.  At  the  time  of  its  erection,  the  total  popu- 
lation of  the  diocese  was  from  4000  to  5000  half-breeds, 
10.000  to  12,000  Indians  belonging  to  half  a  dozen 
tribes,  and  a  few  hundred  white  people,  employees 
of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  The  evangelization 
of  this  new  diocese  was  then  entrusted  to  twelve 
Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate. 

Five  missions  had  been  established,  hundreds  of 
miles  apart.  The  first  cathedral  was  a  log-house  and 
the  bishop's  palace  a  small  frame  building.  Three 
schools  and  two  orphan  asylums  were  in  charge  of 
Sisters  of  Charity.  The  whole  Catholic  population 
numbered  scarcely  10,000. 

Though  cut  off  from  all  means  of  communication 
with  the  civilized  world,  receiving  but  a  yearly  mail, 
deprived  not  only  of  all  comfort,  but  even  of  the 
necessaries  of  life,  obliged  to  travel  long  distances, 
camping  outside  for  weeks  and  even  months  consecu- 
tively, in  cold  of  30  to  40  degrees,  to  spread  the  knowl- 
edge of  divine  Faith  and  establish  here  and  there  new 
centres  of  missions,  the  finst  two  bishops  of  St. 
Albert  and  their  missionaries  never  despaired  or  lost 
faith  in  the  future  of  their  work.  After  several  years 
of  hard  struggle  a  great  change  became  apparent. 
In  1S74-75,  the  Canadian  Government  having  es- 
tablished a  few  posts  of  movmted  police  in  the  diocese, 
new  settlements  were  founded.  Reservations  for  the 
Indians  were  established;  churches,  schools,  and 
missions  built.  At  the  same  time  a  considerable 
number  of  half-breeds  from  Manitoba  settled  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  diocese,  where  they  soon  formed 
new  pari-shcs  or  missions.  In  1S83-S4  the  opening 
of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railwaj'  brought  colonies  of 
immigrants,  and  soon  the  work  of  the  missions  was 
much  increased.  In  1890  the  Diocese  of  St.  Albert  was 
divided  and  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Saskatchewan 
created,  which  in  1911  was  erected  as  a  diocese. 

Since  1890  the  development  of  the  missionary  work 
has  been  wonderful.  An  appeal  was  made  in  1891  to 
the  secular  clergy  to  come  and  help  the  Oblates  of 
Mar>'  Immaculate  who  could  no  longer  attend  alone 
to  so  many  stations,  missions,  and  parishes,  already 
erected  or  urgently  needed.  Several  secular  priests, 
an<l  later  several  religious  orders  came  to  help  in  the 
work  of  e<hication  and  evangelization.  The  Catho- 
lic populatif)n  of  the  diocese  is  now  55,000,  of  which 
about  15,000  are  Greek  Catholics.  They  are  attended 
by  1  bishop;  98  regular  priests;  20  secular  priests; 
and  3.3  seminarists.  There  are:  churches  with  resi- 
dent priests,  56;  missions,  55;  stations,  98;  commu- 
nities of  men,  9,  of  women,  15;  boarding  schools,  14; 
1  industrial  school  for  Indians;  boarding  schools  for 
Indians,  8;  primarj'  schools,  60;  hospitals,  11;  hos- 
pices, 2;  orphan  asylums,  20.  The  great  majority  of 
the  Cree  Indians  have  been  converted  to  the  Catholic 
P'aith,  and  the  Blackfect  have;  of  late  manifested  bet- 
ter di.spfjsitions.  French,  English,  German,  and  Polish- 
speaking  Catholics  have;  parishes  or  missions  of  their 
own.  Thou.sands  of  Galicians  of  the  Greek  Catholic 
Rite  have  started  three  flourishing  missions  attended 
by  Basilian  Fathers  of  th(!  same  rite.  A  community 
of  nuns,  belfjnging  also  to  the  Greek  Catholic  Church, 
has  been  foiinrled  to  take  charge  of  their  schools  and 
charitable  institutions. 

The  Diocese  of  St.  Albert,  after  many  years  of  al- 
most infiurmfnintable  obstacles  and  difficulties,  has 
become  f)nf;  of  the  most  promising  of  Western  Canada. 
It  is  crossed  by  the  transcontinental  lines  of  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific,  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  and  Canmlian 
Northern  Railways,  anrl  tf)wns  and  villages  spring  up 
almost  c-very  ten  rniles.  Irnrnigrants  cr)ine  flaily 
from  all  parts  of  the  civilizerl  world.  Among  them  a 
fair  proportion  of  Catholics  take  po8H(«sion  of  the 
Boil,  settle  on  their  homesteads,  and  new  fields  of  mie- 


sionary  labour  are  incessantly  opened  to  the  zeal  of 
the  secular  and  regular  clergy  of  St.  Albert. 

Antiuaire  Pontif.  Cath.  (1911);  Morice,  History  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Western  Canada,  I,  II  (Toronto,  1910). 

H.  Leduc. 

Saint  Andrews  and  Edinburgh  (S.  Andrew  et 
Edinburgensis),  Archdiocese  of. — The  exact  date 
of  the  foundation  of  the  See  of  St.  Andrews  is,  like 
many  others  in  the  earliest  historj^  of  the  Scottish 
Church,  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  fix.  That 
there  were  bishops  in  the  country  now  called  Scot- 
land, and  exercising  jurisdiction  in  the  district  where 
the  city  of  St.  Andrews  afterwards  arose,  as  early 
as  the  eighth  or  ninth  century,  is  practically  certain. 
We  may,  however,  take  90S,  the  year  of  the  famous 
assembl}^  at  the  Moot  hill  of  Scone,  as  that  in  which 
a  Bishop  of  St.  Andrews  (Cellach)  first  appears  in 
historj^,  vowing,  in  association  with  the  king  (Con- 
stantine),  to  "protect  the  laws  and  discipline  of  the 
Faith,  and  the  rights  of  the  churches  and  of  the 
Gospel".  In  the  two  most  ancient  and  authentic 
hsts  that  have  come  down  to  us,  those  given  by 
Wyntoun,  Prior  of  Lochleven,  and  bj-^  Bower  of  Inch- 
colm  in  his  "Scotichronicon",  Cellach  is  called  the 
first  Bishop  of  St.  Andrews.  For  two  centuries  the 
bishops  bore  Celtic  names — Fothad,  Maclbrigd, 
Maelduin,  and  the  like.  The  death  of  Fothad  II 
(1093)  marks  the  close  of  the  first  period  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  see,  of  which  scanty  records  and  still  scantier 
material  traces  remain.  The  English  influence  on 
Scottish  national  fife,  both  ecclesiastical  and  civil, 
which  followed  the  marriage  of  St.  Margaret,  great- 
niece  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  to  the  King  of  Scots  in 
1069,  had  as  one  of  its  results  the  nomination  of  Turgot 
(Margaret's  former  confessor)  to  the  See  of  St.  An- 
drews. He  was  succeeded  by  Eadmer,  a  Benedictine 
monk  of  Canterbury;  and  Eadmer  by  Robert,  a  canon 
regular  of  St.  Augustine,  who  founded  at  St.  Andrews 
in  1144  the  cathedral  priory  for  canons  of  his  own 
order.  It  was  his  successor  Arnold  who  began,  at 
the  eastern  end,  the  construction  of  the  magnificent 
cathedral,  the  building  of  which  occupied  more  than 
a  century  and  a  half.  Meanwhile  the  bishops  of 
St.  Andrews,  although  they  claimed  and  exercised 
(as  their  Celtic  predecessors  had  done)  the  right  of 
presiding  at  all  assemblies  of  the  Scottish  clergy, 
had  never  been  formally  granted  the  ecclesiastical 
primacy:  indeed  in  1225  their  position  was  seriously 
affected  by  a  Bull  of  Honorius  III,  enjoining  that 
future  synods  were  to  be  presided  over  by  one .  of  the 
bishops,  styled  the  Conservator,  to  be  elected  by  his 
brother  prelates.  This  arrangement,  which  of  course 
deprived  the  bishops  of  St.  Andrews  of  their  quasi- 
primatial  jurisdiction,  remained  in  force  until  the 
subsequent  erection  of  the  sec  into  an  archbishopric. 

It  was  William  Lamberton,,the  twenty-third  bishop 
of  the  diocese,  who  had  the  honour  of  seeing  the 
cathedral  completed,  and  solemnly  consecrated  in 
presence  of  King  Robert  Bruce  on  5  July,  1318. 
The  building  was  355  feet  in  length,  and  consisted 
of  a  nave  of  twelve  bays  with  aLsles,  north  and  south 
transepts,  each  of  three  bays,  with  eastern  aisles, 
choir  of  five  bays  with  aisles,  and  presbytery.  Sixty 
years  after  the  con.secration  it  was  partly  destroyed 
by  fire,  but  was  completely  restored  before  1440. 
Bishop  Lamberton  biiilt  the  beautiful  chapter-house, 
which  still  exists,  though  roofless.  Among  Lamber- 
ton's  most  eminent  successors  were  Henry  Wardlaw, 
who  founded  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1411, 
James  Kennedy,  founder  of  St.  Salvator's  College, 
and  Patrick  Gruhani  (Fvennerly's  half-brother),  who 
successfully  resisted  the  claim  revived  by  Arch- 
bishop Neville  of  York  to  have  the  supremacy  of  that 
see  over  the  Scrottish  C'hurch  recognized  in  Rome. 
So  successful  wiis  Graham's  protest,  tliat  Sixtus  IV 
finally  decided  the  question  by  a  Bull,  27  August, 
1472,  erecting  the  Sec  of  St.  Andrews  into  an  arch- 


SAINT  ANDREWS 


331 


SAINT  ANDREWS 


bishopric,  and  its  cathedral  into  the  metropoUtan 
church  for  the  whole  of  Scotland.  Twelve  sees 
were  assigned  to  St.  Andrews  as  its  suffragans,  those 
of  Glasgow,  Dunkeld,  Aberdeen,  Moray,  Brechin, 
Dunblane,  Ross,  Caithness,  Orkney,  Argyll,  the 
Isles,  and  Galloway.  The  last-named  bishopric  had 
hitherto  been  subject  to  York,  while  those  of  Orkney, 
Argyll,  and  the  Isles  had  continued  to  form  part 
of  the  Province  of  Trondhjem  in  Norway.  Pope  Six- 
tus  announced  the  new  creation  in  letters  addressed 
to  James  III  and  to  the  Scottish  bishops,  and  he 
also  conferred  on  the  primate  the  office  of  Apostolic 
nuncio.  The  new  metropolitan  see,  however,  pre- 
serv^ed  its  unique  position  for  barely  twenty  years. 

Scotland  was  unanimous  in  demanding — through 
its  king,  its  chancellor,  and  its  bishops  —  that  the 
ancient  See  of  Glasgow  should  be  similarly  honoured ; 
and  in  1492  Innocent  VIII  erected  it  also  into  an 
archbishopric  and  separate  province,  with  Dunkeld, 
Dunblane,  Galloway,  and  Argyll  as  suffragans. 
In  1496  James  IV  procured  the  nomination  to  St. 
Andrews  first  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Ross,  and, 
after  his  death  (by 
an  abuse  too  com- 
mon in  those  times), 
of  his  own  natural 
son,  Alexander 
Stuart,  a  boy  of  six- 
teen. The  youthful 
archbishop  fell  at 
Flodden  in  1513, 
fighting  by  his  fa- 
ther's side.  He  was 
followed  successively 
by  Archbishops  For- 
man,  James  and 
David  (Cardinal) 
Beaton,  and  Hamil- 
ton. At  the  period 
immediately  preced- 
ing the  Reformation 
and  the  spoliation  of 
the  ancient  Church, 
the  ecclesiastical 

jurisdiction  of  the  primate  included  two  archdeaconries, 
nine  rural  deaneries,  the  patronage  of  131  benefices, 
and  the  administration  of  245  parishes.  Archbishop 
Hamilton  (q.  v.)  was  hanged  at  Stirling  (in  his 
pontifical  vestments)  on  5  April,  1571;  and  though 
the  few  remaining  members  of  his  cathedral  chapter 
duly  elected  Robert  Hay  as  his  successor,  he  was  never 
consecrated,  and  the  See  of  St.  Andrews  remained 
vacant  for  three  hundred  and  seven  years. 

For  nearly  a  century  the  scattered  Catholics  of  the 
former  archdiocese  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
English  prefects  and  vicars  ApostoHc;  but  in  1653 
a  prefect  of  the  Scottish  Mission  (WiUiam  Ballan- 
tyne)  was  appointed  by  the  Holy  See.  Forty  years 
later  the  first  vicar  Apostolic  for  Scotland  (Bishop 
Nicholson)  was  consecrated  in  Paris.  The  country 
was  divided  into  two  vicariates  in  1726,  a  Highland 
and  a  Lowland,  and  just  a  hundred  years  later  Leo 
XII  added  a  third,  the  Eastern,  including  the  whole 
of  the  former  Archdiocese  of  St.  Andrews.  At 
length,  on  4  March,  1878,  the  regular  hierarchy  was 
restored  by  Leo  XIII. 

The  Catholic  Diocese  of  St.  Andrews  and  Edin- 
burgh, as  defined  in  the  Apostolic  Letter  "Ex  Supremo 
Apostolatus  Apice"  of  4  March,  1878,  comprises  the 
counties  of  Edinburgh,  Berwick,  Fife  (southern 
part),  Haddington,  Linlithgow,  Peebles,  Roxburgh, 
Selkirk,  and  (practically)  Stirlingshire.  The  entire 
population  of  this  portion  of  Scotland,  according  to 
the  latest  census,  amounts  to  nearly  870,000,  and  the 
number  of  Catholics  is  estimated  at  63,000,  or  about 
seven  per  cent  of  the  whole.  The  number  of  churches, 
chapels,  and  stations  at  the  beginning  of  1911  was 


87,  and  of  missions  51,  served  by  89  priests,  including 
77  secular  priests,  eight  Jesuits,  and  four  Oblates  of 
Mary  Immaculate.  The  last-named  order  has  one 
house  in  the  diocese,  and  the  Society  of  Jesus  two. 
The  religious  orders  of  women  in  the  diocese  comprise 
Ursulines  of  the  Incarnation  (whose  convent,  founded 
in  Edinburgh  in  1835,  was  the  first  established  in 
Scotland  since  the  Reformation);  Sisters  of  Mercy 
(two  houses);  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor;  Sisters  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception;  Sisters  of  Charity  of 
St.  Vincent  of  Paul  (four  houses);  Sisters  of  the 
Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary;  Poor  Clares; 
Helpers  of  the  Holy  Souls;  Religious  of  Marie  R^- 
paratrice;  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Paul  (two  houses); 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross;  Dominicans;  and  Carme- 
htes.  The  Catholic  institutions  are,  a  children's 
refuge,  industrial  school  and  boys'  orphanage,  or- 
phanage for  girls.  House  of  Mercy  for  ser\-ants,  home 
for  working  boys.  Sacred  Heart  Home  for  penitents, 
dispensary  and  home  for  respectable  girls,  convales- 
cent home,  and  St.  Vincent's  Home  for  destitute 
children.  The  number  of  congregational  day-schools 
is  fifty,  and  the 
average  attendance 
of  cliildren  at  them 
between  10,000  and 
11,000.  The  great 
majority  of  the  Cath- 
olics of  the  diocese 
(certainly  over  90  per 
cent)  are  of  Irish 
origin  and  parent- 
age; of  the  remainder 
many  are  Italians 
(chiefly  from  Naples), 
Poles,  and  Lithua- 
nians, the  latter  en- 
gaged for  the  most 
part  as  miners.  The 
Poles  tend  to  become 
absorbed  in  the  na- 
tive population,  usu- 
ally discarding  their 
Polish  names.  The 
material  progress  in  the  diocese,  in  the  way  of  church 
building,  has  been  noteworthy  in  recent  years.  In  1859 
there  was  one  church  in  the  capital;  half  a  century  later 
there  were  eight ;  and  churches  have  recently  been  built 
in  different  parts  of  the  diocese  of  considerable  architec- 
tural merit,  several  of  them  being  the  finest  ecclesias- 
tical edifices  in  their  respective  towns.  The  archi- 
episcopal  residence  is  in  Edinburgh,  where  is  also  the 
cathedral  of  the  diocese.  The  grand  old  cathedral  of 
St.  Andrews  was  wrecked  by  the  Protestant  mob 
(Knox's  "rascal  multitude")  in  1559;  and  though 
efforts  were  made  by  the  Protestant  Archbishop 
Spottiswoode  and  others  to  restore  it,  it  became  a  total 
ruin.  Nothing  now  remains  of  it  but  the  south  wall 
of  the  nave,  a  fragment  of  the  beautiful  west  front, 
the  eastern  gable  with  its  flanking  turrets,  portions 
of  the  transept  and  some  of  the  pier  ba.ses.  The 
present  archbishop  is  the  Most  Rev.  James  A. 
Smith,  b.  in  Edinburgh,  1841,  ordained  in  Rome, 
1866,  and  consecrated  Bishop  of  Dunkeld  in  1890. 
He  was  translated  to  the  See  of  Saint  Andrews 
and  Edinburgh  in  1901.  The  last  Protestant  arch- 
bishop died  in  1704;  and  the  title  remained  unused 
until  1844,  when  it  was  revived  by  the  episcopalian 
synod. 

Refjistrum  Prioratus  S.  Andrecc  (Bannatyne  Club,  Edinburgh, 
1841);  Brady,  Episcopal  Succession  in  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland  (Rome,  1876):  l,YOS,  History  of  St.  Andrews  (^dinhuTf^h, 
181.3);  FoRDUN,  Scotichronicon  (ed.  Goodall,  Edinburgh,  1759); 
Keith,  Historical  Catalogue  of  Scottish  Bishops  (Edinburgh,  1824) ; 
Theiner,  Annates  Ecclesiastici  (Rome,  1856);  Mackenzie- 
Walcott,  The  Ancient  Church  of  Scotland  (London,  1874); 
hASG,  St.  Andrews  (London,  1893);  Bellesheim,  Hist,  of  the 
Catholic  Church  of  Scotland  (4  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1887-90). 

D.  O.  Hunter-Blaik. 


St.  Andrews,  XIV  Century 


SAINT  ANDREWS 


332 


SAINT  ASAPH 


Saint  Andrews,  Uni\i;rsiti-  of. — The  germ  of 
the  university  is  to  be  found  in  an  association  of 
learned  ecclesiastics,  formed  in  1410,  among  whom 
were :  Laurence  of  Lindores,  Abbot  of  Scone,  Richard 
Cornwall,  Archdeacon  of  Lothian,  Wm.  Stephen, 
aftemards  .\rchbishop  of  Dunblane.  They  offered 
courses  of  lectures  in  divinity,  logic,  philosophy, 
canon  and  civil  law.  Henry  Wardlaw,  the  Bishop  of 
St.  Andrews,  granted  a  charter  of  pri\-ilege  in  1411; 
he  sought  a  Bull  of  foundation  from  the  antipope, 
Benedict  XIII,  whose  legate  he  was  and  whose  claims 
Scotland  supported.  The  Bull  was  granted  in  1413; 
it  was  confirmed  by  royal  charter  of  James  I  in  1532. 
The  five-hundredth  anni\-crsary  of  the  foundation 
was  celebrated  in  1911.  The  university  consisted  of 
three  colleges:  St.  Salvator's,  founded  in  1450  lay 
Bishop  James  Kennedy,  confirmed  and  further  priv- 
ileged bv  Popes  Nicholas  V,  Pius  II,  and  Paul  II; 
St.  Leonard's,  founded  by  Archbishop  Stuart  and 
Prior  Hepburn  in  1512;  and  St.  Mary's,  founded  by 
Archbishop  James  Beaton,  under  sanction  of  Paul 
III,  in  1537.  Tliis  occupied  the  site  of  the  original 
pedagogy.  AH  the  foundations  were  amply  supported 
by  successive  endowment.  The  college  buildings 
escaped  when  the  churches  of  St.  Andrews  were  de- 
molished by  the  reformers,  but  it  was  not  until  1574 
that  the  university  began  to  recover.  At  the  same 
time  that  Andrew  Melville  (a  St.  Andrews'  student) 
was  re-erecting  the  university  at  Glasgow,  a  commis- 
sion, inspired  by  George  Buchanan,  began  a  series  of 
reforms  at  St.  Andrews,  which  intermittently  con- 
tinued throughout  the  seventeenth  century.  In  1747 
St.  Salvator's  and  St.  Leonard's  Colleges  were  united. 
The  university  was  further  enlarged  and  strength- 
ened by  the  affiliation  in  1897  of  University  College, 
Dundee,  at  which  the  scientific  departments  are 
chiefly  conducted.  A  proposal  by  the  Marquess  of 
Bute  (rector  1892-98)  to  affiliate  Blair's  College, 
Aberdeen,  was  unsuccessful.  Among  the  famous 
professors  and  students  in  St.  Andrews  of  the  earlier 
period  mast  be  named  John  Major,  Andrew  Melville, 
Gavin  Douglas,  George  Buchanan,  Patrick  Forbes, 
Napier  of  Merchiston;  its  leaders  and  its  alumni 
played  a  great  part  in  Scottish  ecclesiastical  politics 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  most  notably  Zachary 
Boyd,  Wm.  Carstares,  principal  of  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  and  Samuel  Rutherford.  During  the  last 
century  St.  Andrews  can  show  a  long  list  of  distin- 
guished scientists  and  men  of  letters.  The  total  num- 
ber of  students  (1909-10)  was  571,  of  whom  247 
were  women;  University  College,  Dundee,  contrib- 
uted 214  of  the  total. 

St.  Andrews'  Vniternty  Calendar  (1910-11);  Anderson, 
The  Unirergiiy  of  St.  AnrJrewB,  a  HUtoriail  Sketch  (1878);  Rash- 
IJALL,  VnizerHities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages  (Oxford,  ISM), 
29.5;  Cooper,  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  8.  v.  Andrew  Melville;  Lyon,  //»»- 
tory  of  St.  Andrews  (Edinburgh,  184.3). 

J.  S.  Phillimore. 

Saint  Andrews,  Priory  of,  was  one  of  the  great 
religious  hou.scs  in  Scotland  and  the  metropolitan 
church  in  that  country  before  the  Reformation.  Its 
origin  is  uncertain,  although  all  agree  that  it  must  be 
very  ancient.  According  to  the  "Registrum  S.  An- 
drew", the  first  founder  was  Angus,  King  of  the 
'Picts  73.5-747),  who  gave  to  Bishop  Regulus,  who 
haxl  brought  to  Scotland  the  relics  of  St.  Andrew, 
meadows,  fields,  and  other  properties.  The  church 
was,  f>erhap8  from  the  beginning,  administered  by 
Culdef«,  who  alsfj  had  the  right  of  electing  the  bishop. 
In  1 144,  however,  at  the  nqufst  of  King  Alexander  I, 
who  may  be  called  the  H('cond  founder  of  the  priory 
on  account  of  his  many  donations  to  it,  Robert,  Prior 
of  Scone,  was  ma/le  Bishop  of  St.  Andrews.  He 
brought  with  him  wjme  of  his  brother-canons  regular, 
whom  he  estaVilished  in  the  priory.  For  some  time 
the  canons  and  the  Culdees  servcfJ  the  church  to- 
gether, but  by  order  of  the  pope  in  1147  the  Culdees, 


who  had  previously  been  given  the  option  to  become 
canons  and  had  refused,  were  removed  and  all  their 
rights  passed  to  tlie  canons,  who  from  that  moment 
till  the  Reformation  formed  the  Cathedral  Chai)ter. 
When  in  1297  Bishop  Lambcrton,  who  succeeded 
Bishop  Fraser,  was  chosen  by  the  canons  without  the 
intervention  of  the  Culdees,  as  was  done  in  the  two 
previous  elections,  Cumyn,  Provost  of  the  Culdees, 
opposed  the  election  and  went  to  Rome.  He  pleaded 
his  case  before  the  pope  in  vain,  and  Lamberton  was 
consecrated  bishop  in  1298.  The  Culdees,  after  this, 
disappear  from  St.  Andrews  altogether.  The  priory 
protected  by  bishops,  kings,  and  noble  families  pros- 
pered, and  iike  all  the  great  monasteries  it  had  cells 
or  priories  as  its  dependencies.  These  were:  (1)  Loch- 
leven,  formerly  a  house  of  Culdees,  and  given  to  the 
canons  by  Bishop  Robert  and  King  David;  (2)  Mony- 
musk,  where  the  Culdees  became  canons  regular;  (3) 
Isle  of  May,  which  Bishop  Wishart  bought  from  the 
monks  of  Reading  and  gave  to  the  canons  of  St. 
Andrews,  plena  jure;  (4)  Pittenweem,  an  old  priory, 
which  already  existed  in  1270;  (5)  Portmoak,  founded 
in  838  for  Culdees  and  given  to  St.  Andrews  by  Bishop 
Roger.  Kilrimont  was  made  over  to  the  canons  by 
Bishop  Robert,  who  also  gave  them  the  hospital  "in 
susceptionem  hospitum  et  peregrinorum  " .  On  account 
of  his  position  as  Superior  of  the  Cathedral  Chapter, 
the  prior  pro  tempore  had  precedence  of  all  the  abbots 
in  the  kingdom.  To  the  canons  of  St.  Andrews  the 
now  famous  university  of  that  name  owes  its  existence. 
It  was  founded  by  Prior  Biset  and  his  canons  in  1408, 
and  many  of  them  lectured  there.  Some  of  the  canons 
became  bishops  of  St.  Andrews  or  of  other  dioceses, 
and  in  other  ways  distinguished  themselves  for  their 
piet}'  or  learning.  Of  Bishop  Robert  the  chronicler 
tells  us  that  he  was  a  man  of  rare  prudence,  virtuous, 
and  a  scholar.  In  1349,  when  the  black  plague  made 
so  many  victims.  Abbot  Bower  records  the  death  of 
twenty-four  canons  of  St.  Andrews,  who,  as  he  says, 
were  all  "sufficienter  litterati  et  morum  conspicui". 
When  in  1412  the  new  parish  church  was  founded  by 
the  canons,  the  first  incumbent  was  one  of  them,  W. 
Romer,  "vir  multum  laudabilis  religiosus  et  benig- 
nus".  Bishop  Bell,  returning  from  Rome,  became  a 
canon  at  St.  Andrews,  where  he  died  in  1342.  But 
evil  days  came  for  the  priory  when  lay-priors  or  com- 
mendatories  were  introduced;  relaxations  and  irreg- 
ularities crept  in,  and  the  Reformation  completed  the 
work  of  destruction.  Instigated  by  the  fiery  preaching 
of  John  Knox,  his  followers  burnt  down  the  cathedral 
and  the  priorj\  A  few  years  ago  the  late  Marquess 
of  Bute  purchased  the  remaining  ruins  with  a  view 
to  restore  them  to  Catholic  use. 

Martine,  ReliquicE  S.  Andrea,  or  the  atate  of  the  venerable,  and 
Primtitial  See  of  St.  Andrew' s;  Fordun-Bower,  Scotichronicon 
(E)<linl)urKh,  17.'j9);  Gordon,  Monasticon  (1875);  History  of 
Holyrood  (KdiriburKh).  A.    AlLARIA. 

Saint  Asaph,  Ancient  Diocese  of  (Assavensis, 
originally  IOlvik.nsis),  was  founded  by  St.  Kentigern 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  when  he  was 
exiled  from  his  see  in  Scotland.  He  founded  a  monas- 
tery called  Llanelwy  at  the  confluence  of  the  CIvvyd 
and  Elwy  in  North  Wales,  where  after  his  return  to 
Scotland  in  573  he  was  succtseded  by  Asaph  or  Asa, 
who  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Llanelwy.  The 
diocese  originally  coincided  with  the  principality  of 
Powys,  but  lost  much  territory  first  by  th(!  Mercian 
encroachment  marked  by  Watt's  dyk(!  and  again  by 
the  construction  of  Ofta's  dyke,  soon  after  798. 
Nothing  is  known  of  the  history  of  the  diocese  during 
the  disturlx'd  jx-riod  that  followed.  Domesday  Hook 
gives  scanty  j)articularH  of  a  few  churclies  but  is 
silent  as  to  the;  (iathedral.  Early  in  the;  twelfth  cen- 
tury Norman  influence  a,sserted  itself  and  in  1143 
Theobald,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  consecrated 
one  Gilbert  as  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  but  the  position 
of  his  successors  was  very  difficult  and  one  of  them, 


SAINT  AUGUSTINE 


333 


SAINT  BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY 


Godfrey,  was  driven  away  by  poverty  and  the  hos- 
tility of  the  Welsh.  A  return  made  in  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century  (British  Museum,  Cotton 
MSS.  Vitellius,  c.  x.)  shows  the  existence  of  eight 
rural  deaneries,  seventy-nine  churches,  and  nineteen 
chapels.  By  1291  the  deaneries  had  been  doubled 
in  number  and  there  were  Cistercian  houses  at 
Basingwerk,  Abcrconway,  Strata  Marcella,  and 
Valle  Crucis,  and  a  Cistercian  nunnery  at  Llanllugan. 
The  cathedral,  which  had  been  burnt  in  the  wars, 
was  rebuilt  and  completed  in  1295.  It  was  a  plain 
massive  structure  of  simple  plan,  and  was  again 
destroyed  during  the  "Wars  of  the  Roses.  WTien  it 
was  restored  by  Bishop  Redman  the  palace  was  not 
rebuilt  and  thus  the  bishops  continued  to  be  non- 
resident. At  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  there 
was  a  great  revival  of  church  building,  as  is  evidenced 
by  the  churches  of  that  date  still  existing  in  the 
diocese.  The  chief  shrines  in  the  diocese  were  St. 
Winefred's  Well,  St.  Garmon  in  Yale,  St.  Dervel 
Gadarn  in  Edeiniion,  St.  Monacclla  at  Pennant,  and 
the  Holy  Cross  in  Strata  Marcella.  All  these  were 
demolished  at  the  Reformation.  At  that  time  the 
diocese  contained  one  archdeaconry,  sixteen  deaneries, 
and  one  hundred  and  twenty-one  parishes. 

The  names  and  succession  of  the  bishops  after  Sts. 
Kentigcrn  and  Asaph  are  not  known  until  1143.  For 
five  hundred  j^ears  the;  only  names  we  meet  with  are 
Tysilio  (about  (iOO),  Renchidus  (about  800),  Ccbur 
(about  928),  and  Melanus  (about  1070).  From  1143 
the  succession  is  as  follows:  Gilbert  (1143);  Geoffrey 
of  Monmouth  (1152);  Richard  (1154);  Godfrey 
(1158);  Adam  (1175);  John  I  (1183);  Rej-ner 
(118G);  Abraham  (1225);  Hugh  (1235);  Howel  ap 
Ednyfed  (1240);  Anian  I  (1249);  John  II  (1267); 
Anian  II  (1268);  Llewelyn  ap  Yn\T  (Leolinus  de 
Bromfield),  1293;  Davydd  ap  lileddyn  (1314); 
John  Trevor  I  (13.52);  Llewelyn  ap  Madoc  (1357); 
William  de  Spridlington  (1376);  Lawrence  Child 
(1382);  Alexander  Bache  (1390);  John  Trevor  II 
(1395);  Robert  de  Lancaster  (1411);  John  Lowe 
(1433);  Reginald  Pecock  (1444);  Thomas  Knight 
(1450);  Richard  Redman  (1471);  Michael  Diacon 
(1495);  Davydd  ap  lorwerth  (1500);  Davydd  ap 
Owen  (1503);  Edmund  Birkhead  (1513);  Henry 
Standish  (1518);  see  held  by  schismatics  (1535-55); 
Thomas  Goldwell  (1555),  who  died  at  Rome  13 
April,  1585,  not  only  the  last  Catholic  Bishop  of  St. 
Asaph's,  but  the  last  survivor  of  the  ancient  hier- 
archy. The  bishop  had  five  episcopal  residences, 
four  of  which  were  alienated  by  the  schismatical 
bishop  under  Edward  VI.  The  cathedral  was  ded- 
icated to  St.  Asaph  and  the  arms  of  the  see  were 
sable,  two  keys  in  saltire  argent. 

Thomas,  History  of  St.  Asaph,  diocesan,  cathedral  and  parochial 
(London,  1874);  Idem,  St.  Asaph  in  Diocesan  Histories  (Lon- 
don, 1888) ;  Walcott,  Memorials  of  St.  Asaph  (London,  1805) ; 
Willis,  Survey  of  St.  Asaph  (2  vols.,  Wrexham,  1801) ;  Wharton, 
Historia  de  episcopis  et  decanis  Londinencibus  necnon  Assavensibus 
(London,  169.3).  EdWIN   BuRTON. 

Saint  Augustine,  Abbey  of. — A  Benedictine  mon- 
astery, originally  dedicated  to  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul, 
founded  in  605  outside  of  the  City  of  Canterbury, 
on  the  site  of  the  earlier  Church  of  St.  Pan  eras  given 
by  King  Ethelbert  to  St.  Augustine  in  597.  It 
was  subsequently  enlarged,  and  in  978  St.  Dunstan, 
then  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  dedicated  it  anew  to 
St.  Peter,  St.  Paul,  and  St.  Augustine,  since  which 
time  it  has  always  been  known  by  the  name  of  the 
latter  saint  whose  body  lay  enshrined  in  the  crypt  of 
the  abbey  church.  In  spite  of  its  proximity  to  the 
neighbouring  cathedral  priory  of  Christ  Church,  the 
abbey  precincts  covered  much  ground  and  the  mon- 
astery was  of  considerable  importance  for  many  cen- 
turies. At  the  dissolution  in  1538  the  act  of  surrender 
was  signed  by  the  abbot  and  thirty  monks,  who  were 
rewarded  with  pensions.     The  abbey  itself  was  ap- 


propriated by  Henry  VIII  as  a  royal  palace,  but  since 
that  time  the  greater  part  of  the  buildings  have  been 
allowed  gradually  to  fall  to  ruin.  In  1844  the  re- 
mains of  the  abbey  were  sold  at  public  auction  and 
on  the  site  was  erected  a  college  for  missionaries  of 
the  Church  of  England.  The  revenues  of  the  abbey 
at  the  time  of  its  suppression  were  £1684. 

Tan.ver,  Notitia  Monastica  (London,  1744);  Dugdale,  Mo- 
nasticon  Anglicanum  (London,  1817-30) ;  Customary  of  St  Augus- 
tine's Abbey  (ed.  Thompson),  XXIII,  Henry  Bradshaw  Society's 
publications  (London,  1902). 

G.  Cypriax  Alston. 
Saint  Augustine,  Diocese  of.    See  Florida. 

Saint  Bartholomew's  Day.— This  massacre  of 
which  Protestants  were  the  victims  occurred  in  Paris 
on  24  August,  1572  (the  feast  of  St.  Bartholomew), 
and  in  the  provinces  of  France  during  the  ensuing 
weeks,  and  it  has  been  the  subject  of  knotty  historical 
disputes.  The  first  point  argued  was  whether  or  not 
the  massacre  had  been  premeditated  by  the  French 
Court,  Sismondi,  Sir  James  Mackintosh,  and  Henri 
Bordier  maintaining  that  it  had,  and  Ranke,  Henri 
Martin,  Henry  White,  Loiseleur,  H.  de  la  Ferriere,  and 
the  Abbe  Vacandard,  that  it  had  not.  The  second 
question  debated  was  the  extent  to  which  the  court  of 
Rome  was  responsible  for  this  outrage.  At  present 
only  a  few  over-zealous  Protestant  historians  claim 
that  the  Holy  See  was  the  accomplice  of  the  French 
Court:  this  view  implies  their  belief  in  the  premedita- 
tion! of  the  massacre,  which  is  now  denied  by  the 
majority  of  historians.  For  the  satisfactory  solution  of 
the  question  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  carefully 
between  the  attempted  murder  of  Coligny  on  22 
August  and  his  assassination  on  the  night  of  23-24 
August,  and  the  general  massacre  of  Protestants. 

The  idea  of  a  summary  execution  of  the  Protestant 
leaders,  which  would  be  the  means  of  putting  an  end 
to  the  civil  discord  that  had  caused  three  "religious 
wars"  in  France  in  1562-1563,  1567-1568,  and  1569- 
1570  respectively,  had  long  existed  in  the  mind  of 
Catherine  de'  Medici,  widow  of  Henry  II  and  mother 
of  the  three  successive  kings,  Francis  II,  Charles  IX, 
and  Henry  III;  it  had  also  been  entertained  by  her 
sons.  As  early  as  1560  Michaelis  Suriano,  the  Vene- 
tian ambassador,  wrote:  "Francis  II  (1559-1560) 
wanted  to  fall  upon  the  Protestant  leaders,  punish 
thern  without  mercy  and  thus  extinguish  the  confla- 
gration. "  When,  in  1565,  Catherine  de'  Medici  with 
her  son  Charles  IX  (1560-1574)  and  her  daughters 
Margaret  of  Valois  and  Elizabeth,  wife  of  Philip  II, 
investigated  the  political  and  religious  questions  of  the 
hour  at  the  conferences  of  Bayonne,  the  Duke  of  Alba, 
who  was  present  on  these  occasions,  wrote  to  Philip  II : 
"  A  way  to  be  rid  of  the  five,  or  at  most  six,  who  arc  at 
the  head  of  the  faction  and  direct  it,  would  be  to  seize 
their  persons  and  cut  off  their  heads  or  at  least  to  con- 
fine them  where  it  would  be  impossible  for  them  to  re- 
new their  criminal  plots."  Just  at  that  time  Alava  on 
his  side  confided  to  the  same  Spanish  king  this  dark 
forecast,  "I  foresee  that  these  heretics  will  be  com- 
pletely wiped  out".  In  1569  Catholics  and  Protes- 
tants were  in  arms  one  against  the  other,  and  the  Vene- 
tian ambassador,  Giovanni  Carrero,  remarked:  "It  is 
the  common  opinion  that,  in  the  beginning  it  would 
have  sufficed  to  do  away  with  five  or  six  heads  and  no 
more".  This  same  year  Parliament  promised  a  re- 
ward of  50,000  ecus  to  whoever  would  apprehend  the 
Admiral  de  Coligny  (1517-72),  leader  of  the  Calvin- 
ist  party,  the  king  adding  that  this  sum  would  be 
awarded  to  him  who  would  deliver  up  the  admiral 
either  ahve  or  dead  Maurevel  tried  to  overtake  the 
admiral  for  the  purpose  of  killing  him  but  instead 
only  assassinated  one  of  his  lieutenants.  Thus  we  see 
that  the  idea  of  a  summary  execution  of  the  leaders  of 
Protestantism  was  in  the  air  from  1560  to  1570;  more- 
over, it  was  conformable  to  the  doctrine  of  political 
murder  as  it  flourished  during  the  sixteenth  century 


SAINT  BARTHOLOMEW'S 


334 


SAINT  BARTHOLOMEW'S 


when  the  principles  of  social  morality  and  Christian 
politics  elaborated  by  the  theology  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  were  replaced  by  the  lay  and  half-pagan  doc- 
trine of  MachiavelUanism,  proclaiming  the  right  of  the 
strongest  or  the  most  crafty. 

The  peace  signed  at  Saint-Germain,  August,  1570, 
between  the  Court  and  the  Protestants  seemed  to  re- 
estabUsh  order.  It  was  sanctioned  by  conferences 
held  at  La  Rochelle  in  which  on  the  one  side  a  war 
was  planned  against  Philip  II,  all  the  Calvinist  nobil- 
ity being  supposed  to  enlist;  and  on  the  other,  the 
marriage  of  Henry  of  Bourbon  (the  future  King 
Henry  IV),  a  Calvinist  and  the  son  of  Jeanne  of 
Albret,  with  Margaret  of  Valois,  sister  of  Charles  IX. 
On  12  September,  1571,  the  Admiral  de  Coligny  came 
to  Blois,  where  Charles  IX  resided,  to  superintend 
and  further  this  new  policy,  and  it  would  seem  that 
just  at  that  time  the  king  was  sincere  in  seeking  the 
support  of  Colignv  and  the  Protestants  against 
PhiUp  II.  And  Catherine  de'  Medici  was  shrewdly 
endeavouring  to  court  favour  on  all  sides.  Upon 
hearing  of  Spain's  victory  at  Lepanto  (7  October, 
1571),  she  remonstrated  with  Charles  IX  for  his  lack 
of  poUcy  in  severing  relations  with  Philip  II;  and  in 
June,  1572,  she  tried  to  arrange  a  marriage  between 
her  third  son,  the  Duke  of  Alen^on,  and  the  Protestant 
Elizabeth  of  England,  and  also  made  active  prepara- 
tions for  the  marriage  of  Margaret  of  Valois  wnth 
Henry  of  Bourbon,  taking  every  means  to  have  it 
solemnized  in  Paris.  Meanwhile  Coligny,  with  money 
which  Charles  IX  had  given  him  unknown  to  Cath- 
erine, sent  4000  men  to  the  relief  of  Mons,  who  was 
at  the  time  besieged  by  the  Duke  of  Alba.  They  were 
beaten  (11  July,  1572)  and  the  Duke  of  Alba,  having 
ascertained  that  Charles  IX  was  instrumental  in  the 
attempt  to  defeat  him,  thenceforth  entertained  the 
most  hostile  feeling  toward  the  French  King.  Charles 
IX,  greatly  irritated,  made  open  preparations  for  war 
against  Spain,  relying  on  Coligny  for  assistance. 
Suddenlv,  on  4  August,  Catherine  made  her  way  to 
Charles  IX,  who  was  then  hunting  at  Montripeau, 
and  insisted  that  unless  he  would  give  up  the  conflict 
with  Philip  II  she  would  withdraw  to  Florence,  taking 
with  her  the  Duke  of  Anjou.  A  conference  was  held 
and  Cohgny,  with  the  idea  of  sustaining  his  co- 
religionists in  Flanders,  demanded  war  with  Spain, 
but  the 'council  unanimously  refused  it.  Then  with 
rash  audacity  Coligny  declared  to  the  king  and  to 
Catherine  that  if  war  were  not  waged  against  Spain, 
another  war  might  be  expected.  From  this  Catherine 
deduced  that  the  Protestant  party,  with  the  admiral 
for  spokesman,  threatened  the  King  of  France  with 
a  religious  war  which  would  be  the  fourth  within  ten 
years. 

At  the  time  of  the  marriage  of  Henry  of  Bourbon 
and  Margaret  of  Valois  (18  August),  the  situation  was 
as  follows:  on  the  one  side  were  the  Guises  with  their 
troops,  and  on  the  other  Coligny  and  his  musketeers, 
while  Charles  IX,  although  recognizing  both  parties, 
leaned  more  towards  Coligny,  and  Catherine  favoured 
the  Guises  with  a  view  to  revenging  herself  on  Coligny 
and  recovering  her  influence  over  Charles  IX.  Just 
at  this  time  Philip  II  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  King 
of  France  should  strike  a  decisive  blow  against  the 
Protestants,  and  we  have  proof  of  this  in  a  letter 
written  to  Cardinal  Como,  Secretary  of  State  to 
Gregory  XIII,  by  the  Archbishop  of  Rossano,  nuncio 
in  Spain.  "The  King  (Philip  II)  bids  me  say",  wrote 
the  nuncio,  "that  if  his  Most  Christian  Majesty 
means  to  purge  his  kingdom  of  its  enemies,  the  time; 
is  now  opportune,  and  that  by  coming  to  terms  with 
him  (Philip  II)  His  Majesty  c/juld  destroy  those  who 
are  left.  Now,  especially,  aa  the  Admiral  is  at  Paris 
where  the  people  are  attached  to  the  Catholic  religion 
and  to  their  king,  it  would  be  easy  for  him  (Charles 
IX)  to  do  away  with  him  (Coligny)  forever."  It  is 
probable  that  Philip  II  sent  similar  suggestions  to  his 


ministers  at  Paris,  and  that  the  latter  conferred  with 
Catherine  and  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  even  offering  them 
militarj'  assistance  for  the  struggle  against  the 
Protestants.  This  intervention  caused  Catherine  to 
plan  Coligny 's  assassination,  and  at  a  meeting  to 
which  she  called  Madame  de  Nemours,  widow  of  the 
great  Duke  of  Guise,  it  was  decided  that  Maurevel 
should  set  a  trap  for  the  admiral.  This  was  done, 
with  the  result  that  on  the  morning  of  22  August,  a 
musket-shot  fired  by  Maurevel  struck  Coligny,  al- 
though wounding  him  but  sUghtly.  The  Protestants 
became  excited  and  Charles  IX  grew  angry,  declaring 
that  the  peace  edict  must  be  observed.  He  went  to 
visit  the  wounded  Coligny  and  Catherine  accom- 
panied him,  but  at  Coligny's  request  she  had  to  with- 
draw and,  if  we  may  credit  the  account  given  by  the 
Duke  of  Anjou  (Henry  III),  the  admiral,  lowering 
his  voice,  warned  Charles  IX  against  his  mother's 
influence.  But  just  at  that  moment  Charles  had  but 
one  idea,  which  was  to  find  and  punish  Henry  of 
Guise,  whom  he  suspected  of  being  the  instigator  if 
not  the  perpetrator  of  the  attempt  on  Coligny's  life. 

It  was  because  the  attack  made  on  Coligny,  22 
August,  had  failed  that  Catherine  conceived  the  idea 
of  a  general  massacre.  "If  the  Admiral  had  died 
from  the  shot,"  wrote  Salviati,  the  nuncio,  "no 
others  would  have  been  killed."  Those  historians 
who  claim  the  massacre  to  have  been  premeditated 
explain  that  Catherine  had  the  marriage  of  Margaret 
and  Henry  of  Bourbon  solemnized  in  Paris  in  order 
to  bring  the  Protestant  leaders  there  for  the  purpose 
of  murdering  them.  However,  this  interpretation  is 
based  merely  upon  a  very  doubtful  remark  attributed 
to  Cardinal  Alessandrino  and  of  which  we  shall  speak 
later  on,  and  it  was  certainly  unhke  Catherine,  who 
was  always  more  inclined  to  placate  the  various  parties 
by  dint  of  subtle  manoeuvring  them,  after  careful 
deliberation,  to  inaugurate  a  series  of  irreparable  out- 
rages. As  we  shall  see,  the  decision  to  have  recourse 
to  a  massacre  arose  in  Catherine's  mind  under  pressure 
of  a  sort  of  madness;  she  saw  in  this  decision  a  means 
of  preserving  her  influence  over  the  king  and  of  pre- 
venting the  vengeance  of  Protestants,  who  were  exas- 
perated by  the  attack  made  on  Coligny.  "The  Ad- 
miral's death  was  premeditated,  that  of  the  others 
was  sudden,"  wrote  Don  Diego  de  Zuniga  to  Philip  II, 
on  6  September,  1572.  Herein  lies  the  exact  difi'er- 
ence:  the  attempt  on  Coligny's  life  was  premeditated 
whereas  the  massacre  was  the  outcome  of  a  cruel 
impulse.  On  the  night  of  22  August  Catherine  de' 
Medici  felt  herself  lessened  in  her  son's  consideration. 
She  learned  from  one  liouchavannes  that  the  Hugue- 
nots had  decided  to  meet  at  Meaux,  5  September, 
and  avenge  Coligny's  attempted  murder  by  marching 
on  Paris;  she  knew  that  the  Catholics  were  preparing 
to  defend  themselves,  and  she  foresaw  that  between 
both  parties  the  king  would  be  alone  and  powerless. 
At  supper  she  heard  Pardaillan,  a  Huguenot,  say  that 
justice  would  be  rendered  even  if  the  king  would  not 
render  it,  and  Captain  Piles,  another  Huguenot,  was 
of  the  opinion  that  "even  if  the  Admiral  lost  an  arm 
there  would  be  numberless  others  who  would  take 
BO  many  lives  that  the  rivers  of  the  kingdom  would 
run  with  blood".  The  threats  of  the  Huguenots  and 
her  son's  consternation  impelled  Catherine  to  try  to 
avert  this  civil  war  by  organizing  an  immediate 
massacre  of  th(!  Protestants. 

But  Charles  IX  had  to  be  won  over.  In  the  account 
of  the  dreadful  (events  subsequently  given  by  the 
Duke  of  Anjou,  he  alludes  to  a  single  conversation 
between  Catherine  and  Charles  IX  on  23  August, 
but  Tavannes  and  Margaret  of  Valois  mention  two, 
the  second  of  which  took  place  late  at  night.  As  to 
the  decisive  interview  there  is  conflicting  testimony. 
The  Duke  of  Anjou  claims  that  Charles  IX,  suddenly 
converted  to  the  cause  by  Catherine's  ardent  im- 
portuning, cried  out:  "Good  God!  since  you  deem  it 


SAINT  BARTHOLOMEW'S 


335 


SAINT  BARTHOLOMEW'S 


well  to  kill  the  Admiral,  I  agree,  but  all  the  Huguenots 
in  France  must  likewise  perish,  so  that  not  one  be  left 
later  to  upbraid  me."  Cavalli,  the  Venetian  Am- 
bassador, maintained  in  his  report  that  the  king  held 
out  for  an  hour  and  a  half,  finally  yielding  because  of 
Catherine's  threat  to  leave  France  and  the  fear  that 
his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  might  be  named 
captain-general  of  the  Catholics.  Margaret  of  Valois 
stated  in  her  account  that  it  was  Rets,  his  former 
tutor,  whom  Catherine  sent  to  reason  with  him,  who 
eventually  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  king's  consent. 
Is  it  then  true,  as  certain  documents  claim,  that, 
toward  midnight,  Charles  IX  again  hesitated?  Per- 
haps. At  any  rate,  it  was  he  who,  on  24  August,  a 
little  after  midnight,  ordered  Le  Charron,  Prevot  des 
Marchands,  in  charge  of  the  Paris  police,  to  call  to 
arms  the  captains  arid  bourgeois  of  the  quarters  in 
order  that  he  (the  king)  and  the  city  might  be  pro- 
tected against  the  Huguenot  conspirators.  Catherine 
and  the  Duke  of  Anjou  had  previously  secured  the 
assistance  of  Marcel,  former  Prevot  des  Marchands. 
Whilst  Le  Charron,  without  any  great  enthusiasm, 
marshalled  the  bourgeoisie  who  were  to  quell  a 
possible  uprising  of  Huguenots,  Marcel  drew  up  the 
masses,  over  whom  he  had  unlimited  influence,  and 
who,  together  with  the  royal  troops,  were  to  attack 
and  plunder  the  Huguenots.  The  royal  troops  were 
especially  commissioned  to  kill  the  Huguenot  nobles; 
the  mob,  mobilized  by  Marcel,  was  to  threaten  the 
bourgeois  troops  in  case  the  latter  should  venture 
to  side  with  the  Huguenots.  Charles  IX  and  Cath- 
erine decided  that  the  massacre  should  not  begin  in 
the  city  till  the  admiral  had  been  slain,  and  after- 
wards Catherine  claimed  that  she  took  upon  her  con- 
science the  blood  of  only  six  of  the  dead,  Coligny  and 
five  others;  however,  having  deliberately  fired  the 
passions  of  the  multitude,  over  whom  Marcel  had 
absolute  control,  she  should  be  held  responsible  for 
all  the  blood  shed. 

The  Massacre. — Toward  midnight  the  troops  took 
up  arms  in  and  around  the  Louvre,  and  Coligny's 
abode  was  surrounded.  A  little  before  daybreak  the 
sound  of  a  pistol-shot  so  terrified  Charles  IX  and  his 
mother  that,  in  a  moment  of  remorse,  they  despatched 
a  nobleman  to  Guise  to  bid  him  refrain  from  any 
attack  on  the  admiral,  but  the  order  came  too  late, 
Coligny  had  already  been  slain.  Scarcely  had  the 
Duke  of  Guise  heard  the  bell  of  Saint-Germain 
I'Au.xerrois  than  he  started  with  a  few  men  toward 
the  Coligny  mansion.  Bcsme,  one  of  the  duke's 
intimates,  went  up  to  the  admiral's  room.  "Are  you 
Coligny?"  he  asked.  "I  am,"  the  admiral  replied. 
"Young  man,  you  should  respect  my  years.  How- 
ever, do  as  you  please;  you  will  not  be  shortening  my 
life  to  any  great  extent."  Besme  plunged  a  dagger 
into  the  admiral's  breast  and  flung  his  body  out  of 
the  window.  The  Bastard  of  Angoulcme  and  the 
Duke  of  Guise,  who  were  without,  kicked  the  corpse 
and  an  Italian,  a  servant  of  the  Duke  of  Nevers,  cut 
off  its  head.  Immediately  the  king's  guards  and  the 
nobles  on  the  side  of  the  Guises  slew  all  the  Protestant 
nobles  whom  Charles  IX,  but  a  few  days  previously, 
when  he  wanted  to  protect  the  admiral  against  the 
intrigues  of  the  Guises,  had  carefully  lodged  in  the 
admiral's  neighbourhood.  La  Rochefoucauld,  with 
whom  that  very  night  Charles  IX  had  jested  till 
eleven  o'clock,  was  stabbed  by  a  masked  valet; 
Teligny,  Coligny's  son-in-law,  was  killed  on  a  roof 
by  a  musket-shot,  and  the  Seigneur  de  la  Force  and 
one  of  his  sons  had  their  throats  cut,  the  other  son, 
a  child  of  twelve,  remaining  hidden  beneath  their 
corpses  for  a  day.  The  servants  of  Henry  of  Bourbon 
and  the  Prince  of  Conde  who  dwelt  iii  the  Louvre 
were  murdered  under  the  vestibule  by  Swi.ss  mercen- 
aries. One  nobleman  fled  to  the  apartment  of  Mar- 
garet, who  had  just  married  Henry  of  Bourbon,  and 
she  obtained  his  pardon.    Whilst  their  servants  were 


being  slaughtered  Henry  of  Bourbon  and  the  Prince 
of  Conde  were  ordered  to  appear  before  the  king, 
who  tried  to  make  them  abjure,  but  they  refused. 

After  that  the  massacre  spread  through  Paris,  and 
Cruc6,  a  goldsmith,  Koerver,  a  bookseller,  and  Pezou, 
a  butcher,  battered  in  the  doors  of  the  Huguenot 
houses.  A  tradition,  long  credited,  claims  that 
Charles  IX  stationed  himself  on  a  balcony  of  the 
Louvre  and  fired  upon  his  subjects;  Brantome,  how- 
ever, supposed  that  the  king  took  aim  from  the  win- 
dows of  his  sleeping  apartment.  But  nothing  is  more 
uncertain  as  the  balcony  on  which  he  was  said  to  have 
stood  was  not  there  in  1572,  and  in  none  of  the  accounts 
of  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew  sent  to  their 
governments  by  the  various  diplomatists  then  in 
Paris  does  this  detail  figure.  It  was  first  mentioned 
in  a  book  published  at  Basel  in  1573:  "Dialogue 
auquel  sont  trait^es  plusieurs  choses  advenues  aux 
Luth<iriens  et  Huguenots  de  France"  and  reprinted 
in  1574  under  the  title:  "Le  reveille  matin  des 
Fran^ais".  This  libel  is  the  work  of  Barnaud,  a 
native  of  Dauphin^,  a  Protestant  greatly  disliked  by 
his  co-religionists,  and  whose  calumnies  caused  a 
Protestant  nobleman  to  insult  him  in  public.  'The 
"Tocsin  contre  les  auteurs  du  Massacre  de  France", 
another  narration  of  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew, that  appeared  in  1579,  makes  no  allusion  to 
this  sinister  pastime  of  Charles  IX,  and  the  accounts 
given  of  it  twenty  years  afterwards  by  Brantome  and 
d'Aubigne  do  not  agree.  Moreover,  the  anecdote 
quoted  by  Voltaire,  according  to  which  the  Marechal 
de  Tessc  had  known  a  gentleman  then  over  a  hundred 
years  old  who  was  supposed  to  have  loaded  Charles 
IX's  musket,  is  extremely  doubtful,  and  the  absolute 
silence  of  those  diplomatists  who  addressed  to  their 
respective  governments  detailed  reports  of  the 
massacre  must  ever  remain  a  strong  argument  against 
this  tradition. 

On  the  following  morning  blood  flowed  in  streams; 
the  houses  of  the  rich  were  pillaged  regardless  of  the 
religious  opinions  of  their  owners.  "To  be  a  Hugue- 
not," emphatically  declares  Mezeray,  the  historian, 
"was  to  have  money,  enviable  position,  or  avaricious 
heirs."  When  at  eleven  o'clock  in  the  morning  the 
Prevot  Le  Charron  came  to  inform  the  king  of  this 
epidemic  of  crime,  an  edict  was  issued  forbidding  a 
continuation  of  the  slaughter;  but  the  massacre  was 
prolonged  for  several  days  more,  and  on  25  August 
Ramus,  the  celebrated  philosopher,  was  assassinated 
in  spite  of  the  formal  prohibition  of  the  king  and 
queen.  The  number  of  victims  is  unknown.  Thirty- 
five  livres  were  paid  to  the  grave-diggers  of  the  Ceme- 
tery of  the  Innocents  for  the  interment  of  1100 
corp.ses;  but  many  were  thrown  into  the  Seine.  Ranke 
and  Henri  Martin  estimate  the  number  of  victims  in 
Paris  at  2000.  In  the  provinces  also  massacres  oc- 
curred. On  the  evening  of  24  August,  a  messenger 
brought  to  the  Provost  of  Orleans  a  letter  bearing  the 
royal  seal  and  ordering  him  to  treat  all  Huguenots 
like  those  of  Paris  and  to  exterminate  them,  "taking 
care  to  let  nothing  leak  out  and  by  shrewd  dissimula- 
tion to  surprise  them  all".  Only  that  day  the  king 
had  written  to  M.  d'Eguilly,  Governor  of  Chartres, 
that  there  was  question  merely  of  a  quarrel  between 
Guise  and  Coligny.  On  25  August  an  order  was  is- 
sued to  kill  the  factious;  on  the  next  day  the  king 
solemnly  announced  in  open  session  that  his  decision 
of  24  August  was  the  only  means  of  frustrating  the 
plot;  on  27  August  he  again  began  to  prohibit  all 
murder;  and  on  the  following  day  he  solemnly  de- 
clared that  the  punishment  of  the  admiral  and  his  ac- 
complices was  due  not  to  their  religion  but  to  their 
conspiracy  against  the  Court,  and  he  despatched  let- 
ters bidding  the  governors  to  repress  the  factionists; 
on  30  August  he  ordered  the  people  of  Bourges  to  kill 
any  Huguenots  who  should  congregate,  but  revoked 
"  all  verbal  commands  that  he  had  issued  when  he  had 


SAINT  BARTHOLOMEW'S 


336 


SAINT  BARTHOLOMEW'S 


just  cause  to  fear  some  sinister  event".  In  this 
series  of  contradictor^'  instructions  may  be  detected 
the  ever-slumbering  antagonism  between  Catherine [^s 
fixedness  of  purpose  and  the  vacillation  of  Charles  IX, 
but  almost  even,'where  in  the  country  the  pohcy  of 
bloodshed  prevailed. 

The  general  opinion  throughout  France  was  that 
the  king  had  to  kill  Cohgny  and  the  turbulent  in  self- 
defence.  President  dc  Thou  publicly  praised  Charles 
IX;  Attorney-General  du  Faur  de  Pibrac  wrote  an 
apologj'  for  the  massacre;  Jodelle,  Baif,  and  Daurat, 
poets  of  the  "Pleiade",  insulted  the  admiral  in  their 
verse;  a  suit  w:is  entered  in  the  Parlement  against  Co- 
hgny and  his  accomplices  whether  living  or  dead,  and 
its  immediate  result  was  the  hanging  of  Briquemaut 
and  Cavaignes,  two  Protestants  who  had  escaped  the 
massacre.  This  protracted  severity  on  the  part  of  the 
Parlement  of  Paris  set  the  pace  for  outside  places, 
and  in  many  places  an  excess  of  zeal  led  to  an  in- 
crease of  brutality.  Lyons,  Toulouse,  Bordeaux,  and 
Rouen  all  had  their  massacres.  So  many  Lyonese 
corpses  drifted  down  the  Rhone  to  Aries  that,  for  three 
months,  the  Arlesians  did  not  want  to  drink  the  river 
water.  At  Bayonne  and  at  Nantes  compliance  with 
royal  orders  was  refused.  The  intervals  between 
these  massacres  prove  that  on  the  first  day  the  Court 
did  not  issue  formal  orders  in  all  directions;  for  in- 
stance, the  Toulouse  massacre  did  not  occur  till  23 
September  and  that  of  Bordeaux  till  3  October.  The 
number  of  victims  in  the  provinces  is  unknown,  the 
figures  varj-ing  between  2000  and  100,00<).  The 
"Martyrologe  des  Huguenots",  published  in  1581, 
brings  it  up  to  15,138,  but  mentions  only  786  dead. 
At  any  rate  only  a  short  time  afterwards  the  re- 
formers were  preparing  for  a  fourth  civil  war. 

From  the  foregoing  considerations  it  follows:  (1) 
That  the  royal  decision  of  which  the  St.  Bartholomew 
massacre  was  the  outcome,  was  in  nowise  the  result  of 
religious  disturbances  and,  strictly,  did  not  even  have 
religious  incentives;  the  massacre  was  rather  an  en- 
tirely political  act  committed  in  the  name  of  the  im- 
moral principles  of  Machiavellianism  against  a  faction 
that  annoyed  the  Court.  (2)  That  the  massacre  it- 
self was  not  premeditated;  that,  up  to  22  August, 
Catherine  de'  Medici  had  only  considered— and  that 
for  a  long  time — the  possibility  of  getting  rid  of  Co- 
ligny;  that  the  criminal  attack  made  on  Coligny  was 
interpreted  by  the  Protestants  as  a  declaration  of  war, 
and  that,  in  the  face  of  impending  danger,  Catherine 
forced  the  irresolute  Charles  IX  to  consent  to  the 
horrible  massacre.  Such,  then,  are  the  conclusions  to 
be  kept  in  view  when  entering  upon  the  discussion  of 
that  other  question,  the  responsibility  of  the  Holy  See. 

The  Holy  See  and  the  Massacre. — A.  Pius  V 
(1566-May  1,  1572). — Pius  V,  being  constantly  in- 
formed in  regard  to  the  civil  wars  in  France  and  the 
massacres  and  depredations  there  committed,  looked 
upon  the  Huguenots  as  a  party  of  rebels  who  weak- 
ened and  divided  the  French  Kingrlom  just  when 
Christianity  required  the  stn-ngtli  of  unity  in  order  to 
strike  an  effective  blow  against  the  Turks.  In  1569 
he  haA  sent  Charles  IX  6fKX)  men  under  the  command 
of  Sforza,  Count  of  Santa-Fiore,  to  help  the  royal 
troops  in  the  third  religious  war;  he  had  rejoiced  over 
the  victory  at  Jamac  (12  March,  1569),  and  on  28 
March  had  written  to  Catherine  de'  Medici:  "If 
Your  Majesty  continues  openly  and  freely  to  fight 
(aperte  ac  libere)  the  enemi(^s  of  the  Catholic  Church 
unU)  their  uiU'S  destruction,  divine  help  will  never  fail 
you."  Aftfjr  the  Battle  of  Moncontour  in  October, 
1569,  he  harl  bfgged  the  king  fh^nfieforth  to  tolerate 
in  his  states  the  exercise  of  Catholicism  only;  "other- 
wise," he  said,  "your  kingdom  will  be  the  bloody 
Rcene  of  continual  sedition".  The  peace  conclufled 
in  1570  Ixitween  Charlr«  IX  and  the  Huguenots 
caused  him  grave  anxiety.  He  had  endeavoured  to 
diflsuade  the  king  from  signing  it  and  had  written  aa 


follows  to  the  Cardinals  of  Bourbon  and  Lorraine: 
"The  King  will  have  more  to  fear  from  the  hidden 
traps  and  knavishness  of  the  heretics  than  from  their 
barefaced  brigandage  during  the  war. "  What  Pius  V 
wanted  was  an  honest,  open  war  waged  by  Charles  IX 
and  the  Guises  against  the  Huguenots.  On  10  May, 
1567,  he  said  to  the  Spanish  Ambassador,  Don  Juan  de 
Luniga :  ' '  The  mastere  of  France  are  meditating  some- 
thing which  I  can  neither  advise  nor  approve  and 
which  conscience  upbraids:  they  want  to  destroy  by 
underhand  means  the  Prince  of  Conde  and  the  Ad- 
miral. "  To  re-establish  political  peace  and  religious 
unity  by  the  royal  sword  was  the  inexorable  dream  of 
Pius  V  who  must  not  be  judged  according  to  our  mod- 
ern standards  of  toleration;  but  this  end,  worthy  as  he 
deemed  it,  could  not  justify  the  proposed  means  of  at- 
tainment; he  would  sanction  no  intriguing,  and  five 
years  previous  to  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
Day,  he  disapproved  the  dishonest  "means"  by 
which  Catherine  dreamed  of  getting  rid  of  Coligny. 

B.  Cardinal  Alcssandrino,  sent  from  the  Holy  See  to 
Paris,  in  1572. — Some  historians  have  wondered 
whether  Cardinal  Alcssandrino,  sent  by  Pius  V  to 
Charles  IX  in  February,  1572,  to  persuade  the  king  to 
join  a  Catholic  league  against  the  Turks,  was  not  an 
accomplice  in  Catherine's  murderous  designs.  In 
February  Alcssandrino,  who  had  vainly  endeavoured 
to  prevent  the  marriage  of  Margaret  of  Valois  with  the 
Protestant  Henry  of  liourbon,  closed  his  report  with 
these  words:  "I  am  leaving  France  without  accom- 
plishing anything  whatever:  I  might  as  well  not  have 
come. "  Let  us  be  mindful  of  this  tone  of  discourage- 
ment, this  acknowledgement  of  failure.  In  March  he 
wrote:  "I  have  other  special  matters  to  report  to  His 
Holiness  but  I  shall  communicate  them  orally.  .  .  ." 
When  the  cardinal  returned  to  Rome  Pius  V  was  dy- 
ing, and  he  expired  without  learning  what  were  the 
"special  matters"  to  which  Alcssandrino  had  alluded. 
Whatever  they  may  have  been  they  certainly  have  no 
bearing  upon  the  conclusion  that  Pius  V  had  been  pre- 
viously informed  of  the  massacre.  A  life  of  this  pon- 
tiff, published  in  15S7  by  Girolamo  Catena,  gives  a 
conversation  that  took  place  a  long  time  afterwards 
between  Alcssandrino  and  Clement  VIII  in  which  the 
cardinal  spoke  of  his  former  ambassadorship.  When 
he  was  endeavouring  to  dissuade  the  king  from  Mar- 
garet's marriage  to  Henry,  the  king  said:  "  I  have  no 
other  means  of  revenging  myself  on  my  enemies  and 
the  enemies  of  God. "  This  fragment  of  the  interview 
has  furnished  those  who  hold  that  the  massacre  was 
premeditated  with  a  reason  for  maintaining  that  the 
solemnizing  of  the  nuptials  in  Paris  was  a  snare  pre- 
arranged with  the  concurrence  of  the  papal  nuncio. 
The  most  reliable  criti(^s  contest  the  perfect  authentic- 
ity of  this  interview,  cliiefly  because  of  the  very  tardy 
account  of  it  and  of  its  utter  incompatibility  with  the 
discourag(!ment  manifested  in  Alessandrino's  notes 
written  the  day  after  the  conversation  had  taken 
place.  The  arguments  against  tlic  tliesis  of  premedi- 
tation as  we  have  considered  them  one  by  one,  seem 
to  us  sufficiently  plausil^le  to  permit  us  to  exclude  all 
hypothesis  according  to  which,  six  months  ahead  of 
time,  Alcssandrino  was  confidentially  apprised  of  the 
outrage. 

C.  Salviati,  Nuncio  at  Paris  in  1572. — At  the  time 
of  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  Salviati,  a  rela- 
tive of  Catherine  de'  Medici,  was  the  pope's  nuncio  at 
Paris.  In  December,  1571,  Phis  V  ha!d  entrusted  him 
with  a  first  extraorrlinary  mission,  and  at  the  time 
Catherine,  according  to  what  was  subsequently  re- 
latcfl  by  the  Venetian  Ambassador,  MichiU'li,  "had 
secretly  barle  him  tell  Pins  V  that  he  would  soon  see 
the  vc!ngeanc<'  that  .she  iiiid  tlie  king  would  visit  upon 
those  of  the  r.-ligion  (of  tlie  Huguenots)".  Catherine's 
conversation  was  so  vague  that  tli<!  following  summer, 
when  Salviati  came  back  to  France  as  nuncio,  she 
thought  he  must  have  forgotten  her  words.     Ac- 


SAINT  BARTHOLOMEW'S 


337 


SAINT  BARTHOLOMEW'S 


cordingly  she  reminded  him  of  the  revenge  that  she 
had  predicted,  and  neither  in  December,  1571,  nor  in 
August,  1572,  was  Salviati  verj'  expHcit  in  his  corre- 
spondence with  the  Court  of  Rome  as,  on  8  Sep- 
tember, 1572,  three  weeks  after  the  massacre.  Car- 
dinal Como,  Secretary  of  State  to  Gregory  XIII, 
wrote  to  Salviati:  "Your  letters  show  that  you  were 
aware  of  the  preparations  for  the  blow  against  the 
Huguenots  long  before  it  was  dealt.  You  would 
have  done  well  to  inform  His  Holiness  in  time."  In 
fact  on  5  August,  Salviati  had  written  to  Rome:  "The 
Queen  will  rap  the  Admiral's  knuckles  if  he  goes  too 
far"  {donnera  a  U Admiral  sur  les  ongles),  and  on  11 
August:  "Finally,  I  hope  that  God  will  give  me  the 
grace  soon  to  announce  to  you  something  that  will  fill 
His  Holiness  with  joy  and  satisfaction."  This  was 
all.  A  subsequent  letter  from  Salviati  revealed  that 
this  covert  allusion  was  to  the  scheme  of  vengeance 
that  Catherine  was  then  projecting  in  regard  to  Co- 
ligny's  assassination  and  that  of  a  few  Protestant 
leaders:  however,  it  seems  that  at  the  Court  of  Rome 
the  reference  was  supposed  to  be  to  a  re-establi.sh- 
ment  of  cordial  relations  between  France  and  Spain. 
The  replies  of  the  Cardinal  of  Como  to  Salviati  show 
that  this  last  idea  was  what  absorbed  the  attention  of 
Gregory'  XIII  and  that  the  Court  of  Rome  gave  but 
little  heed  to  Catherine's  threats  against  the  Protes- 
tants. Notwithstanding  that  Salviati  was  Cathe- 
rine's relative  and  that  he  was  maintaining  a  close 
watch,  all  documents  prove,  as  Soldan,  the  German 
Protestant  historian,  says,  that  the  events  of  24  Au- 
gust were  accomplished  independently  of  Roman  in- 
fluence. Indeed,  so  little  did  Salviati  foresee  the 
Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  itself  that  he  wrote  to 
Rome  the  day  after  the  event:  "I  cannot  believe  that 
so  many  would  have  perished  if  the  Admiral  had  died 
of  the  musket-shot  fired  at  him.  ...  I  cannot  be- 
lieve a  tenth  of  what  I  now  see  before  my  ver>'  eyes." 
D.  The  attitude  of  Gregory  XIII  on  receiving  the  news 
of  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. — It  was  on  2  Sep- 
tember that  the  first  rumours  of  what  had  occurred  in 
France  reached  Rome.  Danes,  secretary-  to  Mande- 
lot.  Governor  of  Lyons,  bade  AI.  de  Jou,  Commander 
at  Saint-Antoine,  to  inform  the  pope  that  the  chief 
Protestant  leaders  had  been  killed  in  Paris,  and  that 
the  king  had  ordered  the  governors  of  the  provinces  to 
seize  all  Huguenots.  Cardinal  de  Lorraine,  when  thus 
informed,  gave  the  courier  200  ecus  and  Gregory'  XIII 
gave  him  1000.  The  pope  wanted  bonfires  lighted  in 
Rome,  but  Ferals,  the  French  Ambassador,  objected 
on  the  ground  that  official  communication  should  first 
be  received  from  the  king  and  the  nuncio.  On  5  Sep- 
tember Beauvillier  reached  Rome,  having  been  sent 
thither  by  Charles  IX.  He  gave  an  account  of  the 
Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  and  begged  Gregory 
XIII  to  grant,  antedating  it,  the  dispensation  re- 
quired for  the  legitimacy  of  the  marriage  of  Margaret 
of  Valois  and  Henry  of  Navarre,  solemnized  three 
weeks  previously.  Gregory  XIII  deferred  discu.ssing 
the  subject  of  the  dispensation  and  a  letter  from  the 
Cardinal  de  Bourbon  dated  26  August  and  a  despatch 
from  Salviati,  both  received  at  this  time,  duly  in- 
formed him  of  what  had  taken  place  in  France. 
"Said  Admiral,"  wTote  the  Cardinal  de  Bourbon, 
"was  so  wicked  as  to  have  conspired  to  kill  said  King, 
his  mother,  the  Queen  and  his  brothers.  ...  He  (the 
Admiral)  and  all  the  ringleaders  of  his  sect  were 
slain.  .  .  .  And  what  I  most  commend  is  the  resolu- 
tion taken  by  His  Majesty  to  exterminate  this  ver- 
min." In  his  letter  describing  the  massacre  Salviati 
said:  "I  rejoice  that  it  has  pleased  the  Divine  Maj- 
esty to  take  under  His  protection  the  King  and  tlie 
Queen-mother."  Thus  all  the  information  received 
from  France  gave  Gregory  XIII  the  impression  that 
Charles  IX  and  his  family  had  been  saved  from  great 
danger.  The  verj-  morning  of  the  day  that  Beau- 
villier had  brought  him  Salviati's  letter,  the  pope  held 
XIII.— 22 


a  consistorj^  and  announced  that  "God  had  been 
pleased  to  be  merciful".  Then  with  all  the  cardinals 
he  repaired  to  the  Church  of  St.  Mark  for  the  Te 
Deum,  and  prayed  and  ordered  prayers  that  the  Most 
Christian  King  might  rid  and  purge  his  entire  king- 
dom of  the  Huguenot  plague.  He  believed  that  the 
Valois  had  just  escaped  a  most  terrible  conspiracy 
which,  had  it  succeeded,  would  have  unfitted  France 
for  the  struggle  of  Christian  against  Turk.  On  8  Sep- 
tember a  procession  of  thanksgiving  took  place  in 
Rome,  and  the  pope,  in  a  praj'er  after  mass,  thanked 
Gk)d  for  having  "granted  the  Cathohc  people  a  glori- 
ous triumph  over  a  perfidious  race  "  (gloriosam  de  per- 
fidis  gentihus  populo  caiholico  Icetitiam  tribuisti). 

A  suddenly  discovered  plot,  an  exemplary  chastise- 
ment administered  to  insure  the  safety  of  the  royal 
family,  such  was  the  light  in  which  Gregory  XIII 
viewed  the  St.  Bartholomew  massacre,  and  such  was 
likewise  the  idea  entertained  by  the  Spanish  Ambas- 
sador who  was  there  with  him  and  who,  on  8  Sep- 
tember, WTote  as  follows:  "I  am  certain  that  if  the 
musket-shot  fired  at  the  Admiral  was  a  matter  of 
several  days'  premeditation  and  was  authorized  by 
the  King,  what  followed  was  inspired  by  circum- 
stances." These  circumstances  were  the  threats  of 
the  Huguenots,  "the  insolent  taunts  of  the  whole 
Huguenot  party",  alluded  to  by  Salviati  in  his 
despatch  of  2  September;  to  put  it  briefly,  these 
circumstances  constituted  the  conspiracy.  However, 
the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine,  who  belonged  to  the  House 
of  Guise  and  resided  in  Rome,  wished  to  insinuate  that 
the  massacre  had  been  planned  long  ahead  by  his 
family,  and  had  a  solemn  inscription  placed  over  the 
entrance  to  the  Church  of  St.  Louis  des  Frangais,  pro- 
claiming that  the  success  achieved  was  an  answer 
"to  the  prayers,  supphcations,  sighs  and  meditation 
of  twelve  years";  this  hypothesis,  according  to  which 
the  massacre  was  the  result  of  prolonged  hypocri.sy, 
the  outcome  of  a  protracted  ruse,  was  shortly  after- 
wards maintained  with  great  audacity  in  a  book  by 
Capilupi,  Catherine's  Italian  panegyri-st.  But  the 
Spanish  Ambassador  refuted  this  interpretation: 
"The  French,"  wrote  he,  "would  have  it  understood 
that  their  King  meditated  this  stroke  from  the  time 
that  he  concluded  the  peace  with  the  Huguenots,  and 
they  attribute  to  him  trickery  that  does  not  seem 
permissible  even  against  heretics  and  rebels."  And 
the  ambassador  was  indignant  at  the  Cardinal  of 
Lorraine's  folly  in  giving  the  Guises  credit  for  having 
set  a  trap.  The  pope  did  not  believe  any  more  than 
did  the  Spanish  Ambassador  in  a  snare  laid  by  Cath- 
ohcs,  but  was  rather  convinced  that  the  conspiracy 
had  been  hatched  by  Protestants. 

Just  as  the  Turks  had  succumbed  at  Lepanto,  the 
Protestants  had  succumbed  in  France.  Gregory 
XIII  ordered  a  jubilee  in  celebration  of  both  events 
and  engaged  Vasari  to  paint  side  by  side  in  one  of  the 
Vatican  apartments  scenes  commemorative  of  the 
victory  of  Lepanto  and  of  the  triumph  of  the  Most 
Christian  King  over  the  Huguenots.  Finally,  he  had 
a  medal  struck  representing  an  exterminating  angel 
sniiting  the  Huguenots  with  his  sword,  the  inscrip- 
tion reading:  Hugonottorum  strages.  There  had  been 
a  slaughter  of  conspirators  (strages)  and  the  informa- 
tion that  reached  the  pope  was  identical  with  that 
spread  throughout  Europe  by  Charles  IX.  On  21 
September  Charles  IX  wrote  to  Elizabeth  of  England 
concerning  the  "imminent  danger"  from  the  plot 
that  he  had  baffled;  on  the  next  day  he  wrote  as 
follows  to  La  Mothe-Fenelon,  his  amba.ssador  at 
London:  "Cohgny  and  his  followers  were  all  ready 
to  visit  upon  us  the  same  fate  that  we  dealt  out  to 
them";  and  to  the  German  princes  he  sent  similar 
information.  Certainlj'  all  this  seemed  justified  by 
the  decree  of  the  French  magistracy  ordering  the 
admiral  to  be  burned  in  effig\'  and  prayers  and  pro- 
cessions of  thanksgiving  on  each  recurring  24  August, 


SAINT  BENEDICT 


338 


SAINT  BENEDICT 


out  of  gratitude  to  God  for  the  timelj'  discovery  of 
the  conspiracy.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that, 
on  22  September,  Gregory  XIII  should  have  written 
to  Charles  IX:  "Sire,  I  thank  God  that  He  was 
pleased  to  preserve  and  defend  Your  Majesty,  Her 
Majesty,  the  Queen-mother  and  Your  Majesty's 
royal  brothers  from  the  horrible  conspiracy.  I  do 
not  think  that  in  all  history  there  is  mention  of  such 
cruel  malevolence."  Xor  again  is  it  astonishing  that 
the  pope  should  have  despatched  Cardinal  Orsini  to 
Charles  IX  with  congratulations  on  his  escape.  From 
Rome  again  Cardinal  do  Pelleve  WTote  to  Catherine 
de'  Medici:  " Madame,  the  joy  of  all  honest  people  in 
this  citj-  is  comj)lete,  and  never  was  there  more  glad- 
some news  than  that  of  Your  Majesty  being  free  from 
danger."  The  discourse  delivered  3  December  by 
Muret,  the  Humanist,  was  a  veritable  hymn  of  thanks- 
giving for  the  discovery  of  the  plot  contrived  against 
the  king  and  almost  all  the  royal  family. 

The  Huguenot  party  having  plotted  regicide  had  to 
be  punished,  and  its  punishment  seemed  once  more 
to  put  France  in  condition  to  combat  the  Turks; 
such  was  the  twofold  aspect  under  which  Rome  con- 
sidered the  massacre.  Besides,  the  pope's  joy  did  not 
last  long.  A  rather  involved  account  by  Brantome 
leads  us  to  think  that,  becoming  bettor  informed,  he 
grew  angry  at  the  news  of  such  barbarity,  and  it  is 
certain  that  when,  in  October,  1572,  the  Cardinal  of 
Lorraine  wished  to  present  Maurevel,  who  had  fired 
on  Coligny  on  22  August,  Gregory  XIII  refused  to 
receive  him,  saying:  "He  is  an  assassin."  Doubtless 
by  this  time  the  vague  despatches  sent  by  Salviati 
during  the  weeks  preceding  the  massacre  had,  in  the 
hght  of  events,  become  more  comprehensible  and 
rendered  it  clearer  that  the  origin  of  these  tragic 
events  was  the  assault  of  22  August;  without  ceasing 
to  rejoice  that  Charles  IX  had  eventually  escaped 
the  conspiracy  then  commonly  a.sserted  in  France  and 
abroad,  Gregory  XIII  judged  the  criminal,  Maurevel, 
according  to  his  deserts.  The  condemnation  by 
Pius  V  of  the  "intrigues"  against  Coligny  and  the 
refusal  of  Gregory  XIII  to  receive  Maurevel  "the 
as.sassin"  establish  the  unbending  rectitude  of  the 
papacy,  which,  eager  as  it  was  for  the  re-establishment 
of  rehgious  unity,  never  admitted  the  pagan  theories 
of  a  certain  raison  d'etal  according  to  which  the  end 
justifie<l  the  means.  As  to  the  congratulations  and 
the  manifestations  of  joy  which  the  news  of  the 
massacre  elicited  from  Gregory  XIII,  they  can  only 
be  fairly  judged  by  as.suming  that  the  Holy  See,  hke 
all  Europe  and  indeed  many  Frenchmen,  beheved  in 
the  existence  of  a  Huguenot  conspiracy  of  whose 
overthrow  the  Court  boasted  and  whose  punishment 
an  obsequious  parliament  had  completed. 

EarliiT  authorities:  Mi-moiTux  de.  Maryuerite  de  Valoin  (coll. 
Petitot,  XXXVII);  DUrours  du  Roi  Henri  III  (coll.  Petitot, 
XLIV);  Memoiren  de  Tavanne  (coll.  du  Panth6on  littferaire); 
CarreHjwn/tnnce  de  la  Molhe-Finelon,  VII  (Paris,  1840);  ed. 
La  Kerkieke,  Lettres  de  Catherine  de  Medicis,  IV  (Paris,  1891); 
Neo'jciatirjne  dipUjmatiqueg  de  la  France  avec  la  Toscane,  III; 
Thein-er,  Anruiles  ecelesiagtici,  I  (Itome,  18.56);  Martin, 
Relalionii  des  ambantadeurg  tinilienn  Giovanni  Michieli  et  iSigis- 
numd  Cavalli  (Paris,  1872);  Archives  curieusea  de  Ihistoire  de 
France  (series  I,  VII,  1835). 

Modern  works:  Soldan,  /^  France  et  la  St.  Barlhilemy,  tr. 
Schmidt  (Paris,  XHhh) ;  White,  The  Massacre  of  Saint  BaHholomew, 
■precMfl  by  a  HisU/ry  of  the  ReliyiouH  Wars  in  the  Reign  of  Charles 
IX  (]x)D<\rm.  1808);  Bordier,  La  St.  Barthilemy  et  la  critique 
moderne  (Geneva,  1871);  Loihelecr,  Trrris  inigmes  historiques 
(Paris,  188.3):  La  pEHRifcRE,  La  Saint  Barthilemy ,  la  teille,  le 
jour.  If.  len/lem/nn  U'ariH,  1802):  Vacandard,  Eludes  de  critique 
et  d'hinloire  relioieune  (.3rd  ed.,  Parin,  1906). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Saint  Benedict,  Mkdal  of,  a  medal,  originally 
a  croHS,  dfdicatfd  to  the  devotion  in  honour  of  St. 
Benedict.  One  sidf;  of  the  medal  bearH  an  image  of 
St.  Benedict,  holding  a  cross  in  the  right  hand  and  the 
Holy  Rule  in  the  loft.  On  the  one  Hide  of  the  image 
is  a  cup,  on  th«;  other  a  raven,  and  alx)ve  the  cup  and 
the  raven  are  inscribed  the  words:  "Crux  Sancti 
Patria  Benedict!"  (Cross  of  the  Holy  Father  Benedict). 


Round  the  margin  of  the  medal  stands  the  legend 
"Ejus  in  obitu  nro  pra?sentia  muniamur"  (May  we  at 
our  death  be  fortified  by  his  presence).  The  reverse 
of  the  medal  bears  a  cross  with  the  initial  letters  of 
the  words:  "Crux  Sacra  Sit  Mihi  Lux"  (The  Holy 
Cross  be  my  light),  written  downward  on  the  perpen- 
dicular bar;  the  initial  letters  of  the  words,  "  Non  Draco 
Sit  Mihi  Dux"  (Let  not  the  dragon  be  my  guide),  on 
the  horizontal  bar;  and  the  initial  letters  of  "Crux 
Sancti  Patris  Benedicti"  in  the  angles  of  the  cross. 
Round  the  margin  stand  the  initial  letters  of  the  dis- 
tich: "Vade  Retro  Satana,  Nunquam  Suade  Mihi 
Vana — Sunt  Mala  Qua'  Libas,  Ipse  Venena  Bibas" 
(Begone,  Satan,  do  not  suggest  to  me  thy  vanities — 
evil  are  the  things  thou  profferest,  drink  thou  thy  own 
poison).  At  the  top  of  the  cross  usually  stands  the 
word  Pax  (peace)  or  the  monogram  I  H  S  (Jesus). 
The  medal  just  described  is  the  so-called  jubilee  medal, 
which  was  struck  first  in  1880,  to  commemorate  the 
fourteenth   centenary  of  St.  Benedict's  birth.     The 


Medal  of  Saint  Benedict 

Archabbey  of  Monte  Cassino  has  the  exclusive  right 
to  strike  this  medal.  The  ordinary  modal  of  St. 
Benedict  usually  differs  from  the  preceding  in  the 
omission  of  the  words  "Ejus  in  obitu  etc.",  and  in  a 
few  minor  details.  (For  the  indulgences  connected  with 
it  see  Beringer,  "Die  Ablasse",  Paderborn,  1906,  p. 
404-6.)  The  habitual  wearer  of  the  jubilee  medal  can 
gain  all  the  indulgences  connected  with  the  ordinary 
medal  and,  in  addition:  (1)  all  the  indulgences  that 
could  be  gained  by  visiting  the  basilica,  crypt,  and 
tower  of  St.  Benedict  at  Monte  Cassino  (Pius  IX,  31 
Dec,  1877);  (2)  a  plenary  indulgence  on  the  feast  of 
All  Souls  (from  about  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of 
1  Nov.  to  sunset  of  2  Nov.),  as  often  as  [tolies  quo- 
tics),  after  confes.sion  and  Holy  Communion,  he  visits 
any  church  or  public  oratory,  praying  there  according 
to  the  intention  of  the  iwpe,  provided  that  ho  is  hin- 
dered from  visiting  a  church  or  public  oratory  of  the 
Benedictines  bv  sickness,  monastic  enclosure  or  a  dis- 
tance of  at  least  1000  steps.  (Deer.  27  Feb.,  1907,  in 
Acta  S.  Sedis,  LX,  24().)  Any  priest  may  receive  the 
faculties  to  bless  those  iiio<l;Us. 

It  is  doubtful  whoii  llio  Modal  of  St.  Benedict  origi- 
nated. During  :i  trial  for  witchcraft  .at  Natternberg 
near  the  Abbey  of  Mt^tton  in  Bavaria  in  the  year  1647, 
the  accused  women  testified  that  they  had  no  power 
over  Metten,  which  was  under  the  protection  of  the 
cross.  Upon  investigation,  a  number  of  painted 
crosses,  surrounded  by  the  letters  which  are  now 
found  on  Benedictine  medals,  were  found  on  the  walls 
of  the  abbey,  but  their  meaning  had  been  forgotten. 
Finally,  in  an  old  manuscript,  written  in  141.5,  was 
found  a  picture  roprosenting  St.  Benedict  holding  in 
one  hand  a  staff  which  ends  in  a  cross,  and  a  scroll  in 
the  other.  On  the  staff  and  scroll  were  written  in  full 
the  words  of  which  tlio  niystorious  lot  tors  wore  the 
initials.  Mod;ils  bc;iriiig  tho  imago  of  St.  B<'IH diet,  a 
cross,  and  tlioso  lot  tors  began  now  to  bo  struck  in 
Germany,  and  soon  s|)road  over  Europe.  They  were 
first  approved  bv  lionodict  XIV  in  his  briefs  of  23 
Dec,  1741,  and  12  March,  1742. 

GtriRANOER,  Essai  sur  Vorigine,  la  signification  et  les  priviliget 
de  la  midaille  ou  croix  de  S.  BenoU  (Poitiere,  1862;  11th  cd..  Paris, 


SAINT  BONAVENTURE 


339 


SAINT  BONIFACE 


1890);  CoRBlfeRRE,  Numismntique  Benedicline  (Rome,  1904); 
Kniel,  Die  St.  Benediktsmedaille,  ihre  Geschichte,  Bedeutung,  Ah- 
lasse  u.  wunderbare  Wirkungen  (Ravensburg,  1905). 

Michael  Ott. 

Saint  Bonaventure,  College  of,  at  Quaracchi, 
near  Florence,  Italy,  famous  as  the  centre  of  literary 
activity  in  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor,  was  founded  14 
July,  1879,  by  Mgr.  Bernardino  del  Vago,  Archbishop 
of  Sardis,  then  minister  general  of  the  order.  The 
first  director  and  superior  of  the  college  was  Father 
Fidelis  of  Fauna,  under  whose  scholarly  and  energetic 
management  the  new  edition  of  the  works  of  St. 
Bonaventure  was  inaugurated.  Upon  his  death  in 
1881,  Father  Fidelis  was  succeeded  by  Ignatius  Jeiler, 
of  the  province  of  Saxony.  Besides  being  a  man  of 
profound  piety.  Father  Jeiler  possessed  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  scholastic  philosophy  and  theology, 
especially  that  of  St.  Bonaventure,  and  was  thus 
eminently  fitted  to  take  up  the  work  of  his  prede- 
ces.sor.  Two  years  before  his  death  in  1904  Father 
Jeiler  was  succeeded  by  Leonard  Lemmens,  already 
well-known  for  his  many  contributions  to  Franciscan 
history.  The  series  of  works  that  have  in  recent  years 
been  published  at  Quaracchi,  and  edited  by  the 
"Patres  editores",  as  they  are  usually  called,  have 
gained  for  them  an  enviable  reputation  for  critical 
scholarship.  Foremost  among  these,  besides  the 
"Opera  Omnia"  of  St.  Bonaventure,  is  the  "Analecta 
Franciscana",  edited  in  greatest  part  by  Quinctianus 
MuUer,  O.F.M.  (d.  1902),  which  contains  a  collection 
of  chronicles  relating  to  the  early  history  of  the  order 
and  of  which  four  volumes  have  thus  far  (1885-1907) 
appeared.  Besides  these,  the  "Bibliotheca  Fran- 
ciscana scholastica  medii  a>vi",  of  which  three  vol- 
umes have  been  published  (1903-04),  and  the  "Bib- 
liotheca Franciscana  ascetica  modii  a'vi",  inaugurated 
in  1904  with  a  critical  edition  of  the  writings  of  St. 
P>ancis,  have  placed  the  student  of  medieval  liter- 
ature under  heavy  obligations  to  the  Quaracchi  friars. 
As  well  as  continuing  the  "Annales"  of  Wadding, 
the  twenty-fifth  volume  of  which  appeared  in  1899, 
the  Fathers  of  the  college  have  edited  a  number  of 
other  publications  of  a  purely  devotional  and  literary 
character.  In  1903  a  new  criticid  cdilion  of  the  work 
of  Alexander  of  Hales  was  undertaken,  which  is  to  be 
followed  by  the  other  Franciscan  scholastics.  The 
"Acta  Ordinis",  a  monthly  in  Latin,  and  the  official 
organ  of  the  order,  and  the  new  "Archivium  Fran- 
ciscano-Historicum",  are  published  at  Quaracchi. 

St.  Anthony's  Almanac  (1906);  Carmichael  in  The  Month 
(.Jan.,  1904). 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Saint  Boniface,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Boni- 
FACii),  the  chief  ecclesiastical  division  of  the  Canadian 
West,  .so-called  after  the  patron  saint  of  the  German 
soldiers  who  were  among  its  first  settlers. 

SuccE.ssivE  Areas. — It  commenced  its  official  exis- 
tence as  the  vicariate-apostolic  of  the  north-west  in 
1844,  though  Bishop  Provencher,  its  titular,  had  been 
there  with  episcopal  rank  since  1822.  At  that  time 
it  comprised  the  entire  territory  west  of  the  Great 
Lakes  and  as  far  north  as  the  Pole.  The  same  cir- 
cumscription became  a  diocese  without  changing 
name  on  4  June,  1847,  but  received  in  1852  the  title 
of  Diocese  of  St.  Boniface.  In  May,  1862,  all  the 
territory  tributary  to  the  Arctic  Sea  was  detached 
therefrom  and  made  into  the  Vicariate-Apostolic 
of  Athabasca-Mackenzie.  On  22  Sept.,  1871,  the 
See  of  St.  Boniface  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  arch- 
bishopric, while,  out  of  the  north-western  portion  of 
its  territory,  a  new  diocese  was  being  carved,  with 
headquarters  at  St.  Albert,  near  Edmonton.  The 
north-eastern  part  of  this  area  further  became  in 
1890  the  Vicariate-Apostolic  of  the  Saskatchewan, 
and  this  arrangement  left  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
St.  Boniface  109°  W.  long,  for  its  western  boundary, 


while  in  the  north  this  ran  along  52°  N.  lat.  as  far  as 
the  eastern  limit  of  Manitoba,  following  afterwards 
the  northern  end  of  Lake  Manitoba  and  the  Nelson 
River  to  Fort  York.  The  eastern  boundary  was  91° 
W.  long.  With  the  formation  of  the  Diocese  of 
Regina  (4  March,  1910)  new  delimitations  became 
necessary.  They  are  the  following:  in  the  south  the 
international  boundary  as  far  as  91°  W.  long.;  thence 
north  to  a  line  continuous  with  the  northern  limits 
of  Manitoba,  as  far  as  the  line  dividing  this  province 
from  Saskatchewan,  which  now  becomes  the  western 
limit  of  the  archdiocese. 

Population  and  Organization. — The  Catholic 
population  within  the  present  area  is  87,816.  Though 
partaking  of  the  cosmopolitan  character  proper  to  the 
Canadian  West,  the  various  groups  in  this  population 
are  more  compact.  Thus  the  29,595  diocesans  of 
French  extraction  control  four  counties  absolutely. 
The  nationality  most  numerously  represented  is  that 
of  the  Galicians,  who  number  32,637.  The  English- 
speaking  Catholics  live  mostly  in  towns,  and  are  esti- 
mated at  94S5.  The  same  might  almost  be  said  of 
the  Poles,  who  number  9369.  The  Germans  count 
2062  souls,  and  the  Indians  al)()ut  2000.  In  1853, 
when  Mgr  Tach^  succeeded  Bishop  Provencher,  the 
entire  diocese,  vast  as  it  tlien  was,  counted  but  two 
parishes  with  as  many  unorganized  annexes,  and  three 
Indian  missions  with  resident  priests.  Besides  the 
bishop,  4  secular  and  7  Oblate  priests  attended  to  the 
spiritual  needs  of  the  Catholic  population.  At  the 
time  of  the  accession  of  the  present  archbishop  the 
number  of  parishes  had  grown  to  thirty-five,  though 
the  area  of  the  diocese  had  in  the  meantime  been  con- 
siderably diminished.  There  were  then  85  churches 
or  chapels,  with  67  priests,  of  whom  31  belonged  to  the 
secular  clergy.  To-day,  with  a  still  more  reduced 
territory,  the  archdiocese  counts  1  archbi.shop,  1  Ro- 
man prelate,  and  162  priests,  of  whom  95  are  members 
of  the  regular  ch^rgy.  Apart  from  the  two  digni- 
taries, 138  of  the  priests  hav(^  Fr(>nch  for  th(nr  mother- 
tongue;  9  are  English-speaking;  6  are  Poles,  5  Ger- 
mans, 2  Dutch,  2  Galicians,  and  1  Italian.  The 
religious  orders  of  men  in  the  archdiocese  are  the 
following:  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  47  priests; 
Jesuits,  12;  Canons  Ro^gular  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, 11;  Trappists,  10;  Sons  of  Mary  Immacu- 
late, 9;  Redemptorists,  4;  Clerics  of  St.  Viator,  2; 
Bjisilians  of  the  liuthenian  Rite,  2.  Independently  of 
these  two  last,  the  Galician  population  is  ministered  to 
by  2  French  priests  who  have  adopted  the  Ruthenian 
Rite,  as  well  as  by  a  few  Redemptorists  and  some 
Oblates,  while  3  more  French  priests  are  in  Austria 
preparing  for  the  same  ministry. 

Institutions. — The  institutions  of  the  archdio- 
cese are:  1  college  under  the  Jesuits,  with  350  pupils; 
1  lower  seminary  (founded  1909)  with  45  pupils;  1  Ob- 
late juniorate;  2  general  hospitals;  1  maternity  hos- 
pital; 1  house  of  refuge  for  girls;  3  orphan  asylums; 
1  asylum  for  old  people;  and  6  Indian  boarding 
schools.  The  State-supported  Catholic  schools  hav- 
ing been  officially  abolished  in  1890  (see  Manitoba), 
the  two  cities  of  Winnipeg  and  Brandon,  where  the 
majority  of  the  population  is  Protestant,  force  the 
Catholics  to  pay  double  taxes,  since  the  latter  have  to 
maintain  their  own  schools  as  well  as  those  of  the 
Protestants.  But,  in  virtue  of  an  agreement  between 
the  present  archbishop  and  the  Government,  the 
country  schools  continue  to  be  conducted  along 
Catholic  lines.  The  American  Brothers  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Mary  direct  the  English  parochial  schools  of 
Winnipeg  and  St.  Boniface,  while  French  Brothers  of 
the  Cross  of  Jesus  render  the  same  services  at  St.- 
Pierre.  As  to  the  Orders  of  women  within  the  arch- 
diocese, they  are:  Grey  Nuns  (first  arrived  in  1844); 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary;  Sis- 
ters of  Notre  Dame  des  Missions;  Sisters  of  Provi- 
dence; Sisters  of  St.  Joseph;   Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of 


SAINT-BRIEUC 


340 


SAINT-BRIEUC 


the  Cross;  Sisters  of  the  Five  Wounds  of  Our  Sa- 
viour; Sisters  of  Mercv;  the  Franciscan  Missionaries 
of  Marv,  and  the  Obhlte  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
and  Marj-  Immaculate,  founded  by  the  present  arch- 
bishop. ,     ,  . 

History. — The  principal  events  m  the  history  of 
the  archdiocese  are  intimately  connected  with  the 
Uves  of  its  bishops,  which  will  be  found  under  the 
heads  Provencher  and  Tache.  In  addition  to  these 
and  to  the  data  already  furnished  in  the  course  of  the 
present  article  are  to  be  mentioned  the  burning 
(14  Dec,  1S60)  of  the  first  stone  cathedral,^  whose 
"turrets  twain"  have  been  sung  by  the  poet  Whittier. 
A  new  and  somewhat  more  modest  edifice  was  soon 
after  put  up,  which  had  to  be  razed  to  make  room 
for  the  monumental  cathedral  erected  by  Tache's  suc- 
cessor. Archbishop  Adelard  L.  P.  Langevin,  O.M.I. 
The  new  temple  is  a  massive  stone  building  of  Byzan- 
tine style,  with  a  reproduction  of  the  "turrets  twain" 
of  the  poet.  With  the  sacristy  it  measures  312  feet  in 
length,  and  2S0  feet  along,  inside,  with  a  proportion- 
ate width.  Its  first  stone  was  laid  on  15  Aug.,  1906, 
and  the  edifice  was  solemnly  blessed  4  Oct.  1908.  In 
the  modest  church  which  it  replaced  the  First  Pro- 
vincial Council  of  St.  Boniface  took  place  in  1889, 
with  six  bishops  in  attendance.  The  present  incum- 
bent of  the  see  was  b.  at  St.  Isidore  de  Laprairie, 
Diocese  of  IMontreal,  24  Aug.,  1855,  he  became  an 
oblate  25  Julv,  1882,  and  was  consecrated  at  St.  Boni- 
face 19  March,  1895. 

Quite  a  galaxj'  of  brilUant  public  men  have  shed 
lustre  on  the  stiU  young  Diocese  of  St.  Boniface. 
Without  mentioning  several  French  half-breeds  who 
occupied  high  posts  on  the  bench  or  in  the  provincial 
legi-slature,  we  may  name  M.  A.  Girard,  who  was 
successively  Member  of  Parliament,  speaker  of  the 
Assembly  and  Premier  of  Manitoba;  Joseph  Royal,  a 
wTiter  of  note,  who,  after  having  been  a  member  of  the 
^Ianitoba  Government,  was  appointed  Governor  of 
the  North-West  Territories;  James  McKay,  a  con- 
vert, who  filled  the  role  of  President  of  the  Council  in 
the  Girard  Cabinet;  Joseph  Dubuc,  who  was  suc- 
cessively legislator.  Crown  minister,  and  speaker  of 
the  legislature,  and  ended  his  public  career  as  Chief 
Justice  of  his  adoptive  province. 

The  Official  Catholic  Directory  (New  York,  1911);  and  espe- 
cially unpublished  documents  furnished  by  the  Archdiocese  of  St. 
Boniface;  Morice,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Western 
Canada  (Toronto,  1910). 

A.  G.  Morice. 

Saint- Brieuc,  Diocese  of  (Briocum),  comprises 
the  Di'partment  of  the  Cotes  du  Nord.  Re-established 
by  the  Concordat  of  1802  as  suffragan  of  Tours,  later, 
in  1859,  suffragan  of  Rennes,  the  Diocese  of  Saint- 
Brieuc  was  made  to  include:  (1)  the  ancient  diocese 
of  the  same  name;  (2)  the  greater  portion  of  the 
Diocese  of  Tr6guier;  (3)  a  part  of  the  old  Dioceses 
of  St.  Malo,  Dol,  and  Quimper,  and  (4)  four  parishes 
of  the  Diocese  of  Vannes.  In  1852  the  Bi.shops  of 
Saint-Brieuc  were  authorized  to  add  to  their  title 
that  of  the  ancient  See  of  Tr(3guier. 

Diocese  of  Saint-Brieuc. — An  Irish  saint, 
Briocus  (Brieuc),  who  died  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century  founrled  in  honour  of  St.  Stephen  a 
monastery  which  afterwards  bore  his  name,  and  from 
which  sprang  the  tf>wn  of  Saint-Brieuc.  An  inscrip- 
tion later  than  the  ninth  century  on  his  tomb,  at  Saint- 
Serge  at  Angers,  mentions  him  as  the  first  Bishop  of 
Saint-Brieuc.  According  to  Mgr  Duchesne  certain 
trustworthy  documents  prove  that  it  was  King 
Nomenoe  who,  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century, 
ma^le  the  monastery  the  seat  of  a  bishopric.  Among 
the  Bishops  of  Saint-Brieuc,  the  following  are  men- 
tioned: St.  Guillaume  Pinchon  (1220-34),  who  pro- 
tected the  rights  of  the  episcopate  against  Pierre 
Mauclerc,  Duke  of  Brittany,  and  wjis  forced  to  go 
into  exile  for  some  time  at  Poitiers;    Jean  du  Tillet 


(1553-64),  later  Bishop  of  Meaux;   and  Denis  de  La 
Barde  (1641-75). 

Diocese  of  Tr^guier. — St.  Tudgual,  nephew  of 
St.  Brieuc,  was  appointed  by  the  latter  at  the  close 
of  the  fifth  century,  superior  of  the  moniisterj^  of 
Treguier,  which  he  had  founded.  The  biography  of 
St.  Tudgual,  composed  after  the  middle  of  tlu>  ninth 
centurj\  relates  that  King  Childebert  had  him  con- 
secrated Bishop  of  TrC>guier,  but  Mgr  Duchesne 
holds  that  it  was  King  Nomenoe  who,  in  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century,  raised  the  monaster^'  of  Tr6- 
guier  to  the  dignity  of  an  episcopal  see.  The  Dio- 
cese of  Saint-Brieuc  and  Treguier  pays  special  honour 
to  the  following  saints:    St.   Jacut,   first  Abbot  of 


\  D^H^^ 

1 

The  Cathedral,  Saint-Brieuc 

Landouart  (died  about  440);  St.  Mandez,  member  of  a 
princely  Irish  family  (sixth  century);  St.  Briac,  dis- 
ciple of  St.  Tudgual,  founder  of  the  monastery  around 
which  the  town  of  Boulbriac  grew  up  (sixth  century) ; 
St.  Osmanna,  an  Irish  princess,  who  took  refuge 
and  died  near  Saint-Brieuc  (seventh  century);  St. 
Maurice  of  Cornwall  (1117-91),  founder  and  first 
Abbot  of  Carnoet,  in  the  Diocese  of  Quimper;  St. 
Yves  (1253-1303),  born  near  Treguier,  ecclesiastical 
judge  of  the  Diocese  of  Rennes,  then  of  the  Diocese 
of  Tr6gui(!r,  where  he  gained  the  name  of  "advocate 
of  the  poor".  He  was  patron  of  the  lawyers'  con- 
fraternity, erected  at  Paris  in  the  church  of  St.  Yves 
des  Bretons.  His  tomb,  destroyed  during  the  Rev- 
olution, was  re-erected  in  1890  in  the  cathedral  of 
Treguier,  whither  it  draws  many  pilgrims.  Numer- 
ous synods  were  held  at  Treguier  in  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries,  and  passed  important  reg- 
ulations for  the  discipline  of  the  Breton  churches. 
Among  the  natives  of  the  Diocese  of  Saint-Brieuc 
are:  Duclos  (b.  1704;  d.  1772),  the  historian  of  Louis 
XI  (b.  at  Dinan);  Ernest  Renan  (b.  atTr^-guicr  1823; 
d.  1892).  The  Benedictine  historian  Dom  Lobineau 
died  at  the  Abbey  of  St.  Jacut,  1727.  The  town  of 
La  Roche  Derrien,  in  the  diocese,  was  the  scene 
of  the  great  battle  between  Jean  de  Monlford  and 
Blessed  Charies  of  Blois  (1346),  after  which  the  latter 
was  taken  as  ijrisoiicr  to  I'^ngland. 

The  principal  pilgrimages  in  the  Dioce.se  of  Saint- 
Brieuc  are:  Notre-Dame  de  Bon  Secours  at  Guingamp 
the  sanctuary  of  which  was  enriched  by  the  munifi- 
cence of  the  Dukes  of  Brittany;  Notre  Dame 
d'Esp<^rance,  at  Saint-Brieuc,  a  pilgrimage  dating* 
from  1848;  Notre  Dame  de  I>a  Fontaine  at  Saint- 
Brieuc,  dating  from  the  establishment  of  an  oratory 
by  Saint-Brieuc,  and  revived  in  1893  to  encourage 
devotion  to  that  saint;    Notre  Dame  dc  Guyaudet, 


SAINT  CATHERINE 


341 


SAINT-CLAUDE 


near    St-Nicholas    du    Pelem;    Notre  Dame  de  La     abbots  of  Condat,  which  was  distinguished  also  by 


Ronce,  at  Rostrencn,  a  sanctuary  raised  to  the  col- 
legiate dignity  by  Sixtus  IV  in  1483. 

Before  the  application  of  the  law  of  1901  against 
the  congregations  there  were  in  the  Diocese  of  Saint- 
Brieuc,  Eudists,  Franciscans,  Priests  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  Marists,  Marianitcs,  Salcsians, 
Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Holy  Heart  of 
Mary,  Hospitaller  Brothers  of  St.  John  of  God,  and 
various  teaching  orders  of  brothers.  Several  con- 
gregations of  nuns  were  founded  in  the  diocese,  par- 
ticularly the  Filles  du  Saint  Esprit,  hospitallers, 
teachers  and  nurses  of  the  poor,  founded  in  1706 
at  Plerin  b}^  Mme.  Balavoine  and  Renee  Burel,  with 
their  mother-house  at  Saint-Brieuc;  the  Filles  dc 
Ste  Marie  de  la  Presentation,  teachers  and  hos- 
pitallers, founded  in  1836  by  Abbe  Fleury,  their 
mother-house  at  Broons ;  the  Filles  de  La  Providence, 
a  teaching  body,  founded  by  Abbe  Jean-Marie  de 
Lamennais,  with  its  mother-house  at  Saint-Brieuc; 
the  Filles  de  La  Divine  Providence,  teachers  and  hos- 
pitallers, with  their  mother  house  at  Crehcn.  The 
Franciscan  Missionaries  of  Mary  was  founded  in 
1880  at  St.  Joseph  des  Chatelets,  near  St-Brieuc, 
to  assist  the  missionaries.  It  has  (1911)  a  sem- 
inary to  prepare  sisters  for  the  foreign  missions; 
houses  of  the  institute  have  been  established  in 
China,  India,  Japan,  Canada,  Belgian  Congo,  and 
Madagascar.  At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  religious  congregations  directed  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Saint-Brieuc,  1  creche,  33  schools,  1  school  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  2  boys'  orphanages,  13  girls' 
orphanages,  1  refuge  for  poor  girls,  1  pcnitentiarj'^ 
for  boys,  7  homes  for  the  poor,  13  hospitals  or  hos- 
pices, 6  houses  of  nuns  devoted  to  nursing  the  sick 
in  their  own  homes,  2  houses  of  retreat,  1  hospice 
for  incurables,  and  2  asylums  for  the  insane.  At  the 
time  of  the  destruction  of  the  Concordat  (1905)  the 
Diocese  of  Saint-Brieuc  contained  609,349  inhabitants, 
48  parishes,  354  succursal  parishes,  395  vicariates, 
towards  the  support  of  which  the  State  contributed. 

Gallia  Christ  (nova,  1856),  XIV,  1085-1106;  1119-.36;  in- 
strum.,  261-74;  Huffeuet,  Annales  Briochines  ou  abregS  chrono- 
lofjique  de  I'histoire  eccUsiastique,  civile  et  liUeraire  du  diocise  de 
St-Brieuc,  ed.  Ropartz  (Saint-Brieuc,  1850);  Guimart,  Histoire 
des  Sviques  de  Saint-Brieuc  (Saint-Brieuc,  1852) ;  Geslin  de  Bour- 
OOGNE  AND  DE  Barth£lemt,  Anciens  Sviches  de  Bretogne:  Diocise 
de  Saint-Brieuc  (6  vols.,  Paria,  1855-G4) ;  Tresvaux,  L'Eglixe  de 
Bretagne  (Paris,  1839) ;  Chevauer,  Topo-hibl.,  pp.  2676-77;  3154. 

Georges  Goyau. 

Saint  Catherine  of  Sinai,  K^ghts  of.  See 
Catherine,  Monastery  of  Saint. 

Saint-Claude,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Claudii). — 
The  Diocese  of  Saint-Claude  comprised  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century  only  twenty-six  parishes,  subject  pre- 
viously to  the  Abbey  of  Saint-Claude,  and  some 
parishes  detached  from  the  Dioceses  of  Besan^on  and 
Lyons.  By  the  Concordat  of  1802,  the  territory  of 
this  diocese  was  included  in  that  of  Bcsan9on.  Later 
the  Concordat  of  1817  re-erected  the  Diocese  of  Saint- 
Claude,  giving  it  as  territory  the  Department  of  Jura, 
and  making  it  suffragan  to  Lyons.  The  Abbey  of 
Saint-Claude,  the  cradle  of  the  diocese,  was  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  in  the  Christian  world.  Between 
425  and  430  the  hermits  Saint  Romanus  and  Saint 
Lupicinus  withdrew  into  the  desert  of  Condat,  where 
Saint-Claude  now  stands,  and  there  founded  the 
monastery  of  Condat ;  other  monks  were  attracted  to 
them,  the  land  was  cleared,  and  three  new  monas- 
teries were  founded:  those  of  Lauconne,  on  the  site 
of  the  present  village  of  Saint  Lupicin;  La  Balme, 
where  Yole,  the  sister  of  Sts.  Romanus  and  Lupicinus, 
assembled  her  nuns;  and  Romainmoutier,  in  the 
present  Canton  of  Vaud.  After  the  death  of  St. 
Romanus  (d.  about  460),  St.  Lupicinus  (d.  about  480), 
St.  Mimausus,  St.  Oyent  (d.  about  510),  St.  Anti- 
diolus,  St.  Olympus,  St.  Sapiens,  St.  Thalasius,  St. 
Dagamond,    St.    Auderic,    and    St.  Injuriosus  were 


the  virtues  of  the  holy  monks,  St^  Sabinian,  St. 
Palladius,  and  St.  Valentine  (fifth  century),  St. 
Justus,  St.  Hymetierus,  and  St.  Point  (sixth  century). 
The  rule  which  was  followed  at  the  beginning  in  the 
monastery  of  Condat  was  drawn  up  between  510  and 
515  and  adopted  by  the  great  monastery  of  Agaune; 
later  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict  was  introduced  at  Con- 
dat. Flourishing  schools  arose  at  once  around  Condat 
and  from  them  came  St.  Romanus,  ArchbLshop  of 
Reims,  and  St.  Viventiolus,  Archbishop  of  Lyons.  In 
the  early  years  of  the  sixth  century  the  peasants  who 
gathered  around  the  monastery  of  Condat  created  the 
town  which  was  to  be  known  later  by  the  name  of 
Saint-Claude. 

The  Life  of  St.  Claudius,  Abbot  of  Condat,  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  controversy.  Dom  Benoit  says 
that  he  lived  in  the  seventh  century;  that  he  had  been 
Bishop  of  Besangon  before  being  abbot,  that  he  was 
fifty-five  years  an  abbot,  and  died  in  694.  He  left 
Condat  in  a  very  flourishing  state  to  his  successors, 
among  whom  there  were  a  certain  number  of  saints: 
St.  Rusticus,  St.  Aufredus,  St.  Hippolvtus  (d.  after 
776),  St.  Vulfredus,  St.  Bertrand,  St.  Ribert,  all  be- 
longing to  the  eighth  century.  Carloman,  uncle  of 
Charlemagne,  went  to  Condat  to  become  a  religious; 
St.  Martin,  a  monk  of  Condat,  was  martyred  by  the 
Saracens  probably  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  This 
emperor  was  a  benefactor  of  the  Abbey  of  Condat;  but 
the  two  diplomas  of  Charlemagne,  formerly  in  posses- 
sion of  the  monks  of  Saint-Claude,  and  now  preserved 
in  the  Jura  archives,  dealing  with  the  temporal  interests 
of  the  abbey,  have  been  found  by  M.  Poupardin  to  be 
forgeries,  fabricated  without  doubt  in  the  eleventh 
century.  A  monk  of  Condat,  Venerable  Manon,  after 
having  enriched  the  abbey  library  with  precious  manu- 
scripts, was,  about  874,  appointed  by  Charles  the 
Bald,  head  of  the  Palace  School,  where  he  had  among 
his  pupils,  St.  Radbod,  Bishop  of  Utrecht.  Two 
abbots  of  Condat,  St.  Remy  (d.  875)  and  St.  Aurelian 
(d.  895),  filled  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Lyons.  In  the 
eleventh  century  the  renown  of  the  Abbey  of  Condat 
was  increased  by  St.  Stephen  of  Beze  (d.  1110)  and 
by  St.  Simon  of  Crepy  (b.  about  1048),  a  descendant 
of  Charl(>magne;  this  saint  was  brought  up  by 
Matliilda,  wife  of  William  the  Conqueror,  was  made 
Count  of  Valois  and  Vexin,  fought  against  Philip  I, 
King  of  France,  and  then  became  a  monk  of  Condat. 
He  afterwards  founded  the  monastery  of  IMouthe, 
went  to  the  court  of  William  the  Conqueror  to  bring 
about  his  reconciliation  with  his  son,  Robert,  and 
died  in  1080. 

The  body  of  St.  Claudius,  which  had  been  concealed 
at  the  time  of  the  Saracen  invasions,  was  discovered 
in  1160,  visited  in  1172  by  St.  Peter  of  Tarentaise,  and 
solemnly  carried  all  through  Burgundy  before  being 
brought  back  to  Condat.  The  abbey  and  the  town, 
theretofore  known  as  St.  Oyent,  were  thenceforward 
called  by  the  name  of  Saint-Claude.  Among  those 
who  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Saint-Claude  were  Philip 
the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  in  1369,  1376,  and  1382, 
Philip  the  Good  in  1422,  1442,  and  1443,  Charles  the 
Rash  in  1401,  Louis  XI  in  1456  and  1482,  Blessed 
Amadeus  IX,  Duke  of  Savoy,  in  1471.  In  1500  Anne 
of  Brittany,  wife  of  Louis  XII,  went  there  in  thanks- 
giving for  the  birth  of  her  daughter  Claudia.  The 
territory  of  Saint-Claude  formed  a  veritable  state;  it 
was  a  member  of  the  Holy  Empire,  but  it  was  not  a 
fief,  and  was  independent  of  the  Countship  of  Bur- 
gundy. In  1291,  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  named  the 
dauphin,  Humbert  de  Viennois,  his  vicar,  and  en- 
trusted him  with  the  defense  of  the  monastiTy  of 
Saint-Claude.  In  the  course  of  time,  the  Al)bey  of 
Saint-Claude  became  a  kind  of  Chai)ter,  to  enter  which 
it  was  necessary  to  give  proof  of  four  degrees  of  nobil- 
ity. The  system  of  "commendam"  proved  injurious 
to  the  religious  life  of  the  abbey.     Among  the  com- 


SAINT  CLOUD 


342 


SAINT  CLOUD 


mendatory  abbots  of  Saint-Clautlo  were  Pierre  de  la  of  Saint-Claude,  celebrated  in  the  fifteenth  century 
Baume  (1510-44)  during  whose  admmistration  Geneva  for  his  prophecies  in  1421  and  1422  to  Charles  VII  and 
fell  away  from  the  faith;  Don  Juan  of  Austria,  natural  Henry  V,  King  of  England,  relative  to  the  deliverance 
son  of  Philip  IV  (1045-79),  and  Cardinal  d'Estrees  of  France  and  the  birth  of  a  dauphin;  St.  Francis  de 
(1681-1714).  The  Abbey  of  Saint-Claude  and  the  Sales;  Ste  Jane  de  Chantal,  whose  important  inter- 
lands  depending  on  it  became  French  territory  in  view  at  Saint-Claude  in  1G04  determined  the  founda- 
1674,  on  the  conquest  of  La  Franche-Comt6.  At  that  tion  of  the  Visitation  order;  Venerable  Frances  Monet, 
time,  such  was  the  devotion  to  St.  Claudius  that  the  in  religion  Frangoise  de  Saint-Joseph  (15S9-1669), 
inliabitants  of  La  Franclie-Comte  took  him  as  their  Carmelite  nun  at  Avignon  and  miracle  worker,  born 
second  regional  patron,  and  associated  him  every-  at  Bonas  in  the  diocese;  Blessed  Pierre  Francois  Neron, 
where  with  St.  Andrew,  the  first  patron  of  the  Bur-  martyr,  a  native  of  the  diocese  (nineteenth  century), 
gundians.  Benedict  XIII  prepared  and  Benedict  The  principal  pilgrimages  in  the  Diocese  of  Saint- 
XIV  published  a  Bull  on  22  January,  1742,  decreeing  Claude  are:  the  Church  of  St-Pierre  at  Baume-les- 
the  secularization  of  the  abbey  and  the  erection  of  the  Moines,  where  numerous  relics  are  preserved;  Notre- 
episcopal  See  of  Saint-Claude.  The  bishoji,  who  bore  Dame-de-Mont-Roland,  end  of  the  eleventh  century; 
the  title  of  count,  inherited  all  the  seignorial  rights  of  Notre-Dame-Miraculeuse,  at  Bletterans,  1490;  Notre- 


the  abbot.  Moreover  the  bish- 
op and  the  canons  continued  to 
hold  the  dependents  of  the  old 
abbey  as  subject  to  the  mort- 
main, which  meant  that  these 
men  were  incapable  of  dispos- 
ing of  their  property.  The 
lawyer.  Christian,  in  1770, 
waged  a  very  vigorous  cam- 
paign in  favour  of  six  com- 
munes that  protested  against 
the  mortmain,  anddi.sputed  the 
claims  of  the  canons  of  Saint- 
Claude  to  the  proj^erty  rights 
of  their  lands.  Voltaire  inter- 
vened to  help  the  communes. 
The  Parhament  of  Besangon, 
in  1775,  confirmed  the  rights 
of  the  Chapter;  but  the  agi- 
tation excited  by  the  philos- 
ophers apropos  of  those  sul>- 
ject  to  the  mortmain  of  Saint - 
Claude,  was  one  of  the  signs  of 
the  approa(;hing  French  Revo- 
lution. In  March,  1794,  tlie 
body  of  St.  Claudius  was  burnt 
by  order  of  the  revolutionary 
authorities. 

Dole,  where  Frederick  Bar- 
baros.sa  constructed  in  the 
twelfth  century  an  immense 
castle  in  which  he   sojourned 


Facade  of  the  Cathedral,  Saint-Claude 


Dame-de-la-Balme,  at  Epy, 
sixteenth  century;  Notre- 
Dame-Liberatrice,  at  Salins, 
1639;  Notre-Dame-de-Micges, 
1699;  Notre-Dame-de-1'Ermi- 
tage,  at  Arbois,  seventeenth 
century ;  N  o  t  r  e-Damc-du- 
Chene,  at  Cousance,  1774.  Be- 
fore the  application  of  the  Law 
of  1901  against  the  congre- 
gations there  were  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Saint-Claude,  J(>suits, 
and  various  teaching  orders  of 
brothers;  the  Trappists  still  re- 
main there.  Among  the  congre- 
gations of  nuns  which  were  first 
founded  in  the  diocese  are: 
the  Sanirs  du  Saint-Esprit, 
teachers  and  hospitallers,  with 
their  mother-house  at  Poligny, 
and  the  Si.sters  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conce])tion,  teachers 
and  hosi)itallers,  with  their 
mother-house  at  Lons-le-Sau- 
nier.  At  the  close  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  religious 
congregations  directed  in  the 
diocese  89  day  nurseries,  2 
asylums  for  invalids,  6  boys' 
orphanages,  4  girls'  ori)hanages, 
1  home  for  the  poor,  1  asylum 


from  time  to  time,  but  which  has  now  disappeared, 
and  where  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
establi-shed  in  1422  a  parliament  and  a  university 
— tran.sf erred  in  1691  to  Besangon  by  Louis  XIV — 
deserves  mention  in  religious  history.  The  Jesuits 
opened  at  Dole,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  a  celebrated 
establishment  known  as  the  College  de  I'Arc,  the  most 
important  in  France  after  the  College  de  la  P16che. 
Anne  de  Sainctonge  (1567-1621)  founded  there  an 
important  branch  of  the  Ursulines,  which  left  its 
mark  in  the  history  of  primary  education  in  France. 
The  celebrated  chemist,  Pasteur  (1822-95),  was  a 
native  of  Dole.  Among  the  saints  connected  with  the 
history  of  the  diocese  are:  St.  Anatolius,  Bishop  of 
Adana  in  Cilicia,  who  died  a  hermit  near  Salins  in 
the  diocese  (fifth  century);  St.  Lautenus  (477-547), 
founder  of  the  monastery  bearing  his  name;  St. 
Bemond,  who  established  the  Benedictine  abbey  of 
Gigny  and  rebuilt  in  926  the  Benedictine  abbey  of 
Baurne-les-Moines  (ninth-tenth  centurv);  St.  Colette 
of  Corbie  (1381-1447)  (q.  v.),  foundress  of  the  Poor 
Clare  convent  at  Poligny,  in  which  town  hrT  relics 
are  preserved;  her  friend  lilesserl  Ix)uise  of  Savoy 
(1462-1.503).  niece  of  Ixjuis  XI,  King  of  France,  and 
daughter  of  Blessed  Amarleus  IX  of  Savoy,  wife  of 
Hugue  <h-  Clialon,  Lorrl  of  Xozeroy,  then  a  Poor  Clare 
in  the  monaxtfry  of  Orbe  founded  by  St.  Colette; 
her  relics  were  transff-rred  to  Nozeroy  anrl  afterwards 
to  Turin ;  Blessed  John  of  Ghent,  surriamed  the  hermit     settlers,  the  history  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  Cloud  begins. 


for  Magdalenes,  14  hospitals  or  hospices,  3  disj)ensaries, 
23  houses  of  nuns  devoted  to  nursing  the  sick  in  their 
own  homes,  1  house  of  retreat,  2  hosjiices  for  incur- 
ables, and  1  asylum  for  the  insane.  At  the  end  of  the 
Concordat  period  (1905)  the  Diocese  of  Saint-Claude 
contained  261,288  inhabitants,  34  parishes,  356  suc- 
cursal  parishes,  24  vicariates,  towards  the  support  of 
which  the  State  contributed. 

Gallia  chriMiana  (nova,  1728),  IV,  241-2,54;  BenoIt,  Hist,  de 
I'abbaye  et  de  la  lerre  de  S.  Claude  (Montreuil-sur-Mer,  1890); 
POUPABDIN,  Etude  xur  les  deux  dipldmes  de  Charlemagne  -pour 
I'abbaye  de  S.  Claude  in  Moyen-Age  (lOO.'i);  Lahdky  de  Billy, 
Hinl.  de  V  Universiti  du  comt6  de  Bourgoyne  (Besangon,  1814) ; 
Beaune  and  d'Arbaumont,  Les  universilis  de  Franche-Comti 
(Dijon,  1870);  Puffeney,  Hist,  de  Dole  (Besangon,  1882); 
PiDoux,  Hist,  de  la  confririe  de  Saint  Yves  des  avocats,  de  la  Sainte 
Hoxtie  miraculeuse  et  de  la  confririe  du  Haint  Sacrement  de  Dole 

(1902).  Georges  Goyau. 

Saint  Cloud,  Dioce.se  of  (Sancti  Clodoaldi), 
sufTragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  com- 
prises the  counties  of  Stearns,  Sherburne,  Benton. 
Morri.son,  Mille  Lacs,  Kanabec,  Grant,  Pope,  Stevens, 
Isanti,  Traverse,  Douglas,  \\ilkin,  Otter-Tail,  Todd, 
Wadena,  in  the  State  of  Minnesota,  an  area  of  12,251 
square  miles.  The  bisliop  resides  in  St.  Cloud, 
Stearns  county.  In  1680  Fatber  Henne|)in  vi.sited  the 
Indians  at  Mille  Lacs,  and  for  one  hundred  and  seventy 
years  no  other  priest  (lame  to  these  regions.  In  1851, 
when  this  part  of  Minnesota  was  thrown  open  to  white 


SAINT-COSME 


343 


SAINT-DENIS 


In  1852  Rev.  Francis  Pierz  (Pirc),  a  native  of  Car- 
niola,  Austria,  came  from  his  former  Indian  missions 
at  Lake  Superior  to  Minnesota  to  labour  among  the 
Chippewa  Indians.    Finding  the  country  well  adapted 
to  agriculture,  he  announced  the  fact  in  some  Catholic 
German  papers,  and  thus  caused  a  large  immigration 
of  German  Catholics,  especially  to  Stearns  county. 
In  1856  Bishop  Cretin  of  St.  Paul  sent  three  Bene- 
dictines, Father.s  Demetrius  de  Marogna,  CorneUus 
Wittmann,  and  Bruno  Riss,  to  attend  the  ever-increas- 
ing numbers  of  settlers.     They  settled  on  a  piece  of 
land  near  the  present  city  of  St.  Cloud,  where  they 
built  a  small  log  house  and  chapel.     In  1857  they 
erected  a  college,  and  opened  a  school  with  five  pupils. 
A  change  of  location,  however,  was  desirable,  hence 
land  was  secured  around  St.  John's  Lake,  and  in  1866  a 
college  and  monastery  were  permanently  established. 
They  have  now  flourishing  parishes  and  a  university 
with  more  than  three  hundred  students.     The  first 
abbot,  Rt.  Rev.  Rupert  Seidenbusch,  was  made  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Northern  Minnesota  (1875).     He  resided 
in  St.  Cloud  until  1888  when,  on  account  of  poor 
health,  he  resigned.     He  built  the  present  pro-cathe- 
dral and  died  3  June,  1895.     The  present  Diocese  of 
St.  Cloud  was  created  in  1889  with  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  Otto 
Zardetti  as  its  first  bishop.     Dr.  Zardetti,  a  native  of 
Switzerland,  was  born  24  Jan.,  1846.    He  was  ordained 
priest  21  Aug.,  1870,  and  in  1881  became  professor  of 
dogma  in  the  St.  Francis  Seminary,  near  Milwaukee. 
In  1886  he  was  made  \'icar-general  of  Bishop  Marty 
of  Yankton.     As  Bishop  of  St.  Cloud,  he  was  ex- 
tremely active,  and  renowned  as  a  pulpit  orator.     In 
Feb.,  1894,  he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Bucharest  in 
Rumania  and  died  at  Rome  9  May,  1902.     When  he 
took  charge  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  Cloud,  he  found  about 
30,000  souls  in  the  charge  of  69  priests,  52  religious 
and  17  diocesan.     When  he  resigned,  there  were  about 
40,000  souls  in  the  charge  of  33  secular  priests  and 
16  religious,  besides  19  religious  in  the   monastery. 
His  successor  was  Rt.  Rev.  Martin  Marty,  O.S.B., 
also  a  native  of  Switzerland.     In  1879  he  wius  ap- 
pointed Vicar  Apostolic  of  Dakota,  residing  in  Yank- 
ton,  in   1889    first    Bi.shop    of    Sioux    Falls,   South 
Dakota,  and  31  Dec,  1894,  was  transferred  to  St. 
Cloud.     He  took  charge  of  the  new  see  12  March, 
1895,  but  died  19  Sept.,  1896.     Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Jos. 
Bauer  was  administrator  of  the  diocese  until  28  Sept., 
1897,  when  the  present  bishop,  James  Trobec,  ar- 
rived as  third  bishop  of  the  diocese.     There  are  about 
62,000  souls;   125  i)riests,  78  secular  and  47  religious; 
115  chur(;hes  and  12  chapels;    1  university;   2  acade- 
mies; 4  hospitals;  1  home  for  old  peoi)le;    1  orphan 
asylum;    jjarochial  schools  wherever  possible.     The 
religious  coininuiiitics  n-itrcsciilcd  in  the  diocese  are 
the  Benedictines  and  the  Holy  Cross  Fathers;    the 
Benedictine  Sisters,  who  number  al)out   100  and  have 
charge  of  parochial  schools,  a  hospital,  and  a  home  for 
the  aged;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  who  have  charge  of 
an  orphan  asylum  and  three  hospitals;   the  Sisters  of 
St.  Mary  of  the  Presentation. 

The  Diocesan  Chronicle.  JaMES   TrOBEC. 

Saint-Cosme,  Jean  Fran5ois  Buisson  (Bis.son) 
DE,  b.  in  Quebec,  Canada,  February,  1667;  killed, 
1707.  Entering  the  Seminaire  des  Missions  Etran- 
geres  of  Quebec,  he  was  ordained  in  1690  and  after 
serving  for  a  time  at  Minas,  Nova  Scotia  (then 
Acadia),  was  assigned  to  the  western  mission.  He 
laboured  for  a  time  at  the  Cahokia  (Tamaroa)  mission 
in  Illinois,  until  succeeded  by  Father  Jean  Bergier, 
probably  about  KiOS,  after  wliich  he  followed  Fathers 
Montigny  and  Da\i()n,  of  the  same  seminary,  to  the 
lower  Mississippi,  and  took  up  his  residence  ainotig 
the  Natchez,  about  the  present  Natchez,  Mississippi, 
establishing  the  first  mission  in  the  tribe,  api)arently 
about  the  end  of  1699.  The  tribes  of  this  region,  how- 
ever, were  generally  obdurate  and  neither  secular  mis- 


sionaries nor  Jesuits  met  with  success,  so  that  by  the 
end  of  1704  all  but  the  Natchez  mission  had  been  aban- 
doned, leaving  Father  St-Cosme  alone.  After  several 
years  of  unrequited  labour,  he  was  finally  murdered, 
with  three  French  companions  and  a  slave,  while  de- 
scending the  Mississippi,  being  attacked  while  asleep 
by  a  party  of  the  savage  Shetimasha.  To  avenge  this 
death,  Bienville,  Governor  of  Louisiana,  summoned 
the  Natchez  and  other  friendly  tribes  to  take  up 
arms  against  the  Shetimasha,  with  the  result  that 
the  latter  tribe  was  almost  exterminated.  A  cousin 
of  the  same  name  waa  also  a  priest  in  Quebec  (b. 
1660;  d.  1712). 

Shea,  Catholic  Missions  (New  York,  IH5A);  Jesuit  Relations, 
ed.  Thwaites,  LXV,  note  (Cleveland,  1896-1901) ;  La  Have, 
Journal  historique  (New  Orleans,  1831). 

James  Mooney. 
See    Duvergier    de 


Saint- Cyran,    Abbe    de. 
Hauranne,  Jean. 


Saint  David's, 

Diocese  of. 


Ancient  See  of.    See  Menevia, 


Saint-Denis,  Abbey  of,  is  situated  in  a  small  town, 
to  which  it  has  given  its  name,  about  four  miles  north 
of  Paris.     St-Denis   (Dionysius),  the  first  Bishop  of 


Facade,  Abbey  Church  of  St-Deni8, 
XII-Century  Gothic 

Paris,  and  his  companions,  martyred  in  270,  were 
buried  here  and  the  small  chapel  built  over  the  spot 
became  a  famous  place  of  pilgrimage  during  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries.  In  630  King  Dagobert  founded 
the  abbey  for  Benedictine  monks,  replacing  the  orig- 
inal chapel  by  a  large  basilica,  of  which  but  little  now 
remains.  He  and  his  successors  enriched  the  new 
foundation  with  many  gifts  and  privileges  and,  pos- 
sessing as  it  did  the  shrine  of  St-Denis,  it  became  one 
of  the  richest  and  most  important  abfx'ys  in  France. 
In  653  it  was  made  exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdiction. 
A  new  church  was  commenced  in  750  by  Charlemagne, 
at  the  conscH-ration  of  which  Christ,  according  to 
popular  tradition,  was  supposed  to  have  assisted  iiT 
})erson.  During  the  ninth  century  irregularit  ies  crept 
in  and  the  monks  transformed  themselves  into  canons 
with  a  relaxed  rule.     Abbot  Hilduin  tried  in  vain  to 


SAINT-DENIS 


344 


SAINT-DIE 


reform  them  and  was  obliged  to  retire  for  a  time,  with 
a  few  of  the  more  fer\ent  monks,  to  a  neighbouring 
priory.  At  length,  however,  he  succeeded  in  bring- 
ing about  a  better  state  of  things  and  was  able  to  re- 
sume the  government  of  his  abbey.  From  that  time 
forward  its  splendour  and  importance  continued  to 
increase  under  the  wise  rule  of  a  succession  of  great 
abbots,  to  whom  the  right  of  pontificalia  was  granted 
by  Alexander  III  in  1179.  Most  famous  perhaps 
amongst  these  was  Suger.  the  thirty-sixth  of  the  series 
(1122-52).  Besides  being  a  great  ecclesiastic  he  was 
also  a  great  statesman  and  acted  as  Regent  of  France 
whilst  King  Louis  VII  was  absent  at  the  Crusades. 
The  present  church  of  St-Denis  was  commenced  by 
him  about  1140  and  marks  the  beginning  of  the  Gothic 
tendency  in  architecture  and  its  transition  from  the 
Romanesque  stj'lc.  Further  additions  and  altera- 
tions under  succeeding  abbots  resulted  in  producing 
one  of  the  finest  Gothic  buildings  in  France  (see 
Gothic  Architecture). 

The  abbey  figured  prominently  in  the  history  of 
France  and  its  abbots  were  for  several  centuries 
amongst  the  chief  seigneurs  of  the  kingdom.  The 
"Orifiamme",  originally  the  banner  of  the  abbey, 
became  the  standard  of  the  kings  of  P>ance  and  was 
suspended  above  the  high  altar,  whence  it  was  only 
removed  when  the  king  took  the  field  in  person.  Its 
last  appearance  was  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt  in 
141.5.  Joan  of  Arc  hung  up  her  arms  in  the  church 
of  St-Denis  in  1429.  Many  kings  and  princes  and 
other  noble  persons  were  buried  there  and  three  of  the 
Roman  pontiffs  staved  in  the  abbey  at  different  times: 
Stephen  II  in  754,  Innocent  II  in  1131,  and  Eugenius 
III  in  1146.  Another  great  abbot,  Matthieu  de 
Vendome,  acted  as  administrator  of  the  kingdom  when 
St.  Louis  went  to  the  Crusades  in  1269.  After  the 
Council  of  Trent  the  Abbey  of  St-Denis  became  the 
head  of  a  congregation  of  ten  monasteries,  and  in 
1633  it  was  united,  with  its  dependent  houses,  to  the 
new  Congregation  of  St-Maur,  when  its  conventual 
buildings  were  entirely  reconstructed.  In  1691  Louis 
XVI  suppressed  the  abbacy  and  united  the  monastery 
with  its  revenues  to  the  royal  house  of  noble  ladies  at 
St-Cyr,  founded  by  Madame  de  Maintenon.  The  abbey 
was  finally  dis.solvcd  at  the  revolution,  when  much 
damage  was  done  to  the  church  and  tombs.  It  was 
subsequently  restored,  under  Napoleon  III,  by  Viollet- 
le-Duc.  The  relics  of  St-Denis,  which  had  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  pari.sh  church  of  the  town  in  1795,  were 
brought  back  again  to  the  abbey  in  1819.  It  is  now 
a  "national  monument"  and  one  of  the  show-places 
of  Paris.  Many  of  the  chartularies  and  other  manu- 
scripts relating  to  its  history  are  now  either  in  the 
Archives  Nationales  or  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale. 

Ste  Marthe,  Gallia  Christiana,  VII  (Paris,  1744);  Doublet, 
Hintoire  de  Vabhaye  de  Saint-Denys  (Paris,  162.5);  Felibien, 
Hisloire  de  St-Denys  (Paris,  1706);  David,  Les  Gramles  Abbayec 
de  VOcHdent  (Lille,  1907);  Beale,  The  Churches  of  Paris  (Lon- 
don, 1893).  _     ^ 

G.  Cyprian  Alston. 

Saint-Denis,  Diocese  of,  erected  in  1850  as  suffra- 
gan of  Bordf-aux,  includes  the  Island  of  R('unir)n  in  the 
Indian  Ocean  about  3.50  miles  etist  of  Madagascar. 
This  Island  is  1000  sq.  miles  in  area,  and  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Portugue,se,  8  P'ebniary,  1513;  it  was 
originally  called  Sancta  Appollonia,  and  later  changed 
to  Mdscareigne  from  the  name  of  their  leader  Mas- 
carenhas.  In  1638  a  Frenchman  named  Gaubert 
hoisted  the  French  flag  there,  and  in  1642  Pronis,  rep- 
resenting the  Compagnie  de  Lorient,  took  possession 
of  it  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  France.  In  1646 
twelve  Maflagascar  colonists  who  had  revolted  were 
transported  llicre,  and  in  1649  Flaf;ourt,  Pronis's 
succfssfir,  fhangefi  the  name  from  Mascareigne  to 
Island  of  Jiourbf)n;  from  16.54  to  16.58  an  alfcmpt  was 
made  by  Ant<^>inf!  Thaunau,  seven  Frcmclurien,  anfl 
six  negroes  to  colonize  the  west  coast;  in  1663  Rcgnault, 


who  had  been  appointed  governor  of  the  island  by  the 
King,  arrived  with  three  ships  bringing  20  labourers, 
a  merchant,  and  200  sick  people,  the  first  colonists 
of  the  island.  The  first  apostles  of  Reunion  were  P. 
Louis  de  Matos,  a  Portuguese,  who  on  his  return 
journey  from  Brazil  built  the  chapel  of  Our  Lady  of 
the  Angels  (1667),  and  P.  Jourdi6,  a  Lazarist  father, 
who  remained  on  the  island  from  1667  to  1670. 
In  1674  P.  Bernardin,  a  Capuchin,  arrived  from  India; 
he  drew  up  laws  for  hunting,  planted  cotton,  taught 
the  voung  girls  to  sew  and  spin,  and  was  governor 
of  tlie  island  from  1686  to  1689.  In  1689  he  went  to 
France  to  lay  the  needs  of  the  island  before  Louis 
XIV.  In  1703  Cardinal  Maillard  de  Tournon, 
on  his  way  to  India,  called  at  Reunion  and  adminis- 
tered confirmation. 

In  1711  Clement  XI  entrusted  the  island  to  Lazarist 
missionaries,  who  began  work  there  in  1714.  In 
1848  the  island  took  the  name  of  Reunion,  slavery  was 
abolished,  and  two  years  later  the  see  was  established. 
The  first  bishop  was  .lulien  Desprez  (1850-57),  after- 
wards Archbishop  of  Toulouse  and  cardinal.  In 
March,  1S51,  he  set  out  in  the  corvette  "Cassini". 
The  captain  in  charge,  Francois  de  Plas,  the  ensign 
Jaussier,  and  the  lieutenant  Alexis  Clerc,  afterwards 
became  Jesuits:  Clerc  died  a  victim  of  the  Paris 
Commune.  Gaulcjac,  a  midshipman  on  the  same 
vessel,  in  after  fife  became  a  Carthusian.  The 
Reunion  priests  are  trained  in  Paris  at  the  Seminary 
of  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  Sacred  Heart  of 
Mary  which  serves  as  diocesan  seminary.  In  1905 
(at  the  breach  of  the  Concordat)  the  island  contained 
one  parish  served  by  the  Holy  Ghost  Fathers;  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  a  nursing  and  teaching 
order,  had  28  establishments  there,  and  the  Daughters 
of  Mary,  also  a  nursing  and  teaching  order,  conducted 
10  establishments;  the  population  was  173,000; 
there  were  54  parishes  and  74  priests. 

Hisloire  ahrigee  de  Vile  Bourbon,  ou  de  la  Reunion,  depuis  sa 
dScouverle  jusqu'en  1880  (Saint-Deni.s,  188.3) ;  Guet,  Les  origines 
de  Vile  Bourbon  (Paris,  1885);  Lacointa,  Hisloire  dti  Cardinal 
Desprez  (Paris,  1897). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Saint-Die,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Deodati),  com- 
prises the  Dei)artment  of  the  Vosges.  Suppressed  by 
the  Concordat  of  1802  and  then  included  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Nancy,  it  was  re-established  nominally  by  the 
Concordat  of  1817,  and  in  fact  by  a  papal  Bull  of 
6  October,  1822,  and  a  royal  ordinance  of  13  January, 
1823,  as  a  suffragan  of  Besan^on.  The  Treaty  of 
Frankfort  (1871)  cut  eighteen  communes  from  the 
Department  of  the  Vosges,  and  added  them  to  the 
Diocese  of  Strasburg.  The  Diocese  of  St-Di6  origi- 
nated in  the  celebrated  abbey  of  that  name.  St. 
Deodatus  (Di6)  (b.  towards  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century;  d.  679)  came  from  Le  Nivernais,  or,  ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  from  Ireland;  attracted 
by  the  reputation  of  St.  Columbanus  he  withdrew 
to  the  Vosges,  sojourning  at  Romont,  and  Arentelie, 
and  in  Alsace,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Sts.  Arbogast  and  Florentius.  For  some  time  he  was 
a  solitary  at  Wil)ra,  doubtless  the  present  Katzenthal 
in  Alsace,  but,  being  persecuted  bj'  the  inhabitants, 
he  went  to  the  Vosges  and  founded  a  monastery, 
which  he  named  Galil6e,  on  lands  (called  "Junc- 
tura;")  given  to  him  by  Childeric  II.  The  town  of 
St-Di<''  now  stands  on  this  site.  At  the  same  time, 
Leudin  Bodo,  Bisliop  of  Toul,  founded  to  the  north 
of  GaliKJe  the  monastery  of  Bonmoutier  and  to  the 
south  that  of  Etival ;  Saint  Gondelbert,  perhaps  after 
resigning  the  Archbishopric  of  Sens,  had  just  founded 
the  monastery  of  Senones  to  the  east.  These  four 
monasteries  formed,  by  their  geographical  position, 
the  four  extremities  of  a  cross  Later,  Saint  Hidul- 
phus.  Bishop  of  Treves  (d  707),  erected  between 
them  at  the  intersection  of  the  two  arms  of  the 
cross,  the  monastery  of  Moyenmoutier.     Villigod  and 


SAINT-DI^ 


345 


SAINT-DI]^ 


Martin  (disciples  of  St-Diej,  Abbot  Spinulus  (Spin), 
John  the  priest,  and  the  deacon  Benignus  (disciples 
of  St.  Hidulphus)  are  honoured  as  saints.  In  the 
tenth  century,  the  discipline  of  the  Abbey  of  St-Die 
grew  lax,  and  Frederick  I,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  expelled 
the  Benedictines,  replacing  them  by  the  Canons  Reg- 
ular of  St.  Augustine.  Gregory  V,  in  996,  agreed 
to  the  change  and  decided  that  the  grand  prevot, 
the  principal  dignitary  of  the  transformed  abbey, 
should  depend  directly  on  the  Holy  See. 

During  the  sixteenth  century,  profiting  by  the  long 
vacancy  of  the  See  of  Toul,  the  abbots  of  the  several 


-     -  Jt 

jBHi^Jl 

H- 

M         mT  :  ^^Hl 

B^iJhi 

^im^im&mS^rai^Ml 

Hi 

***2^fe 

m 

Cathedral  Cloister,  St-Di6 

monasteries  in  the  Vosges,  without  actually  declaring 
themselves  independent  of  the  Diocese  of  Toul, 
claimed  to  exercise  a  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction  as 
to  the  origin  of  which,  however,  they  were  not  agreed; 
in  the  eighteenth  centurj^  they  pretended  to  be 
nullius  dioceseos.  In  1718,  Thiard  de  Bissy,  Bishop 
of  Toul,  requested  the  erection  of  a  see  at  St-Di(^; 
Leopold,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  was  in  favour  of  this  step, 
but  the  King  of  France  opposed  it;  the  Holy  See  re- 
frained for  the  time  from  action.  In  1777  a  Bull  of 
Pius  VI  erected  the  abbey  of  St-Dic  into  an  episcopal 
see,  and  cut  off  from  the  Diocese  of  Toul  (see  N.\n'cy, 
Diocese  of)  the  new  Diocese  of  St-Dic,  which,  until 
the  end  of  the  old  regime,  was  a  suffragan  of  Trier. 
Louis  Caverot,  who  died  as  Cardinal  Archbishop  of 
Lyons,  was  Bishop  of  St-Die  from  18-19  to  1870. 

The  Abbey  of  Remiremont  was  founded  about 
620  by  Saint  Romaric,  a  lord  at  the  court  of  Clotaire 
II,  who,  having  been  converted  by  Saint  Ame,  a 
monk  of  Luxeuil,  took  the  habit  at  Luxeuil;  it  com- 
prised a  monastery  of  monks,  among  whose  abbots 
were  Sts.  Ame  (570-02.5),  Romaric  (580-653),  and 
Adelphus  (d.  670),  and  a  monastery  of  nuns,  which 
numbered  among  its  abbesses  Sts.  Mactefelda  (d. 
about  622),  Claire  (d.  about  652),  and  Gebetrude 
(d.  about  673).  At  a  later  period  the  Benedictine 
nuns  were  replaced  by  a  chapter  of  ninety-eight 
canonesses  who  had  to  prove  200  years  of  nobility, 
and  whose  last  abbess,  under  the  old  regime,  was  the 
Princess  de  Bourbon  Conde,  sister  of  the  Duke  of 
Enghien;  she  was  prioress  of  the  Monastery  of  the 
Temple  at  her  death. 

Besides  the  saints  mentioned  above  and  some  others, 
bishops  of  Nancy  and  Toul,  the  following  are  hon- 
oured in  a  special  manner  in  the  Diocese  of  St-Die; 
St.  Sigisbert,  King  of  Austrasia  (630-56);  St. 
Germain,  a  hermit  near  Remiremont,  a  martvr,  who 
died  Abbot  of  Grandval,  near  Basle  (618-70);  St. 
Hunna,  a  penitent  at  St-Die  (d.  about  672);  St. 
Dagobert  II,  King  of  Austrasia,  slain  by  his  servant 
Grimoald  (679)  and  honoured  as  a  martyr;  St. 
Modesta,  a  nun  at  Remiremont,  afterwards  foundress 
and  abbess  of  the  monastery  of  Horren  at  Trier 
(seventh  century);  St.  Goery,  Bishop  of  Metz  (d. 
about  042),  whose  relics  are  preserved  at  Epinal  and 
who  is  the  patron  of  the  butchers  of  the  town;  St. 
Simeon,    Bishop   of   Metz    (eighth   century),    whose 


relics  are  preser^^ed  at  Senones;  Sts.  William  and 
Achery,  hermits  near  Ste  Marie  aux  Mines  (ninth 
century);  St.  Richarda  (840-90),  wife  of  Charles  the 
Fat,  who  died  as  Abbess  of  Andlau  in  Alsace;  Blessed 
Joan  of  Arc,  b.  at  Domremy  in  the  diocese;  Venerable 
Mere  Alix  le  Clerc  (b.  at  Remiremont,  1576;  d.  1622) 
and  St.  Peter  Fourier  (b.  at  Mericourt,  1555;  d. 
1640),  cur6  of  Mattaincourt,  who  founded  the  Order 
of  Notre-Dame.  Elizabeth  de  Ranfaing  (b.  at  Remire- 
mont, 1592;  d.  1049)  founded  in  the  Diocese  of  Toul 
the  congregation  of  Our  Lady  of  Refuge;  Catherine 
de  Bar  (b.  at  St-Die,  1014;  d.  1098),  known  as  Mere 
Mechtilde  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  at  first  an 
Annunciade  nun  and  then  a  Benedictine,  founded  at 
Paris,  in  1054,  the  Order  of  the  Benedictines  of  the 
Perpetual  Adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament; 
following  in  her  footsteps  Elizabeth  Brem  (1009-08), 
kno^vn  as  Mother  Benedict  of  the  Passion  (1009- 
68),  a  Benedictine  nun  at  Rambervillers,  established 
in  that  monastery  the  Institute  of  the  Perpetual 
Adoration.  The  remains  of  Brother  Joseph  Formet, 
knowm  as  the  hermit  of  Ventron  (1724—84),  are  the 
object  of  a  pilgrimage.  Venerable  Jean  Martin 
Moye  (1730-93),  founder  in  Lorraine  of  the  Congre- 
gation de  la  Providence  for  the  instruction  of  young 
girls  and  apostle  of  Su-Tchuen,  was  director  for  a 
brief  i)eriod  of  the  seminary  of  St-Di6,  and  established 
at  Esscgney,  in  the  diocese,  one  of  the  first  novitiates 
of  the  SiL'urs  de  la  Providence  (hospitallers  and  teach- 
ers), whose  mother-house  at  Portieux  ruled  over  a 
large  number  of  houses  before  the  Law  of  1901. 
Grandclaude,  a  village  teacher  who  was  sent  to  the 
Roman  College  in  1857  by  Bishop  Caverot,  contributed, 
when  a  professor  in  the  grand  seminaire  of  St-Di6,  to 
the  revival  of  canon  law  studies  in  France. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  how  at  St-Di(5,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  newly-dis- 
covered continent  received  the  name  of  America. 
Vautrin  Lud,  Canon  of  St-Die  and  chaplain  and  secre- 
tary of  Rene  II,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  set  up  a  print- 
ing-establishment at  St-Die  in  which  two  Alsatian 
geographers,  Martin  Waldseemiiller  and  Mathias 
Ringmann,  began  at  once  to  produce  an  edition  of  a 
Latin  translation  of  Ptolemy's  "geography".  In  1507 
Ren6  II  received 
from  Li.sbon  the 
abridged  account, 
written  in  French, 
of  the  four  voy- 
ages of  Vespuc(-i. 
Lud  had  this  trans- 
lated into  Latin 
by  Basin  de  San- 
daucourt.  T  h  e 
printing  of  the 
tran.slation  was 
completed  at  St- 
Die  on  24  April, 
1507;  it  was  pref- 
aced by  a  short 
writing  entitled 
"Cosmographiio 
introductio",  cer- 
tainly the  work 
of  Waldseemiiller, 
and  was  dedicated 
to  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian. In  this 
preface  Waldsee- 
miiller proposed  the  name  of  America.  A  second  edi- 
tion appeared  at  St-Dic  in  August,  1507,  a  third  at 
Strasburg  in  1509,  and  thus  the  name  of  America  was 
spread  about.  The  work  was  re-edited  with  an  Eng- 
lish version  by  Charles  G.  Herbermann  (New  York, 
1907).  M.  Gallois  has  proved  that  in  1507  Waldsee- 
miiller inserted  this  name  in  two  maps,  but  that 
in  1513,  in  other  maps,  Waldseemiiller,  being  better 


Chttrch  of  Notre-Dame,  IX  Cv 
Adjoining  the  Cathedral  of  a 


SAINTE-CLAIRE   DEVILLE 


346 


SAINTE-CLAIRE  DEVILLE 


informed,  inserted  the  name  of  Columbus  as  the 
discoverer  of  America.  But  it  was  too  late;  the 
name  of  America  had  been  already-  firmly  established. 
The  principal  pilgrimages  of  the  diocese  are: 
Notre-Dame  dc  St-Die,  at  St-Die,  at  the  place  where 
St.  Die  erected  his  first  sanctuary;  Notre-Dame  du 
Tresor,  at  Remiremont;  Notre-Dame  de  Consola- 
tion, at  Epinal;  Notre-Dame  de  la  Brosse,  at  Bains; 
Notre-Dame  de  Bermont,  near  Domremy,  the  sanc- 
tuary at  which  Joan  of  Arc  prayed;  and  the  tomb 
of  St.  Peter  Fourrier  at  Mattaincourt.  There  were 
in  the  diocese  before  the  application  of  the  Law  of 


CCSMOCRPFHAE 

Capadodam/Pamp!ini3iTi''Udiam '  Cil/cia/ Armc 
ni3S miiorc Sc minorc.ColcSi'Jcn/Hircaniam  Ht> 
bcriam/Albanii:ct  prctcrca  mFtas  quas  fingilatim 
caumcrjrelongamorac(Tct.ltadiiflaabdusnonii 
nis  rcgina, 

Nuc  y^o  Sc  hf  partes  funt  latius  Iuflrat*/&  aba 
quana  pars  per  Amcricu  Vcfputiucvt  in  fcquentl 
bas  audicrjr  )inucntacfl.'quar,oii  video  cur  quis 
iurc  voter  ab  Amcrico  inucntorc  faoacis  ingcni)  vi 
Artlcri.  ro  Amcngcnquafi  Amcrici  tcTa/fmc  Ammcam 
c«  diccn  J^iCiJ  &.'  Europa  Sc  Afia  a  mulicnbiis  fua  for 

lira  fint  nomma.Eius  fitu  Si  genus  mores  cxbis  hi 
nis  Amend  nauigariombusqux  fequuntUquidc 
intcUigtdacur. 

Hunc  in  modu  terra  iam  quadripirtiia  cognC' 
fcicet  funt  ires  prime  partes  Cj>tincntes/quana  ell 
infula:ciiomniqtJaqjmancircud3taconrpiciat.Et 
licet  marc  vnu  fit  qacadmodiiet  ipfatellus/multis 
tamcnfjmbusdifbriiflum  /  dC  junumeris  rtplgtum 
Prifcia  infulisvanaGbirioiaalTumitiqujetin  Cofmogrik 
my        phiae  tabubs  cofpiauiu/&:  PnCciaiius  in  tralacione 
Dionifr)  talibus  enumcrat  verTibus. 
Circuit  Occanj  gurgcs  tamen  vndic^  vaftu  j 
Qui  Cpuii  vnus  fit  plun'ma  nomina  fumit, 
FinjLus  Hefpcnis  Aihlanticus  ille  vocatur 
At  Borcj  qua  gena  fiirit  Amiiafpa  Tub  armis 
Dial  ille  pigrr  nccno  Satur.idc  Mortuus  <fl  alijs; 


Kedlced  Facsimile  Page  of  the  Cosmographi.e 

Introductio,  Printed  in  1.507 

The  second  paragraph  advocates  the  adoption  of  America  as  the 

name  of  the  New  World 

1901  against  the  congregations:  Canons  of  Lateran; 
Clerks  Regular  of  Our  Saviour;  Eudistes;  Fran- 
CLScans;  feathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Holy 
Heart  of  Mary;  various  teaching  orders  of  brothers. 
Among  the  congregations  of  nuns  founded  in  the 
diocese  may  be  mentioncfl,  h)esides  the  Sisters  of 
Providence,  the  Sfi-urs  du  Pauvre  Enfant  J^sus  (also 
known  as  the  So-urs  de  la  bienfaisance  chrdtienne), 
teachers  and  hospitallers,  founded  in  18.54  at  Char- 
moy  rC)rgueilleux;  the  mother-hou.se  was  transferred 
to  Remiremont.  At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  religious  congregations  in  the  diocese  di- 
rected: 7  creches;  .55  day  nurseries;  1  orphanage  for 
boys  and  girls;  19  girls'  orphanages;  13  workshops; 
1  house  of  refuge;  4  houses  for  the  assistance  of  the 
poor;  36  hospitals  or  hospices;  1 1  houses  of  nuns  de- 
voted to  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  own  homes;  and 
1  insane  asylutn.  The  Dioce.se  of  St-Di(i  had,  in 
190.5  fat  the  time  of  the  rupture  of  the  Concordat), 
421,104  inhabitants;  32  parishes;  3.54  succursal 
parishes;  and  49  vicariates,  supporterl  by  the  Stat(!. 
GaUia  chrul.  nova,  XIII  (1785),  1004-7,  i:i77-8.3,  1407-19; 
Martin,  HUl.  rlet  dxoctiiKii  de  Toul.  de  Nancy  el  de  fil-Iiii  (.1 
voU.,  Nancy,  lWX)-.3j;  Dideixjt,  RemiTemont,  leu  minln,  le 
chapUre,  la  retohitum  (Nanry.  1888);  L'Hote,  /xi  vie  deit  minln, 
bienheureuz,  tinirahUii  et  aulref  pieux  perHonruigKii  du  dinrine  de 
St-Dit  (2  vols.,  St-Di/-,  1897);  Gai.i>oih.  Americ  Ve^pure  ej  Us 
giographea  de  St-Dii  in  BuU.  de  la  Soc.  de  Oiogr.  de  I'Ent  (1»00). 

Georges  Goyac. 


Sainte-Claire  Deville,  Ch.\rles,  geologist,  b.  at 
St.  Thomas,  West  Indies,  26  February,  1S14;  d.  in 
Paris,  10  October,  1876.  Going  to  Paris  at  an  early 
age,  he  entered  the  Ecole  des  Mines  and  studied  there. 
His  first  work  in  the  scientific  field  included  a  series  of 
explorations  in  the  Antilles,  in  which  he  gave  special 
attention  to  seismic  and  volcanic  phenomena.  He 
returned  in  18.55,  and  three  years  later  visited  Vesu- 
vius and  Stromboli  in  pursuit  of  his  volcanic  studies. 
He  evolved  the  theory  that  volcanic  eruptions  are  due 
to  the  entrance  of  sea  water  into  the  fissures  of  the 
earth's  crust;  coming  in  contact  with  hot  rocks,  it 
produces  the  explosive  and  eruptive  manifestations. 
This  was  confirmed  in  his  mind  by  the  fact  that  so 
many  volcanoes  are  near  the  sea-coast.  In  1857  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Academic  des  Sciences  of 
Paris.  He  was  an  assistant  to  Elie  de  Beaumont 
in  the  College  de  France,  and  succeeded  him  as  pro- 
fessor in  1875.  Previous  to  this  (in  1872)  he  had  been 
made  Inspector  General  of  the  Meteorological  Service. 
He  established  a  chain  of  meteorologic  stations 
through  France  and  Algiers,  and  was  first  president 
of  the  observatory  in  Mountsouris,  one  of  this  chain. 
He  replaced  Dufremy  in  the  Academic  des  Sciences. 
He  also  did  much  work  in  chemistry,  notably  in 
the  analysis  of  minerals  and  also  in  molecular  physics. 
Since  1862  he  had  been  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour.  His  works,  including  papers  and  notes  in 
"Comptes  Rendus"  and  in  the  "Annalesde  Chimie", 
are  very  numerous ;  the  most  important  are  the  follow- 
ing: "Etudes  geologiques  sur  les  lies  de  Ten6rifTe  et 
de  Fogo"  (1840),  not  completed;  "Voyage  gcologique 
aux  Antilles  et  aux  Jles  de  TenerifTe  et  de  Fogo" 
(1847);  "Lettres^  M.  Eliede  Baumont  sur  1 'Eruption 
du  Vesuve";  "Comptes  Rendus  d  I'Acadcmie  des 
Sciences"  (1855);  "Eruptions  actuelles  du  volcan  de 
Stromboli";  "Recherches  sur  les  principaux  ph6nom- 
^nes  de  meteorologie  et  de  physique  terrestre  aux 
Antilles"  (1861). 

PoGGENDORFF,  Biograph.  literar.  HandwSrterbuch,  III  (1898), 
2;  Vapereau,  Did.  univ.  des  contemporains,  V  (1st  ed.); 
Kneller,  Das  Christentum  u.  die  Vertreter  der  neueren  Natur- 
wissenschaften  (Freiburg,  1904),  tr.  Kettle  (St.  Louis,  1911). 

T.  O'CoNOR  Sloane. 

Sainte-Claire  Deville,  Henri-Etienne,  chem- 
ist, b.  at  St.  Thomas,  West  Indies,  11  March,  1818; 
d.  at  Boidogne,  1  .luly,  ISSl ;  brother  of  the  preceding. 
Finishing  his  classical  studies  in  Paris,  he  built  himself 
a  laboratory  there  and  worked  for  eight  years  with- 
out teachers  or  students.  He  acquired  much  fame 
by  his  work,  and  in  1844  the  government  entrusted 
him  with  the  organization  of  the  faculty  of  sciences 
of  Besan^on.  He  was  profes.sor  and  dean  there 
from  1845  to  1851.  In  1851  he  was  called  to  Paris 
as  mmtre  des  conferences  in  the  Ecole  Normale 
Superieure,  replacing  Balard.  In  1853  he  replaced 
Dumas  in  the  Sorbonne  and  succeeded  him  as  pro- 
fessor in  1859.  In  1861  he  was  made  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  His  work  in  mineral 
chemistry  entitles  him  to  be  considered  one  of  the 
great  chemists  of  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  He  discovered  the  phenomenon  of  dis.so- 
ciation,  his  first  notir)n  of  this  going  back  to  1857. 
He  discovered  nitrogen  pent  oxide,  the  anhydride  of 
nitric  acid.  Woehier,  the  great  German  chemist,  had 
discovered  aluminum  in  1827.  Deville  worked  on 
the  metallurgy  of  the  metal,  and  devised  a  means  of 
preparing  it  by  dcicomposing  aluminium  sodium  chlo- 
ride with  metallic  sodium.  This  was  the  first  com- 
mercial process  of  producing  the  metal,  which  was 
for  some  time  almost  a  curiosity,  but  whose  uses 
are  now  bo  extensive.  Napoleon  III  was  greatly  in- 
terested in  the  new  metal,  the  "silver  of  clay".  De- 
bray  was  associated  with  him  in  his  work;  and  it  is  in- 
teresting to  see  how,  aft(!r  f)ver  fifty-six  years,  the 
metal  has  been  introduced  on  a  large  scale  into 
mechanical  use.     In  the  technical  fieltj  he  worked 


SAINT  EDMUND 


347 


SAINT-FLOUR 


upon  the  use  of  petroleum  and  heavy  oils  as  fuels, 
where  he  was  also  a  leader  in  one  of  the  prominent 
movements  of  the  present  day,  the  use  of  crude 
petroleum  as  fuel  for  the  production  of  steam. 

Many  of  his  memoirs  are  published  in  the  "Comp- 
tes  rendues"  and  "Annales".  Among  his  works 
we  may  cite:  "De  I'aluminium,  ses  propri6tes,  sa 
fabrication"  (Paris,  1859);  "Metallurgie  du  platine 
et  des  metaux  qui  I'accompagnent"    (Paris,    1863). 

G.\y,  Henri  St.  Claire-Deville,  sa  vie  et  ses  travaux  (Paris,  1889); 
VapereaU,  Diclionnaire  universel  des  contemporains;  Poooen- 
DORFF,  Biographisches  literarisches  Handworlerbuch,  III  (1898),  2. 

T.  O'CoNOR  Sloane. 

Saint  Edmund,  College  of.    See  Old  Hall. 

Sainte- Genevieve,  Abbey  of,  in  Paris,  was  founded 
by  King  Clovis  who  established  there  a  college  of 
clerics,  later  called  canons  regular.  How  long  these 
clerics  observed  the  regular  life  is  unknown,  but 
in  1147  secular  canons  officiated  in  the  church. 
King  Louis  VH  and  Pope  Eugene  HI,  having  wit- 
nessed some  disorders,  determined  to  restore  the 
regular  discipline  and  at  first  thought  to  call  monks, 
but  as  the  canons  preferred  some  of  their  own  order, 
the  pope  consented.  At  the  request  of  Sugerus  and 
St.  Bernard,  Gildwin,  the  first  Abbot  of  St-Victor's, 
where  the  canoni- 


Till 

"I  n-  i  B  I 


cal  rule  had  been 
recently  estab- 
lished, consented 
to  send  Odo,  the 
Prior  of  his  ab- 
bey. There  were 
difficulties,  but 
order  finally  pre- 
vailed and  some 
of  the  canons 
joined  the  reform. 
.\niong  these  was 
the  young  Canon 
William,  already 
known  for  his  vir- 
tues and  learning. 
At  the  request  of 
Al)s;d()n,  Hi.shop 
(.fRoskild.in  Den- 
mark, who  when 
a  student  at  Ste- 
( ienevieve's  had 
known  him,  Wil- 
liam was  sent  to 
that  country  to 
r(>form  a  monas- 
tery of  canons  in 
the  Isle  of  Eskil. 
In  spite  of  untold 
trials,  obstacles, 
and  persecutions 
he  succeeded  in  his  enterprise  and  even  founded 
another  monastery,  which  he  dedicated  to  the  Holy 
Paraclete.  He  died  in  1206,  and  was  canonized  by 
Honorius  III.  It  was  natural  that  clo.se  relations 
should  exist  between  Ste-Genevieve's  and  its  founda- 
tions in  Denmark.  Peter,  a  young  man  who  made 
his  profession  at  the  abbey,  became  Bishop  of  Ros- 
kild;  Valdemar,  brother  of  King  Knut,  died  at  Ste- 
Genevieve's;  and  Abbot  Stephen  of  Tournai  wrote 
to  William  and  his  friends  to  obtain  lead  for  the  roof 
of  his  abbey. 

Like  the  Abbey  of  St- Victor,  Ste-Genevieve's  became 
a  celebrated  seat  of  learning.  St-Victor's,  Ste-Gene- 
vieve's, and  Notre-Dame  were  the  cradle  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris.  Abelard  at  different  epochs  lectured 
in  this  abbey-school.  By  right  and  custom  the  two 
sister-abbeys  frequently  exchanged  subjects.  Peter 
de  Ferriere,  Abbot  of  St-Victor's,  was  at  one  time 
prior  of  Epinay,  a  priory  of  Ste-Genevieve's ;  William  of 


'f'n^m 


Tower  and  Court,  Abbey  of  Ste- 

GENEVlfcVE 

Now  the  Lyc6e  Henri-IV 


Auxerre,  a  professed  canon  of  St-Victor's  in  1254,  held 
the  office  of  cellarer,  and  became  Abbot  of  Ste- 
Genevieve's;  and  Marcel,  successively  canon  at  St- 
Victor's  and  Ste-Genevieve's,  was  in  1198  made  Abbot 
of  Cisoing.  Like  most  religious  houses,  this  abbey, 
falhng  into  the  hands  of  abbots  in  commendam,  re- 
laxation and  disorders  were  the  consequence.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  Cardinal  de  La 
Rochefoucauld  undertook  its  reform.  He  brought 
from  Senlis  a  holy  man,  Charles  Faure,  who  had  al- 
ready restored  the  canonical  rule  in  the  ancient  Abbey 
of  Silvanect.  Once  more  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine 
was  faithfully  observed  at  Ste-Genevieve's,  which  be- 
came the  mother-house  of  the  Gallican  congregation. 
Charles  Faure  died  in  1644.  The  second  spring  of  the 
abbey  was  perhaps  even  more  glorious  than  the  first. 
Bj'  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  abbot- 
general  of  the  congregation  had  under  his  jurisdic- 
tion more  than  one  hundred  abbeys  and  priories. 
Men  like  Fronteau,  chancellor  of  the  university  and 
author  of  many  works,  Laleman,  Chapponel,  Reginier, 
Chengot,  Beurier,  du  Moulinet,  founder  of  the  na- 
tional library,  and  Augustine  Hay,  a  Scotchman  who 
wrote  the  "Scotia  sacra"  and  officiated  at  Holyrood, 
Scotland,  in  1687,  were  sons  of  the  French  congre- 
gation. When  in  1790  the  revolutionary  assembly 
declared  all  religious  vows  void,  and  opened  the  doors 
to  all  the  inmates  of  the  monasteries,  there  were 
thirty-nine  canons  at  Ste-Genevieve's.  This  was 
the  end  of  that  illustrious  abbey  and  school. 

Bo.VNARD,  Histoire  de  I'abbaye  de  St-Victor  de  Paris  (1907); 
Gautier,  Adam  de  St-Victor  (Paris,  18.58);  Marion,  Histoire 
de  VEglise  (Paris,  1908);  Vuillemin,  Vie  de  S.  Pierre  Fourier 
(Paris,  1897). 

A.  Allaria. 

Sainte-Marthe,  Scevole  and  Louis.  See  Gal- 
lia Christiana. 

Saintes,  Ancient  See  of.  See  La  Rochelle, 
Diocese  of. 

Saint-Flour,  Diocese  of  (Floropolis),  com- 
prises the  Department  of  Cantal,  and  is  suffragan 
of  the  Archbishopric  of  Bourges.  Re-established  by 
the  Concordat  of  1802,  by  which  the  Department  of 
Haute-Loire  was  brought  into  this  diocese,  this  de- 
partment was  detached  from  it  in  1823  by  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  See  of  Le  Puy.  The  traditions 
relative  to  St.  Florus  (Flour),  who  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  Bishop  of  Locleve  and  to  have  died 
at  Indiciat  (later  Saint-Flour)  while  evangelizing 
Haute-Auvergne,  have  been  the  subject  of  numerous 
discussions.  In  two  documents  concerning  the 
foundation  of  the  second  monastery  of  St-Flour, 
drawn  up  in  1013  and  1031,  and  in  a  letter  written  to 
Urban  IV  in  1261  by  Pierre  de  Saint-Haon,  prior  of 
Saint-Flour,  St.  Flour  is  already  considered  as  be- 
longing to  the  Apostolic  times,  and  the  "Speculum 
sanctorale"  of  Bernard  Gui  in  1329  relates  at  length 
the  legend  of  this  "disciple  of  Christ".  M.  Marcellin 
Boudet  believes  it  more  likely  that  St.  Flour  lived  in 
the  fifth  century,  and  that  it  was  he  who  attended  the 
Council  of  Aries  in  450  or  451. 

At  the  close  of  the  tenth  century  there  was  already  a 
monastery  at  Indiciat.  A  local  seigneur,  Astorg  de  Bre- 
zons,  surnamed  "the  Red  Bull",  gave  this  monastery 
to  Odilo,  Abbot  of  Cluny,  and  the  donation  was  con- 
firmed by  Gregory  V  (996-99).  Amblard  de  Brezons, 
his  nephew,  surnamed  "le  Mai  Hiverne",  seized  the 
monastery  and  destroyed  all  of  it  except  the  church. 
Amblard  and  Astorg,  from  1010  to  1013,  gave  this 
church  and  its  fief  to  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  together  with 
the  monastery  of  Sauxillages,  governed  by  Odilo; 
but  later  Amblard  considered  this  donation  as  void, 
and  constructed  a  fortress,  a  remnant  of  which  is 
now  the  sacristy  of  the  cathedral,  upon  the  site  of  the 
old  monastery ;  afterwards  Amblard,  seized  with 
remorse  at  Rome,  between  1025  and  1031  gave  back 


SAINT  FRANCIS 


348 


SAINT  FRANCIS 


to  Odilo  all  he  possessed,  and  a  large  monastery  was 
again  founded.  Urban  II,  after  the  Council  of 
Clermont  (1095),  consecrated  the  church  of  this  new 
monaster}'.  The  church  collapsed  in  1396,  and  no 
remains  of  it  e.xist.  Pope  Callistus  II  passed  some 
time  there.  In  August,  1317,  John  XXII  detached 
Haute-Auvergne  from  the  See  of  Clermont  and 
raised  St-Flour  to  the  rank  of  a  bishopric,  the  first 
ordinary  of  which  was  his  chaplain  Raymond  de 
Montuejols.  Among  his  successors  were:  Pierre 
d'Estaing  (1361-67),  afterwards  Archbishop  of 
Bourges  and  cardinal  in  1370;  Louis-SiiTrein-Joseph 
de  Salamon  (1820-29),  former  counscillcr-derc  to 
the  Parliament  of  Paris,  who  during  the  Revolution 
had  socretlj'  acted  in  France  as  the  pope's  agent,  a 
role  concerning  which  he  has  left  very  important 
memoirs. 

The   Abbey  of  Aurillac   was   celebrated:    it  was 
founded  by  St.  Geraud,  Count  of  Aurillac,  who  in  898 


The  Cathedral,  Saint-Flolk 

brought  thither  monks  from  Vabres;  it  .soon  became 
well  known,  according  to  John  of  Salisbury,  as  a 
centre  of  hterary  and  scientific  studies:  Gerbert 
(later  Sylvester  II),  and  Guillaume  d'Auvergne, 
friend  and  confidant  of  Saint  Louis,  studied  there. 
St.  Odo,  Abbot  of  Cluny,  from  926  to  943,  was  at 
first  a  monk  at  Saint-Pierre  de  Mauriac,  and,  accord- 
ing to  some.  Abbot  of  Aurillac.  St.  Peter  Chavanon, 
founder  in  1062  of  the  monastery  of  Pcbrac,  in  the 
Diocese  of  Le  Puy,  was  for  some  time  superior  of 
the  Abbey  of  Chazes,  near  Vic.  The  tragic  poet, 
de  Belloy  (1727-95),  author  of  the  celebrated 
tragedy  on  the  Siege  of  Calais,  was  bom  at  Saint- 
Flour.  Louis-Antoine  de  Noailles  (1651-1729),  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  was  born  at  Laroquebrou  in  the 
diocese.  Abb6  Jean  Chappe  d'Auteroche  (1722-09), 
astronomer,  who  in  1769  went  to  California  to  ob- 
serve the  transit  of  Venus  and  died  there  of  a  con- 
tagious disease,  was  a  native  of  Mauriac.  AV>b<''  de 
Pradt  (1759-1 S37)  wa**  bom  at  Allanche.  The  Dio- 
cese of  Saint-Flour  is  remarkable  among  the  French 
dioce.ses  for  the  great  number  of  its  sanctuaries  and 
pilgrimages  dedicatffl  to  the  Iiles.sed  Virgin.  TIktc 
are  sixty-five,  of  which  the  following  are  the  more 


important:  Notre-Dame  de  Claviers,  at  Moussages, 
the  statue  of  which  is  the  most  ancient  in  the  diocese; 
Notre-Dame  des  Miracles,  at  Mauriac,  si.xth  century; 
Notre-Dame  de  Frodieres,  at  Saint-Flour,  eleventh 
centurj';  Notre-Dame  de  Laurie,  at  Laurie,  an 
eleventh-century  sanctuary;  Notre-Dame  de  Bon 
Secours  at  Marmanhac;  Notre-Dame  de  Quezac, 
which  is  visited  annuallj^  by  between  20,000  and  30,- 
000  pilgrims;  Notre-Dame  de  Vau  Claire,  at 
Molompise — these  three  dating  back  to  the  twelfth 
centurj^;  Notre-Dame  de  Valentines  at  S(5gur,  be- 
longing to  the  thirteenth  century;  Notre-Dame  de 
Turlande  at  Paulhenc,  Notre-Dame  de  Villedieu, 
both  dating  back  to  the  fourteenth  century;  Notre- 
Dame  de  Pitic  at  Chaudesaigues;  Notre-Dame  de 
Puy  Rachat,  at  Nieudan;  Notre-Dame  des  Oliviers, 
at  Murat,  all  three  dating  back  to  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury; Notre-Dame  d'Aubespeyre,  at  Aubespeyre; 
Notre-Dame  de  la  Font  Sainte,  at  St.  Hippolyte, 
visited  annually  by  between  10,000  and  12,000 
pilgrims;  Notre-Dame  de  Pailherols;  Notre  Dame 
aux  Neiges,  at  Aurillac,  all  four  dating  back  to  the 
sixteenth  century;  Notre-Dame  de  Guerison,  at  En- 
chanet;  Notre-Dame  de  Lescure,  both  dating  back 
to  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  "Revue  catholique  des  eglises"  published  in 
1905  an  interesting  monograph  of  the  diocese;  it 
shows  that  50  per  cent  of  the  men  go  to  Mass  each 
Sunday,  25  per  cent  go  every  second  Sunday,  and  70 
per  cent  fulfil  their  Easter  duty.  An  interesting 
work  is  the  "(Euvre  des  bergers",  which  assembles 
several  hundred  shepherds  from  the  neighbouring 
regions  each  j^ear  at  Pailherols  and  La  Font  Sainte 
for  a  day's  religious  exercises,  the  only  one  which 
they  can  have  during  the  five  months  that  they  pass 
alone  in  the  mountains.  Before  the  application  of 
the  law  of  1901  on  the  associations,  there  were  in  the 
Diocese  of  Saint-Flour  Lazarists  and  various  teach- 
ing orders  of  brothers.  Some  congregations  of  nuns 
have  their  mother-houses  in  the  diocese,  in  particular: 
the  Soeurs  de  Saint  Joseph,  with  their  mother-hou.se 
at  Saint-Flour;  the  Petites  Soeurs  des  Malades,  with 
their  mother-house  at  Mauriac;  the  Sa?urs  de  I'Enfant 
Jesus,  dites  de  I'instruction;  and  the  Soeurs  de  la 
Sainte  Famille.  witli  their  mother-house  at  Aurillac. 
At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  religious 
congregations  directed  in  the  diocese,  1  creche,  12 
refuge  halls,  1  school  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  1  boys' 
orphanage,  6  girls'  orphanages,  1  home  for  honest 
poor  girls,  1  hospice  for  incurables,  1  asylum  for  the 
insane,  1  dispensary,  1  house  of  retreat,  1  house  of 
nuns  devoted  to  nursing  the  sick  in  their  own  homes, 
13  hospitals  or  hospices.  At  the  time  of  the  de- 
struction of  the  concordat  (1905)  the  Diocese  of  Saint- 
Flour  contained  230,511  inhabitants,  24  parishes,  288 
succursai  churches,  and  190  vicariates  towards  the 
support  of  which  the  State  contributed. 

(lallia  Chrintiana,  nova  (1720).  419-437,  and  instr.,  127-162; 
BouDET,  La  ligende  de  St.  Florus  d'aprh  les  textes  lea  plus 
anriens;  additions  aux  nouveaux  Bollandistes  in  Annates  du  Midi 
(LSO."));  Idem,  La  l6oende  de  St.  Florus  et  ses  fables  (Clermont, 
1897);  Chaumeil,  Biographie  des  personnes  remarquables  de  la 
Haute-Auvergnc,  pricM^e  d'un  essai  sur  I'hixtoire  religieuse  de  cette 
demi-province  (Saint-Flour,  1867);  Froment,  Esquisse  historique 
surlemonaslire  et  la  ville  de  St-Flour  in  Revue  d' Auvergne  (1885); 
Chabau,  Pilerinages  et  sanrtuaires  de  la  Sainte  Vierge  dans  le 
diocise  de  St-Flour  (Paris,  1889);  Rouchy,  Le  diocise  de  St.  Flour 
in  Revue  catholique  des  fglises  (190.5). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Saint  FraJicis  Mission  (properly  Saint  Fran- 
cois i)K  Sales,  (Quebec),  a  noted  Catholic  Indian  mis- 
sion village  under  Jesuit  control  near  Pierreville, 
Yamaska  district.  Province  of  Quebec,  Canada. 
It  was  originally  established  (16S3)  at  the  falls  of  the 
Chaudirre,  on  the  south  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
above  Quebec,  as  a  refuge  for  the  Abnaki  and  Penna- 
cook  Indians  who  were  driven  from  New  England  by 
the  wars  of  that  and  the  subsequent  colonial  period: 
these  tribes  were  French  in  sympathy  and,  especially 


SAINT   GALL 


349 


SAINT  GALL 


the  Abnaki,  largely  Catholic  in  reUgion  through  the 
efforts  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries.  The  Algonquin, 
Montagnais,  and  Micmac  of  Canada  as  well  as  the 
Nipmuc  and  others  of  southern  New  England  were 
also  largely  represented,  but  from  the  final  prepon- 
derance of  the  Abnaki  their  language  became  that  of 
the  mission.  In  1700  the  mission  was  removed  to  its 
present  situation.  After  the  destruction  of  Nor- 
ridgewock  and  the  death  of  Father  Sebastian  Rasle  at 
the  hands  of  the  New  England  men  in  1724,  the  ma- 
jority of  the  Abnaki  removed  to  Canada  and  set- 
tled at  8aint  Francis,  which  became  thenceforth  a 
centre  of  Indian  hostility  against  New  England.  In 
1759  a  strong  New  England  force  under  Major  Rogers 
surprised  and  destroyed  the  settlement,  including 
the  mission  church  and  records,  killing  200  Indians. 
It  was  soon  rebuilt  and  still  exists  as  one  of  the  old- 
est mission  settlements  of  Canada.  In  the  war  of 
the  Revolution  anil  again  in  the  war  of  1812,  a  num- 
ber of  the  men  fought  on  the  British  side.  Among 
the  Jesuit  workers  at  St.  Francis  the  most  distin- 
guished name  is  that  of  the  venerable  Father  Joseph 
Aubery,  in  charge  from  1709  until  his  death  in  1755, 
who  before  coming  to  the  mission  had  served  ten 
years  with  the  Micmac  of  Nova  Scotia.  Having 
mastered  the  Abnaki  language  he  wrote  much  in  it, 
his  most  important  contribution  being  a  manuscript 
French-Abnaki  dictionary,  which  is  still  preserved  in 
the  archives  of  the  mission.  Owing  to  the  former  mi- 
gratory habit  of  the  Indians  the  i)0|)ulati()n  of  the  mis- 
sion varied  greatly  at  different  p(>rio(ls,  but  is  esti- 
mated to-day  (1911 J  at  approximately  three  hundred 
souls,  all  of  mixed  blood,  and  more  French  than  Indian 
in  characteristic,  although  they  still  retain  their  old 
language  in  their  homes.  Their  chief  industry  ia 
basket-making,  which  furnishes  a  comfortable  income. 
(See  also  Penobscot  Indians;  Missions,  Catholic 
Indian,   of  the    United   States. — New   England.) 

Jesuit  Relations,  ed.  Thwaiteb  (73  vols.,  Cleveland,  1896- 
1901),  particularly  Abnaki,  Lower  Canada,  Quebec;  Annual  Re- 
ports of  Dept.  of  Ind.  Affairs,  Ottawa  (Canada);  Mal'rault,  Hist, 
des  Abenakis  (Quebec,  1S6G) ;  Shea.  Catholic  Afis.tions  (New  York, 
1855);  PlLLiNO,  Biblioyraphi/  of  the  Alyonquian  Languages  (Bur. 
Amer.  Ethnology,  Washington,  1891). 

James  M  coney. 


See  Gall,  Abbey  of 


Saint    Gall,   Abbey  of. 
Saint. 

Saint  Gall,  Diocese  of  (Sangallensis),  a  Swiss 
bi.shopric  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  It  in- 
cludes the  Canton  of  St.  Call  and,  as  a  temporary  ar- 
rangement, the  two  iialf-cantons  of  Appenzell  (3uter 
Rhodes  and  Appcnz<>ll  Inner  Rhodes.  In  1910  its 
statistics  were  :  9  di>aneries,  each  directed  by  a  dean; 
117  parishes;  116  additional  cures  of  .souls;  12S  Catho- 
lic teachers;  233  secular  priests;  46  regular  priests; 
about  169,000  Catholics;  and  a  non-Cat hohc  popula- 
tion of  152,000.  The  bishop  is  elected  by  the  cathe- 
dral chapter  within  three  months  after  the  see  falls 
vacant.  According  to  the  concordat  of  the  Canton  of 
St.  Gall  with  the  Holy  See,  he  must  be  a  secular  priest 
of  the  diocese  and  must  be  approved  by  the  Catholic 
collegium  of  the  cantonal  great  council.  The  bishop 
has  a  cathedral  chajjter  of  five  resident  and  eight  hon- 
orary canons,  with  a  cathedral  dean  as  its  head.  The 
resident  canons  have  charge  of  the  cathedral  services 
and  the  care  of  the  cathedral  parish,  in  which  they 
are  aided  by  3  coadjutors  and  3  vicars.  Besides  the 
chapter  there  is  also  a  vicar-general.  For  the  training 
of  the  clergy  there  is  a  seminary  for  priests  at  St.  Gall 
which,  however,  is  limited  to  the  actual  practical  sem- 
inary course  of  a  six  months'  term.  As  a  rule  the 
students  of  theology  attend  for  their  academic  train- 
ing the  theological  faculties  of  the  Universities  of 
Innsbruck  and  Fribourg  in  Switzerland.  The  male 
orders  are  represented  in  the  diocese  only  by  4  Ca- 
puchin monasteries.  The  female  orders  in  the  dio- 
cese are:  1  house  of  Benedictine  nuns;  2  of  Cistercian 


nuns;  2  of  Dominican  nuns;  8  of  Franciscan  nuns;  1  of 
the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd;  2  of  the  School  Sis- 
ters of  the  Holy  Cross;  1  of  Premonstratensian  nuns; 
1  of  the  Italian  Missionary  Sisters  of  St.  Francis;  and 
numerous  houses  of  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Holy 
Cro.ss  (Ingenbohl  Sisters).  The  most  noted  church 
of  the  diocese  is  the  cathedral,  the  church  of  the  for- 
mer Benedictine  abbey  (see  above).  Among  other 
places  of  pilgrimage  are:  the  Wildkirchlein,  on  the 
Santis;  the  little  monastery  of  Notkersegg,  near  St. 
Gall;  the  parish  church  at  Kirchberg,  in  the  District  of 
Toggenburg;  and  Dreibrunnen,  near  Wil.  Catholic 
associations  are  highly  developed;  a  Catholic  con- 
gress is  held  annually  in  the  dioce-se.  There  arc  12 
Catholic  newspapers,  of  which  the  "Ostschweiz",  pub- 
lished at  St.  Gall,  is  the  most  important. 

History. — The  Abbots  of  St.  Gall  had  exercised 
nearly  all  the  rights  of  episcopal  jurisdiction  within 


The  Cathedral,  St.  Gi 


their  territory.  After  the  suppression  of  the  ancient 
abbey  there  was  evident  need  of  a  reorganization  of 
ecclesiastical  affairs,  which  had  sunk  into  a  deplorable 
decay,  and  the  plan  was  proposed  to  replace  the  ab- 
bey by  a  Diocese  of  St.  Gall.  At  that  era  a  part  of 
the  present  territory  of  the  dioces(>  belonged  ecclesias- 
tically to  the  Diocese  of  Chur,  anrl  another  part  to  the 
Diocese  of  Constance.  In  1S15  tlic  Swiss  part  of  the 
Diocese  of  Constance  was  seijaratcd  from  Constance 
by  Pope  Piu.s  VII,  and  placed  under  the  provisional 
administration  of  Provost  Goldin  of  Beromiinster,  in 
the  Canton  of  Lucern.  On  the  death  of  (he  provost 
in  1819  this  district  fell  to  the  Dioc(>se  of  Chur.  The 
arrangement,  however,  was  only  intended  to  be  a 
temi)orary  one.  After  long  negotiations  the  desired 
Diocese  of  St.  Gall  was  established  in  1823,  but  it  was 
connected  by  personal  union  with  the  Dioc(>se  of  Chur. 
However,  the  abbey  church  of  St.  Gall  that  was 
raised  to  a  cathedral  received  a  separate  cathedral 
chapter,  a  separate  vicar-general,  and  an  independent 
seminary.  The  bishop  also  was  obliged  to  live  alter- 
natvely  at  Chur  and  at  St.  Gall.  This  double  diocese 
satisfied  neither  the  inhabitants  of  the  Orisons  nor 
tho.se  of  St.  Gall.  The  former  wanted  their  bi.shop 
for  themselves;  the  latter  feared  that  the  Bishop  of 
Chur  might  regard  St.  Gall  merely  as  an  appendage 


SAINT   GEORGE 


350 


SAINT  GEORGE 


of  his  old  diocese  and  look  do\\Ti  on  it.  Moreover, 
the  government  of  the  Canton  of  St.  Gall  meddled  in- 
cessantly in  ecclesiastical  matters  and  in  the  Church's 
right  of  jurisdiction,  and  demanded  for  itself  the  right 
of  approval  (placetum  rcgium)  in  all  more  important 
episcopal  ordinances  pertaining  to  discipline.  When 
therefore  the  bishop,  Karl  Rudolf  Count  von  Buol- 
Schauenstein  (1823-35),  died,  the  governments  of 
both  cantons  refused  to  recognize  his  successor,  and 
the  Cathohc  collegium  of  the  great  council  of  St.  Gall 
appointed  an  episcopal  administrator.  Father  Ziircher, 
for  the  Catholics  of  the  canton.  Finally  Gregory 
XVI,  at  the  request  of  the  Canton  of  St.  Gall,  sup- 
pressed the  double  diocese  and  erected  in  1836  a 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  St.  Gall;  the  vicar  Apostolic 
was  Johann  Peter  Mirer  of  Upper  Saxony,  parish 
priest  of  Sargans. 

Negotiations  concerning  the  erection  of  a  separate 
Diocese  of  St.  Gall  were  soon  begun  with  Rome  in 
order  to  bring  this  state  of  affairs  to  an  end.  It  was, 
however,  only  after  great  difficulties  that  an  agree- 
ment was  made  that  was  satisfactory  both  to  the 
Holy  See  and  to  the  Canton  of  St.  Gall.  In  1845  the 
Concordat  was  signed  by  the  papal  nuncio  and  the  au- 
thorities of  the  canton;  on  12  April,  1847,  Pius  IX 
issued  the  Bull  of  circumscription,  and  on  29  June 
Mirer  was  consecrated  in  the  cathedral  as  first  Bishop 
of  St.  Gall.  The  new  bishopric  had  soon  a  hard  fight 
to  wage  with  the  Liberal  party,  which  had  gained  as- 
cendancy in  the  canton  from  1855,  as  to  the  rights 
and  hberties  of  the  Church.  The  bishop,  a  highly- 
talented  and  very  orthodox  man,  was  ably  and  vigor- 
ouslv  supported  in  this  struggle  by  Father  Greith, 
Callus  Baumgartner  (father  of  the  celebrated  Jesuit 
Alexander  Baumgartner),  the  jurist  Leonhard  Griin 
(president  of  the  Cathohc  administrative  council), 
and  the  advocate  J.  J.  Muller.  Yet,  notwithstand- 
ing all  their  efforts,  they  could  not  prevent  the  sup- 
pression of  the  newly-established  Catholic  lyccum, 
the  wasting  of  a  part  of  the  diocesan  funds,  or  the 
combination  of  the  Catholic  cantonal  school  with  the 
Protestant  town  gj'mnasium  to  form  a  school  in  which 
both  religioas  were  placed  on  a  parity,  to  put  an  end 
to  ecclesiastical  influence  in  education.  Th&se  ac- 
tions were  the  result  of  the  terrorism  of  the  Liberal 
party  (see  on  these  events  Greith,  "Die  Lage  der 
katholLschen  Kirche  unter  der  Herrschaft  des  Staats- 
kirchentums  in  Sankt  Gallen",  St.  Gall,  1858).  The 
diocese,  however,  maintained  itself  notwithstanding 
the  storms,  and  Catholic  religious  life  developed  and 
flouri.shed  greatly.  A  large  part  of  the  credit  for  this 
prosperity  was  due  to  Karl  Johann  Greith,  who  was 
elected  bi.shop  after  Mirer's  death  in  1862.  Not  long 
after  his  consecration  Greith  was  also  made  pro- 
visional aflministrator  of  the  Canton  of  Appenzell, 
which,  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Diocese  of  Con- 
stance, ha^l  up  to  then  been  administered  by  Chur. 
This  provisional  administration  has  become  in  fact, 
although  not  legally,  a  permanent  condition. 

After  a  few  years  of  cjuiet  new  discords  broke  out  in 
the  diocese  in  connexion  with  the  Old-Catholic  move- 
ment in  Switzerland,  and  Greith  was  accusfsd  of  con- 
travening the  concordat  and  the  constitutional  oath. 
It  did  not,  indeed,  go  as  far  as  the  deposition  of  the 
bishop,  as  Liberals  demanded,  but  the  epi.scopal  sem- 
inary for  boys,  which  Greith  hafl  founded  and  main- 
tained at  a  great  sacrifice  of  money  and  time,  was 
closed  in  1874  by  the  government,  and  has  not  so 
far  been  nK)pened.  Soon  after  this,  civil  marriage 
was  introduced  by  the  law  of  the  Swi.ss  Confederation, 
and  the  religious  f<iiHafion  of  the  young  was  endan- 
gered bv  th<'  introdu'tion  of  irreligious  school-books, 
and  by  forcibly  putting  both  religions  on  a  parity  in  the 
BchoolH.  Greith  was  suceeefied  by  his  vicar-general 
Augustinus  Kgger  (1882-1906).  A  widely-read  au- 
thor anrl  a  skilful  orator,  he  deserx'es  much  credit  for 
what  he  did  U)  encourage  Catholic  life,  not  only  in  his 


own  diocese  but  also  in  the  whole  of  Switzerland. 
During  his  administration  the  extreme  Radical  gov- 
ernment of  the  Canton  of  St.  Gall  was  replaced  by  a 
moderate  one,  and  the  new  constitution  of  1890  has 
brought  about  a  more  satisfactory  state  of  affairs  be- 
tween Church  and  State.  According  to  Article  24  of 
the  constitution  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  alone 
have  charge  of  religious  and  purely  ecclesiastical 
matters.  The  Catholic  and  Protestant  districts  of  the 
canton  settle  their  own  denominational  organization 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  great  council,  the 
Catholic  organization  being  in  harmony  with  the  laws 
of  the  Catholic  Church.  Authorities  chosen  by  each 
denomination  have  charge  of  denominational  matters 
of  a  mixed  nature  as  well  as  of  the  administration  of 
the  money  and  endowments  of  the  denominations, 
subject  to  the  supervision  and  sanction  of  the  state. 
Augustinus  Egger  was  succeeded  in  1906  by  the  pres- 
ent bishop,  Ferdinand  Riiegg,  b.  20  Oct.,  1847,  conse- 
crated 10  June,  1906. 

Baumgartner,  Geschichle  des  schweizerischen  Freislaats  und 
Kantons  Sankt  Gallen  (3  vols.,  Zurich  and  Einsiedeln,  1868-90); 
Zardetti,  Reguies  Sancti  Galli  (Einsiedeln,  1881) ;  Baumgartner, 
Gallus  Jakoh  Baumgartner,  Landammann  von  Sankt  Gallen,  und 
die  neuere  Staatsentwicklung  der  Schweiz  1797-1869  (Freiburg  im 
Br.,  1892) ;  Dierauer,  Politische  Geschichle  des  Kantons  Sankt 
GaUen  1803-1903  (St.  Gall,  1904);  Oesch,  Dr.  Karl  Johann 
Greith,  Bischof  von  Sankt  Gallen  (St.  Gall.  1909);  Gschwend. 
Die  Errichtung  des  Bistums  Sankt  Gnllen  (2  vols.,  Stans.  1909); 
Mitieil  ungen  zur  vaterldndischen  Geschichle,  herausgegeben  vomHis- 
torischen  Verein  Sankt  Gallen  (St.  Gall.  1862—) ;  Fah.  Die  Kathe- 
drale  in  St.  Gallen  (2  pts..  St.  Gall.  1896  and  1900). 

Joseph  Lins. 

Saint  George,  Orders  of. — Knights  of  St. 
George  appear  at  different  historical  periods  and  in 
different  countries  as  mutually  independent  bodies 
having  nothing  in  common  but  the  veneration  of  St. 
George,  the  patron  of  knighthood.  St.  George  of 
Lydda,  a  martyr  of  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  in 
the  fourth  century,  is  one  of  those  military  saints 
whom  Byzantine  iconography  represented  as  a  horse- 
man armed  cap-a-pie,  like  the  flower  of  the  Roman 
armies  after  the  military  reform  of  Justinian  in  the 
sixth  century.  The  pilgrim  knights  of  Europe,  en- 
countering in  the  East  these  representations  of  St. 
George,  recognized  their  own  accoutrements  and  at 
once  adopted  him  as  the  patron  of  their  noble  calling. 
This  popularity  of  St.  George  in  the  West  gave  rise  to 
numerous  associations  both  secular  and  religious. 
Among  secular  orders  of  this  name  which  still  exist 
must  be  mentioned  the  Engli.sh  Order  of  the  Garter, 
which  has  always  had  St.  George  for  its  patron. 
Though  Protestantism  suppressed  his  cult,  the  chapel 
of  St.  George  at  Windsor  has  remained  the  official  seat 
of  the  ord(;r,  where  its  chapters  assemble  and  where 
each  knight  is  entitled  to  a  stall  over  which  his  banner 
is  hung.  A  second  royal  order  under  the  double 
patronage  of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George  was  founded 
in  lOngland  in  ISlS  to  reward  services  rendered  in  for- 
eign or  colonial  relations.  In  Bavaria  a  secular  Or- 
der of  St.  George  has  existed  since  1729,  and  owes  its 
foundation  to  the  prince elictor, better  known  by  the 
title  of  Charles  VII  wliicli  he  bore  as  emperor  for 
a  brief  period.  The  present  Russian  Order  of  St. 
George  dates  from  1769,  having  been  founded  in  the 
reign  of  Catherine  II,  as  a  military  distinction. 

There  formerly  existed  regular  orders  of  St.  George. 
The  Kingdom  of  Aragon  was  placed  under  his  pat- 
ronage, and  in  gratitude  for  his  assistance  to  its 
armies  King  Pedro  II  founded  (1201)  the  Order  of  St. 
George  of  Alfama  in  the  district  of  that  name.  Never- 
theless this  order  received  the  approbation  of  the 
Holy  See  only  in  1363  and  had  but  a  brief  existence. 
With  the  approviU  of  antipope  Benedict  XIII  it  was 
amalgamated  with  the  Aragonese  Order  of  Montesa, 
and  thereafter  known  as  the  Order  of  Montesa  and  St. 
(Jeorge  of  .\ifama.  Equally  .short-liveii  was  the  Order 
of  St.  George  founded  in  Au.stria  by  the  P^mperor 
JYedcrick  III  and  approved  by  Paul  II  in  1464.     This 


SAINT   GEORGE'S 


351 


SAINT  HYACINTHE 


needy  prince  was  unable  to  assure  a  sufficient  endow- 
ment for  the  support  of  his  knights,  and  the  pope 
gave  him  permission  to  transfer  to  the  new  order  the 
property  of  a  commandery  of  St.  John  and  a  Bene- 
dictine abbey  in  the  town  of  Milestadt,  to  which  the 
emperor  added  some  parishes  in  his  patronage. 
Nevertheless  the  knights  had  to  rely  for  support  on 
their  personal  possessions,  therefore  they  did  not 
make  a  vow  of  poverty,  but  simply  of  obedience  and 
chastity,  and,  owing  to  this  lack  of  resources,  the  or- 
der did  not  survive  its  founder.  It  was  succeeded  by  a 
secular  Confraternity  of  St.  George  founded  under  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  I  with  the  approbation  of  Alex- 
ander VI  in  1494,  which  likewise  disappeared,  in  the 
disturbances  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Acta  .S.S'.,   April,    III,    100-63;    de   la   Fcente,   Hist.  eel.  de 
Espana,  IV  (Madrid,  1874),   109;   Biele.vfeld.  Gesch.  und  Ver- 

faaauny  filler  fiitterorden  (Weimar,  1841). 

Ch.  Moeller. 

Saint  George's,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Georgii), 
Newfoundland.  Beginning  at  Garnish  it  takes  in 
the  western  portion  of  the  south  coast  and  then 
stretches  along  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  north- 
wards, almost  as  far  as  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  lying 
between  55°  20' 
and  59°  30'  west 
longitude  and  be- 
tween 47°  30'  and 
51°  20'  north  lati- 
tude. Until  1892 
the  diocese  was 
practically  con- 
fined to  the  his- 
toric  French 
shore,  so  long  the 
bone  of  contention 
between  politi- 
cians, and  repeat- 
edly the  subject 
of  international 
conferences.  In 
consequence  of  the 
provisions  of  An- 
glo-French trea- 
ties, any  attempt 
to  establish  permanent  settlement  on  the  coast  was  for 
along  time  discountenanced;  but  the  lucrative  herring 
fishery  encouraged  adventurers  to  ignore  the  treaties, 
and  by  1850  a  population  of  about  2000  had  pitched 
their  log  cabins  in  its  land-locked  bays,  beyond 
the  reach  of  civilization  and  civil  authority.  Until 
1850  there  was  no  resident  Catholic  priest  on  the 
coast.  Religious  con.solation  the  people  had  not. 
except  when  the  chaplain  of  the  French  warship  paid 
a  visit,  at  long  intervals.  Dr.  Mullock  of  St.  John's 
visited  the  coast  in  1848,  and  again  in  1852.  On 
7  Sept.,  1850,  the  first  resident  priest  arrived,  Rev. 
Alexandre  Bclanger  (d.  7  Sept.,  1868).  Owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  travelling,  his  missionary  activities  were 
confined  to  St.  George's  Bay.  He  visited  the  Bay  of 
Islands  in  1863  and  again  in  1868.  Mgr  Sears  in  his 
report  to  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith 
informs  us  that  the  hardships  attending  the  latter 
visit  ended  the  career  of  the  heroic  Frenchman. 
On  2  November,  1868,  the  real  apostle  and  social 
reformer  of  this  unknown  wilderness  arrived  in  the 
person  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Sears  of  the  Antigonish 
diocese.  Enthusiastic  and  practical,  he  recognized 
the  resources  and  the  possibilities  of  the  West,  and 
pleaded  the  claims  of  the  Coast  so  successfully  with 
the  Insular  Government,  that  a  mail  steamer  was  de- 
spatched in  May,  1872.  In  1878  the  magistracy 
and  the  police  were  established.  In  1870  the  terri- 
tory was  erected  into  a  prefecture,  and  in  1871  Father 
Sears  was  nominated  prefect  Apostolic;  in  1881  he 
received  the  dignity  of  domestic  prelate.  During  the 
seventeen  years  of  his  apostolate,   churches    presby- 


MoNsiGNOR  Thomas  Sear.s 


teries,  and  schools  were  l)uilt,  but  the  hardships, 
then  inseparable  from  missionary  adventures  on  the 
coast,  shattered  his  constitution,  never  very  rugged, 
and  he  died  7  Nov.,  1885.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Dr.  M.  F.  Howley.  In  1892  the  prefecture  was 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  vicariate  and  Dr.  Howley 
became  titular  Bishop  of  Amastrio.  At  the  same 
time  the  extensive  district  of  P^ortune  Bay  was 
placed  under  his  jurisdiction.  In  1893  he  introduced 
a  new  foundation  of  Sisters  of  Mercy  for  which  the 
diocese  is  indebted  to  the  generosity  of  a  wealthy 
convert,  Mrs.  Henrietta  Brownell  of  Bristol,  Rhode 
Island.  He  was  transferred  to  St.  John's  (25  Dec, 
1894)  and  on  20  Oct.,  1895,  his  successor.  Dr.  McNeil, 
was  consecrated  at  Antigonish.  A  period  of  great 
material  progress  followed  the  completion  of  the 
transinsular  railway.  In  1904  the  vicariate  was  made 
a  diocese  and  he  became  its  first  bishop.  He  w^as 
trarisferred  to  the  See  of  Vancouver  in  Feb.,  1910, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  M.  F.  Power,  whose 
con.secrat  ion  took  place  25  July,  1911.  The  diocese 
has  10  priests;  36  churches  and  chapels;  2  convents; 
51  schools  attended  by  1659  pupils;  a  population  of 
about  11,000.  M.  G.  Sears. 

Saint  Hippolytus.     See  Sankt  Polten,  Diocese 

OF. 

Saint  Hyacinthe,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Hya- 
ciNTHi),  in  the  Province  of  Quebec,  suflfragan  of  Mont- 
real. In  answer  to  a  petition  from  the  Fathers  of  the 
First  Council  of  Quebec  to  the  Holy  See,  portions  of 
the  Dioceses  of  Montreal  and  Quebec  were  formed  into 
a  separate  bi.shopric  by  a  papal  Bull  dated  8  June, 
1852.  At  first  the  new  dioce.se  was  hmited  to  the 
south  side  of  the  Rich(!lieu  River,  and  contained  the 
greater  jjortion  of  the  Eastern  Townshijxs,  a  tract  of 
land  granted  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  to  the  American  Loyalists,  but  now  a  part 
of  the  Sherbrooke  Diocese.  Later  three  pari.shes  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Richelieu  River  were  annexed. 
To-<lay  the  diocese  embraces  the  counties  of  Bagot, 
Iberville,  Missisquoi,  Richelieu,  Rouville,  Saint 
Hyacinthe,  and  a  part  of  the  counties  of  Brome  (2 
parishes),  Shefford  (9  parishes),  and  Vercheres  (3 
parishes). 

St.  Hyacinthe,  the  titular  city,  is  a  typical 
French  Canadian  industrial  town;  it  stands  on  the 
banks  of  the  Yamaska,  thirty-five  miles  from  Mont- 
real, and  has  a  population  of  10,000.  Right  Rev. 
J.  C.  Prince,  Coadjutor  Bishop  of  Montreal,  was  the 
first  Bishop  of  St.  Hyacinthe.  Bishop  Prince  took 
possession  on  3  November,  1852,  and  from  the  out- 
set encountered  great  difficulties.  The  old  seminary 
building  was  turned  into  a  cathedral  and  residence; 
unfortunately,  it  was  burned  in  May,  1854.  The 
bishop  built  a  new  residence  as  well  as  a  chapel- 
cathedral.  Bishop  Prince  showed  untiring  activity, 
founding  twenty  new  parishes,  establi.shing  several 
missions,  and  in  1853  introducing  from  France  the 
Sisters  of  the  Presentation.  He  died  on  5  May,  1860, 
at  the  age  of  fifty-six. 

By  papal  Decree  dated  22  June  of  the  same  year, 
Right  Rev.  Joseph  La  Rocque,  titular  Bishop  of  Cydo- 
nia,  and  Coadjutor  of  Montreal,  the  second  bishop,  was 
appointed.  P>om  November,  1856,  to  July,  1857,  he 
had  administered  the  diocese  during  the  prolonged 
illness  of  Bishop  Prince,  but  now,  overwhelmed  by 
the  responsibility  forced  on  him,  and  suffering  from 
a  series  of  maladies,  he  petitioned  the  Holy  See  to 
be  reheved  of  this  burden.  His  request  was  granted 
on  17  August,  1865.  As  titular  Bishop  of  Germanic- 
opolis  and  vicar-general,  he  remained  in  his  dio- 
cese, at  the  monasterj'  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Precious 
Blood  (a  community  which  honoured  him  as  its 
founder),  until  his  death  on  18  November,  1887, 
at  the  age  of  seventy-nine. 

The  vacancy  was  filled  on  20  March,  1866,  by  the 


SAINT  ISIDORE 


352 


SAINT  ISIDORE 


Right  Rev.  Charles  La  Rocque,  cousin  of  the  former 
bishop,  who  for  twenty -two  years  was  pastor  of 
St.  John's.  The  new  bishop  was  a  highly-cultured 
man  with  rare  financial  ability;  reaUzing  that  the 
debts  of  his  cathedral  called  for  unusual  measures,  he 
closed  the  episcopal  palace  and  retired  with  his  staff 
to  Beloeil,  where  he  combined  the  duties  of  bishop 
and  pastor  of  this  parish  till  his  death  on  25  July, 
1875.  Bishop  La  Rocque  assisted  at  the  Vatican 
Council.  He  was  instrumental  in  founding  the  Sher- 
brooke  Diocese.  He  opened  the  first  house  of  the 
Dominicans  in  Canada  by  giving  them  a  parish  in 
his  titular  city,  and  had  the  satisfaction  of  effectively 
reducing  the  cathedral  debt  and  placing  the  diocese 
on  a  satisfactory  money  basis. 

The  fourth  bishop,  Mgr.  Louis-Zephirin  ]\Ioreau, 
was  consecrated  on  16  January,  1876.  He  had  come 
from  Montreal  in  1S52  as  secretary  to  Bishop  Prince. 
Bishop  Moreau  reopened  the  episcopal  residence, 
and  on  4  July,  ISSO,  dedicated  the  stone  cathedral 
which  he  had  built  with  the  monej'  amassed  b}'  the 
economy  of  his  predecessor.  His  cathedral  chapter 
was  installed  in  August,  1S76,  by  the  Most  Rev.  Dr. 
Conroy,  Bishop  of  Ardagh  and  first  Papal  Delegate 
to  Canada.  On  Bishop  Moreau's  invitation  the  Marist 
Brothers  came  from  France  and  established  their 
novitiate  in  the  dioce.se;  he  also  founded  a  community 
to  take  charge  of  rural  schools  for  boys  and  girls, 
under  the  name  "Les  Soeurs  de  St.  Joseph".  After 
seventeen  years  of  administration  he  was  given 
as  coadjutor  the  Right  Rev.  Maxime  Decelles  (d. 
July,  1905);  the  latter  was  consecrated  titular  bishop 
of  IDruzipara  on  9  March,  1S93,  and  entered  on  his 
administration  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  Hyacinthe  im- 
mediately on  the  death  of  Bishop  Moreau  (24  May, 
1901).  During  his  administration  he  opened  the 
patronage  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  agitated  the 
question  of  a  new  and  larger  cathedral.  The  execu- 
tion of  this  idea,  however,  was  left  to  his  successor, 
Rt.  Rev.  Alexis-Xistus  Bernard,  who  was  conse- 
crated by  Archbishop  Bruchesi  on  15  February, 
1906.  Bishop  Bernard  is  now  in  his  sixty-third  year. 
From  1876,  either  as  secretary,  archdeacon,  or  vicar- 
general,  he  was  constant!}'  a  member  of  the  admin- 
istration. In  a  series  of  ten  volumes  he  has  compiled 
and  published  with  additional  biographical  notes 
the  letters  of  the  preceding  bishops  of  St.  Hyacinthe 
to  the  clergy  and  faithful  of  the  diocese.  Notwith- 
standing delicate  health,  since  his  elevation  to  the 
episcopate  he  has  proved  himself  an  indefatigable 
worker  and  an  ardent  apostle  of  temperance.  He  placed 
the  patronage  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  on  a  stable  basis, 
and,  at  the  cost  of  $200,000,  completely  and  beauti- 
fully restored  and  enlarged  the  old  cathedral. 

In  the  episcopal  city  of  St.  Hyacinthe  are  the 
following:  the  College-Seminary  (dating  from  1811) 
with  400  students,  all  following  a  classical  curricu- 
lum; the  mother-house  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
(the  Grey  Nuns)  with  400  members  who  have  charge 
of  the  Hotel-Dieu;  the  mother-house  of  the  Sisters 
of  the  Presentation,  with  GOO  members;  the  mother- 
house  of  the  cloistered  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood; 
the  c<;ntral  monastery  of  the  Dominican  Fathers; 
the  mother-house  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph;  the  con- 
vent of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Martha,  a  community  in 
charge  of  the  domestic  arrangements  of  the  seminary; 
the  novitiate  of  the  Marist  Brothers;  the  Institute 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul;  a  commesrcial  college  and 
an  academy,  both  conducted  by  the  Brothers  of  the 
Sacred  Heart. 

The  Diocese  of  St.  Hyacinthe  has  74  parishes, 
and  a  population  of  about  120,000,  of  whom  108,000 
are  Catholics.  The  clergy  number  183  .secular  and 
18  regular  priests.  The  reUgious  communities  num- 
ber 337  men  and  861  women.  In  the  diocese  are: 
2  superior  teaching  institutions,  the  Seminary  of 
St.  Hyacinthe  and  the  Petit  Seminaire  de  Sainte- 


Marie  de  Monnoir,  both  under  the  direction  of 
secular  priests;  6  commercial  colleges;  56  academies; 
435  primary  schools.  Six  hospitals  and  asylums 
provide  for  charitable  wants. 

Mandemenis  des  EvSgues  de  St.  Hyncinthe;  Hi.tloire  du  Seminaire 
de  St.  Hyacinthe;  The  Catholic  Directory  (1911);  Le  Canada 
eccMsiastique  (1911).  C.    P.    ChOQUETTE. 

Saint  Isidore,  College  of,  in  Rome,  was  originally 
founded  for  the  use  of  Spanish  Franciscans  during  the 
pontificate  of  Gregory  XV.  In  the  year  1625  the 
buildings  passed  into  the  hands  of  Father  Luke  Wad- 
ding, who,  after  making  numerous  additions  and  al- 
terations, and  with  the  sanction  of  the  General  of  the 
Friars  Minor  and  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff,  converted 
them  into  a  college  for  the  education  of  Irish  Francis- 
can students.  Within  a  few  years.  Wadding  had  pro- 
vided accommodation  for,  and  had  gathered  within 
the  walls  of  the  new  college,  a  community  of  over 
thirty  religious;  and  some  j'ears  later  the  number  had 
increased  to  fifty.  Wadding  was  fortunate  in  being 
able  to  assure  the  success  of  the  new  undertaking  by 
attracting  to  the  college  as  professors  some  of  the 
ablest  members  of  the  order  at  the  time,  all  of  them 
countrymen  of  his  own.  These  included  such  men  as 
Hickey,  Fleming,  Ponce,  Walsh,  and  some  years  later 
Harold,  Molloy,  and  Bonaventure  Baron.  The  last- 
mentioned  alone  has  to  his  credit  no  fewer  than 
twenty-two  volumes,  in  the  various  domains  of  philos- 
ophy, theology,  history,  and  poetry.  It  is  easy  to  un- 
derstand what  prestige  such  distinguished  teachers 
must  have  brought  to  the  college.  In  fact,  within 
thirty  years  of  its  foundation,  we  find  no  fewer  than 
seventy  of  its  alumni  engaged  as  professors  in  various 
schools  of  the  order.  But  its  claim  to  recognition 
does  not  rest  less  in  the  stimulus  which  it  gave  to  the 
study  of  Scotistic  philosophy  and  theology  during  the 
seventeenth  century  than  in  the  number  of  highly 
trained  and  efficient  teachers  which  it  sent  forth.  Its 
professors  were  all  convinced  adherents  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan school  and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that,  at 
a  time  when  the  doctrines  of  Scotus  were  beginning  to 
lose  favour  even  amongst  Franciscans  themselves, 
they  found  no  more  ardent  nor  able  defenders  than 
the  professors  of  St.  Isidore's  College.  It  is  to  Wad- 
ding and  his  fellow-workers  in  the  college  that  we  owe 
the  first  complete  edition  of  the  Subtile  Doctor's 
works,  namely,  the  Lyons  edition  of  1639.  While 
sending  forth,  year  after  year,  numbers  of  zealous 
workers  into  the  Irish  mission,  the  college  continued 
to  possess  amongst  its  professors  men  of  acknowledged 
learning  and  merit. 

On  tlie  occupation  of  Rom(>  hv  the  French  in  1798, 
St.  Isidore's  sut'fercd  the  fate  of  "other  British  institu- 
tions in  the  city.  The  friars  were  exjielled,  and  the 
college;  and  adjoining  garden  confiscated  and  put  up 
for  auction.  They  were  bought  in  by  the  Prince  of 
Piombino,  who  let  the  rooms  out  to  lodgers,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  which  wen;  reserved  for  one  of  the 
fathers  who  had  volunteered  to  keep  watch  over  the 
place  until  the  advent  of  better  times.  These  came 
with  the  return  of  the  pojie  in  1814.  The  college  was 
soon  restored  to  its  rightful  owners,  and  the  year  1819 
saw  Father  Hughes  installed  as  superior  over  a  fresh 
band  of  students  who  had  come  from  Ireland  to  fill  the 
places  of  those  who  had  been  expelled  in  1798.  Since 
then  St.  Isidore's  has  remained  in  undisturbed  posses- 
sion of  the  Iri.sh  Franciscans,  for  whom  it  still  serves 
as  the  theological  and  philosophical  trainiiig-iiouse  of 
their  students.  Amongst  its  alumni  may  he  men- 
tioned Dr.  Fgan  (d.  1814),  first  Bishop  of  Philad(>i- 
phia;  Drs.  Lambert  (d.  1817),  S(!allan  (d.  1830),  and 
Mullock  (d.  1869),  the  two  former  vicars  Apostolic, 
and  the  latter  second  Bishop  of  St.  John's,  Newfound- 
land; Dr.  Hughes,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Gibraltar;  and 
Drs.  Geoghegan  (d.  1864)  and  Shiel  (d.  1872),  Bishops 
of  Adelaide,  Australia.     The  college  library  is  justly 


SAINT  JAMES 


353 


SAINT-JEAN 


famous  for  its  collection  of  rare  and  valuable  books. 
Owing  to  Wadding's  position  as  annalist  of  the 
Franciscan  Order  and  agent  with  the  Holy  See  for  his 
native  country  during  the  stormy  period  of  the  Insur- 
rection of  1641,  the  archives  of  St.  Isidore's  became 
the  repository  of  many  precious  documents  relating  to 
Franciscan  subjects  and  to  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
history  of  Ireland  during  the  seventeenth  century. 
Such  among  the  valuable  MSS.  belonging  to  the  sister 
college  of  St.  Anthony's,  Louvain,  as  escaped  destruc- 
tion or  dispersion  during  the  French  Revolution 
also  found,  for  a  time,  a  domicile  in  St.  Isidore's. 
They  included  many  of  those  old  Irish  MSS.  saved 
from  destruction  by  Brother  Michael  O'Clery,  during 
his  tours  of  Ireland  in  search  of  material  for  the 
"Annals  of  the  Four  Masters".  They  are  sometimes 
referred  to  as  the  "  St.  Isidore  MSS. "  After  the  taking 
of  Rome  by  the  Piedmontese  in  1870,  these,  together 
with  such  others  as  had  any  bearing  on  the  civil  or 
ecclesiastical  history  of  Ireland,  were  for  greater  se- 
curity removed  to  the  convent  of  the  order  at  Mer- 
chant's Quay,  Dublin,  where  they  are  now  preserved. 

Harold,  Life  of  Wadding,  prefixed  to  his  Epitome  Annalium 
Ordinis  Minorum  (Rome,  1662);  MSS.  materials  in  the  College 
Archives;   GAua,  Series  Episcoporum  (Ratisbon,  1873). 

J.  C.  Hanrahan. 

Saint  James  of  Compostela  (Santiago  de  la  Es- 
pada),  Order  of,  founded  in  the  twelfth  century, 
owes  its  name  to  the  national  patron  of  Spain,  St. 
James  the  Greater,  under  whose  banner  the  Chris- 
tians of  Galicia  began  in  the  ninth  century  to  com- 
bat and  drive  back  the  Mussulmans  of  Spain.  Com- 
postela, in  Galicia,  the  centre  of  devotion  to  this 
Apostle,  is  neither  the  cradle  nor  the  principal  seat  of 
the  order.  Two  cities  contend  for  the  honour  of  hav- 
ing given  it  birth,  Le6n  in  the  kingdom  of  that  name, 
and  Ucl(5s  in  Castile.  At  that  time  (11.57-1230)  the 
royal  dynasty  was  divided  into  two  rival  branches, 
which  rivalry  tended  to  obscure  the  beginnings  of  the 
order.  The  Knights  of  Santiago  had  possessions  in 
each  of  the  kingdoms,  but  Ferdinand  II  of  Le6n  and 
Alfonso  VIII  of  Castile,  in  bestowing  them,  set  the 
condition  that  the  seat  of  the  order  should  be  in 
their  respective  states.  Hence  arose  long  disputes 
which  only  ended  in  1230  when  Ferdinand  III,  the 
Saint,  united  both  crowns.  Thenceforth,  Ucl6s,  in 
the  Province  of  Cuenca,  was  regarded  as  the  head- 
quarters of  the  order;  there  the  grand  master  habit- 
ually resided,  aspirants  passed  their  year  of  proba- 
tion, and  the  rich  archives  of  the  order  were  preserved 
until  united  in  1809  with  the  "Archive  hist6rico 
nacional"  of  Madrid.  The  order  received  its  first 
rule  in  1171  from  Cardinal  Jacinto  (later  Celestine 
III),  then  legate  in  Spain  of  Alexander  III.  Unlike 
the  contemporary  orders  of  Calatrava  and  Alcdntara, 
which  followed  the  severe  rule  of  the  Benedictines  of 
Cttcaux,  Santiago  adopted  the  milder  rule  of  the 
Canons  of  St.  Augustine.  In  fact  at  Le6n  they  of- 
fered their  services  to  the  Canons  Regular  of  St. 
Eloi  in  that  town  for  the  protection  of  pilgrims  to  the 
shrine  of  St.  James  and  the  hospic(>s  on  the  roads 
leading  to  Compostela.  This  explains  the  mixed 
character  of  their  order,  which  is  hospitaller  and 
military,  like  that  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem.  They 
were  recognized  as  religious  by  Alexander  III,  whose 
Bull  of  5  July,  1175,  was  subsequently  confirmed  by 
more  than  twenty  of  his  successors.  These  pontifical 
acts,  collected  in  the  "Bullarium"  of  the  order, 
secured  them  all  the  privileges  and  exemptions  of 
other  monastic  orders.  The  order  comprised  several 
affiliated  classes:  canons,  charged  with  the  admin- 
istration of  the  sacraments;  canonesses,  occupied 
with  the  service  of  pilgrims;  religious  knights  living 
in  community,  and  married  knights.  The  right  to 
marry,  which  other  military  orders  only  obtained  at 
the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  accorded  them  from 
the  beginning  under  certain  conditions,  such  as  the 
XIII.— 23 


authorization  of  the  king,  the  obligation  of  observing 
continence  during  Advent,  Lent,  and  on  certain 
festivals  of  the  year,  which  they  spent  at  their  monas- 
teries in  retreat. 

The  mildness  of  this  rule  furthered  the  rapid  spread 
of  the  order,  which  eclipsed  the  older  orders  of 
Calatrava  and  Alcdntara,  and  whose  power  was  re- 
puted abroad  even  before  1200.  The  first  Bull  of  con- 
firmation, that  of  Alexander  III,  already  enumerated 
a  large  number  of  endowments.  At  its  height  Santi- 
ago alone  had  more  possessions  than  Calatrava  and 
Alcantara  together.  In  Spain  these  possessions  in- 
cluded 83  commanderies,  of  which  3  were  reserved 
to  the  grand  commanders,  2  cities,  178  boroughs  and 
villages,  200  parishes,  5  hospitals,  5  convents,  and  1 
college  at  Salamanca.  The  number  of  knights  was 
then  400  and  they  could  muster  more  than  1000  lances. 
They  had  possessions  in  Portugal,  France,  Italy, 
Hungary,  and  even  Palestine.  Abrantes,  their  first 
commandery  in  Portugal,  dates  from  the  reign  of 
Alfon.so  I  in  1172,  and  soon  became  a  distinct  order 
which  Nicholas  IV  in  1290  released  from  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  Uclcs.  Their  military  history  is  finked  with 
that  of  the  Spanish  states.  They  assisted  in  driving 
out  the  Mussulmans,  doing  battle  with  them  some- 
times separately,  sometimes  with  the  royal  armies. 
They  also  had  a  regrettable  share  in  the  fatal  dissen- 
sions which  disturbed  the  Christians  of  Spain  and 
brought  about  more  than  one  schism  in  the  order. 
Finally  they  took  part  in  the  maritime  expeditions 
against  the  Mussulmans.  Thus  arose  the  obligation 
imposed  upon  aspirants  to  serve  six  months  in  the 
galleys,  which  obfigation  still  existed  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  but  from  which  exemption  was  easily 
purchased.  Authority  was  exercised  by  a  grand  master 
assisted  by  a  Council  of  Thirteen,  which  elected  the 
grand  master  and  had  the  right  to  depose  him  for 
due  cause;  they  had  supreme  jurisdiction  in  all 
disputes  between  members  of  the  order.  The  first 
grand  master,  Pedro  Fernandez  de  Fuente  Encalato, 
died  in  1184.  He  had  had  39  successors,  among  them 
several  Spanish  Infantes,  when,  in  1499,  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic  induced  the  pope  to  assign  to  him  the 
administration  of  the  order.  Under  Charles  V, 
Adrian  VI  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Spain  the  three 
great  military  orders  (Alcdntara,  Calatrava,  and 
Santiago)  with  hereditary  transmission  even  in  the 
female  fine  (1522).  Thenceforth  the  three  orders 
were  united  under  one  government,  though  their 
titles  and  possessions  remained  separate.  To  dis- 
charge the  detail  of  this  administration,  Charles  V 
instituted  a  special  ministry,  the  Council  of  Orders, 
composed  of  a  president  named  by  the  king,  whom  he 
represented,  and  six  knights,  two  delegates  from  each 
order.  To  this  council  belonged  the  presentation  of 
knights  to  vacant  commanderies  and  jurisdiction  in 
all  matters,  civil  or  ecclesiastical,  save  the  purely 
spiritual  cases  reserved  for  ecclesiastical  dignitaries. 
Thus  ended  the  autonomy  of  the  orders  (see  Cala- 
trava, Military  Order  of).  Their  symbol  was  a 
red  cross  terminating  in  a  sword,  which  recalls  their 
title  de  la  Espada,  and  a  shell  (la  venera),  which  they 
doubtless  owed  to  their  connexion  with  the  pilgrimage 
of  St.  James. 

IsLA,  Regla  de  la  Orden  y  cavalleria  de  Santiago  (Antwerp,  1598) ; 
Bulario  de  la  Orden  de  Santiago  (Madrid,  1791);  Llamazares, 
Historia  de  las  cuatro  drdenes  militares  (Madrid,  1862) ;  de  la 
Fdente,  Histdria  eclesidstica  de  Espafla  (Madrid,  1874). 

Ch.  Moeller. 

Saint- Jean-d' Acre.    See  Acre;  Ptolemais. 

Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne,  Diocese  of  (Mau- 
ramanensis),  includes  the  arrondiascvunt  of  Saint- 
Jean-de-Maurienne  in  the  Department  of  Haute  Savoie. 
The  diocese  was  suppressed  by  the  Concordat  of  1802, 
and  its  territory  joined  to  the  Diocese  of  Chamb^ry 
under  the  French  Empire,  then  in  1825  under  Pied- 
montese rule  it  was  cut  off  from  Chamb6ry  and  made 


SAINT-JOHN 


354 


SAINT-JOHN 


a  special  diocese,  which  with  the  rest  of  Savoy  became 
French  territory,  14  June,  1860.  It  is  suffragan  of 
Chambery.  Gregory  of  Tours,  in  his  "De  Gloria 
Martyrum",  relates  how  the  church  of  Maurienne, 
belonging  then  to  the  Diocese  of  Turin,  became  a  place 
of  pilgrimage,  after  the  holy  woman  Thigris  or 
Thecla,  who  was  a  native  of  Valloires,  had  brought 
to  it  from  the  East  a  finger  of  St.  John  the  Baptist. 
Saint  Gontran.  King  of  Burgundy,  took  from  the 
Lombards  in  574  the  vallej's  of  Suse  and  Maurienne, 
and  in  576  founded  near  the  shrine  a  bishopric,  which 
was  suffragan  of  Vienne.  Its  first  bishop  was  Fel- 
masius.     In  599  Gregory  the  Great  made  futile  at- 


The  Cathedral,  Saint-Jean-de-Mac 


tempts  to  make  Queen  Brunehaut  listen  to  the  pro- 
tests of  the  Bishop  of  Turin  against  this  foundation. 
A  letter  written  by  John  VIII  in  878  formally  desig- 
nated the  Bishop  of  Maurienne  as  suffragan  of 
Tarentaise,  but  the  metropolitans  of  Vienna  con- 
tinued to  claim  Maurienne  a.s  a  suffragan  see,  and 
under  Calli.stus  II  (1120)  they  carried  their  point. 
Local  tradition  claims  as  bishops  of  Maurienne:  St. 
Emilianus,  martyred  by  the  Saracens  (736  or  738); 
St.  Odilard,  slain  by  the  Saracens  (916)  together  with 
St.  Benedict,  Archbishop  of  Embrun.  After  the  Sara- 
cens had  been  driven  out,  the  temporal  sovereignty 
of  the  Bishop  of  Maurienne  appears  to  have  been 
very  extensive,  but  there  is  no  proof  that  such  sover- 
eignty had  been  recognized  since  Gontran's  time.  At 
the  death  of  Rudolph  III,  Bishop  Thibaut  was  power- 
ful enough  to  join  a  league  against  Conrad  II  of 
Franconia.  The  emperor  suppressed  the  See  of 
Maurienne,  and  gave  over  its  title  and  po.ssessions  to 
the  Bishop  of  Turin  (1038);  but  this  imperial  decree 
was  never  exffufrvl. 

Among  the-  bishops  of  Maurienne  were:  St.  Ayroldus 
(11.32-40j,  onr-(;  a  rnonk  of  the  Charterhou,se  of  Fortes; 
Louis  de  La  Palud  (1441-50),  who  as  Bishop  of 
Lausanne  ha/l  tak(;n  an  active  part  at  the  Council  of 
Basle  in  favour  of  the  antipope,  Felix  V,  who  named 
him  Bishop  of  Maurienne  in  1441;  and  afterwards 
cardinal;  he  wa«  confirmed  in  both  appointments  by 
Nicholas  V  in  1449;  .John  of  Segovia  (1451-72),  who 
at  the  Council  of  Basle  as  representative  of  the  King 
of  Aragon  had  also  worked  for  Felix  V,  and  was 
appointed  by  him  cardinal  in  1441;  ten  years  later 
Nicholas  V  gave  him  the  Sec  of  Maurienne;  he  is  the 
author  of  "Gf-sta  Concilii  Basileensis";  William 
d'Estouteville  (1473-80;  was  made  cardinal  in  1439, 


and  as  a  pluralist  held  among  other  titles  those  of 
Maurienne  and  Rouen;  Louis  de  Gorrevod  (1499- 
1550)  was  made  cardinal  in  1530;  Hippolyte  d'Este 
(1560),  made  cardinal  in  1538,  acted  as  legate  of 
Pius  IV  to  the  Council  of  Poissy,  and  built  the  famous 
Villa  d'Este  at  Tivoli;  Charles  Joseph  Fillipa  de 
Martiniana  (1757-79),  made  cardinal  in  1778,  was 
the  first  to  whom  Bonaparte,  after  the  battle  of 
Marengo,  confided  his  intention  of  concluding  a 
concordat  with  Rome;  Alexis  Billiet  (1825-40),  made 
cardinal  in  1861.  Emmanuel  Philibert,  Duke  of 
Savoy,  took  solemn  possession  of  a  canonry  in  the 
cathedral  of  Maurienne  in  1564. 

Among  the  saints  speciallj^  honoured  in,  or  con- 
nected with,  the  diocese  are:  Saint  Aper  (Avre),  a 
priest  who  founded  a  refuge  for  pilgrims  and  the  poor 
in  the  Village  of  St.  Avre  (seventh  century);  Blessed 
Thomas,  b.  at  Maurienne,  d.  in  720,  famous  for  re- 
building the  Abbey  of  Farfa,  of  which  the  third  abbot, 
Lucerius,  was  also  a  native  of  Maurienne;  St.  Marinus, 
monk  of  Chandor,  martyred  by  the  Saracens  (eighth 
century);  St.  Landr^',  pastor  of  Lanslevillard  (elev- 
enth century),  drowned  in  the  Arc  during  one  of  his 
apostolic  journeys;  St.  B^nezet,  or  Benoit  de  Pont 
(1165-84),  b.  at  Hermillon  in  the  diocese,  and  founder 
of  the  guild  of  Fratres  Pontifices  of  Avignon  (see 
Hridge-Building  Brotherhood)  ;  Blessed  Cabert  or 
Gabert,  disciple  of  St.  Dominic,  who  preached  the 
(iospel  for  twenty  years  in  the  vicinity  of  Aiguebelle 
(thirteenth  century).  The  chief  shrines  of  the  diocese 
are:  Notre  Dame  de  Charmaise,  near  IVIodane,  Notre 
Dame  de  Bonne  Nouvelle,  near  St-Jean-de-Maurienne, 
which  dates  from  the  sixteenth  century,  and  Notre 
Dame  de  Beaurevers  at  Montaimon,  dating  from 
the  seventeenth  century.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
a  nursing  and  teaching  order,  with  mother-house  at 
St-Jean-de-Maurienne,  are  a  branch  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  St.  Joseph  at  Puy.  At  the  end  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  they  were  in  charge  of  8  day  nurseries 
and  2  hospitals.  In  Algeria,  the  East  Indies,  and  the 
Argentine  they  have  houses  controlled  by  the  mother- 
house  at  Maurienne.  In  1905  (end  of  the  Concordat), 
the  Diocese  of  St-Jean-de-Maurienne  had  61,466  in- 
habitants, 10  parishes,  76  auxiliary  parishes,  and  28 
curacies,  remunerated  by  the  State. 

Gallia  christ.,  nova,  XVI  (1865),  611-52,  and  inslr.  289-322; 
Duchesne,  Pastes  ipiscopaux,  I,  207-10,  233-35;  Anoley, 
Hist,  du  diocise  de  Maurienne  (S.  Jean  de  Maurienne,  1846); 
Truchet,  Hist,  hagiologique  du  diocise  de  Maiirienjie  (Cham- 
b6ry,  1867) ;  de  Mareschal  de  Luciane,  Souveraineti  tem- 
porelle  des  iviques  de  Maurienne  au  moj/en  dge  in  Mhnoires  de 
I'academie  des  sciences  de  la  Savoie  (1892);  Pascalein,  Le  pou- 
voir  temporel  des  eviques  de  Maurieiuie  in  Revue  Savoisienne  (1899) ; 
Chevalier,   Topo-bibl.,  1877-78.  GeorgES  GoYAU. 

Saint-John,  Ambrose,  Oratorian;  b.  1815;  d.  at 

Edgb;iston,  Birmingham,  24  May,  1875;  son  of 
Henry  St.  John,  descended  from  the  Barons  St.  John 
of  Bletsoe.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster  School, 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated 
M.  A.,  and  where  he  formed  his  lifelong,  intimate 
friendship  with  Newman.  In  1841  he  became 
curate  to  Henry  Wilberforce,  first  at  Walmer,  sub- 
sequently at  East  Farlcigh.  He  then  joined  Newman 
at  Littlemore  which  he  left,  to  be  received  into  the 
Church  about  a  month  before  Newman's  conversion 
in  October,  1845.  After  a  short  time  spent  with  New- 
man at  Mary  vale  he  accompanied  him  to  Rome 
where  they  were  ordained  priests.  Having  become 
Oratorians  they  began  mission  work  in  Birmingham 
(1847),  removing  t«  tlie  suburb  of  Edgbaston  in  1852. 
There  he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  zealous  missionary 
labours,  taking  a  leading  part  in  the  work  of  theOratory 
and  its  famous  school.  He  was  an  excellent  classical 
scholar  and  a  remarkable  linguist  both  in  Oriental 
and  European  tongues.  His  death  was  caused  by 
overwork  in  translating  Fessler's  book  on  infalli- 
bility when  Newman's  discussion  with  Gladstone 
was  pending.     He  was  a  man  of  marked  individuaUty 


SAINT  JOHN 


355 


SAINT  JOHN 


and  Newman's  tribute  to  him  in  the  "Apologia" 
will  never  be  forgotten. 

Except  the  biographical  sketch  prefixed  to  the  new  edition  of 
the  Raccolta,  which  work  he  originally  compiled,  there  is  no 
connected  sketch  of  his  life,  but  references  to  him  will  be  found 
in  Gasqcet,  Lord  Acton  and  his  Circle  (London,  1906).  The 
information  given  above  has  been  kindly  supplied  by  the  Rev. 
F.  Bacchus,  Cong.  Orat.  See  also  Gorman,  Converts  to  Rome 
(London,  1910). 

Edwin  Burton. 
Saint  John,  Christians  of.    See  Nasor^ans. 

Saint  John,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Joannis),  in 
the  Province  of  New  Brunswack,  Canada.  The  dio- 
cese includes  the  following  counties:  Albert,  Carle- 
ton,  Charlotte,  Kings,  Queens,  St.  John,  Sunbury, 
Westmoreland,  York,  and  a  portion  of  Kent.  The 
City  of  St.  John  is  the  oldest  incorporated  city  in 
British  North  America,  its  charter  dating  back  to 
1785;  it  is  also  the  largest  city  in  New  Brunswick. 
Among  the  earliest  Catholic  missionaries  to  visit 
New  Brunswick,  which  was  then  part  of  Acadia, 
were  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  Biard  and  Masse,  in  1611. 
They  remained  until  after  the  destruction  of  Port 
Royal  by  Argall  in  1613,  and  were  succeeded  by 
Recollects.  With  the  erection  of  Quebec  into  a 
diocese,  special  interest  was  attached  to  the  Acadian 
missions.  Mgr.  St.  Vallier  left  the  St.  LawTence,  7 
May,  1686,  proceeded  to  the  St.  John,  and  reached 
Medoctec,  an  Indian  village  eight  miles  below  Wood- 
stock. There  the  bishop  established  a  mission,  and 
left  it  under  the  direction  of  Father  Simon,  a  Recollect. 
Subsequently  another  mission  was  formed  at  Auk- 
paque.  After  the  death  of  Fathers  Simon  and  Moir- 
eau,  the  missions  on  the  St.  John  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Jesuits,  among  whom  were  Fathers  Aubery, 
Loyard,  Danielou,  Loverga,  Audren,  and  Germain. 
The  Indian  church  at  Medoctec  was  probably  the  first 
erected  in  New  Brun.swick.  On  the  original  site  of 
this  church  a  small  stone  tablet  was  discovered  in 
June,  1890,  bearing  a  Latin  inscription  the  translation 
of  which  reads:  "To  God,  most  Good  and  Great,  in 
honour  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  the  Maliseets  erected 
this  church  a.  d.  1717,  while  Jean  Loyard,  a  priest  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  was  Procurator  of  the  mi-ssion." 
After  the  Peace  of  St.  Germain-cn-Laye  (1632),  and 
notably  after  the  Treaty  of  Breda  (1667),  there  ar- 
rived from  France  colonies  of  Catholic  immigrants, 
the  progenitors  of  the  Acadians  now  .scattered  over 
New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia.  About  1767  Rev. 
Charles-Fran^:ois  Bailly,  afterwards  Coadjutor  Bishop 
of  Qviebec,  ministered  to  the  Cathohcs  along  the  St. 
John  River.  The  first  native  Acadian  priest  was  Rev. 
Joseph  M.  Bourg.  Born  in  1744,  he  fled  during  the 
expulsion  (1755)  with  his  parents  to  the  Isle  of  St. 
John,  but  was  eventually  deported  to  France;  after 
some  years  he  returned  to  Quebec,  where  he  was  or- 
dained by  Mgr.  Briand  in  1773.  Appointed  Vicar- 
General  of  Acadia,  he  had  an  immense  area  to  govern, 
with  little  assistance.  In  1813  Bishop  Plessis  of  Que- 
bec received  into  his  diocese  an  Irish  Dominican, 
Rev.  Charles  D.  Ffrench,  a  convert  and  son  of  an 
Anglican  bishop,  and  assigned  him  to  duty  in  St. 
John.  He  celebrated  Mass  in  the  City  Court  Room 
on  Market  Square.  A  church  was  built  soon  after- 
wards, and  at  the  suggestion  of  Bishop  Plessis  it  was 
dedicated  to  St.  Malachy;  it  was  opened  for  worship 
on  1  Oct.,  1815.  With  the  influx  of  Irish  immigrants 
the  number  of  Catholics  rapidly  increased.  The  first 
resident  priest  of  St.  John  was  Rev.  Joseph  Morrisset; 
he  was  succeeded  by  Rev.  Patrick  McMahon,  and 
in  1828  Rev.  John  Carroll,  the  last  priest  prior  to  the 
establishment  of  a  diocese  in  the  Maritime  Provinces, 
was  sent  from  Quebec. 

Between  1820  and  1827  the  Micmac  Indians  and 
Acadian  settlers  at  Richibucto  were  ministered  to  by 
Rev.  Frangois-Norbert  Blanchet,  who  afterwards  be- 
came first  Archbishop  of  Oregon  City.     In  Aug.,  1829, 


Charlottetown  (Prince  Edward  Island)  was  created 
an  episcopal  see,  with  New  Brunswick  under  its  juris- 
diction. Thirteen  years  later  New  Brunswick  was 
formed  into  a  separate  diocese;  its  first  bishop  was 
Dr.  William  Dollard  (b.  in  Ballytarina,  Co.  Kilkenny, 
Ireland;  d.  29  Aug.,  1851),  a  man  of  apostolic  virtue 
and  a  typical  pioneer  bishop.  He  made  his  theo- 
logical studies  at  Quebec,  and  was  sent  as  a  mission- 
ary to  Cape  Breton,  and  afterwards  to  Miramichi. 
He  was  Vicar-General  of  the  Diocese  of  Charlotte- 
town,  and  was  consecrated  bishop  at  Quebec,  11  June, 
1843.  His  successor  was  Right  Rev.  Thomas  L. 
Connolly  (b.  at  Cork,  Ireland),  who,  after  receiving 
h  i  s     preliminary 


enhonok-d-ioa-;bap.- 

HOCTtM-TOS-  AN- DC 
MDCCVIl- 

MALECIT^ 
rACERDOTE 


P  DANl£ 


Memorial  Tablet  of  the  Chapel 

OF  St.  John  the  Baptist 

Discovered  at  Meductic,  New  Brunswick, 

June,  1890 


education  at  Cork, 
became  a  novice 
in  the  Capuchin 
Order,  and  was 
sent  to  Rome  to 
complete  his 
studies.  He  was 
ordained  in  the 
cathedral  at 
Lyons  in  18-38,  and 
for  the  next  four 
years  was  sta- 
tioned at  the  Ca- 
puchin Church. 
Dublin.  In  1842 
he  volunteered  for 
the  Foreign  Mis- 
sions, and  his  ser- 
vices were  ac- 
c  e  p  t  e  d  by  the 
Right  Rev.  Wil- 
liam Walsh  (after- 
wards Archbishop 
of  Hahfax).  Con- 
secrated Bishop  of 
New  Brunswick 
15  Aug.,  1852,  Dr. 
Connolly  arrived 
in  St.  John,  his 
epi-scopal  city,  11 
Sept.  of  the  same 
year.  One  of  the  first  duties  he  undertook  was  the  build- 
ing of  a  cathedral ;  but  it  was  not  until  Christmas  Day, 
1855,  that  the  building  was  ready  for  Divine  service. 
In  June,  1854,  the  cholera  appeared  at  St.  John,  and 
did  not  abate  until  after  the  middle  of  August.  It  is 
estimated  that  600  Catholics  died  of  it;  as  a  conse- 
quence, about  150  orphans  were  thrown  on  the  bishop's 
hands.  To  care  for  them,  he  organized  a  diocesan 
sisterhood  known  as  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  In  1859 
Dr.  Connolly  was  promoted  to  Hahfax  in  succession 
to  Archbishop  Walsh. 

A  division  was  then  made  of  the  Diocese  of  New 
Brunswick;  the  southern  portion  (the  present  See  of 
St.  John)  being  assigned  to  Right  Rev.  John  Sweeny 
(b.  in  1821  at  Clones,  Co.  Monaghan,  Ireland;  d.  25 
March,  1901).  John  Sweeny  had  emigrated  with 
his  parents  in  1828;  his  classical  studies  were  made 
at  St.  Andrew's  College,  near  Charlottetown,  Prince 
Edward  Island,  after  which  he  went  to  Quebec  for 
theology.  He  was  ordained  in  Sept.,  1844,  and 
was  first  assigned  to  St.  John,  whence  he  went  from 
time  to  time  throughout  the  country  on  missions. 
His  next  labours  were  at  Chatham  and  Barachois. 
He  was  vicar-general  successively  under  Bishops 
Dollard  and  Connolly,  and  administrator  of  the 
diocese  on  both  occasions  when  the  see  was  vacant. 
On  15  April,  1860,  he  was  elevated  to  the  epis- 
copate; and  in  1870  he  went  to  Rome  to  attend  the 
Vatican  Council.  Under  him  the  cathedral  was 
completed;  it  was  consecrated  on  16  July,  1885. 
Bishop  Sweeny  was  noted  for  his  wisdom,  tact,  and 
administrative  abihties.    The  CathoUc  settlement  of 


SAINT  JOHN 


356 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


Johnville,  Carleton  County,  was  established  by  him, 
and  grew  into  a  flourishing  colony  under  his  encourage- 
ment. In  the  summer  of  1S99  he  appUed  to  Rome  for 
a  coadjutor,  and  Rev.  Timothy  Casey,  pastor  of  St. 
Dunstan's  Church,  Fredericton,  was  appointed.  In 
Jan..  1901,  Bishop  Sweeny  retired  to  St.  Patrick's  In- 
dustrial School,  Silver  Falls. 

Bishop  Casey,  the  present  incumbent  (b.  at  Flume 
Ridge,  Charlotte  County,  New  Brunswick,  1862), 
received  his  early  education  in  the  pubhc  schools  of 
St.  Stephen,  New  Brunswick,  and  afterwards  studied 
at  St.  Joseph's  College,  Memramcook,  and  at  Laval 
University,  Quebec;  he  was  ordained  priest  29  June, 
1886.  His  consecration  as  titular  Bishop  of  Utina 
and  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Sweenv  took  place  in  the 
cathedral  at  St.  John,  11  Feb.,  1900.  Since  the  be- 
ginning of  Bishop  Casey's  administration,  a  new 
school  has  been  erected  in  the  city;  and  fifteen  new 
churches,  in  diflferent  parishes,  have  been  dedicated. 

There  are  two  religious  orders  of  men  in  the  diocese: 
the  Redemptorists,  who  arrived  in  July,  1884,  and 
who  are  in  charge  of  St.  Peter's  Church  in  North  St. 
John;  and  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Cross  at  Memram- 
cook, who  have  conducted  the  University  of  St.  Jo- 
seph's College  since  1864.  There  are  three  communi- 
ties of  women:  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  the  Religious 
of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  the  Little  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Family.  Diocesan  priests  number  52;  priests  of 
rehgious  orders,  25.  There  are  2  orphan  asylums;  2 
academies,  1  home  for  the  aged,  and  1  college.  The 
Cathohc  population  is  about  58,000. 

Ratmond,  Glimpses  of  the  Past  (St.  John,  1905) ;  Jesuit  Rela- 
tions (Cleveland,  1896-1901);  Campbell,  Pioneer  Priests  of 
North  America  (New  York,  1909) ;  MacMillan,  History  of  the 
Church  in  Prince  Edward  Island  (Quebec,  1905);  Clement, 
History  of  Canada  (Toronto,  1897);  Hay,  A  History  of  New 
Brunswick  (Toronto,  190.3) ;  Lawrence,  Footprints  (St.  John, 
1883) ;  Maguire,  The  Irish  in  America  (New  York,  1868) ;  The 
Freeman,  files;  Plessis,  Journal  de  la  Mission  de  ISll  et  de  1812; 
Idem,  Journal  de  la  Mission  de  1815;  Le  Foyer  Canadien  (Que- 
bec, May-Nov.,  1865);  La  Semaine  Religieuse  (Quebec,  March, 
April,  May,  1904) ;  Chouinard,  Histoire  de  la  Paroisse  de  Saint- 
Joseph  de  Carleton,  Baie  des  Chaleurs  (Rimouaki,  1906). 

Andrew  J.  O'Neill. 

Saint  John  of  Jerusalem,  Knights  op.  See 
Military  Orders,  The. 

Saint  John's,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Joannis 
Terr.e  Nov^),  in  Newfoundland,  erected  1904,  with 
Right  Rev.  M.  F.  Howley  as  archbishop.  It  has 
two  suffragans.  Harbour  Grace  and  St.  George's. 
In  1796  the  Island  of  Newfoundland  was  made  a 
vicariate  Apostolic,  with  Rev.  James  Louis  O'Donel, 
O.S.F.,  as  first  vicar  Apostolic.  Dr.  O'Donel  re- 
turned to  Ireland  in  1807,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Right  Rev.  Patrick  Lambert.  O.S.F.,  from  Wex- 
ford, Ireland.  BLshop  Lambert  ruled  until  1817, 
when  he  retired  to  Ireland.  Right  Rev.  Dr.  Scal- 
lan,  also  a  Franciscan  and  a  Wexford  man,  suc- 
ceeded him,  and  held  the  see  until  1829.  When 
Dr.  O'Donel  was  made  vicar  Apostolic,  there  were 
but  six  priests  in  the  island;  Dr.  Scallan  in- 
creasfid  the  number  to  ten.  He  was  the  first  bishop 
who  died  in  the  country.  In  1829  Right  Rev.  Dr. 
Fleming,  O.S.F.,  succeeded  to  the  episcopacy.  Dur- 
ing his  administration  of  twenty-one  years,  the  build- 
ing of  the  great  cathedral  was  started,  schools  and 
convents  were  erected,  and  nuns  of  the  Presentation 
and  Mercy  Orders  introduced.  The  fifth  bishop  was 
the  learned  Dr.  Mullock,  O.S.F.,  who  was  appointed 
coa<^ljutor  to  Bishop  Fleming,  and  arrived  in  the  covm- 
try  in  1848.  He  was  con.secrated  in  Rome  (1847); 
and  ruled  the  Church  of  Newff)undland  for  nineteen 
years  till  1869.  He  completed  the  catherlral,  built 
the  episoxjpal  palace,  the  library  and  cf)llege,  also 
many  churchejj,  chapels,  and  convents.  He  was  the 
originator  of  thf  irlea  nf  the  Atlantic  telegraph  cable. 
In  1S.'>0  tlie  isl'uid  was  divided  into  two  fjioceses: 
St.  John's  and  Harbour  Grace.     The  Diocese  of  St. 


John's  comprises  the  eastern,  southern,  and  western 
shores  of  the  island.  Harbour  Grace  embraced  the 
north-eastern  shore  and  Labrador.  Bishop  Mul- 
lock was  succeeded  by  Right  Rev.  Bishop  Power, 
previously  president  of  Clonliffe  College,  Dublin,  and 
canon  of  the  cathedral,  a  man  of  high  literary  attain- 
ments, also  a  brilliant  pulpit  orator.  His  episcopacy 
lasted  until  1894,  being  the  longest  in  the  annals  of  the 
diocese.  He  completed  the  Church  of  St.  Patrick, 
Riverhead,  St.  John's;  and  during  his  episcopacy 
the  Christian  Brothers,  to  whom  is  due  the  high  state 
of  perfection  of  the  educational  system,  were  intro- 
duced. The  western  portion  of  the  island,  known  as 
"The  French  Shore",  was  separated  during  his  reign 
from  the  Diocese  of  St.  John's  and  made  a  prefecture 
Apostolic,  afterwards  a  vicariate  Apostolic. 


Cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  St.  John's, 
Newfoundland 

In  1895  Right  Rev.  Dr.  Howley  (born  in  St. 
John's,  1843),  Vicar  Apostolic  of  St.  George's,  "French 
Shore",  was  transferred  to  the  See  of  St.  John's,  be- 
coming the  seventh  bishop.  He  undertook  extensive 
repairs  on  the  exterior  of  the  cathedral,  and  the  com- 
pletion of  the  interior.  During  his  episcopate,  the 
academy  for  young  ladies  at  Littledale  has  been  en- 
larged, the  new  college  built,  and  many  other  works 
have  been  inaugurated.  According  to  the  census  of 
1901,  the  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  was 
45,000.  There  are  70  churches;  50  chapels;  35  priests; 
143  schools;  21  convent  schools  (the  schools  all  re- 
ceive aid  from  the  State  and  full  religious  liberty  is 
granted);  9953  pupils;  14  convents.  The  Irish  Chris- 
tian Brothers  teach  in  the  public  schools,  and  conduct 
the  College  of  St.  Bonaventure's,  which  is  also  afhliated 
to  the  London  University,  the  boys'  orphanage  with 
over  100  boys,  and  industrial  school  of  Mount  Cashel. 
The  Sisters  of  Mercy  have  charge  of  the  Orjjhanage 
of  Bfilvederc  with  100  orphan  girls,  teach  in  the 
public  scihools,  and  conduct  several  academies.  The 
Presentation  Sisters  also  teach  in  th(!  public  schools. 
M.  F.  Howley. 

Saint  Joseph,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Jo.sephi),  in 
Missouri.  The  City  of  St.  Joseph  was  founded  by 
Joseph  Robifloux,  a  Catholic,  who  in  1830  became 
sole  i)roprietor  of  the  trading  post  at.  the  mouth  of 
what  is  now  called  Roy's  Branch,  ju.st  above  the 
Blacksnake  Hills.  In  1838  an  itinerant  Jesuit  visited 
the  obscure  trading  po.st  at  this  place  and  said  Mass 
in  the  rude  log  house  of  Ilobidoux.     In  1840  Rev. 


SAINT  LOmS 


357 


SAINT  LOUIS 


Father  Vogel  administered  to  the  spiritual  wants  of 
the  faithful.  Robidoux,  alive  to  the  importance  of 
his  trading  post,  began  preparations  to  form  a  town. 
The  population  was  about  two  hundred  at  that  time. 
He  had  surveys  and  plats  made  by  Fred  W.  Smith, 
a  CathoUc.  Smith  named  his  plat  St.  Joseph;  it 
was  taken  to  St.  Louis  and  recorded  on  26  July, 
1843.  The  first  permanent  pastor  was  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Scanlon,  who  began  his  labours  in  1847. 
On  17  June,  1847,  a  brick  church  was  begun  and  in 
September  of  the  same  year  was  dedicated  by  Arch- 
bishop P.  R.  Kenrick  of  St.  Louis.  The  "Overland 
Period"  was  the  most  important  one  in  the  infancy 
of  St.  Joseph.  Early  in  the  spring  of  1849  began  the 
rush  to  Cahfornia.  As  a  starting  point  St.  Joseph 
offered  advantages  which  no  other  place  possessed. 
There  was  at  that  time  a  population  of  1900  souls. 

At  the  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  in 
1866,  St.  Joseph  was  among  the  new  episcopal  sees 
proposed.  Rev.  John  J.  Hogan  was  chosen  its  first 
Bishop,  3  March,  1868.  The  area  assigned  to  the 
new  diocese  was  that  part  of  the  State  of  Missouri 
lying  between  the  Missouri  and  Chariton  Rivers. 
On  investigation  the  bishop-elect  found  that  there 
were  in  the  Diocese  of  St.  Joseph  600  famihes,  about 
3000  souls,  attended  by  five  secular  priests.  The 
church  edifices  were  of  the  poorest  kind;  the  largest 
(pro-cathedral)  was  a  low,  narrow,  brick  building, 
built  at  three  different  times.  Bi.shop  Hogan  was 
consecrated  by  Archbishop  P.  R.  Kenrick,  13  Sep- 
tember, 1868,  and  at  once  took  charge  of  his  new 
field  of  labour.  In  1869  ground  was  broken  for  a  new 
cathedral  which,  three  years  later,  was  opened  for 
Divine  service.  The  number  of  priests  increased 
gradually,  religious  consciousness  and  enthusiasm 
were  awakened,  cliurchcs  were  built,  parish  schools 
erected,  and  charitable  institutions  founded.  On  10 
September,  ISSO,  Hislioji  Hogan  was  transferred  to 
the  newly-erected  Diocese  of  Kansas  City,  Mo., 
and  appointed  Administrator  of  St.  Joseph.  When 
he  resigned  his  administration  of  the  Diocese  of  St. 
Joseph  in  1893,  the  Rt.  Rev.  M.  F.  Burke,  D.I)., 
was  transferred  from  the  Diocese  of  Cheyenne,  \\yo- 
ming,  to  St.  Joseph.  His  reception  by  clergy  and 
laity  was  most  enthusiastic.  Under  his  able  adminis- 
tration great  progress  has  been  made  in  the  material 
as  well  as  in  the  spiritual  upbuilding  of  the  diocese. 
A  heavy  debt  on  the  cathedral  hiis  been  liquidated, 
an  episcopal  residence  built,  a  school  of  the  cathedral 
parish  erected  at  a  cost  of  $60,000,  new  missions 
opened,  and  new  parishes  organized. 

The  City  of  St.  Joseph  has  at  present  8  parishes 
with  12  resident  pjistors,  6  parish  schools  attended  by 
1340  pupils,  1  commercial  college  conducted  by  the 
Christian  Brothers,  1  academy  for  the  education  of 
young  ladies  conducted  by  the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  and  1  hospital  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of 
Charity.  Catholic  population:  10,000.  Outside  of 
the  City  of  St.  Joseph  may  be  mentioned  the  Bene- 
dictine Abbey  at  Conception,  established  in  1874; 
the  Concepti6n  Classical  College  conducted  by  the 
Fathers  of  the  Abbey;  the  Franciscan  Fathers  at 
ChilUcothe  and  Wien;  two  charitable  hospitals,  one 
at  ChilUcothe  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Mary, 
the  other  at  Maryville  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Francis;  an  academy  for  the  education  of  young 
ladies  at  Chillicothe  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph;  the  mother-house  and  academy  of  the 
Benedictine  Sisters  of  Perpetual  Adoration  at  Clyde; 
an  orphan  asylum  at  Conception;  twenty  churches 
with  resident  priests;  thirty-two  mission  stations; 
and  seven  parochial  schools.  By  a  decree  of  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Consistory,  dated  Rome, 
16  June,  1911,  the  territory  containing  the  Coun- 
ties of  Adair,  Clark,  Knox,  Lewis,  Macon,  Marion, 
Monroe,  Ralls,  Randolph,  Shelby,  Schuyler,  Scot- 
land, and  that  part  of  Chariton  County  east  of  the 


Chariton  River  was  detached  from  the  Archdiocese 
of  St.  Louis  and  attached  to  the  Diocese  of  St.  Joseph. 
By  reason  of  this  extension  the  Diocese  of  St.  Joseph 
now  comprises  the  whole  northern  part  of  the  State 
of  Missouri,  extending  from  the  Missouri  to  the 
Mississippi  River,  and  is  bounded  on  the  south  by 
the  Counties  of  Howard,  Boone,  Audrain,  and  Pike. 
By  the  increase  of  territory  16  parishes  have  been  added, 
and  20  more  priests  have  been  affiliated  with  the  dio- 
cese.    The  CathoUc  population  is  (1911)  about  34,000. 

Hogan,   On  the    Mission  in    Missouri   (Kansas  City,    1892); 
LiNNENKAMP,   Historical  Souvenir  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
Parish  (St.  Joseph,  1907);    Official  Catholic  Directory  (1910). 
C.    LiNNENKAMP. 

Saint  Louis,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Ludovici), 
created  a  diocese  2  July,  1826;  raised  to  the  rank  of 
an  archdiocese  20  July,  1847.  It  comprises  that  por- 
tion of  the  State  of  Missouri  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  northern  lines  of  the  Counties  of  Pike,  Au- 
drain, Boone,  and  Howard,  on  the  west  by  the  western 
lines  of  the  Counties  Howard,  Boone,  Cole,  Maries, 
Phelps,  Texas  and  Howell,  on  the  south  by  the  State 
of  Arkansas,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Mississippi  River, 
a  territory  of  26,235  square  miles. 

History. — The  City  of  St.  Louis  was  founded  in 
1764  by  Pierre  Liguest  Laclede,  a  French  nobleman, 
who  came  to  Louisiana  in  1755  and  entered  commer- 
cial life  in  New  Orleans.  In  1762  the  firm  of  Maxent 
Laclede  and  Co.  were  given  the  exclusive  privilege  of 
treating  with  the  Indians  of  the  North-west,  and  in  the 
same  year  Monsieur  Laclede  with  some  companiona 
came  up  to  Fort  Chartres  in  the  interest  of  the  firm. 
The  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1763  put  an  end  to  the  priv- 
ilege, and  Monsieur  Laclede  purchased  the  interest  of 
his  partners,  left  Fort  Chartres  and  landed  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Mississippi,  where  in  1764  he  selected  a 
spot,  at  that  time  a  wilderness,  anrl  here  laid  the 
foundation  of  St.  Louis.  He  built  the  first  housi;,  om- 
I)l(>yiiig  Indian  women  and  children  in  digging  out,  the 
cellar  and  carrying  the  earth  away  in  their  blankets. 
By  the  Treaty  Of  Paris,  France  ceded  to  Spain  all  of 
Louisiana  west  of  the  i\Iississi])pi,  but  there  was  no 
formal  occupation  by  th(>  Sjiiuush  until  1770.  St. 
Louis  therefore  during  the  first  years  of  its  existence 
belonged  to  the  Dioc<'se  of  Santiago  d(^  Cuba,  a  juris- 
diction that  extended  throughout  Louisiana.  There 
were  but  two  priests  in  the  St.  Louis  territory:  Father 
Luke  Collet,  a  Recollect,  and  the  Jesuit  Father  Meu- 
rin;  the  former  died  in  1765  leaving  but  one  priest  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  veteran  Father  Sebastian 
Louis  Meurin.  The  story  of  good  old  Father  Meu- 
rin  is  replete  with  tales  of  hardship  and  sacrifice*  made 
for  the  French  and  Indians  of  Illinois  and  Missouri. 
In  176(),  finding  the  task  too  great,  he  wrote  the  Bishop 
of  Quebec:  " Ste  Genevieve  is  my  residence.  Thence 
I  go  every  spring  and  visit  the  other  villages.  I  re- 
turn again  in  the  autumn  and  whenever  I  am  sum- 
moned on  sick  calls.  I  am  only  sixty-one  years  old, 
but  I  am  exhausted,  broken  by  twenty-five  years  of 
mission  work  in  this  country,  and  of  these  nearly 
twenty  years  of  malady  and  disease  show  me  the 
gates  of  death.  I  am  incapable,  therefore,  of  long  ap- 
plication or  bodily  fatigue.  I  cannot  accordingly 
supply  the  spiritual  necessities  of  the  ("ountry,  where 
even  the  stoutest  men  could  not  endure.  It  would 
need  four  priests.  If  you  can  give  me  only  one,  he 
should  be  appointed  to  Cahokia,  and  with  the  powers 
of  vicar-general."  In  1768  Fr.  P.  Gibault,  Vicar 
General  of  Quebec,  was  sent  to  his  aid  and  laboured 
with  him  until  the  formal  occupation  of  Louisiana  by 
the  Spaniards. 

Father  Gibault  continued  his  visits  until  the  com- 
ing of  the  Capuchin  Fathers  from  New  Orleans  in 
1772,  and  Father  Meurin  remained  on  the  east  sid(» 
of  the  Mississippi  River.  Prior  to  Father  (Jibault's 
coming,  there  was  no  church  building  in  this  territory. 
The  records  at  Cahokia  show  that  at  St.  Louis  Father 


SAINT  LOUIS 


358 


SAINT  LOUIS 


Meurin  in  1766  baptized,  under  condition,  in  a  tent  for 
want  of  a  church,  Marie,  law-ful  daughter  of  John 
Baptiste  Deschamp  and  of  Marie  Pion;  and  again,  that 
he  conferred  the  same  sacrament  upon  Antoine,  son  of 
Lisette.  a  Pawnee  slave,  on  9  May  of  the  same  year, 
Father  Gibault,  soon  after  his  arrival,  undertook  the 
erection  of  a  small  church  built  of  upright  logs.  This 
modest  edifice  was;  rapidly  completed  and  dedicated 
on  24  June.  1770.  With  the  advent  of  the  Capuchins 
in  1772,  Father  Valentine  of  that  order  became  the 
first  resident  priest  of  St.  Louis  and  remained  until 
1776.  He  was  succeeded  by  Father  Bernard,  also  a 
Capuchin,  who  remained  for  thirteen  years  and  dur- 
ing his  stay  organized  St.  Charles  and  St.  Ferdinand. 
From  1789  to  1793  there  are  no  records  to  show  that 
St.  Ix)uis  had  a  resident  priest.  In  1793  Pierre 
Joseph  Didier,  a  Benedictine  monk,  assumed  charge 
and  remained  until  1799.  In  1800  the  territory  of 
Louisiana  was  receded  to  France  and  three  years 
later  transferred  by  Napoleon  to  the  United  States. 
Thus  we  find  that  St.  Louis  and  the  Louisiana  terri- 
tory' during  its  early  days  was  subject  to  the  jurisdiction 
of:  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Canada,  16.58-1674;  the 
Diocese  of  Quebec,  1674-1759;  the  Diocese  of  Santi- 
ago in  Cuba,  17.59-1787;  the  Diocese  of  Havana, 
1787-1793;  the  Diocese  of  Louisiana  and  the  Floridas, 
1793-1826.  The  territory  east  of  the  Mississippi 
was  subject  to:  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Canada, 
1658-1674;  the  Diocese  of  Quebec,  1674-1784;  the 
Prefecture  Apostolic  of  the  thirteen  states  of  the 
Union,  1784-1789;  the  Bishop  of  Baltimore,  1789- 
1808;  the  Diocese  of  Bardstown,  1808-1834. 

In  1800  Rev.  Thomas  Flynn  was  made  parish 
priest  of  St.  Louis,  remaining  in  that  position  until 
1808  when  he  removed  to  Ste  Genevieve.  Again 
from  1808  until  1811,  when  Father  Savigne  took 
charge,  we  find  the  parish  without  the  service  of  a 
priest.  Father  Savigne's  ministry  extended  over  a 
period  of  six  years,  and  during  these  years  the  city 
grew  to  such  an  extent  as  to  require  the  labours  of  a 
priest  who  could  devote  to  it  his  entire  time  and  at- 
tention. In  1810  the  population  numbered  1400 — 
mostly  French  with  some  Spaniarfls  and  a  constantly 
increasing  influx  of  Americans.  Thus  far  St.  Louis 
had  been  but  a  struggling  village,  the  surrounding 
country  but  a  wilderness  that  re-echoed  to  the  war- 
whoop  of  the  savage  or  resounded  with  the  crack  of  the 
ranger's  rifle.  Now  things  were  to  assume  a  more  im- 
portant aspect,  so  that  five  years  later  we  hear  of  the 
Diocese  of  St.  Louis.  St.  Louis  as  a  diocese  had  its 
origin  amidst  the  early  ecclesiastical  troubles  and  dis- 
putes of  the  Diocese  of  Louisiana  and  the  Floridas. 
The  Dioce.se  of  St.  Christopher  of  Havana,  Louisiana, 
and  the  Floridas  was  erected  in  1787,  and  Rt.  Rev. 
Joseph  de  Trespalatios  was  appointed  the  first  bi-shop; 
thas  St.  Louis  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bi.shop 
of  Havana.  On  25  April,  1793,  the  Diocese  of 
Louisiana  and  both  t'loridas  was  created;  New  Or- 
leans was  designated  as  the  cathedral  city,  and  the 
Rev.  Louis  Penalver  y  Cardenas  was  appointed  the 
first  bishop.  He  arrived  at  N«!w  Orleans  on  17  July, 
1795.  On  24  Sept.,  1815,  Rt.  Rev.  I^uis  William 
Du  B<jurg  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Ivouisiana  and 
the  Floridas,  and  immediately  after  proposed  the 
erection  of  the  See  of  St.  Ix)uis  then  in  tipper  Louisi- 
ana (sometimes  called  Ixjuisiana  Superior,  sometimes 
"Alta  Ixjuisiana").  Very  soon  after,  however,  he 
reque8t<-d  the  withdrawal  of  this  proposal  owing  to 
the  BeriouH  and  complicated  troubles  caused  by  the 
trustees  (Marguilliers  and  thre<'  misguided  priests  of 
the  cathedral  church  in  New  Orl(!ans). 

Open  mena^M's  of  vioUtnce  and  other  sr-rious  threats 
prompted  him  to  w>licit  the  Propaganda  to  permit 
him  to  take  up  his  residence  at  St.  Louis  and  to  con- 
tinue St.  IxMiis  as  part  of  the  Ixjuisiana  jurisdiction. 
Rome  grantefl  the  request,  and  on  5  Jan.,  1818,  he 
came  to  St.  Louis  accompanied  by  Bishop  Flaget,  of 


Bardstown,  Ky.  He  was  received  here  with  great 
welcome,  was  installed  with  the  usual  solemnities  by 
Bishop  Flaget,  and  took  possession  of  the  pro-cathe- 
dral, a  poor  wooden  structure  in  ruinous  condition. 
The  same  year  he  founded  at  St.  Louis  a  Latin  Acad- 
emy which  later  developed  into  the  Universitv  of 
St.  Louis  (q.  v.).  On  13  Aug.,  1822.  the  Very  Rev. 
Joseph  Rosati,  vicar-general  for  Bishop  Du  Bourg,  was 
appointed  by  Pius  VII  titular  Bishop  of  Tenagre,  and 
created  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  territories  of  Mississippi 
and  Alabama.  This  appointment  Father  Rosati  de- 
clined, giving  to  the  Propaganda  as  reasons  the  pau- 
city and  penury  of  the  people  of  Mississippi  and  Ala- 
bama; the  utter  impossibility  of  a  priest  being  able  to 
sustain  himself  at  Natchez;  Bay  St.  Louis  being  too 
poor  to  erect  even  an  unpretentious  church  building, 
and  no  other  city  in  the  two  states  being  sufficiently 
well-equipped  with  church  or  resources  worthy  of  a 
bishop.  He  also  emphasized  the  importance  of  his 
continuing  as  president  of  the  seminary,  as  no  priest 
was  at  hand  equal  to  the  task  of  assuming  its  direc- 
tion. His  argiunents  and  the  protests  of  the  Bishop 
of  Baltimore  prevailed.  The  Brief  "Quum  superiori 
anno"  dated  14  July,  1823,  addressed  to  Bishop  Du 
Bourg,  revoked  the  appointment  and  .suppressed  the 
vicariate.  Father  Rosati.  however,  was  not  to  es- 
cape episcopal  honours.  He  was  appointed  coadjutor 
to  Bishop  Du  Bourg  by  Apostolic  Brief  dated  22  June, 
1823,  and  by  instructions  of  said  Brief  was  to  reside 
in  St.  Louis.  The  Brief  recited  that  after  three 
years  the  Diocese  of  Louisiana  was  to  be  divided,  New 
Orleans  and  St.  Louis  to  be  named  episcopal  sees, 
Bishop  Du  Bourg  to  have  his  choice  of  either,  and 
Bishop  Rosati  to  preside  over  the  destinies  of  the 
other.  Father  Ro.sati  received  these  documents  on  4 
Dec,  1823,  and  letters  from  the  Propaganda  told  him 
that  he  must  submit  to  the  dignity  he  had  thus  far 
sought  to  escape.  Bishop  Du  Bourg  was  then  in 
Louisiana,  and  selected  for  the  consecration  services 
the  Church  of  the  Ascension  in  Donaldsonville,  La., 
a  central  position,  where  many  clergy  might  assemble. 
Here  the  Very  Rev.  Father  Rosati  was  consecrated 
titular  Bishop  of  Tenagre  on  25  March,  1824,  by 
Bishop  Louis-Guillaume- Valentin  Du  Bourg,  assisted 
by  the  Very  Rev.  Louis  Sibourd,  V.G.,  and  the  Rev. 
Anthony  de  Sedella,  O.M.Cap.,  rector  of  the  cathe- 
dral church  of  New  Orleans. 

Not  long  after.  Bishop  Du  Bourg  found  the  task  im- 
po.sed  upon  him  beyond  his  strength,  and,  discouraged 
by  the  difficulties  which  arose  to  thwart  his  projects 
and  harassed  by  bitter  opposition  in  his  own  city 
(which  in  some  of  his  writings  he  styled  "vera  nova 
Babylonia"),  he  resigned  his  see  and  departed  for 
Europe  in  April,  1826.  Pending  this  the  Propa- 
ganda had,  on  26  June,  1826,  voted  the  erection 
of  S ..  Ix)uis  as  a  diocese,  which  action  was  approved 
of  by  the  pope  on  2  July,  of  the  same  year.  On 
the  same  day  the  resignation  of  BLshop  Du  Bourg 
was  formally  accepted,  and  letters  were  forwarded  to 
Bishop  Rosati,  asking  him  to  accept  th(;  vacant  see. 
This  he  earnestly  requested  to  be  allowed  to  decline, 
pleading  his  lack  of  acquaintance  witli  the  clergy  and 
p(K)ple  of  Louisiana  and  his  familiarity  with  the  dis- 
tricts of  Missouri,  Illinois,  and  Arkansas.  He  urged 
the  appointment  of  Rev.  Leo  de  Neckere,  a  Belgian 
Lazarist,  as  Bishop  of  New  Orleans,  and  sought  the  in- 
tervention of  BLshop  Du  Bourg  to  have  this  effected. 
His  objection  was  sustained,  and  finally  on  20  March, 
1827,  Pope  Leo  XII  tran.sferred  him  from  the  See  of 
Tenagre  to  that  of  St.  Louis,  and  requested  him  to 
continue  the  administration  of  New  Orleans  until 
such  time  as  other  provision  might  be  made. 

At  this  period  the  Diocese  of  Louisiana  comprised, 
roughly  speaking,  the  territory  extending  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  tf)  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  from 
the  Mississippi  River  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Ow- 
ing to  the  existing  indefinite  lines  of  demarcation  it 


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was  at  times  difficult  and  even  impossible  to  decide 
with  certainty  the  exact  confines  of  the  diocese.  The 
uncertainty  of  jurisdiction,  which  necessarily  arose 
from  this,  influenced  Rome  to  advise  all  bishops  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  to  constitute  their  neigh- 
bouring bishops  their  vicars-general;  so  in  the  archives 
of  the  diocese  we  find  documents  appointing  Bishop 
Rosati  vicar-general  to  the  Bishops  of  Quebec,  Bards- 
town,  St.  Boniface,  New  Orleans,  Cincinnati  and  Du- 
buque. The  State  of  lUinois  was  part  of  the  Diocese 
of  Bardstown,  Ky.,  established  in  1808,  yet  Bishop 
Flaget  in  exercising  his  episcopal  functions  along  the 
Mississippi  in  the  State  of  Illinois  ministered  to  the 
wants  of  Catholics  on  the  western  side  of  the  river, 
and  so  also  Bishop  Du  Bourg,  when  residing  at  St. 
Louis,  gave  his  attention  to  the  faithful  in  Illinois,  and 
in  this  Bishop  Rosati  also  followed  the  example  set. 
However,  in  the  year  1832,  Bishop  Rosati  wrote  to 
Rome  that  as  the  western  half  of  Illinois  had  hitherto 
been  cared  for  by  the  ordinary  of  St.  Louis  it  would 
prove  more  expedient  to  attach  it  to  the  See  of  St. 
Louis  not  only  de  facto  but  also  de  jure.  Pursuant  to 
this  suggestion  Rome,  when  erecting  the  See  of  Vin- 
cennes,  in  the  year  1834,  divided  the  State  of  Illinois 
and  attached  the  western  half  to  St.  Louis  and  the 
eastern  half  to  Vincennes;  thus  it  remained  until  the 
year  1844  when  the  Diocese  of  Chicago  was  estab- 
lished. 

The  Dioce-se  of  St.  Louis  at  the  time  of  its  erec- 
tion, as  is  found  in  Bishop  Rosati's  report  to  the 
Propaganda,  dated  1  Nov.,  182.5,  comprised  the 
northern  portion  of  the  so-called  "Louisiana  Pur- 
chase" including  Arkansas.  In  Mis,souri  Bishop 
Rosati  mentions  the  city,  St.  Louis,  where  there  was 
but  a  single  priest,  and,  as  he  says,  need  of  at  least 
two  more.  Here  the  church  begun  by  Bishop  Du 
Bourg  was  still  unfinished.  Financial  depression 
having  driven  away  some  and  prevented  others  from 
paying  their  subscriptions,  suit  was  entered  for  pay- 
ment of  the  church  debt  and  permission  asked  of  the 
State  to  sell  the  bishop's  house  and  other  church 
properties  to  meet  the  obligation.  Thus  the  condi- 
tions prevalent  were  by  no  means  encouraging; 
finally,  in  1822,  part  of  the  church  property  was  sold, 
including  the  parochial  residence,  as  also  a  building 
in  cour.se  of  construction  for  an  academy.  The  pur- 
cha.scr  gave  Bishop  Rosati  a  time  in  which  to  redeem 
it,  and  to  secure  necessar>'  means  he  sent  to  Europe 
Rev.  Francis  Neill,  in  the  hope  that  generous  Cath- 
olics there  would  aid  him  in  sa\ing  the  property. 
In  his  report  to  Rome,  Bishop  Rosati  (besides  St. 
Louis,  which  he  styled  the  most  imjxjrtant  city  of 
the  State  and  one  of  great  po.ssibilitics)  mentions  the 
following  others:  Carondelet,  or  \ide  Poche,  with  a 
hundred  very  poor  families  of  French  origin;  Floris- 
sant, cared  for  by  Father  Van  Quickenborn,  S.J.,  who 
was  in  charge  of  five  scholastics,  and  at  the  same  time 
directed  a  school  for  Indian  boys;  St.  Charles, 
Portage  des  Sioux,  Dardenne  (now  St.  Peter's);  Cote 
sans  Desain,  a  French  village  distant  about  ninety 
miles  from  St.  Louis;  La  Mine  di  Plumb  (Old  Mines), 
with  about  200  French  families;  St.  Michael's 
(Fredericktown);  Ste  Genevieve  with  resident  priest; 
the  Barrens  (French  Bois  Brule,  Latin  Sylra  Cre- 
mata),  consisting  then  of  about  200  families  at- 
tended by  one  of  the  Fathers  of  St.  Marj-'s  Sem- 
inary, with  16  students  of  theology'  in  attendance. 
Here  too  was  located  the  Loretto  Convent  with  17 
sisters  and  some  postulants;  though  .struggling  with 
difficulties  and  lack  of  funds  the  sisters  maintained  a 
free  school  and  cared  for  24  orphans.  The  last 
Louisiana  town  mentioned  in  the  report  was  New 
Madrid,  with  80  French  families.  In  Illinois  Bishop 
Rosati  notes  Kaskaskia  with  150  families,  and  Prairie 
du  Rocher,  with  church  and  resident  priest,  the  Rev. 
Father  Olivier,  aged  seventy-five  years,  who  was  almost 
blind  and  unable  to  render  any  services  to  the  parish. 


"I  have  offered  him  a  room  in  the  seminary",  writes 
the  bishop;  "he  is  a  saint  who  has  spent  himself 
for  many  years  in  the  service  of  Catholics  about  these 
parts." 

Aside  from  this  report  we  fiind,  in  other  documents 
extant,  mention  made  of  Apple  Creek  (1816);  Cape 
Girardeau  (1816);  Potosi  (1816);  Mine  La  Motte 
(1816);  Harrisonville  (1818);  and  the  Osage  Indian 
Nation  Missions  in  Kansas  (1822)  with  Rev.  Ch. 
de  La  Croix  as  pastor.  In  1818  Rev.  Michael  Portier 
was  resident  at  Brazeau,  Mo.,  and  in  1822  Rev. 
Hercules  Brassock  at  Drury,  111.,  but  as  no  mention 
of  these  names  is  found  before  or  after  this  time  we 
can  only  conclude  that  these  fathers  were  residing 
with  English-speaking  families  with  the  purpose 
probably  of  learning  English.    The  report  of  Bishop 


Thk  Cath 


St.  Louis 


Rosati  was  dated  1S2.5,  the  diocese  was  established 
in  1826;  yet  the  parishes  and  missions  remain  the 
same  in  1826  as  in  1825  and  so  continue  until  1831. 
In  1827  we  count  1  bishop,  4  secular  priests,  8  Lazarist 
fathers,  8  Jesuit  fathers;  a  total  of  20  priests.  In 
1831  there  were  11  churches  with  and  8  churches 
without  resident  priests;  20  missions;  1  bishop;  16 
secular  priests;  8  Lazarist  Fathers;  11  Jesuits;  a 
total  of  35  priests.  The  Catholic  population  num- 
bered 8000.  It  should  be  noted  that  on  20  Aug.,  1818, 
Ladies  of  the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  including 
Madame  Philippina  Duchesne,  Superior,  Octavia 
Berthold,  and  Eugenia  Audet,  with  two  lay  sisters 
arrived  in  St.  Louis  and  soon  after  located  at  St. 
Charles,  Mo.  In  October  of  the  same  year  the 
Lazarist  Fathers  came  from  Bardstown,  Ky.,  and 
settled  permanently  at  the  Barrens.  On  31  May, 
1823,  two  Jesuits,  Fathers  Charles  vanQuickenborn 
and  Peter  Timmermans,  with  seven  scholastics  and 
three  lay  brothers,  arrived,  and  soon  after  located  in 
Florissant,  Mo.,  while  on  the  same  day  of  the  same 
year  twelve  Sisters  of  Loretto  took  up  their  perma- 
nent residence  at  the  Barrens  in  Perry  County.  On 
25  November,  1829,  four  Sisters  of  Charity  arrived 
at  St.  Louis  from  Emmitsburg,  Maryland,  and  began 
their  labours  in  conducting  a  hospital,  to  found  which 
Mr.  John  Mullanphy  had  given  houses  and  lots 
and  other  properties.  On  30  May  of  the  same  year 
Bishop  Rosati  approved  of  the  foundation  of  the 
Visitation  Nuns  at  Kaskaskia,  111.;  these  later,  in 
1844,  scttlcfl  at  St.  Louis,  being  compelled  to  leave 
Kaskaskia  because  of  the  great  flood  of  that  year. 
On  5  March,  1836,  Rev.  James  Fontbonne  arrived  at 
St.  Louis  with  seven  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  from  the 
Diocese  of  Lyons,  France.  Four  Ursuline  Nuns 
arrived  on  4  Sept.,  1848.  The  Rev.  Joseph  Paquin 
was  the  first  priest  to  own  Missouri  as  his  native 
state.    He  was  born  at  New  Madrid,  4  Dec,  1799. 


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The  first  bishop  to  be  consecrated  in  the  Cathedral  of 
St.  Louis  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Bishoji  Rosati  was  the  Rt. 
Rev.  Michael  Portier,  titular  Hi.sliop  of  Oliensis  and 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Alabama  and  the  two  Floridas, 
the  consecration  taking  place  5  Nov.,  1826. 

Joseph  Rosati. — Born  at  Sora  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples  on  12  Jan.,  1789,  he  resolved  even  in  his  early 
days  to  con.secrate  his  life  to  the  service  of  God.  In 
his  youth  he  entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Fathers  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Mission  at  Rome,  was  there 
jirofessed,  and  ordained  a  priest.  No  record  of  his 
ordination  is  extant,  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  fact  that 
Napoleon  at  the  time  held  sway  in  the  Eternal  City, 
and  he  commanded  the  expulsion  and  suppression  of 
the  Lazarist  Fathers.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  it 
must  have  been  either  in  1811  or  1812,  as  documents 
show  that  on  19  Nov.,  1812,  the  usual  sacerdotal 
faculties  were  given  him  by  the  Cardinal  Vicar  of 
Rome.  His  first  charge  was  as  assistant  to  the  Rev. 
Felix  de  Andreis,  CM.  This  we  find  him  occupying 
when  in  the  year  181.5  Bishop  Du  Bourg  was  con- 
secrated in  Rome.  A  few  days  after  his  consecration 
Bishop  Du  Bourg  arranged  with  the  cardinal  prefect 
to  have  a  colony  of  Lazarist  Fathers  go  to  America 
to  found  a  seminar\'  and  take  up  missionary  work  in 
his  new  diocese.  Rev.  Felix  de  Andreis  was  ap- 
pointed superior  of  this  band,  and  he  selected  as  his 
associate  the  Rev.  Joseph  Rosati  and  the  Rev.  John 
B.  Aquaroni.  They,  together  with  four  lay  brothers 
and  two  secular  priests,  the  Revs.  Joseph  Carreti  and 
Andrew  Ferrari,  and  also  four  ecclesiastical  students, 
on  18  Oct.,  1815,  departed  from  Rome  for  their  future 
field  of  labour.  Bishop  Du  Bourg,  detained  at  Rome 
on  important  and  serious  business,  could  not  accom- 
pany them.  He,  therefore,  before  their  departure, 
appointed  Father  de  Andreis  his  vicar-general  and 
Father  Rosati  director  of  the  seminarians,  noting 
in  the  appointment  of  the  latter  that,  should  Rev. 
de  .\ndreis  die,  Father  Rosati  was  to  succeed  him  as 
vicar-gensral. 

On  7  Jan.,  1816,  the  colonists  arrived  at  Bordeaux, 
took  up  their  residence  in  the  archiepiscopal  palace 
and  remained  there  several  months,  applying  them- 
selves to  the  study  of  the  French  and  Enghsh  lan- 
guages. Finally,  12  June,  1816,  they  embarked  at 
Bordeaux  for  Baltimore  and  landed  there  27  July, 
1816;  thence  they  proceeded  by  stage  to  Pittsburg, 
and  here  were  delayed  several  weeks  because  of  low 
water  in  the  Ohio  River,  finally  arriving  at  Bards- 
town  during  October  of  1817.  Bishop  Flaget  received 
them  most  cordially  and  with  every  mark  of  affection, 
and  fjlaced  at  their  disposal  part  of  his  seminary. 
Here  thf-y  remained  studying  Engli.sh  under  the  tutor- 
ship of  Bishop  David,  then  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Flaget. 
Father  Rosati  in  a  very  short  time  had  advanced 
sufficifnily  to  be  able  to  preach  and  hear  confessions 
in  the  English  language,  and  aside  from  his  occupation 
as  profi's.sfjr  of  philosophy  and  theology  in  the  sem- 
inary, devote  himself  to  parochial  work.  Wlien  in 
June,  1817,  word  was  received  that  Bishop  Du  Bourg 
had  sailed  from  Bordeaux  and  would  arrive  at 
Annap^jlis  about  14  September  on  his  way  to  St. 
IjOu'ih,  Bishop  Haget  and  Fathers  de  Andreis  and 
R^wati,  with  one  lay  brother,  set  out  on  horseback 
from  Bardstown,  Ky.,  to  St.  Louis,  a  distance  of  over 
thrw-  hundred  miles,  there  to  arrange  a  reception  for 
the  bishop.  After  the  installation  of  Bishop  Du  Bourg 
at  St.  I^Miis,  Bishfip  Flaget  and  T-'ather  Rosati  re- 
turned to  Bardstown,  leaving  Father  de  Andreis 
and  Brother  Blanca  at  Ste  Genevieve,  Mo.  Father 
Rfwati  remained  at  Bardstown  as  rector  of  the 
8f!minar\'  until  October,  1818,  when  by  order  of 
Bishop  Dii  Bourg  the  seminary  was  transferred  to 
the  Barrens,  Perr>'  Cc;unty,  Mo.  Father  Rosati  was 
its  first  pn-sident  and  alw<  pastor  of  the  villag«-  church. 
On  1.5  Oct.,  lS2f),  the  venerated  de  Andreis  died  and 
was  succeeded  by  leather  Rosati  as  superior  of  the 


Lazarist  Fathers  and  as  vicar-general  of  Bishop 
Du  Bourg.  Admirably  did  he  accomplish  the  work 
devolving  on  him  by  virtue  of  his  new  appointnient. 
Soon,  without  any  conscious  effort,  he  found  him.self 
surrounded  by  a  body  of  enthusi;\stic  and  willing  co- 
labourers,  and  his  ability  and  scholarship  were  soon 
manifest  throughout  the  land. 

In  1S21  Bishop  Du  Bourg  intended  separating 
Missi.ssippi  and  other  territory  from  his  diocese  and 
pleaded  for  the  appointment  of  Father  Rosati  as 
vicar  Apostolic.  This  dignity  the  latter's  humility 
prompted  him  to  decline,  but  later  on  Rome  nominated 
him  titular  Bishop  of  Tenagre,  and  coadjutor  to 
Bishop  Du  Bourg.  He  was  enjoined  under  obedience 
to  accept  the  nomination,  and  he  remained  in  this 
office  until  the  establishment  of  the  Diocese  of  St. 
Louis,  when  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  its  destinies 
and  entrusted  with  the  administration  of  the  See  of 
New  Orleans.  His  worth  as  bishop  can  be  gleaned 
from  the  results  of  his  administration.  Numerous 
religious  orders  were  introduced,  and  during  his  time 
and  partly  by  his  efforts,  the  Jesuit  Fathers  estab- 
li.shed  their  novitiate  at  Florissant,  Mo.,  and  founded 
the  western  province  of  the  order.  In  1827  Bishop 
Rosati  transferred  to  them  the  College  at  St.  Louis 
which  has  since  grown  into  the  present  University 
of  St.  Louis.  The  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  the 
Visitation  Nuns,  and  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  grew 
and  developed  by  his  advice  and  under  his  guidance. 
A  home  for  the  orphans,  an  institute  for  deaf- 
mutes  and  the  St.  Louis  Mullanphy  Hospital  were 
made  possible  by  his  zeal  and  untiring  efforts.  In 
the  year  1831  he  began  the  building  of  the 
cathedral  church,  a  beautiful,  stately,  and  at  the 
same  time  costly,  structure,  the  cornerstone  of 
which  was  solemnly  blessed  and  laid  by  him  on 
1  Aug.,  1831. 

The  solemn  consecration  of  the  cathedral  took 
place  on  26  Oct.,  1834,  Bishop  Rosati  himself  lieing 
the  consecrator,  assisted  by  Bishops  Flaget  of  Bards- 
town, Purcell  of  Cincinnati,  and  Brutd  of  Vincennes 
in  presence  of  many  priests  and  a  great  concourse  of 
people.  Here  too,  only  two  days  later,  he  conse- 
crated the  venerated  Bishop  Brut6.  Even  to-day  the 
cathedral  stands,  a  monument  of  the  faith  and  devo- 
tion of  the  Catholics  of  old  St.  Louis,  the  wonder  and 
the  admiration  of  all  because  of  its  purity  of  archi- 
tecture and  solidity  of  construction.  In  the  midst  of 
his  distracting  and  arduous  duties  Bishop  Rosati  yet 
found  time  for  study  and  literary  work.  As  a  writer 
he  was  clear  and  convincing  and  many  of  the  ablest 
and  most  learned  documents  of  the  Four  Provincial 
Councils  of  Baltimore  are  the  results  of  his  pen.  He 
was  a  prudent,  efficient  administrator  and  an  elo- 
quent speaker,  speaking  equally  well  in  Italian, 
French,  and  English.  Mis  audiences  included  men  of 
every  rank  and  station  and  so  convincing  were  his 
words  and  so  impressive  his  personality,  that  his  (!on- 
verts  during  the  year  1839  luunbered  299.  His  con- 
fessional was  always  surrounded  by  penitents  and  in 
and  out  of  the  confessional  he  was  accessible  to  all 
who  sought  his  friendship  or  advice.  He  permitted 
himself  to  call  no  time  his  own,  but  at  all  hours  was 
reaxly  to  bestow  his  best  attention  upon  any  person 
who  might  ch'sire  to  .speak  with  him;  thus  he  came  to 
wield  a  might v  influence  for  good. 

On  2.5  April,  1840,  he  attended  the  Fourth  Provin- 
cial Cxiuncil  of  BaltiriK)re  and  after  its  close  departed 
for  Rome,  where  h<>  was  most  graciously  received  by 
Pope  Gregory  XVI.  App.)inted  by  tlx'  pope  Apos- 
tolic Delegate  to  Hayti,  he  was  coiiimi.ssioned  to 
afljust  the  relationship  betwe<'n  the  Holy  See  and  the 
Republic  of  Hayti;  he  aceei)ted  the  api)ointment  In 
floing  HO,  how<'ver,  he  did  not  fail  to  note  the  danger 
of  leaving  his  farn-xtending  and  yet  undeveloped  dio- 
ces*'  during  so  U)ng  a  time  without  a  leader;  conse- 
quently he  advised  the  appointment  of  a  coadjutor. 


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This  Rome  agreed  to  and  asked  him  to  name  his 
choice;  he  thereupon  proposed  the  name  of  the  Very 
Rev.  Peter  Richard  Kenrick,  vicar-general  to  the  Rt. 
Rev.  Francis  Patrick  Kenrick  of  Philadelphia;  at  the 
same  time  he  drew  attention  to  the  fact  that  only  a 
short  time  before  he  had  petitioned  Rome  to  appoint 
as  his  coadjutor  the  Very  Rev.  John  Timon,  C.M., 
and  that  Father  Timon  had  declined  the  honour. 
Now,  he  argued,  in  order  to  prevent  a  recurrence  of 
the  same  nature  it  might  be  well  to  oblige  Father  Ken- 
rick under  obedience  to  accept  the  office.  That 
Rome  acted  on  the  suggestion  is  clear  from  a  letter  of 
the  Rt.  Rev.  Francis  Patrick  Kenrick,  dated  Phila- 
delphia, 4  June,  1841,  addressed  to  Bishop  Rosati  in 
which  we  read:  "the  positive  wishes  of  His  Holiness 
have,  I  believe,  secured  my  brother's  full  acquies- 
cence". Before  going  to  Hayti  Bishop  Rosati  re- 
turned to  the  United  States,  and  on  30  Nov.,  1841,  at 
the  cathedral  church  at  Philadelphia,  he  consecrated 
the  Rt.  Rev.  Peter  Richard  Kenrick  titular  Bishop  of 
Drasa  and  coadjutor  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  Louis. 
Having  arranged  the  affairs  of  his  diocese,  and  in- 
formed himself  as  well  as  po.ssible  regarding  matters 
at  Hayti,  he  set  sail  from  New  York,  15  Jan.,  1842, 
and  landed  at  Port  au  Prince  on  the  twenty-ninth  day 
of  the  same  month,  where  he  was  received  with  every 
mark  of  respect.  Success  crowned  his  efforts  in  so  far 
as  he  was  able  to  convince  the  president  of  the  advisa- 
bility of  signing  a  Concordat  which  should  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  Holv  See  for  approval. 

He  left  Hayti  22  Februarys  1842,  landed  at  Brest, 
France,  on  Easter  Sunday,  and  from  there  proceeded 
to  Rome  to  report  the  result  of  his  endeavours  to  the 
pope.  The  remainder  of  the  year  he  spent  in  Eu- 
rope. In  the  spring  of  1843,  the  Concordat  having 
been  signed  at  Rome,  he  journeyed  to  Paris  to  arrange 
for  his  return  trip  to  Hayti.  It  is  of  interest  to  note 
that  on  his  trip  to  Paris  he  met  and  travelled  with  the 
papal  nuncio  to  Brussels,  the  Most  Rev.  Vincenzo 
Gioacchino  Pecci;  titular  Archbishop  of  Damietta, 
afterwards  the  illustrious  Leo  XIII,  and  that  the 
latter  in  1881,  in  speaking  of  this  meeting,  said  that 
never  during  his  days  had  he  met  with  a  prelate  so 
saintlv  {nessuno  si  satilo)  and  so  imbued  with  filial 
love  and  respect  for  the  pope.  When  Bishop  Rosati 
reached  Paris  his  health,  long  before  undermined 
by  the  privations  and  exposures  of  his  missif)nar\- 
life  in  the  Far  West,  gave  way;  he  was  stricken  with 
an  acute  attack  of  lung  trouble,  which  he  had  con- 
tracted during  the  previous  month  of  February,  and, 
acting  on  the  advice  of  his  physicians,  he  returned  to 
Rome,  where  he  died  in  the  House  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Fathers  of  the  Mission  on  25  Sept.,  1843. 
Coming  to  Missouri  in  the  primeval  days  of  its  settle- 
ment, when  it  had  scarcely  a  vestige  of  Catholicity,  he 
left  the  diocese  in  a  flourishing  and  prosperous  condi- 
tion. Preparatory  to  the  first  Diocesan  Synod  of  St. 
Louis,  convoked  by  him,  and  opened  21  April,  1839, 
he  issued  a  call  for  a  diocesan  census,  the  result  of 
which  shows:  a  Catholic  population  of  31,503;  3  con- 
vents of  the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  with  42  sis- 
ters; 1  orphan  asylum  and  hospital  in  charge  of  the 
Sisters  of  Charity  (19  sisters);  4  convents  of  the  Sis- 
ters of  Loretto,  with  30  sisters;  2  convents  of  the  Sis- 
ters of  St.  Joseph,  with  11  sisters;  1  convent  of  Visita- 
tion Nuns,  with  19  sisters;  4  ecclesiastical  seminaries, 
with  30  clerics;  3  colleges;  7  charitable  institutions. 
In  1842  we  find  39  churches  with  resident  priests;  6 
chapels;  36  churches  without  resident  priests;  60  mis- 
sions; 2  bishops;  29  secular  priests;  21  Lazarist 
Fathers;  28  Jesuits;  a  total  of  80  priests.  The  Catho- 
lic population  at  this  time  is  given  as  100,000.  Bishop 
Rosati  died  25  Sept.,  1843,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Peter  Richard  Kenrick. 

First  Archbishop,  Peter  Richard  Kenrick  (1841- 
1895). — Some  lives  there  are  that  mark  an  epoch — 
lives  which  by  virtue  of  their  striking  power  or  unique 


position,  or  both,  stand  apart  and  form  landmarks  in 
history.  Such  was  the  life  of  Peter  Richard  Kenrick, 
the  second  Bishop  and  the  first  Archbishop  of  the 
Diocese  of  St.  Louis;  for  an  account  of  his  life  see 
Kenrick,  Francis  Patrick  and  Peter  Richard. 

On  20  July,  1847,  St.  Louis  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  an  archdiocese  and  Bishop  Kenrick  became  its  first 
archbishop.  No  suffragans,  however,  were  assigned 
to  him  as  at  the  time  other  archiepiscoi)al  sees  were 
under  contemplation  in  the  territon,-.  On  25  May, 
1S50,  he  issued  a  call  for  the  Second  Diocesan  Synod 
and  on  the  twenty-fifth  of  the  following  August,  43 
priests  of  the  diocese  assembled  in  council.  This 
synod,  which  was  the  only  one  held  during  his  life, 
passed  regulations  which  obtained  during  his  admin- 
istration. He  also  presided  at  the  two  Provincial 
Councils  convoked  by  him,  the  first  7  Sept.,  1855,  the 
second,  5  Sept.,  1858;  a  third  was  called  for  May, 
1861,  but  was  postponed  because  of  the  impending 
Civil  War.  On  3  May,  1857,  Archbishop  Kenrick 
consecrated  the  Rt.  Rev.  James  Duggan  his  coadju- 
tor. One  year  later  Bishop  Duggan  was  transferred 
to  the  See  of  Chicago. 

In  the  spring  of  1872  Archbishop  Kenrick  secured 
the  appointment  of  the  Very  Rev.  Patrick  J.  Ryan  as 
his  second  coadjutor.  The  consecration  services  were 
held  in  St.  Louis  and  Father  Ryan,  on  14  February, 
1872,  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Tricomia  and 
coadjutor  to  the  Archbishop  of  St.  Louis  with  the  right 
of  succession.  Bishop  Ryan  remained  coadjutor  until 
8  June,  1884,  when  he  was  promoted  to  the  Archi- 
episcopal  See  of  Philadelphia.  After  the  departure 
of  Archbi.shop  Ryan,  Archbishop  Kenrick  resumed, 
unaided,  the  administration  of  his  diocese.  In  1893, 
because  of  age  and  infirmities  incidental  thereto, 
he  found  it  impossible  to  continue  alone  the  adminis- 
tration and  Rome  sent  him  as  coadjutor  with  the  right 
of  succession,  the  Right  Rev.  John  J.  Kain,  Bishop  of 
Wheeling,  W.  Va.  Three  years  later,  on  3  March, 
1896,  Archbishop  Kenrick  died  in  the  archiepiscopal 
residence  at  St.  Louis.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learn- 
ing, of  modest,  unassuming  manner,  never  too  re- 
served and  never  too  familiar,  in  fact  a  spiritual  man, 
a  man  of  great  soul,  to  whom  littleness  and  meanness 
were  unknown.  He  seldom  came  forward  except  in 
defence  of  Catholic  truth  and  of  Catholic  interests 
that  were  attacked,  and  then  rather  in  writing  than 
in  public  meetings.  His  main  work  lay  hidden  from 
the  public  eye;  this  work  was  to  organize,  consolidate, 
and  expand  his  diocese;  to  foster  the  ecclesiastical 
spirit  among  his  priests;  to  counsel  wisely  and  pru- 
dently his  brother  bishops,  his  clergy  and  people  of 
every  rank  and  condition.  For  such  work  it  was  that 
he  became  so  well-known  and  so  highly  esteemed,  and 
that  his  name  ranks  so  high  in  the  history  of  the 
Church  in  America. 

During  the  life  of  Archbishop  Kenrick  the  expan- 
sion of  the  Church  in  the  Diocese  of  St.  Louis  was  un- 
precedented. Prior  to  1843  there  were  but  three 
churches  in  the  City  of  St.  Louis:  the  cathedral, 
SS.  Mary's  and  Joseph's,  and  the  Church  of  St.  Fran- 
cis Xavier,  and  only  39  throughout  the  entire  dio- 
cese. At  the  time  of  his  death  we  find  58  parish 
churches  in  the  City  of  St.  Louis  and  108  outside  the 
city,  also  26  chapels  and  97  mission  churches,  with  a 
Catholic  population  of  nearly  200,000.  In  1849,  he 
introduced  the  Christian  Brothers;  in  1862,  the  Fran- 
ciscan Fathers;  in  1866,  the  Redemptorist  Fathers; 
in  1869,  the  Ale.xian  Brothers;  in  1884,  the  Passionist 
leathers;  in  1848,  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd;  in 
1849,  the  Ursuline  Nuns;  in  1856,  the  Sisters  of  Mercv; 
in  1858,  the  Notre  Dame  Sisters;  in  1863,  the  Dis- 
calced  Carmelites;  in  1869,  the  Little  Sisters  of  the 
Poor;  in  1872,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Mary  and  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Francis;  in  1880,  the  Oblate  Sisters  of  Provi- 
dence, and  in  1882,  the  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood. 
In  1843  he  founded  a  monthly  Catholic  magazine, 


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"The  Catholic  Cabinet  and  Chronicle  of  Religious 
Intelhgence",  in  1850  a  weekly  publication  called 
"The  Shepherd  of  the  Valley",  which  was  discon- 
tinued in  1S54.  To  sj'stematize  works  of  charity  he 
established  in  1847  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society, 
which  organization  grew  and  expanded  and  still  con- 
tinues its  noble  work  in  aiding  the  destitute  and  dis- 
tressed. In  1892  "The  Queen's  Daughters"  were 
organized,  a  societ}'  of  ladies  who  devote  their  ener- 
gies to  forming  sewing  classes  among  the  poorer  peo- 
ple, teaching  the  scholars  useful  and  beneficial  arts, 
and  providing  clothing  and  other  necessaries  for  the 
poor  and  deser\-ing.  Archbishop  Kenrick  further- 
more organized  the  New  Cathedral  Board,  the  Catho- 
lic Orphan  Board,  the  Calvary  Cemeterj'  Board,  and 
the  Diocesan  Seminary  Board,  each  of  which  he  duly 
incorporated.  He  secured  the  property  and  build- 
ings of  the  Visitation  Xuns  in  the  City  of  St.  Louis 
for  the  new  Kenrick  Seminar^'  and  began  the  fund 
for  the  erection  of  a  new  cathedral.  During  his  epis- 
copate sixteen  new  sees  were  formed  and  established 
out  of  the  original  Diocese  of  St.  Louis:  Little  Rock, 
1843;  Santa  Fe  and  St.  Paul,  1850;  Leavenworth, 
1851;  Alton  and  Omaha,  1857;  Green  Bay,  La 
Crosse,  St.  Joseph,  and  Denver,  1868;  Kansas  City, 
1880;  Davenport,  1881;  Wichita,  Concordia,  Chey- 
enne, and  Lincoln,  1887.  At  the  time  of  his  death  in 
1896  diocesan  statistics  show:  city  parishes,  61; 
parishes  outside  the  City  of  St.  Louis,  114;  missions 
with  churches,  94;  stations,  40;  chapels  with  attend- 
ing chaplains,  27;  archbishops,  2;  diocesan  priests, 
229;  regulars,  121;  total  priests,  350;  Cathohc  popu- 
lation, 200,000. 

Second  Archbishop,  John  Joseph  Kain  (1895-1903). 
— He  was  bom  at  Martinsburg,  Berkeley  County,  W. 
Va.,  31  March,  1841.  After  attending  the  Martinsburg 
Academy,  he  entered  St.  Charles  College  at  EUicott 
City,  Md.,  where  he  finished  hLs  Classical  studies.  He 
made  his  theological  studies  at  St.  Marj^'s  Seminary, 
Baltimore,  and  was  there  ordained  priest  on  2  July, 
1866.  His  first  appointment  was  as  pastor  of  Harper's 
Ferrj',  W.  ^'a.,  and  with  it  as  a  centre  he  ministered  to 
the  spiritual  wants  of  the  Catholics  of  eight  counties. 
After  nine  years'  pastorate,  when  only  thirty-four  years 
of  age,  he  was  selected  by  Rome  to  succeed  Bishop 
WTielan  as  Bishop  of  Wheeling,  W.  Va.  He  was  con- 
secrated in  the  Cathedral  of  Wheeling  23  May,  1875. 
In  1893  Rome  created  him  ^Vrchbishop  of  Oxyrynchia 
and  coadjutor  to  Archbishop  Kenrick,  and  on  31  Aug., 
of  the  same  year,  he  came  to  St.  Louis.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  see  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  Louis,  21  May, 
1895.  During  his  administration  he  manifested  the 
same  strenuous  and  efficient  efforts  that  had  charac- 
terized hLs  labours  in  his  former  diocese.  During 
Sept.,  1893,  he  opened  the  new  Kenrick  Seminary  and 
in  Sept.,  1896,  he  presided  over  the  Third  Diocesan 
Synod.  At  this  Synod  he  introduced  into  the  diocese 
the  Third  Baltimore  Council  legislations,  and  redis- 
tricted  and  readjusted  parish  boundaries  and  regulated 
diocesan  matters  in  general.  He  also  began  the  re- 
organization of  the  parochial  school  system.  In  Sep- 
tember, VMYl,  he  held  the  Fourth  Diocesan  Synod  in 
which  diocesan  Ifgislation  was  further  perfected.  Other 
notable  works  of  this  energetic  prelate  were  the  pur- 
chasing of  the  new  cathedral  site  on  Lindell  Boule- 
vard, the  establishment  of  the  new  cathedral  parish. 
the  erecting  of  the  new  cathedral  chapel  and  paro- 
chial Hisidence,  and  the  preliminary  financing  of  the 
new  cathedral  project.  In  all  his  works  he  showed 
himself  pf)ss*'s.sfd  of  a  great  courage  and  determina- 
tion, and  accf)mplishfd  for  the  diocese  by  his  energy, 
labour  and  endurance  that  which  his  venerable  prede- 
cessor h'jA.  during  hi.s  late  years  planned,  but  becau.se 
of  his  great  age  necessarily  failed  to  accomplish. 
Archbishop  Kain  was  a  man  of  great  earnestness  and 
singleness  of  heart,  noted  for  the  prudence  of  his 
counsels  as  well  as  for  the  intensity  of  his  convictions; 


an  admirable  exemplar  of  progressive  conservatism 
and  conservative  progressiveness.  He  held  a  high 
place  in  the  American  hierarchy,  as  is  evidenced  from 
the  fact  of  his  being  chosen  from  among  the  bishops  of 
the  countrj^  in  1884  as  procurator  of  the  Third  Council 
of  Baltimore,  and  that  in  1895  he  was  selected  to  de- 
hver  the  sermon  in  the  cathedral  at  Baltimore  on  the 
occasion  of  the  conferring  of  the  cardinal's  biretta  on 
His  Eminence  Cardinal  SatolU,  the  first  Apostolic 
Delegate  to  America.  In  1902  his  health  failed,  and 
Rome  sent  him  at  his  request  as  coadjutor,  with  right 
of  succession,  the  Rt.  Rev.  John  Joseph  Glen- 
non,  D.D.,  titular  Bishop  of  Pinara,  and  coadjutor 
Bishop  of  Kansas  City,  Mo.  Archbishop  Kain  died 
at  Baltimore,  13  Oct.,  1903.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
the  diocesan  census  showed:  city  churches,  68; 
churches  outside  the  city  with  resident  pastore,  124; 
missions  58;  1  archbishop;  1  bishop;  268  diocesan 
priests;  and  174  regulars;  total  442.  Cathohc  pop- 
ulation, 220,000. 

Third  Archbishop,  John  Joseph  Glennon  (1903 — ). — 
He  was  born  14  July,  1862,  at  Kinnegad,  Parish  of 
Clonard,  Co.  Meath,  Ireland.  He  completed  his  studies 
at  All  Hallows'  College,  Ireland,  came  to  America  in 
1883,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Diocese  of  Kan- 
sas City  in  the  cathedral  of  that  city  on  20  Dec,  1884. 
In  1893  he  was  appointed  vicar-general  of  the  diocese, 
and  on  29  June,  1896,  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop 
of  Pinara  and  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Hogan  of  Kansas 
City,  Mo.  He  was  transferred  to  St.  Louis  as  coad- 
jutor with  the  right  of  succession  on  27  April,  1903, 
and  succeeded  to  the  See  of  St.  Louis  on  13  October 
of  the  same  year.  During  the  time  of  his  adminis- 
tration the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Louis  has  advanced  with 
rapid  strides,  both  in  temporal  and  spiritual  matters. 
Many  churches  and  institutions  have  been  estab- 
lished and  built,  and  Church  legislation  has  been  am- 
plified and  perfected  by  the  Fifth  and  the  Sixth 
Diocesan  Synods  called  and  presided  over  by  him 
during  the  months  of  September  of  the  years  1905 
and  1908;  also  various  charity  organizations  have 
been  systematically  perfected,  and  new  ones  founded 
to  answer  the  needs  of  the  poor,  especially  in  con- 
gested districts.  During  his  time  we  note  the  organi- 
zation of  the  "Ephpheta  Society"  (1909),  a  society 
whose  object  is  to  care  for  the  Catholic  deaf-mute 
children  of  the  poor  and  provide  means  for  their  edu- 
cation; the  establishment  of  Father  Dunne's  News- 
boys' Home  in  1905;  Father  Dempsej''s  Hotel  for 
Homeless  Men  in  1906;  the  introduction  of  the  Help- 
ers of  the  Holy  Souls  in  1903;  the  Brothers  of  Mary 
(Western  Province  College  and  novitiate  in  1908); 
and  the  establishment  of  Catholic  settlement  schools 
and  day  nurseries  in  1910.  To  this  prelate  has  been 
entrusted  the  task  of  giving  to  St.  Louis  what  had 
been  the  dream  of  Kenrick  and  the  ambition  of  Kain — 
a  cathedral  worthy  of  the  name  and  prestige  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  St.  Louis.  Soon  after  taking  up  Arch- 
bishop Kain's  crosier,  he  set  to  work  drafting  jilans 
and  collecting  funds  for  the  erection  of  tlie  cathedral, 
the  corner-stone  of  which  was  laid  on  Sunday,  18  Oct., 
1908,  by  the  Most  Rev.  Apostolic  Delegate  Diomede 
Falconio,  D.D.,  titular  Archbishop  of  Larissa.  On 
this  occasion  seventy-nine  city  parislies  i)articipated 
in  the  grand  parade,  making  the  largest  demonstra- 
tion ever  seen  in  the  city;  it  was  al.so  of  extraordinary 
character  in  the  nationalities  rejjresented. 

The  exterior  of  the  cathedral  is  an  original  concep- 
tion, Byzantine  in  sentiment,  developed  in  a  beauti- 
ful gray  granite  which  lends  itself  happily  to  majestic 
piling,  and  is  simple  but  romantic  in  expression. 
The  openings  are  treated  in  receding  colonnades, 
architraves,  and  archivolts,  witli  ])rofuse  and  elabo- 
rate carved  and  sculptured  d<'corations,  each  77iolif 
being  from  a  special  design,  original  in  character.  The 
great  central  dome,  forming  the  main  central  feature 
and  rgaring  its  croQ8.347  feet  above  the  terrace,  the 


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main  fagade  with  its  imposing  gable  and  deep  receding 
central  rose-window,  and  three  great  main  entrances 
below,  flanked  on  either  side  with  imposing  isolated 
towers  giving  great  breadth  to  the  fagade,  present  a 
front  of  great  dignity  and  charm.  The  sides,  with 
many  gabled  entrances,  one-story  chapels  and  great 
clerestory  windows,  the  suppressed  towers  at  the 
angle  of  the  dome  and  central  transepts  form  a  beau- 
tiful combination,  giving  fine  light-and-shadow  ef- 
fects. The  building  is  roofed  with  a  sea-green  glazed 
tile;  the  typana  of  all  the  arches,  illuminated  with 
mosaics  in  subdued  colours,  impart  warmth  and  in- 
terest to  the  whole.  The  building  has  great  bronze 
doors  with  sculptured  panels  depicting  Bibhcal  sub- 
jects. The  interior  is  of  a  purely  Byzantine  type, 
an  original  composition  in  colours  never  before  at- 
tempted in  this  type  of  church  architecture.  The 
general  plan  consists  of  two  minor  domes,  a  large  cen- 
tral dome,  and  a  nave,  with  transepts  and  apse,  sur- 
rounded with  spacious  ambulatories,  through  which 
the  circuit  of  the  church  may  be  made  without  cross- 
ing the  more  sacred  parts  of  the  building.  There  are 
spacious  chapels  with  groined  and  vaulted  ceilings  to 
the  right  and  left  of  the  sanctuary;  these  are  dedica- 
ted to  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  the  Blessed  Virgin. 
Other  chapels  of  equal  importance  are  on  either  side 
of  the  front  minor  dome,  while  two  transepts  form 
chapels  dedicated  to  St.  Ivouis  and  St.  George.  In 
the  ambulatory  circling  these  transepts  are  Stations 
of  the  Cro.ss  in  bronze.  The  colonnade's  are  of  rare 
imported  coloured  marbles,  the  cai)s  and  bases  of 
which  are  finished  in  gold  with  shatlowcd  blues  and 
reds.  The  ceilings,  s])andrils  and  arch  balustrade 
are  decorated  with  highly  illuminated  glass  mosaics, 
of  varied  interlacing  geometries  i)at terns  and  religious 
emblems.  The  interior  presents  an  ever-changing 
vista  of  design  and  colour  when  observed  from  differ- 
ent points  of  view. 

The  statistics  of  the  diocese  (1911)  are  as  follows: 
archbishop,  1;  diocesan  priests,  314;  regular  clergy, 
214;  Jesuits,  83;  Passionists,  12;  Redemptorists, 
40;  Franciscans,  32;  Lazarists,  42;  Servite  Fathers, 
2;  Brothers  of  Mary,  3;  total  priests,  528;  churches  in 
city,  83;  churches  outside  city  with  resident  priests, 
159;  total,  242;  churches  without  resident  priests,  98; 
total  churches,  340;  stations,  66;  chapels,  120;  semi- 
nary for  diocesan  clergy,  1;  students,  250;  semina- 
ries of  religious  orders,  7;  students,  900;  colleges  and 
academies  for  boys,  8;  students,  2500;  academies  for 
young  ladies,  22;  other  institutions  of  higher  educa- 
tion for  females,  15;  females  educatccl  in  higher 
branches,  .')()()();  i)ari.shes  with  parochial  schools  in  the 
city,  69;  number  of  jjupils  in  city,  20, 93(1;  parochial 
schools  outside  of  city,  110;  i)U])ils,  (MUo;  total  schools, 
179;  total  i)upils,  30,5S1;  new.sboys'  home,  1;  hotel  for 
working  men,  1;  oi-phan  asylums,  7;  orphans,  1500; 
House  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  1 ;  children  in  preservation 
class,  250;  deaf-mute  asylums,  2;  pupils,  190;  indus- 
trial schools,  3;  pupils,  300;  total  number  of  young 
people  under  Catholic  care,  40,321 ;  hospitals  and  in- 
firmaries, 16;  patients  during  the  year,  about  10,000; 
asylums,  4;  homes  for  aged,  2;  Catholic  population, 
about  375,000. 

The  statistics  of  the  diocese  at  the  time  of  this  writ- 
ing, June,  1911,  are  as  above  quoted,  but  by  "Brief  of 
the  Consistoriale "  dated  Rome,  16  June,  1911,  the 
northern  portion  of  the  diocese  has  been  detached  and 
affiliated  to  the  Diocese  of  St.  Joseph,  Mo.  This  will 
necessitate  a  readjustment  of  the  above  figures  which 
cannot  just  now  be  done  with  any  degree  of  accu- 
racy. The  territory  affected  comprises  11  counties: 
Clsirk,  Adair,  Knox,  Lewis,  Macon,  Shelby,  Marion, 
Chariton,  Randolph,  Monroe,  and  Ralls.  In  the  coun- 
ties named  there  are  numbered  15  parishes  with  16 
missions  and  20  diocesan  and  3  regular  priests. 

RosATi,  Relazione,  Letters  to  the  Propaganda  and  Private 
Letters;  Idem,  Diocesan  Archives;  Shea,  Hist,  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  the  U.S.,  I  (Akron,  1888),  paasim;  Thornton,  Historical 


Sketch  of  the  Church  in  St.  Louis;  Walsh,  Jubilee  Memoirs  (St. 
Louis,  1891);  Encycl.  of  the  Hist,  of  St.  Louis  (St.  Louis,  1899); 
Catholic  Directory  (Milwaukee).  JoHN  J.   TaNNRATH. 

University  of  St.  Louis,  probably  the  oldest  uni- 
versity west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  was  founded  in 
the  City  of  St.  Louis  in  1818  by  the  Right  Reverend 
Louis  William  Du  Bourg,  Bishop  of  Louisiana.  Since 
1827  the  institution  has  been  under  the  direction  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus.  On  16  November,  1818,  Bishop 
Du  Bourg  opened  St.  Louis  Academy,  putting  it  in 
charge  of  the  Reverend  Francois  Niel  and  others  of 
the  secular  clergy  attached  to  St.  Louis  Cathedral;  in 
1820  the  name  of  the  institution  was  changed  to  St. 
Louis  College.  The  college  was  successful,  but  the 
secular  clergy,  owing  to  their  numerous  ecclesiastical 
duties,  found  it  difficult  to  attend  to  this  professorial 
work.  In  consequence  Bishop  Du  Bourg,  who  had 
been  President  of  Georgetown  College,  soon  began  to 
formulate  plans  to  put  St.  Louis  College  in  care  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  for  he  realized  that  its  existence 
would  be  precarious  without  some  such  guarantee  for 
supplying  a  corps  of  trained  professors.  He  there- 
fore made  application  to  the  Provincial  of  the  Jesuits 
in  Maryland,  but  his  reejuest  could  not  be  granted, 
as  the  establishments  of  the  Society  at  Georgetown 
anrl  elsewhere  in  the  (^astern  states  fully  occupied  all 
the  members  at  that  time.  However,  early  in  1823, 
Bishop  Du  Bourg  visited  Washington  to  consult  with 
James  M(jnroe,  President  of  the  United  States,  and 
John  C.  Calhoun,  Secretary  of  War,  on  the  Indian 
affairs  of  his  diocese.  Mr.  Calhoun  suggested  that  he 
invite  the  Miuyland  Jesuits  to  give  him  their  assist- 
ance in  this  difficult  pioneer  work.  Bishop  Du  Bourg 
tliereujjon  once  more  entered  into  negotiations  with 
the  Provincial  of  Maiyland,  offering  to  make  over  to 
the  Society  of  Jesus  his  cathedral  property  in  St. 
Louis,  which  comprised  church  and  college,  as  well  as 
a  farm  near  Florissant,  Mo.,  for  an  Indian  seminary, 
if  the  Jesuits  would  establish  themselves  in  his  dio- 
ce.se.  The  provincial  a(;c(>pt(>d  that  part  of  the  propo- 
sition which  referred  to  the  Indian  seminary,  but 
stated  that  priests  could  not  b(>  si)are(l  for  the  St. 
Louis  educational  project.  Accordingly  in  June, 
1823,  the  Jesuits  from  Whitemarsh,  Md.,  took  up 
their  abode  in  Florissant  where  they  opened  an  In- 
dian seminary.  In  1S24  they  yielded  to  Bishop  Du 
Bourg's  earnest  solieiitations  to  take  over  St.  Louis 
College,  but  the  transfer  was  not  actually  effected 
until  1827. 

The  last  session  of  St.  Louis  College  under  the  man- 
agement of  the  secular  clergy  was  that  of  1826-27. 
The  Jesuits  decided  to  erect  new  college  buildings  on 
property  given  by  Bishop  Du  Bourg,  and  in  the  in- 
terval the  pupils  of  St.  Louis  College  were  accommo- 
dated at  Florissant.  Thence  they  were  transferred 
to  the  new  establishment  in  St.  Louis  where  classes 
were  opened  under  Jesuit  masters  on  2  November, 
1829.  In  its  new  environments  the  college  flour- 
ished, and  in  1832  received  its  charter  as  a  univer- 
sity by  act  of  the  Missouri  Legislature.  President 
Verhaegen  at  once  began  to  organize  the  post-gradu- 
ate faculties.  In  1834  the  school  of  divinity  was  es- 
tablished, which  continued  its  courses  until  1860.  A 
faculty  of  medicine  was  constituted  in  1836  and  was 
eminently  successful  until  1855  when,  owing  to  the 
Know-Nothing  movement,  its  separation  from  the 
university  was  deen.ed  advisable.  A  law  school  was 
organized  in  1843  but  was  closed  four  years  later. 
In  1889  the  work  of  reconstructing  these  faculties 
was  begun.  The  school  of  philosophy  and  science 
was  opened  in  1889;  the  school  of  divinity  in  1899; 
the  school  of  medicine  in  1903;  the  dental  college, 
school  of  advanced  science,  and  institute  of  law  in 
1908;  the  department  of  meteorology  and  seismology 
in  1909;  and  the  school  of  commerce  and  finance  in 
1910.  Although  founded  in  the  pioneer  days  of  ed- 
ucation in  the  West,  the  old  professional  schools  of 


SAINT  LOUIS 


364 


SAINT  LOUIS 


the  university  did  excellent  work.  Dr.  William  Beau- 
mont, widely  known  for  his  ob.servat  ion.s  in  the  case 
of  Alexis  St.  Martin,  was  among  the  first  professors 
of  the  medical  school.  Rush  Medical  College  of 
Chicago  owes  its  existence  to  an  early  professor  at  the 
school.  Dr.  Brainard,  and  the  Cooper  Medical  Col- 
lege of  San  P>ancisco  was  founded  by  an  alumnus, 
Dr.  Cooper.  Another  student  of  those  early  days, 
Dr.  L.  C.  Boisliniere,  wrote  a  text-book  on  obstetrics, 
which  Ls  still  of  considerable  value.  In  1848  Dr.  M. 
L.  Linton  organized  the  first  medical  monthly  in 
America,  "The  St.  Ix)uis  Medical  and  Surgical  Jour- 
nal". Buckner,  Barret,  Garesche,  and  Sharp,  of  the 
old  Law  School,  were  men  of  national  prominence  in 
their  day.  Eight  American  prelates  have  had  inti- 
mate connexions  with  the  university':  Du  Bourg  of 
Loui.siana,  as  founder;  Rosati  of  St.  Louis,  as  patron 
and  benefactor;  Van  de  Velde  of  Chicago  and  Carrell 
of  Covington,  as  presidents;  Miege,  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  Indian  Territon,-,  as  a  professor;  de  Xeckere  of  New 
Orleans,  Harty  of  Manila,  and  Chartrand,  Auxiliary 
of  Indianapolis,  as  students.  Other  students  of  the 
university  who  rose  to  prominence  in  ecclesiastical 
affairs  are  the  Very  Rev.  A.  M.  Anderledy,  General  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  the  Reverends  Joseph  Kel- 
ler and  R.  J.  Meyer.  English  a.ssistants  to  the  General 
of  the  Society.  Fathers  Carrell,  Heylen,  Smarius, 
Damen,  and  Conway  were  noted  preachers  con- 
nected with  the  university. 

From  an  earlj'  date,  members  of  the  faculty  de- 
voted themselves  to  writing.  Walter  H.  Hill,  S.J., 
was  among  the  first  to  write  text-books  on  scholastic 
philosophy  in  English,  and  his  works  are  still  widely 
used.  "The  Happiness  of  Heaven",  by  Florentine 
Boudreaux,  S.J.,  and  "The  Imitation  of  the  Sacred 
Heart",  by  Peter  Arnoudt,  S.J.,  have  gone  through 
many  editions  (the  most  recent,  1910),  and  have  been 
translated  into  most  modern  languages.  Joseph 
Keller,  R.  J.  Meyer,  F.  Garesche,  and  Joseph  Fastre, 
all  of  the  Society,  wrote  on  ascetical  subjects,  while 
the  writings  of  Pierre  Jean  de  Smet  did  much  to 
bring  the  Indian  Missions  into  public  notice.  Within 
recent  years  books  and  studies  on  philosophy,  theol- 
ogj',  apologetics,  ecclesiastical  hi.story,  pedagogy,  and 
canon  law,  have  been  published  by  the  Jesuit  pro- 
fessors, Poland,  Otten,  Higgins,  Coppens,  Gruender, 
Conway,  Rother,  Martin,  Conroy,  and  Fanning. 
Fathers  Coppens  and  McXichols  have  issued  text- 
books on  English  literature.  Father  Thomas 
Hughes  Ls  well  known  as  an  authority  on  the  history 
of  the  Jesuits,  and  is  the  author  of  "Loyola  and  the 
Educational  System  of  the  Jesuits".  Fathers  Finn, 
Copus,  and  Spalding  are  the  authors  of  books  of  fic- 
tion for  the  young  which  have  an  extensive  circula- 
tion. Profes.sors  Harris  and  Steele  have  published 
Uixt-books  on  law,  Professtjr  Harris'  work  on  "Wills" 
being  noteworthy  among  recent  contributions  on  the 
Bubject.  Profes.sors  Eycleshymer,  Thompson,  Lyon, 
NeiLson,  Chaddock,  Engman,  and  Loeb,  have  written 
on  medical  topics.  Scientific  studies  have  been  pub- 
lished by  the  Jesuit  professors,  de  Laak,  Monaghan, 
Borgmeyer,  and  Coony.  Among  the  alumni  who 
have  won  distinction  in  the  field  of  history  may  be 
mentioned,  E.  li.  O'Callaghan,  Lucien  Carr,  Paul 
Beckwith,  and  Firrnin  Rozier;  and  in  general  litera- 
ture, John  Lesperancc,  Cond6  B.  Fallen,  and  Irwin 

RuBWill. 

Through  its  early  missionaries  who  founded  many 
Bettlements  throughout  the  West,  and  through  its 
alumni,  many  of  whom  have  risen  to  high  rank  in 
civil  and  fjrofesKJonal  ViU\  th(r  university  has  con- 
tributed much  to  the  upbuilding  of  Church  and  State 
in  the  West.  Within  a  few  years  after  the  coming  of 
the  Jesuits  to  St.  Ixiuis  more  than  forty  establish- 
ments had  be<?n  ma^le;  the  work  of  dc.  Smet,  who 
founded  missions  as  far  to  the  North-w(«t  as  Ore- 
gon, is    famous.     Adrian    and    Christian    Hoecken, 


Ponziglione  and  others  from  the  university  evangel- 
ized Indians  and  whites  throughout  the  West ;  many  of 
these  early  mi.ssions  became  the  centres  of  flourishing 
communities.  In  education  the  direct  influence  of 
the  university  has  been  wide,  no  less  than  thirteen 
colleges  and  professional  schools  having  been  founded 
bj'  its  professors  or  alumni.  Degrees  have  been  con- 
ferred from  1834  to  1911  as  follows:  Doctors,  Ph.D., 
27;  LL.D.,  33;  M.D.,935;  D.D.S.,  107;  Mus.  D.,  1; 
total  1103.  Masters,  M.A.,  175;  M.S.,  1;  total  176. 
Bachelors,  B.A..  402;  B.S.,  75;  Ph.B.,  5;  LL.B.,  59; 
B.F.A.,  2;  B.C.S.,  1;  total  544.  Grand  total  of  de- 
grees conferred,  1823.  During  this  jM-riod  722  mem- 
bers of  the  Society  of  Jesus  completed  tlie  full  courses 
of  the  schools  of  divinity  and  philosopliy. 

Present  Status. — St.  Louis  University  consists 
of  the  college,  the  school  of  divinity,  the  school  of 
philosophj%  the  school  of  advanced  science,  the  de- 
partment of  seismology  and  meteorology,  the  school 
of  medicine,  the  school  of  dentistry,  the  institute  of 
law,  and  the  school  of  commerce  and  finance.  In  De- 
cember, 1910,  the  General  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
Very  Rev.  F.  X.  Wernz,  by  official  act  constituted  St. 
Louis  University  a  collegium  maximum.  This  is  a 
title  conferred  in  recognition  of  the  university's  rank 
among  Jesuit  educational  institutions.  The  faculty 
members  and  students  are  distributed  as  follows 
(June,  1911): 

Faculty      Students 

Coilege 38  468 

School  of  Divinity 8  92 

School  of  Philosophy 4  55 

Seismology  and  ^Ieteorology 2  4 

School  of  Advanced  Science 4  4 

School  of  Medicine 97  296 

School  of  Dentistry 14  125 

Institute  of  Law 52  197 

Commerce  and  Finance 22  46 

Totals 241         1287 

The  University  Library  contains  more  than  70,000 
volumes,  among  them  many  rare  and  valuable  works. 
There  are  also  special  libraries  in  each  department 
of  the  university.  The  museum  contains  specimens 
illustrating  the  fields  of  geology,  palaeontology  and 
ethnolog>';  the  art  collection  though  small  contains 
some  paintings  of  considerable  merit.  The  "Fleur  de 
Lis",  a  literary  pubhcation,  and  a  number  of  philo- 
sophical, literar>',  and  scientific  societies,  several  of 
which  publish  their  proceedings,  furnish  the  student 
added  opportunities  for  mental  develoj^ment;  the  So- 
dality of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  and  other  religious 
organizations  offer  additional  aids  to  piety.  Uni- 
versity athletics  are  controlled  by  a  students'  associa^ 
tion  working  in  connexion  with  the  Faculty  Board  of 
Athletics.  The  gymnasium  is  fairly  equipped  and  a 
splendid  campus  has  been  recently  secured.  The 
Alumni  Association  with  records  dating  from  1828 
is  well  organized  and  helps  much  to  promote  loyalty 
to  the  university.  The  General  Catalogue,  issued  an- 
nually, and  the  Announceinerifs  jiublished  by  the 
schools  from  time  to  time  during  the  year,  furnish  de- 
tailed information  in  regard  to  llie  university. 

Fannino,  /lint.  Sketch  of  St.  Louis  Univ.  (St.  Louis,  1908); 
Idkm,  Diarrumd  Jubilee  of  St.  Louin  Univ.  (St.  Louis,  1904); 
Hill,  Hiil.  Sketch  of  St.  Louis  Univ.  (St.  Louis,  1K79);  Kennv 
in  The  Catholic  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (New  York,  1910);  BilivON, 
Annals  of  St.  Louin  (,St.  Louis,  1886) ;  Chittenden  and  Richard- 
HON,  Life  of  Pierre  Jean  De  Smet  (New  York,  1905);  Clarke. 
Bishops  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (New  York,  1889); 
HooAN,  Thoughts  ahoul  St.  Louis  (St.  Louis,  1854);  Hyde  and 
CoNARD,  Hist,  of  St.  Louis  (St.  Louis,  1891);  Scharf,  Hist,  of 
St.  Louis  (Fhila<l('lphia,  188:});  Shepard,  Autobiography  (St. 
I>ouis,  1869);  ed.  Thornton,  Catholic  Institutions  in  St.  Louis 
(.St.  I>ouis,  1911);  cd.  Thwaite,  Early  Western  Travels  (Cleve- 
land, HK)6);  AnnaUs  de  I' Association  de  la  Foi  (March,  1825, 
Nov.,  1827);  Archives  of  the  Province  of  Missouri  (1826);  Dona- 
hoe's  Magazine  (Nov.,  1904);  Fleur  de  Lis  (1898),  pasMim; 
Woodstock  Letters  (1876),  passim;  Missouri  Republican,  files  for 
1818;  CataloffUM,  Bulletins,  Announcements  of  St.  Louis  Uni- 
tertUy.  PaUL   L.    BlAKKLY. 


SAINT  LUCIUS 


365 


SAINT  OMER 


Saint  Lucius  (Luzi),  Monastery  of,  Chur,  Swit- 
zerland. The  Church  of  St.  Lucius  was  built  over  the 
grave  of  this  saint,  whose  rehcs  were  preserved  in  it 
until  the  sixteenth  century.  Originally  the  church 
was  the  cathedral.  St.  Valentinian  enlarged  it  in  the 
first  half  of  the  sixth  century  and  built  the  crypt 
which  is  still  in  existence.  In  the  ninth  century 
a  new  cathedral  was  built  by  Bishop  Tello  in  a 
former  Roman  fortress  and  St.  Luzi  was  temporarily 
a  brajich  of  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Pfafer.  About 
1140  it  became  a  Premonstratensian  abbey.  At  the 
time  of  the  schism  of  the  sixteenth  century  Theodore 
Schlegel,  Abbot  of  St.  Luzi,  was  especially  energetic 
and  skilful  in  defending  the  Catholic  Faith.  He  was 
executed  by  the  Protestants  after  terrible  torture  on 
23  January,  1529.  The  monks  were  driven  out  and  the 
monastery  remained  empty  for  a  hundred  years,  the 
relics  of  St.  Lucius  being  taken  to  the  cathedral. 
Community  life  was  continued  at  Bendern  in  Liech- 
tenstein. In  1624  the  monastery  was  restored  and 
continued  to  exist  until  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  By  the  decision  of  the  Imperial  Dele- 
gates at  Ratisbon  the  possessions  of  the  monastery 
in  Liechtenstein  and  Vorarlberg  were  given  in  1802  to 
the  Prince  of  Orange.  Coasequently  the  monastery 
had  no  further  means  of  existence.  In  1806,  there- 
fore, th(;  abbot  and  community  transferred  the  mon- 
astery and  all  its  rights  to  the  episcopal  seminary;  this 
transfer  was  confirmed  in  the  same  year  by  Pius  VII. 
The  seminary  was  transferred  to  the  former  monaster}-, 
where  it  still  exists;  it  has  four  courses  of  theology  and 
seven  professors. 

Mayer,  Si.  Luzi  bei  Chur  (Einsiedeln,  1907). 

J.  G.  Mayer. 

Saint   Malo,    Ancient    See   of.    See  Ronnes, 

Diocese  of. 

Saint  Mark,  University  of. — The  highest  insti- 
tution of  learning  in  Peru,  located  at  Lima,  under  the 
official  name  of  Universidad  Mayor  de  San  Marcos. 
It  is  reputed  as  being  the  oldest  university  in  the  New 
World,  having  been  created  by  a  royal  decree  of  12 
May,  1551,  wherein  Charles  V  granted  350  gold  dollars 
to  the  priors  of  the  Dominican  order  to  establish  in 
Lima  an  E.iiudio  General,  and  conferred  upon  it  all  the 
prerogatives  enjoyed  by  the  University  of  Salamanca. 
This  decree  was  confirmed  by  a  Bull  of  Pope  Pius  V, 
dated  25  July,  1571.  Until  30  Dec.  of  the  same  j'ear, 
the  school  remained  under  the  control  of  the  Dominican 
fathers,  when  it  became  independent  with  the  right 
to  choose  its  own  rector.  The  first  one  elected  was 
Dr.  Caspar  de  Meneses,  a  layman.  In  1574,  after  a 
new  site  had  been  purchased  at  a  cost  of  600  gold 
dollars,  the  name  Saint  Mark  was  chosen  by  lot  for 
the  institution.  Thenceforward,  the  university  ac- 
quired a  greater  importance,  and  two  years  later  a 
new  plan  of  studies,  adequate  to  the  times,  was 
adopted,  with  the  following  classes:  two  of  Spanish 
grammar;  one  of  native  languages,  which  were  then 
considered  necessary  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gos- 
pel; three  of  theology;  three  of  jurisprudence;  two  of 
canon  law,  and  two  of  medicine.  The  number  of 
students  who  came  to  Lima  to  follow  the  courses  of 
the  university  increased  rapidly  and  at  one  time 
reached  1200.  As  the  cost  of  graduation  was  exceed- 
ingly high  (about  .$10,000),  instruction  in  Saint  Mark, 
as  in  other  colonial  universities  of  the  times,  was  con- 
fined to  the  aristocratic  and  wealthy  classes,  among 
which  there  prevailed  an  intense  fondness  for  literary 
pursuits.  These  fees  have  been  gradually  reduced  and 
the  total  now  amounts  to  .50  soles  (.S25)  for  the  degree 
of  Bachelor,  and  100  ($50)  for  that  of  Doctor. 

The  popularity  of  the  in.stitution  continued  until  the 
time  when  Peru  became  independent  (1825)  and  then 
followed  a  short  period  of  inactivity,  after  which  the 
university  was  reorganized  by  President  Ramon  Cas- 
tilla  (28  Aug.,  1861).    From  the  year  of  its  autonomy, 


the  university  has  been  directed  by  a  council  composed 
of  the  rector  as  its  chairman,  a  vice-rector,  the  dean 
and  a  delegate  from  each  faculty,  and  the  secretary 
of  the  University.  The  rector  is  elected  by  the  pro- 
fes.sors  with  the  approval  and  consent  of  the  council, 
and  each  faculty  chooses  its  own  dean,  regulates  its 
course  of  studies,  and  issues  its  respective  degrees. 
As  at  present  constituted.  Saint  Mark  consists  of 
six  faculties.  Jurisprudence  confers  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Laws,  with  a  course  of  five  years  com- 
prising the  following  subjects:  philosophy  of  law, 
civil  law,  criminal  law,  ecclesiastical  law,  mercantile 
law,  mining  and  agricultural  laws,  law  procedure, 
Roman  law,  and  forensic  practice.  Medicine 
grants  the  diploma  of  Bachelor  of  Medicine  in  five 
years,  and  the  title  of  "physician  and  surgeon"  after 
two  additional  years  of  hospital  practice,  the  subjects 
covered  being  descriptive  anatomy,  medical  physics, 
public,  private  and  international  hygiene,  medical 
and  analytical  chemistry,  natural  and  medical  history, 
general  anatomy  and  microscopic  technique,  phar- 
macy, physiology,  pathology,  clinics,  bacteriology, 
therapeutics,  materia  medica,  surgery,  nosography, 
ophthalmology,  operative  medicine,  gynaecology, 
pediatrics,  obstetrics,  legal  medicine,  etc. ;  this  same 
faculty  issues  the  titles  of  pharmacist,  dentist,  and 
obstetrician,  with  courses  of  studies  covering  three 
years.  In  theology  the  degree  of  Doctor  is  obtained 
after  a  six  years'  course  in  the  subje(;ts  of  dogmatic 
theology,  moral  theology,  church  history,  liturgy  and 
ecclesiastical  calculation,  sacred  oratory,  the  Bible, 
and  pa.storal  theology.  The  faculty  of  sciences  is 
divided  into  three  separate  sections:  (1)  mathematical 
sciences,  (2)  physics,  and  (3)  natural  sciences,  the 
course  in  each  of  which  comprises  a  period  of  three 
years.  Before  admission  to  the  faculty  of  medicine, 
students  are  required  to  pass  two  years  in  natural 
sci(!nces,  and  likewise,  those  desiring  to  enter  the 
school  of  engineers  (independent  of  the  university) 
must  have  studied  mathematics  two  years.  The  fac- 
ulty of  letters  confers  the  degree  of  Doctor,  its  course 
covering  four  years  with  these  subjects:  philosophy, 
history  of  ancient  and  modern  philo.sophy,  a>sthetics 
and  history  of  art,  Spanish  literature,  sociology,  his- 
tory of  civilization,  history  of  Peruvian  civilization, 
and  pedagogy;  two  years  in  this  faculty  are  required 
for  admission  to  that  of  jurisprudence.  The  faculty 
of  administrative  and  political  economy  confers  the 
degree  of  Doctor,  and  its  course  of  three  years  includes 
the  following  studies:  constitutional  law;  public  and 
private  international  law,  administrative  law,  politi- 
cal economy  and  economical  legislation  of  Peru;  mari- 
time law,  diplomacy,  history  of  the  treaties  of  Peru, 
consular  legislation,  finance,  financial  legislation  of 
Peru,  and  statistics.  The  official  organ  of  the  univer- 
sity is  the  "Revista  Universitaria",  a  monthly  publi- 
cation, which  has  since  1906  replaced  the  "Anales". 
At  the  present  time  the  number  of  professors  of  the 
University  of  Saint  Mark  is  80. 

Garland,  Peru  in  1906  (Lima,  1907),  111;  Report  of  the  U.  S. 
Commissioner  of  Education  (Washington,  1908),  151;  Wright 
The  Old  and  New  Peru  (Philadelphia,  1908). 

Julian  Moreno-Lacalle. 

Saint-Omer.    See  Arras,  Diocese  of. 

Saint  Omer,  College  of.— The  well-known  Jesuit 
college  at  St.  Omer — oftener  spoken  of  under  the 
anglicized  form  of  St.  Omers  or  St.  Omer's — was 
founded  by  Father  Parsons  in  1592  or  1593.  All 
Catholic  education  having  been  prohibited  in  Eng- 
land, several  colleges  had  been  founded  by  English- 
men on  the  Continent — at  Douai,  Rome,  and  Valla- 
dolid;  their  primary  object  was  the  education  of  the 
clergy.  Father  Parsons  recognized  the  need  of  a 
college  intended  in  the  first  instance  for  the  laity, 
and  for  this  purpose  he  chose  a  spot  as  near  as  possible 
to  England.  St.  Omer  was  twenty-four  miles  from 
Calais,  in  the  Province  of  Artois,  then  subject  to 


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366 


SAINT  PAUL 


the  King  of  Spain.  The  first  students  were  obtained 
by  the  removal  of  a  small  establishment  which  had 
been  set  up  by  Father  Parsons  at  Eu,  in  Normandy. 
Other  boys  quickly  arrived  from  England  and  within 
ten  vears  of  its  foundation  the  college  numbered 
over' a  hundred  scholars.  Thu-ty  years  later  this 
number  had  been  doubled.  The  character  of  the 
college  was  kept  as  Enghsh  as  possible,  notwith- 
standing that  several  of  the  early  rectors  were 
Spanish.  The  buildings  consisted  of  a  large  house 
joined  to  several  smaller  ones,  and  in  1610  a  regular 
chapel  was  added.  The  whole  was  burnt  down  in 
168-4;  but  it  was  rebuilt  on  a  comprehensive  scale. 
A  second  fire,  in  1725,  led  to  further  improvements  in 
rebuilding  and  the  greater  part  of  the  college  then 
constructed  is  still  standing.  The  college  continued 
its  work  for  over  a  century  and  a  half.  Many  devout 
Cathohcs  received  their  education  within  its  walls, 
over  twenty  of  whom  won  the  crown  of  martjTdom. 

In  1678 "the  Province  of  Artois  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  French;  but  the  Government  was 
friendly  to  the  college,  which  continued  to  prosper 
till  the  year  1762,  when  the  Parliament  of  Paris 
decreed  the  expulsion  of  all  Jesuits  from  France, 
and  proposed  to  place  the  college  under  the  direction 
of  secular  priests.  In  order  to  defeat  this  scheme, 
the  Jesuits  determined  to  remove  the  whole  establish- 
ment. The  boj-s  expressed  their  willingness  to  ac- 
company their  masters,  and  by  one  of  the  most 
dramatic  adventures  in  the  historj^  of  any  school, 
they  succeeded  in  escaping  from  France,  and  re- 
assembling at  Bruges.  Here  the  college  was  carried 
on  until  the  suppression  of  the  Society  throughout 
the  world  in  1773.  Even  then,  the  college  did  not 
finally  come  to  an  end.  Most  of  the  boys  escaped, 
and  many  of  them  reassembled  in  the  academy  car- 
ried on  by  English  ex- Jesuits  under  the  protection  of 
the  prince-bishop  at  Liege.  From  there  they  were 
driven  by  the  Revolution  in  1794,  and  the  Penal 
Laws  in  England  having  by  that  time  been  modified, 
they  returned  to  their  own  country,  where  by  the 
generosity  of  Mr.  Thomas  Weld,  one  of  their  former 
pupils,  they  were  presented  with  the  mansion  and 
property  at  Stonyhurst,  which  celebrated  college 
thus  claims  a  descent  from  that  established  at  Saint 
Omer  by  Father  Parsons. 

In  the  meantime,  the  French  Government  finding 
itself  in  po.sses.sion  of  the  building  at  St.  Omer,  but 
without  either  masters  or  scholars,  invited  the  clergy 
of  the  EnglLsh  College  at  Douai  to  undertake  its 
management.  After  .some  hesitation,  they  consented 
to  do  so,  feeling  that  this  was  the  only  way  to  save  it 
from  the  French,  and  hoping  some  day  to  restore 
it  to  its  rightful  owners.  They  accordingly  trans- 
ferred their  preparatory  school  there  and  this  became 
the  nucleus  of  what  was  practically  a  new  college. 
Their  action  was  much  traversed  by  the  Jesuits,  and 
a  long  altercation  ensued.  The  facts  were  laid  before 
the  Holy  See,  and  though  no  final  decision  was  given, 
the  Roman  authorities  refused  to  censure  the  action 
of  the  Douai  clergy.  In  its  new  form,  the  college 
became  fairly  prosperous,  the  scholars  numbering 
over  one  hundred.  The  learned  Alban  Butler  wiis 
president  from  1766  to  1773,  and  died  in  the  college. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  however,  it  came 
to  an  end.  The  students  and  professors  were  im- 
prisoned at  Anas,  in  August,  1793,  whence  they  were 
afterwards  removed  to  Doullens,  in  Picardy,  and 
joined  to  the  Douai  community.  After  the  fall  of 
Robespierre,  they  were  removed  to  Douai,  and  in 
February,  1795,  they  were  set  at  liberty.  They  re- 
turned to  England,  and  the  president.  Dr.  Staplcton, 
became  the  huaxl  of  the  new  College  of  St.  Edmund  at 
Old  Hall.  He  wa.s  followed  by  two  of  the  professors 
and  a  few  of  the  scholars;  but  the  college  there  was 
based  chiefly  on  the  traditions  of  Douai,  and  the 
Becular  College  of  St.  Omer  practically  came  to  an  end. 


After  the  restoration  of  the  French  monarchy,  the 
building  was  restored  to  the  executors  of  Dr.  Staple- 
ton,  and  by  them  sold  to  the  French  Government. 
It  is  used  to  this  day  as  a  military  hospital. 

Ger.\rd,  Stonyhurst  College  (London,  1S94) ;  Keating  and 
Gruggen,  Stonyhurst  (London,  1901);  Foley,  Records  S.J. 
(London,  1877-83);  Dodd,  Church  Hist,  of  England,  cd.  Tiekney 
(London,  1839-43);  Ward,  History  of  St.  Edmund's  College 
(London,  1893);  Burton,  Life  of  Challoner  (London,  1909); 
Idem,  Dawn  of  Catholic  Revival  (London,  1909);  Petre,  English 
Colleges  on  the  Continent  (Norwich,  1849);  Bled,  Les  Jf suits 
Anglais  d  St.  Omer;  Deschamps  de  Pas,  Histoire  de  St -Omer 
(Arras,  ISSO).  Several  contemporary  pamphlets  concerning  the 
dispute  between  the  Jesuits  and  Seculars  when  the  latter  ac- 
cepted the  college:  Hoskixs,  Expulsion  of  English  Jesuits  out  of 
St.  Omar's;  Reeve,  Plain  and  Succinct  Narrative  etc. ;  Hodgson, 
Dispassionate  Narrative  etc. 

Bernard  Ward. 

Saint-Ouen,  Abbey  of,  Rouen,  France,  was  a 
Benedictine  monastery  of  great  antiquity  dating  back 
to  the  early  jNIerovingian  period.  Its  foundation  has 
been  variously  credited,  among  others,  to  Clothair  I 
and  to  St.  Clothilda,  but  no  sufficient  evidence  to 
settle  the  question  is  forthcoming.  It  was  dedicated 
at  first  to  St.  Peter  when  the  body  of  St.  Ouen,  Arch- 
bishop of  Rouen  (d.678),  was  buried  there;  the  name 
of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Ouen  became  common  and  finally 
St.  Ouen  only.  The  history  of  the  abbey,  on  record 
from  A.  D.  1000,  presents  nothing  of  an  exceptional 
nature.  The  list  of  abbots  is  in  "Galha  Christiana", 
XI,  140.  In  1660  the  monastery  was  united  to  the 
Congregation  of  St.  Maur,  and  when  suppressed,  in 
1794,  the  community  numbered  twenty-four. 

The  chief  interest  of  Saint-Ouen  hes  in  its  glorious 
church,  which  surpasses  the  Cathedral  of  Rouen  in  size 
and  beauty,  and  is  one  of  the  few  among  the  greater 
French  churches  completely  finished.  The  present 
building,  the  third  or  fourth  on  the  same  site,  was  be- 
gun in  1318  by  Abbot  Jean  Roussel,  who  had  completed 
the  choir  with  its  chapels  in  the  Decorated  style, 
and  a  large  portion  of  the  transepts,  by  his  death, 
twenty-one  3'ears  later.  The  nave  and  central  tower, 
more  Flambo3'ant  in  design,  were  finished  early  in 
the  sixteenth  century  after  the  original  plan.  Un- 
happily the  west  fagade,  which  had  been  planned  on 
a  unique  and  most  beautiful  scheme,  was  left  un- 
finished. Although  nothing  could  have  been  simpler 
than  to  execute  the  original  designs  still  existing,  the 
whole  of  the  old  work  was  swept  away  about  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  and  an  ugly  pretentious 
modern  design  put  up  instead.  Internally  the  church 
is  416  feet  long,  83  feet  wide,  and  104  feet  high,  the 
central  tower,  crowned  with  an  exquisite  octagonal 
lantern,  being  285  feet  in  height.  Within,  the  effect 
is  remarkably  light  and  graceful,  "the  windows  seem 
to  have  absorbed  all  the  solid  wall",  and  the  roof  rests 
simply  on  the  pillars  and  buttresses,  the  intervening 
spaces  being  huge  masses  of  gla.ss.  Fortunately  most 
of  the  old  glass  has  been  preserved,  and  its  silvery 
white  and  jewels  of  colour  give  the  final  touch  to  one 
of  the  finest  interiors  in  the  world. 

PoMMERAYE,  Histoire  de  Vabbaye  royale  de  S.-Ouen  de  Rouen 
(Rouen,  1662);  GaUia  Christiana,  XI  (Paris,  IT.W),  135-55;  Anli- 
qua  statuta  archimonasterii  Rotomagensis  S.  Audoeni  in  MARTfeNE, 
Thes.  nov.  anecdot.  (Paris,  1717),  IV,  1205;  Chronique  des  abbis  de 
S.  Ouen  de  Rouen,  ed.  Michel  (Rouen,  1840);  Gilbert,  Descrip- 
tion historique  de  I'iglise  de  St-Ouen  de  Rouen  (Rouen,  1822); 
Cook,  The  story  of  Rouen  (London,  1899). 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Saint  Patrick,  Brothers  of.  See  Partician 
Brothers. 

Saint  Patrick,  Purgatory  of.    See  Porgatory, 

Saint  Pathkk'.s. 

Saint  Patrick,  The  National  College  of.  See 
Mavnooth  College. 

Saint  Paul,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Pauli), 
comprises  the  counties  of  Ramsey,  Hennepin,  Chis- 
ago, Anoka,  Dakota,  Scott,  Wright,  Rice,  Lesueur, 
Carver,  Nicollet,  Sibley,  McLcod,  Meeker,  Redwood, 


SAINT  PAUL 


367 


SAINT  PAUL 


Renville,  Kandiyohi,  Lyon,  Lincoln,  Yellow  Medi- 
cine, Lac-Qui-Parle,  Chippewa,  Swift,  Goodhue, 
Big  Stone,  and  Brown,  which  stretch  across  the 
State  of  Minnesota  from  east  to  west,  in  about  the 
centre  of  its  southern  half.  During  the  Seventh 
Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore  (5-13  May,  1849) 
the  fathers  petitioned  the  Holy  See  to  erect  a  bishop- 
ric in  what  was  then  the  village  of  St.  Paul.  No 
action  was  taken  on  the  matter  in  Rome  for  over  a 
year,  owing  to  revolutionary  disturbances  and  the 
absence  of  Pope  Pius  IX  (1846-78)  in  Gaeta  conse- 
quent thereon.  The  See  of  St.  Paul  was  actually  es- 
tablished on  19  July,  1850.  Its  jurisdiction  extended 
over  an  area  of  some  166,000  square  miles,  i.e.  over 
what  was  then  the  Territory  of  Minnesota  (estab- 
lished 3  March,  1849).  The  constituent  parts  were: 
a  larger  western  part,  to  the  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
formerly  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Dubuque,  and  a  smaller 
eastern  part,  between  the  Mississippi  and  St.  Croix 
rivers,  formerly  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Milwaukee. 
The  size  remained  the  same  even  after  the  admission 
of  the  State  of  Minnesota  into  the  Union  (11  May, 
1858),  and  up  to  the  erection  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  Northern  Minnesota  (12  Feb.,  1875),  of  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  Dakota  (12  Aug.,  1879),  and  of  the  Diocese 
of  Winona  (3  Oct.,  1889),  when  it  was  reduced  to  its 
present  area.  At  the  time  of  its  erection  the  Diocese 
of  St.  Paul  was  assigned  to  the  province  of  St.  Louis, 
afterwards  (12  Feb.,  1875)  to  that  of  Milwaukee. 
On  4  May,  1888,  it  became  itself  an  archdiocese,  and 
as  such  comprises  at  present  the  suffragan  Sees  of 
Duluth,  Crookston,  St.  Cloud,  and  Winona,  in  Min- 
nesota; Fargo  and  Bismarck,  in  North  Dakota; 
Sioux  Falls  and  Lead,  in  South  Dakota. 

The  diocese  was  named  after  the  town  of  St.  Paul, 
which  had  its  origin  late  in  the  thirties  of  last  century, 
along  the  left  or  eastern  bank  of  the  Missi.ssippi, 
near  the  military  post  of  Fort  Snelling.  leather 
Lucien  Galticr  had  built  a  log  chapel  there,  and  had 
opened  it  for  services  on  1  Nov.,  1841.  The  rude 
oratory  was  placed  under  the  invocation  of  St.  Paul, 
the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  name  was  then 
attached  to  the  settlement  itself. 

The  earliest  Catholic  record  of  what  became  after- 
wards the  Diocese  of  St.  Paul  is  in  the  Rune  Stone, 
discovered  in  1898  near  Kensington,  Minnesota.  A 
strange  inscription  on  it  tells  us  of  a  visit  made 
in  1362  by  thirty  Norsemen  to  the  above  locality, 
where  ten  of  them  were  slain  by  the  natives,  and 
the  remainder  addressed  a  salutation  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary  and  called  upon  her  for  protection. 
Although  not  all  the  Scandinavian  scholars  are 
agreed  on  the  authenticity  of  this  text,  still  the 
internal  evidence  seems  to  be  all  in  its  favour;  and 
nothing  has  been  found  so  far  to  contradict  its  con- 
tents. Minnesota  is  a  classic  land  in  the  history  of 
early  Catholic  voyageurs  and  missionaries.  The 
first,  as  far  as  records  go,  were  Groseilliers  and  Radis- 
son,  who  spent  some  time  on  Prairie  Island  (1654- 
56)  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Knife  lake,  Kana- 
bec County  (1659-60).  In  1679-80  Du  Lhut  visited 
the  countries  around  Lake  Mille  Lacs,  the  western 
extremity  of  Lake  Superior,  and  the  Mississippi.  It 
was  during  these  journeys  that  he  met  the  Recollect 
Father  Louis  Hennepin  and  his  two  companions 
Michel  Accault  and  Antoine  Auguelle,  and  rescued 
them  from  their  captivity  among  the  Sioux  Indians. 
During  an  excursion  doum  the  Mississippi  Hennepin 
behelcl  and  named  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  in  what 
is  now  Minneapolis.  Nicolas  Perrot,  in  1683,  es- 
tabhshed  a  small  trading  post,  Fort  Perrot,  near  the 
site  of  the  present  town  of  Wabasha,  Minnesota; 
and  in  1689  he  proclaimed  the  sovereignty  of  the 
French  king  over  the  regions  of  the  upper  Mississippi. 
In  his  company  was  the  Jesuit  Father  Joseph-Jean 
Marest,  who  spent  considerable  time  among  the  Sioux 
about  the  years   1689  and  1,702.    A  contemporary 


of  Perrot,  Le  Sueur,  established  in  1695  a  trading 
post  on  Prairie  Island,  and  in  1700  another,  Fort 
L'Huillier,  on  the  Blue  Earth  River,  about  three 
miles  from  its  junction  with  the  Minnesota.  In 
1727  a  post.  Fort  Beauharnois,  was  established  on 
the  western  shore  of  Lake  Pepin,  near  the  present 
town  of  Frontenac,  Minnesota;  the  missionaries 
stationed  there  were  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Michel 
Guignas  and  Nicolas  de  Gonnor.  Another,  Fort 
St.  Charles,  was  erected  in  1732  on  the  southern 
shore  of  Northwest  Angle  Inlet,  Lake  of  the  Woods, 
by  the  explorer  de  Laverendrye.  The  missionaries 
of  the  post  were  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Messaiger  and 
Aulneau,  the  latter  of  whom  met  a  cruel  death  at 
the  hands  of  savage  Sioux.  Religious  ministrations 
were,  of  course,  the  chief  object  of  the  missionaries. 
Even  the  lay  voyageurs  did  what  they  could  towards 
the  religious  betterment  of  the  natives.  Groseil- 
liers and  Radisson  instructed  the  older  people  in  the 
elements  of  Christianity,  and  baptized  a  number  of 
children  whom  they  beUeved  in  danger  of  death. 

No  permanent  settlements  were  made  within  the 
area  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  Paul  until  some  time  after 
the  organization  of  the  Government  of  the  United 
States.  In  Sept.,  1818,  a  mi-ssion  was  opened  at 
Pembina,  North  Dakota,  for  the  Cathohc  settlers, 
who  had  gone  there  from  Lord  Selkirk's  colony  near 
St.  Boniface,  Manitoba.  The  first  priest,  Father 
Dumoulin,  and  his  immediate  successors  were  sent 
from  St.  Boniface,  the  nearest  episcopal  see.  Within 
the  years  following  upon  1826  many  settlers  of  the 
Red  River  valley  were  compelled  to  depart,  owing 
to  floods,  grasshoppers,  and  other  afflictions;  and 
a  number  of  them,  generally  Canadian  and  Swiss 
French,  came  to  the  vicinity  of  what  is  now  St.  Paul. 
Bishop  Loras  of  Dubuque,  accompanied  by  Father 
Pclamourgues,  visited  the  few  Catholics  in  1839; 
in  1840  he  sent  them  a  resident  priest  in  Father 
Lucien  Galtier,  who  in  1844  was  replaced  by  Father 
Augustine  Ravoux,  for  more  than  sixty  years  a  priest 
in  the  Diocese  of  St.  Paul.  The  first  Bishop  of  St. 
Paul  was  Rt.  Rev.  Jo.seph  Cretin  (1851-57),  Vicar- 
General  of  the  Diocese  of  Dubuque,  appointed  23 
July,  1850.  His  consecration  took  place  at  Belley, 
France,  26  Jan.,  1851;  on  2  July  of  the  same  year, 
he  took  possession  of  his  episcopal  see;  his  death  oc- 
curred on  22  Feb.,  1857.  The  small  log  chapel  built 
by  Father  Galtier  was  soon  replaced  by  a  large  struc- 
ture of  brick  and  stone,  which  contained  accommoda- 
tions for  church,  school,  and  residential  purposes. 
Another  stone  building  was  begun  in  1855,  but  not 
finished  until  after  the  bishop's  death;  it  is  still  used 
as  the  cathedral  of  St.  Paul.  The  Catholic  popula- 
tion, which  consisted  of  several  hundred,  or  perhaps 
a  thousand,  grew  considerably  in  numbers,  and 
counted  about  50,000  at  the  end  of  the  bishop's 
career.  The  increase  was  largely  due  to  the  bishop's 
own  efforts,  who  invited  Catholic  settlers  to  the  fertile 
plains  of  Minnesota.  In  addition  to  the  French 
Canadians  large  contingents  of  Irish  and  German 
Catholics  arrived,  who  located  in  St.  Paul,  in  places 
along  the  Mississippi,  St.  Croix,  and  Minnesota 
Rivers.  Wherever  it  was  possible  parishes  or  mis- 
sions were  organized,  and  provided  with  resident 
priests,  or  at  least  visited  occasionally  by  priests  from 
other  stations.  At  his  arrival  in  St.  Paul  Bishop 
Cretin  found  only  a  couple  of  priests  with  small 
congregations  at  St.  Paul,  Mendota,  and  Pembina; 
at  his  death  there  were  29  churches  and  35  stations 
with  about  20  priests  attending  to  the  spiritual 
needs  of  the  Catholic  people.  Great  efforts  were 
made  for  the  education  of  the  young  and  for  the 
preparation  of  worthy  candidates  for  the  priesthood. 
In  Pembina  there  were  the  Sisters  of  the  Propagation 
of  the  Faith.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Carondelet 
came  to  St.  Paul  3  Nov.,  1851,  and  soon  opened  schools 
for  both  elementary. and  higher   education  at  St. 


SAINT  PAUL 


368 


SAINT  PAUL 


Paul  and  St.  Anthonj'  Falls.  In  1855  the  Brothers 
of  the  Hoty  Fanaily  took  charge  of  a  school  at  St. 
Paul  for  boys  in  both  the  grammar  and  higher  grades. 
The  Benedictine  Fathers  from  St.  Vincent,  Penn- 
sylvania, sent  some  of  their  men  to  Minnesota  in 
1856,  and  soon  a  college  was  opened  near  St.  Cloud 
in  Steams  County.  .\  seminary  was  conducted  in 
the  bishop's  own  house,  where  the  necessary  train- 
ing was  imparted  to  young  Levites  of  the  sanctuary. 
Works  of  charity  or  of  general  benefit  to  society  wore 
not  neglected.  A  hospital  was  founded  at  St.  Paid 
by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph;  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
Society  and  other  similar  a.ssociations  were  organized ; 
and  a  Catholic  temperance  society  was  established 
in  1852.  Among  the  more  noteworthy  Catholic 
pioneers  were  Jean-Baptiste  Faribeault,  Antoine 
P^pin,  Vital  and  Gervais  Guerin,  Joseph  Turpin, 
Abraham  Perret,  Benjamin  and  Pierre  Gervais, 
Joseph  and  his  son  Isaac  Labi.ssonniere,  Pierre  and 
Severe  Bottineau,  August  L.  Larpenteur,  Louis  Robert, 
Charles  Bazille,  and  WiUiam  F.  Forbes.  Of  the 
early  priests,  apart  from  Fathers  Galtier  and  Ravoux, 
the  following  may  be  mentioned:  Thomas  Murray, 
Daniel  J.  Fi.sher,  John  McMahon,  Francis  de  Vivaldi, 
Dennis  Ledon,  ISIarcellin  Peyragrosse,  George  Keller, 
Claude  Robert,  Louis  Caillet,  FeUx  Tissot,  Anatole 
Oster,  Francis  Pierz,  Michael  Wiirzfeld,  Demetrius 
Marogna,  O.S.B.,  and  CorneUus  Wittmann,  O.S.B. 

After  the  death  of  Bishop  Cretin  the  See  of  St. 
Paul  remained  vacant  for  over  two  years.  Father 
Augustine  Ravoux  was  appointed  administrator; 
under  his  regime  the  present  stone  cathedral  was 
completed  and  opened  for  service  in  1858.  The 
second  Bishop  of  St.  Paul  was  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas 
Langdon  Grace,  O.P.  (1859-84).  He  was  born,  16 
Nov.,  1814,  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  entered 
the  seminary  at  Cincinnati  in  1829,  and  the  priory  of 
St.  Rose,  Kentucky,  in  1830,  where  on  12  June, 
1831,  he  made  his  religious  profession  as  a  member 
of  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic.  In  1837  he  went  to 
Rome  for  further  studies,  and  was  ordained  there 
to  the  priesthood  by  Cardinal  Patrizi,  21  Dec,  1839. 
After  his  return  to  America  in  1844  he  was  employed 
in  the  ecclesiastical  ministry  first  in  Kentucky,  and 
afterwards  for  thirteen  years  at  Memphis,  Tennessee. 
In  1859  he  was  called  to  the  Bishopric  of  St.  Paul  by 
Pius  IX;  his  consecration  took  place  at  St.  Louis, 
24  July,  18.59;  and  on  29  July  following  he  took  pos- 
session of  his  see,  over  which  he  presided  until  the 
day  of  his  resignation,  31  July,  1884.  He  was  then 
made  titular  Bishop  of  Menith,  and  afterwards,  24 
Sept.,  1889,  titular  Archbishop  of  Siunia;  his  death 
occurred  on  22  Feb.,  1897. 

Several  modifications  were  introduced  in  the 
territorial  arrangement  and  the  direction  of  the 
diocese  during  his  incumbency.  By  the  creation 
of  the  Vicariates  of  Northern  Minnesota  and  Dakota 
the  northern  part  of  Minnesota  and  the  territory 
west  of  Minnesota  were  erected  into  new  ecclesiasti- 
cal juri.sdictions  In  1875  Bishop  Grace  received  a 
coadjutor  in  the  person  of  Rev.  John  Ireland,  then 
rector  of  the  cathedral.  The  number  of  the  Catholic 
people  in  the  diocese  continued  to  grow,  largely 
through  the  bishop's  activity  in  inviting  settlers; 
at  the  time  of  his  resignation  in  1884  it  amounted  to 
about  130.000.  In  addition  to  the  races  already 
representea  there  came  also  many  Catholics  from 
Bohemia  and  Poland.  The  number  of  priests 
grew  with  the  increase  of  the  people,  and  they  were 
Bo  chosen  as  to  correspond  to  the  needs  of  the  flock; 
in  1884  they  were  153  in  all.  Side  by  side  with  the 
diocesan  clergy  there  laboured  fathers  of  the  Bene- 
dictine Order,  Jesuits,  Franciscans,  Dominicans, 
and  Oblates.  Charitable  institutions  were  kept  up 
and  multiplier!  wherever  necessary.  Hospitals  were 
opened  at  Minneapolis  and  New  Ulm,  orphan  asy- 
lums were  erected  at   St.  Paul  and   Minneapolis, 


and  homes  were  established  for  the  aged  poor.  The 
education  of  the  children  was  promoted  in  all 
possible  ways.  Catholic  schools  were  founded  and 
provided  with  Catholic  teachers;  the  Brothers  of 
the  Christian  Schools  were  called  to  St.  Paul;  and 
new  academies  for  girls  were  opened.  The  growing 
needs  in  the  field  of  charity  and  education  necessi- 
tated the  coming  of  more  religious  women.  In  the 
cour.se  of  time  the  Congregations  of  St.  Benedict,  St. 
Dominic,  St.  Francis,  Notre  Dame,  the  \'isitation,  the 
Grej-  Nims,  the  Good  Shepherd,  the  Sisters  of  Christian 
Charity,  the  Poor  Handmaids  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the 
Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  furnished  their  quota.  Like 
his  predecessor.  Bishop  Grace  never  lost  sight  of  the 
education  of  candidates  for  the  priesthood.  In  1860 
he  opened  a  preparatory  school  for  young  boys  who 
felt  a  vocation  for  the  priesthood.  Among  its  pupils 
was  Rt.  Rev.  John  Shanley,  late  Bishop  of  Fargo. 
Unfortunately,  after  some  j^ears  of  existence  it  had  to 
be  given  up  for  lack  of  accommodations. 

To  Bishop  Grace  succeeded  his  coadjutor,  the 
Rt.  Rev.  John  Ireland,  D.D.  (1884—).  He  was 
born  at  Burnchurch,  Co.  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  11  Sept., 
1838,  and  came  to  St.  Paul  with  his  parents  in  1852. 
Bishop  Cretin  sent  him  to  Meximieux  and  H.yeres, 
France,  where  he  completed  his  college  and  seminary 
course;  he  wjis  ordained  to  the  priesthood  at  St. 
Paul,  21  Dec,  1861.  During  the  Civil  War  he  served 
as  chaplain  to  the  Fifth  IVIinnesota  Regiment,  and 
was  afterwards  stationed  at  the  cathedral.  In  1875 
he  was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Maronea  and 
coadjutor  to  Bishop  Grace  of  St.  Paul,  in  whose 
cathedral  he  received  the  episcopal  consecration, 
21  Dec,  1875.  Upon  the  resignation  of  his  prede- 
cessor he  became  Bishop  of  St.  Paul;  and  on  15  May, 
1888,  he  was  rai.sed  to  the  metropolitan  dignity  as 
Archbishop  of  St.  Paul.  The  ecclesiastical  province 
was  organized  with  the  suffragan  Sees  of  Duluth, 
St.  Cloud,  Winona,  Jamestown  (Fargo),  and  Sioux 
Falls,  to  which  were  added  afterwards  those  of  Lead 
(1902),  Crook.ston,  and  Bismarck  (1910).  The  crea- 
tion of  the  Diocese  of  Winona  diminished  the  terri- 
tory of  the  archdiocese  by  the  southern  section  of 
Minnesota.  In  1910  an  auxihary  bishop  was  ap- 
pointed in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev.  John  J.  Lawler, 
titular  Bishop  of  Greater  Hermopolis.  The  Catholic 
population  kept  steadily  on  the  increase,  so  that  at 
present  it  numbers  about  260,000.  Much  of  this 
growth  is  due  to  the  archbishop's  own  efforts.  From 
the  day  of  his  consecration  as  bishop  he  organized 
a  systematic  movement  for  the  colonization  of  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Minnesota.  Various  settlements 
such  as  De  Graff,  Clontarf  (Swift  Co.),  Adrian 
(Nobles  Co.),  Avoka,  Fulda  (Murray  Co.),  Grace- 
ville  (Big  Stone  Co.),  Minneota,  and  Ghent  (Lyon 
Co.),  owe  their  origin  and  prosperity  to  his  labours. 
With  the  increa.se  of  the  people  grew  also  the  number 
of  priests,  which  at  present  (exceeds  300.  Of  the 
religious  orders,  one,  that  of  the  Marist  Fathers,  was 
aflded  to  the  existing  ones.  The  charitable  institu- 
tions were  maintaincnl  and  increased.  The  work  of 
temperance  found  always  a  most  zealous  advocate 
in  the  archbishop.  Catholic  education  received  from 
him  a  liberal  and  wi.se  patronage.  Catholic  grammar 
and  high  schools  were  multiplied  and  rendered  more 
efficient.  A  new  departure  in  the  higher  education 
of  women  was  made  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  in 
the  opening  of  St.  Catharine's  College  in  1905.  To 
the  religious  communities  engaged  in  teaching  was 
added  another,  that  of  the  Felician  Sisters. 

The  training  of  the  candidates  for  the  priesthood 
is  imparted  in  two  in.stitutions.  On  8  Sept.,  1885, 
the  Seminary  of  St.  Thomas  opened  its  gates  to 
students  of  both  the  college  and  seminary  curriculum, 
with  an  attendance  of  27  in  theology  and  philo.sophy, 
and  of  39  in  the  cla.ssics.  St.  Thomas  continued  to 
house  the  two  departments  until  in  1894,  when  it 


SAINT  PAUL 


SAINT  PETER 


was  continued  as  a  college;  and  its  growth  has  been  the  four  aisles  and  naves.  In  1823  a  fire,  started 
BO  marvellous,  that  during  the  past  year  it  enrolled  through  the  negligence  of  a  workman  who  was  repair- 
nearly  700  students.  The  seminary  was  transferred,  ing  the  lead  of  the  roof,  resulted  in  the  destruction  of 
in  Sept.,  1894,  to  new  quarters,  the  St.  Paul  Seminary,  the  basilica.  Alone  of  all  the  churches  of  Rome,  it 
built  and  endowed  by  the  munificence  of  St.  Paul's  had  preserved  its  primitive  character  for  one  thou- 
sand four  hundred  and  thirty-five  years.     The  whole 


great  citizen,  James  J.  Hill.  In  the  year  of  its  open- 
ing it  numbered  about  60  students,  and  last  year  it 
had  on  its  list  165  seminarians,  representing  19  dio- 
ceses in  the  United  States.  In  1905  the  St.  Paul 
Catholic  Historical  Society  was  organized  with  head- 
quarters in  the  seminary.  The  following  events 
illustrate  the  growth  of  the  Diocese  and  the  Province 
of  St.  Paul  within  recent  years.  On  2  June,  1907, 
the  comer-stone  was  laid  for  the  new  cathedral  of 
St.  Paul;  and  a  year  afterwards,  31  May,  1908,  a 
similar  ceremony  was  performed  with  reference  to 
the  new  pro-cathedral  of  Minneapolis.  The  chapel 
of  the  Seminary  of  St.  Paul  witnessed,  19  May  1910, 
a  scene  extremely 
rare,  if  not  unique, 
in  the  annals  of  ec- 
clesiastical history. 
Six  bishops  received 
on  that  day  their 
consecration,  all  six 
destined  for  service 
in  the  one  Province 
of  St.  Paul.  The 
present  condition  of 
the  diocese  may  best 
be  gauged  from  the 
following  statistics: 
archbishop,  1;  bish- 
op, 1;  diocesan 
priests,  275;  priests 
of  religious  orders, 
40;  churches  with 
resident  priests, 
188;  missions  with 
churches,  62 ;  chapels, 
17;  theological  semi- 
nary, 1;  college,  1; 
commercial    schools, 

Christian  Brothers,  2;  number  of  pupils  in  parochial 
schools,  21,492;  boarding-schools  and  academies  for 
girls,  7;  orphan  asylums,  3;  hospitals,  3;  homes  for 
the  aged  poor,  2;  house  of  the  Good  Shepherd,!. 

The  Metropolitan,  or  Ameriran  Chtholic  Almanac;  The  Official 
Catholic  Directory  (Bahimore,  New  York,  Milwaukee):  Shea,  The 
Hierarchy  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States  (New  York, 
1886) ;  Reuss,  Biographical  Cyclopedia  of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy  of 
the  United  States  (Milwaukee,  1898) ;  Hoffmann,  St.  John's  Unirer- 
sUy  (Collegeville,  1907) ;  Acta  et  Dicta  (St.  Paul.  1907-11) ;  Upham, 
Minnesota  in  Three  Centuries,  I  (St.  Paul,  1908);  Folwell, 
Minnesota,  the  North  Star  State  (Boston  and  New  York,  UIOS); 
Williams,  A  History  of  the  City  of  St.  Paul  (St.  Paul,  1876). 

Francis  J.  Schaefer. 


Facade,  Church  of  St.  Paul-without-the-Walls,  Rome 


orld  contributed  to  its  restoration.  The  Khedive  of 
Egypt  sent  pillars  of  alabaster,  the  Emperor  of 
Russia  the  precious  malachite  and  lapis  lazuli  of  the 
tabernacle.  The  work  on  the  principal  fa<^ade,  look- 
ing toward  the  Tiber,  was  completed  by  the  Italian 
Government,  which  declared  the  church  a  national 
monument.  The  interior  of  the  walls  of  the  nave 
are  adorned  with  scenes  from  the  life  of  St.  Paul  in 
two  series  of  mosaics  (Gagliardi,  Podesti,  Balbi,  etc.). 
The  graceful  cloister  of  the  monastery  was  erected  be- 
tween 1220  and  1241.  The  sacristy  contains  a  fine 
statue  of  Boniface  IX.  In  the  time  of  Gregory  the 
Great  there  were 
two  monasteries  near 
the  basilica:  St.  Aris- 
tus's  for  men  and 
St.  Stefano's  for  wo- 
men. Services  were 
carried  out  by  a 
special  body  of  clerics 
instituted  by  Pope 
Simplicius.  In  the 
course  of  time  the 
monasteries  and  the 
clergy  of  the  basil- 
ica declined;  St. 
Gregory  II  restored 
the  former  and  en- 
trusted the  monks 
with  the  care  of  the 
basilica.  The  popes 
continued  their  gen- 
erosity toward  the 
monastery ;  the  basil- 
ica was  again  injured 
during  the  Saracen 
invasions  in  the  ninth 


century.  In  consequence  of  this  John  VlII  fortified 
the  basilica,  the  monastery,  and  the  dwellings  of  the 
peasantry,  forming  the  town  of  Joannispolis,  wliich  was 
still  remembered  in  the  thirteenth  century.  In  937, 
when  St.  Odo  of  Cluny  came  to  Rome,  Alberico  II, 
patrician  of  Rome,  entrusted  the  monastery  and  basilica 
to  his  congregation  and  Odo  placed  Balduino  of  Monte 
Ca.ssino  in  charge.  Gregory  VII  was  abbot  of  the 
monastery  and  in  his  time  Pantaleone  of  Amalfi  pre- 
sented the  bronze  gates  of  the  basihca,  which  were  exe- 
cuted by  Constantinopolitan  artists.  Martin  V  en- 
trusted it  to  the  monks  of  tlie  Congregation  of  Monte 
Cassino.  It  was  then  made  an  abbey  nullius.  The 
Saint  Paul-without-the-Walls  {San  Paolo  fuori     jurisdiction  of  the  abbot  extended  over  the  districts  of 


le  mura),  an  abbey  nuliius.  As  early  as  200  the  burial 
place  of  the  great  Apostle  in  the  Via  Ostia  was  marked 
by  a  cella  memoriw,  near  which  the  Catacomb  of  Com- 
modilla  was  established.  Constantine,  according  to 
the  "Liber  Pontificalis  ",  transformed  it  into  a  basilica; 
in  386  Theodosius  began  the  erection  of  a  much 
larger  and  more  beautiful  basilica,  but  the  work  in- 
cluding the  mosaics  was  not  completed  till  the  pontifi- 
cate of  St.  Leo  the  Great.  The  Christian  poet,  Pru- 
dentius,  describes  the  splendours  of  the  monument  in 
a  few,  but  expressive  lines.  As  it  was  dedicated  also 
to  Saints  Taurinus  and  Herculanus,  martyrs  of  Ostia 
in  the  fifth  century,  it  was  called  the  basilica  trium 
DominoTum.  Of  the  ancient  basilica  there  remain 
only  the  interior  portion  of  the  ap.se  with  the  tri- 
umphal arch  and  the  mosaics  of  the  latter;  the  mo- 
saics of  the  apse  and  the  tabernacle  of  the  confession 
of  Arnolfo  del  Cambio  belong  to  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. In  the  old  basilica  each  pope  had  his  portrait 
in  a  frieze  extending  above  the  columns  separating 
XIII.— 24 


Civitella  San  Paolo,  Leprignano,  and  Nazzano,  all  of 
which  formed  parishes;  the  parish  of  San  Paolo  in 
Rome,  however,  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  cardi- 
nal vicar. 

.\RMELLiNi,  Le  chiese  di  Roma  (Rome,  1891);  Nicolai,  Delia 
basilica  di  S.  Paolo  (Rome,  1815). 

U.  Benigni. 

Saint  Peter,  Basilica  of. — Topography. — The 
present  Church  of  St.  Peter  stands  upon  the  site  where 
at  the  beginning  of  the  first  century  the  gardens  of 
Agrippina  lay.  Her  son,  Caius  Caligula,  built  a  cir- 
cus there,  in  the  spina  of  which  he  erected  the  cele- 
brated obelisk  without  hieroglyphics  which  was 
l^rought  from  Hehopolis  and  now  stands  in  the  Pi- 
azza di  S.  Pietro.  The  Emperor  Nero  was  especially 
fond  of  this  circus  and  arranged  many  spectacles  in 
it,  among  which  the  martyrdoms  of  the  Christians 
(Tacitus,  "Annal.",  XV,  44)  obtained  a  dreadful  no- 
toriety. The  exact  spot  in  the  circus  of  the  crucifix- 
ion of  St.  Peter  was  preserved  by  tradition  through- 


SAINT  PETER 


370 


SAINT  PETER 


out  the  centuries,  and  in  the  present  Chiu-ch  of  St. 
Peter  is  marked  by  an  altar.  Directly  past  the  circus 
of  Nero  ran  the  Via  Cornelia  which,  like  all  Roman 
highways,  was  bordered  with  sepulchral  monuments. 
In  Christian  times  a  small  city  of  churches  and  hos- 
pices gradualh-  arose  here,  but  without  this  part  of 
Rome  being  included  in  the  city  limits.  When  in  the 
year  847  the  Saracens  pillaged  the  Basihca  of  St. 
Peter  and  all  the  sanctuaries  and  estabhshments 
there,  Leo  IV  decided  to  surround  the  extensive  sub- 
urb with  a  wall,  interrupted  at  intervals  by  exceed- 
ingly strong  and  well-fortified  towers.  Two  of  these 
towers,  as  well  as  a  fragment  of  the  wall,  are  still  pre- 
served in  the  Vatican  gardens  and  afford  an  interest- 
ing picture  of  the  manner  of  fortification.  Owing  to 
this  circumvallation  by  Pope  Leo  the  Vatican  portion 
of  the  city  received  the  name  Civitas  Leonina,  which 
it  has  preserved  to  the  present  day  (Leonine  City). 
The  Vatican  Hill  rises  in  close  proximity  to  the  river 
Tiber.  Between  it,  the  river,  and  the  mausoleum  of 
Hadrian  (Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo)  lies  a  small  plain 
which  was  not  filled  with  houses  until  the  early  Mid- 
dle Ages.     The  Vatican  territory  did  not  assume  a 


part  of  the  basiUca.  Its  rebuilding  during  the  Early 
Renaissance  is  to  be  regretted,  for  the  plan  of  the 
new  church  became  the  plaything  of  artistic  humours. 
It  is  due  to  Michelangelo,  who  saved  all  that  was  pos- 
sible of  Bramante's  original  plan,  that  something 
aesthetically  satisfactory  was  created. 

History  of  the  Buildixg. — Owing  to  the  neglect 
of  the  churches  at  Rome  during  the  papal  residence 
at  Avignon,  by  the  fifteenth  century  the  decay  of 
Saint  Peter's  had  progressed  to  an  alarming  extent. 
Nicholas  V,  an  enthusiastic  Humanist,  therefore  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  levelhng  the  old  church  and  erect- 
ing a  new  structure  in  its  place.  Bernardo  Rossel- 
hni  of  Florence  was  intrusted  with  the  undertaking 
and  in  accordance  with  his  plans  the  new  basilica  was 
to  completely  surround  the  choir  and  transept  of  the 
old,  and  to  have  the  ground  plan  of  a  Latin  cross  with 
an  elongated  nave.  But  with  the  exception  of  the 
tribune  begun  in  1450  and  the  foundations  of  the 
wall  surrounding  the 
transept  nothinf^ 
further  was  built,  as 
the    pope    died    in 


Michelangelo 
Ground-Plans  of  St.  Peter's 


thoroughly  urban  character  until  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century. 

Basilica  of  Constantine. — The  simple  sanctuary 
of  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles  gave  place  under  Con- 
stantine the  Great  to  a  magnificent  basilica,  begun  in 
the  year  323  but  not  completed  until  after  his  death. 
The  southern  side  of  the  ancient  basilica  was  erected 
upon  the  northern  side  of  the  circus,  which  in  the 
Middle  Ages  bore  the  name  Palatium  Neronis.  It 
was  built  in  the  form  of  a  cross  and  divided  into  five 
naves  by  four  rows  of  twenty-two  columns  each. 
Vast  treasures  were  collected  in  the  course  of  cen- 
turies in  this  principal  sanctuary  of  Western  Christen- 
dom: precious  mosaic  decoration  internally  and  ex- 
ternally, offerings  of  great  value  surrounding  the 
tomb  of  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles,  magnificent  vest- 
ments in  the  wardrobes  of  the  sacristy,  richly  deco- 
rated entablature,  and  bright  but  harmoniously  col- 
oured pavements,  paintings,  and  whatever  else  the 
love  and  veneration  of  high  and  low  could  conceive  in 
the  way  of  adornment.  Connecting  the  basilica  with 
the  Porta  di  S.  Pietro  at  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo 
was  a  covered  colonnade,  through  which  innumerable 
pilgrims  passed.  Provision  was  made  in  the  Vatican 
territfjry  for  tlifir  shelter,  and  the  nfcfssity  soon  arose 
of  building  a  palace  near  thf  basilica  in  which  the 
pope  cfjuld  live  and  receive  visitors  when  sojourning 
at  St.  Peter's.  Churches  and  monasteries,  cemeteries 
and  hospices  arose  in  great  numbers  around  the  tomb 
of  the  "fisher  of  men". 

^  Twelve  centuries  elapsed  between  the  building  of 
St.  Peter's  and  the  first  demolition  of  an  important 


1455.  Julius  II,  adopting  the  idea  of  reconstructing 
the  basilica,  instituted  a  competition  in  which  Bra- 
mante,  as  is  related,  gained  the  prize.  His  unlimited 
enthusiasm  for  the  mighty  conception  of  the  im- 
petuous pope  is  attested  by  his  numerous  plans 
and  drawings,  which  are  still  preserved  in  the  Uflfizi 
Galler}',  Florence.  Bramante  wished  to  pile  the 
Pantheon  upon  the  Constant inian  basilica,  so  that  a 
mighty  dome  would  rise  upon  a  building  in  the  form  of 
a  Greek  cross.  In  the  spring  of  the  year  1506  Julius, 
in  the  presence  of  thirty-five  cardinals,  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  this  imposing  structure,  which  posterity  has 
spoiled  and  changed  for  the  worse  in  an  inexcusable 
manner.  Bramante  died  in  1514.  Giuliano  da  San- 
gallo  and  Fra  Giacondo  da  Verona,  who  together  with 
Raphael  continued  his  work,  died  in  1516  and  1515 
respectively.  Raphael,  yielding  to  all  manner  of  in- 
fluences, undertook  changes  but  did  not  promote  the 
building  to  any  considerable  extent.  After  his  death 
in  1520  a  sharp  conflict  arose  whether  the  church 
should  remain  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  or  the  nave 
be  extended  so  as  to  form  a  Latin  cross. 

Antonio  da  Sangallo,  who  wius  appointed  architect 
in  1518.  and  Bahlassari  Peruzzi,  appointed  in  1520, 
were  without  fixed  plans  and  attempted  all  manner  of 
experiments,  of  which  Michelangelo,  when  he  re- 
ceived control  in  154S,  made  an  end  so  far  as  this 
wa«  still  ])ossil)le.  Bramante's  plan  seemed  to  him 
so  excellent  tliat  he  built  in  accordance  with  it.  By 
8trength<ning  the  central  piers  he  made  it  possible  for 
them  to  bear  a  dome.  He  did  not  live  to  see  the  com- 
pletion of  his  artistic  conception,  since  only  the  drum 


SAINT  PETER 


371 


SAINT  PETER 


was  completed  when  he  died.  But  in  the  years  which 
followed  the  present  dome,  a  sublime  masterpiece  of 
unsurpassed  beauty,  was  constructed  in  accordance 
with  his  designs.  The  faithfulness  with  which,  after 
the  great  master's  death  (1546),  Giacomo  della  Porta 
continued  the  building  of  the  dome  in  accordance  with 
Michelangelo's  intentions  should  be  especially  em- 
phasized. The  building  might  have  been  completed 
at  the  beginning  of  the  following  century  if  in  1606 
Paul  V  had  not  decided  to  carry  out  the  form  of  the 
Latin  cross.  During  the  twenty  years  which  fol- 
lowed Carlo  Maderna  constructed  the  present  by  no 
means  unobjectionable  facade  and  Bernini  wasted 
time  and  money  in  adorning  the  front  with  bell-towers, 
which  for  artistic  reasons  had  to  be  removed,  in  so  far 
as  he  had  completed  them.  At  length  on  18  Novem- 
ber, 1626,  Urban  VIII  solemnly  dedicated  the  church, 
of  which  the  actual  construction,  excepting  certain 
unimportant  details,  may  be  considered  as  completed. 
Three  clearly  defined  stages  in  the  construction  of  St. 
Peter's  must  therefore  be  distinguished:  (1)  Bra- 
mante's  Greek  cross  with  the  dome;  (2)  Michelangelo, 
a  Greek  cross  with  dome,  and  in  addition  a  ves- 
tibule with  a  portico  of  columns;  (3)  Paul  V,  a  Latin 
cross  with  Baroque  fii^ade.  The  longer  they  built 
the  more  they  spoiled  the  original  magnificent  plans, 
so  that  the  effect  of  the  exterior  as  a  whole  is  unsatis- 
factory. The  princij)le  mistake  lies  naturally  in  the 
fact  that  the  unsuitable  extension  of  the  nave  conceals 
the  dome  from  one  observing  the  basilica  from  a  near 
point  of  view.  Only  at  a  considerable  distance  is 
Michelangelo's  genial  creation  in  its  pure  and  beauti- 
ful design  revealed  to  the  astonished  observer.  All 
the  external  walls  are  constructed  of  splendid  traver- 
tine, now  become  gold  in  colour,  which  even  in  bright 
sunlight  gives  a  quiet,  harmonious  effect. 

Architecture. — Slatintics. — The  construction  of 
St.  Peter's,  in  so  far  as  the  church  itself  is  concerned, 
was  concluded  within  a  period  of  176  years  (1450-1626). 
The  cost  of  construction  including  all  the  additions  of 
the  seventeenth  century  amounted  to  about  $48,000,- 
000.  The  yearly  cost  of  maintenance  of  the  gigantic 
building,  including  the  annexes  (sacristy  and  colon- 
nades), amounts  to  $39,500,  a  sum  that  is  only  ex- 
ceeded when  actual  renewals  of  the  artistic  features 
(such  as  gilding,  repairing  the  pavement,  and  ex- 
tensive marble  work  on  the  pilasters)  become  neces- 
sary. The  basihca  is  endowc'd  with  extensive  proper- 
tics  at  Rome,  wide  landed  possessions  in  Middle  Italy, 
and  other  capital  from  the  income  of  which  the  entire 
support  of  the  Divine  Service,  the  clergy,  and  the 
large  number  of  employees,  as  well  as  the  costs  of  the 
building  requirements  are  derived.  In  accordance 
with  the  most  reliable  contemporary  calculations, 
those  of  Carlo  Fontana,  the  proportions  of  the  build- 
ing are  as  follows:  height  of  the  nave,  151-5  feet; 
width  of  the  same  at  the  entrance,  90-2  feet;  at  the 
tribune,  78-7  feet;  length  of  the  transepts  in  interior, 
451  feet;  entire  length  of  the  basilica  including  the 
vestibule,  693-8  feet.  From  the  pavement  of  the 
church  (measured  from  the  Confession)  to  the  oculus 
of  the  lantern  resting  upon  the  dome  the  height  is 
404  8  feet,  to  the  summit  of  the  cross  surmounting  the 
lantern,  434-7  feet.  The  measurements  of  the  in- 
terior diameter  of  the  dome  vary  somewhat,  being 
generally  computed  at  137-7  feet,  thus  exceeding  the 
dome  of  the  Pantheon  by  a  span  of  4-9  feet.  The 
surface  area  of  St.  Peter's  is  163,182-2  sq.  feet. 
Comparative  measurements. — Length  of  St.  Paul's, 
London,  520-3  feet;  Cathedral  of  Florence,  490-4;  Ca- 
thedral of  Milan,  444.2;  Basilica  of  St.  Paul,  Rome, 
419-2;  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople,  354.  Surface 
area:  Milan,  90,482  sq.  ft.;  St.  Paul's,  London, 
84,766.5;  St.  Sophia,  74,163;  Cologne,  66,370-8;  Ant- 
werp, 53,454.  The  vestibule  of  the  basilica  is  232-9 
feet  wide,  44-2  deep,  and  91-8  high.  On  the  facade 
are  five  portals;   in  the  chapel  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 


ment is  a  door  which  leads  directly  into  the  Apostolic 
Palace;  in  the  choir  chapel  and  in  the  vestibule  of 
the  left  transept  are  doors  leading  to  the  .sacristy,  be- 
sides which  there  are  four  others  generally  used  for 
building  and  administrative  purposes.  Besides  the 
two  low  galleries  for  the  singers  in  the  choir  chapel, 
there  are  four  others  of  restricted  size  in  the  piers  of 
the  dome.  In  addition  to  the  principal  altar  in  the 
tribune  and  the  four  altars  in  the  crypts,  the  basihca 
contains  twenty-nine  altars,  under  most  of  which  bodies 
of  saints,  including  several  of  the  Apostles,  repose. 

Annex  Buildings. — The  colonnades  which  enclose 
the  most  beautiful  pubHc  place  in  the  world,  the  Pi- 
azza di  S.  Pietro,  form  an  organic  part  of  the  basilica. 
Constructed  in  1667  by  Bernini,  they  surround  the 
piazza  in  elliptical  form,  the  major  axis  1115-4  feet, 
the  minor  axis  787-3  feet.  For  the  construction  of 
the  colonnades  and  the  equipment  of  the  Piazza  di  S. 
Pietro  about  a  million  doUars  were  expended.  "The 
covered  colonnades  which  consist  of  four  rows  of 
columns  in  the  Doric  style  form  three  passages,  the 
central  one  of  which  is  the  width  of  an  ordinary  wagon 
road.  The  248  columns  and  88  pilasters  are  entirely 
of  travertine.  Adjoining  the  elliptical  place  is  a 
square  one  which  diminishes  in  extent  towards  the 
church.  Its  sides  consist  of  extensive  corridors,  of 
which  the  one  on  the  right  belongs  to  the  Apostolic 
Palace  of  the  Vatican.  The  colonnades  and  corri- 
dors are  surmounted  by  162  figures  of  saints  after  de- 
signs by  Bernini.  In  the  middle  of  the  ellipse  towers 
the  celebrated  obelisk  of  Heliopohs.  Its  removal  to 
the  present  site  took  place  in  1586.  On  both  sides  of 
the  obelisk  are  two  beautiful  fountains  45-9  feet  in 
height.  The  obeUsk  is  836  feet  high,  and  weighs  360-2 
tons.  Its  apex  is  adorned  with  a  bronze  cross  contain- 
ing a  fragment  of  the  True  Cross.  The  irregular  quad- 
rangle between  the  ellipse  and  the  basilica  is  for  the 
most  part  occupied  by  the  monumental  stairway  and 
its  approach,  which  lead  pilgrims  to  the  liigher  level 
of  the  church.  The  area  of  this  approach  alone  is 
greater  than  that  of  most  churches  of  Christendom. 
The  sacristy  of  St.  Peter's,  the  house  of  the  canons 
and  beneficiaries,  as  well  as  the  papal  hospice  of  Santa 
Marta  are  connected  with  the  basilica  by  two  covered 
pa.ssages.  The  sacristy,  which  contains  very  remark- 
able art  treasures,  was  built  in  1775  under  Pius  VI 
by  Carlo  Marchione.  The  Palazzina,  which  stands 
on  the  Piazza  di  Santa  Marta  behind  the  basilica,  be- 
longs directly  to  St.  Peter's.  It  is  for  the  time  being 
the  official  residence  of  the  archpriest  of  St.  Peter's, 
who  is  always  a  cardinal. 

Description  of  the  Basilica. — As  may  be  seen  in  the 
accompanying  plan,  the  four  principal  divisions  of  the 
basilica  extend  from  the  dome  and  are  connected  with 
each  other  by  passages  behind  the  dome  piers.  To 
the  right  and  the  left  of  the  nave  lie  the  smaller  and 
lower  aisles,  the  right  of  which  is  bordered  by  four 
lateral  chapels,  the  left  by  three  chapels  and  the  pas- 
sage to  the  roof.  The  general  decoration  consists  of 
coloured  marble  incrustations,  stucco  figures,  rich 
gilding,  mosaic  decoration,  and  marble  figures  on  the 
pilasters,  ceihng,  and  walls.  The  panelling  of  the  pave- 
ment in  geometric  figures  is  of  coloured  marble  after 
the  designs  of  Giacomo  della  Porta  and  Bernini.  The 
extremely  long  sweep  of  the  nave  is  closed  by  the 
precious  bronze  baldachino  95  feet  high,  which  Urban 
VI  caused  to  be  erected  by  Bernini  in  1633.  Beneath 
it  is  the  Confession  of  St.  Peter,  where  the  body  of 
the  Prince  of  Apostles  reposes.  No  chairs  or  pews 
obstruct  the  view;  the  eye  roves  freely  over  the  glitter- 
ing surface  of  the  marble  pavement,  where  there  is 
room  for  thousands  of  people. 

The  centre  of  the  entire  structure  is  the  tomb  of 
St.  Peter  (see  Confession;  Saint  Peter,  Tomb 
of).  Very  interesting  also  are  the  high  altar  in  the 
tribune,  enclosing  the  chair  of  the  Prince  of  Apostlea, 
and  the  mighty  slab  of  porphyry   upon  which  the 


SAINT  PETER 


372 


SAINT  PETER 


German  emperors  were  form(Tly  crowned.  The 
magnificent  holy  water  basins  to  the  right  and  to 
the  left,  well  known  from  numerous  illustrations,  are 
supported  by  gigantic  putti.  The  barrel  vaulting 
reposes  in  a  beautiful  curve  upon  the  pillars  and  the 
arches  connecting  them.  Proceeding  forwards  we 
also  perceive  the  marble  reliefs  of  many  popes  on  the 
piers  while  many  of  the  pier  niches  contain  heroic 
statues  of  the  founders  of  the  orders,  a  decoration 
which  extends  also  over  the  transepts  and  the  nave  of 
the  tribune.  At  the  fourth  pier  to  the  right  is  a  very 
important  sitting  statue  of  St.  Peter,  which  has  been 
erroneously  ascribed  to  the  thirteenth  centur}',  but  in 
truth  dates  from  the  fourth  or  fifth.  This  is  no  adap- 
tation of  another  statue,  but  was  intended  to  be  a 
statue  of  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles.  In  the  left 
transept  the  confessionals  of  the  penitentiaries  of  St. 
Peter's  reveal  in  the  most  beautiful  manner  the  unity 
of  the  Faith,  by  offering  the  opportunity  for  confes- 
sion in  the  most  important  civilized  tongues  of  the 
world.  Facing  the  Confes- 
sion there  stand  obliquely  be- 
fore the  dome  piers  the  colos- 
sal marble  statues  of  Sts. 
Longinus,  Helena,  Veronica, 
and  Andrew.  From  the  gal- 
lery above  the  statue  of  St. 
Helena  the  so-called  great 
relics  are  disjilayed  se\eral 
times  during  the  year.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  a 
large  fragment  of  the  True 
Cross.  Above  the  four  gal- 
leries of  the  dome  the  four 
Evangelists  are  depicted  in 
magnificent  mosaics  after  the 
designs  of  Cavaliere  d'Arpino. 
In  the  frieze  above  stands  the 
proud  Latin  inscription,  the 
letters  of  which  are  six  feet 
high:  "Thou  art  Peter,  and 
upon  this  rock  I  will  build 
Mj'  Church,  and  I  will  give 
thee  the  keys  of  Heaven". 

In  the  tribune  of  the  left 
transept  are  three  altars  of 
which  the  middle  one  is  par- 
ticularly noteworthy,  because, 
in  the  first  place,  the  tomb  of 
the  immortal  composer  Pier- 
luigi  da  Palestrina  lies  before 
it ;  secondly,  because  the  bodies 
of  the  two  Apo.stles  Simeon  and  Judas  Thaddeus  re- 
po.se  m  a  stone  sarcophagus  beneath  the  altar;  and 
thirdly,  becau.se,  as  the  altar-piece  of  Guido  Reni  re- 
cords, the  altar  marks  the  spot  in  the  circus  of  Nero 
where  the  cross  stood  upon  which  St.  Peter  breathed 
his  last.  The  right  transept  has  attained  a  special  im- 
portance m  most  recent  ecclesiastical  history  because 
in  1870  the  Vatican  Council  held  its  sessions  here  until 
dispensed  by  the  mar(;h  of  the  crowned  revolution  upon 
Rome.  Returning  to  the  entrance  we  find  in  the  first 
lateral  chapel  of  the  right  aisle  the  place  made  famous  by 
Michelangelo's  "Piet^"  (1498).  Besideit  in  the  chapel 
of  St.  Nicholas  is  the  treasury  of  the  relics  of  St.  Peter, 


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KtLJLiJLki 

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igt 

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^ 

The  Dome  ok  St.  Peter's, 
FROM  THE  Vatican  Observatory 


the  Gregorian  chapel,  because  it  was  decorated  under 
Gregory  XIII  after  the  designs  of  Michelangelo. 
Next  to  the  monument  of  Gregory  XVI  is  the  altar 
of  the  Madonna  dell  Soccorso,  whose  picture  is  from 
the  ancient  church  of  St.  Peter.  Under  the  altar- 
piece  reposes  the  body  of  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus 
and  adjoining  it  is  the  colossal  tomb  of  Benedict  XIV. 
In  the  opposite  passage  of  the  dome  pier  are 
Canova's  masterpiece,  the  monument  of  Clement 
XIII,  and  the  altar-piece  after  Guido  Reni,  repre- 
senting the  Archangel  Michael.  In  the  same  divi- 
sion on  the  left  side  of  the  church,  the  monument 
of  Alexander  VIII  gleams  in  the  distance,  and  under 
the  altar  of  the  Madonna  della  Colonna,  in  an  early 
Christian  sarcophagus  the  mortal  remains  of  Sts. 
Leo  II,  Leo  III,  and  Leo  IV  repose.  The  altar  of 
St.  Leo  I  is  surmounted  by  the  colossal  marble  re- 
lief by  Algardi,  the  "Retreat  of  Attila  from  Rome", 
the  proportions  of  which  seem  too  large,  even  for  the 
Basilica  of  Saint  Peter.  Farther  on  is  the  monu- 
ment of  Alexander  VII,  and 
opposite  this  is  the  onlj'  oil- 
painted  altar-piece — one  by 
Vareni — of  St.  Peter's.  All 
the  remaining  altar-pieces 
within  the  church  are  of  mo- 
saic. Passing  through  the  left 
transept  we  ajiproach  the  pas- 
sage around  the  fourth  dome 
pier,  where  on  the  right,  under 
the  monument  of  Pius  VIII, 
is  the  entrance  to  the  sacristy, 
and  directly  in  front,  under  the 
monument  of  Pius  VII  by 
Thorwaldsen,  is  the  stairway 
to  the  gallery  of  the  singers  in 
the  choir  chapel.  Here  the 
left  transept  begins,  the  first 
lateral  chapel  of  which  is  used 
for  the  prayers  of  the  canons, 
while  the  last  serves  as  a  bap- 
tistery. Adjoining  the  choir 
chapel,  beyond  the  entrance, 
at  a  height  of  fifteen  feet 
above  the  pavement,  is  an  en- 
closed niche  in  which  each  de- 
ceased pope  is  interred  until 
his  body  can  be  taken  to  the 
sepulchre  definitively  assigned 
for  it.  At  the  present  time 
the  body  of  Leo  Xlll  still  re- 
poses here,  although  his  sepul- 
chre in  the  Lateran  has  long  been  finished.  The  un- 
certainty of  conditions  at  Rome  has  rendered  it  inad- 
visable as  yet  to  undertake  the  removal  of  the  body. 
On  the  tomb  of  Leo  XI  our  attention  is  attracted  by 
an  excellent  marble  relief  representing  King  Henry 
IV  of  France  abjuring  Protestantism.  Of  similar  im- 
portance is  another  relief  here  upon  the  monument  of 
Innocent  XI,  relating  to  the  raising  of  the  Turkish 
siege  of  Vienna  by  .lolin  Sohieski,  King  of  Poland. 
Among  the  most  beautiful  funeral  monuments  of  the 
ent  ire  basilica  is  that  of  Innocent  VIU  by  Antonio  and 
Pietro  Pollajuolo.     Adjoining  these  are  the  two  im- 


.  ,     portant  tombs  of  Urban  VIII  by  Bernini  and  Paul  III 

then  follows  the  chapel  of  St.  Seba.stian,  and  finally     by  (juglielmo  della  Porta. 


the  roomy  chapel  of  the  Sacrament.  Among  the  art 
treasures  here  is  the  tomb  of  Sixtus  IV,  a  thoroughly 
simple  and  impressive  bronze  monument  by  Antonio 
Pollajuolo.  From  the  multitude  of  sepulchral  monu- 
ments which  adorn  the  right  transept,  those  of  Leo  XII, 
of  Omntess  Matilda  of  Tuscany,  the  powerful  friend 
of  Gregory  VII,  and  of  Gregory  XIII,  the  reformer 
of  the  calendar,  df^erve  special  ment  ion.  Against  t  he 
dome  pier,  directly  in  front  of  us,  stands  an  altar  with 
the  "Communion  of  St.  .leromc"  after  Doinenifhino. 
The  passage  around  the  dome  to  the  right  iu  called 


Sagre  Grolle  Vaticane  is  the  name  applied  to  the  ex- 
tended chambers  under  the  pavement  of  St.  Peter's. 
They  are  distinguished  as  the  old  and  new  crypts. 
The  former  lie  princif)ally  undvT  the  nave,  and  are  59 
feet  wide  and  1470  feet  long.  They  represent  the 
pavement  of  the  old  Basilica  of  St.  Peter.  Numerous 
graves  of  popes  and  emperors,  which  were  in  the 
Basilica  of  Constantine,  are  here,  so  that,  the  low  and 
extended  place,  11-4  feet  in  height,  is  of  the  greatest 
historic  interest.  Among  many  others  are  the  graves 
of  the  popes:    Nicholas  I,  Gregory  V,   a  German, 


SAINT  PETER 


373 


SAINT  PETER 


Adrian  IV,  an  Englishman,  Boniface  VIII,  Nicholas 
V,  Paul  II,  Alexander  VI,  and  the  Emperor  Otto  II. 
The  heart  of  Pius  IX  also  reposes  here  in  the  simple 
urn.  The  new  crypts  extend  about  the  tomb  of  the 
Apostle  and  lie  under  the  dome.  Adjoining  the  horse- 
shoe-sliaped  passage  are  a  number  of  chapels  in  which 
very  remarkable  antiquities  and  works  of  art  from  the 
old  basilica  are  preserved.  In  the  middle  of  the  pas- 
sage just  mentioned  is  the  most  magnificent  of  all  the 
early  Christian  sarcophagi,  that  of  Junius  Bassus,  to 
which  Waal  has  dedicated  a  detailed  and  richly  illus- 
trated monograph,  sympathetic  in  treatment.  Two 
altars  are  placed  here  in  the  closest  possible  proximity 
to  the  sarcophagus  in  which  the  body  of  St.  Peter  re- 
poses. Admission  to  the  crypts  and  to  Holy  Mass 
at  the  altar  of  the  Confession  which  was  formerly  very 
difficult,  especially  to  women,  is  now  easy  to  obtain. 

The  Ascent  of  the  Dome. — It  was  the  former  custom 
to  ascend  an  easy  stairway  to  the  roof  of  the  church, 
but  now  a  spacious  elevator  carries  visitors  to  the 
heights.  From  the  roof,  which  is  enlivened  with 
many  small  cupolas  and  a  few  guards'  houses,  there  is 
a  fine  panorama  and 
a  view  of  the  Eternal 
City.  The  great 
dome  has  a  circum- 
ference of  about  one- 
hundred  paces,  iUK  I  if 
one  wishes  to  mount 
higher,  a  stairway 
between  the  innei 
and  outer  casing  of 
the  dome,  30S:3  feet 
in  height,  leads  into 
the  lantern.  Enter- 
ing the  external  gal- 
lery of  the  lantern, 
the  beholder  is  as- 
tonished by  t  he  view 
that  greets  the  eye. 
It  looks  down  into 
the  gardens  of  the 
Vatican  Palace,  in 
which  the  people 
walking  about  seem 
like  dwarfs.  The 
panorama  of  the  city 
unfolds  itself  in  plas- 
tic forms.  To  the  left  tower  the  Sabine  mountains; 
and  beyond  the  extensive,  sun-bathed  Campagna 
are  the  beautiful  Alban  hills  with  their  highest  peak, 
Monte  Cavo.  On  the  slope  of  this  chain  lie  the  at- 
tractive suburban  towns  Frascati,  Marino,  Albano 
et(\,  and  on  the  right  gleams  a  silver  streak — the  sea. 
Encir(!hng  the  gallery  towards  the  west,  the  Vatican 
gardens  lie  beneath  us,  rich  and  varied  in  plan,  al- 
though not  artistically  laid  out.  The  entire  pano- 
rama is  one  of  greatest  interest. 

Divine  Service  in  St.  Peter's. — Although  the 
Lateran  Basilica  bears  the  honorary  title  of  the 
cathedral  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  mother  and  head 
of  all  the  churches  of  the  earth,  this  basilica,  as  Waal 
correctly  observes,  has  for  a  thousand  years  been 
an  isolated  church  which  played  a  ver>'  modest  part  in 
the  devotions  of  the  Roman  pilgrims.  It  is  very 
different  with  St.  Peter's.  The  great  wealth  of  the 
basilica  has  always  made  it  possible  to  maintain  most 
magnificent  ritual;  and  its  proximity  to  the  inner  city, 
its  great  size,  and  its  art  treasures  have  always  attracted 
everyone.  Besides  numerous  canons,  beneficiaries,  and 
chaplains,  the  church  has  at  its  disposal  the  Vatican 
Seminary,  the  students  of  which  always  assist  in  the 
church  in  the  celebration  of  Divine  Service.  The 
performances  of  their  vocal  choirs,  the  Capella  Giu- 
lia,  are  of  a  very  high  artistic  order.  One  liturgical 
celebration  takes  place  only  in  St.  Peter's  and  in  no 
other  church  in  the  whole  world:  the  Washing  of  the 


Interior  of  St.  Peter's,  lookino  towards  the  High  Altar 


Altar  on  Maundy  Thursday.  At  the  close  of  the 
Matins  on  this  day  the  so-called  papal  altar  under  the 
great  bronze  baldachino  is  sprinkled  with  oil  and 
wine.  In  an  extended  procession  the  archpriest,  his 
vicar,  the  canons,  the  beneficiaries,  the  chaplains,  and 
the  entire  clergy  approach  in  order,  and  symbolically 
wash  the  altar  with  a  sprinkler.  A  solemn  benedic- 
tion with  the  great  relics  from  the  gallery  of  St. 
Helena  terminates  this  very  impressive  ceremony. 

The  great  papal  functions  which  Leo  XIII  was  the 
first  to  resume  after  the  sad  year  of  1870  have  since 
then  taken  place  in  St.  Peter's  with  a  few  exceptions, 
when  the  Sistine  Chapel  or  the  Sala  Ducale  were  used. 
Jubilees,  canonizations,  coronations,  and  other  events 
in  which  the  pope  solemnly  presides  assemble  40,000 
to  50,000  people  in  the  gigantic  halls  of  St.  Peter's. 
They  wait  patiently  for  hours  until  at  the  appointed 
time  the  Vicar  of  Christ,  loftily  enthroned  upon  the 
sedia  gestatoria,  blesses  the  worshipping  throng,  while 
in  measured  steps  he  is  borne  to  the  papal  altar.  A 
perfect  silence  prevails,  when  after  long  preparations 
the  pope  in  full  pontifical  attire  begins  the  actual 
service.  Sudden  ly 
the  magnificent 
tones  of  the  Ky  rie  are 
intoned  by  the  choir 
of  the  Sistine  Chajjel, 
who  alone  have  the 
privilege  of  singing 
in  the  presence  of 
the  pope,  and  always 
without  the  accom- 
paniment  of  an 
organ.  Then  the 
pope  turns  for  the 
first  time  to  the 
faithful  and  chants 
"Pax  vobis"  (Peace 
be  with  you).  At 
the  Elevation  silver 
trumpets  resound 
from  Michelangelo's 
dome. 

Chimes  of  St. 
Peter's. — As  in 
many  cathedral 
churches,  the  bells 
of  St.  Peter's  possess 
an  ample  endowment  of  their  own.  This  serves  for 
their  maintenance  and  to  defray  the  cost  of  the  com- 
plicated programme  of  the  chimes.  The  usual  daily 
service  is  simple  but  far  more  complicated  are  the 
chimes  for  Sundays,  fast  days,  feast  days,  ember 
days,  feasts  with  octaves,  the  anniversary  of  the 
death,  election,  and  coronation  of  the  present  and 
the  preceding  pope,  and  finally,  as  a  climax,  the 
feast  of  St.  Peter  with  its  chimes  seven  days  be- 
fore and  during  its  octave.  Different  chimes  are 
prescribed  at  the  death  of  a  canon  than  at  that  of 
the  pope. 

The  Maintenance  of  the  Basilica. — A  building 
of  such  colossal  extent  requires  a  corps  of  architects, 
who  conduct  the  ordinary,  as  well  as  the  unusual, 
works  on  the  basilica.  They  are  directed  by  a  head 
architect,  who  in  conjunction  with  the  economist  of 
St.  Peter's,  a  canon,  discusses  and  arranges  every- 
thing as  far  as  no  special  question  requires  the  vote 
of  the  chapter.  A  staff  of  selected  artisans  of  all 
kinds,  who  are  in  permanent  service  and  are  called 
sampiefrini,  is  directed  by  a  head  ma.ster,  and  there 
are  few  great  institutions  in  the  world  which  have 
such  a  chosen  body  of  clever,  reliable,  and  fearless 
workmen.  Only  in  the  rarest  cases  is  the  manage- 
ment of  St.  Peter's  compelled  to  seek  assistance  of 
artisans  or  workmen  who  do  not  belong  to  the  sani- 
jnetrini.  The  maintenance  of  the  mighty  building  is 
exemplary  throughout. 


SAINT  PETER 


374 


SAINT  PETERSBURG 


Besides  the  literature  cited  on  the  articles  Rome  and  Saint 
Peter,  Tomb  of,  see  Chevalier,  Topo  Bibl.,  s.  v.  Rome,  San 
Pietro,  VaHcan.  The  often  mentioned  works  of  Grisar,  Wil- 
PERT,  Pastor,  Gregorovius,  Reu moxt,  Papencordt,  and  Stein- 
MANN  give  information  upon  historical  questions.  A  source  of 
the  highest  authority  is  the  Liber  PorUificalis,  ed.  Duchesne 
(1886-92),  ed.  Mommsen  (1898);  see  also  Cerrotti,  ed.  Cel.\ni, 
Bibliografia  di  Roma  medievaU  e  moderna,  I  (Milan,  1893);  Calvi, 
BibUografia  generale  di  Roma  riel  medio  evo  (476-14S9)  (Rome, 
1906),  also  SupplemeiU,  I  (1908);  Lanciani,  Topografia  di  Roma 
antica  (1880),  as  well  as  his  extensive  Atlas;  Richter,  Topographi» 
der  Studt  Rom  (2nd  ed.,  1901)  in  Hand,  der  klass.  AUerthuiss, 
IV  (Nordlingen,  1SS9).  For  the  architectural  history  mention 
should  be  made  of:  GetmCller,  Die  ursprunglichen  Entmiirfe 
far  St.  Peter  in  Rome  (Vienna,  1875);  Costaguti,  Architettura 
della  basilica  di  S.  Pietro  in  Vaticano  (Rome,  1684);  Memorie 
istoriche  della  gran  cupola  del  tempio  Vaticano  (Padua,  1748) ; 
Visconti,  Metrologia  Vaticana  ossia  ragguaglio  delle  dimensioni 
della  Basilica  di  S.  Pietro  (Rome,  1828);  Gilii,  Architettura 
della  basilica  di  S.  Pietro  in  Vaticano  .  .  .  ,  con  una  succinta 
dichiarazione  (Rome,  1812);  Dumont,  Details  des  plus  interes- 
santes  parties  d' architecture  de  la  basilique  de  Saint-Pierre  de 
Rome  (Vans,  176.3);  Ch.vndlery,  Pilgrim  Walks  in  Rome  (Lon- 
don, 1905).  Reliable  handbooks  are  those  of  Murray,  Bae- 
DECKER,  and  Gseli^Fels.  It  is  unnecessary  to  enumerate  the 
abundant  illustrative  material  wliich  is  easily  accessible. 

Paul  Maria  Baumgarten. 

Saint  Peter,  Tomb  of. — The  history  of  the  relics 
of  the  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul  is  one  which  is  involved 
in  considerable  difficulty  and  confusion.  The  pri- 
marj'  authorities  to  be  consulted  are  in  opposition  to 
one  another,  or  at  least  appear  to  be  so.  There  is  no 
doubt  where  the  bodies  now  are — in  the  tombs  of  the 
Vatican  and  the  Ostian  Way  respectively — but  there 
is  another  tomb  at  the  Catacombs  of  S.  Sebastiano 
which  also  claims  the  honour  of  having  at  one  time  re- 
ceived them,  and  the  question  is  as  to  the  period  at 
which  this  episode  occurred,  and  whether  there  was 
only  one  or  a  double  translation  of  the  relics.  What- 
ever conclusion  we  come  to,  we  shall  have  to  discard, 
or  at  least  to  explain  away,  some  of  the  evidence  which 
exists.  The  account  which  we  give  here  is  the  sim- 
plest theory  consistent  with  the  evidence,  and  is 
based  upon  one  consistent  principle  throughout; 
namely,  to  assume  only  one  translation  of  the  relics — 
the  one  which  took  place  at  a  known  historical  date, 
and  for  historical  reasons  which  we  can  understand — 
and  to  refer  to  this  all  the  allusions  to  a  translation 
which  occur  in  early  authorities,  even  though  some  of 
them  .seem  to  have  been  misplaced  in  date.  There 
would  have  been  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  bodies 
of  the  Apostles  after  their  martyrdom,  and  the  be- 
reaved Christians  seem  to  have  followed  their  usual 
custom  in  burj'ing  both  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
scene  of  their  sufferings.  Each  was  laid  in  ground 
that  belonged  to  Christian  proprietors,  by  the  side  of 
well-known  roads  leading  out  of  the  city;  St.  Paul  on 
the  Via  Ostiana  and  St.  Peter  on  the  Via  Cornelia.  In 
each  case  the  actual  tomb  seems  to  have  been  an  un- 
derground vault,  approached  from  the  road  by  a  de- 
scending staircase,  and  the  body  reposed  in  a  sar- 
cophagus of  stone  in  the  centre  of  this  vault. 

We  have  definite  evidence  of  the  existence  of  these 
tombs  (trophoBa)  in  these  places  as  early  as  the  be- 
ginning of  the  second  century,  in  the  words  of  the 
priest  Caius  (Eu.seb.,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  II,  2S).  These 
tombs  were  the  objects  of  pilgrimage  during  the  ages  of 
persecution,  and  it  will  be  found  recorded  in  the  Acts 
of  several  of  the  martyrs  that  they  were  seized  while 
praying  at  the  tfjmbs  of  the  Apostles.  For  two  cen- 
turif*  the  relics  were  safe  enough  in  these  tombs,  pub- 
lic though  they  were,  for  the  respect  entertained  by  the 
Romans  for  any  place  where  the  dead  were  buried  pre- 
served them  from  any  danger  of  sacrilege.  In  the 
year  258,  however,  this  protection  was  withdrawn. 
Christians  from  henceforth  were  specially  excepted 
from  the  privilege  which  they  had  previously  enjoyed 
on  account  of  the  use  they  had  ma<le  of  it  to  enable 
them  to  carry  on  religious  worship.  Hence  it  became 
nccfSisary  to  remove  the  sacred  relics  of  tlif  two  great 
Apostif-s  in  order  to  prfscrve  theiri  from  po.ssiblc  out- 
rage.    They  were  removed  secretly  by  niglit  and  hid- 


den in  the  Catacombs  of  S.  Sebastiano,  though,  prob- 
ably the  fact  of  their  removal  was  known  to  very  few, 
and  the  great  body  of  Roman  Christians  believed 
them  still  to  rest  in  their  original  tombs.  At  a  later 
date,  when  the  persecution  was  less  acute,  they  were 
brought  back  again  to  the  Vatican  and  the  Via  Osti- 
ana respectively. 

When  the  Church  was  once  more  at  peace  under 
Constantine,  Christians  were  able  at  last  to  provide 
themselves  with  edifices  suitable  for  the  celebration 
of  Divine  Service,  and  the  places  so  long  hallowed  as 
the  resting  places  of  the  relics  of  the  Apostles  were 
naturally  among  the  first  to  be  selected  as  the  sites  of 
great  basilicas.  The  emperor  himself  not  only  sup- 
phed  the  funds  for  these  buildings,  in  his  desire  to  hon- 
our the  memories  of  the  two  Apostles,  but  actually 
assisted  in  the  work  of  building  With  his  own  hands. 
At  St.  Paul's,  where  the  tomb  had  remained  in  its 
original  condition  of  a  simple  vault,  no  difficulty  pre- 
sented itself,  and  the  high  altar  was  erected  over  the 
vault.  The  inscription,  dating  from  this  period, 
"Paulo  Apostolo  Martyri",  may  still  be  seen  in  its 
place  under  the  altar.  At  St.  Peter's,  however,  the 
matter  was  complicated  by  the  fact  that  Pope  St. 
Anacletus,  in  the  first  century,  had  built  an  upper 
chamber  or  memoria  above  the  vault.  This  upper 
chamber  had  become  endeared  to  the  Romans  during 
the  ages  of  persecution,  and  they  were  unwilling  that 
it  should  be  destroyed.  In  order  to  preserve  it  a  sin- 
gular and  unique  feature  was  given  to  the  basiUca  in 
the  raised  platform  of  the  apse  and  the  Chapel  of  the 
Confession  underneath.  The  extreme  reverence  in 
which  the  place  has  always  been  held  has  resulted  in 
these  arrangements  remaining  almost  unchanged  even 
to  the  present  time,  in  spite  of  the  rebuilding  of  the 
church.  Only,  the  actual  vault  itself  in  which  the 
body  lies  is  no  longer  accessible  and  has  not  been  so 
since  the  ninth  century.  There  are  those,  however, 
who  think  that  it  would  not  be  impossible  to  find  the 
entrance  and  to  reopen  it  once  more.  A  unanimous 
request  that  this  should  be  done  was  made  to  Leo  XIII 
by  the  International  Archaeological  Congress  in  1900, 
but,  so  far,  without  result. 

The  fullest  account  of  the  Apostolic  tombs  will  be  found  in 
Barnes,  St.  Peter  in  Rome,  and  his  tomb  in  the  Vatican  Hill 
(London,  1898),  which  remains  the  one  monograph  on  the  subject. 
The  general  literature  is  very  large.  See  especially  the  Liber 
Pontificalis.  ed.  Duchesne;  Torrigio,  Le  Sacre  Grotte  Vaticane 
(Rome,  1635);  Borgia,  Confessio  Vaticana  (Rome,  1766);  and 
among  recent  Jiooks  Armellini,  Le  Chiese  di  Roma  (Rome,  1890), 
and  Marucchi,  Basiliques  et  Eglises  de  Rome  (Paris,  1902). 

Arthur  S.  Barnes. 

Saint  Petersburg,  the  imperial  residence  and  sec- 
ond capital  of  Russia,  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  Neva 
on  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  In  1899,  including  the  sub- 
urbs, it  had  1,439,000  inhabitants;  of  these  81-8  per 
cent  belonged  to  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church,  4  8  per 
cent  were  Catholics,  703  per  cent  were  Protestants, 
and  1-4  per  cent  were  Jews.  As  regards  nationality 
87-5  per  cent  were  Russians,  3-3  per  cent  were  Ger- 
man, 31  per  cent  were  Poles,  1  03  per  cent  were  Finns, 
and  103  per  cent  were  Estlioiiians.  In  1910  the  pop- 
ulation was  estimated  at  over  1,900,000  persons.  The 
district  of  Ingermannland,  that  is,  the  territory  be- 
tween Lake  Peipus,  the  Narova  River,  and  Lake  La- 
doga, in  which  St.  Petersburg  is  situated,  belonged  in 
the  Middle  Ages  to  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Novgorod, 
and  later  to  Moscow.  In  1617  the  district  was  given 
by  the  Treaty  of  Stolbovo  to  Sweden;  in  1702  it  was 
rewon  by  Peter  the  Great.  When  Peter  in  1703 
formed  the  daring  plan  to  transfer  the  centre  of  his 
empire  from  the  inaccessible  Moscow  to  the  Baltic  and 
to  open  the  hitherto  isolated  Russia  to  the  influence 
and  cultivation  of  Western  Europe  by  means  of  a  large 
fortified  commercial  port,  he  chose  for  his  new  creation 
the  southern  end  of  th(!  j)resent  island  of  Peters- 
burgsky.  At  this  point  the  Neva  separates  into  two 
branches,  the  big  and  the  httle  Neva;  here  on  16  (27) 


SAINT  PETERSBURG 


375 


SAINT  PETERSBURG 


May,  1703,  he  began  the  citadel  of  Peter  and  Paul,  the 
fortifications  of  which  were  built  first  of  wood  and  in 
1706  of  stone.  The  Troitzki  church  was  the  first 
wooden  church  of  the  imperial  city;  around  it  were 
erected  houses  in  Dutch  architectural  style  for  Peter 
and  his  friends.  As  early  as  1704  the  first  habita- 
tions were  built  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Neva. 
Some  40,000  men  drawn  from  all  parts  of  the  empire 
worked  for  sevei  al  years  in  the  erection  of  the  new 
city;  a  large  number  of  them  succumbed  to  the  ex- 
treme severity  of  their  labours  and  the  deadly  mists 
of  the  marshy  ground.  In  1708  St.  Petersburg  was 
unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Swedes.  The  Rus- 
sian victory  over  Charles  XII  at  Pultowa  put  an  end 
to  any  danger  that  might  have  arisen  from  Sweden. 
In  1712  the  city  was  formallj^  made  the  residence  of 
the  Court. 

It  was  Peter's  desire  that  his  new  capital  should  not 
be  surpassed  in  brilliance  by  the  capitals  of  Western 
Europe.  He  intended  to  follow  in  its  construction 
the  plans  of  the  architect  and  sculptor  Andreas 
Schliiter,  who  was  called  to  St.  Petersburg  in  1713  but 
died  in  the  following  year.  In  order  to  make  the  new 
capital  the  equal  of  Moscow  in  reUgious  matters, 
Peter  and  his  successors  built  a  large  number  of 
churches  and  monasteries,  often  equipped  with  the 
most  lavish  splendour.  Peter  sought,  above  all,  to  es- 
tablish veneration  for  the  national  saint,  Alexander 
Newski,  Grand  duke  of  Novgorod,  who  died  in  1261. 
He  therefore  built  a  church  near  Neva,  on  the  spot 
where  Alexander  in  1241  gained  the  traditionallj'  cele- 
brated victory  over  the  united  forces  of  the  Swedes, 
Danes,  and  Finns;  this  victory  cannot  be  proved  his- 
torically. The  bones  of  the  saint  were  placed  in  the 
church  with  much  pomp  in  1724.  The  tsar  himself 
drew  up  a  plan  for  a  monastery  and  gave  to  its  con- 
struction 10,000  roubles  from  his  private  fortune,  be- 
sides state  revenues.  At  Peter's  death  the  city  had 
75,000  inhabitants.  However,  a  pause  now  occurred 
in  its  development  as  Catharine  I  and  Peter  II  pre- 
ferred the  ol(l  capital  Moscow.  Anna  Ivanova  (1730- 
40)  was  the  first  ruler  to  Uve  again  at  St.  Petersburg. 
During  her  reign  and  that  of  her  successor,  Elizabeth 
Petrovna,  the  city  grew  greatly  and  was  adorned  with 
striking  buildings.  Most  of  the  older  public  build- 
ings, however,  belong  to  the  reigns  of  Catharine  II 
and  Paul  I,  who  were  gr^at  builders.  By  the  favour 
of  the  tsars  who  competed  with  one  another  in  adorn- 
ing the  imperial  city  with  splendid  structures  and  en- 
riching it  with  schools  anrl  collections,  as  well  as  by  its 
advantageous  position  for  commerce  and  intercourse 
with  Western  Europe,  St.  Petersburg  has  gradually 
surpassed  its  rival  Moscow.  It  has  developed  into 
the  largest  city  of  the  empire,  but  has  assumed  more 
the  character  of  a  city  of  Western  Europe  than  that  of 
a  national  Russian  one. 

The  history  of  the  Catholic  Church  at  St.  Peters- 
burg goes  back  to  the  era  of  the  founding  of  the  city. 
As  early  as  1703  there  were  a  few  Cathohcs  in  the 
city.  In  1704  one  of  the  Jesuits,  who  since  1684  had 
been  able  to  maintain  themselves  at  Moscow,  came  to 
St.  Petersburg  in  order  to  make  the  observance  of 
their  religious  duties  easier  to  the  officers  and  soldiers 
stationed  on  the  Neva;  he  had  also  the  spiritual  care 
of  over  300  Catholic  Lithuanians  who  had  been  taken 
prisoners.  From  1710  the  Catholics  had  a  Uttle 
wooden  chapel,  called  the  Chapel  of  St.  Catharine,  not 
far  from  the  spot  where  the  monument  to  Peter  the 
Great  now  stands.  The  parish  register  of  the  chapel 
goes  back  to  this  year.  Later,  Franciscans  and  Ca- 
puchins took  the  place  of  the  Jesuits.  Although 
Peter  the  Great  was  kindly  disposed  to  the  Catholic 
community,  the  Holy  Synod,  an  administrative  eccle- 
siastical board  that  he  had  created,  was  constantly 
suspicious  of  tliem.  National  disputes  having  arisen 
between  the  Franciscans  and  Capuchins,  the  Holy 
Synod  was  able  to  obtain  an  imperial  decree  in  1725, 


compelhng  all  the  Capuchins  but  one  to  leave  the 
city.  This  one  remained  behind  in  the  employ  of  the 
French  embassy  and  was  permitted  to  hold  services 
for  his  countrymen  in  a  chapel  designated  for  the  pur- 
pose. In  1737  the  wooden  church  bm-nt  down.  It 
was  decided  to  rebuild  it  in  stone  and  a  temporary 
chapel  was  arranged.  Although  the  Empress  Anna 
Ivanova  gave  a  piece  of  ground,  the  corner-stone  of 
the  new  Church  of  St.  Catharine  was  not  laid  until 
1763  on  account  of  the  national  feuds  within  the 
Catholic  community  of  Germans,  French,  Italians, 
and  Poles.  The  construction  of  the  church  advanced 
slowly  because  of  lack  of  funds.  It  was  built  in  the 
Renaissance  style  by  the  Itahan  architect, VoUini  de  la 
Mothe,  and  was  formally  consecrated  by  the  papal 
nuncio  Archetti  in  1783.  In  1769  Catharine  II  con- 
firmed the  gifts  of  her  predecessors  and  released  the 
church,  school,  and  dwelhng  of  the  Catholic  priests 
from  all  taxes  and  imposts.  In  the  same  year  she  is- 
sued the  "Ordinatio  ecclesia;  petropolitanse",  which 
settled  the  legal  status  of  the  parish  and  was  a  model 
for  the  other  Cathohc  parishes  of  Russia.  This  or- 
dinance raised  the  permitted  number  of  Catholic 
priests  from  four  to  six.  These  were  generally  Fran- 
ciscans, who  had  charge  of  the  welfare  of  souls  at 
Kronstadt,  Jamburg,  Riga,  and  Reval. 

The  number  of  Catholics  was  considerably  in- 
creased by  the  French  emigrants  whom  the  French 
Revolution  caused  to  flee  to  St.  Petersburg.  Fur- 
ther, the  fact  that  the  first  archbishop  of  the  newly 
founded  Archdiocese  of  Mohileff  soon  transferred 
his  residence  to  the  capital  of  the  empire  also  con- 
tributed to  the  strengthening  of  the  Cathohc  Church 
in  St.  Petersburg.  In  October,  1800,  the  Church  of 
St.  Catharine  was  confided  to  the  Jesuits  at  tlie  re- 
quest of  the  Emperor  Paul.  The  Jesuits  opened  a 
school  that  was  soon  very  prosperous,  but  their  suc- 
cess and  the  many  following  conversions  aroused  the 
jealousy  of  the  Orthodox.  The  Jesuits  were  e.xpelled 
from  St.  Petersburg  on  22  December,  1815,  and  from 
the  whole  of  Russia  in  1820.  The  parochial  care  of 
the  Catholics  of  St.  Petersburg  was  given  to  secular 
priests,  and  in  1816  to  the  Dominicans  who  have  been 
in  the  city  continuously  until  the  present  time.  A 
Catholic  Rumanian  church  was  built  during  the 
reign  of  Alexander  I.  During  the  forties  the  number  of 
Dominicans  increased  to  twenty;  but  the  closing  of  the 
Polish  monasteries,  from  which  they  drew  new  mem- 
bers, reduced  their  number,  and  it  became  necessary 
to  call  fathers  from  Austria  and  France.  Since  1888 
secular  priests  have  also  been  admitted  to  the  cure  of 
souls;  still  the  present  number  of  ecclesiastics  is 
hardly  sufficient  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  entire  Cath- 
olic community,  the  pastoral  care,  schools,  and  char- 
itable demands.  In  addition,  there  still  remains  the 
old  limitation  of  administration  by  the  governmental 
church  consistory,  the  Catholic  collegium,  and  the 
department  of  the  state  ministry  for  foreign  religious, 
which  exerts  a  zealous  care  that  an  active  Catholic 
life,  religious  freedom,  and  efforts  for  the  conversion 
of  those  of  other  faiths  should  be  and  remain  impos- 
sible. 

Ecclesiastically,  as  regards  Catholicism,  St.  Peters- 
burg is  the  see  of  the  Metropolitan  of  Mohileff,  of  the 
general  consistory,  of  the  Roman  Catholic  ecclesiasti- 
cal collegium  (the  highest  collegiate  church  Iboard  of 
administration,  which,  however,  has  to  obtain  the 
consent  of  the  minister  of  the  interior  in  all  more  im- 
portant matters),  of  a  Roman  Catholic  preparatory 
academy  for  priests,  and  of  an  archiepiscopal  semi- 
nary. The  Cathedral  of  the  Assumption  of  Mary 
was  built  in  the  Byzantine  style  in  1873  and  was  en- 
larged 1896-1902.  The  parish  Church  of  St.  Catha- 
rine was  erected  in  1763,  that  of  St.  Stanislaus  in  1825, 
that  of  Our  Lady  in  1867,  that  of  St.  Casimir  in  1908, 
and  the  German  parish  Church  of  St.  Boniface  in 
1910.     In  addition  there  are  4  public  and  10  private 


SAINT-PIERRE 


376 


SAINT-SIMON 


Catholic  chapels  in  the  city.  The  cure  of  souls  is  un- 
der the  care  of  6  parish  priests  and  administrators, 
and  15  vicars  and  chaplains;  there  are  also  2  military 
chaplains  for  Cathohc  soldiers.  The  orders  settled  in 
the  city  are  the  Dominicans,  Assumptionists,  ()b- 
lates,  Franciscans,  and  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph.  Be- 
sides the  clerical  educational  institutions  there  is  a 
Catholic  pymniisium  for  boys  and  one  for  girls,  and  a 
higher  school  for  boys.  Catholic  religious  instruction 
is  given  in  30  pubhc  intermediate  schools  for  boys,  11 
mihtary  schools,  and  28  schools  for  girls.  According 
to  the  year-book  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Mohileff  the 
number  of  CathoUcs  is  87,500. 

St.  Petersburg,  published  bv  the  city  government  in  Russian 
(St.  Petersburg,  1903);  SrwoRix,  Gam  Petersburg  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1906),  in  Russian;  Bacmgartner,  Durch  Skandinavien 
nach  Sankt  Petersburg  (3rd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1901);  Badeker, 
St.  Petersburg  (Leipzig,  1904);  Zabel,  St.  Petersburg  (Leipzig, 
190.5),  in  the  compilation  Beruhmte  Kunslstatlen;  Aminoff,  St. 
Petersburg  (Stockholm,  1910);  DE  Haenen  and  Dobson,  St. 
Petersburg  Painted  and  Described  (London,  1910).  Concerning 
the  Catholic  Church  in  St.  Petersburg  see  Theiner,  Die  neuesten 
Zustande  der  katholischen  Kirche  beider  Ritus  in  Polen  u.  Russland 
(Aug.sijurg,  1841);  ToLfiTOi,  Le  cathoHcisme  romain  en  Russie 
(Paris.  1863);  Literw  secreUr  Jesuitarum  (St.  Petersburg,  1904); 
Encyclopedia  Koscielna,  XIX,  s.  v.;  Godlewski,  Monumenta 
ecelesiastica  petropolitana.  III  (St.  Petersburg,  1906-09);  Elenchus 
omnium  ecclesiarum,  etc.,  archidiacesis  Mohyloviensis  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1910);  various  articles  in  periodicals,  especially  in  Echos 
d'Orient,  Bessarione,  and  Revue  catholique  des  eglises. 

Joseph  Lins. 

Saint-Pierre.    See  Martinique,  Diocese  of. 

Saint-Pierre  and  Miquelon,  Prefecture  Apos- 
TOLif  OF  flx.srLARUM  S.  Petri  et  Miqueloxexsis), 
compri.ses  the  only  French  possession  in  North  Amer- 
ica, a  group  of  islands  situated  48°  46  N.  lat.,  and 
58°  30  W.  long.  (Paris  standard),  having  an  area  of 
177  square  miles.  Geologically  and  geographically 
connect e(l  with  Newfoundland,  it  was  once  likewise  so 
historically.  Known  to  the  earliest  Breton  and 
Basque  fishermen,  this  group  already  bore  its  present 
name  when  Jacques  Cartier  identified  it  in  1535. 
The  first  settlement  dates  from  1604.  In  1689  Bishop 
St-\'allier  visited  it  from  Placentia,  bless?d  a  chapel, 
and  left  a  priest  in  charge.  The  Recollects  sent  to  Pla- 
centia  (1691)  attended  this  mi-ssion.  The  islands  were 
successively  ceded  to  England  (Treaty  of  Utre(;ht, 
1712j,  restored  to  France  (Treaty  of  Paris,  1763), 
thrice  captured  by  the  English  (1778,  1793,  and 
1808).  and  thrice  retroceded  to  France  (Treaties  of 
Versailles,  1783,  of  Amiens,  1802,  and  of  Ghent, 
1814).  Many  Acadians  fled  thither  after  the  dis- 
persion of  Grand  Pre  (1755)  and  the  fall  of  Louis- 
lx)urg  (1757).  The  first  missionaries  who  came  after 
the  Treaty  of  Paris  were  the  Jesuits  Bonnccamp  and 
Ardilliers,  with  dubious  jurisdiction  from  the  Bi.shop 
of  La  Rochelle  (1765).  The  islands  now  separated 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  Quebec  were  erected  by  Propa- 
ganda into  a  prefecture  Apostolic,  and  formed  the 
first  miasion  confided  by  Rome  to  the  Seminar>'  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  MM.  Girard,  prefect,  and  de  Manach, 
who  sailed  the  same  year,  were  driven  by  a  storm  to 
Martinique.  They  were  replaced  (1766)  by  MM. 
Becquet  and  Paradis,  likewi.se  of  the  Holy  C.hosi  Sem- 
inary, or  Spiritains,  as  well  as  several  fjf  thf  following. 
In  1775  the  prefect,  M.  Panwlis,  with  his  cf)nii)anion 
and  300  families  were  expelled  by  the  English.  M. 
de  Ivongueville  succeeded  him  in  1788.  In  1792  M. 
Allain,  vice-prefect,  and  his  cf)mpanion,  M.  Le  .lam- 
tel,  were  forced  by  the  French  Revolution  to  leave  for 
the  Magdalen  Islands,  with  a  number  of  Acadians 
who,  remaining  faithful  to  the  King  f)f  France,  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  the  Con.stitution.  The  former  in- 
habitants returning  in  1816,  M.  OUivier,  who  accom- 
panied them,  applied  for  jtirsidiction  to  the  Bi.shop  of 
Quebec.  He  was  appointed  vice-prefect  in  1820.  His 
successors,  with  the  same  title,  were  MM.  Chariot 
(1841),  I^  Helloco  (1854),  Le  Tournoux  (1864),  Ti- 
beri  (1893);  the  two  last  named  belonged  to  the 
newly-restored  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 


The  present  titular  is  Mgr  Christophe-Louis  Lc- 
gasse,  b.  at  Bassussary,  France,  1859,  appointed  in 
1898,  prelate  of  His  Holiness  in  1899.  His  chief  work 
was  the  erection  of  the  cathedral  of  St-Pierre,  his  resi- 
dential town.  The  population,  almost  exclusively 
Catholic,  varies  from  40(K)  in  winter  to  8000  in  sum- 
mer, owing  to  the  presence  of  the  fishing  crews.  They 
are  all  Bretons,  Normans,  and  Basques.  Besides  the 
six  resident  missionary  priests,  the  fishermen,  on  the 
great  banks,  are  visited  every  month  by  a  chaplain 
on  board  a  hospital  ship  which  also  distributes  their 
mail.  There  are  7  churches  or  chapels,  4  stations, 
6  schools,  those  for  boys  managed  until  1903  by  16 
Brothers  of  Ploermel  (Christian  Instruction);  37  Sis- 
ters of  St.  Joseph  of  Chiny  (teaching  and  nursing) 
were  subsidized  by  the  Government  until  1903.  A 
cla.ssical  college  opened  bj^  the  Holy  Ghost  Fathers  in 
1873  wa.s  closed  in  1892. 

Roy,  Une  epave  de  176.S  in  Le  Journal  de  Quebec  (1888);  Goa- 
8ELIN,  Mgr  de  St-Vallier  (Evreux,  1898);  Archives  of  Propaganda, 
of  the  archbishopric  (Quebec),  of  the  Semimiry  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  of 
La  Marine  (Paris). 

Lionel  Lindsay. 
Saints,  Intercession  and  Veneration  of.    See 

Intercession. 

Saint-Simon,  Louis  de  Rouvkoy,  Due  de,  b.  16 
January,  1675;  d.  in  Paris,  2  March,  1755.  Having 
quitted  the  military  service  in  1702,  he  lived  there- 
after at  the  Court,  becoming  the  friend  of  the  Dues 
de  Chevreuse  and  de  Beauvilliers,  who,  with  Fenelon, 
were  interested  in 
the  education  of 
the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, grandson  of 
Loui.s  XIV.  At  the 
death  of  Louis  XI\', 
he  was  named  a 
memberof  the  coun- 
cil of  regency  of  the 
voung  king,  Louis 
XV,andinl721w;is 
sent  as  ambassadnr 
to  Madrid.  \Vh<ii 
the  Duke  of  Bour- 
bon became  minis- 
ter, December, 
1723,  Saint-Simon 
went  into  retire- 
ment. It  was  prin- 
cipally between 
1740  and  1746  that 
he  wrote  his  cele- 
brated "Memoirs". 
As  a  histor>'  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  they  are  an  ex- 
tremely precious  document.  The  edition  with  com- 
mentary by  Boislisle,  and  of  which  twenty-two  vol- 
umes have  already  appeared  (1911),  is  an  incomparable 
monument  of  learning.  Saint-Simon  aired  his  hatreds, 
which  were  bitter  ancl  numerous;  he  was  an  adversary 
of  equality,  which  he  described  as  "leprosy";  he 
dreamt  of  a  kind  of  chamber  of  dukes  and  peers  which 
wouhl  control  and  paralyze  royal  despotism,  and  allow 
the  States-General  to  assemble  every  five  years  to 
present  the  humble  remonstrances  of  the  people. 

Whatever  the  historical  value  of  the  "Memoirs" 
may  be,  they  are,  by  their  sparkling  wit,  one  of  the 
most  original  monuments  of  French  literature;  and 
the  "ParallMe  des  trois  premiers  rois  Bourbons", 
written  by  Saint-Simon  in  1746,  the  year  in  which  he 
finished  the  record  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  is  an 
admirable  piece  of  histor>'.  On  all  religious  questions 
he  shouKl  be  read  with  great  precaution.  Very  hostile 
to  the  Jesuits,  and  favourable  to  the  Jansenists.  he 
contributed  greatly  to  the  creation  of  legends  con- 
cerning personages  such  as  Mme  de  Maintenon  and 
Michel  Le  Tellier.  These  legends  had  a  long  exis- 
tence.   The  reproach,  historically  false,  of  having  in- 


Louis  de  Rouvroy,  Due  de 
Saint-Simon 


SAINT-SIMON 


377 


SAINT-SIMON 


stigated  the  vnolent  measures  of  persecutions  against 
the  Jansenists,  which  he  hurled  against  Le  Tellier, 
was  all  the  more  strange  coming  from  his  pen,  since 
Saint-Simon  himself,  on  the  day  following  the  death  of 
Louis  XIV,  was  one  of  the  most  rabid  in  demanding  of 
the  regent  severe  measures  against  Le  Tellier  and  other 
Jesuits.  Father  Bliard  has  shown  how  much  care  is 
necessary  in  judging  Saint-Simon's  assertions  regard- 
ing the  religious  questions  of  his  day.  The  historian 
Emile  Bourgeois,  who  cannot  be  charged  with  prejudice 
in  favour  of  religion,  wrote  in  his  turn,  in  !!)().") :  "  His- 
tory has  given  up  the  habit,  too  hastily  accjuircd,  of 
pinning  her  faith  to  the  word  of  Saint-Simon."  And 
Bourgeois  proved  how  inaccurate  were  the  statements 
of  Saint-Simon  by  showing  what  use  the  latter  made  in 
his  "  Memoirs"  of  documents  of  the  diplomatist  Torcy. 

Saint-Simon,  Memoires,  ed.  Boislisle  (22  vols.,  Paris, 
1876-1911);  Saint-.Simon,  £<Ti<.s-  inedits.ed.  FAUofcRE  (6  vols., 
Paris,  1880-3);  Saint-Simon,  Lettres  et  depSches  sur  I'ambaa- 
sade  d'Espagne,  1721-1722,  ed.  Drumont  (Paris,  1880);  Baschet, 
Le  due  de  Saint-Simon,  son  cabinet  et  ses  manuscrits  (Paris,  1874) ; 
Ch^ruel,  Saint-Simon  considere  comme  historien  de  Louis  XIV 
(Paris,  1865);  Boissier,  Saint-Simon  (Paris,  1892);  Bliard, 
Les  memoires  de  Saint-Simon  et  le  Pere  Le  Tellier  (Paris,  1891); 
Bourgeois,  La  collaboration  de  Saint-Simon  et  de  Torcy,  etude 
critique  sur  les  Mimoires  de  Saint-Simon  in  Rerue  historique. 
LXXXVII  (1905);  Pii.astre,  Lexique  de  la  langue  de  Saint- 
Simon  (Paris,  1905). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Saint- Simon  and  Saint- Simonism. — Claude- 
Henri  DE  RouvROY,  Comte  de  Saint-Simon,  was 
born  in  Paris,  17  Oct.,  1760;  d.  there,  19  May,  1S2.5. 
He  belonged  to  the  family  of  the  author  of  the 
"Memoirs".  At  an  early  age  he  showed  a  certain 
disdain  for  tradition;  at  thirteen  he  refused  to  make 
his  first  Communion  and  was  puiiishe(l  by  imprison- 
ment at  Saint  Lazare,  whence  he  escui)ed.  During 
the  War  of  Independence  he  followed  his  relative,  the 
Marquis  de  Saint-Simon,  to  America,  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Yorktown,  was  later  mad(;  i)riboner,  and  re- 
covered his  liberty  only  after  the  Treaty  of  Versailles. 
Before  leaving  America,  being  as  yet  only  twenty-three 
years  old,  he  presented  to  the  Viceroy  of  Mexico  the 
plan  of  a  canal  between  the  two  oceans.  In  17<SS  he 
drew  up  important  schemes  for  the  economic  improve- 
ment of  Spain.  During  the  Revolution  he  grew  rich  by 
speculation,  was  imprisoned  for  eleven  months,  and 
under  the  Directory,  though  leading  a  prodigal  and 
voluptuous  life,  continued  to  dream  of  a  scientific  and 
social  reform  of  humanity,  gathering  about  him  such 
scholars  as  Monge  and  Lagrange,  and  capitalists  with 
whose  assistance  he  proposed  to  form  a  gigantic  bank 
for  the  launching  of  his  philanthropic  undertakings. 
He  married  Mile,  de  Champgrand  in  August,  ISO],  and 
divorced  her  less  than  a  year  later  in  the  hope  of 
marrying  Mme.  de  Stael,  who  had  just  become  a 
widow,  but  she  refused.  In  ISO.'),  completely  ruinetl 
by  his  disordered  life,  he  became  a  copyist  at  the  Mont 
de  Piete,  relying  for  his  living  on  his  activity  as  a 
writer;  failing  in  this,  he  led  a  life  of  borrowings  and 
make-shifts,  and  in  1823  attempted  to  kill  himself. 
Fortunately  for  him  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the 
Jew  Olinde  Rodrigues  who  became  enamoured  of  his 
social  ideas  and  assured  him  his  daily  bread  till  the; 
end  of  his  life.  When  dying,  Saint-Simon  said  to 
Rodrigues:  "Remember  that  to  do  anything  great 
you  must  be  impassioned".  Ardent  pa.ssion  is  what 
characterized  Saint-Simon  and  explains  the  peculiar- 
ities of  his  life  and  of  his  system.  This  precursor  of 
socialism  was  not  afraid  to  be  a  fanatic  and  even  to 
pass  for  a  fool,  while  he  retained  his  feudal  pride  and 
boasted  of  having  Charlemagne  among  his  ancestors. 

The  "Lettres  d'un  habitant  de  Geneve  a  ses 
contemporains"  (1803),  the  "Introduction  aux  tra- 
vaux  scientifiques  du  XIX«^  siecle"  (1808),  and  the 
"Memoire  sur  la  science  de  I'homme"  (1813)  show 
his  trust  in  science  and  savants  for  the  regener- 
ation of  the  world.  The  second  of  these  works  is 
a  hymn  to  Bonaparte  v.-ho  created  the  university 


Claude-Henri  de  Rouvroy,  Comte 

DE  Saint-Simon 

From  a  Contemporary  Portrait 


and  the  institute.  In  1814,  assisted  by  the  future 
historian,  Augustin  Thierry,  Saint-Simon  published 
a  treatise  entitled,  "De  la  reorganisation  de  la 
societe  europeene,"  in  which  he  dreamed  of  a  po- 
hticiallj'  homogeneous  Europe,  all  of  whose  nations 
should  possess  the  same  institutions,  relying  on  Eng- 
land to  take  the  initiative  in  this  federation.  Later 
he  turned  his  attention  to  political  economy.  The 
"Industrie",  which  he  founded,  brought  out  in 
relief  the  confli(!t  waged  throughout  Europe  between 
the  military  and 
feudal  ckLsson  the 
one  hand  and  the 
working  class  on 
the  other.  The 
same  idea  was 
emphasized  in  the 
"Censeur  euro- 
peen",  edited  by 
Charles  Comte 
and  Dunoyer,  but 
while  the  "Cen- 
seur europeen" 
distrusted  schol- 
ars and  learned 
men,  Saint-Si- 
mon's originality 
consisted  in  try- 
ing, to  combine 
manufacturing  in- 
dustry and  what 
he  called  "liter- 
ar>'  indu.stry", 
and  create  a  moral 
code  which  all  men  should  study.  This  authoritative 
idea  displeased  Augustin  Thierry  and  he  abandoned 
Saint-Simon,  who  in  1817  (the  date  set  by  Monsieur  Per- 
eire)  took  as  his  secretary,  Auguste  Comte,  then  18 
years  old,  the  future  founder  of  Positivism.  Influ- 
enced by  the  writings  of  Joseph  de  Maistre,  whose  "  Le 
Pape"  appeared  in  1819,  and  by  those  of  Bonald, 
Saint-iSimon  and  Auguste  Comt(>,  reacting  against 
the  individualist  ideas  of  the  French  Revolution, 
recognized  the  necessity  in  modern  society  of  a  power 
similar  to  the  medieval  theocracy.  The  "positive 
scientific  capacity"  was  to  replace  the  ancient 
ecclesiastical  power;  there  should  be  "no  more  gov- 
ernors to  command"  but  "administrators  to  exercise 
a  directing  function";  in  a  society  become  an  indu.s- 
trial  as.s()ciatioii;  tlie  governmental,  or  mihtary  regime 
under  wliich  the  pvopU-  was  "subject"  should  give 
way  to  the  administrative  or  industrial  regimt^  in 
which  the  people  is  to  be  associated.  Saint-Simon 
drew  political  conclusions;  he  found  that  the  working 
people  occupied  too  small  a  place  in  the  electoral 
body  and  desired  that  power  should  be  vested  in 
committees  compo.sed  of  the  directing  elements  of 
the  industrial  world.  Thus  he  was  in  no  wise  a  dem- 
ocrat; he  would  have  only  the  heads  of  the  industrial 
hierarchy  elected  by  the  people,  but  would  have  them 
recruited  by  co-option  by  choosing  from  the  lower 
ranks  of  society  tho.se  who  deserve  an  elevation  of 
their  condition.  Lib(;ral  economists  long  considered 
that  between  their  liberalism  and  Saint-Siinon's  in- 
dustriali.sm,  which  accorded  so  many  jjrerogativcs 
to  an  industrial  hierarchy,  there  was  little  difTcrence; 
but  Saint-Simonism  as  it  was  d(!veloped  by  his  tlisci- 
ples  was  destined  to  be  a  socialist  school. 

In  Saint-Sinion  there  was  always  a  double  ten- 
dency: his  positivist  and  scientific  studies  impelled 
him  to  found  a  purely  practical  and  demonstrable 
moral  code,  while  his  sentimental  and  mystical  ten- 
dencies led  him  to  desire  a  religion.  He  believed 
that  Christianity  had  greatly  forwarded  morality,  but 
he  declared  that  its  reign  was  at  an  end.  His  reli- 
gious tendency  grew  by  degrees;  he  declared  that  the 
crisis  was  reached  which  had  been  predicted  by  the 


SAINT-SULPICE 


378 


SAINT-SULPICE 


Old  Testament,  prepared  for  bj-  the  Biblical  societies, 
and  expected  by  the  Jews  for  eighteen  centuries, 
which  was  to  end  in  the  establishment  of  a  truly 
universal  reUgion,  in  the  adoption  by  all  nations  of  a 
pacific  social  organization  and  the  speedy  better- 
ment of  the  condition  of  the  poor.  Such  was  the 
dream  developed  in  his  book,  "Le  nouveau  christian- 
isme",  which  death  prevented  him  from  finishing. 
The  Saint-Simonian  School  under  the  influence  of 
the  book  in  which  Sismondi  made  known  the  great 
labour  crisis  of  England,  considered  it  necessary  to 
perfect  their  master's  doctrine.  In  making  the  most 
intense  industrial  production  the  unique  aim  of 
society,  Saint-Simon  had  not  foreseen  tliat  the  prob- 
lem was  much  more  complex.  Must  production  be 
carried  on  even  when  there  are  no  consumers?  The 
liberals  replied  in  the  affirmative,  for  there  are  always 
consumers;  but  Fourier  said  no,  the  necessary  con- 
dition of  an  increased  production  is  a  better  distri- 
bution of  labour  and  of  wealth  among  the  workers. 
The  former  Carbonaro,  Bazard  (1791-1S32),  Enfantin 
(1796-1SG4),  and  Olinde  Rodrigues,  in  the  review 
"Le  Producteur",  which  they  founded,  attacked  the 
regime  of  competition  and  went  so  far  as  to  aim  at 
the  theories  of  Adam  Smith;  then  in  1829  Bazard's 
conferences  pubhshed  under  the  title,  "Exposition 
de  la  doctrine  de  Saint-Simon",  marks  the  Credo  of 
the  School.  The  Saint-Simonians  thought  that  two 
survi\'als  of  the  feudal  system  enslaved  the  working- 
man — lending  at  interest  and  inheritance;  these  two 
survivals  should  disappear. 

By  degrees  the  Saint-Simonian  School  became  a 
sort  of  Church.  Enfantin  assumed  the  role  of  pope; 
Bazard  and  later  Rodrigues  separated  from  him  when, 
preaching  the  rehabilitation  of  the  flesh,  he  wished 
to  associate  with  him  the  "priest- woman",  the 
"mother",  in  the  government  of  Saint  Simonism. 
The  ceremonies  he  performed  at  Menilmontant,  his 
trial  and  imprisonment  in  1832,  the  journey  to  Con- 
stantinople undertaken  by  his  disciple  Barrault  in 
search  of  the  "woman-mother"  excited  ridicule. 
Nevertheless  Enfantin,  whose  last  work  only  ap- 
peared in  1861,  exercised  great  influence  over  many 
of  the  best  minds.  Saint-Simonism  left  its  mark  on 
such  men  as  the  philosopher  Jean  Reynaud,  Buchez, 
who  in  1848  played  an  important  political  part,  the 
religious  critic  Gustave  d'Eichthal,  the  economists 
Barrault  and  Michel  Chevalier,  the  publicists  Edou- 
ard  Charton  and  Maxime  du  Camp,  General  Lamori- 
ciere  and  Baron  Blanc,  future  mini.ster  of  Italy.  The 
industrial  movement  of  the  nineteenth  century  was 
to  a  large  extent  promoted  by  engineers  imbued  with 
Saint-Simonian  doctrines;  the  railways  of  France,  the 
financial  establishment  of  the  Second  Empire  were 
due  to  Saint-Simonian  influences. 

The  Saint-Simonians  foresaw  that  industry  would 
be  more  and  more  concentrated  in  great  syndicates 
and  that  the  State  as  the  organ  of  social  centraliza- 
tion would  intervene  more  and  more.  What  they 
did  not  foresee  was  that  industrial  production  would 
become  democratic.  They  had,  beforehand,  intui- 
tion of  what  we  call  trusts  and  deals,  but  they  did 
not  forests;  labour  unions,  and  they  wen;  thus  less 
clear-sighted  than  Ketteler,  Manning,  and  Leo  XIII. 
Lamartine  describes  Saint-Simonism  as  "a  daring 
plagiarism  which  emerg(;s  from  the  Gospel  and  will 
return  thither",  and  Isaac  Pereire,  the  last  of  the 
Saint-Simonians,  in  a  work  entitled,  "La  question 
religieusf;"  (1878),  urged  the  recently-elected  Pope 
Leo  XIII  to  undertake  the  direction  of  universal 
social  reform.  This,  the  last  echo  of  Saint-Simonism 
was,  as  it  were,  an  appeal  U)  the  "Rerum  Novarum". 

Expof.  tie  la  doctrine  Haint-sirrumienne  (Paris.  1829);  fJCuvrcs  de 
SairU-Sinum  et  d'EnfarUin.  XLVII  (Paris.  1865-78):  Wrill,    Un 

frfcureeur  du  KorinlUme:  Sainl-Simon  H  Hon  auvm  (Paris.  1891); 
DEll.  L'ecoU  HiiirU-HimoniKnnr.,  ton  hiKloire,  mm  influence  juaqu'd 
not  jouTH  (Pari«,  1890);  Pkkbire,  Det  premiern  rtpporU  entre 
Saint-Simtm  et  AunuHle  Comte  in  Retue  Hitlorique,  XCI  (1900); 
Geoboe  Dcmam,  FtychoUtgie  de  deux  meatiet  potiliviilei,  Saint' 


Simon  et  Augusle  Comte  (Paris,  1905) ;  Weisexorun,  Die  social- 
wissenschafllicken  Ideen  Saint  Simon's;  ein  Beitrag  zur  Oeschichte 
des  Socialismus  (Basle,  1895) ;  Charlett,  Hist,  du  saint-simonisme, 
1823-1864  (Paris,  1896);  HALifivy,  La  doctrine  economique  de 
Saint-Simon  et  des  Saint-Simoniens  in  Revue  du  mois  (1908); 
Booth,  Saint  Simon  and  Saint  Simonism  (London,  1S71). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Saint- Sulpice,  Society  of,  founded  at  Paris  by 
M.  Olier  (1042)  for  the  purpose  of  providing  directors 
for  the  seminaries  established  by  him  (see  Olier)  .  At 
the  founder's  death  (1657)  his  society,  approved  by 
religious  and  civil  authority,  was  firmly  cstabhshed. 
The  Paris  seminary  and  three  in  the  provinces  (Vi- 
viers,  Le  Puy,  Clermont)  were  opened  to  young  ec- 
clesiastics to  give  them  besides  the  elements  of  the 
clerical  sciences  lessons  and  examples  in  sacerdotal 
perfection.  The  work  in  Montreal  was  inaugurated 
and  four  priests  appointed  to  carry  it  on,  while  a  novi- 
tiate called  the  Solitude  had  been  opened  to  recruit 
directors  for  the  seminaries.  Alexandre  Le  Ragois  de 
Bretonvilliers,  the  successor  of  Olier  (1657-76)  drew 
up  the  Constitution  of  the  Society  and  secured  its  ap- 
proval by  Cardinal  Chigi,  legate  a  latere  and  nephew 
of  Alexander  VII.  The  object  of  the  society  was  to 
labour,  in  direct  dependence  on  the  bishops,  for  the 
education  and  perfection  of  ecclesiastics.  They  were 
to  be  taught  philosophy  and  theology,  chant  and  lit- 
urgy, but  especially  mental  payer  and  the  Christian 
virtues.  Several  chapters  dealt  with  the  organization 
and  government  of  the  society.  The  number  of  sub- 
jects should  be  restricted,  fervour  being  worth  more 
than  number.  The  spiritual  and  temporal  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  superior  general  assisted  by  twelve 
assistants,  like  him  elected  for  life.  Together  they 
constitute  the  general  assembly  empowered  to  ek^ct 
by  majority  of  votes  the  superior-general,  his  assist- 
ants, and  among  the  latter  four  consultors,  who  shall 
be  his  constant  advisers,  sign  the  public  acts,  and  rep- 
resent the  whole  society.  The  other  members  are  ad- 
mitted by  the  superior  and  his  council.  They  take  no 
vows,  but  renounce  all  prospect  of  ecclesiastical  digni- 
ties. Changes  and  appointments  are  made  by  the 
superior-general.  Every  Sulpician  should  be  ani- 
mated b}^  great  zeal  for  the  glorj'  of  God  and  the  sanc- 
tification  of  the  clergy,  should  profess  (Uitachnicnt  and 
abnegation,  practise  poverty,  be  submissive  especi;dly 
to  bishops. 

De  Bretonvilliers  transferred  the  Solitude  of  Vau- 
girard  to  the  Chateau  d'Avron,  which  was  a  family- 
possession,  where  it  remained  until  M.  Tronson,  his 
suocessor,  established  it  at  Issy,  where  it  is  at  i)resent. 
He  enacted  that  the  community  of  priests  of  t  he  jxirish 
of  Saint-Sulpice  should  continue  subject  to  a  superior. 
This  community  numbered  from  sixty  to  eighty  mem- 
bers until  the  French  Revolution.  There  F6nelon  ex- 
ercised the  sacred  ministry  for  three  years  and  he 
spoke  from  experience  when  he  declared  that  there 
was  nothing  he  venerated  more  than  Saint-Sulpice. 
M.  Tronson  assumed  th<^  direction  of  the  society  in 
1676  and  retained  it  until  1700.  He  was  remarkable 
for  the  breadth  of  his  knowledge,  his  i)nic1ical  mind, 
and  his  deep  piety.  He  was  jealously  vigilant  to  ward 
off  the  Jansenistic  scourge  from  his  society  and  the 
ten  seminaries  under  his  care.  At  a  time  when  the 
error  since  called  Gallicanism  spread  everywhere  he 
was  a  lioman,  as  the  present  expression  is,  in  as  far  as 
was  compatible  with  the  submission  to  the  bishops 
which  his  society  professed. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  the  society  carried 
on  its  work  amid  the  difficulties  which  Jansenism 
and  philosophism^  by  corrui)ting  minds,  incessantly 
aroused.  Frangois  Leschassier  (1700-25)  had  to  de- 
fend the  seminary  of  Paris  against  Archbishop  de 
Noailles,  an  avowed  and  militant  Jansenist.  Under 
his  successors,  Maurice  Le  Peletier  (1725-31)  and 
Jean  Couturier  (1731-70),  although  new  seminaries 
were  opened  in  the  dioceses  of  France,  the  spirit  of 


SAINT-SULPICE 


379 


SAINT-SULPICE 


the  age  crept  into  that  of  Paris,  in  consequence  of  the 
weakening  of  morals  at  the  Court,  contact  with  the 
world,  and  the  great  number  of  sons  of  the  nobility 
who  had  become  seminarians.  At  this  period  kSaint- 
Sulpice  was  charged  with  the  spiritual  direction  of 
schools  of  philosophy  and  even  of  pelits  seminaires 
both  at  Paris  and  Angers,  always  with  the  object  of 
preparing  the  pupils  for  the  priesthood.  When  the 
Revolution  broke  out  the  seminary  of  Paris  alone  had 
trained  more  than  five  thousand  priests,  and  more 
than  half  the  bishops  who  faced  that  dreadful  tem- 
pest (about  fifty)  had  been  in  Sulpician  seminaries. 
Claude  Bourachot  (1770-77)  and  Pierre  Le  Gallic 
(1777-82),  who  governed  with  the  mournful  presenti- 
ment of  the  Revolution,  were  succeeded  by  Andre  Em- 
ery, the  man  providentially  chosen  to  guide  the  society 
during  those  dark  days.  He  beheld  the  seminaries 
closed,  his  brethren  scattered,  hunted,  and  compelled  to 
seek  safety  in  exile,  but  he  had  the  great  consolation,  at 
a  time  of  frequent  defections,  of  seeing  them  all  faithful 
to  their  promises.  Not  one  of  them  took  the  oath  to 
the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy,  and  eighteen  of 
them  died  for  their  faith.  The  hfe  of  this  illustrious 
priest  belongs  to  the  whole  Church,  whose  rights  he 
defended  with  unshakable  firmness  against  Napoleon 
I  (see  Emery).  After  the  Concordat  he  reopened  the 
seminary  of  Paris.  He  should  be  regarded  as  the 
restorer  of  the  Society  of  M.  Olier. 

During  the  nineteenth  centurj'  the  Society  of  Saint- 
Sulpice  has  quietly  continued  its  work  of  clerical 
training  while  sharing  all  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
Church  in  France.  The  following  superiors  general 
have  governed  it:  M.  Duclaux  (1811-26);  Gamier 
(1826-45),  a  noted  Hebrew  scholar;  de  Courson 
(1845-50);  Carriere  (1850-64),  an  eminent  theolo- 
gian; Caval  (1864-75);  J.  H.  Icard  (1879-93);  and 
Captier  (189;i-1900),  the  founder  and  first  superior  of 
the  procure  of  Saint-Sulpice  at  Rome.  Living  within 
the  walls  of  its  seminaries,  which,  constantly  increas- 
ing, numb(;red  twenty-six  in  1900,  the  Society  of 
Saint-Sulpicc  has,  so  to  speak,  no  history.  Its  mem- 
bers, absorbed  in  their  professional  duties,  share  the 
hfe  of  the  seminarians,  being  solicitous  to  train  them 
not  only  in  the  ecclesiastical  sciences,  but  also  in 
priestly  virtups,  and  this  more  by  their  own  daily  ex- 
amples than  by  the  lessons  which  they  teach.  A  good 
Sulpician  constitutes  himself  everywhere  and  always 
the  companion  and  the  model  of  the  future  priests,  in 
their  pious  exercises,  recreations,  meals,  and  walks, 
briefly  in  all  the  details  of  their  life. 

That  such  a  hfe  is  eminently  fruitful  is  proved  by 
the  numerous  prelates,  dist  inguishcd  priests,  founders 
of  religious  orders,  missionaries  and  religious  from 
Sulpician  seminaries,  but  it  will  be  readily  under- 
stood that  it  furnishes  few  facts  of  histor>'.  For  the 
Church  of  France  Saint-Sulpice  has  been  a  great 
school  of  ecclesiastical  dignity,  love  of  study,  regu- 
larity, and  virtue.  Pius  X  paid  the  society  this 
tribute:  "Congregatio  Sulpicianorum  fuit  salus  Gal- 
ha;"  (Audience  of  10  Jan.,  1905,  to  the  pastors  of 
Paris).  The  recent  persecutions  brought  about  in 
France  by  the  separation  of  Church  and  State  did  not 
fail  to  attack  it.  A  circular  of  Minister  Combes 
(1904)  declared  Saint-Sulpice  unfitted  to  teach 
in  seminaries.  At  the  same  time  the  old  seminary 
of  Paris  was  taken  away  from  it.  Nevertheless  the 
society  was  not  dissolved.  It  subsists  in  its  essen- 
tial organs,  and  its  members,  in  most  instances  in  the 
seminaries  of  their  native  dioceses,  continue  work 
of  devotion  to  the  clergy  and  the  Church. 

At  different  dates  the  society  extended  branches  to 
American  soil,  to  Canada  in  1657,  to  the  United 
States  in  1791.  (See  Sulpicians  in  the  United 
States.) 

M.  Olier  had  desired  to  go  to  Canada  to  work  for 
the  conversion  of  the  savages;  this  he  was  unable  to 
do,  but  in  union  with  several  pious  persons,  among 


them  Jerome  Le  Royer  de  la  Dauversiere,  he  founded 
the  Society  of  Notre-Dame  de  Montreal.     The  under- 
taking was  inspired  by  the  desire  to  found  a  city  in 
honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  (Villemarie  in  the  Island 
of  Montreal)  which  should  serve  as  headquarters  for 
the  Indian  missions  and  as  a  stronghold  again.st  the 
Iroquois.     The  manner  in  which   Alaisonneuve  ac- 
complished this  foundation  is  well  known.     In  1657 
the  dying  Olier  sent  four  of  his  disciples  to  the  mission 
of  Villemarie,  where  the  colonists  were  asking  for 
them.     They  were  led  by  M.  De  Queylus  and  thence- 
forth the  Sulpicians  shared  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
Montreal  colony.    Two  of  them,  Vignal  and  Lemaitre, 
were  slain  by  the  Iroquois  (1660).     In  1663  the  asso- 
ciates of  Notre-Dame,  reduced  to  eight  by  death  and 
wearj'  of  a  colony  which  yielded  only  expenses,  ceded 
their  rights  and  duties  to  the  Society  of  Saint-Sulpice, 
which  was  thenceforth  owner  and  lord  of  the  Island  of 
Montreal.     It  paid  130,000  livres  in  debts  and  pledged 
itself  never  to  alienate  the  property  of  the  island.     M. 
de  Bretonvilliers  gave  no  less  than  400,000  livres  of  his 
personal  fortune  for  the  maintenance  of  the  colony 
and  M.  Faillon  has  calculated  that  from  1657  to  1710 
the  seminary  of  Paris  transmitted  to  that  of  Montreal 
not  less  than  900,000  livres  or  one  million  dollars. 
Personal    devotion   was    added    to    these    expenses. 
Eleven   Sulpicians  were   labouring   at   Montreal   in 
1668,  teaching  boys,  exercising  the  sacred  ministry, 
or  doing  missionary  work  among  the  savages.     MM. 
Trouve  and  de  Fenelon  founded  the  mission  of  Kent6 
on  Lake  Ontario.     DoUier  de  Casson  and  Brehan  de 
Gallince   explored   the   region   of   the   Great   Lakes 
(1669),  of  which  they  made  a  map.     In  1676  was 
opened  the  mission  of  the  Mountain  on  the  site  of  the 
present  seminary,  where  M.   Belmont  built  a  fort 
(1685).     The  brandy  traflic  necessitated  the  removal 
of  this  fixed  mission  and  in  1720  it  was  transferred  to 
Lac-des-Deux-Montagnes,  where  it  is  at  present.     At 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  Sulpicians  had 
created  and  organized  in  the  vicinity  of  Montreal  six 
parishes  which  they  zealously  administered,  besides  sup- 
plying them  with  churches,  presbyteries,  and  schools. 
During  the  eighteenth  century  the  history  of  the 
society  in  Canada  continued  closely  linked  with  that 
of  Montreal,  in  all  of  whose  works  it  assisted  by  its  re- 
sources and  devotion.     The  number  of  priests  in- 
creased to  meet  the  needs  of  the  time,  and  at  the  con- 
quest   (1760)    they    numbered    thirty.     They    were 
headed  by  worthy  men:   Vachon  de  Belmont  (1700- 
31),  who  succeeded  Dollier  de  Casson;  Louis  Normant 
du  Faradon  (1731-59),  who  assisted  Ven.  Mere  d'You- 
ville  in  the  foundation  of  the  Grey  Nuns;   Etienne 
Montgolfier,  who  had  the  difficult  task  of  governing 
his  community  during  the  period  of   conquest.     To 
the  Sulpicians  who  remained  after  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  (1763)  the  seminary  of  Saint-Sulpice  ceded  its 
possessions  in  Canada  on  condition  that  they  would 
carry  on  the  work  of  M.  Oher.     Being  unable  to  re- 
cruit their  numbers  the  Sulpicians  of  Montreal  would 
have  become  extinct  had  not  the  Enghsh  Govern- 
ment humanely  opened  Canada  to  the  priests  perse- 
cuted by  the  French  Revolution.     Twelve  Sulpicians 
reached  Montreal  in  1794.       After  lengthy  disputes 
the  possessions  of  the  society  coveted  by  the  English 
agents  were  recognized  by  the  British  Crown  (1840) 
and  the  Sulpicians  were  free  to  continue  undisturbed 
their  work  for  the  Church  and  society.     Beside.^  the 
College  de  Montreal,  founded  in  1767,  and  which  per- 
formed important  services  after  the  conquest,  they 
founded  a  higher  seminary  (1840)  for  the  education  of 
the  clergy.     In  this  house  several  thousand  priests 
have  been  trained  for  the  priesthood.     They  have 
since  founded  (1894)  for  the  benefit  of  the  clergy  a 
seminary  of  philosophy  at  Montreal,  opened  the  Ca- 
nadian College  at  Rome  for  higher  ecclesiastical  study, 
and  quite  recently  (1911)  have  organized  the  School 
of  St.  John  the  EvangeUst  for  the  recruiting  of  clergy 


SAINTS 


380 


SAINTS 


in  the  Archdiocese  of  Montreal.  Since  1S66  the  so- 
ciety has  gradually  abandoned  the  administration  of 
its  parishes  in  Montreal,  at  present  retaining  only 
those  of  Notre-Dame  and  Saint-Jacques  in  the  city 
and  that  of  Oka  in  the  diocese.  That  it  does  not, 
nevertheless,  stand  aloof  from  any  of  the  great  under- 
takings in  the  city  which  it  founded  is  manifested  by 
the  Laval  University  and  the  pubhc  library. 

Separated  from  Saint-Sulpice  as  regards  material 
possessions,  the  Montreal  community  maintains  its 
spiritual  alliance  with  Paris.  The  superior-gener-al  or 
his  representative  makes  periodically  the  canonical 
visitation  of  the  Canadian  houses.  They  are  governed 
by  a  superior  elected  every  five  years,  who  is  assisted 
by  a  council  of  twelve,  four  of  whom,  called  assistants, 
are  his  habitual  advisers. 

As  will  be  readily  perceived  the  principal  Sulpician 
work  in  both  France  and  America  is  that  of  seminaries. 
The  Sulpician  is  either  the  model  of  the  pastor  in  the 
ministry-  or  the  trainer  of  the  priest  within  the  semi- 
naries. His  manner  of  life  has  been  described  above; 
his  instruction  and  method  will  here  be  treated  briefly. 
The  sole  directing  principle  of  the  studies  at  Saint- 
Sulpice  is  the  most  filial  docility  of  judgment  and  will 
towards  the  pope,  not  only  when  he  defines,  but  when 
he  expresses  a  preference  or  gives  directions  and  coun- 
sels. Mindful  of  their  responsibihty  for  priestly  souls 
the  Sulpicians  teach  their  pupils,  not  the  novelty 
which  Tnay  send  them  astray,  nor  their  personal  opin- 
ions which  have  no  guarantee  of  certitude,  but  the 
truth  stamped  with  the  seal  of  the  Church  and  issuing 
thence  warranted  and  authentic.  In  Holy  Scripture 
they  treat  the  books  they  explain  as  Divine  books, 
avoiding  the  exaggerations  of  critical  research  and 
abiding  by  the  interpretation  of  the  text.  In  dog- 
matic theology  they  set  forth  the  truth,  at  the  same 
time  warning  their  pupils  against  Rationalistic  and 
Modernistic  theories  and  minimizing  insinuations.  In 
apologetics  they  follow  the  historical  method;  in 
philosophy  they  recognize  no  master  save  St. 
Thomas. 

Although  the  kind  of  instruction  given  at  Saint- 
Suljjice  tends  to  produce  men  whose  knowledge  is 
more  solid  than  brilliant,  more  deep  than  extensive, 
there  has  been  no  lack  of  remarkable  professors  in  any 
branch  of  ecclesiastical  learning.  Out  of  the  seven 
hundred  and  thirty  members  which  the  socic^ty  had 
numbered  down  to  1790  no  less  than  one  hundred  and 
fifteen  had  secured  their  doctor's  degree  at  the  Sor- 
bonne.  Doctrine  is  surely  more  valuable  than  learn- 
ing, and  no  book  written  by  a  Sulpician  has  ever  been 
placed  on  the  Index.  Among  the  theologians  were: 
Delafosse  (1701-4.5)  and  de  Montaigne  (1(^7-1767), 
who  wrote  remarkable  dogmatic  treatises  published  in 
the  theology  of  Honore  Tournely;  Legranrl  (1711-S7), 
as  famous  for  his  flogmat  ic  writ  ings  as  for  his  refutation 
of  thf  j)hilosophical  errors  of  his  time;  Rey  and  Rony, 
authors  of  valuable  treatises  published  at  Lyons;  Peala 
(1787-18.53),  the  continuator  of  the  ecclesiastical  con- 
ferences of  Le  Puy;  Vioussc  (1784-18.57),  author  of  the 
"CompendiosED  institutiones  theological "  of  Toulouse; 
Carriftre  (179.5-1864),  author  of  authoritative  trea- 
tises on  marriage,  contracts,  justice,  etc.;  Vincent 
(1813-69),  author  of  the  so-called  "Clermont  Theol- 
ORV".  De  Lantages  (1616-94)  and  De  la  Ch<'>tardye 
(1634-1714)  wrote  justly-esteemed  catechisms  and 
conversations  or  t'oclr-siastical  instructions.  Among 
the  Sulpicians  whosf  works  were  addressed  to  the 
general  faithful  wfre  Hlanlo  (1617-57),  author  of  "En- 
fance  chr/;tienne";  Guisain  (1627-82),  author  of  the 
" Sagos fntrctiens" of  a  soul  desirous  of  salvation;  La- 
sausse  (1740-1826),  author  of  many  works  of  piety; 
namf>n  (179.5-1874),  whose  "Mr'ditationH"arf' much 
used;  Hiche  (1824-92),  author  of  wr)rks  intf-nrlcd  lf> 
assist  piety.  Among  those  who  had  chiefly  in  view  the 
perfection  of  the  ch-rgy  were,  after  Oher  himsolf,  M. 
Tronson  (1622- 1700), "whose  "Examens  particuliers" 


is  a  masterpiece  of  spiritual  psychology  and  whose 
"Forma  clcri",  treatise  on  obedience,  and  other- 
works  are  useful  to  the  clergy;  Fyot  de  Vaugimois 
(16S9-175S),  who  wrote  "Conversations  with  Jesus 
Christ  before  and  after  Mass"  (1721),  very  popular 
at  that  time,  and  a  host  of  other  works  for  the  sancti- 
fication  of  priests;  Boyer  (1768-1842),  the  author  of 
ecclesiastical  retreats;  Vernet  (1760-1843),  who 
wrote  many  works  to  enhven  the  piety  of  religious  and 
priests,  such  as  the  "Nepotien";  Hamon  (1795- 
1870),  the  biographer  of  Cardinal  Cheverus  and  St. 
Francis  de  Sales;  Calais  (1802-54),  "Le  bon  semina- 
riste"  (1839);  Renaudet  (1794-1880),  wrote  various 
works  on  asceticism,  also  meditations;  Gamon  (1813- 
86),  author  of  the  lives  of  holy  priests;  Bacuez  (1820- 
92),  "Manuel  du  seminariste  en  vacances". 

Among  the  scholars  and  learned  men  in  various 
branches  were:  Laurent-Josse  Le  Clerc  (1677-1736), 
historian,  theologian,  controversialist,  and  author  of 
the  "Bibliotheque  de  Richelet"  (1727),  of  a  "Lettre 
critique  sur  le  Dictionnaire  de  Bayle"  (1731),  and  of 
various  and  learned  writings;  Grandet  (1646-1724), 
who  wrote  "Les  saints  pretres  fran^ais  du  XVIIe  si4- 
cle",  and  numerous  historical  or  devotional  works; 
Emery  (q.  v.);  Gosselin  (1787-1858),  who  pubhshed 
the  life  and  works  of  Fenelon,  and  wrote  numerous 
historical  works;  Le  Hir  (1811-68),  one  of  the  most 
learned  Hebrew  scholars  of  the  nineteenth  century; 
Pinault  (1793-1870),  who  composed  remarkable  physi- 
cal and  mathematical  treatises;  Faillon  (1800-70), 
author  of  the  lives  of  de  Lantages  and  Olier,  of 
"Monuments  incdits  sur  I'apostolat  de  Marie-Made- 
leine en  Provence",  and  of  numerous  historical  works 
on  Canada  and  Montreal;  Moyen  (1828-99),  who 
compiled  a  "Flora  of  Canada"  and  various  scientific 
works;  Grandvaux  (1819-85),  who  published  Le 
Hir's  works  after  his  death,  and  was  verj^  learned  in 
all  branches  of  ecclesiastical  knowledge;  Richou 
(1823-87),  noted  for  his  works  on  church  history  and 
Scripture;  Brugere  (1823-88),  a  theologian  and  his- 
torian of  wide  knowledge;  Icard  (1805-93),  known 
for  his  writings  on  catechisms,  canon  law,  and  various 
spiritual  subjects.  To  these  names  must  be  added 
those  of  Caron  (1779-1850),  a  liturgist,  who  pub- 
lished the  "Manuel  de  ceremonies  selon  le  rit  de 
Paris"  (1846);  Parisis  (1724-81);  and  Manier  (1807- 
71),   who   issued   philosophical   courses. 

Gosselin,  Vie  de  M.  Emery  (Paris,  1861),  Introduction,  1-102; 
Icard,  Traditions  de  la  compagnie  des  pritres  de  Saint-Sulpice 
(Paris,  1880);  Bertrand,  Biblinthtgue  sulpicicnnc  ou  Hisloire 
litteraire  de  la  comp.  de  Saint-Sulpice  (Paris,  1900);  Bulletin 
trimeslriel  des  anciens  Hives  de  Saint-Sulpice  (l.s'.Hi- 1911); 
Memorial  volume  of  the  centenary  of  St.  Mnrij'x  Simiitnry  of  Sl- 
Sulpice  (Baltimore,  1891);  Golden  Jubilee  of  SI.  (li<irlr.-<'  College 
(Baltimore,  1898);  Shea,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the 
United  States  (New  York.  1886-92). 

A.    FOURNET. 

Saints  Vincent  and  Anastasius  (Trium  Fon- 
TiuM  AD  A(ii'As  Salvia.s,  Tue  Fontane,  or  Three 
Fountains),  Abbey  of,  near  Rome.  Connected 
with,  and  belonging  to  the  monastery  are  three 
separate  sanctuaries.  The  first,  the  Church  of  St. 
Paul  of  Three  Fountains,  was  raised  over  the  spot 
wh(!re  St.  Paul  was  beheaded  by  order  of  Nero. 
Legend  says  that  the  head,  severed  from  the  body, 
rebounded,  striking  the  earth  in  three  different  places, 
from  which  fountains  sprang  forth,  flowing  to  the 
present  day,  and  located  within  the  sanctuary  itself. 
The  second,  originally  dedicated  to  the  lilcssed 
Virgin,  under  the  title  "Our  Lady  of  M:irtyrs", 
is  built  over  the  relics  of  St.  Zeno  and  his  10,203 
legionaries,  who  were,  martyred  here  at  the  order  of 
l)iocl<!)ian,  in  299.  In  this  church  is  the  altar 
"Sc.'da  Cfcli",  from  which  the  church  receives  its 
present  name.  Within  is  the  church  and  monastery 
cledicated  to  Sts.  Vincent  and  Anastasius,  built  by 
Pojie  Honorius  I  in  626,  and  given  to  the  Bene- 
dictines, who  were  to  care  for  the  two  older  sanc- 
tuaries, as  well  as  their  own  church.     The  abbey  was 


SAINT  SYLVESTER 


381 


SAINT  THOMAS 


richly  endowed,  i)articularly  by  Charlemagne,  who 
bestowed  on  it  Orbitello  and  eleven  other  towns, 
with  a  considerable  territory,  over  which  its  abbot 
exercises     ordinary     jurisdiction     {abbatia     nullius). 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century  the 
persecutions  inflicted  on  the  Eastern  monks  by  the 
Monothelites  obliged  many  of  them  to  seek  shelter 
in  Rome,  and  to  them  this  abbey  was  committed  as  a 
refuge.  These  continued  in  possession  until  the  tenth 
century,  when  it  was  given  to  the  Cluniacs.  In 
1140  Pope  Innocent  II  withdrew  the  abbey  from 
them,  and  entrusted  it  to  St.  Bernard,  who  sent 
there  a  colony  from  Clairvaux,  with  Peter  Bernard 
of  Paganelli  as  their  abbot,  who  five  years  later  be- 
came Pope  Eugene  III. 

At  the  time  Innocent  granted  the  monastery  to 
the  Cistercians,  he  had  the  church  repaired  and  the 
monastic  quarters  rebuilt  according  to  tlie  usages  of 
the  order.  Of  the  fourteen  regular  abbots  who 
governed  the  abbey,  several,  besides  Blessed  Eugene 
III,  became  cardinals,  legates,  or  bishops.  Pope 
Honorius  III,  in  1221,  again  restored  the  Church  of 
Sts.  Vincent  and  Anastasius  and  personally  con- 
secrated it,  seven  cardinals  at  the  same  time  con- 
secrating the  seven  altars  therein.  Cardinal  Branda 
(1419)  was  the  first  commendatory  abbot,  and  after 
him  this  office  was  often  filled  by  a  cardinal.  Popes 
Clement  VII  and  VIII  as  cardinals  held  this  position. 
Leo  X,  in  1519,  authorized  the  religious  to  elect  their 
own  regular  superior,  a  claustral  prior  independent  of 
the  commendatory  abbot,  who  from  this  time  for- 
ward was  always  to  be  a  cardinal.  From  162o, 
when  the  abbey  was  affiliated  to  the  Cistercian  Con- 
gregation of  St.  Bernard  in  Tuscany,  until  its  sup- 
pression at  the  Napoleonic  invasion  (1S12)  the  local 
superior  was  a  regular  abbot,  but  without  prejudice 
to  the  commendatory  abbot.  The  best  known  of 
this  series  of  regular  abbots  was  the  second,  Dom 
Ferdinand  Ughelli,  who  was  one  of  the  foremost 
literary  men  of  his  age,  the  author  of  "Italia  Sacra" 
and  numerous  other  works. 

From  1812  the  sanctuaries  were  deserted,  until  Leo 
XII  (1826)  removed  them  from  the  nominal  care  of 
the  Cistercians,  and  transferred  them  to  the  P'riars 
Minor  of  the  Strict  Observance.  The  purpose  of  the 
pontiff,  however,  was  not  accompHshed;  the  surround- 
ings were  so  unhealthful  that  no  community  could 
live  there.  In  18G7  Pius  IX  appointed  his  cousin. 
Cardinal  Milesi-Ferretti,  Commendatory  Abbot  of 
Sts.  Vincent  and  Anastasius,  who  endca\-()ur(>d  to 
restore,  n(it  only  the  material  desolation  that  reigned 
in  the  neghn'ted  sanctuaries,  but  also  to  provide  that 
they  be  suitably  served  by  ministers  of  God.  To 
further  this  end  he  obtained  that  their  care  be  again 
committed  to  the  Cistercians.  A  community  was 
sent  there  in  1868  from  La  Grande  Trappe  to  institute 
the  regular  life  and  to  try  to  render  more  healtliful 
the  lands,  which  from  long  neglect  had  been  called 
the  tomba  (graveyard)  of  the  Roman  Campagna. 
Assisted  by  Pius  IX,  so  long  as  he  held  the  tem- 
poral sovereignty,  and  by  other  friends,  especially 
Mgr  de  Merode,  they  were  able  to  supply  their 
ordinary  needs.  The  usurpation  of  1870  deprived 
Pius  IX  of  the  power  to  aid  them,  and  later,  when  the 
Italian  Government  confiscated  religious  properties, 
they  suffered  with  the  others.  They  remained  at 
Three  Fountains,  at  first  renting  and  later  (1886) 
definitively  purchasing  it  from  the  Government,  with 
an  additional  tract  of  1234  acres.  They  inaugurated 
modern  methods  for  the  elimination  of  the  malarial 
conditions  that  had  been  such  an  obstacle  to  health 
in  the  past,  especially  by  planting  a  large  number  of 
eucalyptus  and  other  trees,  an  experiment  insisted 
upon  by  the  Government  in  the  contract  of  sale.  The 
trial  proved  a  success,  so  that  the  vicinity  is  now 
nearly  as  healthful  as  Rome  itself.  The  present  com- 
mendatory abbot  is  Cardinal  Oreglia  di  S.  Stephano, 


dean  of  the  Sacred  College;  and  the  Administrator 
is  the  Most  Reverend  Dom  Augustine  Marre,  Abbot- 
General  of  the  Reformed  Cistercians. 

Ughelli,  Italia  Sacra  (Venice,  1717-21);  Bacceti,  5ep<imtan/E 
HistoricE  libri  septem  (Rome,  1724);  Bleser,  Guid^  du  voyageur 
catholique  d  Rome  (Louvain,  1881);  Monbet,  L'Abbaie  des  Trois 
Fontaines  situee  aux  Eaux  Salviennes  (Lvon,  1869) ;  Manrique 
Annates  Cist.  (Lyon,  1642);  Le  Nain,' Essai  sur  I'histoire  de 
VOrdre  de  Ctteaux  (Paris,  1696) ;  Janauschek,  Originum  Cisler- 
ctensium,  I  (Vienna,  1878) ;  Obrecht,  The  Trappists  of  the  Three 
Fountains  in  Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (New  York,  1894); 
Lisi,  Trappa  delle  Tre  Fontane  (Rome,  1883) ;  Gaume,  Lcs  Trois 
Rome  (Paris,  1842);  Archives  of  the  Abbey  of  Tre  Fontane. 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 

Saint  Sylvester,  Order  of,  is  neither  monastic 
nor  military  but  a  purely  honorary  title  created  by 
Gregory  XVI,  31  Oct.,  1841.  The  idea  of  placing 
this  title,  borrowed  from  the  Middle  Ages,  under  the 
patronage  of  a  pope  of  the  fourth  century  is  explained 
by  the  existence  of  a  fabulous  order  of  Constantine 
the  Great  claiming  the  approval  of  his  contemporary, 
Sylvester  I,  which  enjoyed  a  usurped  authority  at 
Rome  from  the  seventeenth  century.  To  end  this 
abuse,  Gregory  XVI  created  an  authentic  title  of 
Knightsof  St.  Sylvester,  to  be  conferred  in  recognition 
of  some  service  rendered  to  the  Church,  the  order  being 
limit  •(!  to  150  commanders  and  300  Roman  knights, 
besides  foreigners  of  whom  the  number  is  unlimited. 
The  members  have  no  privileges  beyond  that  of 
wearing  a  decoration  which  consists  of  a  gold  enam- 
elled Maltese  cross  with  the  image  of  St.  Sylvester 
on  one  side  and  on  the  other  the  inscription':  "1841 
Gregorius  XVI  restituit." 

Ch.  Moeller. 

Saint  Thomas,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Thom^  in 
Insula),  comprising  the  Islands  of  Sao  Thome  and 
Principe,  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  was  erected  on  23 
November,  1584,  as  suffragan  of  Lisbon;  in  1676  it 
was  made  subject  to  the  Metropolitan  of  San  Salvador, 
Brazil,  and  in  1844  to  Lisbon  once  more.  The  last 
bishop,  Bartolomeo  de  Martyribus,  a  Carmelite  of 
Sandomir,  was  preconized  on  8  March,  1816,  and  died 
in  1847.  The  see  then  remained  vacant.  Since 
1865  it  has  been  ruled  as  a  vicariate.  Sao  Thom6, 
lying  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  off  the  African  main- 
land at  0°  28'  N.  lat.  and  6°  42"  E.  long.,  has  an  area 
of  three  hundred  and  fifty-eight  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  37,776  inli.ihitants  (in  1900).  It  is 
very  fertile,  and  is  noted  for  its  cocoa.  The  capital, 
Sao  Thome,  situated  on  the  Bay  of  Santa  Anna, 
contains  6000  inhabitants.  The  island,  when  dis- 
covered on  21  December,  1470,  by  Joiio  de  Santarem, 
w:us  uninhabited;  in  1485  Joao  de  Paiva  and  in  1493 
Pereira  attempted  to  colonize  it.  Most  of  the  pres- 
ent inhabitants  are  of  African  slave  origin.  About 
1544  a  ship  carrying  a  cargo  of  Angolares  was  wrecked 
at  Sete  Pedras  and  3000  of  their  descendants  still 
live  in  the  south-west.  Th(^  Capuchins  arrived  in 
1659  and  established  a  dc^finite  mission  in  1688. 
Principe,  lying  ninety  miles  north-east  of  Sao  Thom6 
and  discovered  in  1471,  had  an  area  of  42  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  4327.  Its  chief  town  is 
Sao  Antonio.  The  diocese  contains  8  parishes  and 
22,000  Catholics.  Owing  to  the  development  of  the 
(;ocoa  trade  in  recent  years  the  population,  recruited 
chiefly  from  Africa,  is  estimated  to  have  increased 
by  over  20,000  since  the  last  official  census  (1910). 

Negrkiros,  Ila  de  San  Thome  (Paris,  1901). 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Saint  Thomas  (Santo  Tomas),  University  of, 
Manila,  founded  in  1619  by  the  Dominican  Miguel 
de  Benavides,  Archbishop  of  Manila.  In  1645 
Innocent  X  granted  it  the  title  of  pontifical  uni\'er- 
sity,  and  in  the  same  year  it  received  the  title  of 
royal  university  from  Philip  IV  of  Spain.  Attached 
to  the  university  is  the  College  of  San  Juan  de  Letran. 


SAINT  THOMAS 


382 


SAINT  THOMAS 


After  a  five  years'  course  in  this  college,  including 
Latin,  Greek,  English,  mathematics,  natural  history, 
botany,  mineralog}',  physics,  chemistry-,  and  phi- 
losophy, the  successful  student  receives  the  Degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts.  The  university  has  the  right  of  con- 
ferring the  doctorate  in  theology-,  philosophy,  in  civil  and 
canon  law,  medicine,  pharmacy,  literature,  and  science. 
The  departments  of  the  university  are  all  within 
the  "walled  citv".  The  university  attained  its  great- 
est prosperity  in  1897,  just  at  the  commencement  of 
the  Spanish-American  war.  In  that  year  the  number 
of  students  enrolled  in  the  various  courses  was  as 


Umvkrsity  of  St.  Thumbs,  M\nii.\ 
Church  of  .San  Domingo  on  the  Right 

follows:  divinity,  15;  canon  law,  5;  civil  law,  572; 
medicine,  361;  pharmacy,  90;  philosophy  and  liter- 
ature, 51;  sciences,  14;  that  year,  however,  owing  to 
the  revolution,  the  numbers  very  notably  decreased 
until  within  the  last  two  years,  when  there  was  a 
marked  increase  in  attendance,  the  schools  of  medi- 
cine and  pharmacy  being  particularly  well  attended. 
In  connexion  with  the  university  there  is  an  excellent 
museum  of  natural  history.  The  exhibits  of  this 
mu.seum  have  been  awarded  special  premiums  at 
the  expositions  of  Paris,  Madrid,  the  Philippine 
Islands,  Hanoi  in  Cochinchina,  and  St.  Louis.  The 
museum  contains  excellent  material  for  the  study  of 
anatomy,  anthropology,  diplogenesy,  Philippine  eth- 
nolog)',  zoolog>',  botany,  mineralogy,  and  numis- 
matics. The  zoological  specimens  and  their  varieties 
number  over  10,0(X).  The,se  have  been  carefully 
catalogued  in  a  notable  work,  "Catdlogo  sistemdtico 
de  toda  la  fauna  de  Filipinas",  arranged  by  the 
Reverend  Casto  de  Elera,  O.P.,  who  for  many  years 
held  the  chair  of  natural  history  in  the  university. 
The  clas.s(«  of  medicine  are  held  in  St.  Joseph's 
CVjllege  and  in  the  San  Juan  de  Dios  hospital,  both 
found(!d  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The  medical  de- 
partment has  well-equipped  laboratories.  The  courses 
of  pharmacy  are  given  in  St.  Joseph's  College.  The 
library  contains  more  than  2.'),0(X)  volumes.  The 
university  is  under  the  direction  of  a  corporation 
formed  by  Dominicans;  the  rector  is  always  a  mem- 
ber of  that  order,  though  sf-cular  professors  are  ap- 
pointed for  the  chairs  of  civil  law,  medicine,  and 
phanna^;y.  The  farrulty  numbers  00  professors  and 
220  assistant  tf-achers  and  masters  in  the  various 
departments  of  the  university. 

John  J.  Thompkins. 


Saint  Thomas  of  Guiana  (Guayana),  Diocese 
OF  (de  Guayana),  suffragan  of  Caracas,  erected  by 
Pius  VI  on  19  Dec,  1791,  comprises  the  former  .state of 
Bermudez,  districts  of  Nueva  Esparta  and  Guayana, 
and  territories  of  Amazonas,  Caura,  Col6n,  Orinoco, 
and  Yuruary ,  in  the  south  and  east  of  Venezuela.  The 
first  bishop  was  Mgr.  Francisco  de  Ybarra,  born  at 
Guacata,  Venezuela;  his  successors  were:  (1)  Jose  An- 
tonio Mohedano  (ISOO),  born  in  the  Diocese  of  To- 
ledo; (2)  Mgr.  Jose  de  Silva  y  Olave  (15  March,  1815). 
After  the  troubles  caused  by  the  wars  of  independence 
Leo  XII  named  (3)  Mgr.  Mariano  Talavero,  of  Santa 
F6,  vicar  Apostolic  and  titular  Bishop  of  Tricala. 
Gregory  XII  restored  the  episcopate,  appointing  (4) 
Mgr.  Antonio  Fortique  (12  July,  1841);  (5)  Jose  Eman- 
uel Arroyo  (1856) ;  and  (6)  Mgr.  Antonio  Maria  Durdn 
(25  Sept.,  1891),  the  present  bishop.  The  diocese  con- 
tains over  400,000  Catholics,  and  a  few  alien  Jews  and 
Protestants;  60  parishes  (20  filial);  36  priests;  50 
churches  and  chapels.  The  Carib  Indians  occupying 
Eastern  Venezuela  were  civilized  and  Christianized 
by  the  early  Spani.sh  Franciscan  missionaries.  The 
episcopal  city,  Ciudad  Bolivar  (population  12,000) 
was  established  in  1764  by  two  Jesuits  under  the  gov- 
ernorship of  Joaquin  de  Mendoza,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Orinoco,  and  called  San  Tomds  de  la  Nueva 
Guaj^ana;  but  owing  to  a  narrowing  of  the  river  was 
commonly  known  as  Angostura.  It  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  national  history,  and  Sim6n  Boli- 
var was  elected  president  there  by  the  Congress  of 
February,  1819;  in  his  honour  the  city  has  been  re- 
named Ciudad  Bolivar. 

MozANS,  Up  the  Orinoco  and  Down  the  Magdalena  (New  York, 
1910). 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur  (Sancti  Thom^  de 
Meliapor),  Diocese  of,  suffragan  to  the  primatial 
See  of  Goa  in  the  East  Indies;  it  derives  its  name 
from  the  site  of  its  cathedral,  in  which  the  Apostle 
St.  Thomas  was  interred  on  his  martyrdom,  and  the 
Tamil  word  Mailapur  (i.  e.  the  town  of  peacocks), 
which  the  Greeks  rendered  as  Maliarpha,  the  Portu- 
guese Meliapor,  and  the  English  Mylapore. 

Early  History. — The  local  Indian  tradition,  largely 
corroborated  by  collateral  evidence,  is  that  the  Apos- 
tle St.  Thomas,  after  preaching  on  the  west  coast  of 
India,  passed  on  to  the  ea.st  coast  and  fixed  his  see  at 
Mylapur,  which  was  then  a  flourishing  city.  The 
number  of  converts  he  made  having  aroused  the  hos- 
tility of  the  heathen  priests,  he  fled  from  their  anger  to 
the  summit  of  what  is  now  known  as  St.  Thomas's 
Mount  (situated  in  a  direct  line  four  miles  to  the 
south-west  of  Mylapur).  Thither  he  was  followed 
by  his  persecutors,  who  transfixed  him  with  a  lance  as 
he  prayed  kneeling  on  a  stone,  a.  d.  68.  From  the 
facts  that  the  Roman  Breviary  declares  St.  Thomas  to 
have  "crowned  the  glory  of  his  Apostleship  with  mar- 
tyrdom at  Calamina"  and  that  no  traces  of  any  Cala- 
mina  exi.st,  various  theories — some  of  them  probably 
absurd — have  been  put  forward  to  identify  Calamina 
with  Mylapur,  or  with  St.  Thomas's  Mount.  The 
writer  of  this  article  once  suggested  that  Calamina 
might  be  a  modification  of  Cholamandalam  (i.  e.  the 
kingdom  of  the  Cholas,  as  the  surrounding  country 
was  in  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era).  On  ma- 
turcr  reflection  lu;  has  found  it  far  more  reasonable  to 
believe  lliat  Calamina  was  an  ancient  town  at  the  foot 
of  the  hill  at  St .  Thomas's  Mount,  that  has  wholly  dis- 
appeared, as  many  more  recent  historic  Indian  cities 
have  disappeared,  built  as  they  were  of  mud,  except 
for  their  ternj)les  and  palaces  which  were  of  ex- 
quisitely wrought  stone.  This  much  is  certain:  till 
Europeans  settled  in  the  pla(;e  there  was  no  Indian 
name  even  for  the,  hill.  TJiis  is  shown  by  the  present 
Indian  name,  Faranghi  Malai  (i.  e.  the  hill  of  the 
Franks),  used  to  denote  both  the  hill  and  the  town 


SAINT  THOMAS 


383 


SAINT  THOMAS 


around  its  base,  a  service  which  the  English  name — 
St.  Thomas's  Mount — equally  renders.  His  body  was 
brought  to  Mylapur  and  buried  in  the  house  in  which 
he  had  hved,  and  which  was  used  as  a  place  of  wor- 
ship. A  notable  portion  of  the  relics  of  the  Apostle 
was  obtained  for  the  church  of  Edessa,  at  an  early 
period,  by  Christian  traders  from  Persia.  The  Edes- 
sene  relics  were  in  course  of  time  conveyed  to  Chios, 
and  finally  to  Ortona  in  Italy,  where  they  are  yet 
venerated. 

India's  maritime  trade  languished  and  died  out 
about  the  fourth  century.  Though  the  country  was 
thus  cut  off  from  all  communication  with  the  external 
world,  the  succession  of  bishops  was  kept  up  till  the 
revival  of  Brahminism  at  Mylapur  in  the  seventh 
centur>%  when  there  was  a  ruthless  massacre  of  Jains 
and  Christians.  The  Bishop  of  Mylapur  and  his 
priests  were  put  to  death,  and  the  remnant  of  his 
flock  fled  across  the  country  to  the  mountains  of  the 
west.  As  the  sees  on  the  west  coast  were  vacant  at 
the  time,  the  Apostolic  succession  was  interrupted, 
and  on  the  death  of  the  priests  then  living,  the  Chris- 
tians kept  the  light  of  their  faith  burning  by  lay 
baptism,  the  recitation  of  their  prayers,  by  wearing  a 
cross,  and  by  surreptitious  visits  to  the  tomb  of  the 
Apostle  in  the  ruined  church  at  Mylapur;  in  this  they 
were  helped  by  the  fact  that  shortly  after  the  massa- 
cre, Mylapur  had  been  overwhelmed  by  the  sea,  which 
returned  to  its  bed  after  wTccking  the  city  and  causing 
the  Brahmins  to  flee  and  build  a  new  Mylapur  a  mile 
further  inland.  This  new  Mylapur  is  to  this  very  day 
almost  purely  Brahmin.  The  site  of  old  Mylapur  is 
now  a  sand  dune,  and  would  have  been  wholly  forgot- 
ten but  for  the  interest  it  possessed  for  the  early  In- 
dian Christians  and  their  successors. 

Nestorian  Period. — India's  maritime  trade  began  to 
revive  in  the  ninth  century'.  The  Nestorian  mer- 
chants from  Persia,  finding  that  there  were  Christians 
in  India,  brought  out  their  own  priests  and  subse- 
quently bishops  to  minister  to  them,  whom  the  Indian 
Christians  for  want  of  instruction  did  not  know  to  be 
in  heresy.  Presently,  a  new  Nestorian  town  began  to 
rise  on  the  sand  dune  that  covered  old  Mylapur,  the 
most  prominent  feature  of  which  was  a  chapel  over  the 
site  of  the  Apostle's  tomb.  Hence  the  Persian  and 
Arabian  traders  called  the  town  Betumah  (i.  e. 
house,  church,  or  town  of  Thomas.  But  the  Indian 
Christians  called  it  Tirumailapur  (i.  e.  Holy  Myla- 
pur). It  is  this  chapel  that  the  ambas-sadors  of  Alfred 
the  Great  of  England  are  supposed  to  have  visited 
(a.  d.  883),  and  which  John  of  xMonte  Corvino  (1200), 
Marco  Polo  (1220),  Blessed  Oderic  di  Perdone  (1318), 
and  Conti  (1400)  did  for  a  certainty  visit.  Later  Be- 
tumah declined,  and  about  1500  was  only  a  heap  of 
ruins. 

First  Portuguese  Missionaries. — Shortly  after  the 
discovery  of  the  Cape  route  to  India,  caravels  of  Por- 
tuguese Franciscans  and  Dominicans  set  out  to  evan- 
gelize the  no  longer  sealed  lands  of  the  East,  and  tra- 
versed their  surf-beaten  coasts  in  search  of  suitable 
centres  for  their  operations.  There  is  a  legend  which 
tells  how,  when  a  caravel  with  some  Franciscan  mis- 
sionaries engaged  in  such  a  search  was  cruising  up  the 
Coromandel  Coast,  one  day  towards  nightfall  their  at- 
tention was  attracted  by  a  hght  on  shore  and  they 
decided  to  land  there.  They  did,  without  knowing 
then  or  for  some  time  after,  that  they  had  landed 
at  the  ruins  of  Betumah.  But  when  they  attempted 
to  approach  the  light,  it  preceded  them  inland,  across 
the  ruins  of  the  Nestorian  town,  over  an  empty 
stretch  of  ground,  past  (new)  Mylapur  and  into  a  for- 
est, where  the  light  vanished.  Here  the  Franciscans 
established  a  mission  and  built  a  church  (still  extant) 
in  honour  of  Our  Lady  of  Light  in  1516,  whence  the 
locality,  no  longer  a  forest,  but  a  wealthy  residential 
quarter,  is  still  known  as  The  Luz — after  Nossa  Sen- 
hora  da  Luz  (that  is,  Our  Lady  of  Light).     The  Do- 


minicans followed  in  their  wake,  and  in  1520  Fre.  Am- 
brosio,  O.P.,  was  consecrated  bishoj)  for  the  Domini- 
can missions  at  Cranganore  and  Mylapur. 

The  following  year  King  John  III  of  Portugal  or- 
dered a  search  to  be  instituted  for  the  tomb  of  the 
Apostle  St.  Thomas.  As  long  as  the  tomb,  with  the 
counterpart  of  the  Ortona  relics,  was  looked  for,  noth- 
ing was  found;  however  when  the  search  was  given  up, 
both  were  accidentally  discovered.  The  roj-al  com- 
mission found  traces  of  the  old  Nestorian  chapel,  but 
nothing  of  the  tomb.  But  while  directing  operations 
to  build  an  oratory  commemorative  of  the  spot,  and 
digging  deeply  in  the  sandy  soil  to  lay  its  foundations, 
it  found  a  masonry  tomb,  containing  what  might  have 
been  expected  to  be  found  in  the  Apostle's  tomb:  some 
bones  of  snowy  whiteness,  the  head  of  a  lance,  a  pil- 
grim's staff,  and  an  earthen  vase.  This  was  in  1522. 
The  fact  brought  ruined  Betumah  into  popularity 
with  the  Portuguese,  who  settled  here  in  large  num- 
bers and  called  the  new  European  town  San  Thome 
(after  St.  Thomas)  and  San  Thome  de  Meliapor,  when 
they  wanted  to  distinguish  it  from  Sao  Thome,  the 
African  island,  though  the  town  was  somewhat  distant 
from  Mylapur. 

The  Portuguese  Augustinians  were  the  next  mis- 
sionaries to  follow;  they  took  charge  of  the  oratory- 
built  over  the  grave  of  the  Apostle,  and  built  their 
priory  and  church  adjoining  it.  In  the  meantime  the 
Dominican  missions  in  the  surrounding  country 
gained  so  much  in  importance,  that  in  1540  Fre.  Ber- 
nardo da  Cruz,  O.P.,  was  consecrated  and  sent  out  to 
tend  them.  There  is  nothing  to  show  when  the 
Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  settled  at  Saint 
Thomas,  but  by  1648  they  had  a  college  in  the  place 
and  a  church  and  residence  at  Mjdapur,  while  St. 
Francis  Xavicr  spent  three  months  in  1545  at  Saint 
Thomas  praying  at  the  grave  of  the  Apostle  for  light 
in  regard  to  his  projected  mission  to  Japan.  All  of 
these;  missionaries,  and  those  who  came  after  them, 
had  no  definite  spheres  of  work,  but  worked  side  by 
side  and  in  dependence  on  the  local  ordinaries,  when 
these  were  in  due  course  appointed.  By  the  end  of 
the  si.xteenth  century  they  had  ex-tended  their  opera- 
tions to  Bengal  and  Burma.  In  1552  the  Diocese  of 
Cochin  was  erected,  and  made  to  include,  among 
other  places,  Ceylon  and  the  countries  bordering  the 
Bay  of  Bengal.  Saint  Thomas  was  thus  constituted  a 
parish  of  the  Diocese  of  Cochin;  and  the  Augustinian 
church  adjoining  the  chapel  over  the  grave  of  the 
Apostle  was  designated  the  parish  church  of  Saint 
Thomas. 

Creation  of  the  Diocese. — At  the  instance  of  King 
Philip  II  of  Portugal,  Paul  V,  on  9  January,  1606,  sepa- 
rated the  Kingdom  of  Tanjore  and  the  territories  to 
the  north  of  the  Cauverj^  River  and  bordering  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  from  the  Diocese  of  Cochin  and  constituted 
them  a  distinct  diocese  with  Saint  Thomas  of  Myla- 
pur as  the  episcopal  city  and  the  parish  church  of  Saint 
Thomas  as  the  cathedral.  At  the  same  time  the  pope 
appointed  Dom  Sebastiao  de  San  Pedro,  O.S.A.,  who 
had  been  presented  by  the  King  of  Portugal,  to  be  the 
first  bishop  of  Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur,  and  granted 
Philip  and  his  heirs  and  successors  in  perpetuity  the 
right  of  patronage  and  presentation  to  the  see,  and 
the  benefices  that  might  be  created  therein,  by  the 
mere  facts  of  their  creation  and  dotation.  This  right 
and  obhgation  the  Crown  of  Portugal  has  exercised 
and  discharged  to  the  present,  by  making  the  bishops 
a  princely  allowance,  paying  a  certain  number  of 
priests'  salaries,  with  periodical  increases,  leave  with 
free  passages  and  pensions,  on  the  lines  of  the  Portu- 
guese Civil  Service  Code,  and  contributing  to  the  sup- 
port of  a  still  larger  number  of  priests  on  a  graduated 
scale.  Bishop  Sebastiao  de  San  Pedro  arrived  at 
Saint  Thomas  in  1611,  but  in  1614  was  promoted  to 
the  See  of  Cochin.  In  1615  he  was  succeeded  by 
Luiz  de  Brito  e  Menezes,  likewise  an  Augustinian, 


SAINT  THOMAS 


384 


SAINT  THOMAS 


who  was  transferred  in  1628  to  the  See  of  Cochin. 
His  successor  was  Luiz  Paulo  Paulo  de  Estrella, 
O.S.F.,  appointed  in  1534:,  who  died  at  Saint  Thomas 
on  9  January,  1637.  During  the  next  fifty-six  years 
the  see  continued  vacant;  for,  though  no  less  than 
nine  personages  were  selected  by  the  Crown  for  the 
honour,  they  either  declined  it,  or  were  promoted,  or 
died  before  their  election  w;is  confirmed  by  the  Holy 
See.  So  in  the  interval  the  diocese  was  governed  by 
administrators  selected  chiefly  from  the  various  re- 
ligious orders  and  appointed  by  the  archbishojjs  or 
vicars  capitular  tteile  vacante  of  (Joa.  But  it  was  only 
natural  that  the  members  of  the  religious  orders  as 
also  secular  priests  of  other  nations  should  have  de- 
sired to  share  in  the  work  of  preaching  the  Gospel  to 
the  heathen;  hence  in  1622  Gregory  XV  created  the 
Sacred  Congregation  de  propaganda  fide  to  distribute 
infidel  regions  among  the  religious  orders  and  mission- 
arj'  societies  of  other  nationalities  as  assistants  to  the 
local  ordinaries,  where  there  were  any,  and  to  super- 
vise their  operations.  But  occasionally  the  Congre- 
gation was  misled — a  thing  that  was  easy  enough 
when  geographical  knowledge  was  neither  as  correct 
nor  as  extensive  as  at  the  present  time — and  this  oc- 
casioned trouble. 

The  foundations  of  the  British  Indian  Empire  of  the 
present  day  were  laid,  so  to  say,  by  Sir  Francis  Day 
in  the  sandy  delta  of  a  tiny  river,  some  throe  and  a 
half  miles  north  of  Saint  Thomas,  with  the  beginnings 
of  Fort  St.  George.  The  British  invited  the  Portu- 
guese of  pure  and  mixed  descent  to  settle  in  the  new 
township;  and  as  the  Portuguese  were  Catholics, they 
were  ministered  to  by  the  clergy  from  Saint  Thomas. 
In  1642,  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda  sent  out 
two  French  Capuchins  to  establish  a  mission  in  Burma. 
But,  when  they,  landing  at  Surat  and  travelling  over- 
land, reached  Fort  St.  George,  the  British  persuaded 
them  not  to  go  further,  since  they  judged  it  prudent 
to  have  clergj^men  differing  in  nationality  from,  and 
independent  of,  the  Portuguese  ordinary'  at  Saint 
Thomas  to  minister  to  the  Catholics  in  their  settle- 
ment. According^,  R.  P.  Ephraim,  one  of  the  two, 
WTote  to  the  Sacred  Congregation  de  propaganda  fide 
representing  that  there  was  a  prospect  of  reaping  a 
larger  har\-est  at  Fort  St.  George  and  the  fast  rising 
native  town  of  Madras  that  was  beside  it,  than  in 
Burma;  and  in  the  name  of  Urban  VIII  a  prefecture 
Apostolic  was  establislied  within  three  and  a  half  miles 
of  the  cathedral  of  Saint  Thomas.  It  is  perhaps  need- 
less to  say  that  ever  after  there  were  continual  bick- 
erings between  the  local  ordinaries  and  the  French 
Capuchins,  the  former  insisting  on  the  Capuchins  ac- 
knowledging their  jurisdiction,  a  claim  which  the  lat- 
ter, relying  on  their  papal  Brief,  refused  to  recognize. 

Both  the  Portuguese  and  the  British  had  obtained 
their  charters  for  their  respective  forts  of  Saint 
Thomas  and  St.  George  from  the  local  Hindu  chiefs. 
But  the  Mohammedans  were  now  extending  their 
power  southwards;  and  before  laying  siege  to  Fort  St. 
G(?*jrge  they,  with  the  help  of  the  Dutch  who  bom- 
barded the  place  from  the  sea,  took  Saint  Thomas 
and  began  the  work  of  demolishing  its  walls  in  Janu- 
ary, 1697.  The  Mohammedan  governors  then  settled 
on  the  wast(!  land,  separating  Saint  Thomas  from 
Mylapur,  which  was  st^Kjn  covered  with  the  residences 
of  Mohammedan  settlers.  In  the  unchanging  lOast 
these  three  townships  still  exist:  as  a  Eurojjean 
quarter,  as  a  Mohammedan  quarter  and  as  a  Brah- 
min quarter — while  the  casual  observer  fails  to  see 
where  Saint  Thomas  ends  and  Mylapur  begins  and 
U8t!8  the  names  as  convertible  terms.  However,  hav- 
ing reduced  Saint  Thomas  and  deprivefl  it  of  ils  bat- 
tlements, the  Mohammedans  did  not  further  trouble 
the  resident  Portugue.se,  who  regarded  the  place  as 
still  a  Portuguese  j)OHsession  and  managed  its  affairs 
with  an  elected  council  of  which  the  ordinary  of  the 
place,  for  the  time  being,  was  the  president. 


Dom  Caspar  Alfonso  Alvares,  S.  J.,  was  the  fourth 
Bishop  of  Saint  Thomas.  His  presentation  was  con- 
firmed by  the  Holy  See  in  1691,  and  he  was  conse- 
crated at  Goa  in  1693.  In  the  meantime  the  Capu- 
chins of  the  French  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Fort 
St.  George  spread  apace  and  took  charge  of  the 
French  settlement  of  Pondicherry.  Not  to  offend  the 
French,  Dom  Gaspar  allowed  them  to  minister  to  the 
Europeans  and  their  descendants,  b\it  in  order  to  as- 
sert his  right,  placed  the  Indian  Christians  in  Pondi- 
cherry under  the  care  of  m(>mbers  of  his  own  Society 
from  France.  This  led  to  a  number  of  complaints  be- 
ing addressed  to  Rome  about  the  interference  of  the 
Bishoji  of  Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur  with  the  work  of 
the  missionaries  Apostolic,  with  the  result,  however, 
that  Clement  XI,  by  his  letters  "Gaudium  in  Do- 
mino" of  1704,  issued  an  injunction  restraining  the 
missionaries  from  invading  the  rights  of  the  diocesan. 
But  the  Congregation  de  propaganda  fiiie  seems  to 
have  followed  an  altogether  different  course.  In 
1706  it  issued  a  Decree  in  support  of  its  own  mission- 
aries, which  reversed  what  the  bishop  had  ordained. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  bishop  again  appealed 
to  the  pope,  who,  by  the  Brief  "Non  sine  gravi"  of 
1711,  annulled  the  Decree  of  the  Congregation  and 
reaffirmed  the  right  of  the  diocesan  to  make  what  ar- 
rangements he  chose  at  Pondicherrj^,  which  was  situ- 
ated within  the  limits  of  his  diocese.  Presently  Car- 
dinal de  Tournon,  who  was  on  his  way  to  China  as 
legate  of  the  Holy  See,  having  touched  at  Pondi- 
cherry, hearing  of  the  doings  of  the  Capuchins,  placed 
the  French  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Madras,  the  name 
by  which  Fort  St.  George  and  its  surroundings  were 
coming  to  be  better  known,  under  interdict.  The 
Capuchins  must  have  submitted  forthwith  and  the 
interdict  thereupon  been  removed,  as  there  appears  no 
record  of  its  removal. 

In  the  meantime  Dom  Gaspar  had  died  (1708). 
Owing  to  his  advancing  years,  he  had  been  given  a 
coadjutor  with  the  right  of  succession,  Dom  Francisco 
Laynes,  S.J.,  of  the  Madura  mission,  in  the  Diocese  of 
Cochin.  Dom  Laynes  was  consecrated  at  Lisbon  on 
19  March,  1708,  as  Bishop  of  Sozopolis  in  partibus. 
He  came  out  to  India  the  same  year,  but  did  not  take 
possession  of  his  see  till  1710.  Though  Bishop  Laynes 
was  Portuguese,  the  Portuguese  Augustinians  of  Ban- 
del  defied  his  authority  as  their  diocesan.  He  there- 
fore placed  Bandel  under  interdict  on  14  July,  1714; 
on  the  submission  of  the  Augustinians  the  interdict 
was  removed  (8  October,  1714).  Bishop  Laynes  died 
at  Chandernagore  (Bengal)  in  1715,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Manoel  Sanclies  Golao,  who  was  appointed 
in  1717  and  reached  India  in  1719.  It  was  Dom 
Manoel  who  welcomed  the  Italian  Barnabites  as  in- 
valuable co-operators  in  the  work  of  preaching  the 
Gospel  in  Burma,  though  he  had  regularly  served  mis- 
sion stations  there.  These  friendly  relations  with  the 
Italian  Barnabites  were  always  maintained,  as  they 
recognized  the  authority  of  the  diocesans.  Bishop 
Golao  was  succeeded  by  Jose'*  Penheiro,  S.J.,  who  was 
consecrated  in  1726.  lie  sanctioned  the  arrangement 
whereby  I'rciich  .Jesuits  were  to  have  sjiiritual  charge 
of  Cliaiidcriiagorc,  in  Bengal.  During  his  time  the 
Barnal)itc  mission  in  Burma  was  created  a  vicariate 
Apostolic.  Bishoj)  Pinheiro  died  on  15  March,  1744, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Antonio  da  Incarnacao,  O.S.A., 
who  was  consecrated  at  Goa  in  1747. 

It  was  about  this  time  (1746)  that  the  French 
marched  on  Madras  and,  making  Saint  Thomas  their 
head-quarters,  attacked  and  took  Fort  St.  George, 
which  they  held  and  improved  till  August,  1749,  when 
they  restored  it  to  Admiral  Boscawen  under  the 
Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Saint  Thomas  had  been 
nominally  a  Portuguese  possession  from  1697,  with- 
out the  semblance  of  a  military  force  to  resist  its  occu- 
pation by  a  foreign  power,  as  the  French  did  when 
operating  against  Madras.     To  obviate  a  recurrence 


SAINT  THOMAS 


385 


SAINT  THOMAS 


of  such  an  eventuality  Admiral  Boscawen  annexed 
the  place  and  built  a  redoubt  to  the  south-east  of  it, 
thus  rendering  it  a  part  of  Madras,  as  it  still  is.  The 
British  now  regretted  having  harboured  the  French 
Capuchins,  as  they  suspected  that  the  capture  of  Fort 
St.  George  by  the  French  was  largely  due  to  the  infor- 
mation supplied  by  them.  Consequently  R.  P.  Rene, 
on  whom  the  suspicion  rested  most  heavily,  was  de- 
ported to  Europe,  and  the  others  were  expelled  from 
the  fort  and  settled  in  what  is  now  Georgetown 
(Madras),  where  the  cathedral  of  Madras  now  stands, 
four  miles  from  the  cathedral  of  Saint  Thomas. 

On  the  death  of  Bishop  da  Incarnacao  on  22  No- 
vember, 1752,  Fre.  Theodoro  de  Santa  Maria,  O.S.A., 
was  presented  for  the  see  and  confirmed  by  the  Holy 
See.  He  belonged  to  the  priory  at  Saint  Thomas, 
but  hesitated  to  receive  episcopal  consecration.  Two 
Italian  Barnabites  destined  for  the  vicariate  Apostohc 
in  Burma  came  with  letters  of  commendation  to  the 
bishop-elect,  who  welcomed  and  speeded  them  to  their 
destination.  At  last  Fre.  Thedoro,  the  bishop-elect, 
renounced  the  see  into  the  hands  of  Fre.  Bernardo  de 
San  Caetano,  O.S.A.,  who  was  then  consecrated 
bishop.  Bishop  Bernardo  in  turn  consecrated  one  of 
the  two  Barnabites  just  mentioned,  Dom  Percotto, 
Bishop  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Burma,  in  1768.  But 
Bishop  Percotto  did  not  reach  the  field  of  his  labours, 
as  on  his  voyage  back  to  Burma  the  vessel  foundered. 

The  Diocese  of  Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur  was  min- 
istered to  at  this  period  as  follows: — By  the  Portu- 
guese Franciscans,  Portuguese  Dominicans,  Portu- 
guese Augustinians,  and  Portuguese  Jesuits.  Besides 
these,  there  were  French  Jesuits  and  Italian  Bar- 
nabites working  in  the  diocese  in  harmony  with  the 
ordinary,  and  French  Capuchins  defying  their  au- 
thority, at  least  occasionally.  One  drawback  of  this 
total  manning  of  the  diocese  with  the  religious  orders 
was  the  ab.solute  neglect  to  form  an  indigenous  clergy 
to  meet  the  emergency  that  presently  arose.  For  it 
was  at  about  this  time  that  the  Marquess  of  Pombal 
suppressed  the  houses  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  Por- 
tugal and  thus  cut  off  the  supply  of  Portuguese  Jes- 
uits to  the  diocese.  The  emergency  became  still 
more  acute,  when,  in  1773,  Clement  XIV  suppressed 
the  Society  of  Jesus.  Withal,  the  situation  was  not 
quite  so  hopeless  as  to  call  for  drastic  measures  in  re- 
gard to  the  diocese  from  without.  For  it  was  not  till 
1S34  that  the  houses  of  the  other  religious  orders  in 
the  Portuguese  dominions  were  suppressed.  And  as 
the  Diocese  of  Saint  Thomas  of  INIj'lapur  was  situ- 
ated wholly  outside  of  Portuguese  territory,  there  was 
nothing  to  prevent  the  Portuguese  religious  orders 
from  thriving  there.  Nevertheless,  as  at  home  voca- 
tions became  fewer,  the  houses  in  India  gradually  died 
out,  the  last  to  be  represented  in  the  diocese  being  the 
Portuguese  Augustinians  in  Bengal,  the  last  member 
of  the  order  dying  in  1869. 

On  the  extinction  of  a  religious  house  in  any  place, 
the  property  and  rights  of  the  religious  revert  to  the 
Church,  as  represented  by  the  local  diocesans.  But 
all  Catholic  Europe  was  so  incensed  against  Portugal 
for  the  initiative  taken  by  the  Marquess  of  Pombal 
against  the  Society  of  Jesus,  that  without  waiting  to 
weigh  the  justice  of  their  action  in  turn,  reprisals  be- 
came the  order  of  the  day  in  the  Diocese  of  Saint 
Thomas  of  Mylapur,  the  Congregation  de  -propa- 
ganda fide  supporting  the  missionaries  of  other  na- 
tionalities against  the  Portuguese.  On  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Society  of  Jesus  by  the  Holy  See,  the 
Fathers  of  the  Missions  etrangeres  of  Paris  were  sent 
out  to  take  charge  of  the  Society's  missions  in  the  Dio- 
ceses of  Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur  and  of  Cochin,  of 
which  Mgr  Champenois,  Bishop  of  Dolichum  in  parti- 
bus,  was  appointed  vicar  Apostolic.  Bishop  San  Cae- 
tano resented  this,  as  he  was  filling  up  the  places  of  the 
Jesuits  with  Indian  secular  missionaries  from  Goa; 
but  his  protests  were  of  little  avail.  In  course  of 
XIII.— 25 


time,  as  the  members  of  the  other  religious  orders 
died  out,  these  same  Indian  missioners  from  Goa  as- 
sumed charge  of  their  churches  under  the;  order  of  their 
diocesans,  though  more  often  than  not  there  was  a 
dispute  between  them  and  the  missionaries  Apostolic. 
The  latter  did  not  hesitate  to  misrepresent  the  Goan 
missionaries  to  be  ignorant  and  immoral  as  a  whole, 
though  the  diocesan  seminary  at  Goa  was  conducted 
by  the  Jesuits  until  their  suppression,  and  thereafter 
by  members  of  the  other  religious  orders  till  1835.  On 
the  other  hand,  between  1652  and  1843,  no  less  than 
seven  of  their  fellow-countrymen  were  deemed  worthy 
of  episcopal  consecration  by  the  Crown  of  Portugal, 
the  Holy  See,  and  the  Sacred  Congregation  de  Pro- 
paganda Fide,  not  to  speak  of  the  Venerable  Joseph 
Vaz,  who  was  of  their  race.  Howbeit,  since  then  and 
up  to  the  present  time  the  majority  of  the  priests 
working  in  the  diocese  have  been  Indian  secular  mis- 
sionaries from  Goa. 

Bishop  San  Caetano  died  in  1780,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Fre.  Manoel  de  Jesus  Marie  Jos^,  O.S.A.,  a 
native  of  Goa  and  the  prior  of  the  Augustinian  con- 
vent there.  He  was  consecrated  in  1788,  and  died  at 
Saint  Thomas  in  1800.  He  was  succeeded  by  Fre. 
Joaquim  de  Mcnezes  e  Athalde,  O.S.A.,  who  was  con- 
secrated and  took  charge  of  his  see  by  procuration  in 
1805,  but  before  he  could  come  out  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Diocese  of  Funchal.  As  a  result,  Fre. 
Jos(5  de  Gra(^a,  who  on  the  death  of  Bishop  Jesus 
Maria  Jose  had  been  appointed  administrator,  con- 
tinued as  such  till  his  death  on  14  July,  1817,  when 
Fre.  Clemente  de  Espiritu  Santo,  O.S.F.,  was  ap- 
pointed administrator.  During  the  hitter's  tenure  of 
his  office,  Madras  was  visited  by  Dom  Pech-o  d'Alcan- 
tara,  O.C.,  Bishop  of  Antipheles  in  parlibus  and  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  the  Grand  Mogul  [sic]  and  visitor  Apos- 
tolic of  the  French  Capuchin  missions,  who  "according 
to  the  mind  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  de  Propa- 
ganda Fide  declared  the  Capuchins  of  Madras  to  be  in- 
dependent of  the  Bishop  of  Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur 
not  alone  in  temporal  but  also  in  spiritual  matters". 
But  the  administrator  dechned  to  accept  his  decision, 
as  being  a  reaffirmation  of  the  Decree  of  the  same 
Sacred  Congregation,  which  had  been  annulled.  Fre. 
Clemente  resigned  the  adminisi  ration  of  the  diocese  to 
Fre.  Manoel  de  Ave  Maria,  O.S.A.,  in  1820. 

The  British  i)owcr  was  now  [jarainount  on  the  Coro- 
mandcl  Co;ist,  and  Knglisli  was  univ(>rs;illy  si)ok('n  by 
the  Indo-European  jiopulation  that  formed  the  main- 
stay of  the  Cathohc  congregation  of  Madras,  as  it  al- 
ways was  and  still  is  all  over  India.  Withal,  the 
French  Capuchins  would  not  conform  to  the  times, 
but  continued  to  preach  in  Portuguese  (which  had  de- 
generated in  Madras  to  a  patois)  and  Tamil,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Indian  Christians.  As  a  result,  many 
Indo-European  familes  gave  up  the  practice  of  their 
religion  and  in  time  became  Protestants.  Finding 
their  representations  to  the  Capuchin  prefect  Apos- 
tolic unheeded,  a  band  of  young  men  represented  the 
matter  to  the  Holy  See.  In  response  to  this  appeal 
the  Sacred  Congregation  de  Propaganda  Fide  raised  the 
French  Capuchin  prefecture  into  a  vicariate  Apostolic 
and  sent  out  Dr.  O'Connor,  O.S.A.,  with  Irish  priests, 
in  1828  to  take  over  the  work  of  the  Frenchmen. 

Portuguese  Civil  War  of  1826,  and  its  Consequences. 
— On  the  outbreak  of  the  Peninsular  wars.  King 
Joao  VI  of  Portugal,  with  his  elder  son  Dom  Pedro, 
sought  refuge  in  Brazil.  Presently  a  movement  was 
set  on  foot  to  have  his  younger  son,  Dom  Miguel,  pro- 
claimed king,  a  movement  which  had  the  support  of 
the  religious  orders,  but  not  of  the  bishops  or  of  the 
secular  clergy.  However,  Joao  returned  to  Portugal 
and  quelled  the  insurrection.  In  the  meantime  Brazil 
proclaimed  its  independence  with  Dom  Pedro  as  its 
emperor,  an  arrangement  in  which  Joao  acquiesced. 
On  the  death  of  Joao  VI  the  loyalists  in  Portugal  pro- 
claimed Dom  Pedro  of  Brazil  Iving  of  Portugal;  but, 


SAINT  THOMAS 


386 


SAINT  THOMAS 


as  Dom  Pedro  preferred  staying  in  Brazil,  he  ceded  his 
right  to  Dona  Maria  da  Gloria,  his  younger  daughter, 
appointing  his  brother,  Dom  Miguel,  as  regent  till  she 
should  grow  up,  when  the  regent  was  to  marry  her  and 
thus  heal  the  rupture  between  the  loyalists  and  the  ad- 
herents of  Dom  Miguel.  The  adherents  of  Dom 
Miguel,  however,  proclaimed  him  king.  Dom  Pedro 
came  over  to  Portugal  in  1S26  to  assert  his  daughter's 
rights,  and  finally  defeated  his  brother  in  1834.  Dom 
Miguel  was  perpetually  banished  and  those  who  sided 
with  him  were  punished,  amongst  those  to  suffer  be- 
ing the  religious  orders,  whose  houses  were  suppressed 
and  properties  confiscated. 

In  consequence  of  this  last  measure  mainly,  diplo- 
matic relations  between  the  Holy  See  and  Portugal 
were  broken  off.  The  Sacred  Congregation  de  Propa- 
ganda Fide  deemed  the  moment  opportune  to  extend 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Madras  to 
Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur  and  its  missions  southwards 
to  the  River  Palar  (those  south  of  the  Palar  being  as- 
signed to  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Pondicherry),  to  de- 
clare Burma  to  be  an  independent  vicariate,  and  to 
create  in  the  northern  part  of  the  diocese  (Bengal 
and  the  adjoining  countries)  an  independent  vicariate 
Apostohc  under  Dr.  St.  Leger,  with  a  staff  of  British 
priests.  From  a  certain  point  of  view  this  action  was 
unfortunate,  as  under  the  circumstances  it  caused  the 
loyalist  Portuguese  to  regard  these  measures  as  re- 
taliatory and  not  as  prompted  by  a  desire  for  the 
spiritual  welfare  of  the  regions  concerned.  And,  in- 
deed, there  was  nothing  up  to  this  to  show  that  Portu- 
gal had  shirked  her  responsibilities  in  regard  to  the 
diocese,  or  that  the  successive  ordinaries  of  the  diocese 
had  been  found  wanting,  beyond  the  mere  accusation 
of  those  missionaries  Apostolic  who  were  sent  into 
their  territories  and,  failing  to  recognize  their  author- 
ity, had  received  scant  courtesy.  Howbeit,  when 
called  upon  by  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Madras  to  sur- 
render his  churches  and  submit  to  him,  the  adminis- 
trator replied  that  he  would  gladly  do  so  when  in- 
structed by  the  authority  that  placed  him  there.  The 
vicar  Apostolic  then  called  upon  the  priests  and  the 
subjects  of  the  Diocese  of  Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur 
to  submit  to  him,  but  they  all  replied  in  much  the 
same  terms.  The  same  thing  happened  in  the  parts 
of  the  diocese  between  the  Rivers  Palar  and  Cauverj^ 
and  in  Bengal;  whereupon  the  vicar  Apostolic  de- 
clared the  administrator,  priests,  and  people  of  the 
Diocese  of  Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur  schismatics,  and 
from  the  fact  that  a  large  number  of  the  priests  in  the 
diocese  were  from  Goa,  defined  their  action  as  the 
"Goan  schism".  However,  the  Holy  See  seems  not 
to  have  taken  much  notice  of  the  "schism  ",  and  diplo- 
matic relations  were  resumed  with  Portugal  in  1841. 
Then  followed  a  series  of  acts  unworthy  of  the  Church, 
when  both  sides  strove  to  capture  or  recapture 
churches  that  they  claimed;  when  church  was  built 
against  church,  altar  rai.sed  against  altar,  and  violence 
and  pfilice-courts  were  a  common  resort. 

Gn  14  March,  18.30,  Dom  Antonio  Tristao  Vaz  Tei- 
xeira  was  presented  by  the  Crown  of  Portugal  to  the 
Holy  Swi  as  Bishop  of  Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur,  and 
left  Lisbon  for  India  a  month  later.  As  the  Holy  See 
had  in  the  meantime  refused  to  confirm  the  presenta- 
tion, the  Vicar  Capitular  of  Goa  appointed  him  ad- 
ministrator of  the  diocese  in  plaf;e  of  Fre.  Ave  Maria, 
who  had  died  on  5  August  of  the  same  year.  Dom 
Antonio  uKsumed  charge  on  15  Gctober  following,  and 
die<i  on  3  September,  1852.  H«;  was  succeeded  by 
Pa^lre  Migiael  Francisco  J>obo,  an  Indian  from  Goa  (as 
were  all  the  administrators  of  Ihe  diocese  up  to  1886), 
who  was  aj)poin1ed  on  3  Octobf^r,  1852. 

Gn  the  n^storation  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  by  Pius 
VII  the  French  .IcHuits  returned  to  the  parts  of  the 
Diocesf;  of  Covh'm,  which  their  Portuguese  brethren 
ha^l  evangelized,  though  opposed  by  the  authorities  of 
that  diocese;  and  in  1846,  the  Congregation  de  Propa- 


ganda Fide  erected  their  missions  into  a  vicariate  Apos- 
tohc.  In  1850  the  Salesians  of  Annecy  were  sent  out 
to  take  charge  of  the  country  between  the  Rivers 
Godavery  and  Mahanuddy,  which  was  at  the  same 
time  created  a  vicariate  Apostolic.  In  the  same  year, 
the  country  between  the  Chittagong  and  Kabudak 
River  was  created  a  vicariate  Apostolic,  and  com- 
mitted to  the  care  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Cross; 
while  at  about  the  same  time  the  Fathers  of  Alissions 
^trangeres  of  Paris  replaced  the  Italian  Barnabites  in 
Burma.  Thus  the  Diocese  of  Mylapur  was  divided 
up  between  six  vicariates:  Madura,  Pondicherrj', 
Madras,  Vizagapatam,  Western  Bengal,  and  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Burma. 

In  1857  a  concordat  was  entered  into  between  the 
Holy  See  and  Portugal,  pending  the  execution  of 
which  both  the  vicars  Apostolic  and  the  authorities 
of  the  diocese  were  to  enjoj*  pacific  possession  of  the 
places  they  actually  held.  But  the  Crown  of  Portu- 
gal undertook  manifestly  too  great  a  burden,  to  wit,  to 
provide  for  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  whole  of  India, 
and  consequently  the  concordat  remained  a  dead  let- 
ter. In  1854  the  Royal  Missionary  College  of  Bom- 
jardim  at  Sernache,  Portugal,  was  founded  for  the 
training  of  secular  priests  for  the  Portuguese  missions 
bej'ond  the  seas.  Meanwhile  the  missions  of  the  dio- 
cese had  been  greatly  weakened  by  secessions  to  the 
vicars  Apostolic.  The  missions  were  situated  in  Brit- 
ish territory  and  as  beyond  the  clergy  there  were 
scarcely  any  Portuguese  subjects  to  be  found  through- 
out the  diocese  there  was  no  particular  inducement  for 
the  people  to  cling  to  the  see. 

In  Madras  itself,  the  Irish  vicars  Apostolic  and  mis- 
sionaries had  been  educated  at  Maynooth  College,  and 
almost  all  of  them  were  doctors  of  divinity.  They 
were  socially  and  intellectually  on  an  equality  with 
the  best  British  talent.  Protestants  as  well  as  Catho- 
hcs  crowded  to  hear  their  sermons  in  churches  and 
their  lectures  on  scientific  matters.  When  Dr.  O'Con- 
nor first  came  out,  he  brought  letters  of  introduction  to 
the  governor  and  was  a  guest  at  Government  House. 
On  the  first  occasion  when  he  drove  to  St.  Mary's 
of  the  Angels,  the  quasi-cathedral  of  his  vicariate, 
wearing  a  co(!ked  hat  and  buckled  shoes,  long  coat  and 
knee-breeches,  the  old  ladies  protested  that  he  could 
be  no  Catholic  bishop  but  the  emissarj'  of  the  Govern- 
ment to  make  them  all  Protestants.  These  things 
lent  prestige  to  the  Cathohc  name.  One  of  the  first 
things  the  Irish  missionaries  did  was  to  open  a  semi- 
nary (to  which  a  college  was  att  ached)  and  ordain  Indo- 
European  priests,  who  proved  of  invaluable  help  to 
them.  They  also  brought  out  the  Irish  Presentation 
nuns,  whose  schools  arc  yet  the  best  in  all  Southern 
India.  As  a  result,  almost  all  the  Catholic  Indo-Eu- 
ropeans  and  Indians  witli  pretensions  to  respecta- 
bility flocked  to  the  vicars  Apostolic,  till  in  the  end  it 
was  deemed  oi)i)robri()us  to  term  one  as  belonging  to 
the  Diocese  of  Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur.  Hence  in 
the  course  of  the  negotiations  prejiaratory  to  the  fresh 
concordat  of  188(),  th(>  cardinal  secretary  of  State  was 
in  a  posit  ion  to  show  that  out  of  1,107,975  Catholics  in 
British  India,  the  Portuguese  missions  of  the  Diocese 
of  Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur  could  actually  claim  only 
some  30,()00  subjects,  with  a  proportionate  number  of 
churches,  one  seminary  from  which  a  priest  was  occa- 
sionally  ordained,  one  high  school  at  Saint  Thomas, 
two  middle  schools  at  Tuticorin  and  Msmapad,  and  a 
number  of  elementary  schools;  while  any  single  vi- 
cariate Apostolic  had  a  better  efjuipment.  But  of 
these  30, ()()()  souls  which  were  all  that  were  left  to  the 
PortugiKSf  of  the  once  flourishing  diocese,  it  has 
truly,  though  scarcely  laudably,  been  said  that  "they 
loved  the  Portuguese  more  than  their  own  immortal 
souls". 

Present  Corulition. — Such  was  the  state  of  affairs 
when  in  1886  a  fresh  concordat  was  entered  into  be- 
twe<;n  the  Holy  See  and  Portugal,  which  showed  itself 


SAINT-VALLIER 


387 


SAINT-VALLIER 


disposed  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  changed  condi- 
tions of  the  times.  The  concordat  was  preceded  by 
negotiations  with  England,  to  make  sure  that  the 
British  Government  would  not  object  to  the  continu- 
ance of  the  Portuguese  royal  patronage  in  its  Eastern 
possessions.  Accordingly,  the  Primacy  of  the  East  of 
the  archbishops  of  Goa  was  reaffirmed,  while  in  addi- 
tion they  were  accorded  the  honorary  title  of  Patri- 
archs of  the  East  Indies  and  the  substantial  privilege 
of  presiding  at  the  plenary  councils  of  the  East  Indies, 
which  were  ordinarily  to  assemble  at  Goa,  while  the 
special  relations  existing  between  the  Archdiocese  of 
Goa  and  its  suffragan  dioceses  were  to  be  continued. 
But  the  Hmits  of  the  original  Portuguese  dioceses  were 
contracted,  the  Diocese  of  Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur 
being  assigned  two  distinct  pieces  of  territory  on  the 
Coromandel  Coast,  separated  from  each  other  by  a 
distance  of  some  150  miles.  The  first  is  a  triangle  of 
an  area  of  some  800  square  miles,  in  the  northern  angle 
of  which  Saint  Thomas  is  situated;  the  other  is 
roughly  the  ancient  Kingdom  of  Tanjore.  In  addi- 
tion, both  by  the  concordat  and  certain  appendixes 
thereto,  the  diocese  was  given  five  churches  in  the 
Archdiocese  of  Madras — the  old  vicariates  Apostohc 
having  been  converted  into  dioceses  as  a  sequel  to  the 
concordat  by  the  Constitution  "Humana?  salutis"  of 
1886,  of  Leo  XIII — three  churches  in  the  Archdiocese 
of  Calcutta  (Western  Bengal),  five  churches  in  the 
Diocese  of  Dacca  (Eastern  Bengal),  and  twenty-four 
churches  in  the  Diocese  of  Trichinopoly  (which  origin- 
ally belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Cochin),  with  their 
congregations. 

The  first  bishop  appointed  to  Saint  Thomas  of  My- 
lapur on  the  conclusion  of  the  new  concordat  was  the 
princely  Dom  Henrique  Jose  Reed  da  Silva,  who  was 
at  the  time  coadjutor  to  the  Archbishop  of  Goa,  and 
who  took  possession  of  his  sec  in  1S86.  He  was  the 
first  to  sign  himself  for  the  sake  of  brevity.  Bishop 
of  Mylapur,  a  practice  which  his  successors  have 
adopted.  Hence  the  diocese  is  at  the  present  lime  better 
known  in  India  as  the  Diocese  of  Mylapur.  His  was 
the  arduous  task  of  gathering  the  broken  shreds  of  the 
old  historic  diocese,  putting  them  together,  and  ren- 
dering it  once  again  the  thing  of  beauty  it  was.  Hia 
first  care  was  to  reform  the  diocesan  seminar^',  and  in 
order  to  have  an  efficient  body  of  European  priests 
with  their  heart  in  their  work,  lie  brought  out  a  num- 
ber of  young  boys  from  Pcjrtugal  and  gave  them  a 
collegiate  course  in  English,  in  the  college  to  which  he 
had  raised  the  existing  high-school,  previous  to  their 
entering  upon  their  (•cclcsiuslical  course  of  studies. 
His  successors  are  reaping  th(>  hen(>fit  of  his  policy. 
He  opened  a  convent  of  European  nuns  at  Saint 
Thomas,  and  another  of  Indian  nuns  in  Mylapur, 
which  have  since  thrown  out  branches  into  various 
parts  of  the  diocese.  He  invited  English-speaking 
priests  to  join  his  diocese  (a  call  to  which  the  present 
writer  responded)  and  established  the  "Catholic  Reg- 
ister", a  weekly  newspaper.  His  courtly  manners 
and  noble  bearing  made  him  a  favourite  in  society. 
Soon  the  people  felt  it  an  honour  to  be  able  to  point  to 
him  as  their  bishop.  He  pulled  down  the  old  cathe- 
dral, the  chapel  over  the  grave  of  St.  Thomas,  and  the 
old  Augustinian  prior>',  that  had  nothing  antique  to 
commend  them,  and  built  the  present  magnificent 
cathedral  in  the  centre  of  which,  between  the  nave  and 
chancel,  hes  the  grave  of  St.  Thomas.  Despite  the 
good  he  was  accomphshing,  he  incurred  the  ill-will  of 
certain  parties  connected  with  the  churches  situated 
in  other  dioceses,  and  when  he  found  the  accusations 
brought  against  him  accepted  without  demur  in 
Europe,  he  resigned  and  retired  to  Portugal,  as  titular 
Bishop  of  Trajanopolis. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Dom  Antonio  Jos6  de  Souza 
Barroso,  who,  within  a  few  months  of  his  arrival  at 
Saint  Thomas,  was  promoted  to  the  See  of  Oporto. 
Bishop  Barroso  was  succeeded  by  the  present  bishop, 


Dom  Theotonio  Manuel  Ribeiro  Vieira  dc  Castro, 
who  was  presented  on  12  June,  1899,  and  confirmed 
by  Leo  XIII  ten  days  later.  He  was  consecrated  at 
Oporto  on  15  August,  1899,  and  reached  Saint  Thomas 
on  23  December.  The  tercentenary  of  the  creation 
of  the  diocese  occurred  in  January,  1906,  in  which 
almost  all  of  the  archbishops  and  bishops  of  the 
vast  tract  that  constituted  the  original  Diocese  of 
Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur  took  part  in  person  in  addi- 
tion to  the  delegate  ApostoUc  and  other  prelates,  num- 
bering fifteen  bishops  in  all.  It  is  instructive  to  note, 
that  with  the  single  exception  of  the  Archdiocese  of 
Madras,  all  of  the  dioceses  into  which  the  original  Dio- 
cese of  Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapiu-  is  divided  are  served 
by  non-Briti.sh  clergy,  save  for  the  Indian  and  few 
Indo-European  priests,  where  there  are  any.  But 
even  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Madras,  though  it  is  served 
by  the  British  Missionary  Society  of  St.  Joseph,  the 
majority  of  the  priests  and  the  coadjutor  bishop  are 
from  the  Continent.  Dacca  is  served  by  the  Fathers 
of  the  Holy  Cross  from  Notre  Dame,  Indiana,  United 
States  of  America. 

According  to  the  latest  available  statistics,  there  are 
in  the  diocese  some  72,000  Catholics,  20  European 
and  51  Indian  priests,  1  seminary.  For  boys  there 
are:  2  high  schools  at  Saint  Thomas,  one  being  for 
Indo-Europeans,  the  other  for  Indian  Christians; 
3  ori)hanages,  one  for  Indo-Europeans  at  Saint 
Thomas,  another  for  Indian  Christians  at  Tanjore, 
managed  by  the  Salesians,  and  the  third  at  Calcutta 
for  Indian  Christians.  For  girls:  2  convents  of 
the  Franciscan  Missionary  Nuns  of  Mary,  at  Saint 
Thomas  and  at  St.  Thomas's  Mount,  wliich  maintain 
schools  and  orphanages  attached  to  them  both  for 
Indo-Europeans  and  Indians,  the  latter  of  whom  are 
mainly  looked  after  by  Indian  Sisters  of  the  Third  Or- 
der of  St.  Francis;  6  convents  of  Indian  nuns  of  the 
diocesan  Institute  of  Our  Lady  of  Help,  in  populous 
centres,  with  schools  and  boarding  establishments  for 
Indian  caste  girls;  there  are  also  8  middle-schools  and 
57  primary  schools.  The  conversions  for  the  year  end- 
ing :«)  September,  1907  totalled  about  200,  of  which 
135  were  from  heathenism,  63  from  Protestantism,  and  8 
from  Mohammedanism.  The  catechumens  under  in- 
struction at  the  same  time  numbered  141.  Thus  is 
Portugal  in  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century 
continuing  the  work  inaugurated  on  the  Coromandel 
Coast  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth,  in  the  days 
when  the  Vasco  de  Gamas,  Cabrals,  and  de  Albuquer- 
ques  were  not  the  mere  shadowy  heroes  of  the  past, 
but  walked  the  earth  in  living  flesh  and  did  their  deeds 
of  daring. 

James  Doyle. 

Saint- Vallier,  Jean-Baptiste  de,  second  Bishop 
of  Quebec,  b.  at  Grenoble,  France,  14  Nov.,  1653;  d. 
at  Quebec,  Canada,  26  Dec,  1727;  son  of  Jean  de  La 
Croix  de  Chevrieres,  and  Marie  de  Sayne.  He  was 
educated  at  the  local  seminary  and  took  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Theology  at  the  Sorbonne  at  the  age  of 
nineteen.  While  acting  as  almoner  to  Louis  XIV  his 
regularity  and  piety  not  only  preserved  him  from  the 
dangers  of  the  Court,  but  maintained  and  redeemed 
others,  who  were  edified  by  his  charity  and  zeal  to- 
ward the  poor  and  infirm.  He  accompanied  the  king  in 
a  campaign  to  Flanders  and  devotedly  attended  the 
wounded  and  dying.  Through  humility  he  succes- 
sively refused  the  Sees  of  Tours  and  Marseilles,  prefer- 
ring a  field  of  missionary'  labour  and  hardship.  He 
was  chosen  to  replace  Bishop  Laval  on  his  resignation 
(1684),  and  pending  the  reception  of  his  Bulls,  ho  k^ft 
for  Canada  as  vicar-general  (1685).  At  first  his  bear- 
ing towards  the  seminary  and  the  other  institutions 
showed  a  disposition  to  continue  his  predecessor's 
policy.  His  zeal  moved  him  to  visit  every  parish  be- 
tween Quebec  and  Montreal,  and  even  distant  Acadia. 
Under  the  title  "Etat  present  de  I'Eglise  ct  de  la 


SAINT-VICTOR 


SAINT-VICTOR 


colonic  de  la  Nouvelle-Francc"  (Paris,  1687),  he  pub- 
lished a  glowing  account  of  the  piety  and  devotedness 
of  the  clergy,  and  of  the  morality  of  the  people.  The 
contra^it  between  Laval's  paternal  rule,  and  St-Val- 
Uer's  often  untimely  zeal  and  anxiety  to  reform 
caused  apprehension.  His  consecration  (16SS)  pro- 
moted the  king's  hberahty  in  behalf  of  the  incipient 
Church  and  the  propagation  of  the  Faith.  The 
young  pastor's  activity  spent  itself  in  creating  par- 
ishes, building  churches,  and  founding  homes  for  the 
poor,  begimiing  ^\^th  "La  Providence"  (16S9),  which 
was  to  develop  into  the  general  hospital  (1692).  In 
16S9  he  ^^sited  Xe\\'f  oundland  and  founded  at  Placentia 
a  Franciscan  convent.  When  Phipps  (1690)  besieged 
Quebec,  the  bishop  hastened  back  from  Montreal  to 
comfort  liis  flock,  and  published  for  the  occasion  a 
mandemcnt  full  of  faith  and  patriotism.  In  1692,  to 
Laval's  displeasure,  he  altered  the  system  of  joint  ad- 
ministration of  the  diocese  by  bishop  and  seminar^'. 

In  1694  8t-Vallier  went  to  France  for  the  third 
time  to  exonerate  himself  from  the  charges  brought 
against  him.  In  spite  of  the  king's  desire  to  retain 
him,  he  returned  to  Quebec  (1697),  and  finished  con- 
structing his  spacious  palace,  destined  to  give  hos- 
pitality to  all  the  clergy.  That  same  year,  he  founded 
at  Three  Rivers  a  monaster}^  of  L'rsulines,  who  com- 
bined hospital  work  with  teaching.  He  likemse  ap- 
proved the  charitable  foundation  of  the  Charron 
Brothers,  which  lasted  till  1745.  In  16S9,  he  had 
summoned  to  Quebec  the  Sisters  of  Marguerite  Bour- 
geoys,  who  still  teach  there.  He  encouraged  the  exten- 
sion of  the  Faith  bj-  confiding  to  the  Jesuits  the  lUinois, 
Miami,  Sioux,  and  Ottawa  missions;  He  Royale  to  the 
Recollects,  and  the  Tamarois  mission,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Mississippi,  to  the  Quebec  seminary  (1698), 
one  of  whose  missionaries  represented  Mgr  Saint- 
Vallier  as  vicar-general  for  the  Louisiana  region,  then 
comprised,  as  well  as  all  the  vast  territorj'  included  in 
the  future  "Louisiana  Purchase",  within  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Bishop  of  Quebec.  He  visited  Rome 
(1701),  and  on  his  return  voyage  was  captured  by  the 
English.  During  his  five  years  of  captivity  he  ex- 
erted his  zeal  in  behalf  of  the  Catholics  of  his  neigh- 
bourhood. Although  released  in  1709,  his  departure 
from  France,  where  he  again  refused  to  rehnquish 
Quebec  for  a  richer  see,  was  delayed  till  1713.  His 
venerable  predecessor  had  died  in  1708.  St-Vallier 
was  firm  in  doctrine  and  in  perfect  union  with  Rome. 
The  results  of  his  zeal  for  ecclesiastical  discipline  still 
abide.  He  published  a  "Rituel  du  diocdse  de  Que- 
bec" (Paris,  1703);  " Cat6chisme  de  Quebec "  (Paris, 
1702),  presided  at  four  synods  (1690,  1694,  1698, 
1700),  and  issued  a  great  number  of  mayuiements,  let- 
ters, and  other  episcopal  documents,  over  one  hun- 
dred of  which  have  been  published  in  the  collection  of 
"Les  mandements  des  dvecjucs  de  Qu6bec".  He 
died  after  forty  years'  episcopate,  nearly  half  of  which 
he  was  forced  to  spend  far  from  his  diocese.  Though 
his  overbearing  zeal  and  excessive  desire  to  perform 
all  the  good  that  he  had  in  view  occasionally  elicited 
measures  that  were  displeasing  and  even  offensive, 
these  were  fully  outbalanced  by  his  generosity  tow- 
ards the  poor,  and  his  genuine  disinterestedness. 

MandemenlH  lien  Mguef  de  QuSbec  (Quebec,  1887);  Tferu,  Les 
eUguet  de  Qu/hec  (Quelx-c.  1889;;  Mgr  de  Sl-Vallier  el  I'Hdpilal- 
GirUral  de  Quihcc  (Quebec,  1882);  Gosselin.  Mf/r  de  St-Vallier  el 
ton  Umpt  (Evreux,  1898);  Howlet,  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
Newfoundland  (Boston,  1888). 

Lionel  Lindsay. 

Saint-Victor,  Abbey  of.— In  the  year  1108,  the 
famous  Willi.'uri  of  Cliampf-aux,  archdeacon  of  Notro- 
Darne  in  Paris,  wlio  IkuI  been  lecturing  to  crowds  of 
students,  relinquishing  his  chair,  retired  to  a  small  her- 
mitage dedicatcfl  to  St.  Victor,  the  martyr  soldier,  near 
the  city.  Here  he  was  followed  by  many  of  his  disci- 
ples, Abelard  among  them,  and  induced  again  to  take 
up   hifl   lectures.      Hence   the   origin  of  the  Royal 


Abbey  and  School  of  St-Victor.  With  some  of  his 
followers,  William  had  become  a  canon  regular,  but,  at 
the  request  of  St.  Bernard  he  was  made  Bishop  of 
Chalons  in  1113,  and  was  succeeded  at  St-Victor's  by 
Gildwin,  a  man,  as  the  "  Necrologium "  records,  of 
piety  and  learning,  and  zealous  in  promoting  the 
canonical  order.  The  abbey,  by  the  generosity  of 
popes,  kings,  queens,  and  noblemen,  was  soon  richly 
endowed.  Numerous  religious  houses  of  canons  reg- 
ular were  reformed  by  its  canons.  Ste- Genevieve 
(Paris),  Wigmore  in  Wales,  St.  Augustine's  (Bristol, 
1148),  St.  Catherine's  (Waterford),  St.  Thomas's 
(Dublin),  St.  Peter's  (Aram,  Naples)  were  of  the  num- 
ber. No  less  than  forty  abbeys  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Victor  are  mentioned  in  his  last  will  by  King  Louis 
VIII,  who  left  all  his  jewels  for  the  erection  of  the 
abbey  church  and  4000  pounds  to  be  equally  divi(lcd 
among  them.  At  the  general  chapter  which  was  con- 
vened every  year,  there  were  present  some  100  abbots 
and  priors.  Before  the  abbey  was  160  A'cars  old,  sev- 
eral cardinals  and  at  least  eight  abbots,  all  sons  of  St- 
Victor's,  were  at  the  head  of  as  many  abbeys,  among 
them  John,  Abbot  of  Ste-Genevicve  (Paris),  and  An- 
drew, an  Englishman,  Abbot  of  ^^'igmore. 

The  traditions  of  \Mlliam  of  Chamjieaux  were 
handed  on,  and  St-Victor's  became  a  centre  of  piety 
and  learning.  The  school,  with  those  of  Ste-Gene- 
vieve  and  Notre-Dame,  was  the  cradle  of  the  LTni- 
versity  of  Paris.  To  that  celebrated  school  flocked 
crowds  of  students  from  all  countries.  Among  them 
were  men  like  Hugh  of  Blankenburg,  better  known  as 
Hugh  of  St-Victor,  called  the  St.  Augustine  of  his 
time;  Richard,  a  Scotchman,  the  mystic  doctor; 
Adam,  the  greatest  poet  of  the  Middle  Ages;  Peter 
Comestor,  the  historian;  Peter  Lombard,  the  ynagister 
sententiarum;  Thomas,  Abbot  of  St.  Andrew's  (Ver- 
ccil),  to  whom  St.  Francis  sent  St.  Anthony  of  Padua 
for  his  theological  studies;  another  Thomas,  prior  at 
the  abbey  wiio,  nearly  fifty  years  before  his  name- 
sake of  Canterburj',  gave  his  life  for  justice  sake.  To 
St-Victor's  came,  onty  four  months  before  his  mar- 
tyrdom, the  same  St.  Thomas  a  Bccket  and  addressed 
his  brother  canons  on  the  words:  "In  pace  f actus  est 
locus  ejus".  The  " Scotichronicon "  records  that  in 
1221  a  canon  of  St-Victor's,  in  his  capacity  of  papal 
legate,  visited  Ireland  and  Scotland,  where  at  Perth 
he  convoked  all  the  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  to  a  gen- 
eral convention  which  lasted  four  days. 

The  time  came  when  abbots  in  commcndam  were 
introduced  and  signs  of  decay  were  manifested.  To- 
wards the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  some  efforts  were 
made  to  reform  the  abbey  with  canons  brought  from 
the  newly-established  Windesheim  congrc^gation.  A 
few  years  later  Cardinal  de  Larochefoucauld  again 
attempted  to  reform  it,  but  in  vain.  Tlic  canons, 
moreover,  were  iiii])licated  in  the  Jansenist  movement, 
only  one,  the  Vencraljlc  Jourdan,  rcnuiining  faithful  to 
the  old  spirit  and  Iniditions.  At  tliat  time  there  lived 
at  St-Victor  Santcul,  the  great  classic^al  poet,  whose 
Latin  proses  w(>re  adoijtcd  by  the  dalHcan  Liturgy. 
The  end  of  the  abbey  came  with  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. In  1800  the  church  and  the  other  buildings 
were  sold,  the  famous  library  was  disi)ersed,  and  a 
few  years  later  everything  had  disai)peared.  There 
are  still  a  few  convents  of  canonesses,  at  Bruges,  Ypres, 
and  Neuilly,  who  keep  the  rule  and  spirit  which  they 
originally  receive<l  from  the  Abbey  of  St-Victor's. 

noNNARi),  Hint,  dr  I'fihhaue  royale  de  St-Victor  de  Paris  (1907); 
Gautier, /I '/am  de  Sl-Virlor  (Paris,  1858);  Bonneau,  Notice  dca 
chanoincs  de  I'calise  (Puria,  1908). 

A.  Allaria. 

Saint-Victor,  Achakd  de,  canon  regular,  Abbot  of 
St-Victor,  Paris,  and  Bishop  of  Avranches,  b.  about 
1100;  d.  1 172.  By  some  authorities  he  is  said  to  have 
been  of  English  extraction,  by  others  to  be  of  the  noble 
Norman  family  of  de  Pertins,  of  Domfront.  He  com- 
pleted his  Btud-ies  at  the  school  of  St-Victor's  and  en- 


SAINT   VINCENT 


389 


SAINT    VINCENT 


tered  the  cloister  there.  On  the  death  (1155)  of  the 
first  abbot,  Gilduin,  he  was  elected  to  fill  the  vacant 
post,  at  a  time  when  the  royal  abbey  was  almost  at  the 
zenith  of  its  glory  and  power.  Two  years  later  the 
Cathedral  Chapter  of  S^ez,  composed  of  canons  regu- 
lar, elected  Achard  for  their  bishop,  and  the  choice 
was  duly  confirmed  by  Adrian  IV.  But  Henry  II  in- 
tervened and  intruded  his  chaplain  Frogier,  or  Roger. 
However,  subsequent  relations  between  Achard  and  the 
Plantagenet  were  quite  cordial,  and  the  abbot  used 
his  influence  at  the  English  Court  to  compel  the  royal 
treasurer,  Richard  of  Ely,  to  disemburse  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  poor  some  moneys  which  he  was  unjustly  de- 
taining; his  letter  to  Henry  II  on  the  matter  is  still 
extant.  When,  in  1162,  Achard  was  rai.sed  to  the  va- 
cant See  of  Avranches,  Henry  made  no  objection  to 
his  consecration,  and  that  same  yeiir  Bishop  Achard 
stood  godfather  to  his  daughter  Elinor  born  at  Dom- 
front.  But  the  French  king,  Louis  VII,  was  by  no 
means  pleased  to  see  such  a  shining  light  of  the  Paris- 
ian Church  pass  over  into  Norman  territory,  as  is  evi- 
dent from  a  letter  he  then  addressed  to  the  Prior  of 
St- Victor's.  In  1 163  Achard  was  in  England  assist- 
ing at  the  solemn  translation  of  Edward  the  Confessor 
in  Westminster  Abbey. 

The  chief  monument  of  his  ten  years'  episcopate  was 
the  Premonstratensian  Abbey  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 
Lucerne,  the  foundation  stone  of  which  he  laid  (1164) 
and  where  at  his  own  request  he  was  buried,  with  this 
simple  inscription:  "Hie  jacet  Achardus  episcopus  cu- 
jus  caritate  ditata  est  paupertas  nostra. "  His  breth- 
ren of  St-Victor's  celebrated  his  memory  in  the  fol- 
lowing Hues:  "Hujus  oliva  domus,  Anglorum  gloria 
cleri — Jam  dignus  celesti  luce  foveri — Fehx  Achar- 
dus florens  etate  senili — Presul  Abrincensis  ex  hoc  sig- 
natur  ovili".  Not  the  least  gem  in  Achard's  crown 
is  the  memory  of  his  unwavering  friendship  for  St. 
Thomas  a  Becket  through  all  the  years  of  his  persecu- 
tion. In  the  chronicles  of  St-Victor's  Achard  is 
termed  "Blessed".  One  treatise  (Latin  original  and 
eighteenth-century  French  translation)  of  Achard's  is 
extant  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris.  It  is  a 
long  commentary  or  sermon  on  the  Temptation  of 
Christ  in  the  wilderness,  and  in  it  Achard  discusses 
seven  degrees  of  self-renunciation,  which  he  calls  the 
seven  deserts  of  the  soul.  Haun'au  in  his  "Histoire 
litteraire  du  Maine",  I,  quotes  several  passages  and 
terms  the  tract  vrai  morceau  de  style. 

Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  2  May;  Stanton,  Menology  (Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1892) ;  Bonnard,  Histoire  de  I'Abbaye  Royale 
de  St.  Victor  de  Paris  (Paris,  1907);  Pennotto,  Hist.  Cleric. 
Canon.  (Rome,  1642). 

Vincent  Scully. 

Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,  Society  of,  an  interna- 
tional association  of  Catholic  laymen  engaging  system- 
atically in  personal  ser\-ice  of  the  poor,  was  founded  in 
May,  1833,  when  eight  young  men,  students  at  the 
hJorbonne,  assembled  in  the  oflice  of  the  "Tribune 
Catholique"  to  formulate  plans  for  the  organization 
of  a  society  whose  object  should  be  to  minister  to  the 
wants  of  the  Parisian  poor.  The  master-mind  con- 
ceiving the  project,  which  was  destined  to  make  an  in- 
delible impress  upon  the  history  of  modern  charity 
work,  was  Frederick  Ozanam,  a  briUiant  young 
Frenchman,  lawyer,  author,  and  professor  in  the  Sor- 
bonne.  With  Ozanam's  name  must  be  linked  that  of 
Perc  Bailly,  editor  of  the  "Tribune  Cathohque",  the 
first  president  of  the  society,  and  whose  wise  and 
fatherly  counsels  did  much  to  direct  properly  the  ac- 
tivities of  his  more  youthful  associates.  The  so- 
ciety's establishment  was  du(>  })artly  to  the  desire  of 
the  founders  to  furnish  a  pract  ical  refut  ation  of  the  re- 
proaches directed  against  Christianity  by  the  fol- 
lowers of  Saint-Simon,  Fourier,  and  other  popular 
teachers  of  the  day.  "Show  us  your  works!"  taunted 
the  St-Simonians.  "We  admit  the  past  grandeur  of 
Christianity,  but  the  tree  is  now  dead  and  bears  no 


fruit. "  To  this  taunt  Ozanam  and  his  companions  re- 
torted by  forming  themselves  into  a  Conference  of 
Charity,  later  adopting  the  name  of  the  Society  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul. 

In  organizing  the  Society,  Ozanam,  following  the 
inspiration  of  its  chosen  patron  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
modelled  the  rule  upon  the  same  principles  that  were 
in  vogue  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The  rules 
adopted  were  very  simple;  it  was  forbidden  to  discuss 
politics  or  personal  concerns  at  the  meetings,  and  it 
was  settled  that  the  work  should  be  the  service  of 
God  in  the  persons  of  the  poor,  whom  the  members 
were  to  visit  at  their  own  dwellings  and  assist  by 
every  means  in  their  power.  The  service  of  the  mem- 
bers was  to  embrace,  without  distinction  of  creed  or 
race,  the  poor,  the  sick,  the  infirm,  and  the  unem- 
ployed. It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that,  at  the  first  Vin- 
centian  meeting,  there  was  enunciated  by  Pere  Bailly 
a  principle  of  vital  importance,  now  universally  ac- 
cepted wherever  organized  charity  is  known,  namely 
that  the  service  of  the  poor  ought  to  consist  not  merely 
of  the  doling  out  of  alms,  but  must  be  made  a  medium 
of  moral  assistance  and  that  each  member  should  help 
in  his  special  line.  Simplicity  characterizes  the  so- 
ciet^y.  The  membership  is  divided  into  three  classes, 
active,  subscribing,  and  honorary.  The  active  mem- 
bership is  composed  of  Christian  men  who  desire  to 
unite  in  a  communion  of  prayers  and  a  participation 
in  the  same  works  of  charity.  Subs(;ribing  and  hon- 
orary members  are  those  who  "cannot  devote  them- 
selves to  the  works  in  which  the  society  is  engaged 
but  wlio  assist  the  active  members  by  their  influence, 
their  offerings  and  prayers".  In  the  make-up  of  its 
mcinhcrship  the  society  is  most  democratic.  Men  of 
all  walks  of  life  are  engaged  in  its  service;  the  lawyer, 
the  doctor,  the  professional  and  business  man  freely 
mingle  with  the  untutored  labouring  man  in  relieving 
the  wants  of  the  poor.  The  conference  is  the  unit 
of  the  society  and  is  an  integral  part  of  the  parish 
organization.  While  the  clergy  are  not  included  in 
the  normal  membership,  they  are  always  welcomed  in 
the  work.  The  conference  exists  only  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  pastor  who  as  spiritual  director  enters 
actively  into  the  work.  Women  are  excluded  from 
membership,  but  through  auxiliary  associations  or  as 
benefactresses  they  may  co-operate  in  the  work  and 
share  the  numerous  indulgences.  The  business  of 
each  conference  is  administered  by  a  president,  a 
vice-president,  a  secretary,  and  a  treasurer,  who  con- 
stitute the  board  of  the  conference.  The  president 
is  elected  by  the  conference,  while  the  other  oflicers 
are  appointed  by  the  president  with  the  advice  of 
the  board.  The  parish  conferences  hold  weekly 
meetings. 

In  cities,  where  there  exist  several  conferences  of  the 
society,  the  control  of  affairs  is  vested  in  a  particular 
council  in  which  the  respective  conferences  have  rep- 
resentation. In  a  number  of  larger  cities  a  central 
oflice  is  established  by  the  particular  council.  Special 
committees  are  likewise  usually  created  to  deal  with 
the  larger  aspects  of  charity,  rehef,  and  correction, 
which  naturally  fall  beyond  the  scope  of  a  parish  con- 
ference. Over  the  particular  councils  and  such  con- 
ferences as  are  so  scattered  as  to  r(>nd(>r  impracticable 
the  formation  of  particular  councils,  there  is  placed  a 
central  or  superior  council  having  jurisdiction  over  a 
territory  embracing  within  its  circumscription  the 
councils  of  several  dioceses  or,  as  in  some  instances,  of 
an  entire  country.  On  each  of  the  four  festivals  of 
the  society  meetings  are  held  by  all  the  conferences 
embraced  in  each  of  the  various  jurisdictions.  Supe- 
rior councils  hold  regular  monthly  meetings  and  meet 
of tener  as  occasion  may  require.  Finally,  the  scheme 
of  organization  provides  for  the  establishment  of  a 
council  general,  which  exercises  jurisdiction  over  the 
entire  society,  and  is  established  in  Paris,  France. 

In  outlining  the  activities  of  the  society,  the  foun^- 


SAINT    VINCENT 


390 


SAINT    VINCENT 


ere  had  an  eve  to  the  future  needs  of  human  kind,  and 
dictated  that  "no  work  of  charity  should  be  regarded 
ae  foreign  to  the  Society,  although  its  special  object  is 
to  visit  poor  families".  It  is  plainly  evident  from  this 
that  the  society  is  given  the  widest  latitude  in  the  se- 
lection of  the  works  in  which  the  members  may  en- 
gage, and  in  examining  the  reports  of  the  various 
sujMjrior  councils  one  marvels  at  the  wonderful  array 
of  charitable  activities  which  are  therein  portrayed. 
There  are  committees  in  charge  of  fresh-air  work 
for  poor  children,  convalescent  homes,  support  of 
daj'  nurseries,  the  custody  of  paroled  prisoners, 
care  of  homeless  boj's,  clubs  for  boys,  the  visita- 
tion of  prisoners  and  the  sick  in  hospitals,  the  main- 
tenance of  chaplains  for  the  purpose  of  serving 
CathoUc  inmates  in  public  institutions,  employ- 
ment bureaus,  the  care  of  immigrants,  the  main- 
tenance of  sailors'  missions,  the  finding  of  homes 
for  orphans,  and  systematic  inspection  of  their  care 
until  maturity.  The  society  also  co-operates  uni- 
formly' with  Catholic  institutional  charities  and 
with  other  organizations  of  laymen  and  lay  women 
engaged  in  relief  work.  The  spiritual  note  predom- 
inates throughout  the  work  of  the  society.  The 
8er\-ice  of  the  poor  is  undertaken  as  a  spiritual 
duty  belonging  to  the  integrity  of  Christian  life. 
Throughout  all  the  traditions  of  the  society  there  is 
an  endeavour  to  hinder  every  process  by  which  char- 
ity might  be  made  identical  with  philanthropy  or  by 
which  the  supernatural  character  of  the  service  of  the 
poor  might  be  lost.  The  conference  takes  its  name 
from  the  parish  in  which  it  is  formed.  The  meetings 
are  opened  and  closed  with  prayer  and  a  short  selec- 
tion from  some  spiritual  treatise  is  read.  The  society 
has  its  own  feast-days,  on  which  occasions  the  mem- 
bers receive  Holy  Communion  as  a  body.  By  Briefs 
of  Popes  Gregory  XVI,  Pius  IX,  and  Leo  XIII  numer- 
ous indulgences  are  granted  to  the  society,  its  bene- 
factors, to  the  poor  assisted  by  it,  and  to  the  fathers, 
mothers,  and  wives  of  the  members.  An  endeavour  is 
made  uniformly  to  cultivate  the  spirit  of  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul  and  to  follow  the  discriminating  principle  of 
relief  given  in  the  spirit  of  faith  taught  by  him.  The 
note  of  personal  service  stands  out  prominently  in  the 
work  of  the  society.  The  duty  of  serving  the  poor, 
and  the  need  of  doing  it  wisely,  is  looked  upon  as  one 
which  the  individual  himself  should  fulfil;  in  fact, 
one  of  the  conditions  of  active  membership  is  that 
the  conference  member  shall  go  personally  to  visit 
the  poor  in  their  own  homes.  He  combines,  when  he 
is  true  to  the  spirit  and  teaching  of  the  society,  the 
function  of  friendly  visitor  with  that  of  investigator 
and  the  work  of  upbuilding  the  dependent  as  well  as 
that  of  relieving  him. 

The  rules  of  the  society  require  that  minutes  of  all 
meetings  be  kept  carefully  and  that  the  reasons  for  all 
relief  accorded  be  stated;  the  conference  members  in 
charge  of  a  family  are  required  to  study  the  condition 
of  the  family  and  to  give  the  reasons  for  the  decision 
leading  them  to  ask  relief.  Their  reasons  and  their 
judgment  may  be  questioned  by  the  other  members 
present.  These  minutes  of  the  meetings,  when  taken 
m  conjunction  with  the  personal  knowledge  of  the 
poor  families  aided,  serve  every  purpose  of  recxjrd- 
keeping.  Every  care  is  taken  to  respect  the  privacy 
of  the  poor.  The  records  of  relief  work  are  not  open 
to  inspect  ion  except  by  those  who  have  a  well-founded 
right  U)  thf  knowledge,  and  this  spirit  is  so  cliaractcr- 
istic  of  the  society  that  it  places  at  the  disprjsal  of  the 
spiritual  director  certain  funds  whi(;h  may  be  used  in 
relieving  excx^ptional  cases,  from  which  no  reoort  of 
whatsoever  kmd  is  mafic  to  the  society  itself.  An- 
other charactfTistic  is  that  of  deep-seated  reluctance 
on  the  part  of  the  8f>ciety  to  make  known  the  extent 
of  the  work  or  the  generosity  of  its  members  in  giving 
cither  money  or  jxTsonal  service  to  the  cause  of  char- 
ity.   While  all  the  work  of  the  society  is  done  by  its 


members  voluntarily  and  without  remuneration,  a 
readiness  to  employ  paid  workers  in  the  speciahzed 
activities  is  developing  under  the  exacting  and  com- 
plicated conditions  of  modern  rehef .  The  funds  of  the 
society  are  procured  in  a  number  of  ways.  At  all  con- 
ference and  particular  council  meetings  secret  collec- 
tions are  taken  up,  the  proceeds  going  into  the  treas- 
ury. A  box  is  located  generally  in  a  conspicuous  place 
in  the  parish  church  to  receive  contributions  from  the 
charitably-disposed.  The  amounts  thus  received  are 
applied  to  the  work  of  the  conference.  Committees 
engaged  in  special  works  solicit  subscriptions.  Con- 
siderable amounts  are  received  in  donations  and  from 
bequests.  In  addition,  there  are  large  numbers  of 
generous  subscribing  members. 

Two  years  after  the  foundation  of  the  society  the 
membership  had  increased  so  rai)idly  that  it  was  no 
longer  jiossible  to  continue  working  alone  as  one  body 
and  in  one  place;  consequently,  the  founders  realized 
that  the  time  had  come  when,  to  regulate  matters 
properly,  it  was  imperative  to  divide  the  society  into 
sections  or  groups  arranged  geographically.  A  meet- 
ing was  held,  geographical  divisions  made,  and  the 
rules  under  which  the  society  has  since  Uved  were 
then  adopted.  They  were  of  the  simplest  character, 
merely  embodying  in  the  form  of  regulations  the  usages 
which  had  been  followed  and  cherished  from  the  in- 
ception of  the  society.  There  are  over  100,000  active 
members  and  an  equal  number  of  honorary  members. 
The  society  is  represented  in  every  European  coun- 
try, and  thriving  branches  arc  to  be  found  in  China, 
Intlia,  Turkey  in  Asia,  Ceylon,  Egypt,  Natal,  Trans- 
vaal, Philippine  Islands,  Canada,  United  States,  Mex- 
ico, Central  America,  Brazil,  Chile,  Colombia,  Argen- 
tine Republic,  Peru,  Ecuador,  Uruguay,  Paraguaj^, 
and  British  Guiana.  Twelve  years  after  the  inaugu- 
ration of  the  work,  the  society  was  introduced  on  the 
American  continent.  To  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  must 
be  given  the  honour  of  having  established,  in  1845,  the 
first  conference  of  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
in  the  United  States.  In  1846  a  conference  was  or- 
ganized in  New  York  City.  In  1856  the  work  of  the 
society  had  grown  to  such  proportions  in  New  York 
that  it  became  necessary  to  estabhsh  a  particular 
council,  through  which  correspondence  was  opened 
with  the  authorities  of  every  Catholic  diocese  in  the 
United  States.  As  a  result  other  sections  of  the  coun- 
try gradually  entered  into  the  work,  and  year  by  year 
the  society  gained  headway,  making  its  influence  felt 
and  accomplishing  wonders  in  the  work  of  ui)Uftiiig 
the  poor.  The  following  statisti(;s  of  the  work  of  tlie 
society  in  the  United  States  for  the  year  1910  will 
serve  to  give  some  slight  conception  of  the  progress 
made:  superior  councils,  4;  central  councils,  4;  par- 
ticular councils,  34;  conferences,  730;  members, 
12,062;  families  relieved,  24,742;  visits  made,  233,-" 
044;  situations  procured,  2949;  amount  received 
(exclusive  of  balances),  $384,549;  amount  expended, 
$387,849. 

An  important  step  in  the  reorganization  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  society  in  the  Ignited  States  was 
taken  at  the  national  conference  held  in  Boston  in 
1911,  when  it  was  unanimously  voted  to  create  a  coun- 
cil in  each  archdiocese  of  the  United  States,  to  be 
known  as  the  metropolitan  central  council;  dio- 
cesan councils  in  each  diocese,  to  be  styled  diocesan 
(central  eoiiiicils;  ;ind  one  general  council  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  all,  to  be  known  as  the  superior  council 
of  the  United  States.  This  i)lan  of  reorganization  is 
now  being  jxrfected  by  a  committee  appointed  at  the 
lioston  National  Conference.  Since  it  has  received 
the  unqualifi(!d  endorsement  of  the  hierarchy  of  the 
United  States  and  has  been  approved  by  the  council 
general  of  the  society  in  Paris,  the  near  future  prob- 
ably will  see  the  new  plan  f>f  administration  put  into 
efTective  operation.  While  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent 
do  Paul  quite  naturally  calls  forth  a  rather  extensive 


SALA 


391 


SALAMANCA 


literature  concerning  its  spirit,  aims,  purposes,  and 
works,  it  produces  of  itself  relatively  little  literature, 
owing  to  its  poUcy  of  refraining  from  publishing  any 
exteailed  a(;eount  of  its  varied  activities.  Reports  are 
issued  l)y  the  local  conferences  and  councils,  and  the 
council  general  in  Paris  publishes  "The  Bulletin", 
which  is  regarded  as  the  official  organ  of  the  society. 
The  official  organ  of  English-speaking  countries  is 
"The  Bulletin",  published  monthly  by  the  superior 
council  of  Ireland.  "The  Quarterly",  published  by 
the  superior  council  of  New  York,  is  the  official  organ 
of  the  society  in  the  United  States.  Superior  councils 
of  the  society  in  some  other  countries  likewise  issue 
similar  periodicals. 

Rules  of  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul;  Manual  of  the 
Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul;  The  Bulletin  (French);  The 
Bulletin  (Irish);  The  Quarterly  (U.  S.);  O'Meara,  Life  of  Fretl- 
erick  Ozanam  (London,   1879);  Society  Reportg. 

Thomas  M.  Mulry. 

Sala,  George  Augcstu.s  Henry,  journalist,  b.  in 
London,  24  Nov.,  1828;  d.  at  Brighton,  8  Dec,  1895, 
having  been  received  into  the  Church  before  death. 
His  grandfather,  a  native  of  Rome,  came  to  England 
in  177G;  the  family  were  connected  with  the  stage. 
Being  an  unusu- 
ally precocious 
child,  young  Sala 
began  at  fifteen 
to  earn  his  living 
b}'  draughtsman- 
ship. His  versa- 
tile talent  then 
])assed  to  scene- 
])ainting,  illustra- 
ting books,  etch- 
ing and  engrav- 
ing, finally  finding 
its  real  vocation 
in  journalism.  At- 
tracting the  notice 
of  Dickens,  he  be- 
came a  regular 
contributor  to 
''  Household 
Words"  and  "All 
the  Year  Round", 
and  was  sent  as 
special  correspon- 
dent to  Russia. 
His  literary  output  was  large  and  various,  though  his 
style  was  criticiz(>d  as  florid.  From  1857  he  worked 
for  the  "Daily  Telegraph",  acting  as  .special  corre- 
spondent all  over  the  world.  Much  of  this  journalistic 
work  was  r(>i)ublished  in  book  form.  He  was  a  man 
of  social  and  convivial  habits  who  prided  himself 
on  his  extensive  knowledge  of  cookery.  Though 
earning  a  large  income,  his  expensive  tastes  caused 
him  frequent  embarrassment,  and  the  failure  of  his 
magazine,  "Sala's  Journal",  straitened  his  circum- 
stances in  the  last  years.  His  love  for  London,  which 
he  knew  intimately,  characterizes  many  of  his  books. 

Sala,  Life  and  Adventures  of  George  Augustus  Sala  (London, 
1895) ;  Yate8,  Edmund  Yates:  his  Recollections  and  Experiences 
(London,  1882);  Vizetelly,  Glances  back  through  Seventy  Years 
(London,  1893);    Lee  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Salamanca,  Diocese  of  (Salmanticensis,  Sal- 
mantina,  Salmantic/e),  in  Spain,  comprises  the 
civil  Provinces  of  Salamanca,  Caceres,  Avila,  and 
L6on,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Zamora,  on 
the  east  by  Avila  and  Valladolid,  on  the  south  by 
Caceres,  and  on  the  west  by  Portugal.  The  episcopal 
city  has  a  population  of  23,000.  Its  territory  formed 
the  southern  portion  of  the  ancient  Vetonia,  and  the 
existence  of  the  city  of  Salamanca  in  the  Roman 
period  is  evidenced  by  a  pretentious  bridge  over  the 


River  Tormes,  with  twenty-seven  arches,  measuring 
500  paces  in  length,  and  probably  erected  in  the  time 
of  Trajan.  The  See  of  Salamanca  is  of  unknown 
origin,  probably  dating  back  to  the  generation  im- 
mediately succeeding  tlie  Apostles,  in  which  genera- 
tion St.  Secundus  is  said  to  have  founded  the  Diocese 
of  Avila.  Signatures  of  bishops  of  Salamanca  are 
found  in  the  Councils  of  Toledo;  in  the  third  council  is 
that  of  Eleutherius;  at  the  coronation  of  King  Gonde- 
mar,  that  of  Teveristus;  in  the  fourth  and  sixth,  of 
Hiccila;  in  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  tenth,  of  Egere- 
tus;  in  the  Provincial  Council  of  Merida  (metropolis 
of  Salamanca)  the  signature  of  Justus;  in  the  twelfth 
of  Toledo  that  of  Providentius;  in  the  thirteenth, 
fifteenth,  and  sixteenth,  of  Holemund,  probably  con- 
temporaneous with  the  Moslem  invasion.  Alfonso 
I  the  Catholic  pushed  his  conquests  as  far  as  Sala- 
rnanca,  and  Ordono  I  captured  the  city,  but  its 
bishops  continued  to  reside  in  Asturias,  where  the 
Church  of  San  Julian,  outside  the  walls  of  Oviedo, 
was  assigned  to  them.  Bishop  Quindulfus  (802) 
signed  a  rcjyal  deed  of  gift.  Ramiro  II,  who  defeated 
the  .Mohammedans  at  Simancas,  began  to  repeople 
Salamanca.  In  1 102  the  king's  son-in-law,  Raymond, 
Count  of  Burgundy,  and  his  wife  Urraca,  gave  the 
churches  of  the  city  to  Don  Jeronimo,  the  count's 
master,  and  built  the  Cathedral  of  S.  Maria.  The 
celebrated  bishop,  comrade  of  the  Cid  Campeador, 
died  in  1120  and  was  interred  in  the  newly- built 
basilica,  to  which  he  left  the  famous  "Christ  of  the 
Battles"  {Cristo  de  las  Batallas). 

Later  bishops  were:  Gerardo;  Munio,  a  partisan  of 
Alfonso  of  Aragon;  Berengario,  consecrated  in  1135 
and  transferred  to  Compostela  in  1151;  Navarro; 
Ordono  Gonzalo;  Pedro  Sudrez,  praised  by  Alexander 
III  for  learning  and  prudence;  and  Vitalis,  who 
maintained  the  validity  of  Alfonso  IX's  marriage 
with  his  cousin  Teresa  of  Portugal  against  the  cen- 
sures of  Celestine  III  and  the  sentence  of  the  bishops 
I)resided  over  by  Cardinal  Guillermo  in  1197.  From 
his  period  date  the  university  and  the  most  ancient 
and  famous  convents  of  Dominicans,  Franciscans, 
and  Clarisses.  In  October,  1310,  the  see  being  vacant, 
fifteen  prelates  of  the  ancient  Province  of  Lusitania, 
presided  over  by  the  Archbishop  of  Santiago,  assem- 
i)led  in  the  cathedral  of  Salamanca  to  try  the  case  of 
the  Templars,  and  found  them  innocent  in  Spain  of 
all  the  atrocities  with  which  they  were  charged. 
Bishop  Juan  Lucero  accompanied  King  Alfonso  XI 
to  the  conquest  of  Algeciras.  Later  on  he  became 
subservient  to  the  caprices  of  Pedro  I  the  Cruel  and 
annulled  (1354)  his  marriage  with  Blanche  of  Bourbon 
in  order  to  unite  him  with  Juana  de  Castro.  Lu- 
cero's  succes.sor,  Alonso  Barrasa,  on  the  contrary, 
supported  Henry  of  Trastamare  against  Pedro.  In 
May,  1382,  a  council  was  held  at  Salamanca  to  take 
action  in  the  matter  of  the  schism  of  Avignon,  and 
Castile  decided  in  favour  of  the  antipope.  In 
another  council  (1410)  Salamanca  again  recognized 
Peter  de  Luna  (Benedict  XIII)  as  pope.  At  this 
time  St.  Vincent  Ferrer  laboured  to  convert  the  Jews 
of  Salamanca;  from  1  Kit)  to  147S  St.  John  of  Sahagtm 
enlightened  the  diocese  by  liis  ))reaching. 

Salamanca  has  two  cathedrals;  tlu^  old,  celebrated 
for  its  massive  strength,  was  founded  in  1100  by 
the  aforesaid  Count  Raymond  near  the  River  Gate 
(Puerta  del  Rio).  At  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury it  was  not  yet  finished,  and  its  main  entrance, 
called  Del  Perd6n  (of  the  Pardon),  was  covered  over 
in  1680  with  new  Doric  and  Composite  pilasters. 
In  1847  it  was  freed  of  its  inarti.stic  choir.  Its  build- 
ing occupied  so  long  a  time  that  Gothic  ogival 
arches  are  supported  by  its  Byzantine  foundations. 
Of  its  three  naves  the  principal  one  terminates  in 
the  main  chapel  on  the  reredos  of  which  is  to  be  seen 
the  "Last  Judgment"  painted  by  Nicolds  Florentino 
in  1446  for  Bishop  Sancho  of  Castile.     In  early  days 


SALAMANCA 


392 


SALAMANCA 


none  but  roval  personages  were  permitted  to  be 
buried  in  this  main  chapel;  here  he  Mafalda,  daughter 
of  \lfonso  VIII,  Fernando  Alfonso,  natural  son  of 
Alfonso  IX  of  Leon,  Bishop  Sancho  of  Castile,  grand- 
son of  Pedro,  and  his  successor,  Juan  de  \ivero. 
The  cloister  of  the  old  cathedral  was  Romanesque, 
but  in  17S0  Jer6nimo  Quinones  rebuilt  it  in  Renais- 
sance style.  Most  remarkable  of  its  four  chapels 
is  that  of  St.  Bartholomew,  founded  by  Diego  de 
Anaya,  Bishop  of  Salamanca  until  1480,  and  then 
Archbishop  of  Seville,  and  founder  of  the  famous 
Colegio  de  San  Bartolome.  There  are  also  the  chapels 
of  Talavera,  which  was  consecrated  to  the  ^lozara- 
bic  Rite  in  1510  and  in  which  Rodrigo  Arias  Maldo- 
nado  de  Talavera  is  buried,  and  that  of  St.  Barbara, 
founded  in  13S4  bv  Bishop  Juan  Lucero. 

The  new  cathedral  was  founded  by  the  Catholic 
monarchs,  who  in  1491  sought  to  build  one  at  Seville, 
but  the  idea  was  not  carried  into  effect  until  150S, 
when  Fernando  was  at  Salamanca.     This  new  edifice 
was  erected  side  by  side  with  the  old,  leaving  the 
latter  intact.     Its  architects,  Anton  Egas  and  Alfonso 
Rodriguez,  had  built  churches  at  Toledo  and  Seville; 
Juan   GU   de   Hontanon   was   master   of   the  works. 
The  building  was  begun  in  1513,  in   the  episcopate 
of  Francisco  de  Bobadilla.     Divine  worship  was  held 
in  it  in  1560,  and  it  was  completed  on  10  August, 
1733.     The  tower,  set  on  fire  by  lightning  in  1705, 
was  rebuilt  bv  the  celebrated  Jose  Churriguera,  who 
made  it  a  monument  of  the  style  (Churrigueresque) 
to  which  he  gave  his  name.     In  the  chapel  at  the 
centre  of  the   rood   screen   are  remains   of   Bishop 
Jer6nimo,  transferred  from  the  old  basilica  in  1744, 
and  the  venerated  "Christ  of  the  Battles".     In  two 
large  silver  vessels  within  the  high  altar,  the  relics 
of  St.  John  of  Sahagun  and  St.  Thomas  of  Villanova 
are  preser^'ed.     Besides  the  cathedrals,  a  sumptuous 
church  worthv  of  especial  mention  is  that  of  the  Do- 
minican convent  of  San  Esteban,  occupied  by  the  Do- 
minicans since  1256,  where,  it   is   said,  Christopher 
Columbus  was  entertained  in   1484  and  where  he 
found  in  Frav  Diego  de  Deza  one  of  his  most  ardent 
protectors.     The  church  was  rebuilt  in  the  sixteenth 
centurv%  the  first  stone  was  laid  on  30  June,  1524, 
and  the  work  was  completed  in  1610.     The  founder 
of  this  convent  was   the  Salamancan  Fray  Juan  de 
Toledo,  of  the  House  of  Alva,  Bishop  of  Cordoba, 
and  cardinal;  here,  too,  is  buried  the  famous  Duke  of 
Alva    with    his    wife    Maria    Enriquez    de    Toledo. 
Another   beautiful   church    is   that   of   the   Jesuits, 
founded  by  King  Phihp  III  and  his  consort  Mar- 
garet of  Austria  in  1614.     The  college  was  converted 
into  an  ecclesiastical  seminary  by  Bishop  Beltrdn  in 
1779,  was  made  a  pontifical  university,  and  is  now 
under  the  care  of  Jesuits.     In  former  times  there 
were  numerous  hospitals  at  Salamanca,  but  in  1851 
it  was  agreed  to  combine  them  all  into  one,  under  the 
care  of  the  Brothers  of  St.  John  of  God,  and  dedicated 
to  the  Trinity.     The  library  of  the  university  and 
province,  containing  more  than  100,000  volumes,  is 
a  remarkable  one.  ^ 

FixiKEz,  Enp.  SiMp-ada,  XIV  (2nd  ed..  Madrid.  1780) ;  Ccad- 
KADO.  Esv:  «"*  monumenlos  (Barcelona,  1884);  Lafuente,  Hxst. 
de  Eip.  (Madrid,  1861). 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Am  ado. 

Umversity  of  Salamanca. — This  university  had 
it«  beginning  in  the  Cathedral  School  under  the  direc- 
tion, from  the  twelfth  century,  of  a  niagisler  Hcholarum 
(chancellor).  From  this  episcopal  origin,  probably 
in  1230,  Bjjrang  the  royal  foundation  of  Alfonso  IX 
of  Leon,  who  "with  salutary  discretion  summoned  the 


dured.  On  6  April,  1243,  in  letters  patent,  the  saintly 
king  took  under  his  protection  the  professors,  stu- 
dents, and  their  property,  granting  them  an  ecclesias- 
tical tribunal  for  the  settlement  of  their  disputes. 
Alfonso  X  the  Wise  continued  the  work  of  his  father. 
In  his  time  began  that  period  of  unrivalled  prosperity 
for  the  university,  which  for  so  many  centuries  made 
it  "the  glory  of  Spain"  (Denifle).  In  Toledo  on 
8  May,  1254,  the  king  granted  the  university  the  priv- 
ileges that  are  its  Magna  Carta,  appointing  curators, 
placing  it  under  the  authority  of  the  bishop,  exempt- 


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PniNi  ii'Ai.  Facade  of  the   Ur 

ing  it  from  the  regular  authorities,  and  assigning 
salaries  for  the  professors.  The  professorship  of  law 
received  500  maravedis  a  year,  canon  law  300,  gram- 
mar, logic,  and  medicine  200.  Some  have  endeav- 
oured to  trace  an  analogy  between  these  privileges 
and  those  granted  by  Ferdinand  I  and  II  to  the  Uni- 
versities of  Bologna  and  Naples.  . 

But  the  fundamental  difference  that  characterized 
the  Spanish  university  must  not  be  overlooked,  that, 
although  a  royal  foundation,  it  was  placed  under  the 
direction  and  control  of  the  bishop,  the  dean,  and  the 
chancellor,  who  confcTnnl  the  at^ademic  titles  in  the 
cathedral.  The  titles  were  given  until  1830  in  the 
name  of  the  \w\n^  and  king.  Doctrinal  and  c-cclosias- 
tical  profc'sson-^liips  did  not,  however,  contrary  to 
Stein's  view,  prcilominate  in  the  university  (Denifle). 
Departm(!nts  of  medicine  and  jurisprudence  were  also 
established,  and  preference  was  given  to  the  law,  es- 
T)(!cially  canon  law.  By  jxt  it  ion  of  the  king,  6  April, 
1255,  Al(!xander  IV  con(irm(;(l  the  courses  at  Sala- 
manca, "because  in  the  multituch;  of  the  wise  is  the* 
security  of  kingdoms,  and  their  governments  are  mam- 


most  experiencx'd  masters  of  sacred  letters  and  estab-     tained  not  less  by  the  advice  of  the  prudent,  than  by 
lished  schools"  (Lucas  de  Tuy) ;  which,  however,  does     the  energy  and  bravery  of  the  strong   .     J.ater  le  ae- 


'uy) . 
not  signify,  as  Ra.slidall  infers,  that  they  taught  the- 
ology. Alfonw)  IX  grant<!d  them  the  privileges  al- 
luded to  later  by  St.  Ferdinand,  who  was  in  reality  the 
founder,  the  foundation  of  his  father  not  having  en- 


creed  that  any  accepted  teacher  in  any  branch  whatso- 
ever at  Salamanca  could  teach  his  subject,  in  any  other 
university,  with  the  except  ion  of  Paris  and  Bologna,  a 
limitation  which  John  XXII  instituted  in  1333.    The 


SALAMIS 


393 


SALAMIS 


principles  Alfonso  the  Wise  had  put  into  practice  in 
Salamanca,  he  drew  from  the  "Leyes  de  Partida", 
commenced  in  1256  and  terminated  in  1263.  Rash- 
dall  calls  this  "a  sort  of  educational  code — the  first  of 
its  kind  in  modern  Europe".  In  the  time  of  Sancho 
the  Brave  the  studies  dechned  because  the  salaries  of 
the  professors  were  not  paid.  Finally,  J'erdinand  IV, 
authorized  by  Boniface  VIII,  assigned  for  this  pur- 
pose the  tertia  ecclesiarum,  aud  from  this  date,  7  Aug- 
ust, 1300,  the  university  entered  upon  a  new  era  of 
prosperity. 

Classes  were  once  more  discontinued  from  1306  to 
1313,  when  Clement  V  commanded  the  tertia  to  be 
used  in  restoring  the  churches.  In  1313  a  third  of 
the  tertia  was  once  more  devoted  to  paying  the  pro- 
fessors of  law,  civil  and  canon,  medicine,  logic,  gram- 
mar, and  music.  In  1355  the  minorite  friar,  Didaco 
Lupi,  taught  theology  in  Salamanca;  but  this  branch, 
which  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  was 
to  draw  the  eyes  of  the  entire  world  to  Salamanca,  did 


Court 


not  flourish  then;  until  IJtnictlict  Xlll  introduced  it  in 
1416,  and  Martin  V  ro-established  it  in  1422.  This 
pope  gave  the  university  its  definitive  constitution, 
and  numbered  it  among  the  four  greatest  in  the  world. 
In  1401  the  bishop,  Diego  de  Anaya  Maldonado, 
founded  the  first  college  for  poor  students,  which  was 
called  the  College  of  San  Bartolom6  and  later  the  Old 
College.  This  and  the  colleges  of  Cuenca,  Oviedo, 
and  Fonseca  were  called  colegios  mayores,  larger  col- 
leges. Afterwards  a  great  number  of  colegios  mcnores, 
smaller  colleges,  secular,  regular,  and  of  the  four  mili- 
tary orders  were  founded.  The  Liberals  suppressed 
the  colegios  mnyores  under  the  pretext  of  their  deca- 
dence but  without  substituting  anything  better,  or 
even  equally  good,  to  help  the  poor  students.  Fol- 
lowing this  the  colegioa  ineiwrcs  were  also  closed.  The 
laws  of  1845  swept  aside  the  lust  remaining  vestige  of 
these  ancient  establisliments  for  university  training, 
secularizing  them  and  i)lacing  them  under  the  control 
of  the  Liberal  Government.  The  number  of  students 
at  Salamanca  in  1584  reached  6778;  in  1822  it 
amounted  to  only  412,  and  later  it  dropped  even 
lower.  In  the  catalogue  of  its  professors  figure  the 
names  of  some  celebrated  women,  such  as  Dona  Bea- 
triz  Galindo  and  Dona  Alvara  de  Alava. 

Chac6n,  Historia  de  la  Unicersidad  de  Salamanca  (1369)  in 
El  Semenario  Erudito,  XVIII  (Madrid,  1789);  de  la  Fuente, 
Hist,  de  las  Univ.  (Madrid,  1899);  Denifle,  Die  Enlslehung  der 
Univ.  (Berlin,  1885) ;  Rashdall,  The  Universities  of  Europe,  II 
(Oxford,  1895). 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Amado. 

Salamis,  a  titular  see  in  Cyprus.  Salamis  was  a 
maritime  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Cyprus,  situ- 
ated at  the  end  of  a  fertile  plain  between  two  moun- 
tains, near  the  River  Pediseus.  It  was  already  an 
important  centre  in  the  sixth  century  b.c.  Its  founda- 
tion is  attributed  to  Teucer,  son  of  Telamon,  King  of 


the  Island  of  Salamis,  opposite  Attica;  others  believe 
it  to  be  of  Phoenician  origin  and  derive  its  name  from 
the  Semitic  selom,  peace.  Its  fine  harbour,  its  loca- 
tion, and  fortifications  made  it  the  chief  city  of  the 
island.  In  the  sixth  century  b.  c.  it  had  kings,  allies 
of  the  princes  of  Cyrene;  one  of  them,  Gorgus, 
refused  to  join  in  the  Ionian  revolt,  and  was  expelled 
by  his  brother,  who  took  command  of  the  troops  of 
Salamis  and  the  other  cities;  the  battle  was  fought 
before  Salamis,  which  fell  again  into  the  power  of 
Gorgus.  It  was  besieged  by  Anexicrates,  the  successor 
of  Cimon.  After  the  Peace  of  Antacidas,  the  Persians 
had  to  fight  for  ten  years  against  the  valiant  king 
Evagoras,  whose  panegyric  was  composed  by  Isoc- 
rates.  It  was  at  Salamis  in  306  b.  c.  that  the  greatest 
naval  battle  of  antiquity  was  fought,  Demetrius  I, 
Poliorcetes,  defeating  the  Grajco-Egyptian  fleet  of 
Ptolemy  I.  In  295  b.  c.  Salamis  passed  under  the 
sway  of  the  kings  of  Egypt,  and  in  58  b.  c.  under  that 
of  Rome,  at  which  time  it  possessed  all  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  island.  When  St.  Paul  landed  at  Salamis 
with  Barnabas  and  John,  surnamed  Mark,  returning 
from  Seleucia,  there  were  several  synagogues,  and  it 
was  there  he  began  the  conversion  of  the  island  (Acts, 
xiii,  5).  Salamis  was  destroyed  by  earthquakes,  and 
was  rebuilt  by  Constantius  II  (337-61),  who  called  it 
Constant ia.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Arabs  in  647 
or  648.  Its  unimportant  ruins  are  near  the  village  of 
H agios  Sergios,  a  little  north  of  Famagusta.  After 
its  destruction  the  inhabitants  and  clergy  betook  them- 
selves to  Famagusta,  whicli  became  and  for  a  long 
time  remained  the  residence  of  the  archbishops.  At 
present  they  reside  at  Nicosia.  In  the  article  on 
Cyi)rus  (q.  v.)  are  mentioned  the  principal  bi.shops  of 
Salamis  or  Constantia;  the  list  of  these  prelates  ia 
given  in  Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christianus",  II,  1043  seq., 
and  more  fully  in  Hackett,  "A  History  of  the  Ortho- 
dox Church  of  Cyprus"  (London,  1901),  651. 

Smith,  Did.  of  Creek  and  Roman  Geog.;  Engel,  Kypros,  eine 
Monographie,  I  (Berlin,  1841),  89;  Di  Cesnola,  Cypern  (Lon- 
don, 1877);  Idem,  Salaminia  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1884);  von 
LOher,  Cypern  (Stuttgart,  1878) ;  Pillion  in  Vigodroux,  Did. 
de  la  Bible,  a.  v.  Salamine 

S.    P^TRIofes. 

Salamis,  Epiphanius  of,  b.  at  Besanduk,  near 
Eleutheropolis,  in  Judea,  after  310;  d.  in  403.  While 
very  young  he  followed  the  monastic  life  in  Egypt. 
On  his  return  to  Judea  he  founded  a  monastery  at 
Besanduk  and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood.  In 
367  his  reputation  for  asceticism  and  learning  brought 
about  his  nomination  as  Bishop  of  Constantia 
(Salamis),  the  metropolis  of  the  Island  of  Cyprus. 
For  nearly  forty  years  he  fulfilled  the  duties  of  the 
episcopate,  but  his  activity  extended  far  beyond  his 
island.  His  zeal  for  the  monastic  life,  ecclesiastical 
learning,  and  orthodoxy  gave  him  extraordinary 
authority;  hence  the  numerous  occasions  on  which 
his  advice  was  sought,  and  his  intervention  in  im- 
portant ecclesiastical  affairs.  He  went  to  Antioch, 
probably  in  376,  to  investigate  Apollinarianism  and 
to  intervene  in  the  schism  which  divided  that  Church. 
He  decided  in  favour  of  Bishop  Paulinus,  who  was 
supported  by  Rome,  against  Meletius,  who  was  sup- 
ported by  the  episcopate  of  the  East.  In  382  he 
assisted  at  the  Council  of  Rome  to  uphold  the  cause 
of  Paulinus  of  Antioch.  About  394,  carried  away  by 
an  apparently  excessive  zeal,  he  went  to  Jerusalem 
to  oppose  the  supposed  Origenism  of  the  bishop,  John. 
In  402  he  was  at  Constantinople  to  combat  the  same 
pretended  heresy  of  St.  John  Chrysostom.  He  died 
on  his  return  journey  to  Cyprus. 

It  was  at  the  instance  of  his  correspondents  that 
Epiphanius  compiled  his  works.  The  earliest  (374) 
is  the  "Ancoratus",  or  "The  Well- Anchored",  i.  e. 
the  Christian  firmly  fixed  against  the  agitations  of 
error.  The  Trinity  and  the  dogma  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion are  particularly,  treated  by  the  author,  who  argues 


SAL  AMIS 


394 


SALAMIS 


especially  against  the  Ariaus  and  the  Origcnists. 
There  arc  two  symbols  at  the  end  of  the  work:  the 
first,  which  is  the  shorter,  is  very  iini)ortant  in  the 
history  of  symbols,  or  professions  of  faith,  being  the 
baptis'mal  creed  of  the  Church  of  Constantia.  The 
second  is  the  personal  work  of  Epiphanius,  and  is 
intended  to  fortify  the  faithful  against  current 
heresies.  In  the  "*Ancoratus"  Epiphanius  confines 
himself  to  a  list  of  heresies.  Some  readers  desired 
to  have  a  detailed  work  on  this  question,  and  Epi- 
phanius composed  (374-7)  the  "Panarion"  or  "Me- 
dicine chest ",  i.  e.  a  stock  of  remedies  to  offset  the 
poisons  of  heresy.  This  work  is  divided  into  three 
books  comprising  in  all  seven  volumes  and  treating 
eighty  heresies.  The  first  twenty  heresies  are  prior 
to  Jesus  Christ;  the  other  sixty  deal  with  Christian 
doctrine.  In  reality  the  number  eighty  may  be  re- 
duced to  seventy-seven,  for  among  the  twenty 
heresies  prior  to  Christ  only  seventeen  count.  Three 
are  generic  names,  namely  Hellenism,  Samaritanism, 
and  Judaism.  In  the  editions  of  the  "  Panarion "  each 
heresj'  is  numbered  in  order;  hence  it  is  customary  to 
quote  the  "Panarion"  as  follows:  Epiphanius,  Hier. 
N  (the  number  of  the  heresy).  Necessarily  much  of 
the  information  in  this  great  compilation  varies  in 
value.  The  "Panarion"  reflects  the  character  of 
Epiphanius  and  his  method  of  working.  Sometimes 
his  ardour  prevents  him  from  inquiring  (carefully  into 
the  doctrines  he  oppo.ses.  Thus,  on  his  own  avowal 
(Hicr.,  Ixxi)  he  speaks  of  Apollinarianism  on  hearsay. 
At  Constantinople  he  had  to  acknowledge  to  the 
Origenist  monks  whom  he  opposed  that  he  was  not 
acquainted  with  either  their  school  or  their  books, 
and  that  he  only  spoke  from  hearsay  (Sozomen, 
"Hist,  eccl.",  Vlil,  xl).  There  is,  however,  in  the 
"Panarion"  much  information  not  found  elsewhere. 
Chapters  devoted  only  to  the  doctrinal  refutation  of 
heresies  are  rare.  As  an  ai)ologist  Epiphanius  ap- 
peared generally  weak  to  Photius. 

The  "Panarion"  furnishes  very  valuable  informa- 
tion concerning  the  religious  history  of  the  fourth 
century,  either  because  the  author  confines  himself 
to  transcribing  documents  preserved  by  him  alone  or 
because  he  writes  down  his  personal  observations. 
With  regard  to  Hieracas  (Htpr.,  Ixvii),  he  makes 
known  a  verj^  curious  Eg\'ptian  sect  by  whom  ascet- 
icism and  intellectual  work  were  equally  esteemed. 
In  connexion  with  the  Meletians  of  Egypt  (H»r., 
Ixviiij,  he  has  preserved  important  fragments  of  con- 
temporary Egyptian  history  of  this  movement.  With 
regard  to  Arianism  (Ha-r.,  Ixix),  if  he  gives  an  apoc- 
ryphal letter  of  Constantine,  he  transcribes  two  letters 
of  Arius.  He  is  the  only  one  to  give  us  any  informa- 
tion concerning  the  Gothic  sect  of  the  Audians  (Hsr., 
Ixx).  He  has  made  use  of  the  lost  report  of  the  dis- 
cussion between  Photius  (Hair.,  Ixxi)  and  Basil  of 
Ancyra.  He  has  transcribed  a  very  important  letter 
from  Bishop  Marcellus  of  Ancyra  (Ha;r.,  Ixxii)  to 
Pope  Julius  and  fragments  of  the  treatise  of  Acacius 
of  Ca'sarea  against  Marcellus.  With  regard  to  the 
Seiniarians  (Ha^r.,  Ixxiii),  he  gives  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Council  of  AncjTa  (358)  a  letter  from  Basil  of  Ancyra 
and  one  from  George  of  Laodicea,  and  the  steno- 
grajjhic  text  of  the  singular  sermon  of  Meletius  at  the 
time  of  his  installation  at  Antioch.  In  the  chapter 
dealing  with  the  Anomeans  (Ha;r.,  Ixxvi)  he  has 
preserved  a  monograph  of  jf^tius. 

For  the  first  three  centuries  Epiphanius  was  com- 

telled  to  use  the  only  literary  sources.  Some  of  these 
ave  been  preserved,  such  as  the  great  anti-heretical 
work  of  St.  Irenajus  of  Antioch,  "Contra  Hajreses". 
Other  ancient  sources  utilized  by  him  have  been  lost, 
which  gives  exceptional  value  to  his  work.  Thus  he 
made  use  of  the  "Syntagma"  of  Hippolytus.  The 
precise  determination  of  all  his  sources  is  matter  of 
controversy.  His  information  is  especially  valuable 
with  regard  to  the  Samaritans  (H;er.,  x-xiii),  the  Jews 


(Hser.,  xiii-xx),  the  Ebionites  (Hair.,  xxx),  and  their 
Gospel;  with  regard  to  the  Gnostics  Valentius  (Ha>r., 
xxxi)  and  Ptolema^us  (Hier.,  xxxiii),  whose  letter  to 
Flora  he  quotes;  and  with  regard  to  the  Scriptural 
criticism  of  Marcion.  The  work  ends  with  a  long 
exposition  of  the  Catholic  faith.  A  summary  of 
the  "Penarion"  is  perhaps  the  work  of  Epiphanius. 
A  work  entitled  "Of  Measures  and  Weights"  (De 
mensuribus  et  i^onderibus)  has  a  more  general  in- 
terest than  might  be  imagined  from  the  title.  For 
the  time  it  is  a  real  "Introduction "  to  Holy  Scripture, 
containing  the  history  of  Biblical  texts  and  Sacred 
archaeology.  The  treatise  "On  the  Twelve  Precious 
Stones"  is  an  explanation  of  the  ornaments  of  the 
high-priest's  breastplate  (Ex.,  xxviii,  17).  Mention 
must  finally  be  made  of  two  letters  of  Epiphanius 
preserved  in  a  Latin  translation. 

In  theological  matters  Epiphanius  teaches  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Catholic  theologians  of  his  time.  In  the 
vocabulary  of  Trinitarian  theology  he  conforms  to  the 
language  of  the  Greek  Church.  He  speaks  of  three 
hyi>ostases  in  the  Trinity,  whereas  the  Latins  and 
the  Paulicians  of  Antioch  speak  of  one  hypostasis  in 
three  persons.  At  bottom  it  was  a  mere  matter  of 
words,  but  for  some  time  it  occasioned  theological 
dissensions.  Epiphanius  clearly  teaches  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father  and  the  Son. 
The  doctrine  that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the 
Father  only  prevailed  later  in  the  Greek  Church. 
This  teaching  cannot  be  traced  to  Epiphanius 
(Ancoratus,  8).  With  regard  to  the  constitution  of 
the  Church,  he  is  one  of  the  most  explicit  of  the  Greek 
theologians  concerning  the  primacy  of  St.  Peter 
("Ancoratus",  9;  "Ha>r.",  lix,  7).  Two  passages 
on  the  Eucharist  are  famous  because  they  are  among 
those  which  most  clearly  affirm  the  "Discipline  of  the 
Secret".  The  "Secret"  was  purely  pedagogical  and 
often  neglected,  consisting  in  grading  the  doctrinal 
initiation  of  catechumens  and  in  not  speaking  before 
them  of  the  Christian  mysteries  save  in  deliberately 
vague  expressions.  Hence  the  necessity  of  explaining 
the  words  of  Epiphanius  on  the  Eucharist  ("Anco- 
ratus", 57;  "Ha?r.",  xlii,  61).  In  these  two  passages, 
instead  of  quoting  the  words  of  the  institution  of  the 
Eucharist,  the  author  gives  these:  "Hoc  meum  est, 
hoc."  Epiphanius  is  one  of  the  (-hief  authorities  of 
the  fourth  century  for  the  devotion  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  He  expresses  himself  on  the  subject  in  con- 
nexion with  two  heresies,  of  which  one  diminished, 
while  the  other  exaggerated,  this  devotion  ("Haer." 
Ixxviii,  Ixxix).  A  circumstance  of  his  life  is  well  known 
in  the  history  of  images,  namely  the  destruction  of 
an  image  in  the  church  of  Bethel  ("Letter  to  John  of 
Jerusalem"  in  P.  G.,  XLIII,  390). 

His  character  is  most  clearly  shown  by  the  Origen- 
ist controversies,  which  demonstrated  his  disinter- 
ested zeal  but  also  his  quickness  to  suspect  heresy, 
a  good  faith  which  was  easily  taken  advantage  of  bv 
the  >  intriguing,  and  an  ardour  of  conviction  whicn 
caused  him  to  forget  the  rules  of  canon  law  and  to 
commit  real  abuses  of  power.  He  saw  in  Origen  the 
chief  cause  of  the  heresies  of  his  time,  and  especially 
of  Arianism.  He  was  particularly  opposed  to  his 
allegorical  method,  his  doctrines  concerning  the  Son, 
in  which  he  saw  the  subonliniition  of  the  Son  to  the 
Father,  his  do(!trines  concerning  the  pre-existence  of 
souls  and  the  resurrection  ("Ancoratus",  54,  ()2; 
"Ha^r.",  Ixiv).  He  did  not  (confine  himself  to  this 
condemnation  of  Origen.  He  reproached  the  monks 
and  bishops  of  his  time  with  accenting  the  Origenist 
errors.  Thentte  resulted  at  the  end  of  his  life  the  con- 
flict with  John  of  Jerusalem  and  with  St.  John 
Chrysostom.  Apart  from  the  injustice  of  the  con- 
troversy, he  encroafthed  on  the  jurisdiction  of  these 
bishops.  He  was  made  use  of  by  Theophilus  of 
Alexan<lria,  the  irreconcilable  enemy  of  Chrysostom. 
The  chief  sources  relative  to  this  controversy  are: 


SALAMON 


395 


SALE 


St.  Jerome,  "Contra  Joannem  Hierosolymitanum " 
in  P.  L.,  XXIII,  355;  Idem,  "Ad  Theophilum"  in 
P.  L.,  XXII,  736;  Epiphanius,  "Ad  Joannem  Hie- 
rosolymitanum" in  P.  G.,  XLIII,  379;  Socrates, 
"Hist,  eccl.",  VI,  x-xiv;  Sozoraen,  "Hist,  eccl.", 
VIII,  xiv-xv.  The  chief  editions  of  Epiphanius's 
works  are  those  of  Petavius  (Paris,  1622);  Greek 
text,  Latin  tr.,  and  notes,  reproduced  with  addi- 
tions in  P.  G.,  XLI-XLIII;  and  of  Dindorf  (Leip- 
zig, 1859-62),  5  vols.,  giving  only  the  Greek  text, 
improved  in  some  parts. 

Bakdenhbwer,  PalroloQy,  tr.  Shahan  (St.  Louis,  190.'J); 
Zarucke,  Lilerarischer  Zenlralblatt,  LXI,  no.   16. 

Louis  Saltet. 

Salamon,  Louis-Siffren-Joseph,  Bishop  of  Saint- 
Flour;  b.  at  Carpentras,  22  Oct.,  1759;  d.  at  Saint- 
Flour,  11  June,  1829.  After  studying  law  and  theol- 
ogy at  Avignon,  at  that  time  belonging  to  the  Papal 
States,  he  was  made  auditor  of  the  Rota  by  the 
favour  of  Pius  VI.  This  office  he  resigned  for  a 
post  in  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  where  he  took  part 
in  the  famous  case  of  th(!  "Diamond  Necklace" 
(1784),  which  Cardinal  de  Rohan  had  purchased  for 
Marie  Antoinette  (q.  v.).  He  continued  to  be  a 
member  until  the  Parliament  was  abolished  (1790). 
Meanwhile  he  had  kept  up  a  correspondence  with  the 
cardinal  secretary  of  State,  informing  him  of  all  that 
passed  in  Paris  and  could  be  of  interest  to  Pius  VI. 
When  the  nuncio,  Mgr  Dugnani,  left  Paris  towards 
the  end  of  1790,  the  pope  appointed  Salamon  to  be 
his  internuncio  at  the  Court  of  Louis  XVI.  His 
devotion  to  the  Church  marked  him  out  for  persecu- 
tion, and  accordingly  he  was  thrown  into  pri.son  at 
the  time  of  the  September  massacres,  1792.  Twice  he 
narrowly  escaped  death.  On  his  release  he  wandered 
about  in  disguise,  acting  as  vicar  Apostolic.  In  1801 
Mgr  Caprara  arrived  in  France  as  papal  legate,  and 
appointed  him  administrator  general  of  the  dioceses 
of  Normandy.  The  new  pontiff,  Pius  VII,  did  not 
select  him  for  one  of  the  sees  under  the  Concordat, 
but  made  him  Bishop  of  Orthozia  in  parlibus.  It 
was  not  until  after  the  Restoration  that  he  received  a 
French  see  at  the  suggestion  of  Louis  XVIII  (1820). 
His  episcopate  lasted  only  nine  years,  but  these 
were  full  of  work  for  the  restoration  of  re- 
ligion. The  training  of  the  clergy  especially  en- 
gaged his  attention,  as  he  lamented  the  contrast 
between  the  cultured  priests  of  the  old  regime  and 
those  who  were  brought  up  during  the  confusion  of 
the  Revolution.  His  "Memoiros"  were  discovered 
at  Rome  and  published  by  .Vbbe  Bridier  ("M^moires 
in6dits  de  I'internonce  a  Paris  pendant  la  Revolution  ", 
Paris,  1890).  They  have  been  translated  by  Frances 
Jackson  ("A  Papal  Envoy  during  the  Terror",  Ix)n- 
don,  1911).  His  statements  are  sometimes  at  variance 
with  established  facts. 

Delaporte,  L' Inlirnonce  d  Parix,  petulant  la  revoltUion  in 
Etudes.  LII  [LIII]  (Pari.s,  1891),  818-22;  Scannell,  The  inter- 
nuncio at  Paris  during  the  revolution  in  Dublin  Review,  CIX 
(London,  1891),  107-23.  T.   B.   ScANNELL. 

Salazar,  Domingo  de,  b.  in  La  Rioja,  in  the  village 
of  La  Bastida  on  the  banks  of  the  Ebro,  1512;  d.  in 
Madrid,  4  December,  1594.  He  entered  the  Domin- 
ican monastery  of  San  Esteban,  Salamanca.  Sent  to 
Mexico,  where  he  received  the  degree  of  Master  in 
Theology,  he  was  appointeel  to  the  professor's  chair. 
His  ambition  to  evangelize  the  heathen  was  granted 
and  he  devoted  himself  to  the  conversion  of  the 
natives  in  the  Province  of  Guajaca.  He  was  char- 
acterized h(>re  by  the  same  zeal  for  defending  the 
rights  of  the  Indians  that  he  manifested  later  in  an 
heroic  degree  in  the  Philippines.  Salazar  was  next 
transferred  to  Florida,  where  he  passed  many  years 
in  toil  and  privation.  From  Florida  he  was  recalled 
to  Mexico  to  be  prior  of  his  convent  and  vi(^e-pro- 
vincial  of  his  order.  After  forty  years  of  missionary 
life,  he  was  sent  to  Madrid  on  important  business  con- 


nected with  the  Mexican  mission.  Political  enemies 
tried  to  thwart  his  work  and  succeeded  in  having 
him  thrown  into  pri.son  when  he  sought  audience  of 
the  king.  It  was  then  that  his  presence  in  Madrid 
was  brought  to  the  attention  of  Philip,  who  proposed 
his  name  to  the  pope  as  Bishop  of  the  Philippines. 
Salazar  was  loath  to  accept  the  dignity;  but  his 
missionary  spirit  prevailed.  As  he  wrote  later: 
"One  of  the  reasons  which  made  me  accept  this 
bishopric  was  the  fact  that  these  Islands  are  near 
China.  .  .  .  For  a  long  time  I  have  had  the  con- 
version of  that  kingdom  at  heart,  and  with  that 
thought  I  came  to  these  Islands".  He  set  out  for 
his  see  via  Acapulco,  taking  with  him  twenty  Domin- 
icans, twelve  of  whom  died  before  reaching  Mexico; 
of  the  remainder  only  one  was  able  to  continue  the 
journey  to  the  Philippines.  Salazar  arrived  in  Manila 
in  1581.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Filipino  with 
a  fearlessness  that  won  for  him  the  titles  of  the  "in- 
trepid Salazar",  "the  Las  Casas  of  the  Philippines". 
He  held  a  synod  of  the  clergy,  which  was  later  con- 
firmed by  the  pope,  erected  a  cathedral,  regulated  the 
internal  affairs  of  the  diocese,  opened  a  college,  and 
established  a  hospital.  In  his  charity  to  the  poor  he 
even  pledged  his  pectoral  cro.ss  to  relieve  their  neces- 
sities. Old  age  did  not  lessen  his  zeal.  He  was  almost 
eighty  when  he  set  out  for  Spain  to  plead  in  person 
the  cause  of  the  natives  with  the  king.  His  mission 
was  successful;  various  abuses  were  corrected,  three 
new  dioceses  were  created,  and  Manila  was  elevated 
to  a  metropolitan  see  with  Salazar  as  its  first  arch- 
bishop. He  died  before  receiving  the  Bull  of  his 
appointment  and  was  buried  in  the  Church  of  Santo 
Tomils,  Madrid.  His  tomb  bears  this  inscription: 
"Hie  jacct  D.  Fr.  Dominicus  de  Salazar  Ordinis 
Pra»dicatorum,  Philippinarum  Episcopus,  doctrina 
clarus  verus  religiosa?  vita)  sectator,  suarum  ovium 
piissimus  Pastor,  pauperum  Pater,  et  ipse  vera 
pauper.    Obiit  4  die  Decembris  anno  1594." 

liLAiR  AND  RoBERTi40N,  The  Philippine  Islands  (Cleveland, 
lOO.'J);  Ferrando,  ilistoria  de  los  PP.  Dominicos  en  las  Islas 
Filipinas  (Madrid,  1870);  More.\o,  Historia  de  la  Santa  Jylesia 
Melropolitana  de  Filipinas  (Manila,  1877). 

Philip  M.  Finegan. 

Sale,  Diocese  op  (Saliensis),  in  Victoria,  Austra- 
lia, comprises  all  the  territory  known  as  Gippsland. 
In  1840  Count  Strzelecki,  an  expatriated  Polish 
scientist,  accompanied  by  a  young  Irishman  named 
James  Riley  and  some  attendants,  first  penetrated 
this  region,  which  they  found  to  be  singularly  fertile 
and  teeming  with  resources,  though  hitherto  regarded 
as  a  trackless  waste.  Its  scenery  is  remarkably 
beautiful,  and  it  is  often  called  the  "Garden  of  Aus- 
tralia". Still  it  was  colonized  but  slowly,  as  the  native 
inhabitants  were  regarded  as  fierc<;  and  warlike,  while 
many  natural  ob.stacles  to  .settlement  were  offered 
by  the  dense  forests,  lofty  mountain  ranges,  and  swift 
torrents.  At  the  present  time,  however,  it  is  one  of 
the  regions  of  Australia  best  known  to  tourists.  It  is 
rich  in  pasture  and  timber  lands,  while  its  vast  mineral 
wealth  is  still  only  partly  developed. 

The  capital  is  Sale,  now  the  seat  of  the  episcopal 
see  erected  in  1887  at  the  request  of  the  plenary 
synod.  Its  first  bishop  was  the  present  titular  Rt. 
Rev.  James  Francis  Corbett.  He  was  born  at  Lim- 
erick in  1840;  his  theological  studies  were  made  in 
France,  and  on  his  return  he  worked  for  some  years 
as  a  priest  in  his  native  diocese.  He  went  to  Austra- 
lia at  the  invitation  of  Archbishop  Goold  of  Mel- 
bourne, to  whom  he  acted  as  diocesan  secretary  while 
fulfilling  the  duties  of  pastor  of  St.  Kilda's.  He  was 
assistant  secretary  of  the  synod  of  1885,  and  on  his 
appointment  to  the  new  .see  was  consecrated  by 
Archbishop  Carr  of  Melbourne  25  August,  1887,  in 
the  Church  of  St.  Kilda  which  he  him.self  had  built. 
On  his  arrival  in  his  diocese  there  were  within  its 
limits    three    parochial    districts    and   four  priests. 


SALEM 


396 


SALERNO 


three  of  whom  afterwards  returned  to  their  former 
Diocese  of  Melbourne.  There  are  now  (1911)  9 
parishes,  18  priests,  47  churches  or  chapels,  and  10 
schools  with  S30  pupils.  The  Catholic  population 
is  13,521,  and  there  are  61  sisters  of  Notre  Dame  de 
Sion. 

MoRAN,  Hist,  of  Cath.  Church  in  Australia  (Sydnej-,  s.  d.) ; 
B.*.TT.\.XDIER,  Annuaire  Pont.  (1911). 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 

Salem  (Salmansweiler),  also  called  Salomonis 
Villa  on  account  of  the  resemblance  of  its  primitive 
buildings  to  Solomon's  Temple,  an  abbey  situated 
near  the  Castle  of  Heiligenberg,  about  ten  miles  from 
Constance,  Baden  (Germany).  The  abbey  was 
founded  by  Gunthram  of  Adelsreute  (d.  1138)  in  1136 
during  the  reign  of  Pope  Innocent  II  and  Emperor 
Lothair  II.  Gunthram  also  gave  the  Abbot  of  Lucelle 
the  necessary  lands  for  the  first  Cistercian  monastery 
in  Alsace,  the  latter  being  a  foundation  of  Bellevaux, 
first  daughter  of  Morimond.  Blessed  Frowin,  for- 
merly the  travelling  companion  and  interpreter  of  St. 
Bernard,  became  its  first  abbot.  He  had  been  pro- 
fessed at  Bellevaux,  and  was  of  the  colony  sent  to 
found  Lucelle;  hence  have  arisen  misunderstandings, 
some  maintaining,  erroneously,  that  Salem  was  founded 
from  Bellevaux. 

Under  the  wise  and  prudent  administration  of 
Blessed  Fro^-in  and  his  successors,  the  abbey  soon 
became  very  prosperous.  Extensive  and  magnificent 
buildings,  erected  in  three  squares,  and  a  splendid 
church  were  constructed  between  1182  and  1311. 
Salem  was  noted  as  the  richest  and  most  beautiful 
monastery  in  Germany,  being  particularly  renowned 
for  its  hospitahty.  Amongst  its  greatest  benefactors 
and  patrons  were  Conrad  of  Swabia  and  Frederick 
Barbarossa.  The  former  placed  the  abbey  under  the 
special  protection  of  himself  and  his  successors — hence 
the  title  of  "Royal  Abbey  "  which  was  renewed  several 
times  under  Barbarossa  and  his  successors;  Innocent 
II  also  took  the  abbey  under  his  particular  patronage. 
Its  growth  was  continuous,  and  even  after  having  made 
three  important  foundations — Raitenhaslach  (1143), 
Maristella  or  Wettingen  (1227),  and  Konigsbrunn 
(1288) — it  numbered  285  monks  at  the  beginning  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  Its  abbot,  from  1454  on,  was 
privileged  to  confer  subdeaconship  on  his  monks. 
The  abbey  gradually  declined,  though  it  numbered 
forty-nine  priests  and  thirteen  other  choir  religious 
in  1698,  when  Abbot  D.  Stephen  (d.  1725)  became 
Vicar-General  of  the  Cistercian  Congregation  of 
Upper  Germany.  Caspar  Oexle,  who,  as  librarian, 
had  increased  the  library  to  30,000  volumes  and  a 
great  number  of  MSS.,  was  elected  abbot  in  March, 
1802;  in  September  of  the  same  year  the  abbey  was 
suppressed  and  given  to  the  Princes  of  Baden,  while 
the  library  was  added  to  that  of  Petershausen,  and 
finally  .sold  to  the  University  of  Heidelberg.  The 
church  became  a  parish  church;  the  grand  tower 
with  its  fifteen  bells,  the  largest  weighing  10,000  lbs., 
was  destroyed  (1805),  and  the  other  buildings  were 
used  as  the  grand  duke's  castle.  Eberhard,  its  fifth 
abbot,  is  honoured  as  a  Iiles,sed  of  the  order.  He  was 
ma*le  Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  and  entrusted  with 
variou.s  important  missions  by  the  Holy  See.  Blessed 
Henry,  a  lay  brother,  is  also  mentioned  in  the  Cis- 
tercian menology. 

Vo.N-  Wke<,h,  Codex  diplomaiiciu  Mkmitanus  (3  vols.,  Carls- 
ruhe,  1883-0.5);  Petri,  Huetia  ecdet.  (AuKHburK,  1698);  Bucb- 
UNUB,  AquiUi  imperii  benrjlictina  (Vonice,  16.51);  Oallia  christ., 
V;  Iden  chron't-topo-graphioi  f'ono.  Cinl.  S.  Bernnrdi  per  Supe- 
rif/rem  C'rrmaniam  fl720);  Hauntinoer,  SUddeulache  KUinter 
tor  I(Xj  J'lhren  (CrAonw.,  IHM));  KaRTORIus,  Cimercium  hia- 
lertium  ^'raKue.  17Wj;  Hrunnbr,  Bin  C inter ziennerbuch  (WUrz- 
burg,  1881);  BOttcher,  Germania  mrra  (Ix;ipzig,  1874);  Ja- 
XAU8CBEK,  Orig.  CxHlerc,  I  (Vienna,  1877). 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 

Salerno,  Diocese  of,  in  Campania,  Southern 
Italy.    The  city  is  situated  on  the  gulf  of  the  same 


name,  backed  by  a  high  rock  crowned  with  an  ancient 
castle.  The  surrounding  country  is  well  cultivated, 
and  a  natural  harbour  promotes  the  commerce  of 
agricultural  products;  breeding  of  horses  is  carried 
on  to  a  considerable  extent.  'There  are  two  mineral 
springs.  The  entrance  to  the  cathedral,  built  by 
Robert  Guiscard,  is  through  a  great  court  surrounded 
by  porticos,  with  columns  of  granite  and  porphyry, 
where  several  ancient  sarcophagi  are  preserved.  The 
middle  doors  are  of  bronze,  beautifully  decorated. 
In  1722  the  interior  was  transformed'  by  Peorio. 
The  beautiful  columns  were  shut  up  between  pilasters 
of  walling,  and  the  pointed  arches  were  ruined.  Of 
the  ancient  basilica  there  remains  a  high  marble 
candelabrum  adorned  with  mosaics;  between  the 
choir  and  the  side  of  the  high  altar  is  the  chapel 
of  Giovanni  da  Procida,  also  adorned  with  mosaics 
and  contaiging  the  tomb  of  Gregory  VII.  In  the 
chapel  to  the  right  there  is  a  beautiful  Pieta,  the 
finest  work  of  Andrea  Salerno.  Among  other  treas- 
ures of  the  sacristy  is  an  ivory  altar  frontal  with 
scenes  from  the  Old  and  from  the  New  Testament. 
There  is  a  tradition  that  the  body  of  St.  Matthew,  the 
Apostle,  is  preserved  in  the  crypt  under  the  high 
altar;  the  columns  of  the  vault^  are  beautifully  in- 
crusted  with  multi-coloured  marbles.  Among  other 
churches  are:  the  Annunziata;  San  Giorgio,  which  may 
rightly  be  called  a  picture  gallery  (Life  of  St.  Bene- 
dict); and  S.  Domenico,  where  an  arm  of  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  is  preserved.  Charitable  institutions  were, 
and  still  are,  numerous. 

Salerno  was  the  city  of  the  Salentini.  After  war 
with  Hannibal  (194  b.  c),  a  Roman  colony  was  es- 
tabhshed  there.  In  the  Social  War  it  was  taken  by 
the  Samnites.  In  the  eighth  century  the  city  was 
in  the  jiower  of  the  Lombard  dukes  of  Benevento; 
Arichis  fortified  it  and  took  refuge  there,  when 
Charles  the  Great  invaded  his  duchy.  In  840  Sicon- 
ulfus,  brother  of  the  Duke  Sicardus  who  was  killed 
by  the  partisans  of  Radelgisus,  was  proclaimed  prince 
at  Salerno,  which  from  that  time  constituted  an  in- 
dependent principality.  With  the  assistance  of  the 
Saracens  and  with  the  spoils  of  the  churches  Siconul- 
fus  defended  his  independence,  which  was  confirmed 
in  851  by  the  Emperor  Louis  II,  to  whom  the  prince 
had  .sworn  allegiance.  The  chief  cities  of  the  prin- 
cipahty  were  Taranto,  Cassano,  Cosenza,  Paestum, 
Conza,  Salerno,  Sarno,  Cimitile  (Nola),  Capua,  Teano, 
and  Sora.  The  son  of  Siconulfus,  Sico,  was  dethroned 
by  his  tutor,  Petrus,  who  was  succ-eeded  by  his  son 
Ademar;  the  latter,  however,  was  deposed  by  a  con- 
spiracy, tortured,  and  blinded,  while  Cuiaiferius  was 
put  in  his  place  (861).  In  874  the  port  of  Salerno  was 
so  well  defended  that  the  Saracens  had  to  abandon 
the  blockade  of  the  city.  Guaimarus,  son  of  Guai- 
ferius,  struggled  (880)  against  the  Saracens  and 
the  Byzantines,  but  on  account  of  his  cruelty  he  was 
deposed,  blinded,  and  thrown  into  prison.  His  son, 
Guaimarus  II,  ruled  wisely. 

Gisulfus  became  famous  through  the  splendour  of 
his  court.  He  was  despoiled  by  the  exiled  Prince 
of  Beneventum,  Laiidolfo,  but  Pandolfo  Capo-di- 
Ferro,  Prince  of  Hencvciilum,  restored  Gisulfus  (974), 
who,  through  gralitude,  associated  with  himself  in 
the  princiijality  Pandolfo,  .son  of  his  liberator,  by 
whom  he  was  succeeded  in  97S.  The  latter  also  was 
depo.sed  by  Mansus  III,  Duke  of  Amalfi  (9S1),  who 
was  confirmed  in  the  principality  by  Otho  II.  The 
people  of  Salerno,  however,  rebc-lled  against  him, 
and  gave  the  throne  to  Giovanni  Lamperto,  a  de- 
scendant of  the  dukes  of  Spoleto.  Under  his  son  and 
succe.s.sor,  (Juaimaro  III  (994-1018),  the  people 
of  Salerno  were  help(;d  by  about  forty  Norman 
warriors  to  repel  thc^  Saracens.  Guaimaro  IV 
dreamed  of  uniting  the  whole;  of  lower  Italy  into  a 
single  principality;  \w  t(M)k  Amalfi  and  Sorrento  and 
warred  with  Argiro,  master  of  Bari,  but  was  assaa- 


1 


SALERNO 


397 


SALERNO 


einated  by  the  Amalfians  in  1031.  It  was  only  with 
the  assistance  of  the  Normans  that  his  son  Gisulfus 
III  was  able  to  recover  his  throne.  The  cruelty  of 
Gisulfus  against  the  Amalfians  gave  to  Robert  Guis- 
card,  brother-in-law  of  Gisulfus,  a  pretext  to  wage 
war  and  to  take  possession  of  Salerno,  which  was 
bravely  defended  (1075).  Gisulfus  ended  his  days 
in  the  pontifical  states.  Thus  the  last  Lombard 
principality  of  Italy  came  to  an  end.  At  the  death 
of  Guiscard  his  states  were  divided;  Salerno  was 
inherited  by  Roger,  who  was  succeeded  (1111)  by  his 
son  WiUiam;  at  the  latter's  death  Salerno  gave  itself 
to  Roger  II  of  Sicily  (1127),  from  whom  it  was  taken 
by  the  Emperor  Lothair  (1137),  although  the  latter 
was  unable  to  hold  it.  In  1196  Salerno  was  again 
besieged,  by  land  and  sea,  for  having  held  Constance, 
wife  of  Henry  IV,  a  prisoner.  For  this  offence  dread- 
ful revenge  was  taken  and  Salerno  never  recovered 
from  the  damage  done  to  it  in  the  pillage.     The  heirs 


in  1811,  together  with  the  University  of  Salerno. 
Among  the  famous  physicians  that  it  produced  were: 
Garisponto,  author  of  the  "  Passionarium  Salerni"; 
Cofone  (Ars  medendi);  and  Matthaius  Platearius, 
author  of  a  commentary  on  the  "Antidotarium"  of 
Nicol6  Pietro  Musandino  (thirteenth  century). 
The  "Herbarium"  of  the  school  of  Salerno  was  dis- 
seminated throughout  Europe  in  the  twelfth  century. 
In  the  same  century  the  rules  of  h3'giene  of  this 
school  were  collected  and  edited  in  leonine  verse; 
these  rules,  which  even  now  are  not  antiquated,  were 
the  school's  greatest  title  to  praise.  The  "Anony- 
mus  Salernitanus "  who  continued  the  history  of  the 
princes  of  Benevento  from  Erchempertus  to  980, 
Andrea  Sabatini  a  pupil  of  Raphael,  and  Andrea  da 
Salerno  were  natives  of  this  city. 

In  view  of  its  position,  it  was  natural  that  Salerno 
should  receive  the  light  of  the  Gospel  at  an  early 
date;  in  fact,  various  saints,  as  Antes,  Caius,  and  For- 


of  the  first  princes  of  the  House  of  Anjou  bore  the 
title  of  Prince  of  Salerno;  John  II  inve.sted  with  it 
Girolamo  Colonna,  nephew  of  Martin  V.  Charles 
V  suppressed  the  principality,  but  the  province  con- 
tinued to  be  called  Principahty  of  Salerno. 

The  medical  school  of  Salerno  was  famous  in 
medieval  history;  it  was  founded  neither  by  Charles 
the  Great  nor  by  the  Arabs,  the  city  never  having 
been  under  the  dominion  of  either.  Its  origin  is  to 
be  found  in  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Salerno, 
established  in  794,  in  which  the  botanical  and  the 
medical  works  of  the  ancients  were  studied.  Its 
fame  grew,  when  about  the  year  1070  the  celebrated 
Costantino  Africano  took  refuge  there.  He  had 
studied  in  the  schools  of  the  Arabs  at  Babylon,  at 
Bagdad,  and  in  Eygpt,  and  was  presented  by  the 
brother  of  the  caliph  of  Babylon  to  Guiscard,  who 
took  him  as  secretary.  He  gave  a  new  impulse  to 
philosophical  and  to  medical  studies  by  making 
known  in  the  West  the  works  of  the  Arabs.  Roger  I 
gave  laws  to  the  schools  of  Salerno,  which  was  the 
first  Western  school  to  introduce  academic  degrees. 
New  regulations  were  established  for  it  by  Frederick 
II,  who  ordered  that  no  one  should  practise  medicine 
without  being  "licensed"  by  that  school,  the  fame  of 
which  waned  after  the  fifteenth  century  through  the 
competition  of  Naples.     The  school  was  suppressed 


tunatus  (28  August),  suffered  martyrdom  there.  The 
age  of  Bonifacius  and  four  other  saints  who  preceded 
Gaudentius  on  the  episcopal  throne  is  uncertain; 
Gaudentius,  however,  was  bishop  in  499,  which  would 
show  that  the  see  was  created  towards  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century.  Other  bishops  were:  Asterius,  who 
went  to  Constantinople  with  Pope  Agapitus  in  534; 
St.  Gaudiosus  (eighth  century);  Petrus  (834),  formerly 
BLshop  of  Canusio,  who  took  refuge  at  Salerno 
when  the  Saracens  destroyed  his  capital,  and  built 
the  Church  of  San  Giovanni  Battista;  Bernardus 
(850),  a  man  of  great  virtue,  who  restored  several 
buildings.  In  984  Salerno  became  an  archiepisco- 
pal  see,  the  first  archbishop  being  Amato.  Other 
archbishops  were:  San  Alfano  (1058-85),  who  re- 
ceived the  exiled  Gregory  VII;  Romualdo  Guarna 
(1153),  who  took  an  important  part  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical and  political  affairs  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples; 
Nicolo  Agello  (1181),  taken  prisoner  by  Henry  IV 
to  Germany,  where  he  remained  for  many  years 
notwithstanding  the  prayers  of  the  popes,  espe- 
cially of  Innocent  III;  Guglielmo  de'  Godoni  (1298), 
chancellor  of  the  Duke  of  Calabria,  whose  successors, 
to  Orso  Minutolo  (13.30),  resided  at  Avignon;  Barnaba 
Orsini  (1441),  who  restored  the  cathedral;  Giovanni 
Vera  (1500),  later  a  cardinal,  who  was  sent  on  several 
pontifical  legations  to  France  and  to  England;  Giro- 


SALESIAN 


398 


SALESIAN 


lamo  Seripandi  (1554),  a  famous  theologian  and 
former  general  of  the  Augustinians,  whose  doctrines 
on  justification,  too  much  akin  to  those  of  Luther, 
were  rejected  at  the  CouncU  of  Trent,  and  who  after- 
wards became  a  cardinal,  and  died  at  Trent ;  Gaspare 
Cervante  (1564),  who  founded  the  seminar}^;  Marc 
Antonio  Colonna  (156S),  who  estabhshed  a,nother 
college  for  clerics;  his  nephew,  Marc  Antonio  Col- 
onna (1574),  the  author  of  valuable  works;  Mario 
Bolognini  (1591),  who  distinguished  himself  in  France 
in  the  controversies  with  the  Huguenots;  Giovanni  de 
Torres  (1658),  who  reformed  the  lives  of  the  clergy; 
Gregorio  Caraffa  (1664),  a  Theatine  and  a  reformer; 
Antonio  Salomone,  who,  after  the  annexation  of  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  was  imprisoned  without  reason 
(1886),  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  with  Austria 
was  sent  into  exile.  Since  1818  Salerno  has  for  suf- 
fragans the  Sees  of  Capaccio  e  Vallo,  Policastro, 
Marsico  Nuovo,  and  Nusco.  The  See  of  Acerno, 
which  appears  as  a  diocese  since  1136,  is  united  with 
it  in  perpetual  administration;  among  its  bishops 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  Franciscan  Antonio 
Bonito  (1493).  The  archdiocese  has:  155  parishes; 
60,000  inhabitants;  600  secular  priests;  2  institutes 
for  boys  and  4  for  girls ;  1 1  religious  houses  for  men  and 
14  for  women;  and  1  Catholic  daily  paper. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  XX  (Venice,  1857);  Schifa, 
Storia  del  principato  longobardo  di  Salerno  (Naples,  1887);  de 
Renzi,  La  Scuola  Salernitana  (Naples,  1857);  Daremberq, 
L'Ecole  de  Salerne  (Paris,  1880),  text  and  translation  of  the  rules 
of  hygiene. 

U.  Benigni. 

UxiVERSiTY  OF  Salerno. — The  physicians  of  Sa- 
lerno have  been  known  since  the  ninth  century.  In 
984,  Adalbero,  Bishop  of  Verdun,  repaired  to  Salerno 
in  quest  of  medical  assistance.  Fuller  accounts  of  the 
medical  school  of  Salerno,  however,  do  not  appear 
until  the  eleventh  century.  About  1150,  the  famous 
"Flos  medicinae  scholae  Salerni"  was  written,  a  collec- 
tion of  hygienic  and  medicinal  precepts  in  3500  verses 
adfh-es.sed  to  Robert  of  England.  Opinions  differ  as 
to  the  origin  of  the  school:  some  hold  that  it  was 
founded  by  the  Benedictines  of  Monte  Cassino,  in 
particular  by  the  famous  abbot,  Constantine  the  Afri- 
can; others  give  it  a  secular  origin.  At  any  rate  the 
school  enjoyed  autonomy;  only  under  the  Swabian 
kings  did  the  State  in  any  way  interfere  with  it.  It  is 
uncertain  whether  the  suppression  of  all  the  schools  of 
higher  learning,  ordered  by  Frederick  II  in  1224  for 
the  advantage  of  the  Stwlium  of  Naples,  affected  Sa- 
lerno. But  the  same  monarch,  in  1231,  commanded 
that  no  one  should  teach  medicine  anywhere  but  at 
Salerno,  or  practise  medicine  without  liaving  been  ap- 
proved by  the  professors  of  Salerno  in  the  presence  of 
State  officials.  In  1240,  again,  he  himself  prescribed 
the  studies.  In  1252  King  Conrad  transferred  to  Sa- 
lerno the  other  faculti(!S  of  Naples,  which,  however, 
were  restorfnl  to  the  latter  university  by  Manfred  in 
1258.  A  faculty  of  medicine  was  then  established  at 
Naples  which  competed  to  a  considerable  degree  with 
that  of  Salerno,  which,  however,  was  tolerably  flour- 
ishing under  the  Angevins  and,  later,  under  the  Span- 
ish and  Bourbon  dynasties.  In  1811,  however,  it  was 
suppressed.  Of  its  celebrated  physicians,  Protocel- 
luH,  author  of  the  "Compendium  Medicina;"  (1035), 
Garinopontus,  who  compiled  the  "  Passionarius  Ga- 
leni"  in  1040,  and  Bishop  Alphanus,  author  of  a  treat- 
ise on  the  four  humours,  are  worthy  of  mention.  The 
CasHJnfw;  monk  Constantine  does  not  belong  to  tlie 
Sf;hool  of  Salerno,  though  he  did  much  to  give  a  n(?w 
direction  to  its  medical  studies  by  his  translations 
from  the  Arabic.  John  Afflacius,  besides  writing 
treatises  on  medicine,  brought  the  surgical  art  to  per- 
fection. Niwiaus  Pra;pf>Hitus  was  the  author  of  an 
"Antidotorium",  or  collection  of  pharmaceutical  rem- 
edies. MattlueuH  Platiearius  wrote  a  "Practica  bre- 
vifl".     Ruggiero  <Lx  Parma,  the  boldest  surgeon  of  the 


thirteenth  century,  taught  the  trepanning  of  the 
sternum,  the  sewing-up  of  intestines,  etc.  Women 
physicians,  also,  studied  and  taught  at  Salerno — the 
famous  Trotula,  who  wrote  a  treatise  on  diseases  of 
women,  Abella  and  Rebecca,  both  of  whom  did  much 
for  embrj'ology,  and  the  female  surgeon  Mercuriade. 

De  Renzi,  Storia  documeiitata  delhi  Scnula  medica  di  Salerno 
(Naples,  1857);  cd.  Meaux  St-Mare,  Idem,  Collectio  Salerni- 
tana (vol.  V  containing  the  Flos  medicine)  (Paris,  1861);  Uash- 
DALL,  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  I  (Oxford,  1895), 
75sqq. 

U.  Benigni. 

Salesian  Society,  The,  founded  by  Venerable 
Don  Bosco,  takes  its  distinctive  name  from  its 
patron,  Saint  Francis  de  Sales.  The  object  for  which 
it  was  founded  may  be  best  seen  from  the  opening 
words  of  its  constitution:  "the  Christian  perfection 
of  its  associates  obtained  bj^  the  exercise  of  spiritual 
and  corporal  works  of  charity  towards  the  young, 
especially  the  poor,  and  the  education  of  boys  to 
the  priesthood."  The  cradle  of  the  institute  may 
truthfully  be  said  to  have  been  the  fields  of  Valdocco, 
at  that  time  a  suburb  but  now  an  integral  part  of 
the  city  of  Turin.  In  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  Italy  had  not  recovered  from  the  disastrous 
consequences  of  the  false  and  atheistical  philosophical 
teachings  brought  into  the  country  at  the  time  of 
the  French  Revolution.  For  this  reason  education, 
morality,  and  religion  were  then  at  their  lowest  ebb. 
To  save  the  rising  generation  the  Salesian  Society 
was  founded.  In  1844  Don  Bosco  began  to  gather 
together  poor  and  neglected  boys.  He  found  places 
for  them  to  play  in,  taught  them  Catechism  and  heard 
their  confessions  in  the  open  air,  afterwards  taking 
them  to  one  of  the  churches  in  the  city,  where  he  used 
to  say  Mass  for  them  and  give  them  Holy  Communion. 
These  gatherings,  called  "Festive  Oratories",  became 
one  of  the  most  important  and  useful  works  of  the 
institute  in  attracting  boys.  In  1845  the  first  night- 
school  was  opened  at  Valdocco,  and  became  a  perma- 
nent institution  in  the  course  of  a  year.  It  proved 
such  a  success  that  a  second  one  was  opened  (1847)  at 
Porto  Nuovo,  and  a  third  at  Vanchigha  (1849).  In 
the  beginning  Don  Bosco,  for  lack  of  personnel,  was 
forced  to  make  use  of  the  older  and  more  advanced 
pupils,  setting  them  as  teachers  and  monitors  over  the 
others,  but  necessity  soon  forced  him  to  form  a  regular 
and  permanent  trained  staff.  Many  of  his  boys,  too, 
began  to  develop  vocations  for  the  priesthood,  and 
became  clerics,  whilst  still  continuing  to  assist  in  the 
work  of  education.  Much  opposition  was  made  to 
the  growing  institute,  but  Mgr.  Franzoni,  then  Arch- 
bishop of  Turin,  took  it  under  his  protection,  and  even 
the  king,  Charles  Albert,  who  had  heard  of  Don 
Bosco's  work,  became  its  patron,  and  it  steadily 
grew.  It  was,  however,  found  impossible,  in  many 
cases,  to  make  a  permanent  impression  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  boys  (luring  the  short  time  that  tliey  were 
under  the  influence;  of  the  teachers  at  the  festive  ora- 
tories and  the  night-schools.  A  very  large  number  of 
the  boys  had  not  only  to  earn  their  living,  but  had  to 
learn  a  trade  beforehand  to  enable  them  to  do  so. 
Thus  a  new  class  of  boys  arose — the  boy-artisans — 
which  constituted  the  second  division  of  good  works  in 
the  rising  institute. 

In  1852  the  Church  of  Saint  Francis  de  Sales  was 
completed  and  consecrated,  and  surrounding  it  large 
schools  for  the  students  and  workshojjs  for  boy-arti- 
sans began  to  rise.  During  all  this  tiinc  the  work  was 
developing,  and  a  band  of  devoted  and  cflicient  teach- 
ers slowly  emerged  from  the  diaos  of  ev'olution. 
About  this  time  Don  Bosco  was  urged  to  consolidate 
and  perjM'tuate  his  work  by  forming  a  religious  con- 
gregation, and  in  1857  he  drew  up  its  first  set  of  rules. 
In  the  following  yc^ar  he  went  to  Rome  to  seek  the  ad- 
vice and  suj)port  of  his  benefactor,  Pius  IX,  and  in 
1859  he  summoned  the  first  chapter  of  the  congrega- 
tion, and  began  the  Society  of  Saint  Francis  de  Sales. 


SALFORD 


399 


SALFORD 


In  1863  and  1864  colleges  were  opened  at  Mirabello, 
Monferrato,  and  Lanzo.  This  was  a  new  step,  as 
hitherto  the  scope  of  the  congregation  had  been  al- 
most entirely  restricted  to  the  poor.  In  1874  the  Rule 
and  Constitutions  of  the  Society  were  definitively  ap- 
proved by  Pius  IX,  and  the  Salesian  Society  took 
its  place  among  the  orders  of  the  Church.  The 
development  of  the  order  was  very  rapid;  the  first 
Salesian  house  outside  of  Italy  was  opened  at  Nice  in 
1875.  In  the  same  year,  the  first  band  of  Salesian 
missionaries  was  sent  to  South  America,  and  houses 
were  founded  in  Argentina  and  Buenos  Ayres.  In 
1876  the  Salesian  co-operators  were  organized  for  the 
purpose  of  assisting  in  the  good  works  of  the  congre- 
gation. They  were  enriched  with  many  indulgences 
by  Pius  IX.  The  Figli  di  Maria  Ausiliatrice,  or  the 
Sons  of  Mary,  Help  of  Christians,  were  founded  to 
assist  tardy  vocations  to  the  priesthood.  In  1877  the 
"Salesian  Bulletin",  the  official  organ  of  the  congrega- 
tion, made  its  first  npjicaranco,  its  object  being  to  in- 
form the  Catholic  world  of  the  good  works  undertaken 
by  the  institute  and  to  beg  help  to  support  them.  The 
"Bulletin"  is  now  printed  in  eight  different  languages. 

In  1877  houses  were  opened  in  Spezia,  .\lmagro,  and 
Montevideo.  In  1879  missionaries  were  sent  to  Pata- 
gonia, and  houses  were  opened  at  Navarre,  Marseilles, 
and  Saint-Cyr  (France).  In  1880  the  first  house  in 
Spain  was  opened  at  Utrera,  and  in  South  America 
the  mission  at  Viedma,  capital  of  the  Rio  Negro,  was 
established.  In  1883  the  first  house  in  Brazil  was 
opened  at  Nichteroy,  and  missions  were  established  at 
Terra  del  Fuego  and  the  Falkland  Islands.  In  1887 
the  first  house  was  opened  in  .\ustria  at  Trent,  and  in 
the  .same  year  theSalesians  established  themselves  at 
Battersea  in  London,  England,  and  a  large  band  of 
missionaries  was  sent  to  Ecuador.  On  31  January, 
1886,  to  the  great  grief  of  the  congregation,  Don  Bosco 
died  at  the  age  of  seventy-two.  His  successor,  Don 
Rua,  continued  and  developed  the  work  of  the  congre- 
gation, and  many  more  houses  were  opened  in  France, 
Spain,  Italy,  Belgium,  Portugal,  and  South  America. 
In  1889  houses  were  established  in  the  Holy  Land  and 
in  Africa.  Between  1894  and  1911  houses  have  been 
founded  in  Mexico,  Tunis,  Venezuela,  Patagonia,  Lis- 
bon, Bolivia,  Colombia,  Paraguay,  Montpelier,  Cape 
Town,  England,  ChiU,  San  Salvador,  Peru,  India,  and 
China.  The  first  mission  opened  in  the  United  States 
was  at  San  Francisco  in  1898.  There  are  now  two  in 
that  city,  and  another  at  Oakland  on  the  other  side  of 
the  bay.  In  New  York  there  were  two  missions 
opened  respectively  in  1898  and  1902.  A  college  was 
opened  at  Troy  in  1903,  but  transferred  (1908)  to 
Hawthorne,  Westchester  County,  in  the  State  of  New 
York. 

Although  the  real  object  of  the  Salesian  Society 
is  the  Christian  education  of  the  young,  especially 
of  the  poorer  and  middle  classes,  it  does  not  refuse 
any  work  of  charity  for  which  it  has  suitable  members. 
In  carrying  out  its  principal  work,  instead  of  the  old 
punitive  or  repressive  system,  it  adopts  the  preventive 
one,  thus  promoting  confidence  and  love  among  the 
children,  instead  of  fear  and  hatred.  The  success  of 
this  method  is  seen  from  the  number  of  vocations 
drawn  from  its  ranks.  The  young  aspirants  are  im- 
bued with  the  Salesian  spirit  even  before  joining  the 
congregation.  One  year  is  spent  in  the  novitiate,  af- 
ter which  triennial  vows  are  taken  before  the  tyro  is 
admitted  to  his  final  profession.  The  growth  of  the 
congregation  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  it  con- 
tains about  320  houses,  distributed  into  34  provincial- 
ates,  of  which  18  are  in  Europe,  and  the  remaining  16 
in  America.  The  houses  in  A.sia  and  Africa  belong  to 
European  provinces.  There  has  been  no  diminution 
except  in  France,  where  most  of  the  houses  were  sup- 
pressed during  the  regime  of  persecution  under  Combes. 
The  houses  in  Portugal  were  left  untouched  during  the 
late  change  of  government,     in  1910  the  second  father 


general  of  the  congregation  died,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Don  Albera.  The  main  work  of  the  institute  is  the 
education  and  training  of  boys  divided  into  two  classes, 
students  and  artisans.  The  second  branch  is  the  mis- 
sionary one,  and  it  finds  its  scope  prin(;ipally  in  South 
America  and  Asia.  The  third  branch  is  engaged  in 
the  education  of  adults  for  the  priesthood  and  the 
fourth  is  occupied  in  the  diffusion  of  good  Catholic 
literature.  The  order  obtains  its  support  largely  from 
the  generosity  of  the  Salesian  co-operators,  who,  as  a 
third  order,  contribute  largely  for  this  purpose,  and 
to  whom  the  "Salesian  Bulletin"  is  sent  monthly,  to 
keep  them  informed  of  the  progress  of  the  work  in  dis- 
tant lands,  and  to  urge  them  to  greater  generosity. 

IIeimbdcher,  Die  Ordtn  u.  Koni/reaationen,  III  (Paderborn, 
1908)  491  sqq.;  Lives  of  Don  Bosco  by  Lemoyne,  Francesia. 
d'Espiney;  Bonetti,  I  Cinque  Lustri;  The  Salesian  Bulletin. 

Ernest  Marsh. 

Salford,  Diocese  of  (Salfordiensis),  comprises 
the  Hundreds  of  Salford  and  Blackburn,  in  Lanca- 
shire, England,  and  was  erected  29  Sept.,  1850.  It 
covers  the  east  and  south-eastern  portions  of  Lan- 
cashire and  embraces  the  manufacturing  towns  of 
Manchester,  Salford,  Blackburn,  Oldham,  Bury, 
Burnley,  Rochdale,  etc.  Its  area  is  practically  co- 
extensive with  that  of  the  ancient  CathoUc  deanery 
of  Manchester,  which  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of 


1 

! 

Pj|iBt4i  iiii|[ffi  J  ilM 

The  Protestant  Cathedral,  Manchester 

A  XV-century  Catholic  Church  with  additions  made  in  the 

XIX  Century 

the  rector  or  dean,  but  its  title  was  taken  from  Salford 
instead  of  Manchester  to  avoid  offending  Protestant 
susceptibilities,  as  an  Anglican  See  of  Manchester 
had  been  erected  in  1847.  The  Apostolic  Letter 
of  Pius  IX,  which  divided  the  Lancashire  District 
into  the  two  Sees  of  Liverpool  and  Salford,  allotted 
to  Salford  the  Hundred  of  Leyland  in  addition  to 
those  of  Blackburn  and  Salford,  but  a  papal  Brief 
dated  27  June,  1851,  transferred  to  Liverpool  the 
Hundred  of  Leyland  which  included  the  important 
Catholic  town  of  Preston. 

The  Hundred  of  Blackburn,  covering  the  north- 
western portion  of  the  diocese,  extends  twenty-four 
miles  east  to  west,  and  fourteen  miles  north  to  south. 
In  the  chequered  history  of  the  Church  following 
on  the  religious  changes  of  the  sixteenth  century 
it  had,  with  Salford,  a  long  roll  of  recusants  and  mar- 
tyrs for  the  Faith.  The  ruins  of  Whalley  Abbey, 
a  thirteenth-century  Cistercian  foundation,  still 
bear  their  silent  witness.  Its  abbot,  John  Paslew, 
was  hanged  outside  its  walls  in  1537  for  taking  part 
in  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace  in  1536;  and  the  property 
was  seized  for  the  use  of  Henry  VIII.  The  first 
post-Reformation  chapel  in  Blackburn  wa,s  opened 
m  1773,  and  in  Manchester  in  1774.  In  1843  the 
Rev.  James  Sharpies,  rector  of  St.  Alban's,  Blackburn, 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Samaria  and  appointed 
coadjutor  to  Bishop  Brown,  the  first  vicar  .\postolic 
for  the  Lancashire  District.     He  built  at  Salford  St. 


SALIMBENE 


400 


SALIMBENE 


John's  Church,  which  was  opened  in  1848  and  which 
Bubsequently  became  the  cathedral  for  the  diocese. 
Dr.  Sharpies  died  16  Aug.,  1850,  and  the  first  Bishop 
of  Salford  in  the  restored  hierarchy  was  Rt.  Rev. 
WilUam  Turner  (1790-1S72).  He  was  succeeded  in 
1872  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Herbert  Vaughan  (1832-1903), 
whose  episcopate  was  remarkable  for  its  energj',  or- 
ganizing abihty  and  initiation  of  works  to  meet  the 
rapid  growth  and  development  of  the  diocese.  On  his 
transference  to  Westminster  in  1892,  the  Rt.  Rev. 
John  Bilsborrow  (1S36-1903)  was  consecrated  third 
bishop.  The  Rt.  Rev.  Louis  Charles  Casartelh,  D.D., 
M.A.,  Litt.Or.D.,  the  fourth  bishop,  was  born  in  1S52, 
and  ordained  priest  in  1876.  He  was  closely  asso- 
ciated with  Cardinal  Vaughan  in  the  foundation  of 
St.  Bede's  College,  Manchester,  in  1876,  and  was 
rector  of  it  when  he  was  nominated  bishop  in  1903. 
Bishop  Casartelli  is  widely  knowTi  as  a  WTiter  on 
Oriental  subjects,  was  a  professor  at  Louvain,  and  has 
alwavs  been  verj- active  in  the  theologico-literarj^  field. 
The  "Rt.  Rev.  John  S.  Vaughan,  D.D.,  Bishop  of 
Sebastopolis,  was  elected  auxiliarj^  bishop  in  1909. 

Population. — The  Cathohc  population  is  estimated 
at  about  300,000,  and  this  is  largely  a  growth  of  the 
latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Although 
Cathohc  memories  and  traditions  lingered  in  Lan- 
cashire long  after  the  Reformation,  in  1690  only  two 
Catholics  were  enrolled  on  the  Manchester  Poll 
Book.  Ten  years  later,  thirteen  Catholic  families, 
according  to  the  returns  of  the  Bishop  of  Chester, 
existed  in  the  parish  of  Manchester  with  its  area  of 
sixtj'  square  miles.  In  1775  the  number  of  Catholic 
baptisms  in  Manchester  was  thirty-two,  whilst  the 
congregation  of  St.  Chad's  Cathohc  Chapel,  which 
had  been  opened  in  1774,  was  estimated  at  500.  A 
survey  made  for  the  statistical  society  of  the  various 
Sunday  schools  in  Manchester  and  Salford  in  1836 
returned  the  number  of  Catholic  schools  as  ten,  with 
an  attendance  of  4295  scholars.  Similar  small 
beginnings  were  witnessed  in  the  Blackburn  Hundred. 
In  1793  there  is  record  of  twenty-six  Catholic  bap- 
tisms for  Blackburn.  The  number  of  Catholics  in 
the  town  in  1804  was  estimated  at  745,  and  in  1819 
the  number  had  increased  to  1200  for  the  town  and 
(hstrict. 

Missions  and  Priests. — At  the  present  time  there 
are  in  the  diocese  138  pubUc  churches  and  chapels, 
48  convents  and  private  chapels,  and  10  chapels  of 
institutions  in  which  Mass  is  said.  The  secular 
clergj'  number  235,  and  in  addition  there  are  86  regu- 
lars bflonging  to  the  Benedictines,  Friars  Minor, 
Dominicans,  Premonstratensians,  Jesuits,  Missionary 
Fathers  of  St.  Jo.seph,  and  the  Congregation  of  the 
Divine  Pastor. 

Education. — A  chain  of  efficierit  Catholic  elemen- 
tary schools  links  up  the  compulsory  secular  instruc- 
tion with  the  Cathohc  religious  teaching  given  in 
them.  55,000  children  are  on  the  rolls  of  the  140 
Catholic  schools,  with  their  263  departments  and  a 
teaching  stafif  of  1591  Cathohc  teachers.  A  training 
college  for  residential  female  teachers,  conducted 
by  the  Order  of  the  Faithful  Companions  of  Jesus, 
adds  to  the  completeness  of  the  organization  for  ele- 
mentary education.  For  secondary  or  higher  educa- 
tion there  are  18  schools  and  colleges.  Stonyhurst, 
the  great  Jesuit  college,  is  the  succes.sor  of  the  College 
al  St.  Omer,  which  was  founded  by  Father  Robert 
Parsons,  S.J.,  in  1592  and  transferred  to  Lancashire 
on  29  Aug.,  1794. 

Works  fjf  Charity. — One  of  the  great  works  of  Car- 
dinal Vaughan  during  his  Salford  episcopate  was  the 
founding  of  the  Catholic  Protection  and  Rescue 
Society  in  July,  1886.  The  object  was  to  protect 
and  save  the  destitute  Catholic  child  whose  Faith 
was  in  danger.  6.569  boys  and  girls  have  passed 
through  its  homes  during  the  years  1886-1911,  and 
its  annual  expenditure  exceeds  £4000.    .The  "Har- 


vest", a  monthly  publication,  is  its  official  organ. 
Orphanages  for  girls,  institutions  for  the  aged  and 
poor  under  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  night  shel- 
ters for  homeless  girls  under  the  Sisters  of  St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  in  connexion 
with  the  Rescue  Society,  sisters  who  nurse  the  poor 
in  their  own  homes,  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shep- 
herd who  seek  to  reclaim  the  fallen,  Nazareth 
House,  industrial  schools  for  boys  under  the  Brothers 
of  the  Cliristian  Schools,  and  Brothers  of  Mercy,  and 
for  gu-ls  under  the  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul;  all 
these  manifest  an  untiring  activity  in  amehorating  the 
lot  of  the  poor,  the  forlorn  and  the  sick. 

The  Catholic  Federation  and  other  Orgaiiizations. — 
Drastic  educational  legislation  proposed  by  the 
government  in  1906  and  the  imperative  need  for  the 
organization  of  Catholic  forces  led  to  the  formation 
of  the  Catholic  Federation  bj^  Bishop  Casartelli  in 
1906.  Its  primary  object  is  the  defence  of  purely 
Catholic  interests,  in  which  equality  of  treatment  for 
Catholic  schools  largely  predominates.  The  official 
organ  is  the  "Catholic  Federationist",  which  was 
first  issued  in  Jan.,  1910,  and  is  used  by  the  bishop 
as  a  vehicle  to  convey  his  "message"  on  current 
questions. 

Other  societies  are:  a  local  branch  of  the  Catholic 
Truth  Society,  the  parent  society  of  which  was  re- 
organized by  Cardinal  Vaughan  when  Bishop  of 
Salford  in  1884;  the  School  of  Social  Science;  the 
Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul;  the  Ladies  of  Charity; 
the  Catholic  Needlework  Guild;  the  Catholic  Boys' 
Brigade;  the  Cathohc  Philharmonic  Society;  and  the 
Catholic  Women's  League,  with  its  notable  offshoot 
"The  Mothers'  and  Babes'  Welcome". 

Almanac  for  the  Diocese  of  Salford  (Salford,  annually  since 
1877);  Snead-Cox,  Life  of  Cardinal  Vaughan,  vol.  I  (London, 
1910) ;  O'Dea,  The  Story  of  the  Old  Faith  in  Manchester  (Man- 
chester, 1910);  Gerard,  Stonyhurst  College,  Centenary  Record 
(Belfast,  1894);  Gruggen  and  Keatinge,  History  of  Stonyhurst 
College  (London,  1901) ;  Smith,  Chronicles  of  Blackhurnshire 
(Nelson,  1910) ;  Curley,  The  Catholic  Hist,  of  Oldham  (Oldham, 
1911). 

W.  O'Dea. 

Salimbene  degli  Adami  (Ognibene),  chronicler, 
b.  at  Parma,  9  Oct.,  1221;  d.  probably  at  Monte- 
falcone  about  1288.  He  was  a  member  of  a  distin- 
guished family  and  about  1238  entered  the  Franciscan 
Order.  For  a  time  he  led  a  very  troubled  and  wan- 
dering life,  as  his  father  sought  to  withdraw  him  from 
the  order  by  violence.  At  a  later  date  he  was  for  a 
long  while  in  the  monasteries  at  Florence,  Parma, 
Ravenna,  Rcggio,  and  Montefalcone.  He  came 
into  close  connexion  with  many  scholars  of  his  age, 
and  was  also  acquainted  with  Pope  Innocent  IV 
and  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  Besides  various 
treatises  that  have  been  lost  he  wrote,  towards  the 
end  of  his  life,  a  chronicle  covering  the  years  1167- 
1287.  This  chronicle  was  first  edited  in  the  "Monu- 
menta  historica  ad  provincias  Parmensem  et  Placen- 
tinensem  pertinentia".  III  (Parma,  1857),  but  the 
part  i.ssued  only  covered  the  years  1212-87.  The 
first  part  of  the  chronicle,  covering  the  years  1167- 
1212,  was  edited  by  L.  Cl^dat  in  his  work  "De  fratre 
Salimbene  et  de  eius  chronica;  auctoritate"  (Paris, 
1878).  A  fine  and  complete  edition  was  edited  by 
Holder-Egger  in  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Scriptores' , 
XXXII  (Hanover,  1906).  Besides  a  poor  Italian 
translation  by  Cantarelli  there  is  an  incomplete  one 
in  English  try  Coulton  with  the  title  "From  Francis 
to  Dante"  (London,  1906).  The  chronicle  is  one 
of  the  most  useful  sources  of  the  thirteenth  century 
for  the  polit  ical  history  of  that  time  and  is  also  an 
animated  picture  of  the  era;  it  is  of  especial  impor- 
tance for  the  history  of  the  internal  disputes  in  the 
Franciscan  Order.  The  writer  it  is  true  is  a  very 
impulsive  and  easily  influenced  man,  is  swayed  by 
the  prophecies  of  Joachim  of  I'iore,  is  inclined  to  be 
a  partisan,  especially  against  the  secular  clergy,  yet 


SALISBURY 


401 


SALMANTICENSES 


at  the  same  time  he  shows  sound  historical  sense,  is 
an  intelligent  critic,  and  regards  it  as  the  chief  object 
of  his  historical  writing  to  present  the  exact  truth. 

Michael,  Salimbene  und  seine  Chronik  (Innsbruck,  1889); 
POTTHAST,  Bibliotheca  historica  medii  cevi  (Berlin,  1896),  99-1. 

Patricius  Schlager. 

Salisbury,  Ancient  Diocese  of  (Sarum,  Saris- 
BURiENSis). — The  diocese  was  originally  founded  by 
St.  Birinus,  who  in  634  established  his  see  at  Dor- 
chester in  Oxfordshire,  whence  he  evangelized  the 
Kingdom  of  Wessex.  From  this  beginning  sprang 
the  later  Dioceses  of  Winchester,  Sherborne,  Rams- 
bury,  and  Salisbury.  In  the  time  of  Bishop  St. 
Headda  (676-705)  the  see  was  moved  to  Winchester, 
and  on  Headda's  death  (705)  a  formal  division  took 
place,  when  the  greater  part  of  Wiltshire  with  por- 
tions of  Dorset  and  Somerset  were  formed  into  the 
Diocese  of  Sherborne  of  which  St.  Aldhelm  became  the 
first  bishop.  Ten  bishops  in  turn  succeeded  St.  Aid- 
helm  before  the  next  subdivision  of  the  see  in  909,  when 
Wiltshire  and  Berkshire  became  the  separate  see  of 
Ramsbury,  restricting  the  Diocese  of  Sherborne  to 
Dorsetshire  only.  The  arrangement  continued  until 
the  two  dioceses  were  again  united  in  1058  under  Her- 
man, who  had  been  made  Bishop  of  Ramsbury  in  1045. 
He  Uved  to  transfer  his  episcopal  chair  to  Old  Sarum 
in  1075.  His  successor,  St.  Osmund,  built  a  cathedral 
there  and  drew  up  for  it  the  ordinal  of  offices,  which 
became  the  basis  of  the  Sarum  Rite  (q.  v.)  It  was  the 
seventh  Bishop  of  Sarum,  Richard  Poore,  who  deter- 
mined to  remove  the  cathedral  from  the  precincts  of 
the  royal  castle  of  Old  Sarum  to  a  more  convenient  spot. 
On  28  April,  1220,  he  laid  th<>  foundation  stones  of 
the  present  cathedral,  beginning  with  the  Lady  chapel 
which  was  consecrated  on  28  Sept.,  1225.  Among 
those  present  was  St.  Edmund,  afterwards  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  and  at  this  time  treasurer  of 
Salisbury.  The  cathedral  was  completed  in  1266, 
having  taken  nearly  half  a  century  to  accomplish. 
It  stands  alone  among  English  cathedrals  in  having 
been  built  all  of  a  piece,  and  thus  possesses  an  archi- 
tectural unity  which  is  exceptional ;  it  is  also  remark- 
able as  being  the  first  important  building  in  the  early 
English  style.  The  cloisters  and  chapter  house  were 
shortly  added;  the  spire  regarded  as  the  most  beauti- 
ful in  Europe  is  one  of  the  loftiest  in  the  world,  and 
was  a  later  addition,  the  exact  date  of  which  is  un- 
known; probably  built  by  1300.  The  diocese  was 
divided  into  four  archdeaconries:  Salisburj',  Berkshire, 
Wiltshire,  and  Dorsetshire.  In  the  "Valor  Ecclesias- 
ticus"  of  1535,  over  800  parish  churches  are  recorded. 

From  the  translation  of  the  see  to  Salisbury  the 
bishops  were:  Old  Sarum:  Herman,  consecrated 
1058,  removed  the  cathedral  to  Sarum,  1075;  St. 
Osmund,  1078;  vacancy,  1099;  Roger,  1103;  Jo- 
celin,  1142;  vacancy,  1184;  Hubert  Walter,  1189; 
Herbert  Poore,  1194;  New  Sarum:  Richard  Poore, 
1217;  Robert  Bingham,  1229;  William  of  York, 
1247;  Giles  de  Bridport,  1257;  Walter  de  la  Wyle, 
1263;  Robert  de  Wykehampton,  1274;  Walter 
Scammel,  1284;  Henry  de  Braundeston,  1287; 
WilUam  de  la  Corner,  1289;  Nicholas  Longespee, 
1292;  Simon  of  Ghent,  1297;  Roger  de  Mortival, 
1315;  Robert  Wyville,  1330;  Ralph  Erghum,  1375; 
John  Waltham,  1388;  Richard  Mitford,  1395; 
Nicholas  Bubwith,  1407;  Robert  Hallam,  1408; 
John  Chandler,  1417;  Robert  Neville,  1427;  William 
Ayscough,  1438;  Richard  Beauchamp,  1450;  Lionel 
Woodville,  1482;  Thomas  Langton,  1485;  John 
Blythe,  1494;  Henry  Deane,  1499;  Edmund  Audley, 
1502;  Lorenzo  Campegio,  1524.  In  1534  Cardinal 
Campegio  was  deprived  of  the  temporalities  and 
Nicholas  Shaxton  was  schismatically  intruded  into 
the  seer.  On  Campegio's  death,  Peter  Peto  (after- 
wards cardinal)  was  nominated  but  never  consecrated. 
Under  Mary,  the  schismatical  bishop,  John  Capon 
(or  Salcot)  was  reconciled  and  held  the  see  till 
XIII.— 26 


his  death  in  1557.  Peto  was  again  nominated,  but 
did  not  take  possession,  and  Francis  Mallet  was 
named,  but  ejected  by  Elizabeth  before  consecration. 
The  cathedral  was  dedicated  to  Our  Lady. 

Brixton,  Hist,  and  Antiquities  of  Salisbury  (London,  1814); 
DoDswoRTH,  Historical  Account  of  the  See  and  Cathedral  Church 
of  Sarum  (London,  1814);  Cass,  Lives  of  the  Bishops  of  Sher- 
borne and  Salisbury  (Salisbury,  1824) ;  Phillipps,  Institutiones 
clericorum  in  comitatu  WiUonice  (n.  p.,  1825);  Rock,  Church  of 
Our  Fathers  (London,  1849-53);  Scott,  Salisbury  Cathedral: 
position  of  high  altar  (London,  1876) ;  Jones,  Fasti  Ecclesice 
Sarisburiensis  (Salisbury,  1879-81);  Idem,  Salisbury  in  Dio- 
cesan Histories  (London,  1880) ;  Idem,  Charters  and  documents 
illustrating  the  history  of  the  Cathedral,  etc.,  of  Salisbury  in  R.  S. 
(London,  1891) ;  White,  Salisbury:  the  Cathedral  and  See 
(London,  1896) ;  Wordsworth,  Ceremonies  and  processions  of 
Cathedral  Church  of  Salisbury  (London,   1901). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Saliva  Indians,  the  principal  of  a  small  group  of 
tribes  constituting  a  distinct  linguistic  stock  (the 
Salivan),  centring  in  the  eighteenth  century,  about 
and  below  the  junction  of  the  Meta  and  Orinoco,  in 
Venezuela,  but  believed  to  have  come  from  farther 
up  the  Orinoco,  about  the  confluence  of  the  Guaviare 
in  Colombian  territory.  They  were  of  kindly  and 
sociable  disposition,  and  especially  given  to  music, 
but  followed  the  common  barbarous  practice  of 
killing  the  aged  and  feeble.  They  disinterred  the 
bones  of  the  dead  after  a  year,  burned  them,  and 
mixed  the  ashes  with  their  drinking  water.  In  their 
ceremonies  they  blew  upon  the  batuto,  or  great  clay 
trumpet  common  to  the  tribes  of  the  region.  A 
grammar  of  their  language  was  composed  by  the 
Jesuit  Father  Anisson.  In  1669  the  Jesuit  Fathers 
Monteverde  and  Castan  established  the  first  mission 
in  the  tribe,  under  the  name  of  Nuestra  Senora  de 
los  Salibas,  Ijut  both  dying  within  a  year  the  Indiana 
again  dispersed  to  the  forest.  In  1671  other  Jesuit 
missions  were  established  in  the  same  general  region, 
at  Carichana,  Sinamco  and  San  Lorenzo,  together 
with  a  small  garrison  of  twelve  soldiers  at  the  first- 
named  station,  but  were  all  destroyed  by  two  succes- 
sive invasions  of  the  savage  Carib  from  below  in  1684 
and  1693.  In  these  two  attacks  four  priests  lost 
their  lives,  together  with  the  captain  of  the  garrison, 
his  two  sons,  and  others.  Forty  years  later  the  mis- 
sions were  restored,  the  principal  one,  of  the  Sahva, 
being  estabhshed  in  1734  at  Carichana  on  the  Orinoco, 
just  below  the  junction  of  the  Meta.  Its  founder  was 
Father  Manuel  Roman,  superior  of  the  Jesuit  missions 
of  the  Orinoco,  and  discoverer  of  the  Casiquiare  con- 
nexion with  the  Amazon.  The  tribe  numbered  at  that 
time  about  4000  souls,  only  a  small  part  resided  at  the 
mission.  It  was  visited  and  described  by  Humboldt 
in  1800.  Another  Sahva  mission,  San  Miguel  de 
Macuco,  on  the  Meta,  had  at  one  time  900  souls. 
On  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  1767-68  the  Orinoco 
missions  were  placed  in  charge  of  Franciscan  fathers, 
but  fell  into  decline.  The  revolutionary  war  and  the 
withdrawal  of  help  from  the  Spanish  Government  com- 
pleted their  ruin.  The  mission  property  was  seized,  the 
Indians  scattered,  and  the  tribe  is  now  virtually  extinct. 

Brinton,  American  Race  (New  York,  1891);  Gim,  Saggio  di 
Storia  Americana,  IV  (Rome,  1784);  Gumilla,  £i  Orinoco  Ilus- 
trado  y  Defendido  (Madrid,  1745,  1882);  HervAs,  Catdlogo  de  las 
Lenguas,  I  (Madrid,  1800) ;  Humboldt,  Travels  in  the  Equatorial 
Regions  of  America,  ed.  Bohn  (3  vols.,  London,  1881);  Rivero. 
Historia  de  las  Misiones  de  Casanare,  etc.  (1735,  1883) ;  Tavera- 
Acosta,  Anales  de  Guayana,  I  (Ciudad-Bolivar,  1905). 

James  Mooney. 

Salmanticenses   and    Complutenses.  —  These 

names  designate  the  authors  of  the  courses  of  Scholas- 
tic philosophy  and  theology,  and  of  moral  theology 
published  b^  the  lecturers  of  the  philosophical  col- 
lege of  the  Discalced  Carmelites  at  Alcald,  de  Henares, 
and  of  the  theological  college  at  Salamanca.  Al- 
though primarily  intended  for  the  instruction  of  the 
younger  members  of  the  order,  these  colleges,  being 
incorporated  in  the  Universities  of  Alcald  {Complu- 
.  turn). and  Salamanca,  opened  their  lecture  rooms  also 


SALMAS 


402 


SALMERON 


to  outsiders.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  Carme- 
lites, with  some  notable  exceptions,  had  gone  hand 
in  hand  with  the  Dominicans  in  the  matter  of  Scholas- 
tic teaching  as  against  the  Franciscan  and  Augus- 
tinian  schools;  it  was  therefore  natural  that  in  the 
sixteenth  century  they  should  maintain  their  old 
allegiance  a^s  against  the  Jesuits.  Consequently 
they  made  strict  adherence  to  Thomism  their  funda- 
mental principle,  and  carried  it  out  with  greater  con- 
sistency than  probably  any  other  commentators  of 
the  neo-Scholastic  period.  Although  the  names  of 
the  several  contributors  to  the  three  courses  are 
on  record,  their  works  must  not  be  taken  as  the  views 
or  utterances  of  individual  scholars,  but  as  the  ex- 
pression of  the  official  teaching  of  the  order,  for  no 
question  was  finally  disj)osed  of  without  being  sub- 
mitted to  the  discu-ssion  of  the  whole  college,  and  in 
case  of  difference  of  opinions  the  matter  was  decided 
by  vote.  By  this  means  such  uniformity  and  con- 
sistency were  obtained  that  it  could  be  claimed  that 
there  was  not  a  single  contradiction  in  any  of  these 
immense  works,  although  nearly  a  century  elapsed 
between  the  publication  of  the  first  and  the  appear- 
ance of  the  final  instahnent.  At  the  beginning  the 
lecturers  contented  themselves  with  writing  their 
quaternione^,  many  of  which  are  still  extant.  But 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
publication  of  a  complete  course  was  decided  upon. 
The  "Logic",  wTitten  by  Diego  de  Jesda  (b.  at 
Granada,  1570;  d.  at  Toledo,  1621)  appeared  at 
Madrid,  1608,  and  was  re- written  by  Miguel  de  la 
SS.  Trinidad  (b.  at  Granada,  1588;  d.  at  Alcald, 
1661),  in  which  form  it  was  frequently  printed  in 
Spain,  France,  and  Germany.  Nearly  all  the  re- 
maining philosophical  treatises  were  the  work  of 
Antonio  de  la  Madre  de  Dios  (b.  at  L6on,  1588; 
d.  1640).  The  whole  work  was  then  re-cast  by  Juan 
de  la  Anunciaci6n  (b.  at  Oviedo,  1633;  general  from 
1694  to  1700;  d.  1701),  who  also  added  a  supplement. 
It  appeared  at  Lyons  in  1670  in  five  quarto  volumes, 
under  the  title,  "  CoUegii  Complutensis  Fr.  Discalc. 
B.  AL  V.  de  Monte  Carmeli  Artium  cursus  ad 
breviorem  formam  coUectus  et  novo  ordine  atque 
faciliori  stylo  dispositus".  It  superseded  all  previous 
editions  and  various  supplements,  such  as  the 
"  Metaphysica  in  tres  lib.  distincta"  (Paris,  1640)  by 
the  French  Carmelite,  Blasius  a  Conceptione.  Antonio 
de  la  Madre  de  Dios  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
dogmatic  part  of  the  Salmanticenses  by  publishing, 
in  1630,  two  volumes  containing  the  treatises  "De 
Deo  uno",  "De  Trinitate",  and  "De  angelis".  He 
was  succeeded  bv  Domingo  de  Sta  Teresa  (b.  at 
Alberca,  1600;  d.  at  Madrid,  1654),  who  wrote  in 
1647  "De  ultimo  fine",  "De  beatitudine,  etc.",  and 
"De  peccatis".  Juan  de  la  Anunciaci6n,  already 
mentioned,  contributed  "De  gratia",  "De  justifica- 
tione  et  merito",  "De  virtutibus  theologicis",  "De 
Incarnatione",  "De  sacramentis  in  communi", 
and  "De  Eucharistia".  He  left  the  first  volume  of 
"De  pcenitentia"  in  manuscript.  It  was  revised 
and  continued  by  Antonio  de  S.  Juan-Bautista,  who, 
dying  at  Salamfinoa  in  1699,  was  unable  to  carry  it 
through  the  preas.  The  work  was  therefore  com- 
pleted by  Alonso  de  los  Angeles  (d.  1724)  and  J'ran- 
cisco  de  Sta  Ana  (d.  at  Salamanca,  1707).  Thia 
last  volume,  the  twelfth,  appeared  in  1704.  The 
Salmanticenses  have  ever  been  held  in  the  highest 
esteem,  particularly  at  Rome  where  they  are  consid- 
ered a  standard  work  on  Thomistic  scholasticism.  A 
new  edition,  in  twenty  volumes  appeared  in  Paris 
as  late  as  1870-83.  An  abridgment  (two  large  vol- 
umes, in  folio)  for  the  use  of  students  was  published 
by  Pablo  de  la  Concepci6n  (general  from  1724  to 
1730;  d.  at  Grana^ia,  1734). 

The  moral  theology  of  the  Salmanticenses  wa«  be- 
gun in  1665  by  Francisco  de  Jpsiis-Maria  (d.  1677), 
with  treatises  on  the  sacraments  in  general,  and  on 


baptism,  confirmation,  the  Kucharist,  and  extreme 
unction.  The  fourth  edition  (Madrid,  1709)  under- 
went considerable  revision  on  account  of  the  new 
Decrees  of  Innocent  XI  and  Alexander  VII.  It  was 
augmented  by  a  disquisition  on  the  "Bull  Cruciata" 
of  Jose  de  Jesus-Maria,  i)ublished  by  Antonio  del 
SS.  Sagramento.  Andres  de  la  Madre  de  Dios  (d. 
1674)  wrote  "De  sacramento  ordinis  et  matrimonii" 
(Salamanca,  1668),  "De  censuris",  "De  justitia", 
and  "De  statu  religioso",  with  all  cognate  matters. 
Sebastian  de  San  Joaquin  (d.  1714),  the  author  of  two 
volumes  on  the  Commandments,  did  not  live  to  see 
his  work  through  the  ]iress.  Hence  it  was  completed 
and  ])ublishcd  by  .\lonso  de  los  Angeles,  who  had 
also  i)ut  the  last  hand  to  the  course  of  dogmatic 
theology.  St.  Al])honsus  Liguori  esteemed  the  moral 
theology  of  the  Salmanticenses;  he  nearly  always 
quotes  them  approvingly  and  follows  their  lead, 
though  on  rare  occasions  he  finds  them  somewhat 
too  easy  going.  Lehmkuhl  complains  that  they  are 
not  always  accurate  in  their  quotations. 

Henricus  a  SS.  Sacramento,  Collcrlio  scrip,  ord.  carmel. 
excGlc.  (Savona,  1884),  passim;  Hurter,  Nomenclator. 

B.  Zimmerman. 

Salmas,  a  Chaldean  s(>e,  included  in  the  ancient 
Archdiocese  of  Adhorbigan,  or  Adherbaidjan;  we 
know  several  Nestorian  bishops  of  the  latter,  from 
the  fifth  to  the  seventh  centuries  (Chabot,  "Syno- 
dicon  orientale",  665),  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  (Le 
Quien,  "Oriens  christianus",  II,  1283),  also  some 
Jacobite  bishops  (Le  Quien,  op.  cit.,  II,  1.565).  At 
a  date  which  is  not  quite  certain,  but  which  goes 
back  at  least  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
(Guriel,  "Elementa  linguie  chaldaicie",  Rome, 
1860,  p.  206),  the  Chaldean  Catholic  Archdiocese  of 
Adherbaidjan  formed  one  with  that  of  Salmas,  and 
since  then  it  has  continued  to  exist.  The  diocese 
contains  8000  faithful,  10  priests,  13  parishes  or 
stations,  and  12  churches  or  chapels.  The  seminary 
is  at  Ourmiah;  the  Sisters  of  Charity  direct  the 
primary  schools.  The  town  and  Province  of  Salmas 
in  the  Persian  Adherbaidjan  are  rich  in  marble, 
orchards,  and  vineyards. 

Revue  del' Orient  Chretien,  1, 450;  Miss,  cathol.  (Rome,  1907),  814. 

S.  Vailh^. 

Salmeron,  Alphonsus,  Jesuit  Biblical  scholar, 
b.  at  Toledo,  8  Sept.,  1515;  d.  at  Naples,  13  Feb. 
1585.  He  studied  literature  and  philosophy  at 
Alcald,  and  thereafter  went  to  Paris  for  philosophy 
and  theology.  Here,  through  James  Lainez,  he  met 
St.  Ignatius  of  Loyola;  together  with  Lainez,  Faber, 
and  St.  Francis  Xavier  he  enlisted  as  one  of  the  fij-st 
companions  of  Loyola  (1536).  The  small  company 
left  Paris.  15  Nov.,  1536,  and  reached  Venice,  8  Jan., 
1537,  and  during  Lent  of  that  year  went  to  Rome. 
He  delivered  a  discourse  before  the  Holy  Father 
and  was,  in  return,  granted  leave  to  receive  Holy 
orders  so  soon  as  he  should  have  reached  the  canoni- 
cal age.  About  8  Sept.,  all  the  first  companions 
met  at  Vicenza,  and  all,  save  St.  Ignatius,  said  their 
first  Mass.  The  plan  of  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land  was  abandoned.  Salmeron  devoted  his  minis- 
try in  Sienna  to  the  poor  and  to  children.  On  22 
April,  1.541,  he  pronounced  his  solemn  vows  in  St. 
Paul's-Outside-the-Walls,  as  a  professed  member 
of  the  newly-established  Society  of  Jesus.  The 
autumn  of  that  year,  Paul  III  sent  Salmeron  and 
Broet  518  Apostolic  mmcios  to  Ireland.  They  landed, 
by  way  of  Scotland,  23  Feb.,  1542.  Thirty-four  days 
later  they  set  sail  for  Dieppe  and  went  on  to  Pans. 
For  two  years  Salmeron  preached  in  Rome;  his  ex- 
position of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  thrice  a 
week  in  the  church  of  the  Society  effected  much 
good  (1.545).  After  preaching  the  Lent  at  Bologna, 
ho  went  with  Lainez  to  the  Council  of  Trent  (18 
May,  1546)  as  theologian  to  Paul  III.     The  Dogma 


SALOME 


403 


SALT 


Alfonsus  Salmefoio' 


of  Justification  was  under  discussion.  The  two 
Jesuits  at  once  won  the  hearts  and  respect  of  all; 
their  discourses  had  to  be  printed  and  distributed  to 
the  bishops.  Both  set  out  for  Bologna  (14  March, 
1547)  with  the  Council.  After  serious  sickness  at 
Padua,  Salmeron  once  again  took  up  his  council 
work.  The  next  two  years  were  in  great  part  spent 
in  preaching  at  Bologna,  Venice,  Padua,  and  Verona. 
On  4  Oct.,  1549,  Salmeron  and  his  companions, 
Le  Jay  and  Canisius,  took  their  doctorate  in  the 
University  of  Bologna,  so  that  they  might,  at  the 
urgent  invitat  ion  of 
~  •  -     -      1     William  IV  of  Bavaria, 

accept  chairs  in  In- 
golstadt.  Salmeron 
undertook  to  inter- 
pret the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans.  He  held  the 
attention  of  all  by  his 
learning  and  grace  of 
exposition.  Upon  the 
death  of  Duke  Wil- 
liam, and  at  the  insti- 
gation of  the  Bishop 
(jf  \'erona,  much  to  the 
chagrin  of  the  faculty 
of  the  Academy  of  In- 
golstadt,  Salmeron  was 
returned  to  Verona 
(24  Sept.,  1550).  That 
year  he  explained  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew. 
Next  year  (1551)  he 
was  summoned  to 
Rome  to  help  St.  Ig- 
natius in  working  up  the  Constitutions  of  the  Soci- 
ety. Other  work  was  in  store.  He  was  soon  (I^eb., 
1551)  sent  down  to  Naples  to  inaugurate  the  Soci- 
ety's first  college  there,  but  after  a  few  months  was 
summoned  by  Ignatius  to  go  back  to  the  Council 
of  Trent  as  theologian  to  Julius  III.  It  was  during 
the  discussions  jjreliminary  to  these  sessions  that 
Lainez  and  Salmeron,  ixs  papal  theologians,  gave  their 
vola  first.  When  the  Council  once  again  susjjcnded 
its  sessions,  Salmeron  returned  to  Najjles  (Oct., 
1552).  Paul  IV  sent  him  to  the  Augsburg  Diet 
(May,  1555)  with  the  nuncio,  Lippomanus,  and  thence 
into  Poland;  and  later  (April,  1556)  to  Belgium. 
Another  journey  to  Belgium  was  undertaken  in  the 
capacity  of  adviser  to  Cardinal  Caraffa  (2  Dec, 
1557).  Lainez  appointed  Salmeron  first  Provincial 
of  Naples  (15.58),  and  vicar-general  (1561)  during 
the  former's  apostolic  legation  to  France.  The 
Council  of  Trent  was  again  resumed  (May,  1562) 
and  a  third  pontiff,  Pius  IV,  cho.se  Salmeron  and 
Lainez  for  papal  theologians.  The  role  was  very 
delicate;  the  Divine;  origin  of  the  rights  and  duties 
of  bishops  was  to  be  discu.ssed.  During  the  years 
1564-82,  Salmeron  was  engaged  chiefly  in  preaching 
and  writing;  he  preached  every  day  during  eighteen 
Lenten  seasons;  his  preaching  was  fervent,  learned, 
and  fruitful.  His  writings  during  this  long  period  were 
voluminous;  Bellarmine  spent  five  months  in  Naples 
reviewing  them.  Each  day  he  pointed  out  to  Sal- 
meron the  portions  that  were  not  up  to  the  mark,  and 
the  next  day  the  latter  brought  back  those  parts 
corrected. 

The  chief  writings  of  Salmeron  are  his  sixteen 
volumes  of  Scriptural  commentaries— eleven  on  the 
Gospels,  one  on  the  Acts,  and  four  on  the  Pauline 
Epistles.  Southwell  says  that  these  sixteen  volumes 
were  printed  by  Sanchez,  Madrid,  from  1597  till 
1602;  in  Brescia,  1601;  in  Cologne,  from  1602-04. 
Sommervogel  (Bibliotheque  de  la  C.  de  J.,  VII, 
479)  has  traced  only  twelve  tomes  of  the  Madrid 
edition— the  eleven  of  the  Go.spels  and  one  of  the 
Pauline    commentaries.     The    Gospel    volumes    are 


entitled,  "Alfonsi  Salmeronis  Toletani,  e  Societate 
Jesu  Theologi,  Commentarii  in  Evangelicam  His- 
toriam  et  in  Acta  Apostolorum,  in  duodecim  tomos 
distributi"  (Madrid,  1598-1601).  The  first  Cologne 
edition,  together  with  the  second  (1612-15),  are 
found  complete.  These  voluminous  commentaries 
are  the  popular  and  university  exjjositions  which 
Salmeron  had  delivered  during  his  preatihing  and 
teaching  days.  In  old  age,  he  gathered  his  notes 
together,  revised  them,  and  left  his  volumes  ready 
for  posthumous  publication  by  Bartholomew  Perez 
de  Nueros.  Grisar  (Jacobi  Lainez  Disputationes 
TridentiniP,  I,  53)  thinks  that  the  commentary  on 
Acts  is  the  work  of  P6rez;  Braunsberger  (Canisii 
epist.,  Ill,  448)  and  the  editors  of  "Monumenta 
Historica  S.  J."  (Epistola?  Salmeron,  I,  xxx)  disagree 
with  Grisar.  The  critical  acumen  of  Salmeron,  his 
judicious  study  of  the  Fathers  and  his  knowledge  of 
Holy  Writ  make  his  Scriptural  exegesis  still  worth 
the  attention  of  students.  He  was  noted  for  his 
devotion  to  the  Church,  fortitude,  pru(l(>nce,  and 
magnanimity.  The  Acts  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
show  that  he  wielded  tremendous  influence;  there  by 
his  voki  on  justification,  Holy  Eucharist,  penance, 
purgatory,  indulgences,  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass, 
matrimony,  and  the  origin  of  episcopal  jurisdiction 
— all  most  important  questions  because  of  the  gradual 
infiltration  of  some  heretical  ideas  into  a  small 
minority  of  the  hierarchy  of  that  time. 

Monumenta  hist.  Societatis  Jesu,  epistolce  P.  Alfonsi  Salmeron 
(Madrid,  1906);  Ribadeneira,  La  vida  y  muerte  del  P.  Alonso 
Salmerdn  (Madrid,  1605) ;  Astbain,  Hist,  de  la  CompaHia  de 
Jesus  (Madrid,  1902-05),  I,  II;  Idem,  Los  Espafloles  en  el 
Concilio  de  Trento  in  Rm6n  y  Fe,  III  and  IV;  Tacchi  Venturi, 
Storia  della  Compagnia  di  Gesu  in  Italia  (Rome,  1910);  Sommer- 
vogel, BibliotMque  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus  (Paris,  1896-1900), 
VII,  478  and  IX,  835;  Polanco,  Chronicon  breve  seu  synopsis 
rerum  geslarum  Societatis  Jesu  ab  initio  usque  ad  annum  lo/f9  in 
Monum.  hi.il.  S.  J.   (Madrid,   1900). 

Walter  Drum. 

Salome. — (1)  The  daughter  of  Herod  Philip  and 
Herodias  (Matt.,  xiv,  6-8;  Mark,  vi,  22;  cf.  Josephus, 
"Antiq.  Jud.",  XVIII,  v,  4),  at  whose  request  John 
the  Baptist  was  beheaded. 

(2)  One  of  the  holy  women  present  at  the  Cruci- 
fi.xion,  and  who  visited  the  tomb  on  the  morning  of 
the  Resurrection  (Mark,  xv,  40;  xvi,  1).  In  Mark 
XV,  40,  we  read:  "And  there  were  also  women  looking 
on  afar  off:  among  whom  was  Mary  Magdalen,  and 
Mary  the  Mother  of  James  the  less  and  of  Joseph,  and 
Salome."  The  parallel  passage  of  Matthew  reads 
thus:  "Among  whom  was  Mary  Magdalen,  and  Mary 
the  mother  of  James  and  Joseph,  and  the  mother  of 
the  sons  of  Zebedee"  (Matt.,  xxvii,  56).  Comparison 
of  the  two  gives  a  well-grounded  probability  that  the 
Salome  of  the  former  is  identical  with  the  mother  of 
the  sons  of  Zebedee  in  the  latter,  who  is  mentioned 
also  in  Matt.,  xx,  20  sq.,  in  connexion  with  the  peti- 
tion in  favour  of  her  .sons.  Beyond  the.se  references 
in  the  Gospel  narrative  and  what  may  be  inferred 
from  them  nothing  is  known  of  Salome,  though  some 
writers  conjecture  more  or  less  plausibly  that  she  is 
the  sister  of  the  Bles.sed  Virgin  mentioned  in  John,  xix, 
25. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Saloniki.     See  Thessalonica. 

Salt,  always  used  for  the  seasoning  of  food  and 
for  the  preservation  of  things  from  corruption,  had 
from  very  early  days  a  sacred  and  religious  character. 
The  Prophet  Eliseus  employed  it  to  make  palatable 
the  waters  of  a  well  (IV  Kings,  ii,  19  sqq.).  The 
Orientals  used  it  to  cleanse  and  harden  the  skin  of 
a  new-born  child  (Ezech.,  xvi,  4);  by  strewing  salt 
on  a  piece  of  land  they  dedicated  it  to  the  gods;  in 
the  Jewish  Law  it  was  prescribed  for  the  sacrifices  and 
the  loaves  of  proposition  (Lev.,  ii,  13).  In  Matt., 
V,  13,  salt  symbolizes  wisdom,  though  perhaps 
originally  it  had  an  exorcistic  signification.     Its  use 


SALTA 


404 


SALT  LAKE 


in  the  Church  belongs  exclusively  to  the  Roman 
Rite.  The  Ritual  knows  two  kinds  of  salt  for  litur- 
gical purposes,  the  baptismal  salt  and  the  blessed 
salt.  The  former,  cleansed  and  sanctified  by  special 
exorcisms  and  prayers,  is  given  to  the  catechumen 
before  entering  church  for  baptism.  According  to 
the  fifth  canon  of  the  Third  Council  of  Carthage  it 
would  seem  that  salt  was  administered  to  the  cate- 
chumens several  times  a  year.  This  use  of  salt  is 
attested  by  St.  Augustine  "(Conf.,  I.  1,  c.  xi)  and  by 
John  the  Deacon.  St.  Isidore  of  Seville  speaks  of  it 
(De  ofT.,  II,  xxi),  but  in  the  Spanish  Church  it  was 
not  imiversal.  The  other  salt  is  exorcized  and  blessed 
in  the  preparation  of  holy  water  for  the  Asperges 
before  high  Mass  on  Sundaj^  and  for  the  use  of  the 
faithful  in  their  homes.  The  present  formula  of 
blessing  is  taken  from  the  Gregorian  Sacramentary 
(P.  L..  LXXVIII,  231).  Both  baptismal  salt  and 
blessed  salt  may  be  used  again  without  a  new  bene- 
diction. The  appendix  of  the  Roman  Ritual  has 
a  blessing  of  salt  for  the  use  of  animals  and  another  in 
honour  of  St.  Hubert.  The  Roman  Pontifical  orders 
salt  to  be  blessed  and  mixed  in  the  water  (mixed  in 
turn  with  ashes  and  wine)  for  the  consecration  of  a 
church.  This  is  also  from  the  Gregorian  Sacramen- 
tary. Again  salt  (not  speciallj-  blessed)  maj^  be  used 
for  purifying  the  fingers  after  sacred  unctions. 

Duchesne,  C/iris^ian   Worship  (London,  1904),  317,  331,  410. 

Francis  Mershman. 

Salta,  Diocese  of  (Saltensis),  comprises  the  civil 
Provinces  of  Salta  and  Jujuy  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  Repubhc  of  Argentina.  It  was  created  on  17  Feb- 
ruarj',  1807,  the  territory  being  taken  from  the  ancient 
Diocese  of  C6rdoba  del  Tucumdn.  Until  1898  it  com- 
prised also  the  civil  Provinces  of  Tucumdn,  Santiago 
del  Estero,  and  Catamarca,  which  have  recently  been 
detached  to  form  new  dioceses.  The  first  Bishop  of 
Salta  was  Nicolas  Videla  del  Pino,  who  was  succeeded 
by  Fray  Buenaventura  Rizo  Patr6n,  Monsignor  Pablo 
Padilla  y  Bdrcena,  and  the  present  bishop,  Mgr.  Matlas 
Linares  y  Sanzetenea.  The  diocese  possesses  a  hand- 
some cathedral  and  seminary,  and  conducts  a  private 
printing  plant  which  issues  a  Catholic  daily  paper, 
"Tribuna  popular".  Religious  orders  of  men  are 
represented  by  the  Redemptorists,  who  devote  them- 
selves to  giving  missions,  the  Fathers  of  the  Divine 
Word,  the  Canons  Regular  of  the  Lateran,  the  Sale- 
sians,  who  are  in  charge  of  the  schools,  and  one  con- 
vent of  Franciscans  subject  to  the  Congregation  of 
Propaganda.  The  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  of 
the  Garden  of  Olives,  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  and 
Franciscan  Tertiaries  devote  their  time  to  teaching, 
hospital  work,  and  visiting  the  sick  in  their  own 
homes. 

Julian  Toscano. 

Saltillo,  Diocese  of  (Saltillensis),  in  the  Re- 
public of  Mexico,  sufTragan  of  Linares,  or  Monte- 
rey. Its  area  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  State  of 
Coahuila  (63,728  sq.  miles),  and  its  population 
(1910),  357,652.  The  city  of  Saltillo  (5190  feet 
above  the  sea-level)  is  the  principal  residence  of  the 
bishop  and  of  the  Governor  of  the  State  of  Coahuila, 
and,  according  to  above  cen.su.s,  has  a  population  of 
35,()63.  This  city  was  founded  in  1575  by  Francisco 
Urdinola,  and  inhabited  by  the  Huachichiles  and 
Borrados  Indians  of  the  country,  and  by  Tiaxcalteca.s 
brought  by  the  Spanish.  Th(!  Franciscan  Father 
Andres  de  Ix!6n  wa.s  one  of  the  first  mi-ssionaries 
in  this  territory  in  the  sixteenth  century.  In  1827 
the  name  of  Saltillo  wna  chang^nl  to  Ciudad  Leona 
Vicario,  in  honour  of  thf;  ccUibrated  Mexican  heroine 
of  that  name,  but  the  original  name  always  prevailed. 
The  Franci.scan  F'athers  of  the  Province  of  Jalisco 
hafl  eight  mi.Ksions  in  Ojahuila,  which,  in  1777, 
formed  i^art  of  the  See  of  Linares,  or  Monterey,  and 


belonged  to  it  until  1891,  when  Leo  XIII  erected 
the  See  of  Saltillo  with  jurisdiction  over  the  entire 
State  of  Coahuila. 

This  see  has  a  seminary,  with  20  students;  26  paro- 
chial schools;  10  CathoUc  colleges,  among  these 
that  of  St.  John  Nepomucene;  they  have  altogether 
3000  pupils,  both  boys  and  girls.  The  Protestants 
have  10  colleges  with  781  pupils,  and  33  churches. 
In  the  capital,  Saltillo,  the  present  cathedral,  which 
was  the  former  parish  church,  is  worthj'  of  mention. 
The  city  of  Parras  de  la  Fuente,  with  a  population 
of  7000,  is  also  notable.  It  owes  its  name  to  the 
wild  grape  vines  found  there  by  the  Conquistadores. 
D.  Antonio  Martin  of  Sapata,  and  Fray  Agustin  de 
Espinosa,  who  founded  the  city  there,  18  Feb.,  1592. 
During  the  Spanish  domination  it  was  the  residence 
of  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  who  gave  many  missions  and 
cared  for  the  towns  of  the  famous  Laguna.  The 
modern  city  of  Torre6n  is  the  most  populous  of  the 
state;  nevertheless  it  counts  but  few  religious  ele- 
ments. 

NoRiEG.i.,  Geografia  de  la  Repilblica  Mixicana  (Mexico,  1898). 

Camillus  Crivelli. 

Salt  Lake,  Diocese  of  (Lacus  Salsis),  includes 
the  State  of  Utah,  and  slightly  more  than  half  of  the 
State  of  Nevada.  The  State  of  Utah  (with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  rectangular  piece  in  the  extreme  north- 
east corner,  included  within  the  boundary  lines  of 
Wyoming),  forms  a  parallelogram,  which  has  a  length 
of  350  miles  north  and  south,  and  an  extreme  width  of 
nearly  300  miles.  Embraced  wthin  the  boundaries 
of  the  state  is  a  total  area  of  84,970  square  miles,  of 
which  2,780  square  miles  is  water  surface,  leaving  a 
land  area  of  82,190  square  miles.  Nevada  has  a  total 
area  of  110,700  square  miles  and  of  this  area  71,578 
square  miles  belongs  to  the  Diocese  of  Salt  Lake,  viz., 
the  Counties  of  Elko,  Lander,  Eureka,  White  Pine, 
Lincoln,  and  Nye,  a  group  of  counties  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  state.  This  westerly  boundary  of  the  dio- 
cese, beginning  at  the  extreme  north-west  corner  of 
Elko  County  on  the  state  line  between  Nevada  and 
Oregon  and  two  miles  west  of  117°  W.  long.,  follows 
south  along  a  line  parallel  to  this  meridian  for  a  dis- 
tance of  one  hundred  miles  to  the  Battle  Mountains, 
when  it  turns  abruptly  to  the  west,  along  the  north- 
erly slope  of  these  mountains  for  a  short  distance,  and 
then  follows  a  south-westerly  line  to  a  point  a  little 
south  of  40°  N.  lat.  From  here  it  continues  south 
along  an  irregular  line,  skirting  the  western  slope  of 
the  Shoshone  Range,  and  thence,  by  an  abrupt  turn 
to  the  left,  along  a  line  parallel  to  the  boundary  be- 
tween Nevada  and  California,  it  goes  back  to  117°  W. 
long.,  which  it  again  closely  follows  across  the  Ralston 
and  Amargosa  deserts  to  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
state.  This  part  of  the  diocc^sc  lies  within  the  Great 
Basin,  except  an  area  of  about.  12, ()()()  square  miles 
located  in  the  extreme  80uth(>rly  end,  the  drainage 
from  which  flows  into  the  Colorado  River. 

Bounded  on  the  north  by  the  States  of  Wyoming, 
Idaho,  and  Oregon,  on  the  west  by  the  western  part 
of  Nevada,  on  the  south  by  California  and  Arizona, 
and  on  the  east  by  Colorado,  the  Diocese  of  Salt 
Lake  extends  from  109°  to  117°  W.  long.,  and  from 
35°  to  42°  N.  lat.  This  is  an  immense  territory, 
sparsely  settled,  made  uj)  of  mountains,  deserts, 
sheep  ranges,  arable  valleys,  and  alluvial  lands. 
The  Catholic  population  is  found  largely  in  mining 
camps,  along  railroad  sections,  in  Salt  Lake  City, 
Ogden,  and  Park  City.  The  region  embraced  bv  the 
diocese  is  overwhelmingly  Mormon.  In  1886  all  the 
territory  now  included  within  the  boundaries  of  the 
diocese  constituted  a  vicariate  Apostolic,  and  the 
Rev.  Lawrence  Scanlan,  the  missionary  then  in  charge, 
W!iH  raised  to  the  epi8coi)at(!  and  the  vicariate  com- 
mitted to  his  care.  In  1891  the  vicariate  Apostolic 
was  erected  into   a  diocese,   and   the   Right  Rev. 


SALTO 


405 


SALUZZO 


Lawrence  Seanlon,  D.D.,  fixed  his  see  permanently 
at  Salt  Lake  City.  The  history  of  Catholicism  in 
Utah  and  Nevada  practically  began  when,  early  in 
1873,  Father  Scanlan  settled  in  Salt  Lake  City  as 
pastor  of  a  little  parish  in  the  city,  and  missionary 
priest  over  all  Utah  and  more  than  half  of  Nevada. 
Before  his  appointment  the  pioneer  priests.  Fathers 
Raverdy,  E.  Kelly,  James  Foley,  and  Patrick  Walsh, 
visited  or  resided  for  a  brief  period  in  Salt  Lake  City. 
When  Father  Scanlan  took  charge,  there  was  only 
one  small  church  in  the  great  territory.  To-day  the 
statistics  of  the  Chm-ch  in  this  region  are:  estimated 
Catholic  population,  Utah  and  six  Nevada  counties, 
20,000;  parishes,  9;  missions  and  stations,  33;  paro- 
chial and  missionary  priests,  21;  Marist  Fathers,  10; 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross,  108;  Sisters  of  Mercy,  12. 
All  diocesan  and  parochial  property  is  vested  in  the 
bishop,  who  holds  it  in  trust  for  the  people.  The 
Cathedral  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen,  Salt  Lake  City, 
dedicated  in  August,  1909  by  Cardinal  Gibbons,  is 
one  of  the  greatest  ecclesiastical  structures  west  of  the 
Missouri  River.  The  bishop,  as  pastor  of  his  large 
parish,  is  assisted  by  five  curates,  who  visit  the 
Catholic  institutions  of  the  city,  preside  at  the  cate- 
chism classes  and  direct  the  sodalities  of  the  Holy 
Angels,  the  Sacred  Heart,  the  Children  of  Mary, 
and  the  Altar  Society. 

Inslitutions. — All  Hallows  College,  Salt  Lake  City; 
founded  by  Bishop  Scanlan  in  1886;  conducted  by  the 
Marist  leathers  (Very  Rev.  Dr.  Guinan,  president), 
has  an  annual  attendance  of  200  pupils,  taught  by 
15  professors;  St.  Mary's  Academy,  Salt  Lake  City; 
conducted  by  33  sisters  of  the  Society  of  the  Holy 
Cross  (Sister  Alexis,  superior),  annual  attendance, 
250  ;  Convent  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Ogden,  sisters, 
23;  pupils,  230;  Kearns  St.  Ann's  Orphanage, 
Salt  Lake  City,  orphans  160,  cared  for  by  10  sisters 
of  the  Holy  Cross ;  Judge  Mercy  Hospital,  Salt 
Lake  City,  conducted  by  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Holy 
Cross  Hospital,  Salt  Lake  City,  under  the  care  of 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  ;  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross  have  charge;  of  the  parish  s('hools  at  Salt  Lake 
City,  Ogden,  Park  City,  and  Eureka.  In  nearly 
all  the  parishes  and  in  all  the  houses  of  education,  the 
League  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  Sodalities  of  the 
Children  of  Mary  and  of  the  Holy  Angels  are  flour- 
ishing. 

Salpointe,  Soldiers  of  the  Cross;  Howlett,  Life  of  Rt.  Rev. 
Joseph  P.  Machebeuf;  de  Smet,  Letter  published  in  Pricis  Ilis- 
torigues  (Brussels,  19  Jan.,  1858);  Chittenden,  Father  De  Smet' s 
Life  and  Travels  among  the  North  American  Indians;  Harris,  The 
Catholic  Church  in  Utah.  W.   R.   HARRIS. 

Salto,  Diocese  of  (Saltensis),  in  Uruguay,  suf- 
fragan to  Montevideo.  This  diocese  with  that  of 
Melo  was  erected  by  Pope  Leo  XIII  by  his  Brief  of 
19  April,  1897,  on  the  petition  of  the  Bishop  of  Monte- 
video and  with  the  consent  of  the  Uruguayan  Gov- 
ernment. Montevideo  was  raised  to  the  archicpisco- 
pal  rank  and  two  titular  bishops  were  named  to  assist 
the  new  archbishop.  However,  owing  to  unfavour- 
able political  conditions,  no  appointments  to  the  new 
sees  have  yet  been  made  (December,  1911).  The 
Diocese  of  Salto  comprises  the  north-western  portion 
of  the  Republic  of  Uruguay  (see  the  Ecclesiastical 
Map  of  South  America  in  Catholic  Encyclope- 
dia, III),  including  the  departments  of  Rio  Negro, 
Paysandu,  Salto,  Artigas,  and  Tacuaremb6,  with  an 
area  of  25,700  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about 
197,000  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Salto  (population 
12,000)  is  situated  on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  opposite 
Concordia  in  Argentina.  It  has  a  large  export  trade, 
and  is  in  communication  with  both  Montevideo  and 
Buenos  Aires,  by  boat  and  rail.  Paysandu  (popula- 
tion 16,000)  is  also  a  busy  commercial  centre,  the 
neighbouring  region  being  extensively  devoted  to 
stock-raising.  It  contains  a  hospital  and  two 
churches. 


Keane,  Central  and  South  America,  I  (London,  1909);  Mutr 
HALL,  Handbook  of  the  River  Plate  Republics  (London,  1895) ;  Df  az. 
Hist,  de  las  Repilb.  de  la  Plata  (Montevideo,  1878) ;  Publications  of 
the  DirecciSn  de  estadistica  general  (Montevideo,  current) ;  Brys- 
SEL,  La  republique  orientale  de  I'  Uruguay  (1889) ;  Handbook  of 
Uruguay:  International  Bureau  of  the  American  Republics  (Wash- 
ington, 1892  and  1909) ;  Bauza,  Historia  de  la  dominacidn  espaflola 
en  el  Uruguay  (Montevideo,  1880). 

Salutati,  Coluccio  di  Pierio  di,  Italian  Humanist, 
b.  in  Tuscany,  1331;  d.  4  May,  1406.  He  studied 
at  Bologna  and  went  to  Rome  to  begin  his  career  as 
pontifical  secretary  to  Urban  IV.  He  had  a  pa.ssion 
for  ancient  letters  and  from  1368  was  in  correspon- 
dence with  Petrarch.  In  1375  he  was  summoned  to 
Florence  to  be  chancellor  or  Latin  secretary  for  the 
repubhc,  which  office  he  hold  until  his  death.  He 
immediately  became  a  frequent  attendant  of  the 
learned  meetings  which  were  held  at  the  Convent  of 
San  Spirito  and  gathered  about  Luigi  de'  MarsigUi, 
theologian  and  Humanist  (d.  1394),  and  at  the  Villa 
Paradiso  of  the  Alberti.  Salutati's  hfe  was  filled 
chiefly  by  political  and  administrative  matters;  thus 
he  was  led  to  write  several  works  against  the  Duke  of 
Milan.  Among  his  works  are  short  treatises,  "De 
fato  et  fortuna",  "De  religione  et  fuga  ssecuh";  the 
only  one  printed  is  "De  nobilitate  legum  et  medicinse" 
(Venice,  1.542);  but  the  most  interesting  portion  of 
his  works  is  his  correspondence,  a  learned  edition  of 
which  was  published  by  Novati ; ' '  Epistolario ' '  (Rome, 
1891 — ).  Salutati's  manuscripts  are  rather  rare  in 
libraries  because  taste  changed  suddenly  with  regard 
to  Latin  style.  ^Eneas  Sylvius  (Pius  II)  said  that  he 
may  have  had  merit  in  his  time,  but  that  modern 
writers  had  obscured  him.  As  early  as  1401  Leonardo 
Bruni  of  Arezzo  exactly  depicted  the  Florentine  circle 
in  his  dialogue  and  represented  Salutati  as  an  old  man 
of  another  generation. 

Salutati's  activity  was  exercised  under  two  espe- 
cially fruitful  forms:  he  received  and  guided  young 
men  very  well;  Poggio  was  treated  by  him  as  his  son; 
he  protected  Bruni,  and  welcomed  with  enthusiasm 
Manuel  Chrysoloras,  whose  arrival  at  Florence  in  ]  396 
was  tlie  great  event  of  the  Renaissance  at  the  end  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  He  used  his  influence  to  se- 
cure Chrysoloras  a  pension  of  100  florins  a  year,  and, 
old  as  he  was,  he  took  \\\)  a  (X)ur8e  in  Greek.  On  the 
other  hand  he  devottid  hims(>If  to  seeking  for  Latin 
MSS;  in  1375  he  secured  from  Verona  a  copy  of  Catul- 
lus which  is  still  one  of  the  standard  texts  of  the  poet 
(now  in  Paris,  Bib.  Nat.,  Latin  14137).  He  was  also 
in  possession  of  Petrarch's  Propertius,  and  the  best  and 
most  ancient  MS.  of  Tibullus  (Ambrosianus)  was  also 
probably  in  his  library.  Petrarch  was  only  acquainted 
with  a  collection  of  Cicero's  letters,  comprising  the 
letters  to  Atticus  and  Quintus  and  the  correspondence 
between  Brutus  and  Cicero.  While  endeavouring  to 
recover  Petrarch's  copy  Salutati  stumbled  upon  an- 
other collection  in  1389,  that  known  as  the  "Famihar 
Letters";  in  1392  he  was  able  to  have  Petrarch's  MS. 
copied  at  Milan,  and  this  copy  is  now  the  chief  author- 
ity for  the  text.  He  was  the  first  to  po.ssess  Cato's 
treatise  on  agriculture,  the  elegies  of  Maximianus,  the 
"Aratea"  of  Germanicus,  and  the  commentary  of 
the  grammarian,  Pompeius,  on  Donatus.  Provided 
with  these  means  of  study  he  was  able  to  take  up 
questions  of  literary  history.  He  proved  that  the 
treatise  "De  differentiis "  was  not  Cicero's.  He 
dealt  with  the  problem  of  the  Octavia,  but  here  he 
shot  wide  of  the  mark.  To  him  we  owe  the  distinc- 
tion, now  long  admitted  to  be  incorrect,  between  Sen- 
eca the  tragedian  and  Seneca  the  philosopher. 

Sabbadini,  Le  scoperte  dei  codici  latini  e  grecinesecoliXIV"  XV' 
(Florence,  1905),  34;  Voigt,  Die  Wiederbelebung  des  classischen 
AUertums,  I  (Berlin,  1893),  190;  Sandys,  A  History  of  Classical 
Scholarship,  II  (Cambridge,  1908),  17.  PaUL  LeJAY. 

Saluzzo,  Diocese  of  (Saluci>e,  Salutiensis), 
in  the  Province  of  Cuneo,  Piedmont,  Upper  Italy. 
The  city  of  Saluzzo  is  built  on  a  hill  overlooking  a 


SALVADO 


406 


SALVATIERRA 


vast,  well-cultivated  plain.  Iron,  lead,  silver,  marble, 
slate,  etc.  are  found  in  the  surrounding  mountains. 
The  cathedral  (14S0-1511),  half-Gothic,  contains  a 
magnificent  high  altar,  and  is  rich  in  sculptures.  The 
church  of  St.  Bernard,  formerly  belonging  to  the 
Conventuals,  has  interesting  tombs  of  the  counts 
della  Torre;  the  Church  of  St.  Dominic  contains 
several  lu-tistic  tombs,  especially  that  of  the  Marquess 
Lodovico  II  and  his  spouse  (1504),  and  the  chapel 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  St.  Augustine's  and  St. 
Bernardino's  are  also  worthy  of  note.  The  present 
town  hall  is  the  former  Jesuit  College,  while  the  older 
one  (14G2),  with  a  bold  tower,  is  utilized  by  the  Court 
of  Assizes.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Silvio  Pellico, 
tj-pographer  Bodoni,  Abate  Denina,  and  Alalcarne  the 
anatomist.  Saluzzo  was  a  to^ni  of  the  \'agienni,  or 
mountain  Liguri,  and  later  of  the  Salluvii.  This 
district  was  brought  under  Roman  control  by  the 
Con.sul  M.  Fulvius.  In  the  Carlovingian  era  it  be- 
came the  residence  of  a  count;  later,  having  passed 
to  the  marquesses  of  Susa,  Manfredo,  son  of  Marquess 
Bonifacio  del  Vasto,  on  the  division  of  that  prin- 
cipality became  Marquess  of  Saluzzo;  this  family 
held  the  marquisate  from  1142  till  1548.  The  mar- 
quisat«  embraced  the  territory  lying  between  the 
Alps,  the  Po,  and  the  Stura,  and  was  extended  on 
several  occasions.  In  the  ISIiddle  Ages  it  had  a 
chequered  existence,  often  being  in  conflict  with  pow- 
erful neighbours,  chiefly  the  Counts  of  Savoy. 

Tommaso  III,  a  vassal  of  France,  wrote  the  ro- 
mance "Le  chevalier  errant".  Ludovico  (1416-75) 
was  a  wise  and  virtuous  prince.  Ludovico  II  con- 
structed a  tunnel,  no  longer  in  use,  through  the 
Monviso,  a  remarkable  work  for  the  time.  With 
the  help  of  the  French  he  resisted  a  vigorous  siege 
by  the  Duke  of  Savoy  in  1486,  but  in  1487  yielded 
and  retired  to  France  where  he  wTOte  "L'art  de  la 
chevalerie  sous  Vegece"  (1488),  a  treatise  on  good 
government,  and  other  works  on  military  affairs. 
He  was  a  patron  of  clerics  and  authors.  In  1490 
he  regained  power.  After  long  struggles  for  inde- 
pendence, this  small  state  was  occupied  (1548)  by  the 
French,  as  a  fief  of  the  Crown.  In  1.588  Carlo  Em- 
manuele  I  of  Savoy  took  possession  of  it.  Thence- 
forward the  city  shared  the  destinies  of  Piedmont  with 
which  it  formed  "one  of  the  keys  of  the  house" 
of  Italy.  Saluzzo  was  formerly  part  of  the  Diocese 
of  Turin.  Julius  II  in  1511  made  it  a  diocese  im- 
mediately dependent  on  the  Holy  See.  The  first 
bishop  was  Gianantonio  della  Rovere,  who  after 
eight  months  resigned  in  favour  of  his  brother 
Sisto,  later  a  cardinal.  Other  bi.shops  were:  Filippo 
Archinti  (1.546),  a  celebrated  jurisconsult;  the  Ben- 
edictine Antonio  Picoth  (1583)  a  learned  and  pious 
man,  founder  of  the  seminary;  he  was  succeeded  by 
St.  Giovenale  Ancina  (1597-1604)  of  the  Oratory 
of  St.  Philip,  the  apostle  of  Corsica;  Francesco 
Agostino  della  Chiesa  (1642);  Carlo  Gius.  Morozzo 
(1698),  who  had  built  the  high  altar  of  the  cathedral. 
The  diocese,  since  1805,  hiis  been  suffragan  of  Turin; 
it  contains  91  p.arLshes  with  170,000  inhal)itantH; 
300  secular  and  30  regular  priests;  31  religious  liouses; 
4  institutes  for  boys  and  3  for  girls;  and  has  a  Catho- 
lic newspaper. 

Cappelletti,  U  Chiese  d'ltalia,  XIV;  Carutti.  II  Mar- 
chesato  lii  Saluzzo;    Gabotto,   I,   marehen  di  Saluzzo  (Saluzzo, 

i-*"''  U.  Benioni. 

Salvado,  Rcdesindus.    See  New  Norcia. 

Salvatierra,  Juan  Maria,  b.  at  Milan,  15  Novem- 
ber, 1648;  d.  at  Guaflalajara,  17  July,  1717.  His 
family  was  of  Spanish  origin,  the  name  being  written 
originally  Salva-Tierra.  While  pursuing  his  studies 
at  the  Jesuit  college  of  Parma,  he  accidentally  came 
across  a  book  ufK)n  the  Indian  missions.  It  so 
impressed  him  that  he  at  once  determined  fo  give 
his  life  to  the  same  work,  although  his  parents  had 
destined  him  for  marriage  with  a  lady  of  high  rank. 


Receiving  the  habit  of  the  Jesuit  Order  in  Genoa, 
he  sailed  for  Mexico  in  1675,  and  on  arriving  in  that 
country  continued  his  theological  studies  for  a  time, 
after  which  he  was  assigned  to  a  professorship  in 
the  college  of  Puebla.  Dechning  a  position  in  the 
cathedral,  he  received  permission  to  devote  himself 
to  the  conversion  of  the  Indians  and,  in  June,  1680, 
set  out  for  the  still  unconquered  and  defiant  Taru- 
mari  (q.  v.)  in  the  wild  mountain  defiles  of  south- 
western Chiliuahua.  Among  these,  and  their  neigh- 
bours, the  Tubar,  Guazaar,  and  otliers,  he  laboured 
for  ten  years,  establishing  or  having  charge  of  several 
missions,  baptizing  whole  bands,  winning  the  affec- 
tion of  the  wild  tribes,  and,  alone,  holding  them  quiet, 
when  aU  around  were  in  murderous  revolt.  In  1690 
he  was  appointed  visilador  or  inspector  of  the  Jesuit 
missions  of  the  north-western  district.  Soon  after- 
wards, through  conversations  with  the  missionary 
explorer,  Fatlier  Eusebio  Kino,  he  conceived  an 
intense  desire  for  the  evangehzation  of  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, for  which  undertaking  official  authority  was 
finally  granted  in  1697,  all  expense  to  be  at  the  cost 
of  the  mi.ssionaries.  In  the  organization  and  later 
conduct  of  the  work  his  cliief  collaborator  was  Father 
Juan  Ugarte.  The  contributions  for  this  purpose, 
by  generous  donors,  formed  the  basis  of  the  his- 
toric fondo  piadoso,  or  Pious  Fund,  of  Cahfornia 
(q.  v.),  for  so  many  years  a  subject  of  contro- 
versy with  the  republican  government  of  Mexico. 
With  one  small  boat's  crew  and  six  soldiers  Salva- 
tierra landed  15  October,  1697,  at  Concepcion  Bay, 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  peninsula,  and  a  few  days  later 
founded  the  first  of  the  California  missions,  which 
he  dedicated  to  Our  Lady  of  Loreto,  his  special  pa- 
troness through  life.  For  a  time  he  acted  as  priest, 
captain,  sentry,  and  cook,  besides  studying  the  lan- 
guage from  a  vocabulary  prepared  by  an  earlier  Jesuit 
visitor,  Father  Juan  Copart,  and  from  the  natives 
who  could  be  induced  by  presents  to  come  near.  In 
the  course  of  the  next  few  years  he  founded  six 
missions,  .'successfully  overcoming  all  difficulties.  He 
also  made  some  important  explorations.  In  1704, 
being  summoned  to  Mexico,  he  was  appointed  provin- 
cial, but  when  accepting  the  office  requested  that  he 
might  soon  again  be  permitted  to  take  up  his  mis- 
sion work.  This  was  granted;  in  1707  a  successor 
was  appointed,  and  Father  Salvatierra  returned  to 
his  mission  charge,  where  he  remained  until  sum- 
moned in  1717  to  Mexico  to  confer  with  the  new 
viceroy.  Despite  a  painful  infirmity  he  set  out, 
but  the  fatigue  so  aggravated  his  disorder  that  he 
was  obliged  to  stop  at  (Guadalajara,  to  which  place 
he  insisted  on  being  carried  in  a  litter  rather  than 
turn  back.  Says  the  Protestant  historian  Bancroft: 
"It  was  thus  that  the  apostle  of  California  made  his 
last  earthly  journey.  For  two  long  months  he  tossed 
upon  his  deathbed,  suffering  extreme  agony.  Then, 
feeling  that  his  end  was  near,  he  summoned  the  faith- 
ful Bravo  to  his  side,  confided  to  him  the  particulars 
of  mission  affairs,  and  empowered  him  to  rej)re.sent 
California  at  the  capital.  On  the  17th  July,  1717, 
he  died,  as  he  had  lived,  full  of  hope  and  courage. 
The  whole  city  as.sembled  at  his  funeral,  and  the 
remains  were  deposited  amidst,  cfTemonies  rarely 
seen  at  the  burial  of  a  Jesuit  missionary,  in  t  he  chapel 
which  in  former  years  he  had  <>rected  to  the  Lady  of 
Ix)reto.  Salvatierra's  memory  uchhIs  no  i)anegyric. 
His  deeds  sjjeak  for  themselves;  and  in  tlu^  light  of 
these,  the  bitterest  (uiemies  of  his  religion  or  of  his 
order  cannot  deny  th(^  bc^auty  of  his  character  and 
the  disinterestedness  of  his  devotion  to  California." 
His  most  important  writings  are:  "Cartas  sobre  la 
Conquista  espiritual  de  California  "  (Mexico,  1698); 
"N\ieva8  Cartas  sobre  lo  mismo"  (Mexico,  1699); 
and  his  "Relaciones"  (1697-1709)  in  "Documentos 
I)ara  la  Historia  do  Mexico"  (4th  series,  Mexico, 
1853-7). 


SALVATION 


407 


SALVATION 


Ai,K(iKp;,  IHxl.  de  la  Cnmpaflia  ilr,  Jesus  (3  vols.,  Mexico,  1841); 
Bancroit,  Ilisl.  North  Mexican  Slates  and  Texas,  I  (San  Fran- 
cisco, 1886) ;  Beristain  y  Souza,  Biblioteca  Hispano  Americana 
Sricntrional,  III  (Amecameca,  1883);  Gleeson,  Hist.  Catholic 
Church  in  California  (2  vols.,  San  Francisco,  1872)  ;  Venegas, 
Noticia  de  la  California,  y  de  su  conquista  temporal  y  espiritual 
(3  vols.,  Madrid,  17.57);  imperfect  translations  in  English  (Lon- 
don, 1759),  French  (Paris,  1767),  German,  and  Dutch. 

James  Mooney. 

Salvation,  in  Greek  <TWT7)pla,  in  Hebrew  yeshu- 
ah,  has  in  Scriptural  language  the  general  meaning  of 
liberation  from  straitened  circumstances  or  from 
other  evils  and  of  a  translation  into  a  state  of  freedom 
and  security  (I  Kings,  xi,  13;  xiv,  45;  II  Kings,  xxiii, 
10;  IV  Kings,  xiii,  17).  At  times  it  expresses  God's 
help  against  Israel's  enemies,  at  other  times,  the  Di- 
vine blessing  bestowed  on  the  produce  of  the  soil 
(Is.,  xlv,  8).  As  sin  is  the  greatest  evil,  being  the 
root  and  source  of  all  evil.  Sacred  Scripture  uses  the 
word  "salvation"  mainly  in  the  sense  of  liberation  of 
the  human  race  or  of  individual  man  from  sin  and  its 
consequences.  We  shall  first  consider  the  salvation 
of  the  human  race,  and  then  salvation  as  it  is  verified 
in  the  individual  man. 

I.  Salvation  of  the  Human  Race. — We  need  not 
dwell  upon  the  possibility  of  the  salvation  of  man- 
kind, or  upon  its  appro{)riateness.  Nor  need  we  re- 
mind the  reader  that  after  God  had  freely  determined 
to  save  the  human  race,  He  might  \v,i\v  done  so  by 
pardoning  man's  sins  without  having  recourse  to  the 
Incarnation  of  the  Second  Person  of  the  Most  Holy 
Trinity.  Still,  the  Incarnation  of  the  Word  was  the 
most  fitting  means  for  the  salvation  of  man,  and  was 
even  neccssiiry,  in  case  God  claimed  full  satisfaction 
for  the  injury  (lon(>  to  him  by  sin  (see  Incarnation). 
ThoughtlieofHceof  Saviour  is  really  one,  it  is  virtually 
multiple:  there  must  be  an  atonement  for  sin  and 
damnation,  an  establishment  of  the  truth  so  as  to 
overcome  human  ignorance  and  error,  a  perennial 
source  of  ,spiritual  strength  aiding  man  in  his  struggle 
against  weakness  and  concupiscence.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  Jesus  Christ  really  fulfilled  these  three 
functions,  that  He  therefore  really  saved  mankind 
from  sin  and  its  consequences.  As  teacher  He  es- 
tabhshed  the  reign  of  truth;  as  king  He  supplied 
strength  to  His  subjects;  as  priest  He  stood  between 
heaven  and  earth,  reconciling  sinful  man  with  his 
angry  God. 

A.  Christ  as  Teacher. — Prophets  had  foretold  Christ 
as  a  teacher  of  Divine  truth:  "Behold,  I  have  given 
him  for  a  witness  to  the  people,  for  a  leader  and  a 
master  to  the  Gentiles"  (Is.,  Iv,  4).  Christ  himself 
claims  the  title  of  teacher  repeatedly  during  the 
course  of  His  public  life:  "You  call  me  Master,  and 
Lord;  and  you  say  well,  for  so  I  am"  (John,  xiii,  13; 
cf.  Matt.,  xxiii,  10;  John,  iii,  31).  The  Gospels  inform 
us  that  nearly  the  whole  of  Christ's  public  life  was  de- 
voted to  teaching  (see  Jesus  Christ).  There  can  be 
no  doubt  as  to  the  supereminence  of  Christ's  teaching; 
even  as  man.  He  is  an  eyewitness  to  all  He  reveals; 
His  truthfulness  is  God's  own  veracity;  His  authority 
is  Divine;  His  words  are  the  utterances  of  a  Divine 
person;  He  has  the  personal  power  to  prove  His 
teaching  by  miracles;  He  can  internally  illumine  and 
move  the  minds  of  His  hearers;  He  is  the  eternal  and 
infinite  wisdom  of  God  Incarnate  Who  cannot  deceive 
and  cannot  be  deceived. 

B.  Christ  as  King. — The  royal  character  of  Christ 
was  foretold  by  the  Prophets,  announced  by  the  an- 
gels, claimed  by  Christ  Himself  (Ps.  ii,  6;  Is.,  ix,  6-7; 
Ezech.,  xxxiv,  23;  Jer.,  xxiii,  3-5;  Luke,  i,  32-33; 
John,  xviii,  37).  His  royal  functions  are  the  founda- 
tion, the  expansion  and  the  final  consummation  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  among  men.  The  first  and  last  of 
these  acts  are  personal  and  visible  acts  of  the  king, 
but  the  intermediate  function  is  carried  out  either 
invisibly,  or  by  Christ's  visible  agents.  The  practi- 
cal working  of  the  kingly  oflSce  of  Christ  is  described 


in  the  treatises  on  the  sources  of  revelation,  on  grace, 
on  the  Church,  on  the  sacraments,  and  on  the  last 
things. 

C.  Christ  as  Priest. — The  ordinary  priest  is  made 
God's  own  by  an  accidental  unction,  Christ  is  consti- 
tuted God's  own  Son  by  the  substantial  unction  with 
the  Divine  nature;  the  ordinary  priest  is  made  holy, 
though  not  impeccable,  by  his  consecration,  whUe 
Christ  is  separated  from  all  sin  and  .sinners  by  the 
hypostatic  union;  the  ordinary  priest  draws  nigh  unto 
God  in  a  very  imperfect  manner,  but  Christ  is  seated 
at  the  right  hand  of  the  power  of  God.  The  Levitical 
priesthood  was  temporal,  earthly,  and  carnal  in  its 
origin,  in  its  relations  to  God,  in  its  working,  in  its 
power;  Christ's  priesthood  is  eternal,  heavenly,  and 
spiritual.  The  victims  offered  by  the  ancient  priests 
were  either  lifeless  things  or,  at  best,  irrational  ani- 
mals distinct  from  the  person  of  the  offerer;  Christ 
offers  a  victim  included  in  the  person  of  the  offerer. 
His  living  human  flesh,  animated  by  His  rational 
soul,  a  real  and  worthy  substitute  for  mankind,  on 
who.se  behalf  Christ  offers  the  sacrifice.  The  Aaronic 
priest  inflicted  an  irreparable  death  on  the  victim 
which  his  sacrificial  intention  changed  into  a  religious 
rite  or  symbol;  in  Christ's  sacrifice  the  immutation  of 
the  victim  is  brought  about  by  an  internal  act  of  His 
will  (John,  X,  17),  and  the  victim's  death  is  the  .source 
of  a  new  life  to  himself  and  to  mankind.  Besides, 
Christ's  sacrifice,  being  that  of  a  Divine  person,  car- 
ries its  own  acceptance  with  it;  it  is  as  much  of  a  gift 
of  God  to  man,  as  a  sacrifice  of  man  to  God. 

Hence  follows  the  perfection  of  the  salvation 
wrought  by  Christ  for  mankind.  On  His  part  Christ 
offered  to  God  a  sat  isfaction  for  man's  sin  not  only  suf- 
ficient but  superabundant  (Rom.,  v,  1.5-20);  on  God's 
part  sujjposing,  what  is  contained  in  the  very  idea  of 
man's  redemption  through  Christ,  that  God  agreed  to 
accept  the  work  of  the  Redeemer  for  the  sins  of  man, 
He  was  bound  by  His  promise  and  His  justice  to  grant 
the  rcmis.sion  of  sin  to  the  extent  and  in  the  manner 
intended  by  Christ.  In  this  way  our  salvation  has 
won  back  for  us  the  essential  prerogative  of  the  state 
of  original  justice,  i.  e.,  sanctifying  grace,  while  it  will 
restore  the  minor  prerogatives  at  the  Resurrection. 
At  the  same  time,  it  does  not  at  once  blot  out  indi- 
vidual sin,  but  only  procures  the  means  thereto,  and 
these  means  are  not  restricted  only  to  the  predestined 
or  to  the  faithful,  but  extend  to  all  men  (I  John,  ii,  2; 
I  Tim.,  ii,  1-4).  Moreover  salvation  makes  us  co- 
heirs of  Christ  (Rom.,  viii,  14-17),  a  royal  priesthood 
(I  Pet.,  ii,  9;  cf.  Ex.,  xix,  6),  sons  of  God,  temples  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  (I  Cor.,  iii,  16),  and  other  Christs — 
Christianus  alter  Christus;  it  perfects  the  angelical 
orders,  raises  the  dignity  of  the  material  world,  and 
restores  all  things  in  Christ  (Eph.,  i,  9-10).  By  our 
salvation  all  things  are  ours,  we  are  Christ's,  and 
Christ  is  God's  (I  Cor.,  iii,  22-23). 

II.  Individual  Salvation. — The  Council  of  Trent 
describes  the  process  of  salvation  from  sin  in  the  case 
of  an  adult  with  great  minuteness  (Sess.  VI,  v-vi).  It 
begins  with  the  grace  of  God  which  touches  a  sinner's 
heart,  and  calls  him  to  repentance.  This  grace  can- 
not be  merited;  it  proceeds  solely  from  the  love  and 
mercy  of  God.  Man  may  receive  or  reject  this  in- 
spiration of  God,  he  may  turn  to  God  or  remain  in  sin. 
Grace  does  not  constrain  man's  free  will.  Thus  as- 
sisted the  sinner  is  disposed  for  salvation  from  sin; 
he  believes  in  the  revelation  and  promises  of  God,  he 
fears  God's  justice,  hopes  in  his  mercy,  trusts  that 
God  will  be  merciful  to  him  for  Christ's  sake,  begins 
to  love  God  as  the  source  of  all  justice,  hates  and  de- 
tests his  sins.  This  disposition  is  followed  by  justifi- 
cation itself,  which  consists  not  in  the  mere  remission 
of  sins,  but  in  the  sanctification  and  renewal  of  the 
inner  man  by  the  voluntary  reception  of  God's  grace 
and  gifts,  whence  a  man  becomes  just  instead  of  un- 
just, a  friend  instead  of  a  foe  and  so  an  heir  according 


SALVATORIANS 


408 


SALVE 


to  hope  of  eternal  life.  This  change  happens  either 
by  reason  of  a  perfect  act  of  charity  elicited  by  a  well 
disposed  sinner  or  by  virtue  of  the  Sacrament  either 
of  Baptism  or  of  Penance  according  to  the  condition 
of  the  respective  subject  laden  with  sin.  The  Council 
further  indicates  the  causes  of  this  change.  By  the 
merit  of  the  Most  Holy  Passion  through  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  charity  of  God  is  shed  abroad  in  the  hearts 
of  those  who  are  justified. 

Against  the  heretical  tenets  of  various  times  and 
sects  we  must  hold  that  the  initial  grace  is  truly 
gratuitous  and  supernatural;  that  the  human  will  re- 
mains free  under  the  influence  of  this  grace;  that  man 
really  co-operates  in  his  personal  salvation  from  sin; 
that  bj'  justification  man  is  really  made  just,  and  not 
merely  declared  or  reputed  so;  that  justification  and 
Banctification  are  only  two  aspects  of  the  same  thing, 
and  not  intologically  and  chronologically  distinct 
realities;  that  justification  excludes  all  mortal  sin 
from  the  soul,  so  that  the  just  man  is  no  way  liable  to 
the  sentence  of  death  at  God's  judgment-seat.  Other 
points  involved  in  the  foregoing  process  of  personal 
salvation  from  sin  are  matters  of  discussion  among 
Catholic  theologians;  such  are,  for  instance,  the  pre- 
cise nature  of  initial  grace,  the  manner  in  which  grace 
and  free  will  work  together,  the  precise  nature  of  the 
fear  and  the  love  disposing  the  sinner  for  justification, 
the  manner  in  which  sacraments  cause  sanctifying 
grace.  But  these  questions  are  treated  in  other  arti- 
cles dealing  ex  professo  with  the  respective  subjects. 
The  same  is  true  of  final  perseverance  without  which 
personal  salvation  from  sin  is  not  permanently  se- 
cured. 

WTiat  has  been  said  applies  to  the  salvation  of 
adults;  children  and  those  permanently  deprived  of 
their  use  of  reason  are  saved  by  the  Sacrament  of 
Baptism. 

A  number  of  questions  briefly  touched  upon  in  this  article  are 
more  fully  treated  under  the  respective  headings  throughout  the 
volumes  of  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia.  Wilhelm  and  Scannell, 
Manual  of  Catholic  Theology,  II  (London,  1898),  45-56,  181-205, 
246-56;  Hunter,  Outlines  of  Dogmatic  Theology  (New  York, 
18%),  II,  539  sqq.;  Ill,  112-42.  All  the  modern  theological 
works  on  Redemption  and  Justification.  Among  the  older  works 
may  be  mentioned:  Lombard,  II,  dist.  26-29,  with  Commen- 
taries of  St.  Thomas,  Saint  Bonaventure,  and  Estius;  III,  dist. 
1-22,  with  Commentaries  of  Saint  Bonaventure,  Saint  Thomas, 
Scotus,  Denis  the  Carthusian,  and  Estius;  Saint  Thomas, 
Summa,  I-II,  QQ.  cix-cxiv,  with  ComTuenlaries  of  Sylvius, 
GoNET,  Gotti,  Billuart,  Suarez,  Vasquez;  Idem,  Summa, 
III.  QQ-  i-li,  with  Commentaries  of  Medina,  Sylvius,  Gonet, 
Salmanticenses,  Valentia,  Tanner,  Vasquez,  Lugo,  Ragusa, 

BUAREZ. 

A.  J.  Maas. 
Salvatorians.    See  Divine  Saviour,  Society  of 

THE. 

Salve  Mundi  Salutare,  a  poem  in  honour  of  the 
various  members  of  Christ  on  the  Cro.ss.  A  fifteenth- 
century  M.S.  ascribes  it  to  St.  Bonaventure,  and 
Daniel  thinks  that  this  "inspired  singer  of  the  Cross" 
could  well  have  composed  it.  The  commonest 
ascription  is  to  St.  Bernard;  and  Trench  thinks 
that  this  and  other  poems  "were  judged  away  from 
him  on  very  slight  and  insufficient  grounds  by  Mabil- 
lon",  who  places  the  hymn  among  the  spurious 
(aliena  et  supposiWia)  works  of  the  saint  (P.  L., 
CLXXXIV,  1.319-24).  Although  the  saint  died 
in  11.5.3,  and  no  MS.  of  the  hymn  antedates  the 
fourteenth  century,  Daniel  favours  the  ascription 
of  two  of  the  cantos  to  the  saint.  Mone  judged  the 
hymn  of  French  origin,  and  declared  that  all  hope  of 
restoring  the  text  correctly  lay  in  the  future  discovery 
of  French  M.SS.  This  ta,sk  was  attempted  by  M. 
Haur^au  ("Pof-mes  latins  attribu6s  h  Saint  Bernard", 
1890,  pp.  70-73),  who,  finding  it  in  only  three  MSS. 
(two  in  Paris,  one  at  Grenoble),  all  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  think.s  it  incredible  that  the  hymn  should 
have  been  composed  by  St.  Bernard. 

It  ifl  divided  mto  seven  cantos,  headed  respectively: 
"Ad   Pedes",    "Ad   Genua",    "Ad    Manus",    "Ad 


Latus",  "Ad  Pectus",  "Ad  Cor",  "Ad  Faciem" 
(To  the  Feet,  Knees,  Hands,  Side,  Breast,  Heart, 
Face).  Each  canto  contains  five  stanzas  of  ten 
lines  each,  except  the  canto  "Ad  Cor",  which  has 
seven.  The  MSS.  give  many  variant  texts  and  many 
additional  titles  (as  "To  the  Mouth",  "Shoulders", 
"Ears",  "the  Scourging",  "the  Crowning").  Mone 
accepts  only  four  cantos  (To  the  Feet,  Knees,  Hand, 
Side)  as  original.  Daniel  accepts  but  two  original 
cantos  (those  addressing  the  Feet  and  the  Knees), 
but  not  their  titles,  which  he  believes  of  later  coinage. 
He  thinks  the  oldest  text  is  found  in  a  Lichtenthal 
MS.  (fifteenth  century)  containing  only  the  cantos 
beginning  "Salve  mundi  salutare"  and  "Salve, 
salve  rex  sanctorum",  under  the  "probably  true" 
title  of ' '  Planctus  super  passionem  Domini " .  "  Who- 
ever,"  he  says,  "reads  the  first  hymn  carefully,  must 
see  that  it  concerns  the  whole  form  of  Christ  suffering, 
and  that  the  feet  are  mentioned  for  the  sole  reason 
that  the  poet  places  himself  at  the  foot  of  the  cross, 
prostrate  and  embracing  the  feet  of  the  Saviour. 
The  second  poem,  also,  deals  with  the  Passion  gen- 
erally, and  only  once,  and  passingly,  alludes  to  the 
knees."  He  attributes  both  the  titles  and  the  elab- 
orations to  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries, 
when  the  devotion  to  the  Five  Wounds  was  growing. 
"Then  the  verses  of  Bernard  offered  convenient 
warps  or  threads  in  which  might  be  interwoven  the 
woof  of  devotion  to  the  wounds  singly."  The  first 
lines  of  the  cantos  are:  1.  Salve  mundi  salutare 
(Ad  Pedes);  2.  Salve  Jesu,  Rex  sanctorum  (Ad 
Genua);  3.  Salve  Jesu,  pastor  bone  (Ad  Manus); 
4.  Salve  Jesu,  summe  bonus  (Ad  Latus);  5.  Salve, 
salus  mea,  Deus  (Ad  Pectus);  6.  Summi  regis  cor 
aveto  (Ad  Cor);  7.  Salve  caput  cruentatum  (Ad 
Faciem). 

In  St.  Bernard's  "Opuscula"  (Venice,  149,5),  the 
seventh  canto  is  addressed  "To  the  Whole  Body",  and 
commences:  "Salve  Jesu  reverende".  Julian  gives 
the  first  lines  of  some  translations  (by  non-Catholics) 
of  all  the  cantos  except  three  and  five,  and  remarks 
that  "some  of  the  parts  have  suffered  from  neglect", 
and  that  "this  should  be  remedied  by  an  able  trans- 
lator". In  the  second  edition  of  the  "Diet,  of 
Hymnology",  he  refers  to  the  translation  of  Mrs. 
E.  M.  Shapcote  (a  convert  to  Catholicism)  and  gives 
the  date  as  1873.  This  was  published  first  in  the 
"Rosary  Magazine"  (1877  and  1878)  and  republished 
by  Burns  and  Gates,  London,  1879;  its  title  is:  "A 
Rhythmical  Prayer  to  the  Sacred  Members  of  Jesus 
Hanging  upon  the  Cross".  The  stanzaic  form  is 
that  used  by  Mrs.  Shapcote  in  one  of  her  latest  works 
("Mary,  the  Perfect  Woman",  Manresa  Press,  1903), 
and  may  be  illustrated  by  the  first  stanza  of  canto 
5  (To  the  Breast) : 

O  God  of  my  Salvation,  hail  to  Thee; 

O  Jesus,  Sweetest  Love,  all  hail  to  Thee; 

O  Venerable  Breast,  I  worship  Thee; 

O  Dwelling-place  of  Love,  I  fly  to  Thee, 

With  trembling  touch  adore  and  worship  Thee. 
A  different  arrangement  of  the  poem,  found  in 
Horst's  "Paradisus  animic  christianic"  (1044),  has 
been  translated  by  Canon  Oakeley  (18.50),  and  (prob- 
ably) by  W.  J.  Copcland.  The  first  lines  of  both  are 
given  by  Julian.  The  paucity  of  Catholic  transla- 
tions is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  the  hymn  ap- 
pears never  to  have  been  in  liturgical  use.  However, 
the  Roman  Breviary  hymn  "Jesu  dulcis  amor  mens 
(Lauds  of  the  feast  of  the  Most  Holy  Winding  Sheet 
of  Our  Lord,  assigned  to  Friday  after  the  second 
Sunday  in  Lent)  is  made  up  of  lines  taken,  with  some 
alterations,  from  widely  separated  cantos.  This 
short  poem  contains  five  stanzas  of  the  type:  "Jesu, 
dulcis  amor  mens"  (1.  .36);  "Ac  si  pra;sens  sis, 
accedo"  (I.  6);  " Te  complector  cumaffectu"  (1.13); 
"Tuorum  memor  vulnerum"  (1.  1.5).  The  following 
stanzas  comprise  lines  8,  97,  (?),  6.5;  321  (Salve  caput 


SALVE 


409 


SALVE 


cruentatum),  326,  328,  330;  156  (Salve  latus  Salva- 
toris),  166,  169,  170;  106,  116,  (?).  40.  This  curiously 
constructed  hymn  (the  lines  are  here  numbered  as 
they  are  found  in  P.  L.,  loc.  cit.)  has  neither  rhyme 
nor  classical  quantity,  while  the  fourth  line  of  each 
stanza  is  in  iambic  rhythm  and  the  other  three  lines 
are  in  trochaic  rhythm.  Three  translations  are  indi- 
cated below. 

JuuAN,  Dictionary  of  Hymnology  (London,  1907),  pp.  989  and 
1097,  give  first  lines  of  trs.  from  the  Latin  and  German;  Daniel, 
Thesaurus  hymnologicus,  I,  232,  and  note,  p.  233,  declares  his 
view  that  all  the  cantos  "breathe  forth  the  heats  and  fires  of 
divine  love,  so  that  nothing  could  be  imagined  softer  or  sweeter", 
II,  359,  gives  a  canto  which  b,  as  Mone  says,  an  incoherent  mix- 
ture, IV,  22-1-8,  gives  the  complete  poem,  with  excellent  notes 
pp.  228-31;  Mone,  Laleinische  Hymnen,  I,  162-74,  gives  much 
critical  apparatus;  Trench,  Sacred  Latin  Poetry  (London,  187-1), 
gives  cantos  Ad  Pedes  and  Ad  Faciem,  and  (p.  138)  says  of  the 
hymns  attributed  to  St.  Bernard:  "If  he  did  not  write,  it  is 
not  easy  to  guess  who  could  have  written  them;  and  indeed  they 
bear  profoundly  the  stamp  of  his  mind,  being  only  inferior  in 
beauty  to  his  prose."  Konigsfeld,  Lateinische  Hymnen  und 
Gesdnge  (Bonn,  I860),  190-201,  gives  twelve  stanzas  with  Ger- 
man tr.;  March,  Latin  Hymns  (New  York,  1875),  144-119, 
gives  fifteen  stanzas  (with  notes,  p.  277).  The  hymn  Jesu  dulcis 
amor  meus,  tr.  Caswall,  in  Lyra  Catholica  (1849) ;  latest  ed. 
1884);  tr.  Wallace,  1874;  tr.  Bagshawe  in  Breviary  Hymns 
and  Missal  Sequences  (London,  1900),  75. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Salve  Regina,  the  opening  words  (used  as  a  title) 
of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  four  Breviary  anthems 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  It  is  said  from  the  P'irst 
Vespers  of  Trinity  Sunday  until  None  of  the  Saturday 
before  Advent.  .\n  exception  is  noted  in  Migne's 
"Diet,  de  liturgie"  (s.  v.),  namely  that  the  rite  of 
Chalons-sur-Marne  assigns  it  from  the  Purification 
B.  M.  V.  until  Holy  Thursday.  Another  variation, 
peculiar  to  the  cathedral  of  Speyor  (where  it  is  chanted 
solemnly  everyday  "in  honour  of  St.  Bernard"),  may 
have  been  based  on  (>ither  of  two  legends  connecting 
the  anthem  with  the  saint  of  Clairvaux.  One  legend 
relates  that,  while  the  saint  was  acting  as  legate 
Apostolic  in  Germany,  he  entered  (Christmas  Eve, 
1146)  the  cathedral  to  the  processional  chanting  of 
the  anthem,  and,  as  the  words  "O  clemens,  O  pia, 
O  dulcis  Virgo  ^Iaria"  were  being  sung,  genuflected 
thrice.  According  to  the  more  common  narrative, 
however,  the  saint  added  the  triple  invocation  for  the 
first  time,  moved  thereto  by  a  sudden  inspiration. 
"Plates  of  brass  were  laid  down  in  the  pavement  of 
the  church,  to  mark  the  footsteps  of  the  man  of  God 
to  posterity,  and  the  j^laces  where  he  so  touchingly 
implored  the  clemency,  the  mercy,  and  the  sweet- 
ness of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary"  (Ratisbonne, 
"Life  and  Times  of  St.  Bernard",  American  ed., 
1855,  p.  381,  where  fuller  details  are  given).  It  may 
be  said  in  piussing  that  the  legend  is  rendered  very 
doubtful  for  several  reasons:  (a)  the  narrative  ap- 
parently originated  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  re- 
lates a  fact  of  the  twelfth;  (b)  the  silence  of  con- 
temporaries and  of  the  saint's  companions  is  of 
some  significance;  (c)  the  musical  argument,  as  il- 
lustrated by  Jean  de  Valois  ("Le  'Salve  Regina'  dana 
rOrdre  de  Citeaux"  in  "La  Tribune  de  Saint-Ger- 
vais",  May,  1907,  p.  109),  suggests  a  single  author 
of  both  the  anthem  and  its  concluding  words. 

The  authorship  is  now  generally  ascribed  to  Her- 
mann Contractus  (q.  v.).  Durandus,  in  his  "Ra- 
tionale", ascribed  it  to  Petrus  of  Monsoro  (d.  about 
1000),  Bishop  of  Compostella.  It  has  also  been  at- 
tributed to  Adhemar,  Bishop  of  Podium  (Puy-en- 
Velay),  whence  it  has  been  styled  "Antiphona  de 
Podio"  (Anthem  of  Le  Puy).  Adhemar  was  the 
first  to  ask  permission  to  go  on  the  crusade,  and  the 
first  to  receive  the  cross  from  Pope  Urban  II.  "Be- 
fore his  departure,  towards  the  end  of  October,  1096, 
he  composed  the  war-song  of  the  crusade,  in  which 
he  asked  the  intercession  of  the  Queen  of  Heaven, 
the  Salve  Regina"  (Migne,  "Diet,  des  Croisades", 
B.  V.  Adhemar).  He  is  said  to  have  asked  the  monks 
of  Cluny  to  admit  it  into  their  office,  but  no  trace  of 


its  use  in  Cluny  is  known  before  the  time  of  Peter 
the  Venerable,  who  decreed  (about  1135)  that  the 
anthem  should  be  sung  processionally  on  certain 
feasts.  Perhaps  stimulated  by  the  example  of  Cluny, 
or  because  of  St.  Bernard's  devotion  to  the  Mother 
of  God  (the  saint  was  diligent  in  spreading  a  love  for 
the  anthem,  and  many  pilgrim-shrines  claim  him  as 
founder  of  the  devotion  to  it  in  their  locality),  it 
was  introduced  into  Citeaux  in  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century,  and  down  to  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury was  used  as  a  solemn  anthem  for  the  Magnificat 
on  the  feasts  of  the  Purification,  Annunciation,  and 
Nativity  B.  V.  M.,  and  for  the  Benedictus  at  Lauds 
of  the  Assumption.  In  1218  the  general  chapter 
prescribed  its  daily  processional  chanting  before  the 
high  altar  after  the  Capitulum;  in  1220  it  enjoined 
its  daily  recitation  on  each  of  the  monks;  in  1228 
it  ordered  its  singing  "mediocri  voce",  together  with 
seven  psalms,  etc.,  on  every  Friday  "pro  Domino 
Papa"  (Gregory  IX  had  taken  refuge  in  Perugia 
from  Emperor  Frederick  II),  "pro  pace  Romanae 
Ecclesiae",  etc.  etc. — the  long  list  of  "intentions" 
indicating  how  salutary  was  deemed  this  invocation 
of  Our  Lady.  The  use  of  the  anthem  at  Com- 
pline was  begun,  says  Godet  ("L'Origine  liturgique 
du  'Salve  Regina'  "  in  "Revue  du  clerge  frangais", 
15  August,  1910),  by  the  Dominicans  about  1221, 
and  was  rapidly  propagated  by  them.  Before  the 
middle  of  that  century,  it  was  incorporated  with 
the  other  anthems  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  the 
"modernized"  Franciscan  Breviary,  whence  it  en- 
tered into  the  Roman  Breviary.  In  Couteulx's 
"Annales  ordinis  Cartusiensis"  (Montreuil,  1901)  it 
is  said  (under  the  year  1239)  that  the  anthem  had 
been  in  use  in  that  order  (and  probably  from  its 
foundation)  before  Gregory  IX  prescribed  its  uni- 
versal use.  The  Carthusians  sing  it  daily  at  Vespers 
(except  from  the  First  Sunday  of  Advent  to  the  Oc- 
tave of  the  Epiphany,  and  from  Passion  Sunday  to 
Low  Sunday)  as  well  as  after  every  hour  of  the  Little 
Oflice  B.  V.  M.  The  Cistercians  sang  it  after  Com- 
pline from  1251  until  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, and  have  sung  it  from  1483  until  the  present 
day — a  daily  devotion,  except  on  Holy  Thursday  and 
Good  Friday.  The  Carmelites  say  it  after  every  hour 
of  the  Oflice.  Pope  Leo  XIII  prescribed  its  recitation 
(6  January,  1884)  after  every  low  Mass,  together  with 
other  prayers — a  law  still  in  force. 

While  the  anthem  is  in  sonorous  prose,  the  chant 
melody  divides  it  into  members  which,  although  of 
unequal  syllabic  length,  were  doubtless  intended  to 
clo.se  with  the  faint  rhymic  effect  noticeable  when  they 
are  set  down  in  divided  form: 

(1)  Salve,  Regina  (Mater)  misericordiae, 

(2)  Vita,  dulcedo,  et  spes  nostra,  salve. 

(3)  Ad  te  clamamus,  exsules  filii  Hevac; 

(4)  Ad  te  suspiramus  gementes  et  fientes  in  hac 
lacrymarum  valle. 

(5)  Eia  ergo  advocata  nostra,  illos  tuos  misericordes 
oculos  ad  nos  converte. 

(6)  Et  Jesum,  bonedictum  fructum  ventris  tui, 
nobis  post  hoc  exsilium  ostende. 

O  clemens,  O  pia, 

O  dulcis  (Virgo)  Maria. 
Similarly,  Notker  Balbulus  ended  with  the  (Latin) 
sound  of  "E"  all  the  verses  of  his  sequence,  "Laus 
tibi,  Christe"  (Holy  Innocent3\  Dreves  notes  that 
the  word  "Mater"  in  the  first  verse  is  found  in  no 
source,  but  is  a  late  insertion  of  the  sixteenth  century 
(".A.nalecta  hymnica",  L,  Leipzig,  1907,  p.  319).  Sim- 
ilarly, the  word  "Virgo"  in  the  last  verse  seems  to  date 
back  only  to  the  thirteenth  centnrv.  Mone  (Latein- 
ische  Hymnen  des  Mittelalters,  II,  203-14)  gives  nine 
medieval  hymns  based  on  the  anthem.  Daniel  (The- 
saurus hymnologicus,  II,  323)  gives  a  tenth.  The 
"Analecta  hymnica"  gives  various  transfusions  and 
tropes  (e.  g.  XXXII,  176,  191-92;  XLVI,  130-43). 


SALVETE 


410 


SALVI 


The  composers  adopt  curious  forms  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  text,  for  example  (fourteenth  century): 

Salve  splendor  priecipue 
supernae  claritatis, 

Regina  vincens  strenue 
scelus  impietatis, 

Misericordia?  tU£B 

munus  impende  gratis,  etc. 
The    poem    has    fourteen    such    stanzas.     Another 
poem,  of  the  fifteenth  century,  has  forty-three  four- 
line  stanzas.     Another,  of   the  fifteenth  century,  is 
more  condensed: 

Salve  nobilis  regina 

fons  misericordiae,  etc. 
A  feature  of  these  is  their  apparent  preference  for  the 
briefer  formula,  "O  clemens,  O  pia,  O  dulcis  Maria." 

The  anthem  figured  largely  in  the  evening  devotions 
of  the  confraternities  and  guilds  which  were  formed  in 
great  numbers  about  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  "In  France,  this  service  was  commonly 
known  as  a  Salut,  in  the  Low  Countries  as  the  Lof,  in 
England  and  Germany  simply  as  the  Salve.  Now  it 
seems  certain  that  our  present  Benediction  service  has 
resulted  from  the  general  adoption  of  this  evening 
singing  of  canticles  before  the  statue  of  Our  Lady, 
enhanced  as  it  often  came  to  be  in  the  course  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  by  the  exposition 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  which  was  employed  at  first 
only  as  an  adjunct  to  lend  it  additional  solemnity." 
This  highly  interesting  view  of  Father  Thurston  (see 
Benediction  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  for  some 
elaboration)  is  developed  in  his  articles  on  the  "Bene- 
diction of  the  Blessed  Sacrament"  ("Month",  June, 
July,  Aug.,  Sept.,  1901)  and  "Our  English  Benedic- 
tion Service"  (ibid.,  Oct.,  1905).  Luther  complained 
that  the  anthem  was  sung  everywhere  throughout  the 
world,  that  the  great  bells  of  the  churches  were  rung 
in  its  honour,  etc.  He  objected  especially  to  the  words 
"Queen  of  mercy,  our  life,  our  sweetness,  our  hope"; 
but  Daniel  (II,  .322)  points  out  that  the  language  of 
devotion  is  not  that  of  dogma,  and  notes  that  some 
Protestants,  unwilling  that  it  should  disappear  from 
Lutheran  churches,  reconstructed  it  "evangelically". 
He  perhaps  refers  to  a  version  in  use  at  Erfurt  in  1525 : 
"Salve  Rex  aetemai  misericordiae".  The  Jansenists 
found  a  like  difficulty,  and  sought  to  change  the  ex- 
pression into  "the  sweetness  and  hope  of  our  life" 
(Belssel,  I,  126).  While  the  anthem  thus  figured 
largely  in  liturgical  and  in  general  popular  Catholic 
devotion,  it  was  especially  dear  to  sailors.  Clarke 
("Old  and  New  Lightson  Columbus",  New  York,  1893, 
pp.  191,  237)  gives  instances  of  the  singing  of  Salve 
Regina  by  the  sailors  of  Columbus  and  the  Indians. 

The  exquisite  plainsong  has  been  attributed  to 
Hermann  Contractus.  The  Vatican  Antiphonary 
(pp.  127-8)  gives  the  revised  official  or  "typical"  form 
of  the  melody  (first  tone).  The  now  unofficial 
"Ratisbon"  edition  gave  the  melody  in  an  ornate  and 
in  a  simple  form,  together  with  a  setting  which  it  de- 
scribed as  being  in  the  eleventh  tone,  and  which  is  also 
very  beautiful.  An  insistent  echo  of  this  last  setting  is 
found  in  the  nlain.song  of  Santeul's  "Stupete  gentes" 
(see  "Recueil  cornplet  des  hymnes  etc.",  Dijon,  1845, 
p.  174).  There  are  many  settings  by  polyphonic  and 
modern  composers.  Pergolesi's  (for  one  voice,  with 
two  violins,  viola,  and  organ)  was  written  shortly 
before  his  fleath;  it  is  placed  among  his  "happiest 
inspirations",  is  deemed  his  "greatest  triumph  in  the 
direction  of  Church  music"  and  "uns\irpassed  in 
purity  of  style,  and  pathetic,  touching  expression". 

Mearns  in  .Iri.iAN,  Did.  of  Ifymnolom  f2ncl  ed.,  Ixinrlon, 
1907),  991,  IUHH.  \m7.  To  the  eleven  translationH  there  noted 
should  be  a/lded  thow  bv  Baohhawe,  Rrevinry  Humnn  and  Mixnal 
Segumrex  fix.ndon.  UlOO).  220;  Donahok.  Earl,/  Chri»lian 
Hymnn  (S<-v/  York.  1W)«),  l.Vi;  an  excfllonf  literal  rhvmed  ver- 
sion by  the  ronnpilfr  of  Ronar,/  of  the.  RhiinM  Virgin  Mary  (\jon- 
don,  8.  d.).  244:    "Hail!    holy  Queen,  Mother  of  Mercy,  hail!", 


in  rhythmical  prose  by  Duffield  in  Latin  Hymn-viriters  and  their 
Hymns  (New  York,  1889),  162;  prose  translation  in  the  (Balti- 
more) Manual  of  Prayers,  79.  For  some  English  poems  on  the 
theme  see  Shipley,  Carmina  Mariana  (2nd  series,  68:  Bridgett's 
"Our  Life,  Our  Sweetness,  and  Our  Hope";  p.  236:  Mangan's  tr. 
of  Karl  Simrock's  "O  Maria  Regina  Misericordise";  p.  337: 
"Post  Hoc  Exsilium").  Liguori,  The  Glories  of  Mary,  devotes 
ten  chapters  to  an  ascetical  commentary.  Dreves,  Lateinische 
Ifymnendichter  des  Mitleltjilers,  II  (Analecla  hymnica  medii  ven,  L, 
Leipzig,  1907),  318,  contains  ^ISS.  sources;  for  biographical  no- 
tice of  Hermann  Contractus,  cf.  ibid.,  308-9.  Consult  also  Beis- 
SEL,  Gesch.  der  Verehrung  Marias  in  Deutschland  wShrend  des  Mit- 
telallers  (Freiburg,  1909),  122  sqq.,  202-6,  214,  253,  272,  290,  353, 
546;  Idem,  Gesch.  der  Verehrung  M.'s  i7i  D.  im  16  u.  IT.  Jahrh. 
(1910),  concluding  chapter;  Mercati,  Leggende  medievali  sulla 
"Salve  Regina"  in  Rassegna  Gregoriana  (Jan.-Feb.,  1907),  43-5, 
many  references;  Daniel,  Thesaurus  hymnologicus,  II,  321-6; 
Mone,  Lateinische  Hymnen  des  Mittelalters,  II,  203-16;  Godet, 
L'origine  liturgique  du  "Salve  Regina"  in  Rerue  du  clergi  franfais 
(15  Aug.,  1910);  Db  Valois,  Le  "Salve  Regina"  datis  I'Ordre 
de  Clteaux  in  La  Tribune  de  Saint-Gervais  (May,  1907),  history  of 
the  anthem  and  a  close  study,  with  musical  illustrations,  of  the 
plainsong;  T).  J.,  En  marge  d'une  A7itienne:  Le  " Salve  Regina"  in 
Tribune  de  Saint-Gervais  (Feb.  — ,  1911). 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Salvete  Christi  Vulnera,  the  Roman  Breviary 
hymn  at  Lauds  of  the  feast  of  the  Most  Precious 
Blood,  is  found  in  the  Appendix  to  Pars  Verna  of  the 
Roman  Breviary  (Venice,  1798).  The  office,  added 
since  1735,  was  in  some  dioceses  a  commemora- 
tive Lenten  feast,  and  is  still  thus  found  assigned  to 
Friday  after  the  fourth  Sunday  of  Lent  with  rite 
of  major  double.  Pius  IX  (Aug.  10,  1849)  added 
it  to  the  regular  feasts  of  the  Breviary  and  assigned 
it  to  the  first  Sunday  of  July  (double  of  the  second 
class).  In  the  fact  that  the  feast  was  thus  estab- 
fished  generally  after  the  pope's  return  from  Gaeta, 
Faber  sees  "an  historical  monument  of  a  vicissitude 
of  the  Holy  See,  a  perpetual  Te  Deum  for  a  deliv- 
erance of  the  Vicar  of  Christ"  (The  Precious  Blood, 
p.  334,  Amer.  ed.).  The  hymn  comprises  eight 
Ambrosian  stanzas  in  classical  iambic  dimeter  verse 
together  with  a  proper  doxology: 

Summa  ad  Parentis  dexteram 

Sedenti  habenda  est  gratia 

Qui  nos  redemit  sanguine, 

Sanctoque  firmat  Spiritu.  Amen. 
A  cento,  comprising  stanzas  i,  ii,  iv,  viii,  forms  the 
hymn  at  Lauds  in  the  office  of  the  Pillar  of  the 
Scourging  {Columna  Flagellationis  D.  N.  J.  C),  a 
feast  celebrated  in  some  places  on  the  Tuesday  after 
Quinquagesima  Sunday;  but  the  hymn  in  this  case 
has  its  proper  doxology: 

Cacso  flagellis  gloria, 

Jesu,  tibi  sit  jugiter, 

Cum  patre  et  almo  Spiritu 

Nunc  et  per  steculum.  Amen. 
To  the  translations  of  Caswall,  Oxenham,  and 
Wallace,  listed  in  Julian's  "Dictionary  of  Hymnol- 
ogy",  should  be  added  those  of  Archbi.shop  Bag- 
shawe  (Breviarv  Hymns  and  Mi.ssal  Sequences,  p. 
101:  "All  hail!  ye  Holy  Wounds  of  Christ"), 
Donahoe  (Early  Christian  Hymns,  p.  252:  "All 
hail,  ye  wounds  of  Jesus"),  "S.",  in  Shipley's  "Annua 
Sanctus",  Part  II  (p.  59:  "All  hail,  ye  wounds  of 
Christ"). 

The  Vesper  hymn  of  the  feast,  "Festivis  resonent 
eompita  vf»cibus",  comprising  seven  Asdepiadic 
stanzas,  and  the  Matins  hymn,  "Ira  justa  conditoris 
imbre  aquarum  vindice",  comprising  six  stanzjis, 
have  been  translated  l)v  Caswall  (Lyra  Catholica, 
pp.  83,  8.5),  Bag.shawe  (loc.  cit.,  Nos.  9.5-0),  Donahoe 
Hoc.  cit.,  pp.  249-.52).  The  Vesper  hynm  was  also 
translated  ny  Potter  (Annus  Sanctus,  Part  I,  p. 
85),  and  the  Matins  hvmn  by  O'Connor  (Arundel 
Hymns,  etc.,  1902,  No.  80),  and  by  Henry  (Sursum 
Corda,   1907,  p.  5). 

H.  T.  IIknky. 

Salvete    Flores    Martyrum.    See    Quicdmqtje 
Chrirthm  Quaeritis. 
Salvi,  Giovanni  Battibta.     See  Sassoferrato. 


SALVIANUS 


411 


SALZBURG 


Salvianus,  a  Latin  writer  of  Gaul,  who  lived  in  the 
fifth  century.  Bom  of  Christian  parents,  he  mar- 
ried a  pagan  woman  named  Palladia,  who  was  con- 
verted together  with  her  parents;  husband  and  wife 
resolved  to  live  thenceforth  in  continence.  About 
430  Salvianus  became  one  of  the  ascetics  directed  by 
Honoratus  of  Lerinum.  Gennadius  speaks  of  him  as 
a  priest  of  the  Church  of  Marseilles.  He  lived  and 
wrote  in  the  South  of  Gaul.  He  was  probably  a  na- 
tive of  the  Roman  Germania — of  Trier,  according  to  a 
conjecture  of  Halm  (De  gub.,  VI,  xiii,  72).  He  trav- 
elled in  Gaul  and  in  Africa.  In  his  extant  writings  he 
does  not  yet  know  of  the  invasion  of  Attila  and  the 
battle  of  Chalons  (4.51). 

Of  the  numerous  works  mentioned  by  Gennadius 
(De  viris,  Lxvii)  there  remain  only  nine  letters  and 
two  treatises:  "Ad  ecclesiam  adversum  avaritiam" 
and  "De  gubematione  Dei"  or  "De  praesenti  judi- 
cio".  The  fourth  is  one  of  his  most  interesting  let- 
ters; in  it  he  explains  to  his  recently-converted  par- 
ents-in-law the  decision  reached  by  him  and  his  wife 
to  observe  continence.  In  the  ninth  he  justifies  to 
Solonius  his  use  of  a  pseudonym  in  his  first  writing. 
He  issued  the  treatise  "De  ecclesia"  under  the  name 
of  Timotheus;  this  work  exhorts  all  Christians  to 
make  the  Church  their  heir.  The  "De  gubematione 
Dei",  in  eight  books  was  written  after  439  (VII,  x,  40). 
He  endeavoured  to  prove  a  Divine  explanation  of  the 
barbarian  invasions.  With  the  orthodox  but  depraved 
Romans  he  contrasts  the  barbarians,  infidels  or  Ari- 
ans,  but  %irtuous.  This  thesis  places  Salvianus  in  the 
ranks  of  the  Latin  moralists,  who  from  the  "Ger- 
mania" of  Tacitus  down,  show  to  their  corrupt  com- 
patriots an  ideal  of  justice  and  virtue  among  the  Ger- 
mans. The  work,  dedicated  to  Bishop  Salonius,  a 
disciple  of  Lerinum,  is  unfinished  and  seems  to  have 
appeared  in  fragments;  Gennadius  knew  only  five 
books. 

Salvianus  is  a  careful  writer,  much  resembling  Lac- 
tantius,  but  his  style  is  strongly  influenced  by  the 
rhetoricians,  and  its  prolixitj*  renders  it  wearisome. 
The  same  influence  doubtless  explains  the  exaggera- 
tion of  his  ideas  on  the  necessity  of  giving  all  his 
goods  to  the  Church  and  the  antithesis  of  Roman  cor- 
ruption and  German  virtue.  The  "De  gubematione 
Dei"  contains  interesting  pictures  of  manners,  but  all 
must  not  be  taken  literallj'.  Salvianus  speaks  as  an 
advocate  and  in  doing  so  forces  the  tone,  palliating 
what  goes  against  his  case  and  bringing  out  in  the 
strongest  relief  all  that  favours  it.  To  judge  the  so- 
ciety of  the  time  by  his  pictures  is  to  risk  making 
mistakes.  Apart  from  his  style,  Salvianus  is  not 
highly  cultured.  He  has  some  slight  knowledge  of 
law;  he  is  ignorant  enough  to  attribute  Plato's  "Re- 
public" to  Socrates  (De  gub.,  \'II,  x.xiii,  101).  There 
are  two  critical  editions  of  his  works:  Halm  in  "Mo- 
numenta  Germania?"  (Berlin,  1S77)  and  Pauly  in 
"Corpus  script,  ecclesiasticorum  latinorum"  (Vi- 
enna, 1883). 

Bardenhewer,  PatTologie  (Freiburg,  1894),  i.  §93;  Teuffel, 
Gcschichle  der  rdmischen  LUeralur  (Leipzig,  1890),  465;  Ebert, 
Geschichle  der  Literalur  des  MiltelaUers,  I  (Leipzig,  1889),  4')9. 
For  a  fuller  and  more  complete  bibliography  of  Salvianus  see 
Chevalier,  Repertoire  des  sources  hisloriques  du  moyen  Age.  Bio- 
bibliographie,  9.  v.  Salvien.  PaUL   LeJAY. 

Salzburg,  Archdiocese  of  (Salisbukgensis), 
conterminous  with  the  Austrian  crown-land  of  the 
same  name.  The  Romans  appeared  in  the  lands 
south  of  the  Danube  under  Emperor  Augu.stus, 
laid  out  roads,  founded  towns,  and  turned  the  terri- 
tory into  a  province.  Salzburg  belonged  to  Nori- 
cum.  Christianity  was  introduced  by  individual 
colonists,  artisans,  and  soldiers;  St.  Maximihan, 
Bishop  of  Laureacum  (Lorch),  is  mentioned  as  the 
first  martyr  of  Noricum  during  the  era  of  the  perse- 
cutions. Although  Constantine  brought  peace  to 
the  Church,  the  Romanized  territory  was  subsequently 
exposed  on  all  sides  to  the  attacks  of  barbarian 


peoples,  and  the  last  representative  of  Roman  civili- 
zation in  Noricum  was  St.  Severus  (d.  482).  He  vis- 
ited Cucullae  (Kuchel  near  Hallein)  and  Juvavum 
(Salzburg),  where  he  found  a  church  already  es- 
tablished and  witnessed  the  martyrdom  of  the  priest- 
abbot  Ma.ximus.  His  apostolate  was  "the  last  ray 
before  utter  darkness";  the  whole  territory  was  soon 
devastated  by  barbarian  tribes,  and  it  was  only 
about  700  that  Christian  civilization  again  made 
its  appearance.  St.  Rupert,  Bishop  of  Worms, 
baptized  Duke  Theodo  of  Bavaria,  erected  at  W^alder- 
see  a  church  in  honour  of  St.  Peter,  and  made  Juvavum, 
where  he  found  the  Roman  buildings  over-grown 
with  brambles,  his  episcopal  .seat.  The  cathedral 
monastery  was  also  named  after  St.  Peter,  and 
Rupert's  niece,  Avendrid,  founded  the  convent  of 
Nonnberg.  St.  Boniface  completed  the  work  of 
St.  Rupert,  placed  the  Diocese  of  Salzburg  under 
the  Primatial  See  of  Mainz,  and  .substituted  the  Bene- 
dictines for  the  Irish  monks  in  St.  Peter's.  He  had 
a  dispute  with  their  abbot-bishop  Virgil  concerning 
the  existence  of  the  antipodes.  Virgil  dispatched  the 
regionary  bishop  Modestus  to  Carinthia,  of  which 
the  latter  became  the  apostle.  Under  Virgil  the 
valuable  "Liber  confratemitatum",  or  confraternity 
book  of  St.  Peter's,  was  begun. 

Amo,  the  successor  of  Virgil,  enjoyed  the  respect 
of  Charlemagne,  who,  after  overthrowing  the  Avars, 
assigned  to  him  as  his  missionary  territory  all  the 
land  between  the  Danube,  the  Raab,  and  the  Drave. 
While  .\rno  was  at  Rome  attending  to  some  business 
for  Charlemagne,  Leo  III  appointed  him  archbishop 
over  the  bi.shops  of  Bavaria.  Wlien  the  di.spute  con- 
cerning the  delimitation  of  their  ecclesiastical  i)rov- 
inces  broke  out  between  Aquileia  and  Salzburg, 
Charlemagne  declared  the  Drave  the  boundary. 
The  dignity  of  the  archbishops  as  territorial  sov- 
ereigns must  be  al.so  traced  to  Charlemagne.  Amo 
took  advantage  of  the  intellectual  life  at  the  court 
of  the  great  emperor  to  have  manuscripts  copied  in 
1.50  volumes,  thus  forming  the  oldest  library  in 
Austria.  The  efforts  of  Duke  Wratislaus  of  M()ra\-ia 
to  withdraw  his  territory  from  the  ecclesiastical  in- 
fluence of  the  Germans  prepared  great  trouble  for 
Archbishop  Adalwin.  Adrian  II  appointed  Metho- 
dius Archbishop  of  Pannonia  and  Moravia;  it  was 
only  when  Wratislaus  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
Louis  the  German  that  Adalwin  could  protest  ef- 
fectually against  the  invasion  of  his  rights.  Metho- 
dius appeared  at  the  Synod  of  Salzburg,  was  struck 
in  the  face,  and  was  kept  in  close  confinement  for 
two  and  a  half  years.  To  the  endeavour  of  the 
archbishop  to  demonstrate  to  the  pope  the  jus- 
tice of  his  claims  we  are  indebted  for  the  im- 
portant work,  "De  conversionc  Bulgarorum  et 
Carantanorum  hbellus".  However,  Adalwin  was 
compelled  to  relea.se  Archbishop  Methodius  at  the 
command  of  the  pope.  Darkness  once  more  settled 
on  the  land,  when  the  Magyars  ravaged  the  great 
Moravian  Empire;  not  a  church  remained  standing 
in  Pannonia,  as  the  bi.shops  informed  the  pope,  and 
Archbishop  Thiadmar  fell  in  battle.  Michaelbeuern 
was  set  aflame.  With  the  crushing  defeat  of  the 
Magyars  at  Lechfeld  (955)  begins  a  henceforth  un- 
arrested Christian  civilization  in  Salzburg.  When, 
shortly  after  this,  Liudolf  of  Swabia  and  Conrad  of 
Lothringen  rose  against  Otto  the  Great  and  inducetl 
Archbishop  Herold  to  become  their  associate,  the 
latter  was  seized,  blinded,  deposed,  and  finally 
banished. 

The  tenth  century  is  for  Italy  the  soeculum  obscu- 
rum,  the  era  of  the  feuds  of  the  opposing  factions  of 
the  nobility.  In  Germany,  on  the  contrary,  the  epis- 
copate flourished,  and  in  this  prosperity  Salzburg 
also  participated.  The  emperor's  brother,  BLshop 
Bruno  of  Cologne,  the  "bishop-maker",  consecrated 
Friedrich  for  Salzburg,  who  in  turn  consecrated  St. 


SALZBURG 


412 


SALZBURG 


Wolfgang  Bishop  of  Ratisbon.  Friedrich  declared 
the  monastery  of  St.  Peter  independent.  In  996 
Archbishop  Hartwik  received  the  right  to  coin  money; 
in  the  presence  of  Saint  Henry  II  and  his  spouse 
Kunigunde,  the  archbishop  consecrated  the  church 
on  the  Nonnberg.  \Mien  St.  Hemma,  Countess  of 
Friesach,  founded  the  convent  of  Gurk  in  1042,  the 
first  abbess,  Ita,  was  chosen  from  Nonnberg.  In 
Salzburg  the  noble  tendencies  and  great  principles 
of  the  age  of  Gregory  VII  and  his  immediate  succes- 
sors, aiming  at  the  sanctification  of  the  Church,  the 
success  of  the  Crusades,  the  fostering  of  rehgious 
hfe  among  the  people,  and  the  development  of  monas- 
tic Ufe,  were  always  encouraged.  The  first  arch- 
bishop of  this  period  was  Gebhard.  Three  students 
had  set  out  for  Paris  to  study  philosophy  and  the- 


Cathedrm-  an-d  Archiepisc  )p\l  Palace,  Salzburo 
olog>';  during  a  night  spent  in  a  forest-glade  near 
a  spring,  they  confided  to  one  another  their  ideals 
for  the  future — each  wished  to  become  a  bishop, 
and  each  vowed  in  this  contingency  the  foundation  of 
a  monastery.  Their  hopes  were  gratified:  Adalbert 
became  Bishop  of  Wurzburg  and  founded  Lambach 
in  Upper  Austria;  St.  Altmann  of  Passau  founded 
Gottweig  for  twelve  canons,  who  were  replaced 
twelve  years  later  by  Benedictines  from  St.  Blasien 
in  the  Black  Forest;  Gebhard  founded  Admont  (1074) 
and  the  Diocese  of  Gurk  (1072).  These  bishops 
were  the  mainstays  of  the  "cause  of  St.  Peter" 
in  Germany.  They  held  aloof  from  the  Synod  of 
Worms  to  which  Henry  IV  summoned  the  bishops 
and  abbots  to  declare  their  opposition  to  the  pope. 
Henry  therefore  named  an  anti-bishop  for  Salzburg, 
Bertold  of  Moosburg,  and  Gebhard  had  to  endure 
an  exile  of  nine  years;  shortly  before  his  death  he 
was  able  to  return,  and  was  buried  at  Admont  (10S8). 
His  succe.ssor  Thcimo  consecrated  the  church  and 
monastery  of  St.  Paul  in  Carinthia.  Defeated  by 
the  royal  bishop,  Bertold,  he  was  kept  in  strict  con- 
finement for  five  years  at  Freisach;  scarcely  had  he 
recovered  his  liberty  when  he  joined  in  the  crusade  of 
Guelph  of  Bavaria,  was  again  thrown  into  prison, 
and  suffered  a  horrible  martyrdom  (1102).  On  the 
abdication  of  Henry  IV,  Count  Conrad  I  of  Abens- 
berg  was  elected  archbishop ;  Conrad  accompanied 
Henry  V  to  Ilome,  when  he  went  thither  to  receive 
imperial  coronation.  Paschal  II  anfl  Henry  came 
to  an  agreement  according  to  which  the  Church 
should  renounce  all  claim  to  the  imperial  fiefs,  and 
the  emperor  all  claim  to  investiture.  When  this 
condition,  on  which  the  coronation  was  to  fake  place 
12  February,  1111,  became  known,  the  German 
bishops  and  even  the  secular  nobility  protested 
against  it,  fearing  lest  by  an  onslaught  on  all  the 
imperial  fic^fs  the  king  should  make  his  power  abso- 
lute.    The  pop<;  waa  held  in  confinement,  the  priests 


robbed  of  their  rich  vestments,  the  church  plate,  and 
even  the  buckles  of  their  shoes.  When  the  arch- 
bishop complained  of  this  treatment,  a  German  knight 
threatened  to  cleave  his  head  in  twain.  His  dig- 
nified bearing  rendering  it  impossible  to  maintain 
his  position  in  Salzburg,  he  hved  an  exile  until 
the  investiture  strife  was  definitivelj^  settled  by  the 
CaUstine  Concordat  of  1122.  Conrad  henceforth 
devoted  all  his  energy  to  his  diocese;  he  replaced 
the  secular  clergy  at  the  cathedral  by  August  inian 
Canons,  whose  rule  he  himself  adopted  in  1122,  and 
established  a  convent  of  canonesses.  At  Seckau  also 
he  established  the  canons,  and  appointed  the  cele- 
brated Gerhoh  provost  of  Reichersberg.  He  mean- 
while granted  establishments  to  the  Benedictines 
(Georgenberg,  Fiecht),  Cistercians  (Victring  in  Carin- 
thia), Pra^monstratcnsians  (Wilten  near  Innsbruck). 
The  Church  of  St.  Peter  was  also  rebuilt  in  Roman- 
esque style;  while  previously  the  monks  of  St.  Peter's 
had  elected  the  archbishop,  they  abdicated  this  right 
in  favour  of  the  canons  by  the  agreement  of  1139 
between   the   abbot   and   archbishop. 

In  the  first  contest  between  the  papacy  and  empire 
during  the  Hohenstaufen  period,  the  archbishops  of 
Salzburg  had  taken  the  side  of  the  Guelphs.  WTien, 
in  1159,  Frederick  I  declared  in  favour  of  Victor  IV, 
the  creature  of  two  GhibcUine  cardinals,  against 
Alexander  III,  Archbishop  Eberhard  I,  Count  of 
Hippoldstein,  steadily  supported  Alexander.  Bar- 
baro.ssa  left  him  in  peaceful  possession  of  his  see  until 
his  death.  However,  his  successor,  Conrad  II,  son 
of  Leopold  III  the  Pious,  aroused  Frederick's  anger, 
and  died  a  fugitive  at  Admont  in  1168.  Barbarossa 
now  stood  at  the  acme  of  his  fortune.  He  opposed 
to  Archbishop  Adalbert,  son  of  King  Wladislaus  II 
of  Bohemia,  as  anti-bishop  Provost  Henry  of  Berch- 
tesgaden;  however,  at  the  Diet  of  Venice  (1177) 
— "the  last  great  diet  of  the  Middle  Ages",  at  which 
pope  and  emperor  exchanged  embraces  —  it  was 
agreed  that  both  bishops  should  abdicate,  and  that 
Conrad  III  of  Wittelsbach  should  receive  the  archi- 
episcopal  see,  and  appoint  the  imperial  archbishop 
to  the  See  of  Mainz.  Through  Conrad  the  arch- 
bishops of  Salzburg  received  the  rank  of  legate  Apos- 
tolic throughout  the  whole  ecclesiastical  province 
of  Noricum,  and  therewith  the  dignity  of  cardinal. 
On  Conrad's  death  Adalbert  again  succeeded  to  the 
archdiocese.  On  account  of  his  excessive  strictness 
he  was  confined  in  the  castle  of  Werfen  for  four- 
teen days  by  his  own  officials.  When  Frederick  II 
adopted  the  policy  of  his  father  in  a  still  more  exagger- 
ated form,  and  was  consequently  excommunicated  by 
Gregory  IX,  Archbishop  Eberhard  II  of  Regensberg 
(Switzerland)  and  his  friend  Duke  Leopold  VI 
brought  about  the  Peace  of  San  Germano  (1230). 
The  Christian  leaders  met  at  Anagni,  whither  the 
archbishop  also  came,  but  the  duke  died  on  the  way 
to  the  meeting.  The  archbishop  consecrated  the 
monastery  of  Lilienfeld,  founded  by  the  duke,  and 
interred  him  there.  Meanwhile  the  zealous  arch- 
bi.shop  had  created  within  his  territory  three  new 
dioceses  to  give  increased  efficiency  to  the  care  of 
souls:  Chiemsee  (1216),  Seckau  (1218),  St.  Andrew's 
in  the  Lavantal  (1225).  For  these  dioceses  also  the 
archbishop  was  not  only  to  nominate,  but  also  to 
confirm  and  consecrate.  On  account  of  his  friendly 
relations  with  the  emperor  it  is  evident  that  he 
exercised  the  pn-rogatives  of  sovereignty,  and  is 
to  be  honoured  as  "the  founder  of  the  land  of  Salz- 
burg". For  refusing  to  j)ub!ish  the  Decree  of  the 
First  General  Council  of  Tvyons,  which  excommuni- 
cated Frederick  anfl  reli(^ved  him  of  his  empire, 
Eberhard  also  incurred  excommunication.  When  he 
dierl  suddenly  the  following  year,  still  under  the  ban, 
his  body  was  buried  in  an  annex  of  th(i  parish-church 
of  Radstadt,  but  forty  years  later  it  was  transferred 
to  consecrated  ground  in  Salzburg  cathedral. 


SALZBURG 


413 


SALZBURG 


During  the  Austrian,  and  the  ahnost  simultaneous 
German,  interregna  Salzburg  shared  in  the  general 
confusion,  and  had  its  anti-bishop.  Archbishop 
Phihp,  Count  of  Ortenburg,  was  more  warrior  than 
cleric  and  steadfastly  refused  to  accept  priestly  ordi- 
nation. In  foreign  politics  he  favoured  William 
of  Holland,  the  candidate  for  the  throne  set  up  by 
the  papal  party;  in  Austria  he  espoused  the  cause  of 
Premysl  Ottaar  favoured  by  the  pope.  The  decree  of 
Alexander  IV  that  each  bishop-elect  must  be  conse- 
crated within  half  a  year  affected  Philip  immediately; 
as  he  paid  no  attention,  Bishop  Ulrich  of  Sockau 
was  appointed  in  his  place,  and  finally  he  himself 
was  excommunicated  and  Salzburg  placed  under  an 
interdict.  The  people  thereupon  drove  Philip  out 
and  invited  Ulrich  to  enter  into  possession ;  as,  how- 
ever, the  latter  was  unable  to  repay  the  money  which 
he  had  been  compelled  to  borrow  in  Rome,  he  also 
was  expelled.  He  was  finally  able  to  return  to 
Salzburg,  but  merely  celebrated  the  feast  of  Corpus 
Christi  in  1265  (which  Urban  IV  had  extended  to 
the  whole  Church  the  year  before)  and  then  resigned. 
Rudolph  of  Habsburg  brought  to  a  close  the  inter- 
regnum. Throughout  the  whole  series  of  years  and 
on  all  important  occasions  including  the  investiture 
of  his  sons,  Albert  and  Rudolph,  with  Austria,  Styria, 
Krain,  and  the  Wendish  March  (27  December,  1280), 
Archbishop  Frederick  II  of  Walchon  (Pinzgau)  was 
a  faithful  supporter  of  Rudolph,  and  must  thus  be 
numbered  among  the  founders  of  Habsburg  rule  in 
Austria.  Human  inclinations  and  alliances  are  sub- 
ject to  rapid  change.  Rudolph's  son,  Duke  Albert 
I  of  Austria,  engaged  in  an  almost  uninterrupted 
feud  for  ten  years  with  Archbi-shops  Rudolph  of 
Hoheneck  and  Conrad  IV  of  Praitenfrut.  Repeatedly 
the  armies  stood  .so  close  to  each  other  that  "each 
could  see  the  white  in  his  opponents'  eyes";  several 
towns  were  demolished  (Friesach).  The  mischief- 
maker  was  Abbot  Henry  of  Admont,  who  enjoyed 
Albert's  confidence;  no  sooner  had  this  warlike  cleric 
met  death  from  an  arrow-wound  received  in  the 
chase,  than  duke  and  archbishop  found  themselves 
on  terms  of  peace  and  friendship  (1297).  During 
the  succeeding  period  German  history  is  dominated 
by  the  conflicts  of  the  houses  of  Wittelsbach  and 
Habsburg.  The  people  of  Salzburg  remained  true 
to  the  Habsburgs.  During  the  struggle  for  the  throne 
between  Louis  the  Bavarian  and  Frederick  III, 
Archbishop  Frederick  III  of  Leibnitz  was  declared 
an  outlaw.  During  the  seventy  years'  residence 
of  the  popes  in  Avignon  subsequent  to  1309,  the 
archbishops  had  to  i)roceed  thither  to  receive  the 
pallium.  When,  in  1347,  the  frightful  plague  known 
as  the  Black  Death  swept  through  Salzburg,  the 
Jews  there  were  accased  of  poisoning  the  wells  and 
subjected  to  cruel  persecution. 

In  imitation  of  the  confederated  towns  in  Germany, 
five  towns  in  the  territory  of  Salzburg  formed  the 
Igelbund  (1403).  They  presented  to  the  new  arch- 
bishop, Eberhard  III  of  Neuhaus,  an  election  capitu- 
lation demanding,  in  an  instrument  which  was  sur- 
rounded with  their  seals  as  a  boar  (Igel)  with  bristles, 
the  redress  of  their  grievances  (taxes).  Already 
the  Jews  had  been  widely  accused  of  stabbing  con- 
secrated Hosts,  which,  it  was  said,  were  subsequently 
discovered  emitting  blood  (Lower  Austria  and  Carin- 
thia).  As  similar  desecrations  were  declared  to 
have  taken  place  in  Salzburg,  the  Jews  were  ban- 
ished in  1404  and  a  synodal  ordinance  declared  a 
little  later  that  they  should  be  distinguishable  by  a 
pointed  hat.  During  the  Western  Schism  the  atti- 
tude of  the  archbishops  towards  the  popes  varied. 
Archbishop  Pilgrim  II  of  Puchheim  at  first  supported 
the  Roman  pope.  Urban  VI,  but  subsequently 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  Avignon  pontiff,  Clement 
VII.  His  successor,  Gregory  of  Osterwitz,  also 
obtained  the  pallium  from  Boniface  IX  at  Rome. 


When  Gregory  XII  was  pope  at  Rome  and  Benedict 
XIII  at  Avignon,  the  cardinals  of  both  parties, 
wishing  to  end  the  Schism,  summoned  the  Council 
of  Pisa  (1409).  This  assembly  deposed  both  popes 
and  elected  Alexander  V  supreme  pontiff,  but,  as 
the  earlier  popes  refused  to  abdicate,  there  were 
now  three  popes.  Archbishop  Eberhard  III  sup- 
ported the  Pisan  pope,  John  XXIII.  In  his  affec- 
tionate care  for  the  Church,  King  Sigismund  asso- 
ciated himself  with  John  in  convening  the  General 
Council  of  Constance.  Hus  was  already  condemned 
when  Eberhard  arrived  with  a  large  retinue;  how- 
ever, the  archbishop  participated  in  the  condemnation 
of  Jerome  of  Prague.  In  1428  Eberhard  convened  a 
great  provincial  synod  of  his  bishops,  the  superiors 
of  religious  orders,  and  deputies  of  the  University 
of  Vienna;  at  this  assembly  earlier  ecclesiastical 
regulations  were  renewed,  and  new  measures 
adopted  for  the  revival  of  ecclesiastical  life.  In  the 
next  year  a  provincial  synod  was  again  held.  As 
the  heresy  of  Wyclif  and  Hus  threatened  to  infect 
the  province,  it  was  decreed  that  no  one  should  per- 
mit a  heretic  to  preach  or  harbour  him:  on  the  con- 
trary, he  should  be  denounced  to  the  people.  Dukes, 
counts  etc.  were  to  imprison  all  persons  suspected  of 
heresy;  Jews  should  wear  a  cornered  hat  and  their 
wives  should  carry  attached  to  their  clothing  a  small 
bell. 

The  Renaissance  epoch  was  for  Salzburg  an  era  of 
cultural  decay,  caused  by  the  incompetence  of  the 
territorial  princes  and  the  bad  conditions  of  Austria 
under  Emperor  Frederick  IV.  The  first  Renaissance 
pope,  Nicholas  V,  sent  out  legates  to  announce  the 
jubilee  indulgence,  to  promote  a  crusade  against  the 
Turks,  and  to  inaugurate  the  reform  of  the  clergy. 
Nicholas  of  Cusa  on  the  Mosel  (Cusanus),  appointed 
legate  for  Germany,  held  a  provincial  synod  at  Salz- 
burg (1451)  in  which  monasteries  were  directed  to 
return  to  the  observance  of  the  rule  within  the  in- 
terval of  a  year.  Three  visitors  (Abbot  Martin 
von  den  Schotten,  Abbot  Laurence  of  Mariazell, 
and  Prior  Stephen  of  Melk)  visited  the  Benedictine 
monasteries  of  Austria  and  Bavaria,  and  in  about 
fifty  established  uniform  obedience  to  the  rule. 
Under  Archbishop  Bernhard  the  political  and  eco- 
nornic  depres.sion  of  the  archdiocese  was  the  deepest. 
Seeing  the  Turks  ravaging  the  archiepiscopal  lands 
in  Carinthia,  and  the  estates  of  his  territory  making 
ever  increasing  demands  and  imposing  taxes  of 
various  kinds,  Bernhard  summoned  a  diet  in  1473 — 
the  first  held  in  the  little  archiepiscopal  state. 
He  resigned  his  office  but  recalled  his  resignation 
repeatedly,  until  finally,  five  years  before  his  death, 
he  really  abdicated.  At  the  close  of  this  period 
Leonhard  of  Keutschach  (d.  1519)  revived  religious 
life:  with  astounding  energy  he  had  the  burgomasters 
and  town  councillors,  who  were  imposing  unjust 
burdens,  arrested  simultaneously  and  confined  in 
the  castle;  all  Jews  were  banished  from  the  land. 
His  closing  years  were  embittered  by  his  suffragan 
Matthajus  Lang,  who,  although  not  a  priest,  was 
Bi.shop  of  Gurk  and  cardinal,  and  aimed  at  the 
archiepiscopal  see.  Lang  promised  the  cathedral 
chapter  (monks)  to  effect  its  transformation  into  a 
chapter  of  secular  priests,  if  the  canons  would  recog- 
nize him  as  coadjutor  with  right  of  succession.  The 
Bulls  of  Leo  X,  decreeing  these  changes,  soon 
arrived.  In  ecclesiastical  art,  late  Gothic  ruled 
at  Salzburg,  as  is  gloriously  demonstrated  in  the 
church  on  the  Nonnberg  and  its  crypts,  the 
Margarethenkapelle  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Peter, 
and  the  Franciscan  church  with  its  magnificent  vault 
of  netted  work. 

The  primatial  see,  for  which  Mattha^us  Lang  had 
so  passionately  striven,  was  for  him  a  martjT's  chair. 
Not  yet  a  priest,  the  new  ruler  entered  his  episco- 
pal city.    Although  unnoticed  in  official  circles,  the 


SALZBURG 


414 


SALZBURG 


innovations  emanating  from  Wittenberg  were  in- 
sinuating themselves  into  the  archdiocese.  Mining 
was  being  rapidly  developed,  and  miners  arrived  from 
Saxony  bringing  with  them  the  new  doctrines  and 
sectarian  books.  Lang  strove  to  retain  his  subjects 
in  the  Faith:  Luther  proclaimed  him  a  "monster", 
the  people  of  Salzburg  besieged  him  in  his  fortress 
Hohcn-Salzburg  (the  Latin  War),  and  two  successive 
risings  of  the  pea.sants  were  the  occasion  of  manifold 
horrors  and  of  unspeakable  suffering  for  the  ruler 
and  his  land.  Lang  was  present  at  the  Second  Diet  of 
Speyer  (1529);  and  in  the  following  year  held  lengthy 
negotiations  xs-ith  Melanchthon  at  Augsburg.  The 
fact  that  Lang  invited  lay  persons  to  the  provincial 
synod  of  1537,  at  which  it  was  resolved  to  send  dele- 
gates to  a  general  council,  created  an  unpleasant 
commotion  in  Rome,  since  it  was  feared  that  this 
step  presaged  the  formation  of  a  national  Church. 
In  accordance  \\nth  Ferdinand's  demand  for  the  use 
of  the  chalice  by  the  laity  in  1564,  Pius  IV  granted 
this  privilege  for  Germany  and  the  Archdioceses  of 
Gran  and  Prague;  however,  as  the  emperor's  hopes 
were  soon  seen  to  be  unfounded,  the  giving  of  Com- 
nnmion  under  both  species  ceased  at  Salzburg  in 
1571.  The  beneficent  effects  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
extended  also  to  Salzburg,  where,  for  the  execution 
of  its  decrees,  Archbishop  Jacob  of  Kuen-Belasy 
summoned  in  1569  a  provincial  council,  according  to 
Hauthaler  the  most  important  of  all  the  synods  of 
Salzburg,  since  through  it  "was  secured  for  ever  a 
solid  foundation  for  church  reform  in  this  province 
in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  decrees  of  Trent". 
Four  years  later  he  again  convened  a  provincial 
council,  especially  notable  as  almost  three  centuries 
were  to  elapse  before  another  provincial  council  was 
held  in  Germany. 

The  succeeding  archbishops  by  wise  moderation 
per.ser\-ed  their  territory  from  the  sufferings  of  the 
wars  of  religion,  conducted  elsewhere  with  bloodshed 
and  cnu'lty.  Lang's  successor,  Archbishop  Ernst, 
administered  the  archdiocese  for  fourteen  years  as 
"elected  bishop",  although  the  pope  had  confirmed 
his  election  only  on  the  condition  that  he  should 
receive  epi-scopal  consecration  within  ten  years,  and 
although  his  brother,  Duke  William  of  Bavaria,  was 
a  strict  Catholic.  During  this  period  flourished 
Theophrastus  Paracelsus  (Philip  of  Hohenheim), 
the  celebrated  physician  and  alchemist,  also  Berthold, 
Bishop  of  Chiemsee,  a  strict  censor  of  his  age  (see 
Bkrthold  of  Chiemsee). 

After  the  religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  Archbishop 
Wolf  Dietrich  (Wolfgang  Theodorich)  of  Raitenau 
and  his  successors  acted  on  the  pohc^y  adopted  there 
{cujus  regio,  ejus  religio),  and  followed  the  precedent 
set  by  Protestant  princes,  when  they  gave  their 
subjects  the  ojilion  of  professing  the  religion  of  their 
fathers  or  emisrating.  The  task  of  influencing  the 
people  by  sermon  and  exhortation  was  confided 
mainly  to  the  Franciscans  and  Capuchins.  The 
former  were  given  the  convent  in  St.  Peter's,  where 
previously  the  daughters  of  the  nobility  and  the 
townsfolk  had  been  educated.  Archbishop  Wolf 
Dietrich  also  encountered  opposition  at  Salzburg 
when  he  began  to  tear  down  the  ancient  Romanestjue 
cathedral;  years  were  consumed  in  the  destruction 
of  the  venerable  stone  edifice.  He  commissioned 
Vincenzo  Scamozzi  to  draw  up  the  plan  of  a  new 
cathedral,  whieh  was  to  surpass  in  magnificence 
everj'thing  in  Germany.  The  cathedral  w:ih  cross- 
shaped,  ha/1  three  naves,  a  central  cupola,  cross-arms 
ending  in  a  wrrmicircle,  and  two  huge  towers  on  the 
faf;;wle.  However,  when  the  plan  was  completed 
and  building  was  to  be  begun,  the  indefatigable 
archbishop  found  himself  badly  involved.  The 
closing  five  years  of  his  life  were  sari.  To  protect 
the  salt-makers  of  Salzburg  from  the  unjust  rustoms 
regulations  of  Duke  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  he  re- 


sorted to  military  demonstrations,  which  constituted 
a  breach  of  national  peace.  The  soldiers  of  the 
duke  took  him  prisoner,  and  brought  him  to  the  castle 
of  Hohen-Salzburg.  Here  he  was  subjected  to  un- 
worthy treatment,  and,  although  a  promise  to  abdi- 
cate if  liberated  was  extorted  from  him,  he  was  re- 
tained a  prisoner  until  his  death  five  years  later 
(1612).  His  successor,  Marcus  Sitticus  of  Hohenems, 
who  had  so  ill-used  him,  was  a  relative;  it  may  be 
that  Sitticus  feared  that  the  great  recklessness  of 
Wolf  Dietrich  would  imperil  the  peace  of  the  arch- 
diocese. In  1614  Sitticus  began  the  rebuilding  of 
the  cathedral,  in  which  the  architect,  Santino  Solair, 
"has  bequeathed  one  of  the  most  niagnificent  crea- 
tions of  the  barocco  style  of  architecture  outside 
Italy"  (Ilg).  It  was  also  this  archbishop  who 
finished  the  residence  and  castle  of  Mirabell,  and 
restored  Hellbrunn  with  its  fountains.  While  Austria 
and  Germany  were  ravaged  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
and  civilization  declined.  Archbishop  Paris,  Count 
of  Lodron,  accomplished  such  fruitful  works  of  peace 
that  he  is  remembered  as  "the  father  of  his  country". 
The  Alma  Benedictina  (1623),  for  almost  two  hun- 
dred years  the  pride  and  joy  of  Salzburg,  was  his 
work;  Ferdinand  II  granted  it  the  power  of  conferring 
academic  degrees  in  all  four  faculties.  In  1628  Arch- 
bishop Lodron  consecrated  the  cathedral.  Arch- 
bishop Max  Gandolf,  Count  of  Kuenberg,  built  in 
1674  the  celebrated  pilgrimage  church  of  Maria 
Plain;  his  successor,  John  Ernest,  Count  of  Thun, 
built  the  college  church,  Fischer  of  Erlach  being 
the  architect.  The  wonderful  chimes  also  date  from 
this  period. 

Under  Leopold  Anton,  Freiherr  von  Firmian,  Prot- 
estant tendencies  revealed  themselves  more  vigor- 
ously than  before,  supported  and  promoted  by  the 
Protestant  members  of  the  imperial  estates.  In 
imitation  of  the  Corpus  evnngelicorum,  the  Lutherans 
of  the  Salzburg  territory  formed  a  league,  binding 
themselves  by  oath  and  an  outward  rite  of  mutual 
sprinkling  of  salt.  The  infection  grew  dangerous. 
The  archbishop  did  all  he  could;  he  invited  the  Jesuits 
as  missionaries,  and  engaged  the  help  of  the  emperor. 
Later  he  enforced  the  I)ecree  of  the  religious  Peace  of 
Augsburg:  recantation  or  emigration.  In  ten  years 
about  30,000  j)ersons  left  the  territory  and  settled 
in  East  Prussia,  or  in  Wiirtemberg  or  Hanoverian 
territory;  a  f(nv  emigrated  to  Georgia  in  North 
America.  A  child  of  the  era  of  "Enlightenment", 
Archbishop  Jerome  Count  Colloredo  laboured  in  its 
spirit  and  with  the  same  persistent  rashness  as  Joseph 
II.  However,  his  precipitate  innovations  in  both 
the  school  system  and  ecclesiastical  matters  alienated 
from  him  the  minds  of  the  jx-ople,  as  had  happened 
in  the  case  of  his  imi)cri;il  jjrolot.ype.  The  fact  that 
the  four  ecclesiastics  of  the  highest  rank  in  Germany 
declared  as  the  first  point  in  the  Punctuation  of  Ems 
that  the  rights  of  the  pope  should  be  reduced  to 
those  which  he  enjoyed  during  the  first  three  cen- 
turies, betrays  a  rare  historical  sense,  since  they 
sawed  off  the  branch  on  which  they  sat.  While 
Jerome  in  this  case  followed  too  blindly  the  lead  of 
Joseph  II,  he  displayed  his  courage  wh(m  the  emperor 
wi.shed  to  erect  new  ecclesiastical  provinces  in  Vienna 
and  Graz.  The  Graz  province  was  to  be  governed 
by  an  archbishop,  Gorz  was  to  be  a  simple  diocese, 
and  all  the  dioceses  of  Inner  Austria — including 
the  projected  Diocese  of  Leoben — were  to  be  placed 
under  Graz.  Colloredo  refused  his  consent,  where- 
upon the  emperor  retaliated  by  seizing  the  ecclesias- 
tical possessions  of  S;dzburg  in  Inner  Austria,  with- 
out, however,  changing  the  archbishop's  attitude. 
Finally,  after  two  yc\ars'  negotiations,  a  settlement 
was  arrived  at  on  19  April,  17K6;  Salzburg  abdicated 
its  episcopal  rights  in  Styria  and  Carinthia  in  favour 
of  the  Bishoj)s  of  Sekkau,  Leoben,  Gurk,  and  Lavant, 
but    retained    its    metropolitan    rights    over    them, 


SALZMANN 


415 


SiMAR 


enjoyed  the  right  of  nomination  for  Sekkau  and  La- 
vant  at  every  vacancy,  and  for  Gurk  at  every  third 
vacancy.  For  Leoben — of  which,  however,  Engel 
was  the  first  and  the  last  bishoiJ — the  founder  was 
to  have  the  right  of  nomination,  and  the  metropoHtan 
the  right  of  confirmation. 

The  classical  wi  iters  of  church  music  throw  a 
radiance  about  Salzburg  at  this  period.  The  house 
in  which  Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  was  born 
(1756)  now  contains  the  Mozart  mu-seum,  with  com- 
positions of  the  master,  and  his  skull  (a  legacy  of  Hj^rtl) . 
Mozart  died  in  1791  at  Vienna,  whither  he  had  come 
at  the  age  of  twenty  years.  Michael  Haydn  occu- 
pied throughout  his  life  the  position  of  orchestral 
conductor  of  the  Archbi.shop  of  Salzburg  (d.  1806). 
Archbishop  Jerome  was  a  special  patron  of  Haydn, 
and  was  dehghted  by  the  master's  new  compositions 
for  almost  every  ecclesiastical  function.  Among 
Haydn's  works  are  thirty  masses,  over  one  hundred 
graduals,  and  the  glorious  "Hier  Hegt  vor  deiner 
Majestat"  (Here  lies  before  Thy  Majesty).  The.se 
and  the  incomparably  beautiful  responsories  of  Holy 
Week  express  a  deep  religious  sentiment.  Salzburg 
suffered  much  through  the  French  wars,  wliich  led 
to  the  destruction  of  the  ecclesiastical  principahty. 
The  signers  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  agreed  on 
one  point,  that  ecclesia,stical  territory-  should  furnish 
the  means  of  mutual  compensation,  the  so-called 
"secularization".  Similarly  the  men  of  the  French 
Revolution  soon  confiscated  all  church  property, 
and  the  Germans,  their  apt  pupils,  completed  the 
secularization  in  Germany  by  the  decree  of  the  Im- 
perial Delegate  at  Ratisbon.  The  Catholic  Church 
lost  three  and  a  half  million  adherents  and  a  yearly 
income  of  twenty  million  gulden  (about  §8,000,000). 
The  archbishops  of  Salzburg  were  dej)rived  in  the 
same  year  of  their  temporal  sovereignty;  Jerome,  the 
last  ecclesiastical  sovereign  of  Salzburg,  died  at 
Vienna. 

During  the  first  two  decades  of  the  nineteenth 
century  Salzburg  had  a  chequered  fate:  from  1803 
to  1805  it  was  an  electorate  under  Grand-Duke  Fer- 
dinand of  Tuscany;  from  1805  to  1809  it  [)assed  into 
the  possession  of  Austria,  from  1809  to  the  Peace  of 
Vienna  it  was  liavarian.  Short  ius  waa  the  Bavarian 
dominion,  Montegelas  found  time  to  overturn  all 
the  old  institutions.  In  1810  the  university  was  di.s- 
.solved,  although  the  theological  faculty  remained; 
the  monasteries  were  forbidden  to  receive  novices, 
and  they  owed  their  continued  existence  to  Crown- 
Prince  Ludwig.  The  Peace  of  Vienna  restored  this 
beautiful  land  to  the  mild  rule  of  the  Habsburgs. 
PYancis  I  gave  it  an  eminent  archbishop  in  August  in 
Gruber.  Gruber  was  born  at  Vienna  and  developed, 
as  catechist  at  St.  Anna's  and  as  teacher  of  cate- 
chetics  for  the  alumni,  into  the  classical  writer  on 
catechetical  instruction.  His  "Theorie  der  Kate- 
chetik"  and  "Praktisches  Handbuch  der  Katechetik 
fur  Katholiken"  (2  vols.)  have  appeared  in  numenius 
editions.  As  aulic  councillor  for  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
Gruber  drafted  the  statute  of  organization  for  the 
Archdiocese  of  Salzburg,  on  his  .succession  to  which 
he  laboured  in  the  true  spirit  of  St.  ,\ugustine. 
Always  mild  and  affectionate,  he  won  back  even  the 
obstinate  Manharter  Sect  to  the  Church;  he  lectured 
personally  to  the  ecclesiastical  students,  especially 
on  St.  Augustine  and  the  "  Regula  pastoralis"  of  Greg- 
ory the  Great.  On  his  tours  of  visitation,  he  would 
question  the  parish-priest  concerning  the  theme  suit- 
able to  the  local  conditions,  and  would  immediately 
preach  thereon.  One  cannot  read  without  emotion 
his  correspondence  and  hear  of  his  per.sonal  rela- 
tions with  Prince  Friedrich  Schwarzenberg,  who 
became  in  more  than  one  respect  his  successor. 
John  Cardinal  Katschthaler  is  the  eighty-third 
bishop,  and  the  seventy-fourth  Archbishop  of  Salz- 
burg.    The  archdiocese  contains  270,000  CathoUcs, 


483  secular  priests,  216  male  religious  in  11  convents, 
and  998  nuns  in  102  convents. 

Greixz.  Das  soziale  Wirken  der  kathol.  Kirche  in  der  Erzd.  Salz- 
burg (Vienna,  1898) ;  Rieder,  Kurze  Gesch.  des  Landes  Salzburg 
(Salzburg,  1905J ;  Widmann,  Gesch.  Salzburg's  (2  vols.,  Gotha, 
1907-9),  extending  to  1519.  Q.    WOLFSGRUBER. 

Salzznann,  Joseph,  founder  of  St.  Francis  Provin- 
cial Seminary  (St.  Francis,  Wisconsin)  known  as  the 
"Salesianum",  one  of  the  best  known  pioneer  priests 
of  the  North-west,  b.  at  Miinzbach,  Dioce-se  of  Linz, 
Upper  Austria,  17  Aug.,  1819;  d.  at  St.  Francis,  Wis- 
consin, 17  Jan.,  1874.  He  was  ordained  in  1842,  and 
laboured  very  successfully  in  his  home  diocese  until 
1847,  when  the  visit  of  the  first  Bisho])  of  Milwaukee, 
John  Martin  Henni,  and  his  urgent  appeal  ripened  his 
long-felt  desire  to  devote  his  fife  to  the  foreign  mis- 
sions. Having  come  to  Milwaukee  in  October,  1847, 
he  was  ai)pointed  to  a  small  country  mi.ssion,  but  soon 
his  extraordinary  success  induced  the  bishop  to  make 
him  pastor  of  St.  Mary's  congregation  at  Milwaukee. 
There  the  German  free-thinkers  resorted  to  every  kind 
of  insult  and  calumny  to  thwart  the  success  of  this  in- 
trepid fhaiiipion  of  the  Church,  and  he  encountered  a 
long  and  bitter  combat  with  them.  Feeling  the  la- 
mentable scarcity  of  priests  Salzmann  conceived  the 
idea  of  founding  a  seminary.  To  collect  the  neces- 
sary funds  he  went  from  state  to  state,  and  after 
many  difficulties,  on  29  January,  1856,  the  institution 
was  opened  with  twenty-five  students.  Rev.  Michael 
Heiss,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Milwaukee,  was  its 
first  rector.  The  seminary  is  now  one  of  the  most 
prominent  in  the  country.  Several  hundreds  of  priests 
and  twenty-three  bishops  call  it   their  Alma  Plater. 

Salzmann  is  also  the  founder  of  the  first  Catholic 
normal  school  in  the  United  States  and  of  the  Pio 
Nono  College.  After  years  of  hard  struggles  the  Catho- 
lic Normal  School  of  the  Holy  P'amily  now  stands  on  a 
solid  basis  and  yearly  sends  out  efficient  teachers  to 
parochial  schools.  The  American  branch  of  the  St. 
Cecilia  Sf>ciety  for  the  promotion  of  genuine  church 
music  owes  its  existence  and  growth  to  him.  Salz- 
mann was  of  a  noble  character  full  of  holy  enthusiasm 
for  t  he  cause  of  God  and  his  Church,  fearless  in  the  de- 
fence of  truth,  an  eloquent  preacher,  a  warm  friend 
and  father  of  his  students,  and  a  wise  counsellor  to 
priests  and  bi.shops. 

Rain-ier,  Dr.  Joseph  Salzmann,  Leben  u.  Wirken  (St.  Louis, 
187fi;  2nd  ed.,  Milwaukee,  1903);  tr.  Bero,  A  Noble  Priest  (Mil- 
waukee, 1903). 

Joseph  Rainier. 

Samar  and  Leyte,  the  names  of  two  civil  provinces 
in  the  \'isayan  group  of  the  Philippines,  which  in- 
clude the  islands  of  BaHcuatro,  Batac,  Biliran,  Capul, 
Daram,  Homonhon,  Leyte  (2722  sq.  miles),  Manicani, 
Panaon,  Sdmar  (5031  sq.  miles),  and  several  smaller 
islands,  and  which  make  up  the  Diocese  of  C.\l- 
B.\Y(JG  (Calbayogana),  suffragau  of  Manila.  The 
diocesan  .seat  is  at  Calbayog,  a  city  of  22,000  inhabi- 
tants on  the  western  side  of  Sdmar;  the  cathedral  is 
dedicated  to  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul.  The  first  Jesuit 
missionaries  reached  Leyte  and  Sdmar  in  1595,  the 
islands  subseciuently  forming  part  of  the  Diocese  of 
Cebu  until  erected  into  a  separate  diocese,  10  April, 
1910.  The  first  bi.shop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Pablo  Singzon 
de  la  Anunciacion,  D.D.,  formerly  Vicar-General  of 
Cebu,  consecrated  in  St.  Francis's  Church,  Manila, 
24  June,  1910.  The  Lazarist  Fathers  have  charge  of 
the  diocesan  seminary  and  college  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  at  Calbayog.  Besides  training  j'ouths  for  the 
priesthood  they  give  courses  of  primary  instruction  in 
seven  grades,  three  commercial  courses,  a  four  years' 
high  school  course,  and  classical  courses  for  the  B.A. 
degree  (Greek,  Latin,  English,  Spani.sh,  natural  sci- 
ence, higher  mathematics,  and  philosophy).  There 
are  180  students.  The  Sisters  of  Charity  have  charge 
of  the  girls'  academy,  the  College  of  the  Miraculous 
Medal,  at  Calbayog,  in  which  there  are  primary,  sec- 


SAMARIA 


416 


SAMARIA 


ondarj-,  and  higher  courses,  together  with  lessons  in 
drawing,  painting,  music,  sewing,  and  embroidery. 

Statistics:— Priests,  secular,  -15;  regular,  22;  Laza- 
rist  Fathers,  5;  parishes  on  Samar,  33,  missions,  138; 
parishes  on  Levte,  39,  missions,  71;  total  parishes  (m- 
cluding  25  small  islands),  79;  estimated  population, 
800,000,  practically  the  whole  of  whom  are  devout 
and  loyal  Cathohes. 

Redoxdo,  Historia  de  la  Didcesis  de  Cebii  in  Guia  oficial  de 
FUipinas  (1907). 

C.  F.  Wemyss  Brown. 

Samaria,  a  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Csesarea  in 
Palest ina  Prima.  In  the  sixth  year  of  his  reign  (about 
900  B.  c.)  Amri,  King  of  Israel,  laid  the  foundations 
of  the  city  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Samaria, 
"after  the  name  of  Semer  the  owner  of  the  hill" 
(III  Kings,  xvi,  2-4).  This  detached  hill  was  1454  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  more  than  328  feet  above  the 
surrounding  hills.  His  son,  Achab,  married  to  Jeza- 
bel,  a  Sidonian  princess,  introduced  the  worship  of 
Baal  (III  Kings,  xvi,  32).  Shortly  after,  the  Prophet 
Elias  announced  the  famine  which  for  three  years  and 
more  devastated  the  city  and  surrounding  country 
(III  Kings,  x\'ii,  xviii).  Samaria  suffered  her  first 
siege  from  Benadad,  King  of  Damascus  (III  Kings, 
XX,  1-21);  after  the  disaster  which  this  same  king 
suffered  at  Aphec,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  Achab 
(III  Kings,  XX,  34-43).  The  body  of  Achab  was 
carried  there  from  Ramoth  Galaad,  and  the  dogs 
hcked  his  blood  in  the  gutters,  according  to  the  pre- 
diction of  the  Prophet  (III  Kings,  xxii,  1-39).  Elias 
prophesied  that  King  Ochozias,  who  fell  from  the 
window  of  his  palace,  would  die  of  this  fall,  which 
prophecy  was  very  shortly  fulfilled  (IV  Kings,  i). 
His  brother  and  successor,  Joram,  threw  down  the 
statue  of  Baal,  erected  by  Achab  (IV  Kings,  iii,  2). 
The  history  of  Samaria  is  connected  with  various  epi- 
sodes in  the  fife  of  the  Prophet  Eliseus,  notably  on 
account  of  the  siege  of  the  city  by  Benadad  (IV  Kings, 
ii,  25;  \n,  8  sq.).  Jehu,  founder  of  a  new  dynasty, 
exterminated  the  last  descendants  of  Achab,  and 
destroyed  the  temple  of  Baal  in  Samaria;  then  he 
was  interred  in  the  city  as  his  predecessors  had  been 
(IV  Kings,  x).  Nevertheless  the  worship  of  Astarte 
still  continued  in  the  city  (IV  Kings,  xiii,  6).  Joas, 
who  had  transported  the  treasures  of  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem,  pillaged  by  him,  to  Samaria,  was  buried 
in  the  tomb  of  the  kings  of  Israel  (IV  Kings,  xiv,  14-16; 
II  Parr.,  xxv,  24)  as  also  was  his  son  Jeroboam  II 
(IV  Kings,  xiv,  16,  24,  29).  Then  followed  a  series  of 
regicides  and  changing  of  ruling  families.  Zachary, 
after  reigning  six  months,  was  assassinated  (IV  Kings, 
XV,  10)  by  Solium,  who  reigned  one  month,  and  was 
in  turn  killed  by  Manahem,  who  ruled  ten  years  (IV 
Kings,  XV,  14-17).  His  son,  Phaceia,  after  a  reign  of 
two  years,  was  put  to  death  by  the  chief  of  his  army, 
Phacce  (IV  Kings,  xv,  25),  who  met  a  like  fate  at  the 
end  of  twenty  years  (IV  Kings,  xv,  30).  Osee,  son  of 
Ela,  seems  to  have  been  crowned  or  placed  upon  the 
throne  by  Teglathphalasar  III,  King  of  Assyria. 
Finally  Salmanasar  IV  and  his  general,  Sargon,  took 
possession  of  Samaria  (721  b.  c.)  after  a  siege  lasting 
not  less  than  three  years  (IV  Kings,  xvii,  4-6;  xviii, 
9  sq.).  The  inhabitants  who  survived  the  siege  were 
transported  into  Assyria  to  the  number  of  27,290, 
according  to  an  inscription.  Thus  were  realized  the 
threats  of  the  Prophets  against  haughty  Samaria 
(Is.,  ix,  9-11;  xxviii.  1-8;  Ezech.,  xxiii,  4-9;  Osee, 
vii,  viii,  x,  xiv;  Amos,  iii,  9-15;  iv,  1  sq.;  vi,  1;  vii, 
2-17;  viii,  14;  Mich.,  i,  5-7;  ii;  iii;  vi;  Ps.  viii, 
4  etc.). 

The  first  historical  period,  and  not  the  least  glorious, 
since  it  was  for  nearly  two  hundred  years  the  capital 
of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  was  thus  ended.  There  re- 
mained only  thf  temple  of  Baal,  which  had  preceded 
the  temple  of  Augustus,  erected  by  King  Herod, 


repaired  by  the  American  mission  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, also  the  palace  of  Amri,  discovered  by  this 
same  mission.  Instead  of  the  Israelites  transported 
into  Assyria,  colonies  were  sent  over,  formed  of  various 
nations,  Chaldeans,  Cutheans,  Syrians,  Arabs,  and 
others  (IV  Kings,  xvii,  24);  these  mingled  with  the 
native  population,  forming  an  amalgamation  of  reli- 
gion and  superstition;  thus  the  Israelites  with  their 
own  national  worship  gave  birth  to  the  people  and 
the  religion  of  the  Samaritans.  The  latter  became 
furious  enemies  of  the  Jews,  but  Sichem  or  NeapoUs, 
and  not  Samaria,  became  their  principal  religious  and 
pohtical  centre.  From  721-335  b.  c,  Samaria  was  a 
Babylonian  and  Persian  city;  finally  it  fell  into  the 
power  of  Alexander  who  to  avenge  the  murder  of 
his  governor,  partly  exterminated  the  inhabitants, 
replacing  them  by  a  Grajco-Syrian  colony  (Quintus 
Curtius,  IV,  321).  Having  thus  become  Gra>co- 
Samaritan,  the  city  continued  its  hostilities  against 
the  Jews,  and  following  an  attack  upon  Marissa,  it  was 
taken  after  a  memorable  siege  and  utterly  destroyed 
by  John  Hyrcanus  about  110  b.  c.  It  was  rebuilt  by 
the  proconsul  of  Syria,  Gabinus,  between  57  and  55 
B.  c.  (Josephus,  "Bell.  Jud.",  I,  vii,  7;  I,  viii,  4; 
"Ant.",  XIII,  X,  2,  3;  XIV,  v,  3).  The  city  was  then 
returned  to  the  Samaritans.  Herod  the  Great  even- 
tually received  it  from  Octavius  (31  b.  c.)  after  the 
death  of  Cleopatra,  the  previous  ruler.  He  enlarged 
and  embellished  it,  in  the  centre  built  a  magnificent 
temple  to  Augustus  (of  which  the  monumental  stair- 
case may  still  be  seen),  and  called  it  Sebaste  (about 
25  B.  c.)  in  honour  of  the  sovereign  (Josephus,  "Bell. 
Jud.",  I,  XX,  3;  I,  xxi,  2;  "Ant.",  XV,  vii,  3;  XV, 
viii,  5) .  Herod  made  it  one  of  his  favourite  residences, 
although  it  was  maritime  Ca'sarea  which  obtained  his 
political  preponderance.  After  Herod  came  his  son 
Archelaus,  who  ruled  the  city  ("Ant.",  XVII.  xi,  4; 
"Bell.  Jud.",  II,  vi,  3);  at  the  death  of  the  latter  the 
province  was  annexed  to  Syria  as  a  gift  to  Herod 
Agrippa  I,  a.  d.  41  ("Ant.",  XIX,  v,  1;  XIX,  ix,  1-2). 
Always  hostile  to  the  Jews,  the  inhabitants  of  Samaria 
saw  their  city  burned  by  the  latter,  a.  d.  65  ("Bell. 
Jud.",  II,  xviii,  1);  according  to  Ulpianus,  "Digest", 
L,  tit.  15,  and  the  coinage  of  the  city,  Septimius 
Severus  established  there  a  colony  about  a.  d.  200 
(Eckhel,  "Doctrina  numm.".  Ill,  44).  Very  likely 
a  Roman  garrison  was  then  placed  there. 

It  is  possible  that  there  may  have  been  some  ques- 
tion of  Samaria  in  Acts,  viii,  5,  on  the  subject  of  the 
sermon  of  the  deacon  Philip;  in  this  case  Christianity 
is  traced  to  its  very  origins.  According  to  Le  Quien 
(Oriens  christ..  Ill,  649-54),  Marinus,  Bishop  of  Se- 
baste, represojited  the  diocese  at  the  Council  of  Nicaea 
(325);  Eusebius  at  Scleucia  (359);  Priscianus  at 
Constantinople  (381);  Eleutherius  at  Lydda  (Lydia), 
(415);  Constantine  at  the  Robber  Synod  of  Ephesua 
(449);  Marcianus,  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century; 
Pelagius  (536).  During  the  French  occupation 
Samaria  was  a  Latin  bi.shopric,  and  several  titulary 
bishops  are  mentioned  (Eubel,  "Hierarchia  Catholica 
medii  a;vi",  I,  445;  II,  309).  The  Greeks  also  made 
it  a  titular  see.  It  must  be  remembered  that  Sebaste 
and  not  Samaria  was  always  the  correct  name  of  this 
diocese.  From  the  fourth  century  we  m(>et  with  the 
cultus  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  Jerome  at  Samaria;  it 
possess(!d  also  the  tombs  of  Eliseus  and  Abdias,  and 
that  of  St.  John  the  Bajjtist,  whose  magnificent 
church,  rebuilt  by  the  Crusaders,  is  to-day  a  mosque 
(set;  text  in  Thomson,  "Sacred  Places",  I,  102).  From 
985,  El-Muqadassi  does  not  mention  Samaria,  no_w 
nothing  more  than  a  humble  di.strict  of  Nablusi;  in 
1283,  we  find  nothing  but  one  inhabited  house  with 
the  exception  of  a  little  Greek  monastery  (Burchard, 
"Descriptio  Terra-  Sanctai",  Leipzig,  1873,  53).  To- 
day the  village  of  Sebastyeh,  amid  orchards  and 
kit(;hen  gardens,  comprises  three  hundred  inhabitants, 
all  MuHSulmana. 


SAMARIA 


417 


SAMARIA 


Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geog.,  a.  v.;  Robinson, 
Siblical  Researches  in  Palestine,  III  (Boston,  1841),  138-49; 
The  Survey  of  Western  Palestine,  Memoirs,  II  (London,  1882), 
lCO-1,  211-4;  Lyon  and  Reisneb,  The  Harvard  Expedition  to 
Samaria  in  The  Harvard  Theological  Review,  II  (January,  1909), 
III  (April,  1910);  Guerin,  Description  de  la  Palestine,  Samarie 
II  (Paris,  1874-5),  188-209;  Heidet  in  ViQ.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible, 
8.  V.  Hamarie;   Revue  biblique  (1909),  435-45  (1911),  125-31. 

S.  Vailhe. 

Samaritan     Language     and     Literature. — A. 
Language. — The  original  language  of  the  Samaritans 
was   the   vernacular   of   Palestine,    that   is   Hebrew. 
This   language   was   superseded   later   by   Aramaic. 
One  result  of  the  domination  of  Islam  there  was  the 
substitution  of  Arabic.     Hebrew,   as   the  idiom   of 
the  Pentateuch,  both  was  and  is  for  the  Samaritans 
the  sacred  language;   and  even  to-day  some  of  them 
have  a  knowledge,  although  indeed  a  somewhat  im- 
perfect one,  of  it.     The  pronunciation  differs  con- 
siderably from  that  settled  by  the  Masoretic  text. 
As  the  Samaritans  use  neither  vowels  nor  diacritical 
signs,   the    pronunciation   has  only    been   preserved 
by  tradition;    yet,   notwithstanding  isolated  varia- 
tions, it  seems  to  have  remained,  on  the  whole,  very 
much  the  same.     Information  on  this  point  is  given 
by  H.  Petermann  in  his   "Versuch  ciner  hebriiischen 
Formenlehre    nach    der    Aussprache    der    heutigen 
Samaritaner"   (Leipzig,   1868).     The  colloquial  lan- 
guage of  the  Samaritans  from  the  last  centuries  be- 
fore Christ  up  to  the  first  centuries  of  the  Arab 
domination  was  a  dialect  of  western  Aramaic  largely 
peculiar  to   Palestine.     WTiat    was  formerly  called 
the   Samaritan   language   rested   almost   exclusively 
upon  the  polyglot  edition  of  the  Samaritan  Targum 
(see  below),  and  most  of  the  lexical  and  grammatical 
peculiarities  which  were  ascribed  to  this  idiom  have 
been    deduced    solely    from    the    incredibly    corrupt 
manuscripts  of  the  Targum.     They   rest  on  corrup- 
tions, arbitrary  spellings,  mutilated  Arabic  idioms, 
and  other  errors  of  copyists  who  were  unacquainted 
with  the  true  idiom  of  the  language.     Consequently, 
the  existing  Samaritan  grammars  and  lexicons  are 
in  the  highest  degree  misleading  to  those  who  are 
not  specialists.     Among  these  works  are,  for  example, 
Uhlemann,  "Institutiones  lingua?  Samaritanaj"  (Leip- 
zig, 1837);   Nicholls,  "A  Grammar  of  the  Samaritan 
Language"    (London,    18.58);     Petermann,    "Brevis 
linguae  Sam.  grammatica"   (Berlin,  1873);    Castelli, 
"Lexicon  heptaglot ton"  (London,  1669).     [Cf.  Kohn, 
"Zur  Sprache,  Litcratur  und  Dogmatik  der  Samari- 
taner"   (Leipzig,    1876).]     Apart    from    a    decided 
intermixture  of  Hebrew  idioms,  as  well  as  of  words 
borrowed  from  the  Greek  and  Latin,  the  real  Samari- 
tan language  differed  but  little  from  the  Aramaic 
spoken  in  the  other  parts  of  Palestine,  especially  from 
that  of  Northern  Palestine,   as,  for  example,   it  is 
found   in   the   Palestinian   Talmud.     Owing   to   the 
secluded  position  of  this  people,  its  literature  in  the 
course  of  time  must  have  become  more  and  more 
isolated.     No  linguistic  value  can  be  attached  to  the 
writings  in  what  is  called  the  Samaritan  language, 
produced    after    the    extinction    of    Aramaic.     The 
authors,  accustomed  to  speak  Arabic,  strove  to  write 
in  a  language  of  which  they  had  no  mastery. 

Leaving  out  later  flourishes  added  to  individual 
letters,  Samaritan  written  characters  represent  a  more 
ancient  type  than  the  square  characters  and  resem- 
ble those  found  on  Hebrew  coins  and  the  inscrip- 
tions of  seals,  but  with  a  greater  inclination  to  the 
cursive.  The  script  appears  to  belong  to  a  later 
development  of  the  writing  used  in  the  old  Hebrew 
codices,  and,  taken  altogether,  a  type  of  writing 
common  in  a  part  of  Palestine  in  the  fourth  century 
before  Christ  may  be  preserved  in  it.  It  would  be 
well  to  replace  the  unsatisfactory  Samaritan  type 
used  in  printing  with  more  suitable  characters  in 
closer  agreement  with  the  old  manuscripts.  Among 
the  inscriptions  written  in  Samaritan  characters 
XIII.— 27 


the  two  most  important  are  those  at  Nablus,  the  one 
in  the  minaret  wall  of  the  mosque  of  El-Hadra,  the 
other  belonging  to  a  private  individual.  [Cf.  Rosen 
in  "Zeitschrift  der  deutschen  morgenliindischen 
Gesellschaft"  (hereafter  to  be  cited  as  ZDMG) 
XIV  (1866),  622.  The  first  inscription  is  also  dis- 
cussed by  Blau  in  ZDMG,  XIII  (1859),  275,  the  second 
is  treated  in  Lidzbarski,  "Handbuch  der  nordsem. 
Epigraphik"  (Weimar,  1898),  440.]  Both  inscrip- 
tions belong  apparently  to  the  period  before  the  de- 
struction of  the  Samaritan  Synagogue  by  Justinian 
I  (529  B.  c).  The  inscription  on  the  building  of  the 
present  synagogue  (pubhshed  by  Rosen  in  ZDMG, 
XIV,  624)  belongs  to  the  year  1711.  In  regard 
to  some  other  inscriptions,  cf.  B.  Wright  in  "Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology", 
VI  (1883),  November,  25;  Clermont-Ganneau  in 
"Revue  biblique"  (1906),  84;  Lagrange  in  "Revue 
illustree  de  la  Terre  Sainte"  (1890),  339  (1891),  83; 
also  in  "Revue  biblique"  (1893),  114;  Sobernheim, 
"Samar.  Inschriften  aus  Damaskus"  in  "Mit- 
teilungen  und  Nachrichten  des  Deutschen  Palastina- 
Vereins",  VIII  (1902),  70;  Idem,  "Sieben  samarit. 
Inschriften  aus  Damaskus"  (Vienna,  1903). 

B.  Literature. — Samaritan  literature  consists  of 
writings  in  Hebrew,  Aramaic,  Arabic,  and  for  the 
Hellenistic  period,  Greek.  The  number  of  writings 
at  present  in  the  possession  of  the  Samaritan  com- 
munity at  Nablus  is  small.  Barton  has  given  in 
"Biblioth.  Sacra",  LX  (1903),  612  sqq.,  a  list  of 
these  books  and  manuscripts  drawn  up  by  JaqAb,  the 
priest  at  Nablus.  From  the  seventeenth  century 
on,  manuscripts  have  been  acquired  by  various 
European  libraries.  The  number  of  these  was  con- 
siderably increased  through  the  sale  of  manuscripts 
made  in  1870  to  the  Imperial  Library  of  St.  Peters- 
burg by  the  Karaite  Abraham  Firkovitch;  these 
writings  had  been  collected  by  him  in  the  genisoth 
of  the  Samaritans  at  Cairo  and  Nablus. 

Margoliouth,  Descriptive  List  of  the  Hebrew  and  Samaritan 
MSS.  of  the  Brit.  Museum  (London,  189.'J);  Catalogue  of  the 
Hebrew  and  Samar.  MSS.  in  the  Brit.  Museum  (only  I  voL 
publ.,  London,  18991;  Neubauer,  Catalogue  of  the  Hebrew  MSS. 
in  the  Bodleian  Library  (Oxford,  1886);  Harkavy,  The  Collec- 
tion of  Samaritan  MSS.  at  St.  Petersburg  (London,  1874) ;  Cata- 
logues des  MSS.  hibreux  et  samaritains  de  la  Bibliothique  Imperiale 
(Paris,  1866) ;  Supplement  by  Steinschneider  in  Zeitschrift  fiir 
hebr.  Bibliographic,  VI  (1902,  reprinted  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  1903) ;  Geioer,  Neue  Mitteilungen  uber  die  Samaritaner  in 
Zeitschrift  der  deutschen  Morgenldndischen  Gesellschaft,  XVI- 
XXII,  a  review  of  publications  from  the  Samaritan  literature  up 
to  1868.  Cf.  also  Nutt,  A  Sketch  of  Samaritan  History,  Dogma 
and  Literature  (London,  1874);  Cowley,  Sam.  Literature  and 
Religion  in  Jew.  Quart.  Rev.  (1896),  562  sqq.;  Montgomery, 
The  Samaritans  (Philadelphia,  1907),  270  sqq. 

In  the  remainder  of  this  article  a  condensed  sketch 
will  be  given  of  the  most  important  writings  con- 
tained in  the  Samaritan  literature. 

(1)  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  and  the  Trans- 
lations of  It. — The  most  important  of  the  works 
belonging  to  Samaritan  literature  is  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch,  that  is  the  Pentateuch  written  in  the 
Samaritan  character  in  Hebrew,  which  is  not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  Samaritan  translation  of  the 
Pentateuch  or  with  the  Samaritan  Targum  (see  be- 
low). In  the  early  Christian  centuries  this  Pen- 
tateuch was  frequently  mentioned  in  the  writings 
of  the  Fathers  and  in  marginal  notes  to  old  manu- 
scripts, but  in  the  course  of  time  it  was  forgotten. 
In  1616  Pietro  della  Valle  obtained  a  copy  by  pur- 
chase at  Damascus;  this  copy  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  library  of  the  Oratory  at  Paris  and  was 
printed  in  1645  in  the  Paris  Polyglot.  At  the  present 
time  the  manuscript,  which  is  imperfect  and  dates 
from  1514,  is  in  the  Vatican  Library.  From  the  time 
of  this  publication  the  number  of  codices,  some  much 
older,  has  been  greatly  increased,  and  Kennicott  was 
able  to  compare  in  whole  or  part  sixteen  manuscripts 
["Vet.  Test.  Hebr."  (Oxford,  1776)].  The  views  of 
scholars  vary  as  to  the  antiquity  of  this  Samaritan 


SAMARIA 


418 


SAMARIA 


recension.  Some  maintain  the  opinion  that  the 
Samaritans  became  acquainted  with  the  Pentateuch 
tlirough  the  Jews  who  were  left  in  the  country,  or 
through  the  priest  mentioned  in  IV  Kings,  xvii,  28. 
Others,  however,  hold  the  view  that  the  Samaritans 
did  not  come  into  possession  of  the  Pentateuch  until 
they  were  definitely  formed  into  an  independent 
community.  This  much,  however,  is  certain:  that 
it  must  have  been  already  adopted  by  the  time  of  the 
founding  of  the  temple  on  Garizim,  consequently  in 
the  time  of  Nehemias.  It  is,  therefore,  a  recension 
which  was  in  e.vistence  before  the  Septuagint,  which 
fact  makes  evident  its  importance  for  the  verification 
of  the  text  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 

A  comparison  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  with 
the  Masoretic  text  shows  that  the  former  varies  from 
the  latter  in  very  many  places  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
very  often  agrees  with  the  Septuagint.  For  the 
variant  readings  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  see 
Kennicott,  loc.  cit.,  and  for  the  most  complete  list 
see  Pctermann,  loc.  cit.,  219-26.  A  systematic 
grouping  of  these  variants  is  given  by  Gesenius,  "De 
Pentateuchi  Samaritani  origine  indole  et  auctoritate" 
(Halle,  1815),  p.  46.  Very  many  of  these  variations 
refer  to  orthographic  and  grammatic  details  which 
are  of  no  importance  for  the  sense  of  the  text;  others 
rest  on  ex-ident  blunders,  while  still  others  are  plainly 
deliberate  changes,  as  the  removal  of  anthropomor- 
phisms and  expressions  which  seemed  objectionable, 
the  bringing  into  conformity  of  jiarallel  passages, 
insertion  of  additions,  large  and  small,  different 
members  in  the  genealogies,  corruptions  in  favour  of 
the  religious  opinions  of  the  Samaritans,  among 
them,  in  Deut.,  xxvii,  4,  the  substitution  of  Garizim 
for  EhaV,  and  other  like  changes.  Although,  in  com- 
parison with  the  Masoretic  text,  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  shows  many  errors,  yet  it  also  contains 
readings  which  can  be  neither  oversights  nor  delib- 
erate changes,  and  of  these  a  considerable  number 
coincide  with  the  Septuagint  in  opposition  to  the 
Masoretic  text.  Some  scholars  have  sought  to  draw 
from  this  the  conclusion  that  a  copy  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment used  by  Samaritans  settled  in  Egypt  served  as  a 
model  for  the  Septuagint.  According  to  Kohn,  "De 
Pentat.  Samar."  (Breslau,  1865),  the  translators  of 
the  Septuagint  used  a  Grajco-Samaritan  version, 
while  the  same  scholar  later  claims  to  trace  back  the 
agreements  to  subsequent  interpolations  from  the 
Samareiticon  [Kohn,  " Samareiticon  und  Septua- 
ginta"  in  "Magazin  fiir  Gesch.  und  Wissenschaft  des 
Judentums"  (1894),  1  sqq.,  49  sqq.].  The  simplest 
way  of  explaining  the  uniformity  is  the  hypothesis 
that  both  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  and  the  Septua- 
gint go  back  to  a  form  of  text  common  to  the  Pales- 
tinian Jews  which  varies  somewhat  from  the  Masoretic 
text  which  was  settled  later.  However,  taking 
everything  together,  the  decision  must  be  reached 
that  the  \Iasoretic  tradition  has  more  faithfully  pre- 
served the  original  form  of  the  text. 

The  most  celebrated  of  the  raanu-scripts  of  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  that  in  the  synagogue  at 
Nablus.  It  is  a  roll  made  of  the  skins  of  rams,  and 
written,  according  to  the  belief  of  the  Samaritans, 
in  the  thirteenth  year  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan 
at  the  entrance  to  the  Tabernacle  on  Mount  Garizim 
by  Abisha,  a  great-grandsfm  of  Aaron.  Abisha 
claims  for  himself  the  authorship  of  the  manuscript 
in  a  spwjch  in  the  first  person  which  is  insertc^d  be- 
twecm  the  columns  of  Deut.,  v,  6  sqq.,  in  the  form  of 
what  is  called  a  Uirikh.  This  is  of  course  a  fable. 
The  age  of  the  roll  cannot  be  exactly  settled,  as  up 
to  now  it  has  not  been  possible  to  examine  it 
thoroughly. 

The  Sarriaritan  Pentateuch  was  printed  in  vol.  VI  of  the 
Parit  I'olygl'4  (104.5),  and  in  vol.  I  of  the  London  Polyglot  (16.57); 
BLAYNAy  edited  a  atpy  in  wjuarc  characters  (Oxford,  1790). 
Id  mo<Jern  times  many  newly  -  discovered  fragments  have 
been  published.     GESfSMua,  De  PentaUuchi  Samaritani  origine 


indole  et  auctoritate  (Halle,  1S1.5);  Fell,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte 
Testament  (Paderborn,  1906),  111  sqq.;  Gall  in  Zeitschrift  fUr 
die  alllestamentl.   Wissenschaft  (1906),  293. 

(2)  The  Samaritan  Targum. — In  addition  to  the 
Hebrew  Pentateuch,  the  Samaritans  had  also  a  trans- 
lation of  this  in  the  Samaritan-Aramaic  idiom,  the 
Samaritan  Targum.  According  to  their  own  account 
this  was  written  by  Nathanael,  a  priest,  who  died 
B.  c.  20.  In  reality,  it  probably  belongs  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  third  century  after  Christ;  in  any  case  it 
cannot  be  put  earlier  than  the  second  century  of  our 
era.  In  all  the  manuscripts  the  text  is  hopelessly 
garbled,  and  what  has  been  published  up  to  the  pres- 
ent time  as  the  Samaritan  Targum  proves  in  reality 
to  be  a  text  frequently  corrected,  altered,  and  cor- 
rupted, both  in  language  and  contents,  at  various 
times,  in  various  localities,  and  by  various  hands,  a 
text  that  is  constantly  farther  removed  from  its 
original  which  in  the  end  is  almost  lost  sight  of.  An 
approximate  idea  of  what  the  original  may  have  been 
is  presented  in  the  St.  Petersburg  fragments  published 
by  Kohn,  "Zur  Sprache,  Literatur  und  Dogmatik  der 
Samaritaner"  (Leipzig,  1876),  p.  214.  According  to 
Kahle,  "  Textkritische  und  lexikalische  Bemerkungen 
zum  Samaritan.  Pent.-Targum"  (Leipzig,  1898), 
there  had  never  been  a  universally  acknowledged 
original  Targum,  but  only  partial  translations  made 
by  various  priests  for  practical  purposes.  On  this 
point  cf.  E.  Littmann  in  "Theol.  Literatur-Zeitung" 
(1899),  No.  VI.  So  far  as  it  is  possible  to  judge,  the 
original  Targum  was  a  fairly  literal  translation  from 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  but  a  translation  made 
without  any  real  comprehension  of  the  sense  and  with 
a  defective  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  language. 

It  was  first,  and  most  incorrectly,  printed  in  vol.  VI  of  the 
Paris  Polyglot  (1645),  somewhat  more  correctly  in  vol.  VI  of  the 
London  Polyglot  (1657);  later  it  was  ed.  by  Brull  in  square 
characters  (Frankfort-on-Main,  1873-76).  The  edition  by 
Peterman!^,  Pentateuchus  Samaritanus:  I.  Genesis;  II.  Exodus 
(Berlin,  1872-73),  is  also  unfortunately  not  critically  satisfactory; 
its  continuation  by  Vollers,  LeiiVicus  (1883);  Numbers  (1885); 
Deuteronomy  (1897),  rests  on  better  authorities.  In  addition 
fragments  found  at  Oxford,  London,  and  St.  Petersburg  have 
been  published.  KoHX,  Samaritanische  Studien  (Breslau,  1868); 
Idem  in  ZDMG,  LXVII  (1893),  626  sqq. 

Greek  readings  designated  as  rb  'Za.ixapeinKbv  are 
frequently  quoted  in  old  hexaplaric  scholia  and  by 
some  Fathers.  These  readings  nearly  all  agree  with 
the  Samaritan  Targum.  This  '^^a/xapsiTiKdv  was  prob- 
ably nothing  more  than  a  Greek  translation  of  the 
Samaritan  Targum  made  in  Egypt  for  the  use  of 
the  Samaritan  communities  there  [Kohn  in  ZDMG, 
XLVII  (1893),  650  sqq.;  Idem,  "Samareiticon  und 
Septuaginta"  (see  above)]. 

(3)  Translation  of  the  Pentateuch  into  Arabic. — 
The  translation  of  the  Pentateuch  into  Arabic  that 
passes  under  the  name  of  Abu  Said  appeared  in  the 
eleventh  or  twelfth  century,  probably  to  drive  out 
the  translation  by  Saadja  (d.  924).  Abu  Said,  who 
lived  in  the  thirteenth  century,  was  the  reviser  of 
the  Arabic  Pentateuch;  formerly  he  was  incorrectly 
regarded  as  its  translator.  Bloch  and  Kahle  have 
lately  demonstrated  that  this  translation  has  ab- 
solutely no  uniform  character,  that  two,  if  not  more, 
recen.sions  are  to  be  accei)t(ul.  The  translation  is,  in 
general,  an  exact  one,  although  now  and  then  an 
effort  is  evidently  made  to  bring  (he  Biblical  text  into 
conformity  with  the  religious  opinions  of  the  Samar- 
itans. The  work  used  in  preparing  it  is  of  course  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  but  it  can  be  proved  that 
Saadja's  translation  was  also  used. 

Abu  Sa'id,  denenii,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  ed.  Kuenen  (Leyden, 
1851-.54);  BixifH,  Die  snmnril .-nrab .  Pcntdtrurh-Uebersetznng 
(Deut.,  i-xi)  (Berlin,  1001),  with  introdiution  aiul  notes.  Cf., 
as  renards  thi.t,  Kahl  in  Zeilnchrift  fiir  htbr.  H i bliographie  (1902), 
no.  1:  Idem.  Die  arab.  BiheliibcrHetzutium  (I.eii)ziK,  1904),  25 
(Exod.,  iv,  Sn-Se)  ;  the  ceN-hriitcd  linrherini  Triglolt  in  the 
Barberini  Library  at  Rome  d.itcH  from  1227  and  contains  in 
three  columnw  the  Samaritan  I'crilutcufli,  tlie  Samaritan  Targum, 
and  the  Arabic  translation  in  Samaritan  characters. 

Thus  the  succession  in  order  of  time  of  the  trans- 
lations of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  coincides  with 


SAMARIA 


419 


SAMARIA 


the  historical  facts :  Samaritan  Targum  or  translation 
into  the  Aramaic  vernacular;  Greek  translation 
(SaixapecTLKdv)  for  the  diaspora;  Arabic  translation 
from  the  time  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  Arabs. 

(4)  Exegetical  and  Theological  Literature. — To  this 
belongs  above  all  the  haggadic  commentary  on  the 
Pentateuch  written  by  Marqa  in  pure  Aramaic  and 
generally  ascribed  to  the  fourth  century.  It  contains 
chiefly  edifying  meditations  on  selected  portions  of 
the  Pentateuch  in  six  books.  The  copy  of  it  which 
Petermann  had  made  from  a  manuscript  at  Nablus 
in  1868  is  at  Berlin.  Portions  of  this  have  been  pub- 
lished: Heidenheim,  Books  I,  II,  IV,  and  extracts 
from  the  other  books  in  "Biblioth.  Samar.",  Ill,  Pts. 
5  and  6  (Weimar,  1896);  Baneth,  "Des  Samar. 
Marqah  an  die  22  Buchstaben  anknupfende  Abhand- 
lung"  (Berlin,  1888);  Munk,  "Des  Sam.  M.  Erzah- 
lung  uber  den  Tod  Moses"  (Berlin,  1890);  Emmerich, 
"  Das  Siegeslied,  eine  Schrifterklarung  des  Sam.  M." 
(Berlin,  1897);  Hildosheimer,  "Marqahs  Buch  der 
Wunder"  (Berlin,  1898).  The  most  prosperous  period 
of  Samaritan  theological  learning  was  that  of  the 
Judaeo-Arabic  literature,  the  pioneer  in  which  was 
Saadja,  while  the  path  he  opened  was  zealously  fol- 
lowed by  Rabbinists  and  Karaites.  A  number  of 
Samaritan-Arabic  commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch 
belong  to  the  three  centuries  succeeding  that  in  which 
Saadja  lived.  Among  these  belongs,  for  example,  a 
commentary  on  Genesis  dated  10.53,  of  which  Xeu- 
bauer  publishes  a  fragment  (Gen.,  i-xxviii,  10)  in  the 
"Journ.  Asiat."  (1873),  341.  Ibrahim  of  the  tribe 
of  Jaqiib,  who  probably  did  not  live  before  the  six- 
teenth century,  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Penta- 
teuch, planned  on  a  large  scale.  A  manuscript  copy 
of  the  first  four  books  made  at  Nablus  through  the 
efforts  of  Petermann  is  at  Berlin.  Publications  from 
it  are:  Klumel,  "Mischpatim,  Ein  samarit.-arab. 
Commentar  zu  Ex.  xxi-xxii,  15,  von  Ibrahim  ibn 
Jakub"  (Berlin,  1902);  Hanover,  "Das  Festgesetz 
der  Samaritaner  nach  Ibrahim  ibn  Jakub"  (Berlin, 
1904).  Various  extracts  are  given  by  Geiger  in 
ZDMG,  XVII  (1863),  723;  XX  (1866),  147;  XXII 
(1868),  532.  Other  commentaries  are  to  be  found  in 
manuscript  in  libraries;  the  titles  of  a  number  of  them 
are  known.  Works  on  smaller  portions  of  the  Penta^- 
teuch  were  also  not  unusual. 

Among  the  codifications  of  the  Law  the  most  im- 
portant is  the  "Kitab  al-Kafi"  written  about  1050  by 
YAsuf  ibn  Salamah;  the  work  is  a  kind  of  Samaritan 
Schulchan  aruch,  made  up  of  the  explanations  of  the 
most  distinguished  Samaritan  teachers  of  the  law. 
Of  this  work  Kohn  has  edited  the  tenth  chapter,  "  Die 
Zaraath-Gesetze  dor  Bib(>l  nach  dem  Kitab  al-Kafi 
des  Jusuf  ibn  Salamah"  (Frankfort  on  the  Main, 
1899).  Munajja  ibn  Zadaka,  an  important  and  pro- 
lific writer,  taught  in  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century. 
Various  writings  of  his  are  quoted;  the  most  widely 
known  was  his  "Kitab  al  Khilaf ",  a  more  exact  title 
of  which  would  be,  "Investigations  and  Controversial 
(Questions  between  the  two  Sects  of  Jews  and  Samar- 
itans". The  work  is  divided  into  two  parts;  a 
manuscript  copy  of  the  second  part,  obtained  by 
Petermann  in  1868  at  Nablus,  is  to  be  found  at  Berlin. 
Further  information  concerning  this  second  part  is 
given  by  L.  Wreschner,  "  Samaritanische  Traditionen" 
(Halle,  1888).  Six  small  fragments  of  this  work  are 
at  Breslau  and  have  been  published  by  Drabkin, 
"Fragmenta  commentarii  ad  Pontateuchum  Samar- 
itano-Arabici  sex"  (Breslau,  1875).  In  addition  to 
these  many  theological  works  are  cited  or  are  to  be 
found  in  manuscript  in  libraries.  Cf.  Nutt,  loc.  cit., 
131  sqq.;  Stein.schneider,  "Die  arabische  Literatur 
der  Juden"  (Frankfort-on-Main,  1902),  319  sqq. 

(5)  Liturgy  and  Religious  Poetry. — A  large  number 
of  _  the  manuscripts  are  liturgical  texts.  They  con- 
tain prayers  and  hymns  for  various  feasts  and  occa- 
sions in  Aramaic  and  Hebrew.     The  majority  belong 


to  a  fairly  late  period,  as  the  numerous  Arabic  idioms 
show.  In  some  of  them,  each  Hebrew  or  Aramaic 
strophe  is  followed  by  an  Arabic  translation.  The 
earliest  and  most  celebrated  liturgical  poet  is  Marqa; 
next  to  him  comes  his  contemporary  Amram.  Later 
poets  are,  for  example,  Abu'l  Hasan  (eleventh  century) 
and  his  son  Ab-Galuga;  the  high-priest  Pinehas  ben 
Joseph  (fourteenth  century),  his  son  Abisha,  the  lat- 
ter's  contemporary  Abdallah  ben  Salamah;  further, 
Abraham  al-Qabasi  (sixteenth  century)  and  others. 
The  British  Museum  has  a  complete  manuscript  of 
the  Samaritan  Liturgy  in  twelve  quarto  volumes. 

Cowley,  The  Samaritan  Liturgy,  edited  u)ith  Introduction  etc. 
(2  vols.,  Oxford,  1910).  Of  earlier  publications  of  various 
hymns  should  be  mentioned:  Gesenius,  Carmina  Samaritana 
(Leipzig,  1824);  Geiger  in  ZDMG,  XVIII  (1864),  814  sqq.:  The 
Prayer  of  Ab-Galuga;  XXI  (1867),  273  sqq.:  The  Litany  of  Marqa; 
Kohn,  Zur  Sprache,  Literatur  und  Dogmatik  d.  Samnr.  (an  old 
Pesach-Hagada).  What  Heidenheim  offers  in  his  Quarterly 
and  in  the  Biblioth.  Samar.  must  be  characterized  as  decidedly 
imperfect.  In  general,  cf.  Cowley,  The  Sam.  Liturgy  and 
Reading  of  the  Law  in  Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  VII  (1894),  121 
sqq.;    Rappoport,  La  liturgie  samaritaine  (Angers,   1900). 

(6)  Chronicles  and  other  Forms  of  Secular  Litera- 
ture.— A  distinct  branch  of  the  literature  is  formed  by 
the  Samaritan  chronicles.  Among  these  are:  (a)  the 
Book  of  Joshua,  in  Arabic,  the  main  part  of  which 
probably  belongs  to  the  thirteenth  century,  even 
though  here  and  there  it  may  be  based  on  earlier 
records.  In  thirty-eight  chapters  it  treats,  somewhat 
in  the  manner  of  a  Midrash,  the  history  from  the 
death  of  Moses  to  the  death  of  Josue,  with  many 
apocrj'phal  additions.  An  appendix  to  the  ninth 
chapter  carries  on  the  recital  to  Alexander  Severus. 
The  sole  manuscript  in  Samaritan  characters  came 
from  Cairo  and  is  to  be  found  now  at  Leyden.  It 
was  published  in  Arabic  with  a  Latin  translation  by 
Juynboll,  "  Chronicon  Samaritanum  "  (Leyden,  1848). 
A  Hebrew  translation  was  issued  by  Kirchheim, 
'irs'.r  ^-ir:3  (Frankfort  on  the  Main,  1855) ;  an  English 
one  by  O.  T.  Crane,  "The  Samaritan  Chronicle  or 
the  Book  of  Joshua"  (New  York,  1890).  Gaster 
believed  he  had  discovered  the  Hebraico-Samaritan 
"Book  of  Josue",  and  published  it  in  square  char- 
acters, with  a  German  translation,  in  the  ZDMG, 
LXII  (1908),  209  sqq.,  494  sqq.  He  was,  however, 
the  victim  of  a  mystification.  Cf.  Kahle,  loc.  cit., 
250  sq.;  Dalmann  in  "Theol.  Literaturzeitung" 
(1908),  533,  665;  Fraenkel,  loc.  cit.,  481  sqq.;  Yahuda 
in  "Sitzung.sber.  d.  Akad.  d.  Wissensch.  in  Berlin", 
XXIX  (1908),  887  sqq.  (b)  The  Arabic  Chronicle 
of  Abu'l  Fath. — According  to  the  statement  of  the 
author  this  chronicle  was  written  at  Nablus  in  the  year 
756  of  the  Hegira  or  a.  d.  1355,  at  the  request  of  the 
high-priest  Pinehas.  It  relates  the  course  of  events 
from  the  time  of  Adam  to  that  of  Mohammed,  using 
older  chronicles  as  a  basis.  Some  manuscripts  give 
a  continuation  up  to  Harun-al-Rashid.  The  work 
contains  numerous  anachronisms  and  fables;  it  is  in- 
tended to  magnify  the  Samaritans  in  an  unfair  man- 
ner, and  passes  over  whole  periods  of  time.  It  was 
edited  by  Vilmar,  "Abulfathi  annales  Samaritani" 
(Gotha,  18,56).  The  Latin  translation  that  was  an- 
nounced has  not  yet  appeared,  (c)  El  Tolide,  known 
as  "the  Neubauer  Chronicle". — A  copy  of  this 
chronicle,  made  in  1859  by  the  high-priest  Jaqub  ben 
Aaron,  was  published  by  A.  Neubauer  in  the  "Journal 
A.siatique"  (1869),  385  sqq.  The  chronicle  is  written 
in  Hebrew  and  is  accompanied  by  a  literal  Arabic 
translation.  The  main  part,  written  in  1149,  is  the 
work  of  the  high-priest  Eleazar  ben  Amram,  the  con- 
tinuation, written  in  1340,  is  that  of  Jaqub  ben 
Ismael.  Other  writers  have  brought  the  chronicle 
down  to  1856.  It  contains  hardly  more  than  bare 
chronologies  from  Adam  on,  together  with  brief 
historical  notices,  and  is  in  reality  little  more  than  a 
catalogue  of  the  high-priests  and  of  the  most  im- 
portant Samaritan  families,  (d)  A  chronicle  edited 
by  E,  N.  Adler  and  M.  SeUgsohn,  "Une  nouvelle 


SAMARITAN 


420 


SAMBUGA 


chronique  samaritaine"  in  the  "Re^1le  des  etudes 
juives",  vols.  XLIV,  XLV,  XLVI;  also  printed 
separately  (Paris.  1903).  It  comes  do^^^l  to  the  year 
1S99.  With  e.xception  of  a  few  Samaritan  words  and 
two  liturgical  portions  in  the  Samaritan  dialect,  the 
language  is  a  corrupt  Hebrew  full  of  Arabic  expres- 
sions. Besides  the  chronicles  which  have  become 
kno\\Ti  up  to  now,  there  must  have  been,  at  least  in 
former  times,  many  other  works  of  historical  and 
legendarj'  character.  Cf .  for  example,  "  Buch  Josua", 
c.  IxA-ii  at  close,  and  Abu'l  Fath,  in  his  introduction. 
As  regards  other  branches  of  secular  learning, 
fragments  or  titles  are  known  of  works  on  astronomy, 
medicine  etc.  A  few  writings  on  grammar  have  been 
preserved,  especially  on  that  of  the  Hebrew  language; 
among  these  authors  are  Ibrahim  ben  Faray  of  the 
twelfth  century,  Eleazar  ben  Pinehas  about  1400, 
Abu  Sa'id,  apparently  the  same  as  the  one  who  wrote 
the  tran.slation  of  the  Pentateuch.  These  works  are 
to  be  found  in  manuscript  at  Leyden.  Noeldeke  in- 
vestigated them  carefully  and  published  the  results 
in  the  "Gottinger  Gelehrte  Nachrichten",  nos.  17 
and  20  (1862).  These  writings  give  sufficient  in- 
formation as  to  the  position  of  the  Samaritan  in 
regard  to  grammar  and  show  that  they  did  not  ad- 
vance beyond  an  uncertain  groping.  Of  particular 
interest  is  the  little  treatise  of  Abu  Sa'id  on  reading 
Hebrew,  which  Noeldeke  gives  in  the  original  and 
in  a  translation  (loc.  cit.,  387  sqq.).  There  are  also 
manuscripts  of  lexical  character,  which  are,  however, 
of  little  value.  A  manuscript  written  by  a  priest 
named  Pinehas  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  at 
Paris  contains  the  verb  and  noun  forms  in  parallel 
columns  of  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  and  Arabic;  a  copy 
of  this  manuscript  is  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge. 
Cf.  Nutt,  loc.  cit.,  150,  and  Harkavy,  loc.  cit.,  in 
appendix,  p.  161. 

(5)  Epistles. — The  correspondence  between  Sa- 
maritans and  European  scholars  which  began  at 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  was  continued, 
with  occasional  interruptions,  up  to  a  recent  date, 
offers  an  essential  contribution  to  the  knowledge  of 
Samaritan  conditions.  These  letters  of  the  Samari- 
tans are  either  in  Arabic  or  in  a  more  or  less  correct 
Hebrew  written  in  Samaritan  characters;  the  latter  are 
generally  accompanied  by  an  Arabic  translation.  The 
first  European  scholar  to  enter  into  correspondence 
with  the  Samaritans  was  Jo,seph  Scaliger.  In  1589  he 
addressed  hitters  to  the  Samaritan  communities  at 
Nablus  and  Cairo;  but  no  answer  was  sent  until 
after  his  death  (1609).  This  was  followed  by  the 
corresi)ondence  (1672-88)  carried  on  with  Thomas 
Marshall,  Hector  of  Lincoln  College  at  Oxford,  through 
Huntington,  the  Anglican  preacher  at  Aleppo,  and 
the  correspf)ndence  (1(584-1691)  with  the  German  Hiob 
Ludolf.  After  a  long  suspension  the  correspondence 
was  resumed  (1808-26)  by  Silvestre  de  Sacy.  As 
regards  a  further  scattered  correspondence  see  the 
bibliography  below. 

The  f>'-Ht  c'liloftion  of  the  Samaritan  coirespondence  since  the 
time  of  Huntington  in  db  Sacy,  CorrenpoTulance  den  Samarilains 
de  NajdouKP.  in  Aolices  el  Exlrails  des  Jl/.S.S.  dc  Ui  Bibliotkkriue  du 
Roi,  XII  (I'ariN,  IH.'ll),  1  sqq.,  contains  the  orieinais  with  French 
translations;  cf.  also  Hbidenhbim  in  Vii-rltiljahmschrifl  fiir 
enalUch-the'itoo.  Forchung  urul  Krilik,  I  (Ootha,  1S61),  78  sqq.; 
alw>  ZDMG.  17  <im:i),  37.5  sqq.;  Hamakkr  in  Archie/  voor 
Kerkdjke  (le^rhieAenin,  V  (Amsterdam,  18.34),  4  sqq.;  a  letter 
addressed  in  1842  to  the  French  Government  is  published  in 
L*i  AnruiUi  de  phihsophie  chrHienne  (18.")3).  Of  later  date  are 
a  letter  to  KautZBch,  mtc  Zeitsrhrifl  dr»  Deutschen  PnUiMina- 
Vereinit  (188.')),  149  wjq.;  a  letter  luldressed  Uj  King  Oscar  of 
SwcJen  puhlishcl  by  Almkvibt  (Upsala,  1897);  one  to  IIohen- 
BERO,  see  his  Lehrhuch  der  mmaritan.  Sprache  (Vienna,  1901); 
one  U)  Barton,  gee  liibl.  sacrn.,  LX  (190.3),  610. 

(6)  Secular  Literature  of  the  Hellenistic  Era  in 
Grecik. — In  closing,  something  should  be  said  of  the 
secular  jit-erature  writU-n  during  the  hellenistic  era 
in  Grer^k.  The  chronicler  Thallus  (about  40  B.  c.) 
was  probably  a  Samaritan.  His  work  appears  to 
have  been  a  chronicle  of  the  world.     The  majority 


of  fragments  of  and  references  to  it  relate  to  the 
mythological  period;  a  few  to  the  history  of  Cyrus. 
Tlie  mixture  of  Oriental  and  Greek  mythological 
stories  is  in  entire  agreement  with  the  manner  of  the 
hellenizing  Jews  of  his  era.  For  the  fragments  see 
C.  Miiller,  "Fragm.  hist.  Grajc",  III,  517-519. 
Among  the  citations  made  by  Alexander  Polyhis- 
tor  one  from  an  unknown  person  is  preserved  in 
Eusebius,  "Praep.  Evang.",  IX,  xviii.  This  agrees  in 
matter  with  a  longer  quotation  (ibid.,  IX,  xvii) 
erroneously  ascribed  to  the  Jew  Eupolemos.  Both 
citations  are  plainly  to  be  traced  to  one  original  which 
must  have  been  the  work  of  a  Samaritan  ot  whom  no 
further  particulars  are  known;  for  exami^le  Garizim 
is  explained  as  6pos  v\j/lffTov.  The  fragments  are  to 
be  found  in  C.  Miiller,  loc.  cit..  Ill,  214.  The 
Samaritan  Theodotus,  who  lived  about  200  b.  c, 
wrote  an  epic  on  Sichem  of  which  forty-seven  hexam- 
eters are  preserved  in  Eusebius,  "Pra?p.  Evang.", 
IX,  xxii;  see  C.  Miiller,  loc.  cit.,  217.  He  also  seems 
to  have  embellished  sacred  history  with  scraps  of 
Greek  mythology.  Freudenthal  also  thinks  that 
Cleodemus,  or  Malchus  (200  b.  c),  was  a  Samaritan, 
on  account  of  the  syncretic  fusion  of  Greek  mythology 
with  narratives  of  Biblical  origin.  However,  this  is 
not  a  necessary  conclusion. 

Freudenthal,  Hellenistische  Sludien,  Pt.  I  (Breslau,  1875); 
ScHiJRER,  Gesck.  des  jild.  Volkes  im  Zeitalter  Jesu  Christi,  III 
(3d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1898),  357  sq.,  372  aq. 

Fr.    SCHtJHLEIN. 

Samaritan  Pentateuch.  See  Samaria;  Samari- 
tan Language  and  Literature. 

Sambor.  See  Przemysl,  Sambor,  and  Sanok, 
Diocese  of. 

Sambuga,  Joseph  Anton,  theologian,  b.  at  Wall- 
do  rf  near  Heidelberg,  9  June,  1752;  d.  at  Nymphen- 
burg  near  Munich  5  June,  according  to  Sailer,  but 
5  January  according  to  other  statements,  1815.  His 
parents  were  Italians  who  had  come  from  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Como.  He  went  to  school  at  Mannheim 
and  to  the  monastic  school  of  the  Augustinians  at 
Wiesloch  and  then  entered  the  University  of  Heidel- 
berg. In  1770  family  affairs  took  him  to  Italy  where 
he  finished  his  theological  studies  and  was  ordained 
priest  at  Como,  2  April,  1774.  After  he  had  laboured 
at  Como  for  a  while  as  chaplain  at  the  hospital  he  re- 
turned to  Germany  and  in  1775  was  made  chaplain  at 
Helmsheim,  in  1778  chaplain  and  in  1783  court 
preacher  at  Mannheim,  in  1785  parish  priest  at 
Herrnsheim.  In  1797  he  was  again  called  to  the 
Court  at  Mannheim  as  teacher  of  religion  to  Prince 
Louis  (later  King  Louis  I  of  Bavaria),  the  oldest 
son  of  Duke  Maximilian  Joseph.  When  Maximilian 
Jo.seph  went  to  live  at  Munich  as  Elector  of  Bavaria 
(from  1806  King  Maximilian  I),  Sambuga  followed  the 
Court  to  that  city  and  was  later  the  teacher  of  religion 
to  the  younger  children  of  the  Elector  also.  He  was  a 
pious,  deeply-religious  priest,  and  belonged  to  the 
school  of  Sailer  whose  friend  he  was.  Among  his 
writings  should  be  mentioned:  "Schutzredt;  fur  den 
ehelo.sen  Stand  der  Geistlichen"  (Frank(>nthal,  1782; 
2nded.,  Munich,  1827);  "Ueberden  Philosophismus, 
welcher  uns(!r  Zeitallcr  bcdroht"  (Munich,  1805); 
"Ueber  dw  Nothwcndigkcit,  der  Besserung,  als  Riick- 
sprache  mit  seinc^iu  Zeitalter"  (2  vols.,  Munich, 
1807);  " Untersuchimg  iibcr  das  Wesen  der  Kirche" 
(Linz  and  Munich,  1809);  "Der  Priester  am  yVltare" 
(Munich,  1815;  3d  ed.,  1819).  There  were  published 
after  his  death:  "Sammlung  verschiedener  Gedan- 
kcn  liber  verschiedener  Clegenstilndfr",  ed.  by  Vrimz 
Stapf  (Munich,  1818);  " Auscrlcscme  liriefe",  ed.  by 
Karl  Klein  (Munich.  1818);  " Zwcite Sammlung ".  ed. 
by  Franz  Stapf  (1819) ;  "  Predigten  auf  Sonn-und  Fest- 
tage",  ed.  by  K.  Klein  (Mannhciim,  1822);  "Reden 
und  Aufsatzci",  collected  and  ed.  by  J.  B.  Schmitter- 
Hug  (Lindau,  1834). 


SAMOA 


421 


SAMOS 


Sailer,  Joseph  Anton  Samhuya,  wie  er  war  (Munich,  1816); 
the  same  account  in  Sailer,  Biographische  Schriflen,  I,  in 
Sailer's  collected  works,  vol.  XXXVIII  (2nd  ed.  Sulzbach,  1841), 
157-416. 

Friedrich  Lauchert. 

Samoa  (or  Navigators'  Islands),  a  group  of 
islands  situated  in  latitude  13°  30'  and  14°  30'  south 
and  longitude  168°  and  173°  west,  and  composed 
principally  of  fertile  mountainous  islands,  such  as 
Savai'i,  Upolu,  Tutuila,  Manu'a,  of  volcanic  and  coral 
formations.  The  natives  are  tall,  muscular,  hardy, 
and  fearless  seafarers,  but  ferociously  cruel  (formerly 
cannibalistic)  in  war;  hospitable,  but  indolent  in 
peace;  of  dignified  and  courteous  bearing,  and  skilled 
in  debate.  The  aboriginal  government  was  an  aris- 
tocratic federation  of  chiefs,  chosen  from  certain  fami- 
lies, controlling  the  royal  succession. 

The  first  mission  work  in  these  islands  was  done  by 
John  Wilhams,  of  the  London  (Protestant)  Mission- 
ary Society,  1830.  In  1836  Gregory  XVI  divided 
Oceanica  (which  includes  Samoa)  between  the  Society 
of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary  and  the  Ma- 
rists.  The  First  Catholic  missionaries,  Marists,  landed 
in  Samoa  in  1845.  In  1851  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Central  Oceanica  appointed  by  Pius  IX  was  also  Ad- 
ministrator of  Samoa.  This  double  title  was  borne 
by  the  succeeding  bishops,  Elloy  and  Lamaze,  until 
1896,  when  Mgr  Broyc^r  was  appointed  Vicar  Apos- 
tolic of  Samoa  and  Tokehiu,  with  residence  at  Apia. 
The  total  population  is  estimated  at  37,000,  of  whom 
7500  are  Catholics,  with  1  bishop  and  21  priests,  sev- 
eral of  them  natives.  There  are  17  churches  with 
resident  pastors,  100  chap(>l  stations  under  married 
catechists,  schools  under  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of 
Mary.  Divorce  and  immorality  are  the  principal  ob- 
stacles to  Catholic  progress.  The  London  Missionary 
Society  has  12  missionaries  and  8658  church  mem- 
bers.    There  are  also  Mormon  and  Wesleyan  missions. 

The  European  name  of  these  islands  was  given 
them  by  Bougainville  in  1768.  In  1872  Commander 
Meade,  U.S.N.,  negotiated  the  concession  of  a  coaling 
station  in  Tutuila;  this  was  ratified  by  a  treaty  in 
1878.  Treaties  \\\i\\  (ierniaiiy  and  (ircat  Britain  fol- 
lowed in  1879.  Native  dynastic  disorders  and  con- 
sular aggressions  necessitated  the  Berlin  Conference  of 
1889,  between  the  interested  powers,  resulting^  in  a 
tripartite  government  of  the  islands  by  the  United 
States,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain.  Popular  disap- 
proval in  the  United  States  of  "foreign  alliances"  led 
to  the  dissolution  of  this  agreement  and  a  partition,  in 
1899,  Tutuila  and  the  islands  east  of  171°  W.  longi- 
tude passing  under  American  control,  the  rest  to  Ger- 
many, under  an  imperial  governor.  Tutuila  still  re- 
mains (1911)  under  native  chiefs  and  laws  (when  not 
conflicting  with  American  law),  with  supervision  by 
the  commandant  of  the  United  States  Naval  Station. 

MoNFAT,  Les  Samoas,  etude  historique  et  religieuse  (Lyons, 
1890);  VioLETTE,  Dictionnaire  Samoa-frangais-anglais,  et  Gram- 
maire  (Paris,  1879);  Turner,  Nineteen  Years  in  Polynesia  (Lon- 
don, 1861);  Kramer,  Die  Samoa-Inseln.  (Stuttgart,  1902) ; 
Griffin,  List  of  Books  in  Library  of  Congress  on  Philippine 
Islands,  Samoa  and  Guam,  with  Maps  by  Phillips  (Washington, 
1901);  London  Missionary  Society;  Report  for  1907;  Herviek, 
Les  Missions  Maristes  en  Oceanie  (1902);  Annals  of  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Faith  (190.5);  Buchberger,  Kirchliches  Handlexikon 
(Munich.  1910);  Battandier,  Anntiaire  Pontifical  Catholique; 
Missionsbote  (Steyler,  1905-06);  Compilation  of  Messages  and 
Papers  of  Presidents  of  the  U.  S.from  1787-1897.  VII,  VIII,  IX,  X 
(Washington) ,  s.  w.  Grant,  Hayes,  Cleveland,  Harrison,  McKinley; 
Foreign  Relations  of  the  U.  S.,  Correspondence,  etc.,  relating  to 
Samoa;  51st  and  53rd  Congress;  Foster,  A  Century  of  American 
Diplomacy  (New  York  and  Boston,  1900);  Idem,  American 
Diplomacy  in  the  Orient  (New  York  and  Boston,  1903);  Tutuila; 
Memoranda  furnished  by  Navy  Department  to  57th  Congress,  U.  S. 
Senate  (1902).  W.    F.   SaNDS. 

Samogitia,  Diocese  of  (Samogitiensis),  a  Rus- 
sian diocese,  also  called  Telshi  (Telshe),  including 
the  part  of  Lithuania  lying  on  the  Baltic;  this  Lithu- 
anian distiict,  also  named  Sehmudien  (Polish, 
Zmudi)  or  Schamaiten  (Lithuanian,  Zemaitis),  was 
conquered   about    1380   by   the   Teutonic   Knights, 


and  ceded  to  Poland  in  1411  by  the  first  Treaty  of 
Thorn  after  the  defeat  of  Tannenberg.  During  the 
supremacy  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  a  part  of  the 
inhabitants  had  been  baptized,  but  Christianity  had 
not  become  firmly  established.  King  Jagello  of 
Poland  (1386-1434)  travelled  through  the  country, 
gave  instruction  in  the  Christian  religion  himself, 
and  called  upon  the  people  to  be  baptized.  He 
founded  the  Diocese  of  Samogitia  with  its  see  at 
Miedniki,  his  act  being  confirmed  by  the  Council  of 
Constance  in  1416,  and  the  cathedral,  which  was 
dedicated  to  Saints  Alexander,  Evantius,  and  Theo- 
dul,  was  erected  in  1417.  The  first  bishop  was  a 
German  named  Matthias;  he  was  succeeded  in  1421 
by  Nicholas,  a  Pole.  Until  the  sixteenth  century  a 
large  part  of  the  people  were  strongly  incHned  to 
heathenism.  Among  the  later  bishops  should  be 
mentioned  Melchior  I  (1574-1609),  who  rc-estabhshed 
Catholicism  after  the  Reformation.  His  predecessor 
George  III  founded  a  seminary  foi  priests.  There 
was  an  uninterrupted  succession  of  bishops  until  1778. 
The  see  then  remained  vacant,  and  in  1798  the  dio- 
cese was  suppressed,  after  it  had  fallen  to  Russia  in  the 
third  Partition  of  Poland  in  1795.  Up  to  that  time 
it  had  been  a  suffragan  of  Gnesen.  In  1849  it  was 
re-established  as  a  suffragan  of  Mohilev.  The  first 
bishop  of  this  second  period  was  Matthias  \^"olonzewski. 
The  see  is  Kovno  on  the  Njemen.  By  the  convention 
made  in  1847  between  Pius  IX  and  Russia  the  diocese 
includes  the  governments  of  Courland  and  Kovno, 
which  have  together  an  area  of  about  26,219  square 
miles.  The  Catholic  population  of  thg  two  govern- 
ments is  1,258,092;  there  aie  426  parishes  and  de- 
pendent stations,  and  600  priests. 

RzEPNiCKi,  Vit(E  pra:sulum  PolonicE,l\l  (Posen,  176.3),  26-42; 
Gams,  Series  episcoporum  (Ratisbon,  1873),  357;  Die  kalholische 
Kirche  unserer  Zeit,  ed.  by  the  Leo  Association,  III  (Berlin, 
1902),  159-60;    Directorium  pro  dioecesi  Telsensi  (Kowno,  1910). 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Samos,  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Rhodes  in  the 
Cyclades.  The  island,  called  in  Turkish  Soussan- 
Adassi,  is  181  sq.  miles  in  area  and  innnbers  55,000 
inhabitants,  nearly  all  of  whom  are  Greek  scliisniatics. 
There  are  nevertheless  some  Catholics  dependent  on 
the  Latin  Bishop  of  Chios  and  two  convents  of 
Fathers  of  the  African  Missions  of  Lyons  and  of 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph.  Since  1832  the  island  has 
con.stituted  an  autonomous  principality,  governed  by 
an  Ottoman  Greek  appointed  by  the  Porte  and  rec- 
ognized by  England,  France,  and  Russia.  Samos 
was  first  inhabited  by  the  Leleges,  Carians,  and 
lonians,  the  latter  being  very  active  and  given  to 
navigation.  Its  greatest  prosperity  was  attained 
under  the  tyrant  Polycrates  (536-522  B.C.)  at  whose 
court  the  poet  Anacreon  hved.  The  philosopher 
Pythagoras  (b.  at  Samos)  seems  to  have  lived  at  the 
same  time;  .^sop  also  stayed  there  for  a  long  time. 
At  the  assassination  of  Polycrates  Samos  passed  under 
Persian  domination,  and,  about  439  b.  c,  partici- 
pated in  the  Greek  confederation  especially  with 
Athens.  This  city,  under  Pericles,  took  it  by  force. 
Henceforth  it  had  various  fortunes,  until  the  Romans, 
after  pillaging  it,  annexed  it  in  a.  d.  70.  It  was  in- 
cluded in  the  Province  of  the  Isles.  Under  the 
Byzantines  Samos  was  at  the  head  of  a  maritime 
theme  or  district.  It  was  captured  and  occupied  in 
turn  by  Arabian  and  Turkish  adventurers,  the  Vene- 
tians, Pisans,  Genoese,  and  Greeks,  and  the  Turks 
in  1453.  These  various  masters  so  depo])ulated  it 
that  in  1550  Sultan  Soliman  had  transported  thither 
Greek  families,  whence  sprang  the  present  population. 
From  1821  to  1824  Samos  had  a  large  share  in  the 
war  of  independence  and  won  several  victories  over 
the  Turks.  Among  its  bishops  Le  Quien  (Oriens 
Christ.,  I,  929-32)  mentions:  Isidore  I,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventh  century;  Isidore  II,  in  692;  Herac- 
lius,  in  787.      Stamatriades  (Samiaca,  IV,  169-255) 


SAMOSATA 


422 


SAMSON 


gives  a  fuller  list  including  two  aged  bishops,  Anas- 
tasius  and  George.  St.  Sabinianus,  b.  at  Samos  and 
martjTed  under  Aurelian,  is  venerated  on  29  January, 
at  Troves  in  Champagne;  there  is  also  a  St.  Leo, 
d.  at  Samos,  venerated  on  29  April,  but  he  seems  very 
legendary.  At  first  a  suffragan  of  Rhodes,  Samos 
was  an  autocephalous  archdiocese  in  1730;  in  1855 
it  was  a  metropohtan  see  as  at  present,  dependent 
on  the  Greek  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  In  I 
Mach.,  XV,  23,  the  Roman  senate  makes  kno^Ti  to 
Samos  (Samus)  the  decree  favourable  to  the  Jews. 
St.  Paul  stayed  there  for  a  short  time  (Acts,  xx,  15). 

Smith,  Diet  ~ of  Greek  and  Roman  Geog.,  a.  v.:  Rosen,  Reison 
auf  den  gricch.  Jnseln  (Stuttgart,  1843),  139-150;  Lacroix,  lies 
de  la  Grece  (Paris,  1853),  2U-5S;  Gvtms,  Description  de  Vile  de 
PalmOS  et  de  Vile  de  Samos  (Paris,  1856),  123-324;  Guinet,  La 
Turque  d'Asie,  I,  498-523;  Stamatiades,  Samiaca  (5  vols.,  in 
Greek,  Samos,  1886) ;  Bcrcblner,  Das  ionische  Samos  (Amberg, 
1892;  Munich,  1896). 

S.  Vailhe. 

Samosata,  a  titular  see  in  Augusta  Euphratensis, 
suffragan  of  Hierapolis,  capital  of  Commagenum, 
whose  kings  were  relatives  of  the  Seleucides.  The 
first  was  Mithridates  I  Callinicus  (d.  96  b.  c);  his  son 
and  successor,  Antiochus  I,  died  before  31  B.  c,  when 
the  country  was  governed  by  Mithridates,  an  ally  of 
Anthony  at  Actium;  then  followed  his  other  son, 
Antiochus  II,  whom  Octavius  summoned  to  Rome 
and  condemned  in  29  b.  c.  In  20  b.  c.  Mithridates  III 
became  king,  then  Antiochus  III,  who  died  in  17  b.  c, 
in  which  j'ear  Tiberius  united  Commagenum  to  the 
province  of  S^Tia.  In  38  Caligula  gave  the  province 
to  King  Antiochus  IV  Epiphancs  Magnus,  afterwards 
deposed,  later  restored  by  Claudius  in  41,  and  deposed 
again  in  72  by  Cajsennius  Partus,  Governor  of  Syria. 
The  sons  of  Antiochus  withdrew  to  Rome  and  Com- 
magenum passed  under  Roman  administration.  A 
civU  metropolis  from  the  days  of  Emperor  Hadrian, 
Samosata  was  the  home  of  the  sixteenth  Legio  Flavia 
Firma  and  the  terminus  of  several  military  roads. 
The  native  city  of  Lucian,  the  philosopher  and  satirist, 
and  of  Paul,  Bishop  of  Antioch  in  the  third  centurj^ 
it  had  seven  mart3Ts:  Hipparchus,  Philotheus  etc., 
who  suffered  under  Maximinus  Thrax,  and  whose 
"Passion"  was  edited  by  Assemani  ("Acta  S8. 
martjTum  orient,  et  Occident.",  II,  124-47;  see  also 
Schultess  in  "Zeitschr.  der  deutschen  morgenland- 
ischen  Gesellschaft",  LI  (1897),  379.  St.  Daniel  the 
Stylite  was  born  in  a  village  near  Samosata;  St. 
Rabulas,  venerated  on  19  February,  who  lived  in  the 
sixth  century  at  Constantinople,  was  also  a  native  of 
Samosata.  A  "Notitia  episcopatuum  "  of  Antioch  in 
the  sixth  century  mentions  Samosata  as  an  auto- 
cephalous metropolis  ("I^chos  d'Orient",  X,  144); 
at  the  Photian  Council  of  879,  the  See  of  Samosata 
had  already  been  united  to  that  of  Amida  or  Diar- 
bekir  (Mansi,  "Conciliorum  collectio",  XVII-XVIII, 
44o^  As  in  .580  the  titular  of  Amida  bears  only  this 
title  Ha:  Quien,  "Oriens  christianus",  II,  994),  it 
must  be  concluded  that  the  union  took  place  between 
the  seventh  and  the  ninth  centuries.  Among  the 
earlier  bishops  may  be  mentioned  Pcperius  at  Nica;a 
(325);  St.  Eusebius,  a  great  opponent  of  the  Arians, 
killed  by  an  Arian  woman,  honoured  on  22  June; 
Andrew,  a  vigorous  opponent  of  St.  Cyril  of  Alexan- 
dria and  of  the  Council  of  Ephesus  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens 
christianus",  II,  933-6).  Chabot  gives  a  list  of 
twenty-eight  Jacobite  bi.shops  ("Revue  de  I'Orient 
chr^;tien",  VI,  203).  In  February,  1098,  the  emir 
Baldoukh,  attacked  by  liaudouin  of  Antioch,  cut 
his  army  to  pieces  there.  In  1114  it  was  one  of  the 
chief  quarters  of  the  Mussulmans  ho.stile  to  the  Count 
of  Edessa,  to  whom  it  succumbed,  but  was  recaptured 
by  the  MuRsulmans  about  1149.  At  present  tlu;  ruins 
of  Samosata  may  be  seen  at  Samsat  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Euphrates,  in  the  caza  of  Husni  Man.sour  and 
the  vilayet  of  Mamouret-<'l-Aziz;  there  are  remains 
of  a  wall  towards  the  south,  traces  of  the  ancient  wall 


dating  probably  from  the  first  century,  and  finally 
the  artificial  hill  on  which  the  fortress  was  erected. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geog.,  a.  v.;  Humanx  and 
PrcHSTEiN,  Reisen  in  Kleintsien  u.  Nord  Syrien  (1890),  191; 
Marquardt,  Manuel  des  antiquites  romaines,  II  (Paris,  1892), 
340-3;  Chapot  in  Bulletin  de  correspondance  hellenique,  XXVI, 
203-5;   Idem,  La  frontiere  de  VEuphrate  (Paris,  1907),  269-71. 

S.  Vailh^. 

Sampson,  Richard,  Bishop  of  Chichester  and  sub- 
sequently of  Coventry  and  Lichfield;  d.  at  Eccleshall, 
Staffordshire,  25  Sept.,  1554.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  Paris,  and  Sens.  Having 
become  Doctor  of  Canon  Law,  he  was  appointed  by 
Wolsey  chancellor  and  vicar-general  in  his  Diocese 
of  Tournay,  where  he  lived  till  1517.  Meanwhile 
he  gained  English  preferment,  becoming  Dean  of 
St.  Stephen's,  Westminster,  and  of  the  Chapel 
Ro3^al  (1516),  Archdeacon  of  Cornwall  (1517),  and 
prebendary  of  Xewbold  (1519).  From  1522  to  1525 
he  was  ambassador  to  Charles  V.  He  was  now 
Dean  of  Windsor  (1523),  Vicar  of  Stepney  (1526), 
and  held  prebends  at  St.  Paul's  and  at  Lichfield; 
he  was  also  Archdeacon  of  Suffolk  (1529).  Being  a 
man  of  no  principle,  and  solely  bent  on  a  distinguished 
ecclesiastical  career,  he  became  one  of  Henry  VIII's 
chief  agents  in  the  divorce  proceedings,  being  re- 
warded therefor  by  the  deanery  of  Lichfield  in  1533, 
the  rectory  of  Hackney  (1534),  and  treasurership  of 
Salisbury  (1535).  On  11  June,  1536,  he  was  elected 
schismatical  Bishop  of  Chichester,  and  as  such 
furthered  Henrj^'s  political  and  ecclesiastical  policy, 
though  not  sufficiently  thoroughly  to  satisfy  Cranmer. 
On  19  Feb.,  1543,  he  was  translated  to  Coventry 
and  Lichfield  on  the  roj^al  authority  alone,  without 
papal  confirmation.  He  held  his  bishopric  through 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI,  though  Dodd  says  he  was 
deprived  for  recanting  his  disloyalty  to  the  pope. 
Godwin  the  Anglican  wTiter  and  the  Catholic  Pitts 
both  agree  that  he  did  so  retract,  but  are  silent  as  to 
his  deprivation.  He  WTote  in  defence  of  the  royal 
prerogative  "Oratio"  (1533)  and  an  explanation  of 
the  Psalms  (1539-48)  and  of  Romans  (1546). 

Brewer,  Reign  of  Henry  VIII  (London,  1884) ;  Letters  and 
Papers  of  Henry  VIII  (London,  1831-52);  Friedmann,  Anne 
Boleyn  (London,  1884);  Cooper,  Athenm  Canlabrigienses 
(Cambridge,  1858-61);  Pitts,  De  illusiribus  Anglice  Scrip- 
toribus  (Paris,  1619);  Dodd,  Church  History,  I  (Brussels  vere. 
Wolverhampton,  1739-42);    Archbold  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Samson,  Saixt,  bishop  and  confessor,  b.  in  South 
Wales;  d.  28  July,  565  (?).  The  date  of  his  birth 
is  unknown.  His  parents,  whose  names  are  given 
as  Amon  of  Dyfed  and  Anna  of  Gwynedd,  were  of 
noble,  but  not  royal,  birth.  While  still  an  infant  he 
was  dedicated  to  God  and  entrusted  to  the  care  of 
St.  Illtyd,  by  whom  he  was  brought  up  in  the  monas- 
tery of  Llantwit  Major.  He  showed  exceptional 
talents  in  his  studies,  and  was  eventually  ordained 
deacon  and  priest  by  St.  Dubric.  After  this  he  re- 
tired to  another  monastery,  possibly  that  on  Caldy 
Island,  to  i)ract  ise  greater  austerities,  and  some  years 
later  became  its  abbot.  About  this  time  some  Irish 
monks  who  were  returning  from  Rome  haijjiened  to 
visit  Samson's  monastery.  So  struck  was  the  abbot 
by  their  learning  and  sanctity  that  he  accompanied 
them  to  Ireland,  and  there  remained  some  time.  Dur- 
ing his  visit  he  received  the  submission  of  an  Irish 
monastery,  and,  on  his  return  to  Wales,  sent  one  of 
his  uncles  to  act  as  its  superior.  His  fame  as  a  worker 
of  miracles  now  attracted  so  much  attention  that  he 
resolved  to  found  a  new  monastery  or  cell  "far  from 
the  haunts  of  men",  and  accordingly  retired  with  a 
few  companions  to  a  lonely  spot  on  the  banks  of  the 
Severn.  II(!  was  soon  discovered,  however,  and  forced 
by  his  fellow-countrymen  to  become  abbot  of  the 
monastery  formerly  rulecl  by  St.  (Jermanus;  here 
St.  Dubnc  cons(H;rated  him  bishop  but  without  ap- 
pointment to  any  particular  see.    Now,  being  warned 


SAMSON 


423 


SAMSON 


by  an  angel,  he  determined  to  leave  England  and, 
after  some  delay,  set  sail  for  Brittany.  He  landed 
near  Dol,  and  there  built  a  monastery  which  became 
the  centre  of  his  episcopal  work  in  the  district.  Busi- 
ness taking  him  to  Paris,  he  visited  King  Childebert 
there,  and  was  nominated  by  him  Bishop  of  Dol; 
Dol,  however,  did  not  become  a  regular  episcopal  see 
till  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century.  Samson 
attained  the  age  of  eighty-five  years,  and  was  buried 
at  Dol.  Several  early  lives  of  Samson  exist.  The 
oldest,  printed  by  Mabillon  in  his  "Acta  Sanctorum" 
from  a  MS.  at  Citeaux,  and  again  by  the  Bollandists, 
claims  to  be  compiled  from  information  derived 
from  Samson's  contemporaries,  which  would  re- 
fer it  to  about  600.  Dom  Plaine  in  the  "Analecta 
Bollandiana"  has  edited  another  and  fuller  life  (from 
MS.  Andeg.,  719),  which  he  regards  as  earlier  than 
Mabillon's.    Later  lives  are  numerous. 

Mabillon-,  Acta  SS.  O.  S.  B.,  I  (Venice,  1733),  156-74; 
Acta  SS.,  VI  Julv,  568-93;  Analecta  BolUimL,  VI  (Paris,  1887), 
77-150;  Liher  Landavensis.  ed.  Rees  (Llandovery.  1850),  287- 
.305;  Capgrave,  Nom  Legenda  Angliiz  (London,  1516),  266-68; 
Hadd-vn  and  Stubbs,  Councils  and  Ecclesiastical  Documents, 
I  (Oxford,  1869),  1.58-9,  149;  II,  pt.  i  (1873),  75-6,  92;  Rees, 
Welsh  Saints  (London,  1836),  228,  253;  Chardon,  La  vie  de 
St.  Samson,  evSque  de  Dol  (Paris,  1647). 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Samson  ("i'^^t'  derived  from  "Z^'i,  "sun"),  the  last 
and  most  famous  of  the  Judges  of  Israel.  The  narra- 
tive of  the  life  of  Sam.son  and  his  exploits  is  contained 
in  chapters  xiii-xvi  of  the  Book  of  Judges.  After  the 
deliverance  effected  by  Jephte,  the  Israelites  again 
fell  into  their  evil  ways  and  were  delivered  over  to  the 
Philistines  for  forty  years.  An  angel  of  the  Lord  in 
the  form  of  a  man  appears  to  the  barren  wife  of  Manue 
of  the  tribe  of  Dan  and  promises  her  that  she  shall 
bear  a  son  who  shall  deliver  Israel  from  the  oppression 
of  the  Philistines.  He  prescribes  abstinence  on  the 
part  of  both  mother  and  son  from  all  things  intoxicat- 
ing or  unclean,  and  that  no  razor  shall  touch  the 
child's  head,  "for  he  shall  be  a  Nazarite  [q.  v.]  of 
God".  The  angel  bearing  a  similar  message  again 
appears  to  Manue  as  well  as  to  his  wife,  and  it  is 
only  after  his  disappearance  in  the  flame  of  a  burnt 
offering  tliat  they  recognize  with  great  fear  his  celes- 
tial nature.  The  child  is  born  according  to  the  pre- 
diction and  receives  the  name  Samson,  and  the  nar- 
rative informs  us  that  the  "spirit  of  the  Lord"  was 
with  him  from  his  youth.  Strangely  enough  this 
spirit  impels  him  in  spite  of  his  parents'  opposition  to 
choose  a  wife  from  among  the  ungodly  Philistines 
(Judges,  xiv,  1-4).  On  a  visit  to  Thamnatha,  the 
town  of  his  intended  bride,  Samson  gives  the  first  evi- 
dence of  his  superhuman  strength  by  slaying  a  lion 
without  other  weapon  than  his  bare  hands.  Return- 
ing later  he  finds  that  a  swarm  of  bees  have  taken  up 
their  abode  in  the  carcass  of  the  lion.  He  eats  of  the 
honey  and  the  incident  becomes  the  occasion  of  the 
famous  riddle  proposed  by  him  to  the  thirty  Phihstine 
guests  at  the  wedding  festivities:  "Out  of  the  eater 
came  forth  meat,  and  out  of  the  strong  came  forth 
sweetness. "  In  their  inability  to  find  the  answer  the 
guests,  toward  the  end  of  seven  days'  feast,  induce 
Samson's  wife  to  coax  him  to  reveal  it  to  her,  and  no 
sooner  has  she  succeeded  than  she  declares  it  to  her 
countrymen.  Samson,  however,  in  order  to  provide 
the  thirty  garments  pledged  in  the  wager,  goes  down 
to  Ascalon  in  "the  .spirit  of  the  Lord"  and  slays  thirty 
Philistines  whose  garments  he  gives  to  the  guests  who 
had  declared  the  answer  to  the  riddle.  In  anger  he 
returns  to  his  father's  house,  and  his  bride  chooses  one 
of  his  wedding  companions  for  her  husband. 

He  returns  later  to  claim  her  and  is  informed  by 
her  father  that  she  has  been  given  to  one  of  his 
friends,  but  that  he  may  have  instead  her  younger 
and  fairer  sister.  Sam.son  declines  the  offer  and 
catching  three  hundred  foxes  he  couples  them  tail  to 
tail,  and  having  fastened  torches  between  their  tails 


turns  them  loose  to  set  fire  to  the  corn  harvests  of  the 
Philistines  which  are  thus  destroyed  together  with 
their  vineyards  and  olive-yards.  The  Philistines  re- 
taliate by  burning  the  faithless  wife  and  her  father, 
whereupon  Samson  makes  a  "great  slaughter  of 
them"  and  then  retires  to  dwell  in  a  cavern  of  Etam 
in  the  tribe  of  Juda.  Three  thousand  Philistines  fol- 
low him  and  take  up  their  quarters  at  Lcchi.  The 
men  of  Juda,  alarmed,  blame  Samson  for  this  invasion 
and  deliver  him  up  bound  to  the  enemy.  But  when 
he  is  brought  to  them  the  spirit  of  the  Lord  comes 
upon  him;  he  bunsts  his  bonds  and  slays  a  thousand 
Philistines  with  the  jawbone  of  an  ass.  Being  thirsty 
after  this  exploit,  he  is  revived  by  a  spring  of  water 
which  the  Lord  causes  to  flow  from  the  jawbone. 
Later  while  Samson  is  visiting  a  harlot  in  Gaza  the 
Philistines  gather  about  the  city  gate  in  order  to  seize 
him  in  the  morning,  but  he,  rising  at  midnight,  takes 
the  gate,  po,sts  and  all,  and  carries  it  to  the  top  of  a 
hill  in  the  direction  of  Hebron.  Subsequently  he  falls 
in  love  with  a  woman  named  Dalila  of  the  valley  of 
Sorec,  who  is  bribed  by  the  Philistines  to  betray  him 
into  their  hands.  After  deceiving  her  three  times  as 
to  the  source  of  his  strength,  he  finally  yields  to  her 
entreaties  and  confesses  that  his  power  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  his  head  has  never  been  shaved.  The  para- 
mour treacherously  causes  his  locks  to  be  shorn  and 
he  falls  helpless  into  the  hands  of  the  Phili.stines  who 
put  out  his  eyes  and  cast  him  into  prison.  Later, 
after  his  hair  has  grown  again  he  is  brought  forth  on 
the  occasion  of  the  fea.st  of  the  god  Dagon  to  be  ex- 
hibited for  the  amusement  of  the  populace.  The 
spectators,  among  whom  are  the  princes  of  the  Phi- 
listines, number  more  than  three  thousand,  and  they 
are  congregated  in,  and  upon,  a  great  edifice  which  is 
mainly  supported  by  two  pillars.  These  arc  seized  by 
the  hero  whose  strength  has  returned;  he  pulls  them 
down,  causing  the  house  to  collapse,  and  perishes  him- 
self in  the  ruins  together  with  all  the  Philistines. 

Because  of  certain  re.semblances  some  scholars  have 
claimed  that  the  biblical  account  of  the  career  and  ex- 
ploits of  Samson  is  but  a  Hebrew  version  of  the  pa- 
gan myth  of  Hercules.  This  view,  however,  is  noth- 
ing more  than  a  superficial  conjecture  lacking  serious 
proof.  Still  less  acceptable  is  the  opinion  which  sees 
in  the  biblical  narrative  merely  the  development  of  a 
solar  myth,  and  which  rests  on  little  more  than  the 
admitted  but  inconclusive  derivation  of  the  name 
Samson  from  shemesh,  "sun".  Both  views  are  re- 
jected by  such  eminent  and  independent  scholars  as 
Moore  and  Budde.  The  story  of  Samson,  like  other 
portions  of  the  Book  of  Judges,  is  doubtless  derived 
from  the  sources  of  ancient  national  legend.  It  has 
an  ethical  as  well  as  a  religious  import,  and  histori- 
cally it  throws  not  a  little  light  on  the  customs  and 
manners  of  the  crude  age  to  which  it  belongs. 

Lagrange,  Le  Livre  des  Juges  (Paris,  1903);  Moore,  The  Book 
of  Judges  in  The  ' International  Critical  Commentary  (1895); 
ViGOUROux,  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.     JamES   F.    DrISCOLL. 

Samson,  Abbot  of  St.  Edmunds,  b.  at  Tottington, 
near  Thetford,  in  1135;  d.  1211.  After  taking  his 
M.A.  in  Paris,  Samson  returned  to  Norfolk  and 
taught  in  the  school  at  Bur>'.  In  1160  the  monks  of 
St.  Edmunds  sent  him  to  Rome  on  their  behalf  to 
appeal  against  an  agreement  of  the  abbot  and  King 
Henry  II,  and  for  this  on  his  return  Abbot  Hugh 
promptly  clapped  him  into  gaol.  In  11G6  Sam.son 
was  a  fuUv-professed  monk,  and  on  his  election  as 
abbot  on'  Hugh's  death  in  1182  he  had  filled 
a  number  of  offices — those  of  sub-sa(;rist,  guest- 
master,  pittancer,  third  prior,  master  of  novices, 
and  master  of  the  workmen.  For  the  rest  of  his 
life,  as  Abbot  of  St.  Edmunds,  Samson  worked 
with  prodigious  activity  for  the  abbey,  for  the 
town,  and  for  the  State.  He  regained  the  right 
of  joint  election  of  two  bailiffs  for  the  abbey  and 
town,  made  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  proper- 


SAMUCO 


424 


SAN  ANTONIO 


ties  of  the  abbej-,  looked  into  the  finances,  cleared  of? 
arrears  of  debt,  lebuilt  the  choir,  constructed  an  aque- 
duct, and  added  the  great  bell  tower  at  the  west  end 
of  the  abbey,  and  two  flanking  towers.  He  did  his 
best  for  the  liberties  of  the  town;  helped  the  towns- 
folk to  obtain  a  chaiter  and  gave  every  encourage- 
ment to  new  settlers.  Ths  monks  resisted  Samson's 
concessions  of  market  rights  to  the  townsmen,  but 
were  no  match  for  their  abbot.  A  hospital  at  Bab- 
well,  and  a  free  school  for  poor  scholars,  were  also  the 
giftrs  of  Abbot  Samson  to  the  townspeoiile.  Pope 
Lucius  III  made  Samson  a  judge  delegate  in  ecclesias- 
tical cau.^es:  he  ser\ed  on  the  commission  for  settling 
the  quarrel  between  ArchbLshop  Hubert  and  the 
monks  of  Canterbury;  and  on  the  Royal  Council  in 
London,  where  he  sat  as  a  baron,  frustrated  the 
efforts  of  William  of  Longchamp  to  curtail  the  rights 
of  the  Benedictine  Order.  Samson  died  in  1211, 
having  ruled  his  abbey  successfully  for  thirty  years. 
Carlyle  in  "Past  and  Present"  has  made  Abbot  Sam- 
son familiar  to  all  the  world;  but  Carlyle's  fascinat- 
ing jjicture  must  not  be  mistaken  for  history. 

Memorials  of  St.  Edmunds  Abbey,  e<\.  .\rnold,  in  Rolls  Series; 
NoRGATE  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog..  a.  v.;  there  are  many  editions  and 
translations  of  Jocelix  de  Br.^keloxd's  De  rebus  gestis  Samsonis 
Abbatis.  JoSEPH   ClaYTON. 

Samuco  Indians  (Zamuco),  the  collective  name 
of  a  group  of  tribes  in  south-western  Bolivia,  speaking 
dialects  of  a  common  language  which  constitutes  a 
distinct  linguistic  stock  (Samucan)  and  includes, 
besides  the  Samuco  proper,  the  Guaranoca,  Morotoco, 
Poturero,  and  several  others.  Their  original  country 
w^as  along  the  northern  border  of  the  Chaco,  from 
about  18°  to  21°  south  latitude  and  from  about  .58° 
to  02°  west  longitude,  bordering  south  upon  the  Toba 
and  other  wandering  tribes  of  the  Chaco,  and  west 
and  north-west  upon  the  celebrated  mission  tribes 
of  the  Chiquito  and  Chiriguano. 

In  their  original  condition  the  Samuco  were  semi- 
sedentarj',  and  combined  agriculture  and  hunting, 
the  men  returning  to  the  woods  at  the  close  of  the 
planting  season  to  hunt,  drying  the  meat  for  future 
ase.  They  planted  corn,  manioc,  and  a  species  of 
plum.  The  women  wove  mats  and  hammocks  (the 
latter  from  thread  spun  from  native  cotton)  and 
made  potter}'.  The  men  were  noted  for  their  warlike 
and  afiventurous  spirit.  They  went  entirely  naked, 
while  the  women  wore  onlj'  a  .small  covering  about  the 
middle  of  the  body.  Lips,  ears,  and  nostrils  were 
bored  for  the  in.sertion  of  wooden  plugs.  The  men 
carried  bows,  lances,  and  wooden  clubs,  and  the 
warrior's  weapon.";  were  buried  with  him.  Mothers 
strangled  all  their  children  after  the  second,  and  in 
one  tribe,  the  Morotoco,  the  women  seem  to  have 
ruled  while  the  men  did  the  household  work.  They 
were  pa.ssionately  given  to  dancing  and  visiting,  and 
to  thf  drinking  of  chicha,  an  intoxicating  liquor  made 
from  fermented  corn.  The  majority  of  them  were 
Christianized  through  the  efforts  of  the  Jesuits  in 
the  middle  of  the  eighttn^nth  century,  and  were  es- 
tablished in  the  Chiquito  mi.ssions  of  Bolivia,  partic- 
ularly in  the  mi.ssions  of  San  Juan,  Santiago,  and 
Santo  Cfjrazon,  wh(!rc  many  of  them,  through  the 
efforts  of  the  ini.ssionarif^s,  arJopted  the  prevailing 
Chiquito  language;.  Their  conversion  was  largely 
the  work  of  Father  Xarci.so  Patzi.  A  large  part  of 
them  n;tainefl  thf;ir  savage  independence  in  the  for- 
ests. Thosf!  of  the  three  mission  towns  numbered 
together  5854  sfjuls  shortly  before  the  expulsion  of 
the  Jesuits  in  1707.  In  18.'W,  accorfling  to  d'Or- 
bigny.  they  numben^l  abfjut  1250  souls,  besides  about 
10,000  more  still  wild  in  the  remote  ejistern  forests. 
The  same  traveller  dfjseribfw  them  as  robust  and  well 
built,  frank,  honrat,  sociable,  and  notably  fond  of 
adventure,  pleasure,  and  gaiety,  and  with  a  sweet 
and  euphonious  language 

Baluvia.v,  DocumerUon  jtara  la  hial.  de  Bolivia  (La  Pb»,  1906); 


Brixton,  American  Race  (Xew  York,  1S91);  Dobrizhoffer, 
Account  of  the  Abipones  (London,  1822);  HervAs,  Catdlogo  de 
las  Lengtias,  I  (Madrid,  1800);  d'Orbiony,  L' Homme  AmMcain 
(Paris,  1839);   Southey,  Hist,  of  Brazil.  Ill  (London,  182.'}). 

James  Mooney. 

SamueL     See  Judges;  Kings,  First  and  Second 
Books  of. 

San  Antonio,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Antonii), 
comj)ris('s  all  that  portion  of  the  State  of  Texas  be- 
tween th(>  Colorado  and  Rio  Grande  Rivers,  except 
the  land  south  of  the  Arroyo  de  los  Ilermanos,  on 
the  Rio  Grande,  and  the  Counties  of  Live  Oak,  Bee, 
Goliad,  and  Refugio.  It  embraces  an  area  of  about 
90,909  square  miles.  The  first  religious  ministrations 
in  this  territor}-  of  which  we  have  definite  histoiical 
information  were  those  of  the  French  .secular  and 
regular  priests  who  accompanied  the  expedition  of  La 
Salle.  Thev  entered  Matagorda  Bav  in  January, 
1085.  La  Salle  built  a  fort  called  Fort  St.  Louis 
on  the  spot  subsequently  occupied  by  the  Bahia  Mis- 
sion; a  chapel  was  constructed  in  the  fort,  and  for 
two  years  five  priests  laboured  here:  Fathers  Zeno- 
bius  Membrd,  Maxime  Le  Clercq,  and  Anastasius 
Douay,  Franciscans,  and  Fathers  Chefdeville  and 
Cavcher,  Sulpicians.  They  finally  abandoned  Texas 
and  returned  to  Canada.  Shortly  after  their  de- 
parture, Franciscans  from  the  apostolic  school  of 
Queretaro  and  Zacatecas  founded  missions  on  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  pioneer  Spanish  priest  was  the  Francis- 
can Father  Damian  Mazanet,  who  accompanied  the 
expedition  of  Alonzo  de  I^6n  in  1089.  He  found  the 
field  so  promising  that  he  invoked  the  help  of  the  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  authorities  to  establish  a  permanent 
mission  beyond  the  Rio  Grande.  In  1090  Father 
'Mazanet  crossed  the  Rio  Grande,  accompanied  by 
Fathers  Michael  Fontcubierto,  Francis  Casanas, 
Anthony  Borday,  and  Anthony  Pereira.  The  friendly 
Indians  (Asinais)  received  them  with  joy,  and  the 
Mission  of  San  Francisco  de  las  Tejas  was  established. 
In  1091,  and  again  in  1700,  additional  missionaries 
arrived  from  Mexico;  four  more  missions  were  es- 
ta))iish('d,  and  these  were  maintained  till  1718,  when 
the  chief  mission  was  transferred  to  San  Antonio. 

In  170.S  the  Mission  of  San  Francisco  Solano  was 
established  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Grande.  It 
was  transferred  in  1712  to  San  Ildefonso;  thence,  in 
1713,  it  was  moved  to  San  Jo,s6  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
and,  finally,  in  1718  to  the  San  Antonio  River,  where 
it  was  established  under  the  title  of  San  Antonio 
de  Valero.  This  last  move  was  made  by  order  of 
the  Marquess  de  Valero,  Viceroy  of  New  Spain. 
The  mission  was  then  under  the  direction  of  Fray 
Antonio  de  San  Buenaventura  y  Olivares.  In  the 
year  1710  nine  friars  from  Quer6taro  and  Zacatecas, 
with  Father  Antonio  Margil  de  Jesus  as  .superior,  es- 
tablished six  Missions  in  the  most  northerly  part  of 
the  Province  of  Texas,  and  a  few  ytnirs  afterwards 
another  was  built  near  the  Presidio  of  NucstraSeftora 
del  Pilar  de  los  Adayes,  seven  leagues  from  the  fort 
of  Natchitoches,  in  Louisiana.  The  mission  of  La 
Purisirna  Concepci6n  was  founded  in  1710,  among 
the  Sanipaos,  Tocr.nes,  and  other  tribes.  A  massive 
stone  church  was  erectefl  in  1731,  and  is  still  in  a  fair 
state  of  pr(!.servation  and  is  used  for  Divine  worship. 
It  is  situated  one  mile  south  of  the  present  city  of 
San  Antonio.  In  1729  the  King  of  Spain  ordered 
four  hundred  families  to  be  transferred  from  the 
Canary  Islands  to  Texas.  Fourteen  families  arrived 
the  next  year,  and  the  city  of  San  Fernando  was 
founded  near  the  fort  and  mission  of  San  Antonio 
de  Valero.  A  chapel  was  at  once  raised,  to  serve 
till  a  proper  parish  church  could  be  built.  The  two 
settlements  in  course;  of  time  became  consolidated 
and  the  modern  city  of  San  Antonio  is  the  result. 
In  1744  the  cornerstone  of  the  Church  of  San  Fer- 
nando was  laid,  and  on  (i  November,  1749,  the  build- 
ing was  dedicated  to  Divine  worship.     A  portion  of 


SAN  ANTONIO 


425 


SAN  ANTONIO 


this  edifice  still  stands  and  serves  as  the  sanctuary 
of  the  present  Cathedral  of  San  Fernando. 

The  Province  of  Texas  was  subject  to  the  juris- 
diction of  Guadalajara  till  December,  1777,  when  it 
became  part  of  the  newly-erected  Diocese  of  Nuevo 
Le6n,  or  Linares.  The  Indian  missions  continued 
under  the  care  of  the  P'ranciscans,  many  of  whom 
won  the  crown  of  martyrdom.  In  1777  Fray  Pedro 
Ramirez,  missionary  at  San  Jose,  was  president  of 
all  the  Texas  missions,  and  by  an  Indult  of  Clement 
XIV  was  empowered  to  administer  confirmation  in 
all  parts  of  Texas.  On  10  April,  1794,  Don  Pedro 
de  Nava,  commandant-general  of  the  north-eastern 
interior  provinces,  of  which  Texas  formed  a  part, 
published  a  decree  by  which  all  the  missions  within 
his  jurisdiction  were  secularized.     Nevertheless  the 


The  Alamo,  Chapel  of  the  Mission-  of  San  .Vnto.vio  de 
Valero,  Texas 

Franciscans  in  many  instances  remained  as  pastors, 
though  they  received  their  jurisdiction  from  the  bishop, 
like  other  parish  priests.  Their  missions  subsisted 
in  a  flourishing  state  till  about  lcS13,  when  they  were 
8U{)pr(>ss('d  by  the  Spanish  Gov(>rnment,  and  the  In- 
dians disf)er.sed.  In  1839  Gregory  XVI  established 
a  prefecture  Apostolic  in  Texas  and  appointed  the 
Very  Rev.  J.  Tinioii  prefect  Apostolic.  In  1840  the 
Rev.  John  M.  Odin  visited  Texas  as  vice-prefect 
Apostolic.  Through  his  efforts,  warmly  supported 
by  the  minister  of  France,  de  Saligny,  the  congress 
confirmed  to  "the  Chief  Pastor  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  the  Republic  of  Texas"  the  churches  of 
San  Fernando,  the  Alamo  (San  Antonio  de  Valero), 
La  Purlsima  Concepci6n,  San  Jose,  San  Juan  Capis- 
trano,  San  Francisco  de  la  Espada,  Goliad,  Victoria, 
and  Rufugio,  with  their  grounds,  the  latter  not  to 
exceed  fifteen  acres  each. 

A  Bull  erecting  the  Republic  of  Texas  into  a  vica- 
riate Apostolic  was  published  bv  Gregorv  XVI  on  10 
July,  1841,  and  the  Right  Rev.  John  M.  Odin  was  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Claudiopolis  and  assigned  to  the 
vicariate.  Religion,  which  had  langui-shed  since  the 
secularization  of  the  missions  and  the  departure  of 
the  Franciscan  monks,  now  began  to  revive.  New 
churches  were  built,  and  some  of  the  old  mission  build- 
ings restored;  religious  orders  of  men  and  women  were 
introduced  from  Europe;  schools,  hospitals,  and  chari- 
table institutions  were  established.  Colonists  from 
Europe  and  various  parts  of  the  United  States  began 
to  pour  in  and  settle  upon  the  wide  and  fertile  plains 
of  eastern  and  southern  Texas.  A  large  proportion 
of  the  European  immigrants  were  Catholics.  Ger- 
mans founded  prosperous  .settlements  at  New  Braun- 
fels  in  1844,  at  Castroville  in  184.5,  and  later  at  D'Ha- 
nis,  Fredericksburg,  High  Hill,  and  other  places.  A 
colony  of  Poles,  led  by  the  Rev.  Leopold  Moczygemba, 
O.F.M.,  founded  the  thriving  settlement  of  Panna 


Maria  in  1854;  another  Polish  colony  was  established 
at  St.  Hedwig,  near  San  Antonio.  Bohemians  planted 
flourishing  settlements  at  Fayetteville,  Praha,  Moul- 
ton,  Shiner,  and  other  points.  In  all  these  places 
there  are  now  fine  churches  and  schools,  and  an  influ- 
ential and  constantly  increasing  Catholic  population. 

In  1847  the  Diocese  of  Galveston  was  established, 
its  territory  embracing  the  whole  State  of  Texas.  On 
3  September,  1874,  this  immense  territory  was  divided, 
ecclesiastically,  and  the  Diocese  of  San  Antonio  was 
created  by  the  Holy  See.  Anthony  Dominic  Pellicer, 
the  first  bishop,  was  a  native  of  St.  Augustine,  Florida; 
b.  7  Dec,  1824,  consecrated  at  Mobile,  Alabama,  8 
Dec,  1874;  d.  14  April,  1880.  John  Claudius  Ncraz, 
second  bishop,  was  b.  12  Jan.,  1828,  at  Anse,  Depart- 
ment of  the  Rhone,  France;  he  laboured  for  thirty 
years  on  the  missions  in  eastern  and  southern  Texas, 
was  consecrated  in  the  Cathedral  of  San  Fernando, 
San  Antonio,  8  May,  1881,  and  d.  15  Nov.,  1894. 
John  Anthom^  Forest,  third  bishop,  was  b.  25  Decem- 
ber, 1838,  at  St.  Martin,  Canton  St.  Germain,  France. 
Like  his  predecessor,  he  spent  the  whole  of  his  priestly 
life  in  arduous  missionary  work  in  southern  Texas, 
often  helping  to  build  churches  with  his  own  hands. 
He  was  consecrated  28  October,  1895,  and  d.  11 
March,  1911,  deeply  loved  and  regretted  by  all  classes. 
John  William  Shaw,  the  present  Ijjsliop,  was  b.  at 
Mobile,  .\labama,  in  18(')3,  made  liis  principal  studies 
in  Ireland  and  at  Rome,  and  was  ordiiiiied  priest  on 
2G  May,  1888.  On  14  April,  1910,  in  the  cathedral 
at  Mobile,  Alabama,  he  wascon.secrated  titular  Bishop 
of  Castabala  and  coadjutor  with  the  right  of  succession 
to  the  Bishop  of  San  Antonio.  On  18  May,  1910,  he 
was  apjiointed  administrator  of  the  diocese,  owing  to 
tlu!  ill-health  of  Bishop  Forest,  at  whose  death  he 
succeeded  to  the  see. 

San  Antonio  is  the  largest  city  in  Texas;  it  was  the 
capital  of  the  Spanish  province  and  from  the  days  of 
the  Franciscan  missions  has  been  a  centre  of  Catholic 
activitv  in  religious,  educational,  and  charitable  work. 
With  II  population  of  100,000,  it  has  thirteen  Cath- 
olic parishes.  Four  of  these,  including  the  Cathe- 
dral of  San  Fernando,  are  for  the  INIexican,  or 
Spanish-.sj)eaking  population;  two  are  for  the  English- 
speaking;  two  English  and  German,  one  German,  one 
Poli.sh,  one  Flemish,  and  two  for  the  coloured  popula- 
tion. There  are  also  several  hundred  Italian  families, 
scattered  among  the  various  parishes.  The  city  is 
the  headquarters  of  several  religious  congregations 
whose  works  extend  to  neighbouring  dioceses  and 
states,  and  to  the  Republic  of  Mexico.  The  Oblates 
of  Mary  Immaculate,  who  since  their  introduction 
by  Bishop  Odin  in  1849  have  laboured  with  glorious 
results  among  the  poor  Mexicans  of  Texas,  have  their 
provincial  house  here,  and  conduct  a  theological  semi- 
nary and  an  apostolic  college  for  the  training  of  youth 
for  the  priesthood.  The  South-western  Province  of 
the  Oblates  was  established  in  October,  1904,  with  the 
Very  Rev.  H.  A.  Constantineau,  O.M.I.,  D.D.,  as 
first  provincial.  The  province  includes  all  the  states 
of  the  .south  and  west,  and  the  Republic  of  Mexico. 
The  Congregation  of  the  Sisters  of  Divine  Provi- 
dence, devoted  exclusively  to  Christian  education, 
have  their  mother-house  in  San  Antonio,  from  which 
they  direct  twenty-nine  academies  and  schools  in  this 
diocese  and  forty-three  in  neighbouring  dioceses  in 
Texas,  Louisiana,  and  Oklahoma.  The  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Incarnate  Word 
also  have  their  mother-house  in  the  city.  They  con- 
duct in  the  diocese  twenty  schools  and  academies, 
three  hospitals,  two  orphan  asylums,  and  a  home  for 
the  aged.  They  have  also  a  number  of  hospitals  and 
schools  in  neighlaouring  dioceses  and  in  Mexico. 

Other  religious  orders  represented  arc  :  Missionary 
Sons  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  (Vich,  Spain), 
who  have  charge  of  the  cathedral  and  the  other  Span- 
ish-speaking  congregations   at   San   Antonio  and  a 


SAN   CARLOS 


426 


SANCHEZ 


number  of  rural  Mexican  missions;  the  Society  of 
Mary  (Dayton,  Ohio),  who  conduct  two  colleges  and 
a  parish  school  at  San  Antonio  and  a  college  at  Vic- 
toria; the  Josephite  Fathers,  in  charge  of  two  parishes 
for  coloured  Catholics  in  the  city;  the  Ursuline  Nuns, 
two  large  academies;  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
devoted  to  the  Mexican  and  coloured  races;  the  Sis- 
ters of  Our  Lady  of  Charity'  of  Refuge;  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Theresa  of  Jesus — all  at  San  Antonio.  The  Sis- 
ters of  the  Incarnate  Word  and  Blessed  Sacrament 
have  a  fine  academy  at  Victoria,  and  conduct  schools 
at  Halletsville  and  Shiner;  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  an 
academy  and  parochial  school  at  Stanton.  The  Con- 
gregation of  Holy  Cross  (Xotre  Dame,  Indiana)  con- 
duct a  large  college  at  Austin. 

Statistics  (1911):  priests,  130  (secular,  69;  religious, 
61);  brothers,  65;  sisters,  607;  parochial  schools,  28; 
pupils,  boys  1,290,  girls  1,626;  colleges  and  academies 
(many  of  which  serve  also  as  parish  schools),  37;  stu- 
dents', boys  2,173,  girls  2,225;  theological  seminary,  1; 
students,' 12;  Apostolic  college,  1 ;  students,  49;  orphan 
asylums,  2;  inmates,  boys,  108,  girls,  105;  house  of 
refuge,  adult  inmates,  68;  child  inmates,  17;  to- 
tal number  of  j'ouths  receiving  Catholic  training, 
7,629;  hospitals,  3;  number  of  patients  yearly,  2,386; 
home  for  aged,  1;  inmates,  74;  churches  with  resi- 
dent p^iest:^,  63;  missions  wnth  churches,  71;  total 
number  of  churches,  134;  stations,  78;  chapels,  14; 
CathoUc  population,  about  96,5(X). 

History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Diocese  of  San  Antonio 
(San  Antonio,  1897) ;  Diocesan  Archives  (unpublished) ;  Southern 
Messenger  (San  Antonio),  files,  November,  1S94;  Oct.,  1895; 
March,  April,  1910;  March,  1911.     WlLLI.\M   CampbELL. 

San  Carlos  de  Ancud,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Ca- 
ROLi  A>"cudi.e),  the  most  southern  of  the  Chilian  dio- 
ceses. It  extends  from  the  River  Cautin  on  the  north 
to  Cape  Horn  on  the  south ;  comprises  the  civil  Prov- 
inces of  Valdivia,  Llanquihue,  and  Chiloe,  part  of  the 
Province  of  Cautin  and  the  Territory  of  Magallanes; 
has  an  area  of  more  than  77,220  sciuare  miles,  and  a 
population  of  371,856  inhabitants,  356,267  of  whom 
are  CathoUcs.  San  Carlos  de  Ancud  (3,500  inhab- 
itants) is  the  episcopal  citj^  and  the  other  important 
cities  of  the  diocese  are:  Valdi\'ia  (15,000  inhabitants) ; 
Puerto  Montt  (5,500  inhabitants);  Osorno  (7,600 
inhabitants);  and  Punta  Arenas  (12, .300  inhabitants). 
The  diocese  is  di\'ided  into  48  parishes.  The  cathe- 
dral chapter  is  compo.sed  of  the  dean,  archdeacon, 
doctoral  (councillor),  and  one  canon.  The  seminary 
is  directed  by  the  Jesuits  and  has  106  students.  There 
are  69  secular  priests  and  86  regular.  The  male  re- 
ligious orders  have  30  houses  and  are  represented  by 
141  members,  the  orders  being  the  Jesuits,  Francis- 
cans, Capuchins,  Discalced  Carmelites,  Salesians, 
and  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools.  The  female 
religious  orders  have  18  houses  and  95  members. 
In  Puerto  Montt  there  is  a  college  directed  by  the 
Jesuits,  and  an  industrial  school  in  charge  of  the 
Christian  Brothers;  in  Valdivia  there  is  a  commercial 
school  under  the  care  of  the  Salesians.  There  are 
5  colleges  for  girls  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception  of  Paderbom,  and  the 
Salesian  Sisters  confluct  another;  there  are  also  12 
primary  schools,  five  of  which  are  for  the  Indians;  all 
these  schools  are  in  charge  of  religious  teachers. 
There  are  2  orphan  asylums,  and  6  hospitals  in  charge 
of  nuns.  More  than  3, .300  children  are  taught  in  these 
schools.  The  churches  and  chapels  number  255. 
The  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  AraucanJa  is  situated 
within  the  confines  of  the  diocese,  and  has  19  missions 
in  charge  of  German  Capuchins  from  the  Province  of 
Bavaria;  in  these  missions  there  are  18  churches  and 
13  chapels.  The  native  jxipulafion  of  this  j)r<-fecture 
is  about  60,0CX).  The  Territory  of  Magallanes  belongs 
to  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Southern  Patagf)nia, 
under  the  care  of  the  Salesians.  The  Pref<'ct  Apos- 
tolic, Mgr.  Jos6  Fagnano,  lives  in  Punta  Arenaa.   The 


missionaries  have  evangelized  the  Indians  of  Pata- 
gonia and  Tierra  del  Fuego;  the  latter  are  composed  of 
three  races,  Onas,  Yaaganes,  and  Alacalufes,  and  are 
greatlj'  reduced  in  numbers. 

The  diocese  was  separated  from  the  Diocese  of 
Concepci6n  by  Gregory  XVI,  erected  1  July,  1840, 
b}'  the  Bull  "Ul)i  primum",  and  made  a  suffragan  of 
the  Archdiocese  of  Santiago.  Five  bishops  have  gov- 
erned the  diocese:  D.  Justo  Donoso  (1845-53);  Fray 
Francisco  de  Paula  Solar  (1857-82);  Fray  Juan  Agus- 
tin  Lucero  (1887-97);  D.  Ram6n  Angel  Jara  (1898- 
1910);  Fraj^  Pedro  Armengol  Valenzuela.  Three  dio- 
cesan sj-nods,  1851,  1894,  and  1907,  have  been  held 
in  the  diocese.  The  clergy  annually  hold  confer- 
ences from  April  to  October  to  discuss  moral  and 
ethical  questions,  and  make  an  annual  spiritual  retreat 
of  eight  days.  In  almost  all  the  parishes  a  nine  day's 
mission  is  given  to  the  faithful  each  year  to  prepare 
them  for  the  paschal  communion.  The  people  are 
law-abiding  and  industrious,  and  they  observe  the 
principles  and  practices  of  their  religion.  Each  parish 
has  pious  associations  and  confraternities,  such  as 
that  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and  also  various  asso- 
ciations for  the  improvement  of  morals  and  for 
mutual  support. 

Catdlogo  de  los  Eclesidsticos,  etc.,  de  Chile  (Santiago,  1911); 
Anuario  Estadistico  de  Chile  (Santiago,  1910);  Censo  de  la  Re- 
publica  de  Chile  de  1907  (Santiago.  1908). 

Carlos  S.  Cotapos. 

Sanchez,  Alonzo,  b.  in  Mondejar,  Guadalajara, 
Spain,  in  1547;  d.  at  Alcald,  27  May,  1593.  He  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Alcald  on  27  May,  1565. 
He  was  rector  of  the  college  of  Navalcarnero,  taught 
grammar  for  five  years,  and  in  1579  went  to  the 
mission  of  Mexico,  where  he  was  rector  of  the  sem- 
inary. Early  in  1581  he  set  out  for  the  Philippines 
with  Bishop  Salazar.  Sdnchez  and  his  companion, 
Antonio  Sedeiio,  and  a  lay  brother  were  the  first 
Jesuits  in  these  islands.  The  bishop  made  Sdnchez  his 
counsellor,  appointed  him  to  write  the  acts  of  the 
Synod  of  Manila,  and,  when  Siinchez  was  sent  on  an 
embassy  to  China,  interrui^tcd  the  synod  until 
Sdnchez  had  returned.  Twice  San(;hez  was  despatched 
on  official  business  to  China,  where  he  met  celebrated 
Jesuit  missionaries  of  that  country  and  from  Japan. 
He  was  thus  able  to  publish  later  an  interesting  and 
curious  account  of  the  state  of  Christianity  in  China 
at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  By  the  unani- 
mous vote  of  all  the  Spanish  officials,  civil  and  reli- 
gious, of  the  merchants  and  other  leading  citizens, 
Sdnchez  was  chosen  to  go  to  Madrid  as  representative 
of  the  colony  in  1.586.  Sdnchez's  mission  to  Philip  II 
was  very  successful,  his  arguments  moving  the  king 
to  retain  the  islands,  which  many  of  his  advisors  had 
been  urging  him  to  abandon.  From  Madrid  he  went 
to  Rome,  and  was  there  welcomed  by  Pope  Sixtus  V, 
from  whom  he  received  many])rivileges  for  the  Church 
in  the  Philippines.  In  a  Brief  of  28  June,  1591, 
Gregory  XIV  praises  the  apostolic  labours  and  writ- 
ings of  Sdnchez,  calling  him  a  true  defender  of  the 
authority  and  rights  of  the  Holy  See.  Innocent  IX 
addressed  to  him  the  Bull  "  Inter  felices",  in  which  he 
lauds  his  work.  Clement  VIII  at  his  request  granted 
various  favours  to  the  bishop  and  clergy  in  the  islands. 
Sdnchez  gave  an  account  of  the  Jesuit  missions  in  the 
Philippines  to  Aquaviva,  the  General  of  the  Society. 
It  haa  been  propo.sed  to  withdraw  the  fathers  from 
the  Archipelago,  but  Aquaviva,  following  the  plan 
proposed  by  Sdnchez,  d(!termined  that  the  Society 
should   remain,   and  made  the   Manila  residence  a 


ask 


ege  with  hedeno  as  its  nrst  rector,     ftancnez  now 
ed  to  be  allowed  to  return  to  the  Philippines,  but 


college  with  Sedeno  as  its  first  rector.     Sdnchez  now 

was  sent  instead  as  visitor  to  some  of  the  Spanish 
provinces  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  where  serious  do- 
mestic and  external  troubles  menaced  \hv,  well-being 
of  the  entire  Society.  The  singular  tact  of  Sdnchez 
gained  the  day;    he  expelled  some  influential  but 


sAnchez 


427 


SANCHEZ 


turbulent  members  from  the  Society,  and  won  over 
the  king,  the  Inquisition,  and  prominent  personages,  so 
that  they  became  better  disposed  towards  the  Society 
than  ever  before.  Sdnchez  was  elected  one  of  the 
representatives  of  the  Province  of  Toledo  to  the  Fifth 
General  Congregation  of  the  Society,  but  he  remarked 
that  he  had  a  more  important  journey  to  make  than 
the  one  to  Rome.  He  died  twelve  days  later  on  the 
feast  of  the  Ascension.  Distinguished  for  unusual 
mental  gifts,  Sdnchez  was  no  less  remarkable  for  his 
sanctity  of  life;  his  penances  were  those  of  an  anchor- 
ite, his  prayer  as  prolonged  as  that  of  any  contem- 
plative. His  writings  include  chiefly  short  treatises, 
memorials,  and  the  like.  A  catalogue  and  summary 
of  forty-one  of  these,  drawn  up  by  the  author,  is 
given  by  Colin. 

CoLfN,  Labor  Emngelica,  new  ed.  by  Pastelus  (Barcelona, 
1900);  SoMMERVOGEL,  BM.  de  la  C.  de  J.:  Bibliogr.,  Ill  (Brussels, 
1896) ;  AsTRAiN,  Hist,  de  la  Compafila  de  Jestis  en  la  Asistencia 
de  Espafla,  III  (Madrid,  1909);  de  Guilhermt,  Menologe  de  la 
Compagnie  de  Jesus,  assistance  d'Espagne  (Paris,  1902). 

P.    M.    FiNEGAN. 

Sanchez,  Alonzo  Coello,  b.  at  Benyfayro,  Va- 
lencia, Spain,  in  1513  or  1515;  d.  at  Madrid,  1590. 
His  name  Coello  is  certainly  Portuguese,  and  was 


Portrait  of  Padre  Sioui 
Sdnchez  Coello,  The  Escorial 

probably  that  of  his  mother.  From  his  intimate  con- 
nexion with  Portugal,  Philip  II  constantly  referred  to 
him  as  his  "Portuguese  Titian".  We  have  no  defi- 
nite information  that  Sdnchez  was  ever  in  Italy,  but 
he  certainly  carefully  copied  the  paintings  of  Titian 
under  the  influence  of  Sir  Antonio  Mor,  who  was  his 
great  master.  In  1552  he  accompanied  him  to  Lisbon 
when  Mor  was  sent  by  Charles  V  to  paint  the  por- 
traits of  the  royal  family,  and  Sanchez  then  entered 
into  the  service  of  Don  .Juan  of  Portugal,  who  had 
married  Joanna,  the  daughter  of  Charles  and  the  sister 
of  Philip  II.  On  the  death  of  the  Infante  Don  Juan, 
his  widow  recommended  her  painter  to  her  brother 
Philip,  and  as  Mor  had  just  left  the  Court  and  retired 
to  Brussels,  Phihp  II  appointed  Coello  pintor  de  cd- 
mara.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  Spanish 
court  portrait-painters,  and  as  his  work  was  in  great 
demand  he  became  a  rich  man.  He  painted  Gregory 
XIII  and  Sixtus  V,  many  of  the  grandees  of  Spain, 
Cardinal  Farnese,  and  the  Dukes  of  Florence  and  Sa- 


voy. He  also  executed  considerable  work  at  the  Es- 
corial and  painted  the  triumphal  arch  erected  at 
Madrid  for  the  entry  of  Anne  of  Austria,  wife  of 
Philip  II.  Perhaps  his  most  notable  portrait,  how- 
ever, was  that  of  St.  Ignatius  Loyola,  executed  from 
casts  taken  twenty-nine  years  before,  and  from  in- 
structions and  sketches  made  by  one  of  the  fathers. 
His  greatest  portrait  was  that  of  his  friend.  Father 
Siguenza,  which  was  engraved  by  Selma.  He  was 
buried  at  Valladolid,  where  he  had  founded  a  home 
for  foundling  children.  His  epitaph  was  written  by 
L6pez  de  Vega.  Sanchez's  colouring  resembles  that 
of  Titian,  and  his  portraits  are  powerful  and  hfehke. 
There  is  one  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery  in  Lon- 
don, another  at  Vienna,  three  at  Brussels,  and  several 
at  Madrid.  One  of  the  churches  of  that  city  also 
possesses  a  screen  decorated  by  him  and  intended  to  be 
used  during  Holy  Week.  His  pictures  have  always 
been  highly  esteemed  in  Spain,  where  they  have  sold 
for  very  large  sums  of  money  on  the  few  occasions 
when  they  came  into  the  market.  Coello  painted 
Philip  II  in  almost  every  kind  of  costume,  on  foot  and 
on  horseback,  and  in  many  attitudes,  but  he  is  not 
generally  considered  to  have  been  as  successful  with  his 
royal  patron  as  he  was  with  some  of  the  ecclesiastics, 
whose  portraits  he  drew  in  noble  proportions. 

Pacheco.  Arte  de  la  pintura  (Seville,  1649);  Palomino  de 
Castro  y  VEL.^.sco,  El  museo  picldrico  y  escala  dptica  (Madrid, 
1715);  Machado,  Collecgao  de  memorias  dos  pintores  (Lisbon, 
1823);  Stirlixg-Maxwell,  Anrials  of  the  Arti.tts  of  Spain  (Lon- 
don, 1891);  Hartley,  Spanish  Painting  (London,  1904). 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Sanchez,  Jose  Bernardo,  b.  at  Robledillo,  Old 
Castile,  Sjjuin,  7  September,  1778;  d.  at  San  Gabriel, 
California,  15  January,  1833.  He  became  a  Fran- 
ciscan on  9  October,  1794,  and  joined  the  missionary 
college  of  San  Fernando,  Mexico,  in  1803,  going  to 
California  the  following  year.  He  was  stationed  at 
Mission  San  Diego  (1804-20);  Mission  Purisima 
(1820-1);  and  at  San  Gabriel.  In  ISOG,  as  chaplain, 
Fr.  Sdnchez  accompanied  a  military  expedition 
against  the  savages.  In  1821  with  Fr.  Prefect 
Mariano  Payeras  he  went  with  an  exjjlorirg  expedi- 
tion into  the  interior  to  search  for  new  mission  sites. 
From  1S27  to  1831  he  reluctantly  held  the  i)osition 
of  pnsidvnie  of  the  missions  and  of  vicar  forane  to 
the  bishop.  He  was  a  very  pious  and  energetic  mis- 
sionary, but  dreaded  the  office  of  superior.  His  in- 
cessant appeals  for  relief  were  at  last  granted,  but 
he  survived  only  two  years.  During  his  term  he 
vigorousl}'  opposed  Governor  Echcandia's  seculariza- 
tion sclieme.  In  a  long  series  of  critical  notes  he 
showed  that  the  plan  would  result  in  the  destruction 
of  the  missions  and  the  ruin  of  the  neophytes.  "As 
far  as  it  concerns  me  personally",  he  wrote,  "would 
that  it  might  be  to-morrow,  so  that  I  might  retire 
between  the  four  walls  of  a  cell  to  weep  over  the  time 
I  wasted  in  behalf  of  these  unfortunates."  There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  sight  of  the  inevitable  ruin  has- 
tened his  death.  His  remains  were  buried  at  the 
foot  of  the  altar  of  San  Gabriel  Mission. 

Santa  Barbara  Archives;  Records  of  Mission  San  Diego,  San 
Carlos,  and  San  Gabriel;  Engelhardt,  The  Franciscans  in 
California  (Harbor  Springs,  Mich.,  1897);  Bancroft,  California 
(San  Francisco,  1886).  ZePUYRIN   EnGELHARDT. 

Sanchez,  Thomas,  b.  at  Cordova,  1550;  d.  in  the 
college  of  Granada,  19  May,  1610.  In  1567  he  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus.  He  was  at  first  refused 
admittance  on  account  of  an  impediment  in  his 
speech;  however,  after  imploring  delivery  from  this 
impediment  before  a  highly  venerated  picture  of  Our 
Lady  at  Cordova,  his  application  was  granted.  He 
held  for  a  time  the  office  of  master  of  novices  at 
Granada.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was  devoted  to 
the  composition  of  his  works.  His  death  was  due  to 
inflammation  of  the  lungs.  His  contemporaries  bear 
testimony  to  the  energy  and  perseverance  with  which 
he  laboured  towards  self-perfection  from  his  novitiate 


SANCHEZ 


428 


SANCTITY 


until  his  death.  His  penitential  zeal  rivalled  that  of 
the  early  anchorites,  and,  according  to  his  spiritual 
director,  he  carried  his  baptismal  innocence  to  the 
grave.  Luis  de  la  Puente,  then  rector  of  the  college 
of  Granada  and  later  declared  "venerable",  attests 
the  holines.s  of  Sanchez  in  his  letter  to  Francis  Suarez, 
a  translation  of  which  ma^'  be  found  in  the  Biblio- 
theque  de  Bourgogne  at  Brussels. 

Sanchez  belongs  to  those  who  are  much  abused  on 
account  of  their  works.  The  chief  work  of  Sanchez, 
and  the  only  one  which  he  himself  edited,  is  the  "Dis- 
putationes  de  sancti  matrimonii  sacramento".  The 
first  edition  is  said  to  have  appeared  at  Genoa  in  1602; 
but  this  can  have  been  only  the  first  folio  volume,  for 
which  permission  to  jirint  was  secured  in  1599,  as  the 
two  succeeding  volumes  contain  both  in  their  preface 
and  the  author's  dedication  the  date  1603.  The  first 
complete  edition  was,  according  to  Sommervogel, 
that  of  Madrid,  160.5;  later  followed  a  series  of  editions 
printed  at  different  places  both  before  and  after  the 
author's  death.  The  last  edition  seems  to  have  been 
issued  at  Venice  in  1754.  The  work  had  an  extraor- 
dinarj'-  fate,  inasmuch  as  some  editions  of  the  third 
volume  have  been  placed  on  the  Index  of  Prohibited 
Books,  the  grounds  being  not  the  doctrine  of  the 
author,  but  the  perversion  of  the  work  and  the  sup- 
pression of  what  the  author  taught.  Even  in  the 
earher  editions  of  the  Index  as  revised  by  Leo  XIII, 
till  his  Constitution  "Officiorum  ac  munerum", 
we  may  .still  read:  "Sanchez,  Thom.  Disputationum 
de  Sacramento  Matrimonii  tom.  III.  ed.  Venetiae, 
give  aliarum,  a  quibus  1.  8  disp.  7  detractus  est  integer 
num.  4.  Deer.  4  Febr.  1627".  This  number  is  omitted 
from  the  edition  of  Venice,  1614 ;  it  treats  of  the  power 
of  the  pope  to  grant  a  valid  legitimation  of  the  off- 
spring of  marriages  invalid  only  through  canon  law 
through  the  so-called  sanaiio  in  radicc.  The  author's 
mode  of  ex-pression  shows  a  not  always  pleasing  ver- 
bosity. As  it  deals  with  every  possible  point  in  the 
Bubject,  it  has  often,  quite  unjustifiably,  drawn  upon 
Sanchez  the  charge  of  immorality. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Sanchez  a  second  work 
appeared,  "Opus  morale  in  pracepta  Decalogi"; 
the  first  folio  volume  was  prepared  by  the  author  him- 
self, but  the  second  volume,  as  well  as  the  whole  of 
his  third  work,  "Consilia  moralia",  had  to  be  com- 
piled from  manuscript  notes.  These  works  also  went 
through  a  series  of  different  editions,  and  likewise 
drew  upon  themselves  the  accusation  of  laxity,  espe- 
cially with  reference  to  the  question  of  what  is  called 
"mental  reservation"  {rentriclio  menlalis).  It  is  true 
that  we  find  in  Sanchez  (Op.  mor.  in  pra-c.  decalogi, 
III,  vi,  n.  15)  the  twenty-sixth  thesis  condemned  by 
Innocent  XI :  "If  anyone,  by  himself,  or  before  others, 
whether  under  examination  or  of  his  own  accord, 
whether  for  amu.sement  or  for  any  other  purpose, 
should  swear  that  he  has  not  done  something  which 
he  has  really  done,  having  in  mind  something  else 
which  he  has  not  done,  or  some  way  of  doing  it  other 
than  the  way  he  employed,  or  anything  else  that  is 
true:  he  does  not  lie  nor  perjure  himself."  The  thesis 
rests  on  a  peculiar  definition  of  a  "lie",  which  indeed 
is  none  too  easy  to  d(;fin(;,  and  has  engaged  the  in- 
genuit}'  of  scholars  from  the  time  of  St.  Augustine  to 
to-day.  Sanchez  did  not  regard  every  mental  reserva- 
tion lis  always  pc-rmi.ssible,  but  was  simply  discussing 
tlie  sinfulness  of  the  lie  (or  oath)  in  itself;  that  some 
other  sin — even  grievous,  according  to  the  circum- 
stances— may  have  been  involved  in  the  action,  he 
floes  not  deny. 

According  to  Wemz  (Jus  decretalium,  IV,  n.  20), 
Sanchez's  work  "  De  matrimonio"  is  even  to-day 
reckoned  by  the  Roman  Curia  among  the  classical 
works  on  marriage. 

.N'lKKKMBEFu;.  VarontJi  UuxtreH,  VII  (new  ed.,  Bilbao,  1891); 
GllLHEKMT,  Afinol'xje  lie  In  C.  ile  J.  fParw,  1002);  Sommer- 
vooEi.,  Bihl.  tif.  l/t  C.  lie  J.  (Bri)MW!lM,  1H5»0);  IIi-rtkh,  Nomen- 
cUUor,  III  (3rd  ed.,  Inmbruck,  1907).      AUG.   LeHMKUHL. 


Sanchez  de  Arevalo,  Rodriguez.     See  Arevalo. 
San    Cristobal    de    Laguna.     See    Teneriffe, 
Diocese  of. 

San   Cristobal   de  la   Habana.     See  Havana, 

Diocese  of. 

Sanctifying  Grace.     See  Grace. 

Sanction  (Lat.  sancire,  same  root  as  sanc(ns) 
signifies  i^rimarily  the  authoritative  act  whereby  the 
legislator  sanctions  a  law,  i.  e.  gives  it  value  and 
binding  force  for  its  subjects.  Hence,  objectively, 
the  law  itself  is  called  sanction  inasmuch  as  it  is 
imposed  on  the  consciences  and  obedience  of  subjects; 
thus  ecclesiastical  laws  are  often  called  sanctiones 
cnnoniccE.  In  more  modern  language  every  measure 
is  called  a  sanction  which  is  intended  to  further  the 
observation  of  the  law  by  subjects,  whether  the  re- 
ward to  whomsoever  fulfills  it,  or  the  i)enalty  or 
chastisement  inflicted  or  at  least  threatened  for  non- 
fulfilment,  whether  it  relates  to  prescriptive  laws 
which  require  something  to  be  done,  or  to  jirohibitive 
laws  which  require  that  sometliing  be  omitted.  These 
sanctions  in  turn  may  result  from  the  very  nature  of 
the  law,  which  are  internal  sanctions  like  those  of  the 
natural  law,  or  they  may  be  added  by  a  jjositive  act 
of  the  legislator,  and  these  are  external  sanctions. 
Hence  sanction  is  called  moral,  psychological,  legal, 
or  penal,  according  to  the  origin  or  the  nature  of  it. 
(SeeP^THics:  Law;  Punishmext.)     A.  Boudi-nhon. 

Sanctity,  Mark  of  the  Church. — The  term 
"sanctity"  is  employed  in  somewhat  different  senses 
in  relation  to  God,  to  individual  men,  and  to  a  cor- 
porate body.  As  applied  to  God  it  denotes  that  ab- 
solute moral  perfection  which  is  His  by  nature.  In 
regard  to  men  it  signifies  a  close  union  with  God, 
together  with  the  moral  perfection  resulting  from  this 
union.  Hence  holiness  is  said  to  belong  to  God 
by  essence,  and  to  creatures  only  by  participation. 
Whatever  sanctity  they  possess  comes  to  them  as 
a  Divine  gift.  As  used  of  a  society,  the  term  means 
(1)  that  this  society  aims  at  producing  holiness  in  its 
members,  and  is  possessed  of  means  capable  of  secur- 
ing that  result,  and  (2)  that  the  lives  of  its  members 
correspond,  at  least  in  some  measure,  with  the  pur- 
po.se  of  the  .society,  and  display  a  real,  not  a  merely 
nominal  holiness. 

The  Church  has  ever  claimed  that  she,  as  a  society, 
is  holy  in  a  transcendent  degree.  She  teaches  that 
this  is  one  of  the  four  "notes",  viz.,  unity,  catholicity, 
apostolicity,  and  sanctity,  by  which  the  society 
founded  by  Christ  can  be  readily  distingui.she(l  from 
all  human  institutions.  It  is  in  virtue  of  her  relation 
to  the  Person  and  work  of  Christ  that  this  attribute 
belongs  to  the  Church.  She  is  (1)  the  fruit  of  the 
Passion — the  kingdom  of  the  redeemed.  Those 
who  remain  outside  her  are  the  "world"  which  knows 
not  God  (I  John,  iii,  1).  The  object  of  the  Passion 
was  the  redemption  and  sanctification  of  the  Church: 
"Christ  also  loved  the  chur(jh,  and  delivered  Himself  up 
for  it:  that  he  might  sanctify  it,  cleansing  it  by  the 
laver  of  water  in  the  word  of  life"  (Eph.,  v,  25,  26). 
Again  (2)  the  Church  is  the  body  of  Christ.  He  is 
the  head  of  the  my.stical  body:  and  supernatural 
life — the  life  of  Christ  Him.self — is  comnmnicatcd 
through  the  .sacraments  to  all  His  members.  Ju.st 
as  the  Holy  Ghost  dwelt  in  the  human  body  of  Christ, 
so  He  now  dwells  in  the  Church:  and  His  presence 
is  so  intimate  and  so  efficacious  that  the;  Apostle  can 
even  speak  of  Him  as  the  soul  of  the  mystical  body: 
"One  body  and  one  Spirit"  (Eph.,  iv,  4).  Thus  it 
follows  as  a  necessary  consequence  from  the  nature 
of  the  Church  and  her  relation  to  Christ,  that  a.s  a 
society  she  must  possess  means  capable  of  producing 
holiness:  that  her  members  must  be  characterized  by 
holiness:  andthat  this  endowment  of  sanctity  will  afford 
a  ready  means  of  distinguishing  her  from  the  world. 


SANCTORUM 


429 


SANCTORUM 


It  is  further  manifest  that  the  Church's  hoUness 
must  be  of  an  entirely  supernatural  character^ 
something  altogether  beyond  the  power  of  unassisted 
human  nature.  And  such  is  in  fact  the  type  of  sanctity 
which  Christ  and  His  Apostles  require  on  the  part 
of  members  of  the  Church.  (1)  The  virtues  which  in 
the  Christian  ideal  are  the  most  fundamental  of  all, 
lie  altogether  outside  the  scope  of  the  highest  pagan 
ethics.  Christian  charity,  humility,  and  chastity 
are  instances  in  point.  The  charity  which  Christ 
sets  forth  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  and  in  the 
parable  of  the  Good  Samaritan — a  charity  which 
knows  no  limits  and  which  embraces  enemies  as  well 
as  friends— exceeds  all  that  moralists  had  deemed 
possible  for  men.  And  this  charity  Christ  requires 
not  of  a  chosen  few,  but  of  all  His  followers.  Humil- 
ity, which  in  the  Christian  scheme  is  the  necessary 
groundwork  of  all  sanctity  (Matt.,  xviii,  3),  was  pre- 
viously to  His  teaching  an  unknown  virtue.  The 
sense  of  personal  unworthiness  in  which  it  consists,  is 
repugnant  to  all  the  impulses  of  unregenerate  nature. 
Moreover,  the  humility  which  Christ  demands, 
supposes  as  its  foundation  a  dear  knowledge  of  the 
guilt  of  sin,  and  of  the  mercy  of  God.  Without 
these  it  cannot  exist.  And  these  doctrines  are 
sought  in  vain  in  other  religions  than  the  Christian. 
In  regard  to  chastity  Christ  not  merely  warned  His 
followers  that  to  violate  this  virtue  even  by  a  thought, 
was  a  grievous  sin.  He  went  yet  further.  He  ex- 
horted those  of  His  followers  to  whom  the  grace 
should  be  given,  to  live  the  life  of  virginity  that  there- 
by they  might  draw  nearer  to  God  (Alatt.,  xix,  12). 

(2)  Another  characteristic  of  holiness  according 
to  th(!  Christian  ideal  is  love  of  suffering;  not  as 
though  i)leasure  were  evil  in  itself,  but  because  suf- 
fering is  the  great  means  by  which  our  love  of  God 
is  intensified  and  purified.  All  those  who  have  at- 
tained a  high  degree  of  holiness  have  learnt  to  re- 
joice in  suffering,  because  by  it  their  love  to  God 
was  freed  from  every  element  of  self-seeking,  and 
their  lives  conformed  to  that  of  their  Master.  Those 
who  have  not  grasped  this  principle  may  call  them- 
selves by  the  name  of  Christian,  but  they  have 
not  understood  the  meaning  of  the  Cross.  (3)  It 
has  ever  been  held  that  holiness  when  it  reaches  a 
sublime  degree  is  accompanied  by  miraculous  powers. 
And  Christ  promised  that  this  sign  should  not  be  lack- 
ing to  His  Church.  The  miracles,  which  His  followers 
should  work,  would.  He  declared,  be  no  whit  less  stu- 
pendous than  those  wrought  by  Himself  during  His 
mortal  life  (Mark,  xvi,  17,  18;  John,  xiv,  12). 

Such  in  brief  outline  is  the  sanctity  with  which 
Christ  endowed  His  Church,  and  which  is  to  be  the 
distinguishing  mark  of  her  children.  It  is,  however, 
to  he  noted  that  He  said  nothing  to  suggest  that  all 
His  followers  would  make  u.se  of  the  oi)i)ort unities 
thus  afforded  them.  On  the  contrary.  He  expressly 
taught  that  His  flock  would  contain  many  unworthy 
m(!mbers  (Matt.,  xiii,  30,  4<S).  And  we  may  be  sure 
that  as  within  the  Church  the  lights  are  brightest, 
so  there  too  the  shadows  will  be  darkest — corruptio 
oplimi  pessima.  An  unworthy  Catholic  will  fall 
lower  than  an  unworthy  pagan.  To  show  that  the 
Church  possesses  the  note  of  holiness  it  suffices  to 
establish  that  her  teaching  is  holy:  that  she  is  en- 
dowed with  the  means  of  producing  supernatural  holi- 
ness in  her  children:  that,  notwithstanding  the 
unfaithfulness  of  many  members,  a  vast  number  do 
in  fact  cultivate  a  sanctity  beyond  anything  that  can 
be  found  elsewhere:  and  that  in  certain  cases  this 
sanctity  attains  so  high  a  degree  that  God  honours 
it  with  miraculous  powers. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  show  that  the  Catholic  and 
Roman  Church,  and  she  alone,  fulfils  these  condi- 
tions. In  regard  to  h(>r  doctrines,  it  is  manifest  that 
the  moral  law  which  she  proposes  as  of  Divine  obli- 
gation, is  more  lofty  arid  more  exacting  than  that 


which  any  of  the  sects  has  ventured  to  require.  Her 
vindication  of  the  indissolubility  of  marriage  in  the 
face  of  a  licentious  world  affords  the  most  conspicuous 
instance  of  this.  She  alone  maintains  in  its  integ- 
rity her  Master's  tea(;hing  on  marriage.  Every 
other  religious  body  without  exception  has  given 
place  to  the  demands  of  human  passion.  In  regard 
to  the  means  of  holiness,  she,  through  h(>r  seven 
sacraments,  applies  to  h(>r  members  Wv,  fruits  of  the 
Atonement.  She  pardons  the  guilt  of  sin,  and 
nourishes  the  faithful  on  the  Body  and  Blood  of 
Christ.  Nor  is  the  justice  of  her  claims  less  mani- 
fest when  we  consider  the  result  of  her  work.  In 
the  Catholic  Church  is  found  a  marvellous  succc^ssion 
of  saints  whose  lives  are  as  beacon-lights  in  the  his- 
tory of  mankind.  In  sanctity  the  supremacy  of 
Bernard,  of  Dominic,  of  Francis,  of  Ignatius,  of 
Theresa,  is  as  unquestioned  as  is  that  of  Alexander 
and  of  Ca;sar  in  the  art  of  war.  Outside  the  Catholic 
Church  the  world  has  nothing  to  show  which  can  in 
any  degree  compare  with  them.  Within  the  Church 
the  succession  never  fails. 

Nor  do  the  saints  stand  alone.  In  proportion  to 
the  practical  influence  of  Catholic  teatihing,  the 
supernatural  virtues  of  which  we  have  spoken  above, 
are  found  also  among  the  rest  of  the  faithful.  These 
virtues  mark  a  special  type  of  character  which  the 
Church  seeks  to  realize  in  her  children,  and  which 
finds  little  favour  among  other  claimants  to  the 
Christian  name.  Outside  the  Catholic  Churtih  the 
life  of  virginity  is  contemned;  love  of  suffering 
is  viewed  as  a  medieval  superstition;  and  humility 
is  regarded  as  a  passive  virtue  ill-suited  to  an  active 
and  pushing  age.  Of  course  it  is  not  meant  that  we 
do  not  find  many  individual  instances  of  holiness 
outside  the  Church.  God's  grace  is  universal  in 
its  range.  But  it  seems  beyond  question  that  the 
.sui)ernatural  sanctity  whose  main  features  we  have 
indicated,  is  recognized  by  all  as  belonging  specifically 
to  the  Church,  while  in  her  alone  does  it  reach  that 
sublime  degree  which  we  see  in  the  saints.  In  the 
Church  too  we  see  fulfilled  Christ's  promise  that  the 
gift  of  miracles  shall  not  be  wanting  to  His  followers. 
Miracles,  it  is  true,  are  not  sanctity.  But  they  are 
the  aura  in  which  the  highest  sanctity  moves.  And 
from  the  time  of  the  Apostles  to  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  lives  of  the  saints  show  us  that  the  laws  of 
nature  have  been  suspended  at  their  prayers.  In 
numberless  cases  the  evidence  for  these  events  is  so 
ami)le  that  nothing  but  the  exigencies  of  controversy 
can  explain  the  refusal  of  anti-Catholic  writers  to 
admit  their  occurrence. 

The  proof  api)ears  to  be  complete.  There  can  be 
as  little  doubt  which  Church  displays  the  note  of 
sanctity,  as  there  is  in  regard  to  the  notes  of  unity, 
catholicity  and  apostolitiity.  The  Church  in  com- 
munion with  the  See  of  Rome  and  it  alone  pos- 
8es.ses  that  holiness  which  the  words  of  Christ  and 
His  Apostles  demand. 

McRRAY,  De  ecclesia  Christi,  II  (Dublin,  1862) ;  Bellarmine, 
De  cone,  et  ecclesia,  IV,  xi-xv;  Tanqderey,  Synopsis  theol. 
(logmatica:,  I  (Paris,  1900);  Benson  in  Ecclesia  edited  by 
Matthew  (London,  1900).  For  modern  anti-Catholic  polemics 
on  this  subject,  see  Martineau,  Seat  of  Authority  in  Religion 
(London,  1890);   Palmer,  Treatise  of  the  Church  (London,  1842), 

I.  vi,  X,  xi.  G.  H.  Joyce. 

Sanctorum  Mentis,  the  hymn  at  First  and  Second 
Vespers  in  the  Common  of  the  Martyrs  in  the  Roman 
Breviary.  Its  authorship  is  often  attributed  to 
Rabanus  Maurus  (d.  S.^G),  Archbishop  of  Mainz — 
e.  g.  by  Blume  (cf.  Hymnody,  V,  2),  who  thinks  his 
hymns  show  originality  and  "no  small  poetic  power". 
Dreves  also  (Analecta  hymnica,  XL,  204)  favours  the 
ascription.  The  stanza,  in  classical  prosody,  com- 
prises three  Asclepiadic  lines  and  one  Glyconic.  In 
Horace  such  a  stanza  indicates  a  grave  and  thought- 
ful frame  of  mind;  but  the  breviary  hymns  using 
the  stanza  are  usually  suggestive  of  triumphant  joy— 


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430 


SANCTUARY 


e.  g.  the  '"Festivis  resonent  compita  vocibus"  (Most 
Precious  Blood),  the  "Te  Joseph  celebrent  agmina 
ccelitum",  and  the  ''Sacris  solemniis"  (q.  v.)  in  rhyth- 
mic imitation.  Dom  Johner  ("A  New  School  of 
Gregorian  Chant",  New  York,  1906,  p.  89)  places 
h>Tiins  in  this  measure  among  those  "in  which  the 
verbal  accent  preponderates  and  the  metrical  accent 
only  makes  itself  noticeable  in  certain  places  (par- 
ticularly in  the  fourth  line  and  when  a  line  closes 
with  a  word  accentuated  on  the  penultimate)".  He 
illustrates  the  rhythmical  stress  by  italics.  Apjilying 
his  scheme  to  the  Asclepiadic  lines  we  should  have: 
Sa-ncto-rum  mc-ri-tis  in-cly-ta  gau-di-a.  His  illustra- 
tion of  the  fourth  line  (Glyconic)  is:  Vi-cto-rum 
ge-nus  o-pti-m\mi.  The  "Grammar  of  Plainsong" 
by  the  Benedictines  of  Stanbrook  (London,  1905, 
p.  61)  remarks  that  the  long  verses  have  the  accents 
on  the  third,  seventh,  and  tenth  syllables;  and  the 
short  verse,  on  the  third  and  sixth  syllables;  and  illus- 
trates this  scheme  by  the  last  two  lines  of  the  stanza 
(the  acute  accent  marking  the  rhythmical  stress): 
Gliscens  fert  animus  pr6mere  cdntibus 
Victoriim  genus  Optimum. 
In  the  following  illustration  (Holly,  "Elementary 
Grammar  of  Gregorian  Chant",  New  York,  1904, 
p.  44)  the  acute  accent  indicates  the  tonic  accent 
of  the  word;  the  grave  accent,  the  place  where  the 
rhj-thmical  or  metrical  accent  falls;  the  circumflex, 
the  concurrence  on  a  syllable  of  both  metrical  and 
tonic  accents: 

Sanctorum  meritis  incl^a  gaudia 

Pangamus  socii,  gestaque  fortia; 

Gliscens  fert  animus  pr6mere  cantibus 
Victorum  genus  optimum. 
Obviously,  the  metre  is  refractory  for  singing  or 
pubhc  recitation.  Dreves  (loc.  cit.,  pp.  18^1) 
notes  that  several  references  are  made  to  the  hymn 
by  Hincmar  of  Reims,  one  of  the  most  interesting 
being  his  objection  to  the  theology  of  the  last  stanza 
("Te  trina  Deltas",  subsequently  changed  into  the 
present  form:  "Te  summa  O  Deltas").  Hincmar 
admits  that  he  knew  not  the  author  of  the  hymn 
which  ".some  people  end  w4th  the  chant  or  rather 
blasphemy  [a  quibusdam  cantatur  vel  potius  blas- 
phematur]  'Te  trina  deltas'."  The  phrase  objected 
to  was  nevertheless  sung  in  the  doxology  of  the 
hymn  down  to  the  revision  of  Urban  VIII,  and  the 
Church  still  sings  it  in  the  doxology  of  the  "Sacris 
Bolemniis"  (q.  v.)  of  the  Angelic  Doctor.  The 
Paris  Breviary  kept  the  metre  but  entirely  recast 
the  hymn,  writing  the  first  stanza  thus: 

Christi  martyribus  debita  nos  decet, 

Virtutis  memores,  promere  cantica; 

Quos  nee  blanditiis,  nee  potuit  minis 
Fallax  vincere  sa^culum. 
To  the  list  of  translators  given  by  Juhan  ("Diet, 
of  Hymnol.",  2nd  ed.,  London,  1907,  pp.  993,  1698) 
should  be  added  Bagshawe  ("Breviary  Hymns  and 
Mi.ssal  Sequencers",  London,  1900,  p.  164:  "Let  us 
sing,  dear  companions,  the  joys  of  the  saints"). 
The  CJialtimore)  "Manual  of  Prayers"  gives  the 
translation  of  the  Anglican  hymnologist.  Dr.  Neale. 
Thf-re  are  twelve  translations  in  English.  The  text 
is  found  in  many  MSS.  of  the  tenth  century  (cf. 
Dreves,  "Analecta  hymnica",  L,  204-.5);  Hincmar, 
"De  una  et  non  trina  Deitatc"  in  P.  L.,  CXXV,478, 
498,  500).  For  Latin  text  fomitting  second  and 
third  stanzas)  and  English  translation,  plainsong,  and 
modem  mu.sical  setting,  see  "Hymns  Ancient  and 
Modem,  Historical  Edition"  (London,  1909  pp. 
289-^XJ),  which  notes  that  Dreves  assigns  the  hymn 
to  Rabanus  Maums  in  his  "  Hymnologische  Studien 
zu  VenantiiiH  f'ortunatus  und  Rabanus  Maurus" 
(Munich,  HK)8,  p.  i:«),  "in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
Raban  wrote  to  Hincmar  disapproving  of  the 
phrase  'Te  trina  Deltas'."  The  approved  plain- 
song will  appear  in  the  forthcoming  Vatican  Antiph- 


onary.  Pothier  ("IMelodies  Gregoriennes "  Tour- 
nai,  18S0)  illustrates  the  Asclepiadic  metre  by  the 
"Sanctorum  meritis",  places  the  accents  on  the 
third,  seventh,  and  tenth  syllables  of  the  Asclei:)iads 
and  on  the  third  and  sixth  of  the  Glyconic,  and  re- 
marks that  "in  singing  the  Asclepiad  and  the  (ily- 
conic,  the  first  three  syllables  should  be  gone  over 
slowly,  and  the  accents  should  be  well  marked,  es- 
pecially the  last"  (p.  199).  Egcrton  ("A  Handbook 
of  Church  Music",  New  York,  1909,  p.  ISO)  places 
the  principal  accent  on  the  tenth  syllable,  and  second- 
ary accents  on  the  third  and  seventh,  with  a  "mora 
vocis"  after  the  sixth.  Delaporte  ("Les  Hymnes  du 
br6viaire  romain"  in  the  "Rassegna  Gregoriana", 
Nov.-Dec,  1907,  col.  501)  remarks  that,  when  the 
edition  of  1602  of  the  Roman  Breviary  was  in  prep- 
aration. Cardinal  Gesualdo  in  1588  wrote  to  various 
nuncios  to  get  suggestions  for  emendations.  The 
nuncio  at  Paris  consulted  "alcuui  principali  dclla 
Sorbona",  with  some  curious  results,  one  of  which 
was  the  criticism  demanding  a  change  in  the  doxology 
of  the  "Sacris  solemniis"  (q.  v.)  from  "Te  trina 
Deltas"  to  "Te  summa  Deltas",  for  the  reason  that 
"it  is  impious  to  call  the  Deity,  or  the  essence  of 
God,  threefold".  As  noted  above,  the  Church  still 
sings  "Te  Deltas"  in  the  "Sacris  solemniis"  of  the 
"Angel  of  the  Schools",  although  it  has  changed  the 
phrase  in  the  doxology  of  the  "Sanctorum  meritis". 
H.  T.  Henry. 

Sanctuary,  a  consecrated  place  giving  protection 
to  those  fleeing  from  justice  or  persecution;  or,  the 
privilege  of  taking  refuge  in  such  consecrated  place. 
The  right  of 
sanctuary  was 
based  on  the 
inviolability 
attaching  t  o 
things  sacred, 
and  not,  as 
some  have 
held,  on  the  ex- 
ample set  by 
the  Hebrew 
cities  of  refuge. 
It  was  recog- 
nized under  the 
Code  of  Theo- 
dosius  (399) 
and  later  by 
that  of  Justin- 
ian.  Papal 
sanction  was 
first  given  to  it 

by  Leo  I,  about        Thk  Sanctuary  op  St.  Menas,  Eoypt 
460      though  Ivory  Carving,  Museum,  Milan 

the  first  Council  of  Orange  had  dealt  with  the 
matter  in  441.  The  earliest  mention  of  sanctuary 
in  England  was  in  a  code  of  laws  promulgated  by 
King  Ethelbert  in  600.  The  right  of  asylum  was 
originally  confined  to  the  church  itself,  but  in  course 
of  time  its  limits  were  extended  to  the  precincts,  and 
sometimes  even  to  a  larger  area.  Thus,  at  Beverley 
and  Hexham,  the  boundaries  of  sanctuary  extended 
throughout  a  radius  of  a  mile  from  the  church,  the 
limits  being  marked  by  ".sanctuary  cro.sses",  some 
of  which  still  remain.  In  Norman  times  there  were  two 
kinds  of  s.anctuary  in  England,  one  belonging  to  every 
church  by  prescription  and  the  other  by  special 
royal  charter.  The  latter  was  considered  to  afford 
a  much  safer  asylum  and  was  enjoyed  by  at  least 
twenty-two  churches,  including  Battle,  Beverley, 
Colchester.  Durham,  Hexham,  Norwich,  Ripon, 
Wells,  Winchesfr-r,  Westminster,  and  York.  A 
fugitive  convictcfl  of  felony  and  taking  the  benefit 
of  sanctuary  was  afforderl  protection  for  from  thirty 
to  forty  days,  after  which,  subject  to  certain  severe 


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431 


SANCTUARY 


conditions,  he  had  to  "abjure  the  realm",  that  is 
leave  the  kingdom  within  a  specified  time  and  take 
an  oath  not  to  return  without  the  king's  leave. 
Violation  of  the  protection  of  sanctuary  was  punish- 
able by  excommunication.  In  some  cases  there  was  a 
stone  seat  within  the  church,  called  the  "frith- 
stool",  on  which  it  is  said  the  seeker  of  sanctuary  had 
to  sit  in  order  to  establish  his  claim  to  protection. 
In  others,  and  more  commonly,  there  was  a  large  ring 
or  knocker  on  the  church  door,  the  holding  of  which 
gave  the  right  of  asylum.  Examples  of  these  may 
be  .seen  at  Durham  cathedral,  St.  Gregory's,  Norwich, 
and  elsewhere.  The  ecclesiastical  right  of  sanctuary 
ceased  in  England  at  the  Reformation,  but  was  after 
that  date  allowed  to  certain  non-ecclesiastical  pre- 
cincts, which  afforded  shelter  chiefly  to  debtors. 
The  houses  of  ambassadors  were  also  sometimes  quasi- 
sanctuaries.  Whitefriars,  London  (also  called 
Alsatia),was  the  last  place  of  sanctuary  used  in  Eng- 
land, but  it  was  abolished  by  Act  of  Parliament  in 
1697.  In  other  European  countries  the  right  of 
sanctuary  ceased  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Pegge  in  Arch(€ologia,  VIII  (London,  1787);  Mazzinghi, 
SandufirieH  (Stafford,  1887);  Blumerixco,  Das  Axylrecht 
(Dorpat,  185.3).  G.    CyPRIAX   AlSTON. 

Sanctuary,  the  space  in  the  church  for  the  high 
altar  and  the  clergy.  It  is  variously  designated  apsis 
or  concha  (from  the  shell-like,  hemispherical  dome), 
and  since  the  Middle  Ages  especially  it  has  been 
called  "choir",  from  the  choir  of  singers  who  are  here 
stationed.  Other  names  are  presbyterium,  concessus 
chori,  tribuna  or  tribunal,  fiYtoj/,  fijuroj',  sanctum, 
sanctuarium.  From  the  architectural  standpoint  the 
sanctuary  has  undergone  manifold  alterations.  In 
Christian  antiquity  it  was  confined  to  the  apse,  into 
the  wall  of  which  the  .stone  benches  for  the  clergy  were 
let  after  the  fashion  of  an  amphitheatre,  while  in  the 
middle  rose  up  the  bishop's  chair  (cathedra).  It  would 
however  be  wrong  to  believe  that  this  ancient  Chris- 
tian sanctuary  had  always  a  semicircular  formation, 
since  recent  investigations  (especially  in  the  East) 
have  revealed  very  various  shapes.  Over  a  dozen 
different  shapes  have  already  been  discovered.  In 
Syria  the  semicircular  development  advances  very 
little  or  not  at  all  from  the  outer  wall,  while  beside  it 
are  situated  two  rooms  which  serve  respectively  for 
the  offering  (prothcsis)  and  for  the  clergy  {diaconi- 
cum).  The  sanctuary  was  often  formed  by  three  in- 
terconnected apses  (Dreiconchensystem) ;  the  quite 
straight  termination  also  occurs.  An  important  dif- 
ference between  the  Roman  and  Oriental  churches 
consisted  in  the  fact  that  in  the  case  of  the  latter  the 
wall  of  the  sanctuary  was  interrupted  by  a  window 
through  which  the  sunlight  freely  entered,  while  the 
windowless  Roman  apse  was  shrouded  in  a  mysteri- 
ous darkness. 

As  the  semicircular  niche  could  no  longer  in  all  ca-ses 
hold  the  numbers  of  the  higher  and  lower  clergy,  a 
portion  of  the  middle  nave  was  often  enclosed  with 
rails  and  added  to  the  sanctuary,  as  may  be  seen  to- 
day in  the  San  Clemente  at  Rome.  Outside  Rome 
this  necessity  of  enlarging  the  sanctuary  was  met  in 
another  way,  by  introducing  between  the  longitu- 
dinal (or  cross)  aisle  and  the  apse  a  compartment  or 
square,  the  basilica  thus  receiving  (instead  of  the  Ro- 
man T-shape)  the  form  of  a  cross.  This  innovation 
was  of  far-reaching  importance,  since  the  sanctuary 
could  not  develop  freely.  This  development  pro- 
ceeded from  the  beginning  to  the  close  of  the  Middle 
Ages  in  what  may  be  declared  as  an  almost  wanton 
fashion.  The  time  at  which  this  innovation  was  in- 
troduced has  been  for  a  long  time  the  subject  of  a 
violent  literary  feud,  since  it  is  most  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  development  of  the  cruciform  ar- 
rangement of  churches.  Some  investigators  hold  that 
this  form  is  first  found  in  the  Monastery  of  Fulda  un- 


der Abbot  Bangulf  about  the  year  800;  according  to 
others  it  occurred  before  the  time  of  Charlemagne  in 
the  French  monasteries  of  Jumieges  and  Rebais.  In 
recent  times  Strzygowski  has  maintained  that  both 
views  are  incorrect,  and  that  the  extended  sanctuary, 
or  in  other  words  the  cruciform  church,  was  already 
common  in  the  early  Christian  period  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  was  thence  transplanted  to  the  West  by  Basihan 
monks  as  early  as  the  fourth  or  fifth  century. 

A  second  very  important  alteration,  which  occurred 
during  the  Carlo vingian  Renaissance,  consisted  in  the 
introduction  or  rather  transplantation  from  the  East 
to  the  West  of  the  "double  sanctuary".  By  this  is 
meant  the  construction  of  a  second  sanctuary  or  west 
choir  opposite  the  east;  this  arrangement  was  found 
even  in  ancient  times  in  isolated  instances,  but  its  in- 
troduction in  the  case  of  larger  churches  gradually 
became  universal  in  the  West.  Concerning  the  rea- 
sons for  this  innovation  various  theories  have  been  put 
forward.  It  must,  however,  be  recognized  that  the 
reasons  were  not  everywhere  the  same.  They  were 
three  in  particular:  the  duplication  of  the  titular 
saints,  the  construction  of  a  place  for  the  remains  of  a 
saint,  and  the  need  of  a  nuns'  or  winter  choir.  In  ad- 
dition, Strzygowski  has  also  maintained  the  influence 
exercised  by  the  change  of  "orientation",  that  is  the 
erection  of  the  altar,  which  in  the  East  originally  stood 
in  the  west  of  the  church,  at  the  eastern  end.  The 
second  reason  seems  to  have  given  incentive  most 
frequently  to  the  construction  of  the  second  choir. 
Thus  in  819  Abbot  Ansger  built  a  west  choir  w^th  a 
crypt  to  receive  the  remains  of  St.  Boniface;  in  Mit- 
telzell  (Richenau)  this  choir  was  constructed  for  the 
relics  of  St.  Mark,  in  Eichstiitt  (1060)  for  the  remains 
of  St.  Willibald.  Especially  suitable  for  nuns'  con- 
vents was  the  west  choir  with  a  gallery,  since  from  it 
the  nuns  could  follow  Divine  Service  unobserved; 
for  this  reason  the  church  built  at  Essen  (Prussia)  in 
874  received  a  west  choir  in  947. 

The  increa.se  of  the  clergy,  in  conjunction  with 
the  striving  (in  the  Romanesque  period)  after 
as  large  crypts  as  possible,  led  to  the  repeated  in- 
crease of  the  sanctuary,  which,  however,  exercised  a 
very  prejudicial  influence  on  the  architectural  ar- 
rangement of  space.  The  sanctuary  was  e.xtended 
especially  westwards — thus  into  the  longitudinal 
aisle,  but  at  times  also  into  the  cross  aisle.  Examples 
of  this  excessively  great  extension  are  suppUed  by  the 
cathedrals  of  Paderborn  and  Speyer.  The  walls  of 
this  sanctuary,  which  had  thus  become  a  formal  en- 
closure, were  often  decorated  with  Bibhcal  reliefs; 
here,  in  fact,  are  preserved  some  very  important  Ro- 
manesque reliefs,  as  on  the  Georgentor  at  Bamberg 
and  in  the  Church  of  St.  Michael  at  Hildcsheim.  But 
even  in  the  Romanesque  period  began  the  war  against 
this  elevated  sanctuary,  waged  mainly  by  the  monks 
of  Hirsan  (Germany),  then  highly  influential,  and  the 
Ci.stercians.  The  former  as  opponents  of  the  crypts, 
restored  the  sanctuary  to  the  same  level  as  the  nave  or 
made  it  only  a  few  steps  higher;  they  also  ended  the 
sanctuary  in  a  straight  line,  and  gave  it  only  a  small 
round  apse.  More  important  was  the  change  made 
by  the  Cistercians,  who,  to  enable  so  many  priests  to 
read  Mass  simultaneously,  resolved  the  eastern  por- 
tion into  a  number  of  chapels  standing  in  a  straight  Une 
at  either  side  of  the  sanctuary.  This  alteration  be- 
gan in  the  mother-house  of  Cisteaux,  and  extended  with 
the  monks  evervwhere  even  to  the  East. 

These  alterations  paved  the  way  for  the  third  great 
transformation  of  the  sanctuary:  this  was  accom- 
plished by  Gothic  architecture,  which,  in  consequence 
of  the  improved  vaulting,  found  it  easier  to  conduct 
the  side  aisles  around  the  choir,  as  the  Romanesque 
architects  had  already  done  in  individual  cases.  The 
sanctuary  indeed  was  not  thereby  essentially  altered, 
but  it  was  now  acces.sible  on  all  sides,  and  the  faith- 
ful could  attain  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  high 


SANCTUS 


432 


SANCTUS 


altar.  WTien  it  was  not  separated  by  a  wall,  an  en- 
tirely free  view  of  the  sanctuarj'  was  oflFered.  For  the 
most  part,  however,  the  termination  of  the  sanctuary 
with  walls  was  retained,  while  in  front  was  still 
erected  the  screen,  which  enjoyed  in  the  Gothic  period 
its  special  vogue.  This  arrangement  of  the  sanctu- 
ary is  usually  found  in  tlie  great  cathedrals  after  the 
French  models,  and  may  thus  be  designated  the 
"cathedral  type",  although  it  also  occurs  in  the  larger 
parish  and  monastery  churches.  Frequently  the 
san3tuary  has  an  exceptional  length;  this  is  especially 
the  case  in  England,  and  influenced  the  architectonic 
arrangement  of  space  if  the  sanctuary  was  enclosed 
with  walls.  Its  effect  was  most  unfavourable  in  the 
canon's  choir  (called  the  Trascoro)  in  the  cathedrals 
of  Spain,  which  was  transferred  to  the  middle  nave  as 
a  separate  construction  and  was  cut  off  by  high  walls 
with  grated  entrances.  This  enclosure  was  most 
magnificently  decorated  with  architectural  and  other 
ornamentations,  but  it  entirely  destroyed  the  view  of 
the  glorious  architecture.  Side  by  side  with  this 
"cathedral  type"  was  retained  the  old  simple  type, 
in  which  the  sanctuary  was  not  accessible  on  all  sides; 
this  was  found  especially  in  parish  churches  and  in  the 
churches  of  the  mendicant  orders.  WTien  the  church 
had  three  naves,  the  choirs  of  the  side  naves  lay  beside 
the  chief  choir  This  kind  of  a  sanctuary  remained 
the  most  popular,  especially  in  Germany  and  Italy. 

The  Renaissance  to  a  great  extent  restored  to  the 
sanctuary  its  original  form.  In  the  effort  to  increase 
the  middle  nave  as  much  as  possible.  Renaissance 
architecture  in  many  cases  neglected  the  side  naves 
or  limited  them  to  the  narrowest  aisles.  The  free  ap- 
proach to  the  sanctuary  from  all  sides  thus  lost  its 
justification.  The  sanctuary  necessarily  received  a 
great  breadth,  but  lost  its  earUer  depth.  In  its  pref- 
erence for  bright  and  airy  spaces,  the  Renaissance  also 
abandoned  the  method  of  separating  the  sanctuary 
from  the  rest  of  the  church  by  means  of  a  screen;  at  a 
sub.sequent  period,  the  latter  was  replaced  by  the  low 
Communion  bench.  Thus  a  person  entering  the 
church  through  the  main  door  commanded  a  free 
view  of  the  sanctuary,  which,  especially  in  Italy,  was 
gloriously  decorated  with  marble  incrustations.  As 
the  sunlight,  entering  unchecked  through  the  cupola 
covering  the  intensection,  brightly  illuminated  the  edi- 
fice, the  effect  was  entirel.y  different  from  that 
awakened  by  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  sanctu- 
aries. In  the  medieval  church  the  sanctuary  was  shut 
off  from  the  congregation  and  was  as  inaccessible 
as  the  Holy  of  Holies  in  the  Temple  of  the  Old 
Testament;  the  sanctuary  of  the  Renaissance  church 
stands  out  before  us  in  a  i3rilliance  of  light  like  Mount 
Tabor,  but  without  blinding  our  gaze.  We  believe 
that  we  are  nearer  the  Deity,  our  hearts  are  filled  with 
joyous  sentiments,  so  that  we  might  cry  out  with  the 
Apostle;  Peter  "It  is  good  for  us  to  be  here".  In  the 
medieval  church,  on  the  other  hand,  we  are  pene- 
traterl  with  a  mysterious  awe  and  like  Moses  feel 
urged  U)  take  off  our  shoes,  for  this  is  a  holy  place. 

.Strzvgowhki,  Klciriasirn.  Bin  Neuland  der  Kunstgcachichte 
(Ix-ipziK.  1903);  Hasak,  Die  romanische  u.  gotische  BaukuiiKt  der 
Kirchenlxiu  (.StuttKart,  1902).  BeDA    KlEINSCHMIDT. 

Sanctus. — I.  History. — The  Sanctus  is  the  last 
part  of  the  Preface  in  the  Mass,  sung  in  practically 
every  rite  by  the  people  (or  choir).  It  is  one  of  the 
elements  of  th<!  liturgy  of  which  we  have  the  earliest 
evidence.  St.  Clement  of  Rome  (d.  about  104)  men- 
tifinfi  it.  He  quoU«  the  text  in  Isaias,  vi,  .3,  and  goes 
on  to  say  that  it  is  also  sung  in  church;  this  at  least 
BOCMiH  the  plain  meaning  of  the  passage:  "for  the 
Scripture  says  .  .  .  Holy,  holy,  holy  Lord  of 
hf>sts;  full  is  every  cnaturc  of  his  glory.  And  we,  led 
by  con»r-i«;nce,  gathered  together  in  on(!  place  in  con- 
cftrd,  cry  to  him  continuously  a.s  from  one  mouth, 
that  we  may  become  sharers  in  his  great  and  glorious 
promises"  (I  Cor.,  xxxiv,  6-7).     It  seems  clear  that 


what  the  people  cry  is  the  text  just  quoted.  Clement 
does  not  say  at  what  moment  of  the  service  the  people 
cry  these  words ;  but  again  we  ma}'^  safely  suppose  that 
it  was  at  the  end  of  what  we  call  the  Preface,  the  place 
at  which  the  Sanctus  appears  in  every  liturgy,  from 
that  of  "Apost.  Const.",  VIII,  on.  The  next  oldest 
witness  is  Origen  (d.  254).  He  quotes  the  text  of 
Isaias  and  continues:  "The  coming  of  my  .Jesus  is 
announced,  wherefore  the  whole  earth  is  full  of  his 
glory"  (In  Isa.,  horn.,  I,  n.  2).  There  is  nothing  to 
correspond  to  this  in  the  Prophet.  It  seems  plainly 
an  allusion  to  liturgical  use  and  so  agrees  very  well 
with  the  place  of  the  Sanctus.  The  Anaphora  of 
Sarapion  of  Thmuis  (Egypt,  fourteenth  century) 
gives  the  Sanctus  almost  exactly  in  the  form  of  the 
Alexandrine  Liturgy  (Funk,  "Didascalia",  Paderborn, 
1905,  II,  174),  but  says  nothing  about  its  being  sung 
bj'  the  people.  From  the  fourteenth  century  we  have 
abundance  of  testimony  for  the  Sanctus  in  every 
liturgical  centre.  In  Egypt  St.  Athanasius  (d.  373) 
mentions  it  (Expos  in  Ps.  cii,  P.  G.,  XXVII,  434); 
at  Jerusalem  St.  Cyril  (d.  373)  (Catech.  myst.,  V,  6), 
and  at  Antioch  St.  John  Chrysostom  (d.  407)  alludes 
to  it  (in  Ps.  cxxxiv,  n.  6,  P.  G.,  LV,  393).  Ter- 
tulhan  (d.  about  220)  ("de  Oratione",  3)  and  Victor 
of  Vite  (d.  486)  ("Hist,  persec.  Vandal",  III,  P.  L., 
LVIII)  quote  it  in  Africa;  Germanus  of  Paris  (d.  576) 
in  Gaul  (in  Duchesne,  "Origines  du  Culte",  2d  ed., 
Paris,  1898,  p.  204),  Isidore  of  Seville  (d.  636)  in 
Spain  (ibid.).  The  Sanctus  is  sung  by  the  people  in 
"Apo.stolic  Constitutions",  VIII,  XII,  27  (Brightman, 
"Eastern  Liturgies",  18-19)  and  so  in  almost  all  rites. 
The  scanty  state  of  our  knowledge  about  the  early 
Roman  Mass  accounts  for  the  fact  that  we  have  no 
allusion  to  the  Sanctus  till  it  appears  in  the  first 
Sacramentaries.  The  Leonine  and  Gelasian  books 
give  only  the  celebrant's  part;  but  their  prefaces  lead 
up  to  it  plainly.  The  Gregorian  Sacramentarj^  gives 
the  te.xt  exactly  as  we  still  have  it  (P.  L.,  LXXVIII, 
26).  But  the  passage  quoted  from  St.  Clement  and 
then  the  use  of  Africa  (always  similar  to  Rome)  leave 
no  doubt  that  at  Rome  too  the  Sanctus  is  part  of  the 
oldest  liturgical  tradition.  In  view  of  Clement's  al- 
lusion it  is  difficult  to  understand  Abbot  Cabrol's 
theory  that  th(>  Sanctus  is  a  later  addition  to  the  Mass 
("Les  Origines  liturgi(|ues",  Paris,  1906,  p.  329) 

The  connexion  in  wliich  it  occurs  in  the  liturgy  is 
this:  in  all  rites  the  Eucharistic  prayer  (Canon, 
Anaphora)  begins  with  a  formal  thanksgiving  to  God 
for  his  benefits,  generally  enumerated  at  length  (sec 
Preface).  This  first  part  of  the  prayer  (our  Preface) 
takes  the  form  of  an  outline  of  creation,  of  the  many 
graces  given  to  Patriarchs  and  Prophets  in  the  Old 
Law  and  so  to  the  crowning  benefit  of  our  red(Mnpt  ion 
by  Christ,  to  His  life  and  Passion,  to  the  institution 
of  the  Holy  Eucharist  and  the  words  of  institution,  all 
in  the  scheme  of  a  tlianksgiving  for  these  things  (cf. 
ib.).  Before  the  prayer  comes  to  the  mention  of  our 
Lord  it  always  refers  to  the  angels.  In  "Apost. 
Const.",  VIII,  XII  (Brightman,  op.  cit.,  15-18),  they 
occur  twice,  at  the  beginning  as  being  the  first 
creatures  and  again  at  the  end  of  th(>  Old  Testament 
history — po.ssibly  in  connexion  with  the  place  of 
Isaias  who  mentions  them.  In  St.  James's  liturgy 
this  part  of  the  Anaphora  is  much  shorter  and  the 
angels  are  named  once  only  (ibid.,  p.  50) ;  so  also  in  St. 
Mark  they  come  only  once  (pp.  131-32).  They  are 
always  named  at  length  and  with  much  .solemnity  as 
those  who  join  with  us  in  praising  God.  So  the  de- 
scription in  Isaias,  VI,  1-4,  must  have  attracted  at- 
tention very  early  as  expressing  this  angelic  praise  of 
God  and  as  summing  up  (in  v.  3)  just  the  note  of  the 
first  part  of  the  Anaphora.  The  Sanctus  simply  con- 
tinues the  Preface.  It  is  a  ((notation  of  what  the 
angels  say.  We  thank  (iod  with  the  angels,  wlio  say 
unceasingly:  "Holy,  holy,  holy",  etc.  Logically  the 
celebrant  could  very  well  himself  say  or  sing  the 


SANCTUS 


433 


SANCTUS 


Sanctus.  But,  apparently  from  the  beginning  of  its 
Christian  use  (so  already  Clem.  Rom.),  one  of  the 
dramatic  touches  that  continually  adorn  the  liturgy 
was  added  here.  We  too  desire  to  say  with  the  angels: 
"Holy,  holy,  holy";  so  when  the  celebrant  comes  to 
the  quotation,  the  people  (or  choir)  interrupt  and 
themselves  sing  these  words,  continuing  his  sentence. 
The  interruption  is  important  since  it  is  the  chief  cause 
of  the  separation  of  the  original  first  part  of  the 
eucharistic  prayer  (the  Preface)  at  Rome  from  the 
rest  and  the  reason  why  this  first  part  is  still  sung 
aloud  although  the  continuation  is  said  in  a  low  voice. 
The  only  rite  that  has  no  Sanctus  is  that  of  the 
Ethiopic  Church  Order  (Brightman,  op.  cit.,  190). 

II.  The  Sanctus  in  the  Eastern  Rites. — In  the 
liturgies  of  St.  James  and  St.  Mark  and  the  Byzantine 
Rite  (Brightman,  loc.  cit.)  the  introductory  sentence 
calls  it  the  "hymn  of  victory"  {rbv  iirivlKiop  vfivov). 
This  has  become  its  usual  name  in  Greek.  It  should 
never  be  called  the  Trisagion,  which  is  a  different 
liturgical  formula  ("Holy  God,  Holy  Strong  One, 
Holy  Immortal  One  have  mercy  on  us")  occurring  in 
another  part  of  the  service.  In  "Apost.  Const.", 
VIII,  XII,  27,  the  form  of  the  Epinikion  is:  "Holy, 
holy,  holy  the  Lord  of  Hosts  {a-a^atbe} .  Full  (are)  the 
heaven  and  the  earth  of  his  glory.  Blessed  for  ever. 
Amen."  St.  James  has:  "Holy,  holy,  holy.  Lord 
(voc.)  of  hosts.  Full  (are)  the  heaven  and  the  earth 
of  thy  Glory.  Hosanna  (he)  in  the  highest.  Blessed 
(is)  he  that  comes  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.  Hosanna, 
(he)  in  the  highest."  In  this  the  cry  of  the  people  on 
Palm  Sunday  (Matt.,  x.xi,  9,  modified)  is  added  (cf. 
the  Jacobite  form,  Brightman,  p.  86).  Alexandria 
has  only  the  text  of  Isaias  (ib.  132;  and  Coptic,  in 
Greek,  176;  Abyssinian,  p.  231).  In  the  Greek 
Alexandrine  form  (St.  Mark)  the  text  occurs  twice. 
First  the  celebrant  ciuotcs  it  himself  as  said  by  the 
cherubim  and  Renii)hiin;  then  he  continues  aloud: 
"for  all  things  always  call  thee  holy  {ayid^ei)  and 
with  all  who  call  thee  holy  receive.  Master  and  Lortl, 
our  hallowing  {aytaa-ij.6v)  who  with  them  sing,  saying 
.  .  .  "  and  the  people  repeat  the  Epinikion 
(Brightman,  p.  132).  The  Nestorians  have  a  con- 
siderably extended  form  of  Is.,  vi,  3,  and  Matt.,  xxi,  9, 
in  the  third  person  (ib.  2S4).  The  Byzantine  Rite 
has  the  form  of  St.  James  (ib.  323-324),  so  also  the 
Armenians  (p.  436).  In  all  Eastern  rites  only  the 
sentence  that  immediately  introduces  the  Epinikion 
is  said  aloud,  as  an  Ekphonesis. 

III.  The  Sanctus  in  the  West. — In  Latin  it  is 
the  "Tersanctus"  or  simply  (he  "Sanctus".  "Hymnus 
angelicus"  is  ambiguous  and  .sliould  be  avoided,  since 
this  is  the  usual  name  for  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis. 
Germanus  of  Paris  bears  witness  to  it  in  the  Gallican 
Rite  (Ep.  I;  P.  L.,  LXXII,  89  seq.;  sec  above).  Its 
form  was  as  at  Rome.  The  Mozarabic  Sanctus  is 
almost  the  Roman  one;  but  it  has  for  the  first  Ho- 
sanna: "Osanna  filio  David"  (more  literally  Matt., 
xxi,  9)  and  the  additional  exclamations  "Agyos, 
agyos,  agyos  Kyrie  o  theos"  (P.  L.,  LXXXV,  548, 
cfr.  116).  Milan  has  exactly  our  form.  It  may  be 
noted  that  the  Gallican  and  Mozarabic  liturgies,  fol- 
lowing the  tradition  of  Antioch  and  Jerusalem 
(Brightman,  op.  cit.,  pp.  19,  51),  continue  the  Ana- 
phora by  taking  up  the  idea  of  the  Sanctus:  "Vere 
sanctus,  vere  benedictus  Dominus  noster  lesus 
Christus"  (P.  L.,  LXXXV,  548)  and  so  coming 
almost  at  once  to  the  words  of  Institution.  This 
prayer,  which  varies  in  each  Mass,  is  called  "Post 
Sanctus",  or  "Vere  Sanctus".  Milan  has  one  rem- 
nant of  this  on  Holy  Saturday  (Duchesne,  ib.  205). 
At  Rome  the  Sanctus  is  described  in  "Ordo  Rom.", 
I,  as  "hymmis  angelicus,  id  est  Sanctus"  (P.  L., 
LXXVIII,  945).  It  is  sung  by  the  regionary  sub- 
deacons  (ib.).  So  also  "Ordo  Rom.",  II,  which  notes 
that  Hosanna  is  sung  twice  (ib.  974).  C.  Atchley 
thinks  that  this  marks  the  beginning  of  the  addition  of 

XIII.— 28 


the  Benedictus  verses  to  the  Sanctus,  that  originally 
these  were  an  acclamation  to  the  celebrating  bishop 
and  that  they  were  only  later  directed  towards  the 
Holy  Eucharist.  In  "Apost.  Const.",  VIII,  XIII,  13 
(Brightman,  24),  these  verses  are  sung  at  the  Elevation 
just  before  Communion,  then  they  were  pushed  back 
to  become  an  appendix  to  the  Sanctus,  where  they 
coincide  more  or  less  with  the  moment  of  consecra- 
tion. Mr.  Atchley  further  thinks  that  the  Benedictus 
in  the  Roman  Rite  is  a  Gallican  addition  of  the 
eleventh  century  ("Ordo  Romanus  Primus",  London, 
1905,  pp.  90-5).  That  the  verses  of  Matthew,  xxi, 
9,  were  first  used  as  a  salutation  to  the  bishop  is  quite 
probable  (cf.  Peregrinatio  Silviiv,  cd.  Gamurrini, 
59-60).  It  is  less  likely  that  they  are  a  late  Gallican 
addition  at  Rome.  Their  occurrence  in  the  liturgy 
of  Jerusalem-Antioch  may  well  be  one  more  example 
of  the  relation  between  that  centre  and  Rome  from 
the  earhest  ages  (see  Canon  of  the  Mass). 

We  do  not  know  at  what  moment  the  chant  of  the 
Sanctus  was  taken  from  the  subdeacons  and  given  to 
the  schola  canlorum.  This  is  merely  part  of  a  general 
tendency  to  entrust  music  that  was  getting  more 
ornate  and  difficult  to  trained  singers.  So  the  Grad- 
ual was  once  sung  by  a  deacon.  The  "Ordo  Rom.  V" 
implies  that  the  subdeacons  no  longer  sing  the  Sanctus 
(P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  988).  In  "Ordo  XI",  20  (ib. 
1033),  it  is  sung  by  the  "  Basihcarii".  St.  Gregory  of 
Tours  (d.  593)  says  it  is  sung  by  the  people  (de  mirac. 
S.  Martini,  II,  14;  P.  L.,  LXXI).  The  notice  of 
the  "Liber  Pontificalis"  that  Pope  Sixtus  I  (119-128) 
ordered  the  people  to  sing  the  Sanctus  cannot  be  cor- 
rect. It  seems  that  it  was  not  sung  always  at  every 
Mass.  The  Second  Council  of  Vaison  finds  it  neces- 
sary to  command  that  it  should  not  be  omitted  in 
Lent  nor  at  requiems  (Can.  3;  Hefele-Lec^lcrcq, 
"Histoire  des  Conciles",  II,  1114).  There  were  also 
laws  in  the  Middle  Ages  forbidding  the  celebrant  to 
continue  the  Canon  before  the  choir  had  finished 
singing  it  (Martene,  "De  antiq.  eccl.  ritibus",  I, 
4,  §7).  The  ringing  of  a  bell  at  the  Sanctus  is  a  de- 
velopment from  the  Elevation  bell;  this  began  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  Ivo  of  Chartres  (d.  1116)  mentions  it 
(Ep.  142)  and  Durandus  (Rationale,  IV,  41,  §53).  It 
was  rung  to  call  people  to  church  that  they  might  see 
the  Elevation.  The  Sanctus  bell  is  an  earlier  warning 
that  the  Canon  is  about  to  begin.  The  rubrics  of  the 
Missal  still  say  nothing  about  the  bell  at  the  Sanctus. 
It  was  (and  in  places  still  is)  usual  to  ring  the  great 
church  bell,  at  least  at  high  Mass.  The  hand-bell 
was  only  a  warning  to  the  ringers  in  the  tower 
(Gavanti-Merati,  "Thesaurus  S.  Rituum",  II,  7, 
Venice,  1762,  p.  156). 

The  text  of  the  Roman  Sanctus  is  first  Isa.,  vi,  3, 
with  'pleni  sunt  coeli  et  terra  gloria  tua"  instead  of 
"plena  est  omnis  terra  gloria  eius".  In  this  way  (as 
at  Antioch  and  Alexandria)  it  is  made  into  a  prayer  by 
the  use  of  the  second  person.  In  all  liturgies  the 
Hebrew  word  for  "hosts"  (."TiNZiJ  <rapau6)  is  kept, 
as  in  the  Septuagint  (Vulgate,  "exercituum").  The 
"Lord  of  hosts"  is  a  very  old  Semitic  title,  in  the 
polytheistic  religions  apparently  for  the  moon-god, 
the  hosts  being  the  stars  (as  in  Gen.,  II,  1;  Ps.  xxxii, 
6).  To  the  Jews  these  hosts  were  the  angels  (cf.  Lc, 
II,  13).  Then  follows  the  acclamation  of  Palm  Sun- 
day in  Matthew,  xxi,  9.  It  is  based  on  Ps.  cxvii, 
25-26;  but  the  source  of  the  liturgical  text  is,  of  course, 
the  text  in  the  Gospel.  Hosanna  is  in  the  Greek  text 
and  Vulgate,  left  as  a  practically  untranslatable  ex- 
clamation of  triumph.  It  means  Utcrally  "Oh  help" 
(ND  "r~u'~),  but  in  Matthew,  xxi,  9,  it  is  already  a 
triumphant  interjection  (Hke  Alleluia).  In  "Didache", 
X,  6,  it  occurs  as  a  liturgical  formula  ("  Hosanna  to  the 
God  of  David").  In  the  medieval  local  rites  the 
Sanctus  was  often  "farced"  (interpolated  with  tropes), 
like  the  Kyrie  and  other  texts,  to  fill  up  the  long 
musical  neums.     Specimens  of  such  farcings,  including 


SANCY 


434 


SANDALS 


one  attributed  to  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  may  be  seen 
in  Bona,  "Rerum  liturgicarum",  II,  10,  §4  (ed.  Paris, 
1672),  p.  41S.  The  skeleton  of  a  Mass  at  the  blessing 
of  palms  retains  not  onh'  a  Preface  but  also  a  Sanctus, 
sung  to  the  original  "simple"  tone.  The  many  other 
prayers  (.blessing  of  the  font,  ordinations,  etc.)  that 
are  modelled  on  the  Preface  diverge  from  its  scheme 
as  the}'  proceed  and  do  not  end  with  a  Sanctus. 

IV.  Present  Rite. — At  high  Mass  as  soon  as  the 
celebrant  has  sung  the  last  word  of  the  Preface 
(dicentes)  the  choir  begins  the  Sanctus,  continuing  his 
phrase.  They  should  sing  it  straight  through,  includ- 
ing the  Benedictus.  The  custom  of  waiting  till  after 
the  Elevation  and  then  adding  the  Benedictus,  once 
common,  is  now  abolished  bj'  the  rubric  ("De  ritibus 
eer\-andis  in  cantu  missae",  VII)  of  the  Vatican  Grad- 
ual. It  was  a  dramatic  effect  that  never  had  any 
warrant.  Sanctus  and  Benedictus  are  one  text. 
Meanwhile  the  deacon  and  subdeacon  go  up  to  the 
right  and  left  of  the  celebrant  and  say  the  Sanctus  in 
a  low  voice  with  him.  Every  one  in  the  choir  and 
church  kneels  (Cffrim.  Episcop.,  II,  VIII,  69).  The 
hand-bell  is  usually  rung  at  the  Sanctus;  but  at  Rome 
there  is  no  bell  at  all  at  high  Mass.  While  the  choir 
sings  the  celebrant  goes  on  ■wnth  the  Canon.  They 
must  finish  or  he  must  wait  before  the  Consecration. 
At  low  Mass  the  celebrant  after  the  Preface,  bowing 
and  laj-ing  the  folded  hands  on  the  altar,  continues 
the  Sanctus  in  a  lower  voice  {vox  media).  The  bell  is 
rung  three  times.  Although  the  rubrics  of  the  Missal 
do  not  mention  this  it  is  done  everywhere  by  approved 
custom.  It  may  be  noticed  that  of  the  many  chants 
of  the  Sanctus  in  the  Gradual  the  simple  one  only  (for 
ferias  of  Advent  and  Lent,  requiems  and  the  blessing 
of  palms)  continues  the  melody  of  the  Preface  and  so 
presumably  represents  the  same  musical  tradition  as 
our  Preface  tone.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Preface  its 
mode  is  doubtful. 

DuBAKDUS,  Rationale  divinorum  officiorum,  IV,  .34;  Bona, 
Rerum  lilurgiarum  libri  duo,  II,  X,  4;  Benedict  XIV,  De  SS. 
Sacrificio  misstE,  II,  XI,  18-19;  Gavanti-Merati,  Thesaurus  S. 
RUuum,  II,  VII,  80-86;  Gihr,  Das  h.  Messopfer  (Freiburg, 
1897),  524-530. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Sancy,  Achille  Harlay  de.  See  Harlay, 
Family  of. 

Sandals,  Epi.scopal. — Form  and  Present  Use. — 
UnUke  the  ancient  sandals,  which  consisted  merely  of 
Boles  fastened  to  the  foot  by  straps,  the  episcopal 
sandals  are  in  the  form  of  low  shoes,  and  resemble 
slippers.  The  sole  is  of  leather;  the  upper  part,  gen- 
erally orna- 
mented with 
embroidery, 
is  made  at 
the  present 
day  of  silk  or 
velvet.  No 
cross  is  re- 
quired upon 
the  sandals; 
at  Rome  this 
is  an  exclu- 
sively papal 
privilege.  With  the  sandals  are  worn  the  liturgical 
stockings,  caligte.  The  stockings,  which  are  of 
silk,  are  either  knitted  or  are  made  by  sewing 
together  pieces  of  silk  fabric  that  have  "been  cut 
a  suitable  shape;  they  are  worn  over  the  ordinary 
stockings.  The  privilege  of  wearing  the  sandals  and 
caligfe  belongs  only  to  bishops.  They  may  be  worn 
by  abbots  and  other  prelates  only  by  special  privilege 
from  the  pope  and  only  so  far  as  this  privilege  grants. 
The  pontifical  foot^wearis  used  only  at  pontifical  solemn 
Mass  and  at  functions  performed  during  the  same,  as 
ordination,  but  not  on  other  occasions,  as,  for  example, 
Confirmation,  solemn  Vespers  etc.     It  is  therefore  in 


Bishop's  Sandal,  Earlt  XVIII  Centurt 
Royal  Kunatgewerbemuseum,  Berlin 


Sandal  of  Bishop  Berxhard  of  Hildesheim 
XII  Century,  The  Cathedral,  Hildesheim 


the  most  exact  sense  of  the  word  a  vestment  worn 
during  the  Mass.  The  liturgical  colour  for  the  day 
decides  the  colour  of  the  sandals  and  caligce;  there  are, 
however,  no  black  stockings  or  sandals,  as  the  bishop 
does  not  make  use  of  the  pontifical  foot-wear  either 
at  masses  for  the  dead  or  on  Good  Friday.  Sandals 
and  stockings  are  only  customary  in  the  Latin  Rites, 
and  are  unknown  in  the  Oriental  Rites. 

History. — Sandals  and  stockings  belong  to  the 
liturgical  vestments  supported  by  the  earhest  evi- 
dence. They  are  depicted  upon  the  monuments  of 
the  fifth  cen- 
tury, for  in- 
stance upon 
mosaics  of 
San  Satiro 
near  San  Am- 
brogio  at  Mi- 
lan, and  on 
those  of  the 
sixth  century, 
e.  g.  the  mo- 
saics in  San 
Vitale  at  Ra- 
venna. Orig- 
inally the  sandals  were  called  campagi,  the  stock- 
ings udones.  The  shoes  were  given  the  name  san- 
dalia  probably  during  the  eighth  to  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, and  this  name  was  first  applied  to  them  in 
the  north;  the  designation  caligoe  for  udones  came 
into  use  in  the  tenth  century,  also  in  the  north. 
As  regards  the  original  form  and  material  of  the 
campagi,  they  were  slippers  that  covered  only  the  tip 
of  the  foot  and  the  heel,  and  must  have  been  fastened 
to  the  foot  by  straps.  This  slipper  was  made  of 
black  leather.  The  stockings  were,  very  likely,  made 
of  linen,  and  were  white  in  colour.  In  the  earliest 
period  the  campagi  and  udones  were  by  no  means  ex- 
clusively an  episcopal  ornament,  as  they  were  worn 
by  deacons.  Indeed  this  foot-covering  was  not  re- 
served exclusively  for  the  clergy,  as  not  only  the 
monuments  show  that  the  campagi  and  udones 
were  worn  by  the  laity,  but  Lydus  also  testifies  to 
this  usage  (De  mag.,  I,  xvii).  Campagi  and  udones 
were  originally  worn  in  the  post-Constantine  era  as  a 
mark  of  distinction  by  certain  persons  of  rank,  and 
were  probably  copied  from  the  foot-wear  of  the  an- 
cient senators.  Their  use  gradually  became  custom- 
ary among  the  higher  clergy,  especially  when  these 
appeared  in  their  full  official  capacity  for  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Liturgy.  During  the  eighth  and  ninth  cen- 
turies also  the  Roman  subdcacoiis  and  acohies  wore  a 
distinctive  foot-wear,  the  subtalarcs,  which,  however, 
were  simpler  than  the  campagi,  and  had  no  straps. 
The  sandals  and  stockings  became  a  specifically  epis- 
copal vestment  about  the  tenth  century.  Apparently 
as  early  as  the  twelfth  century,  or  at  least  in  the 
second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  they  were  no 
longer  worn  even  by  the  cardinal  deacons  of  Rome. 
The  privilege  of  wearing  the  sandals  and  caligw  was 
first  granted  to  an  abbot  (Fulrad  of  St.  Denis)  in  757 
by  Stephen  IIL  This  is,  however,  an  isolated  case, 
as  it  was  only  after  the  last  quarter  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, and  especially  after  the  twelfth  century  that  it 
became  customary  to  grant  abbots  this  privilege 

Development  of  Shape. — The  ca[ig(r  seem  to 
have  expf'rienccd  no  particular  development.  In  the 
later  Midfile  Ages  they  were,  as  a  rule,  made  of  silk. 
The  earliest  enforcement  in  respect  to  caligo'  of  the 
regulations  for  liturgical  colours  seems  to  have  been  at 
Rome,  but  even  here  probably  not  until  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  sandals  retained  substantially  their 
original  form  until  the  tenth  (century.  Then  straps 
were  replaced  by  three  or  five  tongues  reaching  to  the 
ankle,  extensions  of  the  upper  leather  upon  the  point 
of  the  foot,  and  these  were  fastened  at  the  ankle  by 
means  of  a  string.     In  the  twelfth   century  these 


SANDEMANIANS 


435 


SANDER 


tongues  were  gradually  shortened;  in  the  thirteenth 
century  the  sandal  was  a  regular  shoe  with  a  slit  above 
the  foot  or  on  the  side  to  make  the  putting  on  easier 
In  the  sixteenth  century  there  was  a  return  to  the 
earlier  form  of  the  sandal;  instead  of  a  high  shoe  it 
now  became  once  more  a  low  foot-covering,  like  a 
slipper,  a  form  which  it  has  retained  until  the  present 
time.  The  material  of  which  the  pontifical  sandals 
are  made  was,  until  the  thirteenth  century,  exclusively 
leather,  at  times  covered  with  silk.  Since  the  later 
Middle  Ages,  the  upper  part  of  the  sandals  has  been 
made,  not  of  leather,  but  of  silk,  velvet,  etc.  It  is 
not  until  about  1400,  with  the  exception  of  entirely 
isolated  earlier  examples,  that  a  cross  is  to  be  found 
upon  the  sandals.  The  fork-shaped  decoration,  fre- 
quently found  on  pontifical  shoes,  especially  on  those 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  was  not  a  cross,  but  merely 
an  ornament. 

Braun,  Die  pontif.  GewUnder  des  Abendlandes  (Freiburg,  1898) ; 
Idem,  Die  liturg.  Gewandung  im  Occident  u.  Orient  (Freiburg, 
1907);  Bock,  Gesch.  der  liturg.  Gewander,  II  (Bonn,  1866);  de 
hiy AS,  A  nciens  vHemenls  sacfrdotaui  (Paris,  1860-63) ;  Rohault 
DE  Fleury,  La  mease,  VIII  (Paris,  1889). 

Joseph  Braun. 

Sandemanians,  an  English  form  of  the  Scottish 
sect  of  Glassitos,  followers  of  John  Glas  (b.  1695; 
d.  1773)  who  was  deposed  from  the  Presbyterian 
ministry  in  1728,  for  teaching  that  the  Church  should 
not  be  subject  to  any  league  or  covenant,  but  should 
be  governed  only  by  Apostolic  doctrine.  Glas's 
son-in-law,  Robert  Sandeman  (b.  1718;  d.  1771), 
having  been  for  many  years  an  elder  in  the  Glassite 
sect,  removed  to  London  in  1760,  where  he  gathered 
a  congregation  at  (Hovers'  Hall,  Barbican.  Though 
for  the  most  part  he  followed  the  teaching  of  Cllas, 
he  went  beyond  that  doctrine  in  maintaining  that 
faith  is  only  a  simple  assent  to  Divine  testimony 
which  differs  in  no  way  from  belief  in  ordinarj-  human 
evidence.  In  1764  Sandeman  went  to  America  to 
propagate  his  views,  and  founded  .some  congregations 
there,  for  which  reason  the  Glassites  in  America,  like 
those  in  England,  are  known  as  Sandemanians. 
In  England  the  sect  has  never  been  numerous,  po.s- 
sessing  less  than  a  dozen  meeting-places  in  the  whole 
country,  including  two  in  London.  It  is  chiefly 
known  owing  to  the  great  chemist  Sir  Michael 
Faraday  (b.  1791;  d.  1867)  having  officiated  as  a 
Sandemanian  elder  in  London  in  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Membership  is  granted  on  con- 
fession of  sin  and  public  profession  of  faith  in  the 
Death  and  Resurrection  of  Christ.  The  new  mem- 
ber receives  a  blessing  and  the  kiss  of  peace  from  all 
present.  Each  congregation  is  presided  over  by 
several  elders,  all  unpaid,  who  are  elected  for  their 
earnestness  of  conviction  and  sincerity,  and  who  hold 
office  for  life.  On  the  death  of  an  elder  the  sur- 
vivors propose  for  election  the  name  of  a  suitable 
member  of  the  congregation,  who  is  then  elected  by 
the  whole  body.  The  Sandemanians  practise  a 
weekly  celebration  of  the  Lord's  supper,  and  the 
agape  or  love-feast,  which  takes  the  form  of  dining 
together  between  the  morning  and  afternoon  services. 
The  elders  alone  preach,  but  the  ordinary  members 
take  turns  in  ofTering  prayers.  The  ceremonial 
washing  of  feet  is  also  performed  on  certain  occasions. 
They  abstain  from  things  strangled  and  from  blood. 
As  they  consider  that  casting  lots  is  a  sacred  process, 
they  regard  all  games  of  chance  as  unlawful.  They 
practise  community  of  goods  to  a  modified  extent, 
considering  all  their  property  as  liable  to  calls  on 
behalf  of  the  Church  and  the  poor.  It  is  also  con- 
sidered wrong  to  accumulate  wealth.  If  any  mem- 
ber differs  obstinately  from  the  rest  he  is  expelled 
and  by  this  system  perfect  unanimity  is  secured. 
They  refuse  to  join  in  prayer  with  members  of  other 
denominations  and  to  eat  and  drink  with  an  ex- 
communicated person  is  held  to  be  a  grievous  sin. 


The  Sandemanians  as  a  religious  body  are  very  ob- 
scure and  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  reliable  information 
with  regard  to  them,  but  the  total  membership  in 
Great  Britain  is  believed  not  to  exceed  two  thousand. 

Blunt,  Diet,  of  Sects,  Heresies,  and  Schools  of  Thought  (London, 
1874);  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  w.  Glas  and  Sandeman;  JONES, 
Life  and  Letters  of  Faraday  (London,  1870). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Sandeo,  Felino  Maria,  often  quoted  under  the 
name  of  Fehnus,  ItaUan  canonist  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  b.  at  Felina,  Diocese  of  Reggio,  in  1444; 
d.  at  Lucca,  October,  1503,  according  to  most  '^Titers, 
according  to  others  at  Rome,  6  Sept.  of  the  same 
year.  He  taught  canon  law  from  1466  to  1474  at 
Ferrara,  which  was  his  family's  native  place,  and  at 
Pisa  until  1484,  when  he  became  auditor  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  and  hved  at  Rome.  On  4  May,  1495,  he 
became  Bishop  of  Penna  and  Atri  and  on  25  Sept. 
of  the  same  year  Coadjutor  Bishop  of  Lucca  with 
right  of  succession.  He  became  I3ishop  of  Lucca 
in  1499.  Felino  was  a  good  compiler  but  lacked  origi- 
nality. His  chief  work  is  "Lectura",  or  "Commen- 
taria  in  varios  titulos  libri  I,  II,  IV,  et  V  DecretaUum" 
(see  Hain,  "Repert.  bibliogr.",  II,  ii,  269-78,  N. 
14280-14325,  published  rather  often,  notably  at 
Milan,  1504;  Basle,  1567;  Lyons,  1587).  He  also 
published  a  "Sermo  de  indulgent  ia",  "  Repetitiones  " 
"Consilia",  and  "Epitome  de  regno  Sicihae"  (s.  1., 
1495).  Some  unedited  works  are  mentioned  in 
Fabricius,  "Bib.  latina  media?  et  infimae  aetatis" 
with  additions  by  Mansi,  II  (Florence,  1858),  558. 

ScHULTE,  Gesch.  der  Quellen  und  Lileratur  des  canonischen 
Rechts.  II  (Stuttgart,  1877),  350-2;  Eubel,  Hierarchia  cath.  medii 
avi,  II  (Munster,  1901),  199,  236.  A.    VaN   HoVE. 

Sander,  Anton,  historian,  b.  at  Antwerp,  1586: 
d.  at  Afflighem,  Belgium,  10  Jan.,  1664.  Having 
become  master  of  philosophy  at  Douai  in  1609,  he 
studied  theology  for  some  years  under  Malderus  at 
Louvain,  and  Estius  at  Douai,  and  was  ordained 
priest  at  Ghent.  For  some  years  he  was  engaged  in 
parochial  duties,  and  combated  the  Anabaptist 
movement  in  Flanders  with  great  zeal  and  success.  In 
1625  he  became  secretary  and  almoner  of  Cardinal 
Alphonsus  de  la  Cueva,  later  becoming  canon,  and 
in  1654  penitentiary  at  Ypres.  After  three  years, 
however,  he  resigned  this  office  to  devote  himself  en- 
tirely to  scientific,  and  especially  to  historical  studies. 
He  .soon  found  himself  compelled  to  claim  the  hos- 
pitality of  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Afflighem,  since 
he  had  reduced  himself  to  absolute  poverty  by  the 
pubhcation  of  numerous  works.  He  combined  high 
intellectual  gifts  with  great  zeal,  and  left  behind  forty- 
two  printed,  and  almost  as  many  unprinted,  works. 
The  most  important  are  the  following:  "De  scrip- 
toribus  Flandria;  libri  III"  (Antwerp,  1624);  "De 
Gandavensibus  eruditionis  fama  claris"  (Antwerp, 
1624);  "De  Brugensibus  eruditionis  fama  claris  hbri 
II"  (Antwerp,  1624);  "Hagiologium  Flandria;  sive 
de  Sanctis  eius  provincise  liber  unus"  (Antwerp,  1625; 
2nd  ed.,  Lille,  1639).  A  general  edition  of  these  four 
works  appeared  under  the  title:  "Flandria  illustrata" 
(2  vols.,  Cologne,  1641-44;  The  Hague,  1726).  Of 
his  other  works  may  be  mentioned:  "Elogia  cardina- 
lium  sanctitate,  doctrina  et  armis  illustrium"  (Lou- 
vain, 1625);  "Gandavium  sive  renim  Gandavensium 
hbri  VI"  (IBrussels,  1627);  "Bibliothecabelgicamanu-' 
scripta"  (2 parts,  Lille,  1641-3);  " Chorographia sacra 
Brabantia?  sive  celebrium  in  ea  provincia  ecclesiarum 
et  cocnobiorum  descriptio,  imaginibus  aeneis  illu.s- 
trata"  (Brussels,  1659;  The  Hague,  1726);  this  is  his 
chief  work. 

FoppENS,  Bibl.  Belgica,  I  (Brussels,  1739),  87  sqq.,  Hcrter, 
Nomenclator.  PaTRICIUS   ScHLAGER. 

Sander  (Sanders),  Nicholas,  b.  at  Charlwood, 
Surrey,  in  1530;  d.  in  Ireland,  1581.  Educated  at 
Winchester  and  New  College,  Oxford,  he  graduated 


SANDHURST 


43G 


SANDOMIB 


in  1551,  and  took  a  share  in  Pole's  reform  of  the 
university.  He  had  to  flee  under  Elizabeth  and  was 
ordained  at  Rome,  afterwards  receiving  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Divinity.  He  also  wrote  there  in  1560 
a  remarkable  "Report  on  the  State  of  England"  for 
Cardinal  Moroni  (Catholic  Record  Soc,  I).  He 
attended  the  Council  of  Trent  as  a  theologian  of 
Cardinal  Hosius  and  afterwards  accompanied  him 
and  Cardinal  Commendone  in  legations  to  Poland, 
Prussia,  and  Lithuania.  In  1565  he  returned  to 
Louvain,  then  nuich  frequented  by  Catholic  exiles, 
amongst  whom  was  his  mother,  his  sister  Elizabeth 
being  a  nun  of  Syon  at  Rouen.  Nicholas  became 
professor  of  theology  there,  and  soon  joined  in  the 
great  controversy  over  Jewel's  "Apologie",  in  which 
the  English  exiles  first  appeared  to  the  world  as  a 
learned  and  united  Catholic  body.  Sander's  con- 
tributions were,  "The  Supper  of  the  Lord",  "A 
Treatise  of  Images",  "The  Rock  of  the  Church" 
(Louvain,  1565,  1566,  1567),  followed  by  his  great 
work,  "De  visibili  monarchia  ecclesiae"  (Louvain, 
1571).  These  works,  joined  with  the  proofs  he  had 
already  given  of  diplomatic  ability,  and  the  high 
esteem  of  the  nobles  and  gentry  who  had  fled  from 
England  after  the  Northern  Rising  (1569),  caused 
Sander  to  be  regarded  as  practically  the  chief  English 
Catholic  leader.  Almost  the  earliest  attempt  to 
restore  ecclesiastical  discipline  in  England  after  the 
fall  of  the  ancient  hierarchy  was  the  Rescript  of 
Pius  V  (14  August,  1567),  granting  to  Sander, 
Thomas  Harding,  and  Thomas  Peacock  (the  former 
treasurer  of  Salisbury  and  president  of  Queen's 
College,  Cambridge;  see  "Diet.  Nat.  Biog.",  xxiv, 
339;  xliv,  143)  "bishoply  power  in  the  court  of  con- 
science", to  receive  back  those  who  had  lapsed  into 
heresy  (Vatican  .Arch.,  Var.  Pol.,  Ixvi,  258;  Arm., 
64,  xxviii,  60).  When  Sander  was  summoned  to 
Rome  in  1572,  his  friends  believed  that  he  would  be 
made  a  cardinal,  but  Pius  V  died  before  he  arrived. 
Gregorj'  XIII  kept  him  as  consultor  on  English  mat- 
ters, and  many  letters  of  this  period  are  still  pre- 
served in  the  Vatican.  In  1573  he  went  to  Spain 
to  urge  Philip  II  to  subsidize  the  exiles,  and  when  in 
1578  James  Fitzgerald  had  persuaded  Sega,  papal 
nuncio  at  Madrid,  with  the  warm  approbation  of 
Gregory,  and  the  cold  connivance  of  Philip,  to  fit 
out  a  ship  to  carry  arms  to  Ireland,  Sanders  went 
with  him  as  papal  agent,  but  without  any  title  or 
office.  They  landed  in  Dingley  Bay  (17  July,  1579) 
and  the  Second  Desmond  war  ensued  with  its  terri- 
ble consequences.  Sander  bore  up  with  unshaken 
courage,  as  his  letters  and  proclamations  show,  in 
spite  of  all  disasters,  till  his  death.  He  belonged  to 
the  first  group  of  English  exiles,  who,  never  having 
lived  in  England  during  the  persecution,  never 
realized  how  complete  Elizabeth's  victory  was. 
He  believed,  and  acted  consistently  in  the  belief, 
that  strong  measures,  like  war  and  excommunication, 
were  the  true  remedies  for  the  great  evils  of  the  time; 
a  mistaken  policy,  which  though  supported  by  the 
popes  of  that  day,  was  subsequently  changed.  The 
most  widely  known  of  Sander's  books  is  his  short 
"De  schismate  .\nglicano".  It  was  published  after 
his  death,  first  by  E.  Rishton  at  Cologne  in  1585, 
then  with  many  a<lditions  by  Father  Persons  at 
Rome  in  15S6.  Translated  into  various  languages 
and  frequenth'  reprinted,  it  was  fiercely  controverted 
especially  by  Bishop  Burnet,  but  defended  by  Joa- 
chim Ix'  Grand.  It  is  now  acknowledged  to  be 
an  excellent,  poyiular  account  of  the  period  from  a 
Catholic  point  of  view. 

Pollen  in  Enqlinh  Hiftmicnl  Rfriew  Man.,  1891);  Idem  in 
The  MrnUh  (.Jan.,  1W«k  Gilu>w,  bih.  Did.  Em,.  Calh.,  V.  476; 
Belleaheim,  Oench.  der  Kat.  Kirche  in  Irlnntl,  II  (Mainz,  1890), 
108;  Lewih,  S'lnder't  Hinlory  of  the  EnyliHh  Schiitm  (London, 
1877).  He  in  aluo  freguently  mentioned  in  the  EnKlinh,  Irish, 
and  Spanish  .StaU;  Pap>er8,  and  there  are  many  of  his  papers  in  the 
Vatican  Archives.  J.   H.   POLLEN. 


Sandhurst,  Diocese  of  (Sandhurstensis),  in 
Victoria,  Australia,  sufTragan  of  Melbourne.  The 
cathedral  city,  officially  known  as  Bendigo,  is  situated 
about  one  hundred  mil(>s  directlj^  north  of  Melbourne, 
in  a  .shallow  basin  surrounded  by  an  anii)hitheatre  of 
gently-rising  hills  rich  in  gold,  (liscovered  in  the  dis- 
trict in  1852.  This  fact  attracted  to  Bendigo  immi- 
grants from  all  parts  of  the  world,  among  them  many 
Irish  and  others  professing  the  Catholic  Faith.  The 
fu'st  missionary  wius  the  Rev.  Dr.  Backhaus.  On  21 
Sept.,  1874,  Mo.st  Reverend  Martin  Crane,  O.S.A., 
was  consecrated  first  bishop  of  this  diocese  and  ar- 
rived at  the  scene  of  his  future  labours  early  in  1875 
accompanied  by  the  Rev.  M.  Maher  and  the  Rev. 
Stephen  Reville,  O.S.A.  The  latter  was  in  1885  ap- 
pointed coadjutor  bi.shop  to  Dr.  Crane  and  succeeded 
him  as  bishop  on  21  Oct.,  1901.  During  the  twenty- 
five  years  of  Dr.  Crane's  active  administration,  and 
since  his  demise,  the  interests  of  the  Church  have 
advanced  rapidlj^  both  in  a  spiritual  and  material 
sense.  WTien  in  1875  Bishop  Crane  assumed  charge 
of  the  diocese  it  contained  but  four  parishes  with  one 
priest  in  each.  There  was  no  convent  or  Catholic 
school.  At  present  the  principal  churches  are  situated 
at  Wangaratta,  Beechworth,  Benalla,  Chichern,  Shep- 
parton,  Ecbuca,  and  Rochester.  The  two  last  named 
parishes  together  with  that  of  Kyabram  are  in  charge 
of  the  Irish  Augustinian  Fathers  who,  at  the  invita- 
tion of  Bishop  Crane,  came  to  the  diocese  towards  the 
close  of  1886.  Besides  the  Augustinian  Fathers,  there 
are  Marist  Brothers,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sisters  of  St. 
Brigid,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Presentation  Sisters, 
Faithful  Companions  of  Jesus,  and  Good  Shepherd 
Sisters.  In  many  outlying  districts,  unable  to  main- 
tain a  community  of  nuns,  there  are  flourishing  pri- 
mary schools  in  charge  of  lay  teachers.  In  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  Bendigo,  there  is  now  in  course  of 
construction  an  orphanage  and  Magdalen  Asylum, 
which  up  to  date  has  cost  £45,000,  the  funds  for  which 
are  derived  from  the  estate  of  Dr.  Backhaus. 

The  statistics  for  1911  are:  districts,  22;  churches, 
105;  secular  priests,  36,  regular,  6;  religious  brothers, 
7;  nuns,  200;  college,  1;  boarding-schools  (girls),  6; 
primary  schools,  31;  superior  day-schools,  13;  chil- 
dren in  Catholic  schools,  over  4()00;  total  Catholic 
population  (1901),  4q,368. 

Australasian  Cath.  Directory  (1911);  Annuaire  Pontif.  Cath. 
(1911);  MoRAN,  Hist,  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Australasia; 
HoGAN,  The  Irish  in  Australia  (1888);  Therry,  New  South 
Wales  and  Victoria  (1863). 

Stephen  Reville. 
San  Domingo.     See  Dominican  Republic,  The, 

Sandomir  (Polish,  Sandomierz),  Diocese  of 
(Sanuomiuiex.sis). — The  city  is  very  ancient,  with 
still  existing  traces  of  jirehistoric  construction.  Its 
population  is  6891,  of  which  2364  are  Catholics,  46  of 
the  Orthodox  Church,  and  3433  Jews. 

When  King  Mieczyslaw  I  (962-92),  introduced 
Christianity  into  Poland  he  built  two  churches  at 
Sandomir  dedicated  to  St.  Nicholas  and  St.  John.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  the  city  became  an  important  centre 
of  political  and  religious  life.  Here  lived  several  il- 
lustrious and  holy  personages,  namely,  the  Blessed 
Salome  (1210-68),  daughter  of  Leszek  the  Fair  and 
wife  of  Koloman  I,  King  of  Hungary;  Blessed  Ade- 
laide, daughter  of  Casimir  the  Just  (1179-94),  King 
of  Poland,  who  founded  the  parochial  church  of  St. 
John  where  she  wiis  buried  (1211);  Blessed  Vincent 
Kladubek,  who  died  in  1223  after  a  fruitful  apostolic 
ministry  and  was  canonized  by  Clement  XIII; 
Blessed  Czfislaw,  a  Dominican  (d.  1242  or  1247),  the 
brother  of  St.  Hyacinth;  his  cult  was  approved 
throughout  Polandby  Clement  XII  in  1735;  St. Hya- 
cinth, the  celebrat(!d  and  apostolic  Dominican  who 
was  one  of  the  glories  of  Catholic  Poland;  St.  Cune- 
gunde  (1224-92),  wife  of  Boleslaw  the  Chaste,  King 
of  Poland.     In  1260  Tatar   hordes   completely   de- 


SANDS 


437 


SANDS 


stroyed  the  city  and  put  all  the  inhabitants  to  the 
sword.  Forty-nine  Dominicans  with  Sadok,  prior  of 
the  convent  of  St.  James,  were  martyred.  In  1476 
Jan  Dlugosz,  the  celebrated  annalist  and  Polish  his- 
torian, a  canon  of  Cracow  and  Sandomir,  built  here 
for  the  cathedral  clergy  a  house  which  is  still  existing 
and  is  called  by  his  name. 

The  Congress  of  Sandomir  (1570)  was  assembled 
for  the  purpose  of  union  between  Protestant  s(;cts  and 
the  foundation  of  a  national  Protestant  Church.  The 
results  were  negative,  but  certain  measures  wen;  pro- 
posed and  approved  for  the  regulation  of  the  relations 
between  the  Protestant  sects. 

Up  to  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
city  of  Sandomir  and  its  territory'  were  under  the  im- 
mediate jurisdiction  of  the  Diocese  of  Cracow.  In 
1787  through  the  initiative  of  Michael  Poniatowski, 


The  Cathedral  at  S.^ndomir 

administrator  of  the  Diocese  of  Cracow,  the  Holy  See 
created  Sandomir  a  diocese.  The  first  bishop  was 
Mgr.  Adalbert  Radozewski  (d.  1796).  In  1818,  after 
the  Concordat  with  Ru.ssia,  Pius  VH  promulgated  the 
Bull  "Ex  imposita  nobis",  which  suppressed  the 
greater  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Kielce  and  transferred 
its  episcopal  seat  to  Sandomir.  In  the  next  year 
Mgr.  Stephen  Holowczyc,  dean  of  the  cathedral 
of  Kielce,  was  consecrated  bishop.  The  new  dio- 
cese comprised  the  ancient  Principality  of  Sandomir, 
which  is  now  the  Province  of  Hadom,  and  part  of  the 
Province  of  Kielce.  Bishop  Holowczyc  had  scarcely 
taken  possession  of  his  diocese  l)efore  he  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Warsaw,  and  a  Franciscan,  Adam  Pros- 
per Burzynski,  succeeded  him  in  1820.  After  the 
death  of  Bishop  Burzynski  (9  Sept.,  1830)  the 
cathedral  chapter  administered  the  diocese  until 
1840,  when  the  rector  of  the  seminary,  Clement 
Bankiewicz,  was  made  bishop  at  the  age  of  eighty, 
and  died  2  January,  1842.  His  successor  was  Bishop 
Joseph  Joachim  Goldtman,  who  had  been  Bishop  of 
Wladislaw  since  1838;  he  was  transferred  to  the  See 
of  Sandomir  in  1844,  and  died  on  22  March,  1853. 
Bishop  Joseph  Michael  Yuszynski,  who  had  occupied 
various  ecclesiastical  offices  in  the  diocese,  succeeded 
him,  and  was  consecrated  10  July,  1859.  Under  him 
the  number  of  deaneries  of  the  diocese  was  decreased 
from  seventeen  to  seven.  On  his  death  Bishop  An- 
thony Francis  Sotkiewicz,  administrator  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Warsaw  and  professor  of  canon  law 
in  the  ecclesiastical  seminar^'  of  that  city,  was  conse- 
crated 20  May,  1882;  d.  4  May,  1901.  At  the  time  of 
his  elevation  the  number  of  secular  clergy  was  278, 
and  the  Catholic  population  730,940.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded on  4  September,  1902,  by  Stephen  Alexander 
Zwierowicz,  Bishop  of  Vilna,  who  was  transferred 
from  the  latter  see  to  Sandomir,  where  he  died  on 
3  January,  1908.  The  present  incumbent  of  the  see  is 
Bishop  Marianus  Joseph  Ryn,  canon  of  the  cathedral, 
who  was  consecrated  7  April,  1910.  The  diocese  at 
present  comprises  seven  deaneries :  Sandomir,  Opat6w, 
Ibza,  Kozienice,  Radom,  Opoczno,  and  Konskie. 
There  are  six  churches  in  the  city  of  Sandomir;  the 


cathedral,  which  dates  from  1 120  and  to  which  a  cathe- 
dral chapter  has  been  attached  since  1818;  the  Church 
of  St.  James,  founded  in  1200  by  Bk'.s.s(Hl  Adelaide; 
here  dwelt  Hyacinth  and  Martin  of  Sandomir,  whom 
Gregory  IX  sent  as  his  ambassador  to  St.  Louis,  to 
induce  him  to  undertake  a  crusade;  and  Raymond 
Bembnowski,  author  of  the  Acts  of  the  Martyrs  of 
Sandomir;  the  Church  of  the  Conversion  of  St.  Paul, 
which  was  in  existence  in  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century;  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
founded  by  the  Religious  of  the  Holy  Ghost  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Sassia  in  1222;  the  Church  of  St.  Michael, 
founded  in  1686  and  attached  to  a  Benedictine  mon- 
astery; and  the  Church  of  St.  Joseph,  founded  in  1685 
by  the  Protestants.  There  are  212  parishes  in  the 
diocese,  1  cathedral  church,  1  collegiate  church,  10  de- 
tached churches,  and  50  chapels.  The  secular  clergy 
number  295.  The  religious  houses  were  all  dispensed 
after  the  Polish  insurrection  of  1863.  The  regulars  are 
represented  by  one  Franciscan  lay  brother  in  the  parish 
of  Wysmierzyce.  The  Sisters  of  Charity,  numbering 
forty-two,  have  seven  hospitals  at  Sandomir,  Radom, 
Strzyzowice,  Opat6w,  Stasz6w,  Opoczno.  Near 
Bqdzentyn  is  a  cloistered  Franciscan  monastery  with 
thirteen  sisters.  The  canons  of  the  cathedral  number 
twelve,  those  of  the  college,  six.  There  are  870,674 
Catholics.  Amongst  the  Catholic  societies  of  San- 
domir may  be  mentioned  the  Society  of  Charities, 
founded  in  1905,  with  155  members;  the  archconfra- 
ternity  of  St. Stanislaus  Koslka,  founded  in  1906,  with 
30  young  men;  the  Christian  Working  Men's  So- 
ciety, founded  in  1907,  with  98  members,  and  the 
Catholic  Society,  founded  in  1908  with  188  mem- 
bers. 

Balinski,  Starozytna  polaka  pod  wzglendem  historycznym, 
jeograficznym  i  stalystycznym  opisana  (Description  of  Ancient 
Poland,  historical,  geographical,  and  statistical),  II  (Warsaw, 
1844),  268-280;  Chandzynski,  Wspomnienia  sandomierskie  i 
opis  miasta  Sandomierza  (Recollections  of  Sandomir  and  a  de- 
scription of  the  city)  (Warsaw,  1850);  Bulinski,  Munografia 
miasta  Sandomierza  (Warsaw,  1879);  Rokoszny  and  Gajkowski 
in  Encyklopedja  koscielna,  XXIV  (Warsaw,  1900),  338-352; 
Rokoszny,  Suienle  Pamiantki  Sandomierza  (Sacred  Monuments 
of  Sandomir)  (Warsaw,  1902);  Idkm,  Przewodnik  po  Sandomierzu 
(Guide  to  Sandomir)  (Sandomir,  1908);  Catalogus  ecclesiarum  et 
cleri  swcnlaris  ac  regularis  dicecesis  iSandomiriensis  pro  anno 
Domini  1911  (Sandomir,  1910) 

A.  Palmieri. 

Sands,  Benjamin  F.,  rear-admiral  United  States 
Navy,  b.  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  11  Feb.,  1812;  d.  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  30  June,  1883.  His  parents  were 
non-Catholics  and  he  became  a  convert  in  1850,  hav- 
ing married  a  Catholic,  Henrietta  M.  French,  sister 
of  Major-General  William  H.  French,  U.S.A.  He 
■was  appointed  a  midshipman  in  the  navy  from  his 
native  state,  1  April,  1828,  and  passed  through  the 
successive  grades  of  promotion  until  he  received  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral,  27  April,  1871,  and  was  placed 
on  the  retired  list  on  reaching  the  age  of  62  years, 
11  February,  1874.  During  the  Civil  War  he  held 
several  important  commands  with  conspicuous  suc- 
cess, and  in  1867  was  made  superintendent  of  the 
Naval  Observatory  at  Washington.  During  his  in- 
cumbency of  this  office,  which  lasted  until  1874,  he 
advanced  the  observatory  to  a  place  equal  to  the  most 
celebrated  in  Europe.  For  many  years  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Catholic  Indian  Bureau  in  Washing- 
ton. Notes  he  left  were  compiled  by  his  son,  F.  B. 
Sands,  into  the  book  "From  Reefer  to  Rear  Ad- 
miral". His  son  George  H.  graduated  at  West  Point 
and  served  in  the  U.  S.  Army.  Three  others,  Wil- 
ham  F.,  F.  B.,  and  James  H.,  also  served  in  the  navy;  a 
daughter,  Rosa,  became  a  Visitation  nun. 

James  Hob  an  Sands,  rear-admiral  U.  S.  N.,  son  of 
foregoing;  b.  at  Washington,  D.  C,  12  July,  1845; 
d.  there  26  October,  1911.  Following  the  footsteps 
of  his  father  he  achieved  a  high  reputation  in  the  naval 
service  for  daring  and  seamanship.     Appointed  to  the 


SANDWICH  ISLANDS 


438 


SANDWICH  ISLANDS 


Naval  Academy  from  Maryland  in  1859,  from  which 
he  graduated  four  years  later,  he  served  with  the 
North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron  during  the  Civil 
^^'ar.  \\'hile  only  an  ensign  he  was  twice  recom- 
mended by  boards  of  admirals  to  be  advanced  in 
grade  for  gallantry.  After  the  war  he  had  commands 
in  the  West  India  Squadron,  and  later  had  charge  of 
the  Brooklvn,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  Washington 
Navv  Yards.  He  was  made  rear-admiral,  11  April, 
1902",  and  commanded  at  the  Naval  Academy,  1906-07, 
introducing  a  much  needed  reform  in  spite  of  oppo.si- 
tion  in  many  quarters.  This  was  his  last  active  duty 
as  he  retired  in  1907  after  a  sea  service  of  eighteen 
years  and  four  months  and  a  shore  duty  of  twenty- 
two  years.  His  example  as  a  Catholic  was  a  strong 
influence  in  the  navy  in  developing  a  spirit  of  toler- 
ance towards  Catholics  in  the  service,  and  in  making 
religious  practices  of  whatever  creed  more  respected 
His  wife  was  Mary  Ehzabeth  Meade,  of  the  famous 
Philadelphia  family  of  that  name,  who  became  a  con- 
vert. His  son  WiUiam  Franklin  was  United  States 
Minister  to  Guatemala,  and  two  of  his  daughters, 
Clara  and  Hilda,  became  Rehgious  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 

Am.  Cath.  Who's  Who  (St.  Louis,  1911);  Furey  in  U.  S.  Cath. 
Hist.  Soc.  Hist.  Records  and  Studies  (New  York,  1911-12);  Free- 
man's Journal  (New  York)  files;   U.  S.  Naval  Register. 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Saaidwich  Islands,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the, 
comprises  all  the  islands  of  the  Hawaiian  group.  They 
he  just  within  the  northern  tropic,  between  18°  54' 
and  22°  15'  north  latitude,  and  between  154°  50'  and 
160°  30'  of  longitude  west  of  Greenwich.  These 
islands  form  the  present  Territory  of  Hawaii,  and  be- 
long to  the  United  States.  Honolulu,  the  capital,  is 
on  the  Island  of  Oahu.  Eight  of  the  islands  are  inhab- 
ited, viz.,  Kauai,  Niihau,  Oahu,  Molokai,Lanai,  Maui, 
Kahoolawe,  and  Hawaii.  Their  population  (1910) 
was  191,909. 

The  first  Cathohc  priests  arrived  at  Honolulu  on  9 
July,  1827.  They  were  the  Rev.  Alexis  Bachelot, 
prefect  Apostolic,  the  Rev.  Abraham  Armand,  and 
the  Rev.  Patrick  Short.  The  first  two  were  natives 
of  France,  and  the  third  of  Ireland.  All  three  were 
members  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of 
Jesus  and  Mary,  called  also  the  Society  of  Picpus, 
from  the  name  of  the  street  in  Paris  in  which  its 
mother-house  is  situated.  They  had  been  sent  by 
Pope  Leo  XII.  Protestant  missionaries  had  arrived 
from  New  England  as  early  as  1820,  and  had  gained 
the  king  and  chiefs  over  to  their  cause.  As  soon  as 
the  priests  began  to  make  converts  a  fierce  persecu- 
tion was  raised  against  the  natives  who  became  Cath- 
olics. They  were  ill-treated,  imprisoned,  tortured, 
and  forced  to  go  to  the  Prote.stant  churches,  and  the 
priests  were  banished.  Fathers  Bachelot  and  Short 
were  taken  to  a  solitary  spot  in  Lower  California,  far 
removed  from  any  human  habitation.  In  1836  the 
Rev.  Piobert  Walsh,  an  Irish  priest  of  the  same  Con- 
gregation, arrived  at  Honolulu,  and  through  the  in- 
tervention of  the  British  consul,  was  enabled  to  re- 
main on  the  islands  in  spite  of  the  ill-will  of  the 
Protestant  party,  which  wanted  to  send  him  back  on 
the  ves.sel  in  which  he  had  come.  In  1837  Fathers 
Bachelot  and  Short  returned  from  California,  but 
religious  persecution  still  continued.  In  the  same  year 
there  arrived  from  France  the  Rev.  Louis  Maigret, 
who  afterwards  became  bi.shop,  and  first  Vicar  Apo.s- 
tolic  of  the  Sandwich  Islands.  He  was  not  permitted 
to  land,  but  was  obliged  to  leave  the  country,  togr'ther 
with  Father  liachelot.  who  was  in  very  ffel)h'  lie.-Uth. 
The  latter,  worn  out  by  labour  and  trials,  dierl  at  sea 
shortly  after  (5  Dec,  1837).  In  the  year  18.39  the 
French  Government  put  an  end  to  this  persecution. 

On  9  July  the  twelfth  anniversary  of  the  arrival  of 
the  first  Catholic  priests,  the  French  frigate  "Art<j- 
mise",  Captain  Laplace,  arrived  at  Honolulu.    A  few 


hours  after  anchoring,  the  captain  dispatched  one  of 
his  officers  to  present  to  the  king  the  following  sum- 
mary request:  (1)  that  the  Catholic  religion  be  de- 
clared free;  (2)  that  all  Catholics  imprisoned  on 
account  of  their  religion  be  set  at  liberty;  (3)  that  the 
Government  give  a  suitable  site  at  Honolulu  for  a 
Catholic  Church;  (4)  that  the  king  place  in  the  hands 
of  the  captain  of  the  "Artemise"  the  sum  of  $20,000, 
as  a  guarantee  of  his  good-will  and  peaceful  mind, 
said  sum  to  be  restored  when  the  I>ench  Government 
should  feel  satisfied  that  the  above  conditions  had 
been  fulfilled.  Hostilities  were  to  commence  if  the 
king  failed  to  comply  within  forty-eight  hours  with 
the  terms  of  this  manifesto.  All  the  conditions  were 
readily  accepted,  and  peace  was  concluded.  From 
this  time  the  Catholic  priests  have  enjoyed  a  tolerable 
amount  of  liberty;  but  the  Protestant  missionaries 
and  their  friends  have  been  identified  with  the  Govern- 
ment and  have  had  the  important  positions,  using 
their  influence  as  well  as  the  government  emoluments 
for  the  advancement  of  their  cause. 

In  the  year  1840  there  arrived  at  Honolulu  the  Rt. 
Rev.  Bishop  Rouchouze,  first  vicar  Apostolic  of 
Oriental  Oceania,  appointed  to  this  oflfice  in  1833,  and 
having  jurisdiction  not  only  in  Hawaii,  but  also  in 
Tahiti,  the  Marquesas,  and  other  islands.  He  was 
accompanied  by  three  other  priests,  one  of  whom. 
Rev.  Louis  Maigret,  had  been  refused  a  landing  at 
Honolulu  in  1837.  On  9  July,  1840,  ground  was 
broken  for  the  foundation  of  the  present  Cathedral  of 
Our  Lady  of  Peace.  On  the  same  day  280  catechumens 
received  baptism  and  confirmation.  In  January, 
1841,  Bishop  Rouchouze  returned  to  France,  in  search 
of  labourers  and  resources  for  his  mission.  He  was 
successful  in  obtaining  a  number  of  priests  and  sisters 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Sacred  Hearts.  They  left 
France  in  1841  with  a  cargo  of  supplies  on  the  schooner 
"Mary- Joseph",  owned  by  the  mi.^sion;  but,  un- 
fortunately, the  v(>ss(>l  was  lost  with  all  on  board,  not 
one  surviving  to  tell  the  tale.  This  was  a  .severe  blow 
for  the  young  mi.ssion,  and  retarded  its  progress-  for 
many  years.  On  15  August,  1843,  the  newly-finished 
cathedral  of  Honolulu  was  solemnly  dedicated,  and 
800  Catholics  received  Holy  Communion. 

About  this  time  Oriental  Oceania  was  divided  into 
three  vicariates  Apostolic:  Tahiti,  Marquesas,  and 
Sandwich  Islands.  On  11  July,  1847,  Pius  IX  ap- 
pointed the  then  prefect  of  the  mission,  the  Very  Rev. 
Louis  Maigret,  vicar  Apostolic,  to  succeed  Bishop 
Rouchouze  and  take  charge  of  the  Sandwich  Islands 
Mission  as  a  separate  vicariate.  From  this  time  on  the 
mission  made  slow  but  steady  progress,  in  spite  of  the 
odds  it  had  to  contend  with.  The  Protestant  minis- 
ters found  the  an(;ient  belief  of  the  aborigines  in  their 
idols  already  shaken  and  partly  discarded  (owing, 
prohahly,  to  the  fact  tliat  foreigners  broke  the  dreaded 
taboos  without  incurring  the  wrath  of  tlic  gods).  They 
taught  the  Hawaiians  to  wear  clotlies,  an(l  to  read  and 
write  the  Hawaiian  language.  After  having  translated 
the  Bible  and  given  it  to  the  natives,  they  considered 
the  latter  civiHzed  and  Christianized,  and  proceeded 
forthwith  to  develop  the  resources  of  the  country. 
But  this  Christianity  was  superficial.  The  life-phi- 
lo.sophy  of  the  weak  and  inconstant  natives  was  to  shun 
work  and  enjoy  all  the  pleasures  within  reach.  If  the 
foreigners  had  ofTerefl  them  but  one  form  of  Christian- 
ity and  harl  illustrated  it  by  their  good  example;  if, 
above  all,  tlu;  efforts  at  educating  these  grown-up 
children  had  been  direr;ted  more  towards  correcting 
the  evil  tf^ndencies  of  their  hearts  than  cramming 
their  minds  with  knowledge,  the  aborigines  would  cer- 
tainly have  received  the  blessings  of  Christianity, 
lived  by  it,  and  nnilti))lied.  But  it  was  quite  other- 
wise. The  mild  climate;  the  inheritance  from  their 
fathers  of  an  unrestrained,  ea.sygoing,  indolent  char- 
acter; the  bad  example  of  all  classes  of  foreigners,  who 
brought  and  spread  the  germs  of  disease;  the  contra- 


SANDYS 


439 


SAN  FRANCISCO 


dictory  teachings  of  the  many  Christian  denomina- 
tions which  tried  to  establish  their  respective  creeds 
on  the  ruins  of  that  of  their  rivals;  the  wrong  prin- 
ciples of  an  education  which  instructs  the  mind  but 
neglects  the  heart;  the  absence  of  the  spiritual  aids 
and  remedies  of  which  the  Church  is  the  dispenser, 
to  regulate  irregular  desires  of  the  heart;  all  these 
causes  combined  to  produce  one  dire  result,  namely, 
the  gradual  extinction  of  the  Hawaiian  race. 

In  matters  relating  to  education  the  Catholic  mis- 
sion of  Hawaii  has  not  been  inactive.  From  the  very 
start  it  established,  wherever  feasible,  independent 
schools  in  charge,  or  under  the  supervision,  of  the 
priest.  In  1859  the  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of 
Jesus  and  Mary  arrived  at  Honolulu  to  take  charge 
of  a  boarding  and  day-school  for  girls,  which  has 
developed  into  an  institution  with  36  sisters,  66 
boarders,  125  day-scholars  who  pay,  and  420  in  the 
free  department.  In  1883-84  the  Brothers  of  Mary, 
from  Dayton,  Ohio,  took  charge  of  three  schools  for 
boys:  St.  Louis's  College  at  Honolulu,  St.  Mary's 
School  at  Hilo,  and  St.  Anthony's  School  at  Wailuku. 
The  day-schools  for  girls  at  Wailuku  and  Hilo  are  in 
charge  of  the  Franciscan  Sisters  from  SjTacusc,  New 
York.  The  latest  addition  to  the  educational  work 
is  the  new  boarding  and  daj^-school  for  girls  at 
Kaimuki,  and  the  Cathohe  orphanage  at  Kahhi. 
Besides  the  work  of  education  the  Catholic  mis- 
sion has  had  also  a  great  share  in  the  work  for  the 
lepers.  In  order  to  stop  the  spread  of  this  loath- 
some disease,  the  Hawaiian  Government  established 
a  settlement  for  the  lepers  on  the  Island  of  Molokai 
(see  Molokai;  Damien). 

Bishop  Maigret  was  succeeded  in  1882  by  the  Rt. 
Rev.  Hermann  Koeckemann,  under  whose  administra- 
tion the  mission  received  a  considerable  increase  by 
the  immigration  of  Portuguese  imported  from  the 
Azores  as  labourers  for  the  plantations.  They  are  now 
spread  all  over  the  islands,  and  there  is  hardly  a 
church  where  the  priests  are  not  obliged  to  use  the 
Portuguese  language  besides  the  English  and  Hawai- 
ian. There  are  to  be  found  also  a  number  of  Porto 
Ricans,  some  Poles,  a  few  Italians,  some  Spaniards,  a 
number  of  FiUpinos,  and  a  small  numVjcr  of  Catho- 
lics of  other  nationalities.  Hishoj)  Kockemann  died 
22  Feb.,  1892,  and  was  succeeded  in  that  year  by  the 
Rt.  Rev.  (Julstan  Ropert,  who  died  5  Jan.,  1903. 
The  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Libert  Hubert 
Boeynaems,  was  consecrated  25  July,  1903.  There 
are  (1911)  35  priests  of  religious  orders  in  the  vica- 
riate, 30  churches,  and  55  chapels.  The  Catholic 
population  Is  35,000.  There  are  4  academies,  a  college, 
and  9  parochial  schools  established  by  the  mission, 
and  the  total  number  of  pupUs  is  2200. 

PlOLET,  Les  Missions  Catholiques  FrariQaises  au  XIX'  sihcle 
(Paris,  1802),  IV,  1-33;  Michels,  Die  Viilker  des  Sudsees,  u.  die 
Gesch.  von  den  protestantischen  v.  katholischen  Missionen;  etc. 
(Miinster,  1847) ;  Molhane,  The  Church  in  the  Sandwich  Islands 
in  Catholic  World,  LXIII  (New  York,  1896),  641;  Marshall, 
Christian  Missions  (London,  1862);  Annah  of  the  Propagation  of 
the  Faith,  Catholic  Missions,  passim;  Clinch,  Hawaii  and  its 
Missionaries  in  Amer.  Calh.  Quarterly  Review,  XIX  (Philadelphia, 
1894),  139;  Hist,  of  the  Catholic  Religion  in  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
1829-40  (Honolulu,  1840,  reprinted  San  Francisco,  1907); 
Blackman,  The  Making  of  Hawaii  (London,  1906);  Alexander, 
A  Brief  Hist,  of  the  Hawaiian  People  (New  York,  1891-99). 

James  C.  Beissel. 

Sandys,  John,  Venerable,  English  martyr,  b.  in 
the  Diocese  of  Chester;  executed  at  Gloucester,  11 
August,  1586.  He  arrived  at  Reims  4  June,  1.583,  was 
ordained  priest  in  the  Holy  Cross  Chapel  of  Reims 
Cathedral  by  the  Cardinal  Archbishop,  Louis  de 
Guise,  and  was  sent  on  the  mission  2  October,  1584. 
He  was  cut  down  while  fully  conscious  and  had  a 
terrible  struggle  with  the  executioner,  who  had  black- 
ened his  face  to  avoid  recognition  and  used  a  rusty 
and  ragged  knife;  but  his  last  words  were  a  prayer 
for  his  persecutors. 

Pollen,  Acts  of  the  English  Martyrs  (London,  1891),  333,  336, 


337;    Knox,  Douay  Diaries  (London,  1878);    Challoner,  Mis- 
sionary Priests,  I  (Edinburgh,  1877),  no.  38. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Sanetch  Indians,  a  sub-tribe  of  the  Songish  In- 
dians (q.  v.).  They  speak  a  dialect  of  the  Cowichan 
language  of  Salishan  linguistic  stock,  and  occupy  sev- 
eral small  reserves  about  Saanich  Peninsula  at  the 
south-we.st  point  of  Vancouver  Island,  B.  C.  They 
were  estimated  at  600  in  1858,  but  are  nnluced  now 
to  about  250.  In  primitive  customs  and  beliefs  they 
resemble  the  Songish.  The  work  of  Christianiza- 
tion  was  begun  among  them  in  1843  by  Father  John 
B.  Bolduc  and  completed  by  the  Oblate  Fathers. 
The  whole  tribe  is  now  entirely  civilized  and  Cathohe, 
engaged  in  farming,  fishing,  and  various  other  paid 
employrnents,  and  are  described  by  their  agent  as 
"industrious  and  law-abiding,  fairly  temperate,  and 
moral". 

Morice,  Hist.  Catholic  Church  in  Western  Canada  (Toronto, 
1910);  Dept.  of  Ind.  Affairs  (Canada),  annual  reports  (Ottawa); 
Wilson,  Tribes  of  Forty-ninth  Parallel  in  Trans.  Ethnol.  Soc. 
London,  new  series,  IV  (London,  1866). 

James  Mooney. 

San  Francisco,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Fran- 
cisci),  established  29  July,  1853  to  include  the 
Counties  of  San  Francisco,  San  Mateo,  San  Joaquin, 
Stanislaus,  Sonoma,  Alameda,  Contra  Costa,  Marin, 
Lake,  Mendocino,  Napa,  Solano,  and  those  portions 
of  Santa  Cruz,  Santa  Clara,  and  Merced  lying  north 
of  37°  5'  N.  lat.  in  the  State  of  California,  U.  S.  A.;  an 
area  of  16,856  square  miles.  Its  suflfragans  are:  the 
Diocese  of  Monterey  and  Los  Angeles,  and  the  Dio- 
cese of  Sacramento,  in  California;  and  the  Diocese  of 
Salt  Lake,  which  comprises  the  State  of  Utah  and  six 
counties  of  the  State  of  Nevada;  the  province  includ- 
ing the  States  of  California  and  Nevada  and  all  the 
territory  east  to  the  Rio  Colorado. 

All  CaUfornia — Lower,  or  Old  California,  and  Upper, 
or  the  present  state — was  originally  under  Spanish 
and  Mcxic.-in  jurisdiction,  and  later  formed  the  Dio- 
cese of  Both  Californias,  of  which  the  Right  Reverend 
Francisco  ( J;ircia  Diego  y  Moreno  was  tlie  first  bishop. 
The  Franciscans  wlio  landed  witli  Cortes  at  Santa 
Cruz  Bay  on  3  May,  1535  b(>gan  the  first  mission 
work,  under  the  leadership  of  Father  Martin  de  la 
Coruna.  Their  labours  in  tliis  field,  and  tho.se  of  the 
Jesuits  who  followed  tlieni  half  a  century  later,  are  de- 
tailed in  a  s])eci;il  article  devoted  to  that  topic  (see 
California  Missions).  Portola  discovered  the  pres- 
ent San  Francisco  Bay  1  Nov.,  1769,  and  as  one  of  the 
chain  of  missions  projected  by  Father  Junipero  Serra, 
the  mission  of  San  Francisco  de  Asis,  called  also  the 
Mission  Dolores,  was  founded  9  Oct.,  1776  by  his  two 
Franciscan  brethren  Fathers  Francisco  Palou  and 
Benito  Cambon,  both  natives  of  Spain.  Under  the 
fostering  care  of  the  Franciscans  the  mission  pros- 
pered without  interruption  for  more  than  half  a  cen- 
tury. Then  came  the  secularization  and  phnuler  of 
the  California  missions  by  the  Mexican  Government 
in  1834,  and  San  Francisco  suffered  ruin  with  the 
others.  The  village  of  Verba  Buena  was  established 
on  its  site,  and  colonization  invited  by  the  civil  au- 
thorities. Some  outside  trading  was  done,  and  a  few 
ships  entered  the  harbour.  In  the  midsummer  of 
1846,  a  man-of-war  took  possession  of  the  place  in  the 
name  of  the  United  States,  and  on  30  Jan.  of  the  fol- 
lowing year  the  name  of  the  town  Verba  Buena  was 
changed  to  San  Francisco.  Gold  was  discovered  in 
the  spring  of  1848,  and  with  this  came  the  thou.sands 
of  fortune-hunters  of  all  nations  and  the  beginning  of 
of  the  city  as  a  great  centre  of  commerce  (see  Cali- 
fornia). 

Previous  to  this  the  Holy  See  had  established  the 
Diocese  of  Both  Californias,  suffragan  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Mexico,  and  appointed  as  its  bishop,  on  27 
April,  1840,  Father  Francis  Garcia  Diego  y  Moreno, 


SAN   FRANCISCO 


44U 


SAN  FRANCISCO 


who  was  consecrated  at  Zacatecas,  4  Oct.,  1840.  He 
was  born  at  Lagos,  State  of  Jalisco,  Mexico,  17  Sept., 
1785,  and  joined  the  Franciscans  at  the  age  of  seven- 
teen. Ordained  priest  13  Nov.,  1808  he  was  succes- 
sively master  of  novices  and  vicaj  of  the  monastery  of 
Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe,  and  laboured  zealously  giv- 
ing missions  in  the  to\\-ns  and  cities  of  ISIexico.  In 
1S30  he  was  appointed  Prefect  of  the  Missions  for  the 
Conversion  of  the  Indians  in  California,  and  set  out 
for  this  new  field  with  ten  missionaries  from  the  col- 
lege of  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe,  reaclung  Santa  Clara, 
where  he  took  up  his  residence.  The  missions  of  Up- 
per CaUfomia  were  then  in  a  very  demorahzed 
state,  owing  to  secular  and  pohtical  interference  and 
persecution.  Their  utter  ruin  was  averted  by  the 
zeal  of  these  priests  until  after  the  jjassage  of  the  de- 
cree of  secularization  by  the  ^Mexican  Congress  in 
August.  1S34.  The  destruction  that  followed  this 
was  so  \%-idespread  that  in  the  summer  of  1836  he  went 
back  to  Mexico,  and  by  a  persistent  appeal  to  its  con- 
gress secured  the  repeal  of  the  decree  of  secularization 
and  an  order  for  the  restoration  of  the  missions  to  the 
Church.  Business  in  connexion  with  his  order  de- 
tained him  in  Mexico  for  several  years,  and  then 
as  he  was  about  to  return  to  CaUfornia  he  received 
notice  of  his  appoint  ment  as  bishop  of  the  newly-created 
diocese  which  contained  eighteen  of  the  twenty-one  his- 
toric Cahfornia  missions.  Most  of  them  were  in  ruins 
when  he  arrived  at  San  Diego  on  11  December,  1841, 
to  commence  the  disheartening  task  of  saving  what  he 
could  of  tiie  \\Teck  left  by  the  plunderers  of  the  era  of 
secularization.  By  heroic  effort  he  opened  a  semin- 
ary at  Santa  Ynez  4  May,  1844,  and  by  word,  deed, 
and  example  did  everything  possible  to  re-estabhsh 
the  missions,  but  his  health  failed,  and  returning  to 
Santa  Barbara  in  January,  1842  he  died  there  13 
April,  1846. 

Very  Rev.  Jose  Maria  Gonzalez  Rubio,  O.F.M.,  the 
vicar-general,  was  appointed  administrator  before  the 
bi.-^hop  died,  and  the  choice  was  ratified  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Mexico.  The  condition  of  the  diocese  may 
be  seen  from  the  statement  of  the  administrator  made 
in  a  circular  letter  dated  30  May,  1848,  and  addressed 
to  the  people.  "Day  by  day"  he  said,  "we  see  that 
our  circumstances  grow  in  difficulty;  that  helps  and 
resources  have  shrunk  to  almost  nothing;  that  the 
hope  of  supplying  the  needed  clergy  is  now  almost  ex- 
tinguished; and  worst  of  all  that  through  lack  of  means 
and  priests  Divine  worship  througliout  the  whole  dio- 
cese stands  upon  the  brink  of  total  ruin".  The  date 
of  this  letter  is  the  same  as  that  on  which  the  Treaty 
of  Queretaro  was  signed,  ceding  Cahfornia  to  the 
United  States. 

Amerimn  Rule. — When  Upper  California  thus  be- 
came part  of  the  United  States,  the  Mexican  Govem- 
meiit  refused  to  permit  an  American  bishop  to  exer- 
cise jurisfiiction  in  Lower  California.  To  meet  this 
difficulty  Pope  Pius  IX  detached  the  Mexican  terri- 
tory from  the  Diocese  of  San  Diego  or  Monterey, 
whir-li  ha/l  been  erected  by  Pope  Gregory  XVI  27 
April,  1840,  and  by  decree  of  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion of  Propaganda,  1  July,  1854.  divided  Upper  Cali- 
fornia \nU)  the  two  dioceses  of  San  Francisco  and 
Monterey.  By  Brief  of  29  July,  San  Francisco  was 
mafic  an  archbishopric,  with  ]\Ionterey  its  suffragan 
see.  As  Bishop  of  San  Diego  or  Monterey,  the  Rev- 
erend Joseph  Siwloc  Alemanj',  O.P.  (q.  v.)  had  been 
consr-crated  in  Rome  by  Canlinal  Fransoni  30  June, 
1S.50.  He  was  apprjinted  Archbishop  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  took  po.ssession  29  July,  1S.')3.  Before  all 
this  occurrefl,  Father  Gonzalez  as  a^lministrator  be- 
gan to  take  measures  t-o  provide  for  the  needs  of  the 
people,  an<l  in  a  cirrular  appeal  for  aid,  dated  Santa 
Barbara,  13  June,  1S49,  he  tells  his  flock  that  he  hits 
asked  for  priests  from  the  Congregation  of  the  Sacred 
Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary  and  from  the  Jesuits  of 
Oregon. 


In  the  autumn  of  1849  Father  John  Brouillet,  then 
Vicar-General  of  Nesqually,  Oregon,  landed  at  San 
Francisco  on  a  visit,  and  as  he  was  the  only  priest  in 
the  vicinity  who  could  speak  English,  the  spiritual 
destitution  of  the  thousands  about  the  town  trying 
to  reach  the  newly-discovered  gold  fields  touched  him, 
and  he  remained  there  to  minister  to  them.  A  few 
months  later  Father  Antoine  Langlois,  a  Canadian 
secular  priest  who  had  been  labouring  for  six  years  in 
the  north-west  and  was  then  on  his  way  to  Canada  to 
enter  the  Society  of  Jesus,  joined  him,  and  by  direc- 
tion of  his  superiors  also  remained  at  San  Francisco. 
He  has  left  an  "Ecclesiastical  and  Rehgious  Journal 
for  San  Francisco"  in  MS.,  which  is  preserved  at 
Santa  Clara  College,  and  in  this  he  relates:  "The  first 
Mass  said  in  the  Mission  established  in  the  city  of  St. 
Francis  Xavier  [sic]  was  on  June  17th,  1849,  the  third 
Sunday  after  Pentecost;  Father  Brouillet  .  .  .  was 
special!}'  charged  to  yield  to  the  wishes  of  the  peojjle 
and  labour  towards  the  building  of  a  Church  and  hold 
divine  service  therein.  A  beginning  was  made  by  the 
purchase  of  a  piece  of  ground  25  by  £0  varas,  after  he 
had  called  the  more  zealous  Catholics  together  and 
opened  a  subscription  of  $5000  to  pay  for  the  lot  and 
the  building  to  be  erected  on  it.  .  .  .  Religion  now 
began  to  be  practised  in  spite  cf  the  natural  obstacles 
then  in  its  way  by  the  thirst  cf  geld". 

Father  Brouillet  then  returned  to  Oregon,  and  to 
succeed  him  in  the  mission  Fathers  Michael  Accolti 
and  John  Nobili,  S.J.  reached  San  Francisco  from 
Oregon  8  Dec,  1849  to  establish  in  the  diocese,  in  re- 
sponse to  the  invitation  of  the  administrator,  a  house 
and  college  of  their  order  either  at  Los  Angeles  or  San 
Jose,  the  latter  being  at  that  time  the  chief  city  of 
Northern  California.  These  two  priests  played 
a  very  prominent  part  in  the  subsequent  development 
of  the  Church  and  Catholic  education  in  the  diocese. 
Father  Accolti  tried  to  obtain  assistance  from  his 
brethren  of  the  Missouri  and  other  provinces  of  his 
order,  and  finally  in  May,  1854  succeeded  in  having 
the  California  mission  adopted  by  the  Province  of 
Turin,  Italy.  In  May,  1852  Father  James  Ryder, 
S.J.,  of  the  Maryland  Province  visited  San  Francisco 
and  remained  four  months  on  business  connected  with 
the  society.  In  March,  1850  two  fathers  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary 
arrived  from  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  shortly  after 
four  others  of  the  same  Congregation  from  Valpa- 
raiso. They  were  immediately  invited  to  establish 
themselves  in  the  old  missions  in  Southern  California 
and  only  one  of  them  icMiiained  at  San  Francisco. 
This  was  Father  Flavian  Fontaine,  wlio  started  a 
school  tliere,  as  he  spoke  EngHsli  fluently.  This 
school  failed  after  some  time,  and  occasioned  much 
trouble  owing  to  the  debts  he  left  on  the  jiroperty, 
which  were  assumed  by  Father  Nobih,  who  inider- 
took  to  continue  the  school  as  an  adjimct  to  Santa 
Clara  College  which  he  had  founded  near  San  Jo.s<'\ 
The  Dominicans,  represented  by  Father  Anderson, 
were  also  established.  He  received  faculties  from  the 
administrator  17  Sept.,  1850  and  was  appointed  pastor 
at  Sacnimento,  where  he  fell  a  victim  to  cholera  early 
the  following  year.  The  "Catholic  Directory"  for 
18.50  has  this  report-  from  California:  "The  number  of 
clergymen  in  Northern  California  is  about  sixteen, 
two  of  whom,  the  Rev.  John  B.  Brouillet  and  Rev. 
Antoine  Langlois,  are  in  the  tf)wn  of  San  Francisco, 
where  a  chapel  was  fledicate*!  to  Divine  wor.ship  last 
June.  The  reverend  clergy  there  have  also  made  ar- 
rangements for  the  opening  of  a  school  for  the  in- 
stniction  of  children.  The  (Catholic  population  is 
variously  estimated  at  from  fifteen  to  twenty  thou- 
sand". 

Racial  differences  had  made  some  trouble  which  the 
afiminist rator  hoped  t  he  advent  of  the  English-speak- 
ing Jesuits  woukl  help  to  settle.  In  a  letter  to  Father 
Accolti  from  Santa  Barbara  on  5  March,  1850,  he  says: 


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441 


SAN  FRANCISCO 


"Strangers  have  not  been  wanting,  who,  despising  the 
priests  of  the  country,  have  desired  to  build  a  church 
apart,  and  have  it  attended  by  priests  of  their  own 
tongue.  Such  pretensions,  though  based  on  some 
specious  reasons,  have  to  some  of  the  parish  priests 
savoured  of  schism". 

Such  were  the  conditions  in  the  new  diocese  to 
which  Bishop  Alemany  was  appointed.  He  was  born 
at  Vich,  Spain,  13  July,  1814,  entered  the  Dominican 
Order  in  1829,  and  in  the  following  year,  driven  from 
Spain  by  government  persecution,  he  went  with  a  fel- 
low novice  Francis  Sadoc  ViUarasa  to  Rome,  where 
they  continued  their  studies  and  were  ordained  priests 
on  27  March.  1837,  at  Viterbo.  They  applied  to  be 
sent  to  the  Pnilippine  mission,  but  were  assigned  in- 
stead to  the  United  States,  where  Father  Alemany 
became  Provincial  of  St.  Joseph's  Province  of  the 
order.  Ten  years  were  spent  in  missionary  work  in 
Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  dining  wliich  time 
they  learned  to  speak  and  write  English  fluently. 
After  Bishop  Alemany's  consecration  he  remained  in 
Rome  for  a  short  time,  and  then,  on  his  W'ay  back  to 
his  diocese,  he  stopped  at  Lyons  and  Paris,  where  he 
collected  some  gifts  of  much-needed  church  furnish- 
ings, and  in  Ireland,  where  he  arranged  for  volunteer 
teachers  for  his  schools,  and  priests  for  his  people.  He 
finally  reached  San  Francisco  on  the  night  of  6  Dec, 
1850,  accom{)anied  by  Father  ViUarasa,  O.P.,  and 
Sister  Mary  Goemare,  a  religious  of  the  Dominican 
sisterhood.  Father  \'illarasa  was  for  forty  years  sub- 
sequently commissar}-  geiicial  of  the  Dominicans  in 
California,  and  died  there  in  1888.  They  found  at 
San  Francis('()  only  two  churches:  St.  Francis's,  a  frame 
building  attended  l)y  those  who  did  not  sjjcak  Span- 
ish, and  the  old  Mission  Dolores  for  those  who  did. 
At  Monterey  tlie  l)isli()i)  established  the  first  convent 
of  nuns  in  California  and  St.  Catherine's  Academy, 
where  he  and  Father  ViUarasa  taught  until  the  arrival 
of  Mother  Louisa  O'Neill  and  a  band  of  nuns.  The 
first  Englisli-speaking  student  to  enter  the  priory 
there  in  18.")2  was  Thomas  O'Neill,  b.  in  1832  at  Dun- 
gannon,  Co.  TjTone,  Ireland.  Aiter  his  ordination 
he  spent  more  than  fifty  years  in  missionary  work  in 
the  houses  of  the  Dominicans  in  California. 

Bishop  Alemany  devoted  much  time  to  meeting  the 
many  difficulties  which  the  differences  of  ideas  and 
forms  held  by  the  Catholics  of  English-speaking 
countries  from  those  reared  under  the  Si)anish  system 
occasioned.  In  this  he  was  aided  by  several  pioneer 
priests,  notably  the  Rev.  John  Shanuluin,  who,  or- 
dained at  Mt.  St.  Mary's,  iMninitshurg,  Maryland,  in 
1823,  after  working  many  years  in  New  York  had  gone 
out  to  California  with  the  gold-seekers;  Rev.  Eugene 
O'Connell,  and  Rev.  John  Mc(  iinnis.  Father  O'Con- 
nell  was  born  18  June,  181.')  in  ("o.  Meath,  Ireland,  and 
ordained  priest  in  1842.  When  Bishop  Alemany 
visited  Ireland  on  his  way  home  from  Rome,  he  per- 
suaded Father  O'Connell,  who  was  then  a  professor  in 
All  Hallows  College,  to  come  out  to  San  Francisco  and 
direct  the  dioce-san  seminary  which  he  opened  at  once 
at  Santa  Inez.  The  bishop  attended  the  first  Plenary 
Council  at  Baltimore  in  May,  1852,  and  he  was  thus 
able  to  report  substantial  progress  in  his  charge,  with 
foundations  of  the  Jesuits,  Dominicans,  Franciscans, 
Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Hearts,  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame, 
Sisters  of  St.  Dominic,  31  churches,  38  priests  and  an 
estimated  Catholic  population  of  40,000.  A  band  of 
Sisters  of  Charity  from  Emmitsburg,  Maryland  ar- 
rived in  August,  1852,  and  began  their  work  in  the 
schools.  On  7  July,  1853  the  bishop  laid  the  corner- 
stone of  St.  Mary's  Church,  San  Francisco,  and  hav- 
ing been  notified  of  his  elevation  to  the  newly-created 
Archbishopric  of  San  P'rancisco  formally  assumed  the 
title  29  July,  1853.  In  order  to  obtain  more  priests 
and  religious  he  sent  Father  Hugh  P.  Gallagher,  who 
had  gone  to  San  Francisco  from  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  to 
Ireland,  where  he  succeeded  in  securing  two  bands  of 


Presentation  Nuns  and  Sisters  of  Mercy,  who  arrived 
at  San  Francisco  15  Nov.,  1854.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy 
came  from  Kinsale,  Co.  Cork,  and  were  led  by  the 
famous  Mother  Mary  Baptist  (Kate  Russell)  sister  of 
Lord  Russell  of  Killowen.  After  a  life  full  of  great 
utility,  she  died  in  Aug.,  1898  at  St.  Mary's  Hospital, 
San  Francisco,  which  she  founded  and  directed  for 
more  than  forty  years.  Father  Gallagher,  who  had 
edited  a  CathoHc  paper  at  Pittsburg,  took  up  that 
work  also  in  San  Francisco,  where  he  directed  its  first 
Catholic  weekly,  the  "Catholic  Standard".  He  was 
for  many  years  rector  of  St.  Mary's  Cathedral. 
Among  other  pioneer  priests  should  be  mentioned 
Fathers  John  Ingoldsby,  John  Quinn,  John  McGin- 
nis,  Patrick  Mackin,  William  Kenny,  Richard  Car- 
roll, who  was  head  of  the  Diocesan  Seminary  of  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas,  James  Croke,  for  a  long  period 
vicar-general,  Peter  Grey,  and  John  Prendergast,  also 
vicar-general. 

Progress  was  manifest  in  the  rural  sections, 
churches  also  springing  up  at  Sacramento,  Weaver- 
ville,  Marysville,  Grass  Valley,  Stockton,  Placerville, 
San  Mateo,  Dalton,  and  Nevada.  A  Chinese  priest, 
Father  Kian,  was  even  present  (1854)  for  the  benefit 
of  his  fellow-countrymen.  The  titles  to  the  old  mis- 
sion property  were  also  secured  by  legal  action.  In 
1858  the  archbishop  visited  Rome  and  en  15  July, 
18G2  convened  the  first  diocesan  synod,  which  was 
attended  by  fortj'-four  priests.  At  this  the  decrees  of 
the  Baltimore  Coinicil  were  ])ronHilgated,  and  rules 
prescribed  for  the  administration  of  the  diocese.  The 
year  before  the  increase  of  the  cliurches  in  the  north- 
ern section  of  the  diocese  prompted  the  Holy  See  to 
establish  there  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Marysville 
and  the  Kev.  Eugene  O'Connell  was  api)ointed  to  take 
charge.  He  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Fla- 
vioi)olis,  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Marvsville,  3  Feb., 
ISGl,  in  All  Hallows  College,  Dul)lin,"  Ireland.  He 
reached  Marysville  8  June,  and  was  inducted  on  the 
following  day  at  St.  Joseph's  Pro-cathedral  by  Arch- 
bishop Alemany.  He  had  only  four  priests  in  his 
vicariate,  which  included  the  territory  from  39°  to  40° 
N.  lat.  and  from  the  Pacific  Coast  to  the  eastern 
boundary  of  Nevada.  In  1868  the  vicariate  was 
erected  into  the  Diocese  of  Grass  Valley,  and  Bishop 
O'Connell  was  tranferred  to  this  title  3  Feb.  of  that 
year.  On  28  May,  188C  the  Diocese  of  Sacramento 
(q.  V.)  was  created  out  of  this  Grass  Valley  district, 
with  the  addition  of  ten  counties  in  California  and  one 
in  Nevada,  and  Bishop  O'Connell  ruled  it  until  17 
March,  1884,  when  he  resigned  and  was  made  titular 
Bishop  of  Joppa.  He  died  at  Los  Angeles  4  Dec, 
1891. 

The  succeeding  decades  gave  no  respite  to  the  ac- 
tivity and  zeal  of  Archbishop  Alemany  in  furthering 
the  progress  of  the  Church,  and  the  weight  of  years 
and  the  stress  of  his  long  but  willing  toil  began  to  tell 
on  him.  He  asked  for  a  coadjutor,  and  the  Rev. 
Patrick  William  Riordan,  pastor  of  St.  James's 
Church,  Chicago,  was  selected  by  the  pope  for  the 
office.  He  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Cabesa 
and  coadjutor  of  San  Francisco  with  right  of  succes- 
sion, Hi  Sept.,  1883.  Archbishop  Alemany  resigned 
the  title  of  San  Francisco  28  Dec,  1884  and  retired  to 
his  native  Spain,  wherehed.  14  April,  1888  at  Valencia. 
When  he  resigned  the  diocese  had  131  churches,  182 
priests,  6  colleges,  18  academies,  5  asylums,  4  hos- 
pitals, and  a  Catholic  population  of  about  220,000. 

Archbishop  Patrick  William  Riordan,  who  imme- 
diately succeeded  him,  was  born  27  Aug.,  1841,  at 
Chatham,  New  Brunswick.  His  early  studies  were 
made  at  Notre  Dame  University,  Indiana,  whence  he 
went  to  Rome  as  one  of  the  twelve  students  who 
formed  the  first  class  that  opened  the  North  American 
College,  7  Dec,  1859.  From  there  he  went  to  the 
University  of  Louvain,  and  received  the  degree  of 
S.T.D.      He  was  ordained  priest   at   Mechlin,   Bel- 


SAN  FRANCISCO 


442 


SAN  FRANCISCO 


gium,  10  June,  1865  and  returning  to  the  United  States 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  the  Seminary 
of  St.  Mary  of  the  Lake,  Chicago.  Later  he  served  as 
pastor  at  Johet,  Illinois,  and  in  Chicago.  At  the  out- 
set of  his  administration  he  made  the  cause  of  Cath- 
lic  education  his  special  endeavour.  There  had  been 
two  earlier  attempts  to  carry  on  a  diocesan  seminary. 
One  had  failed  for  lack  of  teachers,  the  other  for  want 
of  pupils.  In  1SS4  Archbishop  Riordan  made  an  ap- 
peal for  a  new  seminar^-,  and  Mrs.  Kate  Johnson  gave 
him  SO  acres  of  fine  land  at  Mcnlo  Park.  Here  St. 
Patrick's  Seminary,  a  large  and  elaborate  building 
was  erected  and  he  gave  its  management  to  the  Sul- 
picians.  In  Aug.,  1887  he  encouraged  the  Religious 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  who  had  come  into  the  diocese  in 
1SS2,  to  begin  their  academy  in  the  city  and  develop 
it  into  the  flourishing  institute  that  was  transferred  to 
Menlo  Park  in  August,  1898.  The  Brothers  of  the 
Christian  Schools  in  1889  moved  their  St.  Mary's  Col- 
lege from  Bornal  Heights  to  Oakland.  The  college 
was  start?d  by  the  Reverend  James  Croke,  V.G.,  in 
1863,  and  for  five  years  was  managed  b}^  secular 
priests  and  laymen.  In  1868  seven  Brothers  from 
New  York  under  Brother  Justin  took  over  the  care  of 
the  college,  which  was  chartered  by  the  State  in  1872. 
The  Brothers  also  started  their  Sacred  Heart  College 
in  1878. 

Archbishop  Riordan  brought  in  the  Salesian  Fathers 
to  take  care  of  the  Italians  in  1888,  Father  O. 
Franchi,  a  Genoese,  being  the  first  to  arrive.  In  1893 
the}'  were  also  given  charge  of  the  Portuguese  colonj^ 
in  Oakland.  The  Pauhst  Congregation  of  New  York 
were  also  invited  into  the  diocese  and  given  charge  of 
old  St.  Mary's  Church.  The  archbishop  took  up  the 
claim  on  Mexico  for  the  arrears  of  the  Pious  Fund  of 
the  Californias  (q.  v.)  due  the  diocese,  and  prosecuted 
it  to  a  successful  i.ssue  before  the  International  Ar- 
bitration Tribunal  at  the  Hague,  where  it  was  the  first 
case  tried.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Hague  in  1902. 
The  English  Capuchins  were  given  charge  of  the  scat- 
tered missions  along  the  coast  of  Mendocino  in  Au- 
gust, 1903.  In  1905  the  archbishop  presided  over  the 
golden  jubilee  of  St.  Ignatius's  College  and  Church, 
which  had  been  founded  at  San  FrancLsco  in  1855  by 
Father  Anthonj'  Marasclii,  S  J. 

As  his  health  failed  .\rchbishop  Riordan  requested 
the  appointment  of  a  coadjutor,  and  the  Right  Rev. 
George  Montgomery,  Bishop  of  Monterey  and  Los 
Angeles,  was  elevated  to  the  titular  Archbishopric  of 
Osino  and  made  his  coadjutor  in  January,  1903.  He  was 
born  in  Da  vies  County,  Kentucky,  30  Dec,  1847,  and 
was  ordained  priest  at  Baltimore  20  Dec,  1879. 
He  was  chancellor  of  the  .Archdiocese  of  San  lYancisco 
when  he  was  chosen  for  the  See  ot  Monterey,  in  which 
diocese  his  administration  was  most  successful,  espe- 
cially in  defending  the  rights  of  the  CathoHc  Indians. 
He  had  just  s-ttled  down  as  iVrchbishop  Riordan'a 
assistant,  and  that  prelate  h;ui  started  on  a  tour  for 
recuperation,  when  San  Francisco  was  visited  by  the 
terrible  calamity  of  the  earthquake  of  20  April,  1906, 
and  its  .subsequent  fire.  Twelve  churches  were  burned 
and  their  parishes  absolutely  wiped  out  of  existence. 
In  the  burned  district,  along  with  the  churches  all  the 
institutions,  schools,  asylums,  hospitals,  the  great  Jes- 
uit church  and  College  of  St.  Ignatius,  and  the  Sacred 
Hf^rt  College  of  the  Christian  Brothers — were  de- 
stroyed. Four  churches  in  the  city  were  wrecked  by 
the  earthquake,  and  others,  including  the  catliedral 
and  St.  Patrick's  Seminary  at  Menlo  Park,  more 
or  less  damaged.  Happily  no  lives  of  priests,  re- 
ligious, or  of  children  in  their  care  were  sacrificed. 
Archbishop  Montgomery  took  a  prominent  and 
very  active  part  in  the  rescue  work  that  began  at 
once,  and  Archbishop  Riordan  returned  to  the  city 
and  commenced  the  gigantic  task  of  restoration 
which  was  rapidly  accomplished  in  two  or  three  years, 
aided  by  the  generosity  of  the  Catholic  congregations 


of  the  United  States,  who  sent  more  than  $300,000  at 
once  to  the  stricken  diocese;  this  great  exertion,  how- 
ever, had  a  debilitating  effect  on  Archbishop  Mont- 
gomery, who  d.  10  Jan.,  1907  (gee  Monterey  and 
Los  Angeles,  Diocese  of). 

On  24  Dec,  1908  Bishop  Denis  J.  O'Connell  was 
appointed  auxiliary  Bishop  of  San  Francisco.  Bishop 
O'Connell  was  born  at  Donoughmore,  Co.  Cork,  Ire- 
land, 2S  Jan.,  1849,  and  made  his  studies  at  the  Amer- 
can  College,  Rome.  After  his  ordination  he  carried 
the  decrees  of  the  last  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore 
to  Rome,  and  returned  as  secretary  to  Bishop Conroy, 
ablegate  to  Canada.  He  was  made  a  domestic  prel- 
ate 20  March,  1887,  and  rector  of  the  American  Col- 
lege, Rome,  after  the  death  of  Mgr.  Hostlot  in  1884, 
and  held  that  office  until  July,  1895,  when  he  resigned, 
and  acted  as  the  vicar  of  Cardinal  Gibbons  for  his 
titular  church,  S.  Maria  in  Trastevere,  Rome.  He 
was  appointed  rector  of  the  Cathohc  University, 
Washington,  in  1903;  on  3  May,  1908  was  consecrated 
titular  Bishop  of  Sebaste;  and  on  24  Dec,  1908  was  ap- 
pointed auxiliai-y  Bishop  of  San  Francisco.  On  19 
Jan.,  1912  he  was  transferred  from  San  Francisco  to 
Richmond,  Virginia,  as  successor  to  Bishop  van  de 
Vyver. 

Statistics.  The  following  religious  are  now  estab- 
lished in  the  archdiocese  (1911):  Men — Capuchin 
Fathers  (Province  of  England),  Mendocino;  Ukiah. 
Dominican  Fathers  (Western  Province),  St.  Dom- 
inic's, San  Francisco;  Antioch;  Benicia;  Martinez; 
VaUejo;  Valona.  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  (Bel- 
gium), Olema.  Franciscan  Fathers  (St.  Louis  Prov- 
ince), St.  Anthony's,  St.  Boniface's  and  Franciscan 
Monastery,  San  Francisco;  St.  Elizabeth's,  Fruitvale; 
St.  Turibius,  Kelseyville,  Lake  Co.  Jesuit  Fathers 
(Cahfornia  Province),  St.  Ignatius's  Church  and  Col- 
lege, San  Francisco;  Los  Gatos;  San  Jose;  Santa 
Clara.  Marist  Fathers  (American  Province),  Notre 
Dame,  San  Francisco.  Paulist  Fathers  (New  York), 
St.  Mary's,  San  Francisco.  Salesian  Fathers  from 
Turin,  Italy,  for  the  Italians,  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  Cor- 
pus Christi  Chvuch,  San  Francisco;  St.  Joseph's 
Church  (for  the  Portuguese),  Oakland.  Sulpician 
Fathers,  St.  Patrick's  Seminary,  Menlo  Park.  Chris- 
tian Brothers  (Province  of  San  Francisco),  Sacred 
Heart  College,  St.  Peter's  School,  San  Francisco; 
Martinez;  St.  Mary's  College,  St.  Patrick's  School, 
Oakland;  St.  Anthony's  School,  East  Oakland;  St. 
Joseph's  Academy,  Berkeley;  St.  Vincent's  Orphan 
Asylum,  St.  Vincent.  Brothers  of  Mary  (Eastern 
Province),  St.  James's  and  St.  Joseph's  Schools,  San 
Francisco;  Stockton;  St.  Joseph's  School,  San  Jos6; 
Agricultural  School,  Rutherford. 

VVomen: — Sisters  of  Charity  (St.  Louis,  Missouri), 
Orphan  Asylum,  Infant  Asylum,  Technical  and  St. 
Vincent's  Schools,  Mary's  Help  Hospital,  San  P'ran- 
cisco;  O'Connor  Sanitaiiuin,  San  Jos6.  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  the  Blessed  \irgin  Mary  (Dubuque,  Iowa), 
St.  Bridget's  School,  San  Francisco;  Petaluma.  Sis- 
ters of  St.  Dominic  (Mission  San  Jos6,  California), 
Immaculate  Conception  Academy;  St.  Anthony's  and 
St.  Boniface's  School,  San  Francisco;  Fruitvale;  Mis- 
sion San  Jo.se;  l^kiah.  Si.sters  of  St.  Dominic  (San 
Rafafil,  California),  Academy,  San  Rafael;  St.  Rose's 
Academy,  St.  Dominic's  and  Sacred  Heart  Schools, 
San  Francisco;  San  Leandro;  Stockton;  Vallejo; 
Academy  and  School,  Benicia,  Franciscan  Sisters 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  (Joiiet,  Illinois),  St.  Joseph's  Hos- 
pital, San  Francisco.  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross 
(Notre  Dame,  Indiana),  St.  Cliarles's  School,  San 
Francisco.  Sisters  of  the  Holy  I'aniily  (Sun  Fran- 
cisco), San  Jos6;  Oakland.  Sisten-s  of  t  lie  1  loly  Names 
of  Jesus  and  Mary  (Hochelaga,  Montreal,  Province  of 
Quebec),  St.  JoH(![)h's,  San  Francisco;  Convent  of  the 
Holy  Names,  Immaculate  Conception  School,  St. 
Francis  de  Sales  School,  Sacred  Heart  School,  Oak- 
land.    Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Carondelet  (I^s  An- 


SAN  GALLO 


443 


SAN  GALLO 


geles,  California),  St.  Patrick's  School  and  St.  Jo- 
seph's Home,  Oakland;  Star  of  the  Sea,  San  Francisco. 
Sisters  of  Mercy  (San  Francisco,  California),  mother- 
house  and  St.  Mary's  Hospital,  St.  Catherine's  Home, 
St.  Peter's  School,  San  Francisco;  school  and  acad- 
emy, East  Oakland;  Home  for  the  Aged,  Fruitvale. 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  Rio  Vista;  Sausahto.  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame  (San  Jose,  California),  mother-house, 
college,  high  school,  institute,  and  3  schools,  San 
Jose;  College  and  Mission  Dolores  School,  San  Fran- 
cisco; Alameda;  Redwood;  Santa  Clara;  Saratoga. 
Presentation  Nuns  (San  Francisco,  Cahfornia), 
mother-house,  cathedral  school,  and  2  academies,  San 
Francisco;  Berkeley;  Sonoma.  Sisters  of  Charity  of 
Providence  (Montreal),  hospital,  Oakland.  Little 
Sisters  of  the  Poor  (Chicago,  Illinois),  San  Francisco; 
Oakland.  Little  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  (Sher- 
brooke,  Canada),  St.  Patrick's  Seminary,  Menlo  Park. 
Helpers  of  the  Holy  Souls  (Paris,  France),  San  Fran- 
cisco. Carmehte  Sisters,  San  Francisco.  Religious 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  (Chicago  Province),  San  Fran- 
cisco; Menlo  Park.  Ursuline  Sisters  (Santa  Rosa, 
California),  Santa  Rosa;  St.  Helena. 

Archbishop,  1;  secular  priests,  206;  priests  of  re- 
ligious orders,  146;  total,  352;  churches  with  resident 
priest,  113;  missions  with  churches,  63;  total  churches, 
176;  stations,  31;  chapels,  57;  seminar}',  1;  ecclesi- 
astical students,  96;  seminaries  of  religious  orders,  3; 
colleges  and  academies  for  boys,  7;  students,  340; 
academies  for  young  ladies,  21;  normal  school,  1; 
females  educated  in  higher  branches,  5,000;  parishes 
with  parochial  schools,  42;  pupils,  17,0(K);  orphan 
asylums,  4;  orphans,  1,800;  infant  asylums,  1;  in- 
mates, 480;  industrial  and  reform  schools,  2;  inmates, 
173;  protectory  for  boys,  1;  inmates,  90;  total  of 
young  people  under  Catholic  care,  about  23,000; 
deaf-mute  asylum,  1;  hospitals,  6;  homes  for  aged 
poor,  4;  other  charitable  institutions,  2;  baptisms, 
7,957;  deaths,  3,710'  Catholic  population,  about 
250,000. 

Bibliography,  supplied  by  the  Rev.  Joseph  M.  Gleason: — 

MANUHfRiPTs: — In  the  Cathedral  Archives,  San  Francisco: — 
Diary  of  Bishop  Diego  y  Moreno,  continued  by  Archbishop  Ale- 
many;  A.  S.  Taylor  MSS.;  Records  of  the  Missions  of  San  Fran- 
cisco de  Asis,  San  Jose,  Santa  Clara,  San  Francisco  Solano,  and 
San  Rafael;  Chancery  Records. 

In  the  University  of  California: — Spanish  and  Mexican  Ar- 
chives of  California  (copies  of  the  originals  burnt  in  the  San 
Francisco  fire  of  1906);  Bancroft  Collection  of  MSS.;  Pioneer 
MSS.;  Seville  and  Mexican  Transcripts. 

Synodus  Diocesana  Sand.  Francisci  Habita  1862  (San  Fran- 
cisco, 1872) ;  Concilii  Prov.  S.F.;  II,  Acta  et  Decreta  (San  Fran- 
cisco, 1883) ;  Gleason,  Catholic  Church  in  California  (San  Fran- 
cisco, 1872);  Bancroft,  History  of  California  (San  Francisco, 
1885);  Grey,  Pioneer  Times  in  California  (San  Francisco,  1881); 
CuNCH,  California  and  Its  Missions  (San  Francisco,  1904) ;  Hit- 
TEL,  History  of  San  Francisco  (San  Francisco,  1878) ;  Royce, 
California  (Boston,  1886) ;  Dwinelle,  Colonial  History  of  San 
Francisco  (3rd  ed.,  San  Francisco,  1866) ;  Willey,  Transition 
Period  of  California  (San  Francisco,  19()1);  Shuck,  California 
Scrap  Book  (San  Francisco,  1868) ;  Moses,  Establishment  of  Mu- 
nicipal Government  in  San  Francisco  (Baltimore,  1889) ;  Black- 
mar,  Spanish  Institutions  of  the  South-west  (Baltimore,  1891); 
RiCHMAN,  California  under  Spain  and  Mexico  (Boston,  1911); 
Marryat,  Mountains  and  Molehills  (London,  1855) ;  Kelly, 
The  Diggings  of  California  (London,  1852) ;  de  Smet,  Western 
Missions  and  Missionaries  (New  York,  1863) ;  Riordan,  The 
First  Half-Century  (San  Francisco,  1905);  Engelhardt,  The 
Franciscans  in  California  (Harbor  Springs,  1897) ;  Rossi,  Six  Ans 
en  Amerique  (Californie  et  Oregon)  (Paris,  1863);  Frignet,  La 
Calif ornie  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1867);  Ferry,  La  Nouvelle  Calif omie 
(Paris,  1850);  Levy,  Les  FranQais  en  Califomie  (San  Francisco, 
1884);  Maouire,  The  Irish  in  America  (New  York,  1868),  xiii; 
Swasey,  Early  Days  and  Men  of  California  (San  Francisco,  1894); 
QuiGLEY,  The  Irish  Race  in  California  (San  Francisco,  1878); 
YoRKE,  Wendte  Controversy  (San  Francisco,  1896);  Shea,  Cath- 
olic Church  in  the  United  States  (New  York,  1892);  Gleason, 
Golden  Jubilee  of  the  Archdiocese  of  San  Francisco  (San  Francisco, 
1903);  For.  Rel.  of  U.  S.,  Append.  IT,  Pious  Fund  of  the  Cali- 
fornias  (documents)  (Washington,  1903);  O'Meara,  Broderick 
and  Gwin  (San  Francisco,  1881) ;  the  Local  and  County  Histories 
of  Halley,  Hall,  Frazer,  Bowen,  Menefee,  etc.;  Silver  and 
Golden  Jubilee  Memorials  of  different  religious  orders  of  the 
Archdiocese;  Society  of  California  Pioneers,  Annual  Reports  (San 
Francisco) ;  California  Historical  Society,  papers  (San  Francisco) ; 
Academy  of  Pacific  Coast  History,  papers  (San  Francisco);  Met- 
ropolitan Directory  and  Catholic  Directory  (1850-1911);  Monitor 
(San  Francisco),  files;  Freeman's  Journal  (New  York,  1850-60), 


files;  Alta  California  (San  Francisco),  early  files;  Evening  Bulle- 
tin (San  Francisco),  files,  especially  A.  S.  Taylor  Papers;  Evening 
Examiner  (San  Francisco),  files,  especially  Phil.  Roach  Papers; 
Herald  (San  Francisco),  early  files;  Dominicana  (San  Francisco), 
files;  Overland  Monthly  (San  Francisco),  files;  Grizzly  Bear  (San 
Francisco),  files;  all  San  Francisco  newspapers  (period  following 
fire  of  1906). 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

San  Gallo,  a  celebrated  family  of  architects, 
sculptors,  painters,  and  engravers,  which  flourished 
in  Italy  during  the  Renaissance  period,  from  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  founder  of  the  family  was  P'rancesco 
Giamberti  (1405-80),  a  Florentine  wood-carver; 
he  had  two  sons,  Giuliano  and  Antonio. 

(1)  Giuliano  da  San  Gallo,  architect  and  sculp- 
tor (1445-1516).  After  receiving  his  first  training 
with  Francione  in  his  native  town,  he  proceeded  to 
Rome,  where  he  conceived  his  high  ideas  of  archi- 
tecture and,  through  the  study  of  Vitruvius,  his  en- 
thusiasm for  the 
antique.  He  was 
engaged  at  the 
building  of  the 
celebrated  Palace 
of  San  Marco, 
which  Cardinal 
Barbo  (Paul  II) 
was  erecting.  On 
the  outbreak  of 
the  war  between 
his  native  town 
and  Naples,  he 
returned  to  Flor- 
ence, and  d  i  s  - 
played  such  bril- 
liant talent  as  a 
military  engineer, 
that  Cardinal 
Giuliano  della 
Rovere  entrusted 
him    with    the 


Francesco  da  San  Gallo 


fortification  of  the  harbour  of  Ostia  (1483) .  In  the  fol- 
lowing years  he  worked  partly  in  the  service  and  partly 
under  the  protection  of  the  Medici  family,  enjoy- 
ing the  special  favour  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent. 
Recommended  by  the  latter  he  built  the  Church  of 
Madonna  delle  Carceri  at  Prato  in  1485,  and  in  1489 
the  Villa  Poggio  at  Cajano,  where  Lorenzo  loved  to 
associate  with  the  lilterateurs.  After  he  had  built  the 
hermitage  of  S.  Agostino  before  the  Gate  San  Gallo,  he 
was  given  by  Lorenzo  the  surname  of  San  Gallo,  which 
he  transmitted  to  his  descendants.  He  also  built  the 
sacristy  of  Santo  Spirito  (1488-92),  the  court  of  the 
monastery  of  Sta  Maria  Maddalena  de'  Pazzi,  and 
the  Palazzo  Gondi  (1494).  On  Lorenzo's  death, 
Giuliano  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  restored  the 
ceiling  of  the  Church  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  and  pre- 
pared a  model  for  the  palace  and  cloister  court  of 
S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli  for  Cardinal  della  Rovere.  He 
accompanied  della  Rovere  to  France  in  1494,  and  on 
his  return  took  active  part  in  the  war  against  the 
Pisans.  He  was  taken  prisoner,  but  was  released 
six  months  later  after  paying  a  high  ransom.  In 
1503  he  was  appointed  architect  to  St.  Peter's,  and 
thenceforth — except  for  a  short  interruption  which 
again  called  him  to  the  scene  of  the  war  against 
the  Pisans — resided  constantly  at  Rome  in  the  service 
of  Julius  II  until  1511,  when  he  returned  in  ill-health 
to  Florence.  Here  he  designed  no  fewer  than  seven 
plans  for  the  Church  of  San  Lorenzo,  begun  by 
Brunelleschi  but  left  uncompleted. 

Fabriczy,  Handzeichnungen  (Stuttgart,  1902);  Huelsen,  II 
libra  di  Giuliano  da  San  Gallo.  Cod.  Vat.  Barb.  (Leipzig,  1910),  4424. 

(2)  Antonio  da  San  Gallo  the  Elder,  brother 
of  the  above,  b.  1455;  d.  27  Dec,  1534.  He  shared 
the  fortune  of  his  brother,  whom,  on  their  father's 
death,  he  accompanied  to  Rome  and  represented  in 


SANGUINISTS 


444 


SANHEDRIN 


many  important  undertakings.  Pope  Alexander  en- 
trusted him  with  the  fortification  of  the  Castle  of 
San  Angelo,  and  the  fort  Civita  Castellana.  The 
death  of  his  brother  afforded  him  his  first  oppor- 
tunity to  demonstrate  his  great  talent  as  an  architect 
and  militarj-  engineer.  He  executed  the  portico  of 
the  Servi  in' Florence,  the  aisles  of  the  Annunziata  at 
Arezzo,  and  at  Montepulciano,  under  the  influence  of 
Bramante,  the  magnificent  Church  of  the  Madonna 
di  San  Biagio,  which  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 

most  glorious 
edifices  in  Italy. 
For  profane 
buildings  also  his 
services  were 
frequently  req- 
uisitioned; thus 
at  Montepul- 
ciano  and  Mon- 
tesansovino  he 
erected  many 
palaces  of  almost 
classical  perfec- 
tion. Appointed 
chief  engineer 
over  all  works  of 
fortification  by 
theFlorentine 
Government,  he 
took  a  promi- 
nent part  with 
Michelangelo  in 
the  defence  of 
the  city.  In  spite 
of  his  great  suc- 
cess he  renounced  art  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  and 
settled  in  the  country.  His  numerous  sketches  and 
drawings,  which  reveal  a  great  correctness,  are  pre- 
served in  the  Uffizi  Gallery  at  Florence. 

Antonio  da  S.\n  Gallo  the  Younger,  o.  1485;  d. 
at  Terni,  1.546.  He  was  a  son  of  the  sister  of  the  two 
preceding,  and  his  real  name  was  Coroliano  (cor- 
rupted into  Cordiani).  With  the  art  of  his  uncles,  he 
adopted  also  their  name,  and  it  was  he  who  conferred 
on  this  name  its  greatest  splendour.  At  Rome  he  at- 
tached him.self  closely  to  Bramante,  working  at  first 
in  his  studio  and  later  succeeding  him  in  the  building 
of  St.  Peter's.  He  enjoyed  successively  the  favour  of 
Leo  X,  Clement  VII,  and  Paul  III,  in  whose  service  he 
was  engaged  for  forty-<ine  years.  His  extraordinary 
activity  was  displayed  in  three  directions,  as  a  builder 
of  churches,  a  builder  of  palaces,  and  a  militarj^  en- 
gineer. In  Rome  he  made  a  plan  for  the  Church  of 
San  Giovanni  dei  Fiorentini,  but  was  not  entrusted 
with  its  execution;  completed  the  Church  of  the  Ma- 
donna fli  Ivoreto,  begun  by  Giuliano  da  San  Gallo; 
built  the  Church  of  Santo  Spirito  at  Borgo,  an  (sdifice 
of  noble  dignity  and  simplicity.  On  Raphael's  death, 
he  was  appointed  architect  to  St.  Peter's,  and  pro- 
fKjsfid  to  introdvice  important  changes  into  the  original 
plans.  He  had  a  large  wooden  model  (still  extant) 
prepared  Vjy  his  pupil  Labacco,  showing  a  glorious 
vesiibulf  and  in  1h(^  interior  and  exterior  exuberant 
architfftonic  deforativene.s.s.  His  plan  was  later  n^- 
jertf-d  by  Mif}iflangf;lo.  For  the  Cappc^lla  P;u)lina  he 
alsfj  pff-parcd  a  jjlan.  Among  the  palaces  whi(^h  he 
erected  the  most  c(!lc!l>rated  is  the  Palazzo  Farnesc", 
with  the  execution  of  which  Canlinal  Alexander  Far- 
nes<'  Mater  Paul  III)  entru.sted  him  without  suspect- 
ing that  thereby  he  w;ih  about  to  make;  him  onr;  of  the 
great (;sf  builders  of  palaces  in  the  wholf;  world;  An- 
tonio did  not  live  to  see  the  completion  of  this  gigantic 
work.  Hfr  al.sf>  built  the  Palazzo  Sacdietti,  th(;  fa- 
mous ^'ilia  .Maflama  (according  to  Raphael's  plans), 
and  in  Borgo  the  uncompleted  Porta  Santo  Spiritf*. 
These  works  did  not  exhaust  his  tireless  afitivity. 
Like  his  uncles,  he  was  also  an  able  military  engineer, 


and  in  this  capacity  was  engaged  on  the  fortifications 
at  Civita  Vecchia,  Ancona,  Florence,  Parma,  Pia- 
cenza,  Ascoli,  Nepi,  Perugia,  and  on  the  Lago  di 
Marmora.  Wc  must  also  mention  the  celebrated 
Pozzo  di  S.  Patrizio  (St.  Patrick's  Well)  at  Orvieto, 
executed  (1527-40)  at  the  commission  of  Clement  VII; 
this  is  cut  one  hundred  and  ninety-eight  feet  into  a 
tufa  rock,  248  steps  leading  to  the  water-level.  An- 
tonio was  buried  in  St.  Peter's. 

Of  the  other  members  of  this  illustrious  family  of 
artists  may  be  mentioned:  Giovanni  B.\ttista  An- 
tonio DA  San  Gallo  (1496-1552),  a  brother  of  An- 
tonio the  younger,  whom  he  assisted  in  his  work; 
Fr.\ncesco  da  San  Gallo  (1496-1576),  son  of  Giuli- 
ano, sculptor  and  military  engineer;  Bastiano  da 
San  Gallo  (1481-1531),  known  as  Aristoteles,  a 
nephew  of  Giuliano,  painter;  Giovanni  Francesco 
DA  San  Gallo  (1482-1.530),  architect  and  engineer. 

Lauriere  and  Muntz,  Giuliano  da  San  Gallo  et  leu  monuments 
antiques  du  MvH  de  la  France  (Paris,  1885);  von  Geymuller, 
Documents  inidits  sur  les  manuscrits  et  les  ceuvres  d' architecture  de 
la  famille  des  San  Gallo  (Paris,  1885) ;  Clausse,  Les  San  Gallo 
(.3  vols.,  Paris.  1900-02). 

Beda  Kleinschmidt. 

Sanguinists.  See  Precious  Blood,  Congrega- 
tion OF  THE  Most. 

Sanhedrin,  the  supreme  council  and  court  of 
justice  among  the  Jews.  The  name  Snnhedrin  is 
derived  originally  from  the  Greek  word  a-w^Spiov, 
which,  variously  modified,  passed  at  an  unknown 
period  into  the  Aramaic  vocabulary.  Among  the 
Greek-speaking  Jews,  yepovffia,  "the  assembly  of  the 
Ancients"  was  apparently  the  common  name  of  the 
Sanhedrin,  at  least  in  the  beginning;  in  post-Biblical 
Hebrew  the  appellation  Beth-Din,  "house  of  judg- 
ment", seems  to  have  been  quite  popular. 

History. — An  institution  as  reno\\Tied  as  the  San- 
hedrin was  naturally  given  by  Jewish  tradition  a 
most  venerable  and  hallowed  antiquity.  Some 
Doctors,  indeed,  did  not  hesitate  to  recognize  the 
Sanhedrin  in  the  Council  of  the  seventy  Elders 
founded  by  Mo.ses  (Num.,  x-i,  16) ;  others  pretended  to 
discover  the  first  traces  of  the  Sanhedrin  in  the  tri- 
bunal created  by  Josaphat  (II  Par.,  xix,  8):  but 
neither  of  these  institutions  bears,  in  its  composition 
or  in  its  attributions,  any  resemblance  to  the  Sanhe- 
drin as  we  know  it.  Nor  should  the  origin  of  the 
Sanhedrin  be  sought  in  the  Great  Synagogue,  of 
which  tradition  attributed  the  foundation  to  Esdras, 
and  which  it  considered  as  the  conne(;ting  link  be- 
tween the  last  of  the  Prophets  and  the  first  Scribes: 
for  aside  from  the  obscurity  hovering  over  the 
functions  of  this  once  much-famed  body,  its  very 
existence  is,  among  modem  scholars,  the  subject  of 
the  most  serious  doubts.  Yet  it  may  be  that  from 
the  council  of  the  nobles  and  chiefs  and  ancients,  on 
which  the  ruling  of  the  restored  community  devolved 
at  the  time  of  Nehemias  and  Esdras  (Neh.,  ii,  16; 
iv,  8,  13;  V,  7;  vii,  5;  I  Esd.,  v,  5,  9;  vi,  7,  14;  x,  8), 
gradually  developed  and  organized,  sprang  up  the 
Sanhedrin.  At  any  rate,  the  first  undisjxited  men- 
tion we  possess  touching  th(;  yepovala  of  .Jerusalem  is 
connected  with  the  reign  of  Antiochus  the  Great 
(223-187  H.c;  .Joseph.,  "Antic).",  XII,  iii,  3).  From 
that  time  on,  we  are  able  to  follow  the  history  of  the 
Sanh(Hlrin  until  its  disappearance  in  the  overthrow 
of  the  .Jewish  nation. 

As  under  the  Greek  rulers  the  Jews  were  allowed 
a  large  measun;  of  self-government,  many  points  of 
civil  and  religious  administration  fell  to  the  lot  of 
the  high  priests  and  the  ytpovala  to  s(!ttle.  But 
when,  after  the  Machabeaii  wars,  both  the  royal  and 
priestly  powers  w(!re  invested  in  the  person  of  llie 
Hasmonean  kings,  t.h<!  autliority  of  the  Sanhedrin 
was  naturally  thrown  in  the  background  by  that  of 
the  autf)cratic  rulers.  Still  the  Sanhedrin,  where  a 
majority  of  Pharisees  held  sway,   continued  to  be 


SANHEDRIN 


445 


SANHEDRIN 


"the  house  of  justice  of  the  Hasmoneans"  ("Talm. ", 
Aboda  zara,  36b;  Sank.,  82a).  A  coup  d'etat  of  John 
Hyrcanus  towards  the  end  of  his  reign  brought  about 
a  "Sadducean  Sanhedrin"  ("Antiq.",  XVI,  xi,  1; 
Sank.,  52b;  Megillat  Taanith,  10),  which  lasted  until 
JanniEus;  but  owing  to  the  conflicts  between  the  new 
assembly  and  Alexander,  it  was  soon  restored,  to  be 
again  overthrown  by  the  Pharisaic  reaction  under 
Alexandra.  The  intervention  of  Rome,  occasioned 
by  the  strife  between  the  sons  of  Alexandra,  was 
momentarily  fatal  to  the  Sanhedrin  in  so  far  as  the 
Roman  proconsul  Gabinius,  by  instituting  similar 
assemblies  at  Gadara,  Jericho,  Amathonte,  and  Sap- 
phora,  limited  the  jurisdiction  of  the  yepowla  of  Jeru- 
salem to  the  city  and  the  neighbouring  district 
(57  B.C.).  In  47,  however,  the  appointment  of 
Hyrcanus  II  as  Ethnarch  of  the  Jews  resulted  in  the 
restoring  of  the  Sanhedrin's  authority  all  over  the 
land.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  now  all-powerful 
assembly  was  to  pass  judgment  upon  Herod,  the 
son  of  Antipater,  accused  of  cruelty  in  his  govern- 
ment ("Antiq.",  XI,  ix,  4).  The  revengeful  prince  was 
not  likely  to  forget  this  insult.  No  sooner,  indeed, 
had  he  established  his  power  at  Jerusalem  (37  b.c), 
than  forty-five  of  his  former  judges,  more  or  less 
connected  with  the  party  of  Antigonus,  were  put 
to  death  ("Antiq.",  XV,  i,  2).  The  Sanhedrin  itself, 
however,  Herod  allowed  to  continue;  but  this  new 
Sanhedrin,  filled  with  his  creatures,  was  henceforth 
utilized  as  a  mere  tool  at  his  beck  (as  for  instance  in 
the  case  of  the  aged  Hyrcanus).  After  the  death 
of  Herod,  the  territorial  jurisdiction  of  the  assembly 
was  curtailed  again  and  reduced  to  Judea,  Samaria, 
and  Idumea,  the  "ethnarchy"  allotted  to  Archelaus. 
But  this  condition  of  affairs  was  not  to  last;  for  after 
the  deposition  of  the  Ethnarch  and  the  annexation 
of  Judea  to  the  Roman  province  of  Syria  (.\.D.  6), 
the  Sanhedrin,  under  the  contol  of  the  procurators, 
became  the  supreme  authority  of  the  Jewish  people; 
only  capital  sentences  pronounced  by  the  assembly 
perhaps  needed  confirmation  from  the  Roman  officer 
before  they  could  be  carried  into  execution.  Such 
was  the  state  of  things  during  the  public  life  of  the 
Saviour  and  the  following  thirty  years  (Matt.,  xxvi, 
57;  Mark,  xiv,  55;  xv,  1;  Luke,  xxii,  66;  John,  xi,  47; 
Acts,  iv,  15;  v,  21;  vi,  12;  xxii,  30;  xxiii,  1  sq.;  xxiv,  20; 
"Antiq.",  XX,  ix,l;x;  "Bell.  Jud.",  II,  xv,6;  "Vita", 
12,  13,  38,  49,  70).  Finally  when  the  misgovemment 
of  Albinus  and  Gessius  Flonis  goaded  the  nation 
into  rebellion,  it  was  the  Sanhedrin  that  first  organ- 
ized the  struggle  against  Rome;  but  soon  the  Zealots, 
seizing  the  power  in  Jerusalem,  put  the  famous  assem- 
bly out  of  the  way.  Despite  a  nominal  resurrection 
first  at  Jamnia,  immediately  after  the  destruction 
of  the  Holy  City,  and  later  on  at  Tiberias,  the  great 
Beth-Din  of  Jerusalem  did  not  really  survive  the 
ruin  of  the  nation,  and  later  Jewish  authors  are 
right  when,  speaking  of  the  sad  events  connected 
with  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  they  deplore  the  cessation 
of  the  Sanhedrin  {Sota,  ix,  end;  Echa  Rabbathi  on 
Lam.,  V,  15). 

Composition. — According  to  the  testimony  of  the 
Mishna  (Sank.,  i,  6;  Shcbuoth,  ii,  2),  confirmed 
by  a  remark  of  Josephus  ("Bell.  Jud.",  II,  xx,  5),  the 
Sanhedrin  consisted  of  seventy-one  members,  presi- 
dent included.  Jewish  tradition  appealed  to  Num., 
xi,  16,  to  justify  this  number;  but  whether  the  text 
of  Num.  had  actually  any  influence  on  the  determina- 
tion of  the  composition  of  the  Beth-Din,  may  be  left 
undecided.  The  New-Testament  writers  seem  to 
divide  the  members  into  three  classes :  the  chief  priests, 
the  scribes,  and  the  ancients;  but  it  might  be  wrong 
to  regard  these  three  classes  as  forming  a  regular 
hierarchy,  for  in  the  New  Testament  itself  the  word 
"  ancients  ",  or  the  phrase  "  the  ancientsof  the  people  ", 
is  quit<;  frequently  equivalent  to  "members  of  the 
Sanhedrin",  just  as  is  in  Josephus  the  word  ^ovXevral 


"members  of  the  council".  They  were  styled 
"ancients"  no  doubt  in  memory  of  the  seventy 
"ancients"  forming  the  assembly  set  up  by  Moses 
(Num.,  xi),  but  also  because  the  popular  mind  attached 
to  the  word  a  connotation  of  maturity  of  age  and 
respectabiUty  (See  in  "Talm.",  Bab.,  Saiih.  17b  88a, 
also  in  Sifre,  92,  the  moral  and  intellectual  qualifica- 
tions required  for  membership).  Since  the  Beth-Din 
had  to  deal  frequently  with  legal  matters,  it  was 
natural  that  many  of  its  members  should  be  chosen 
from  among  men  specially  given  to  the  study  of  the 
Law;  this  is  why  we  so  often  hear  of  the  scribes  in 
the  Sanhedrin.  Most  of  these  scribes,  during  the 
last  forty  years  of  the  institution's  existence,  were 
Pharisees,  whereas  the  members  belonging  to  the 
sacerdotal  caste  represented  in  the  assembly  the  Sad- 
ducean ideas  (Acts,  iv,  1;  v,  17,  34;  xxiii,  6;  "Antiq." 
XX,  ix,  1;  "Bell.  Jud.",  II,  xvii,  3;  "Vita",  38,  39), 
but  history  shows  that  at  other  periods  the  Pharisean 
influence  had  been  far  from  preponderating.  Ac- 
cording to  what  rules  the  members  were  appointed  and 
the  vacancies  filled  up,  we  are  unable  to  state;  it 
seems  that  various  customs  prevailed  on  this  point 
at  difTerent  periods;  however,  from  what  has  been 
said  above,  it  is  clear  that  politics  interfered  more 
than  once  in  the  transaction.  At  any  rate  we  are 
told  {Sanh.,  iv,  4)  that  a  semikoh,  or  imposition  of 
hands,  took  place  at  the  formal  installation  of  the 
new  appointees;  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  the  appointment  was  for  life. 

Who  was  president  of  the  Sanhedrin?  The  Bible 
and  Josephus  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Talmud  on 
the  other,  contain  statements  which  maj^  shed  some 
light  on  the  subject;  unfortunately  these  statements 
appear  to  be  at  variance  with  each  other  and  need 
careful  handling.  In  I  Mach.,  xiv,  44,  we  read  that 
no  meeting  {<Tv<TTpo<pT]5)  might  be  called  in  the  land 
outside  of  the  high  priest's  bidding:  but  it  would  be 
clearly  illogical  to  infer  from  this  that  the  high  priest 
was  appointed  by  Demetrius  ex  officio  president  of 
the  Sanhedrin.  To  conclude  the  same  from  the 
passage  of  Josephus  narrating  Herod's  arraignment 
before  the  Sanhedrin  (Antiq.,  XIV,  ix,  3-5)  would 
likewise  perhaps  go  beyond  what  is  warranted  by 
the  text  of  the  Jewish  historian :  for  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  in  this  occurrence  Hyrcanus  acted  as  the 
head  of  the  Hasmonean  family  or  in  his  capacity 
of  high  priest.  At  any  rate  there  can  be  no  hesita- 
tion about  the  last  forty  years  of  the  Sanhedrin's 
existence:  at  the  trial  of  Jesus,  Caiphas,  the  high  priest 
(John,  xi,  49),  was  the  head  of  the  Beth-Din  (Matt., 
xxvi,  57);  so  also  was  Ananias  at  the  trial  of  St. 
Paul  (Acts,  xxiii,  2),  and  we  read  in  "Antiq.",  XX,  ix, 
1,  about  the  high  priest  Ananus  II  summoning  the 
Sanhedrin  in  a.d.  62.  What  then  of  the  Rabbinical 
tradition  speaking  persistently  of  Hillel,  and  Simon 
his  son,  and  Gamaliel  I  his  grandson,  and  the  latter's 
son  Simon,  as  holding  the  office  of  Nasi  from  30 
B.C.  to  A.D.  70  (Talm.,  Bab.  Shabbath,  15^)?  Of 
one  of  these  men,  Gamaliel,  we  find  mention  in 
Acts,  V,  34;  but  even  though  he  is  said  to  have 
played  a  leading  part  in  the  circumstances  referred 
to  there,  he  is  not  spoken  of  as  president  of  the  as- 
sembly. The  truth  may  be  that  during  the  first 
century  B.C.,  not  to  speak  of  earlier  times,  the  high 
priest  was  not  ex  officio  the  head  of  the  Sanhedrin, 
and  it  appears  that  Hillel  actually  obtained  that 
dignity.  But  after  the  death  of  Herod  and  the  de- 
position of  Archelaus,  which  occurred  about  the  time 
of  Hillel's  demise,  there  was  inaugurated  a  new  order 
of  things,  and  that  is  possibly  what  Josephus  means 
when,  speaking  of  these  events,  he  remarks  that 
"the  presidency  over  the  people  was  then  entrusted 
to  the  high  priests"  (Antiq.,  XX,  x,  end).  It  was 
natural  that,  in  an  assembly  containing  many  scribes 
and  called  upon  to  decide  many  points  of  legislation, 
there  should  be,  next  to  the  Sadducean  presidents,  men 


SAN  JOS£ 


446 


SAN  JOS^ 


perfectly  conversant  with  all  the  intricacies  of  the 
Law.  Gauged  by  the  standard  of  later  times,  the 
consideration  which  must  have  attached  to  this  posi- 
tion of  trust  led  to  the  misconception  of  the  actual 
role  of  Hillel's  descendants  in  the  Sanhedrin,  and  thus 
very  likely  arose  the  tradition  recorded  in  the  Talmud. 

Jurisdiction  atid  Procedure. — We  have  seen  above 
how  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Sanliedrin  varied  in  ex- 
tension at  different  periods.  At  the  time  of  the  pubhc 
life  of  the  Saviour,  only  the  eleven  toparchies  of  Judea 
were  de  jure  subject  to  the  Great  Sanhedrin  of  Jeru- 
salem; however,  de  facto  the  Jews  all  the  world  over 
acknowledged  its  authority  (as  an  instance  of  this,  see 
Acts,  ix.  2;  xxii,  5;  xxvi,  12).  As  the  supreme  court 
of  justice  of  the  nation,  the  Sanhedrin  was  appealed 
to  when  the  lower  courts  were  unable  to  come  to  a 
decision  {Sarih.,  vii,  1;  xi,  2);  moreover,  it  had  the 
exclusive  right  of  judgment  in  matters  of  special 
importance,  as  for  instance  the  case  of  a  false  prophet, 
accusations  against  the  high  priest,  the  sending  out 
of  an  army  in  certain  circumstances,  the  enlarging 
of  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  or  of  the  Temple  courts, 
etc.  (Sank.,  i,  5;  ii,  4;  iii,  4);  the  few  instances  men- 
tioned in  the  New  Testament  exemplify  the  cases 
to  which  the  competency  of  the  Sanhedrin  extended; 
in  short,  all  reUgious  matters  and  all  civil  matters 
not  claimed  by  Roman  authority  were  within  its 
attributions;  and  the  decisions  issued  by  its  judges 
were  to  be  held  inviolable  (Saiih.,  xi,  2-4).  Whether 
or  not  the  Sanhedrin  had  been  deprived,  at  the  time 
of  Jesus  Christ,  of  the  right  to  carry  death-sentences 
into  execution,  is  a  much-disputed  question.  On  the 
one  hand,  that  such  a  curtailing  of  the  Sanhedrin's 
power  did  actually  take  place  seems  implied  in  the 
cry  of  the  Jews:  "It  is  not  la-^^i'ul  for  us  to  put  any 
man  to  death"  (John,  x^aii,  31),  in  the  statement  of 
Josephus  (Ant.,  XX,  ix,  1)  and  in  those  of  the  Tal- 
mud of  Jer.  (Sanh.,  18a,  24b).  Still  we  see  in  Acts, 
vii,  St.  Stephen  put  to  death  by  the  Sanhedrin;  we 
read  likewise  in  Talm.  Jer.  (Sanh.,  24,  25)  of  an  adul- 
teress burnt  at  the  stake  and  a  heretic  stoned;  and 
these  three  facts  occurred  precisely  during  the  last 
forty  years  of  the  Temple's  existence,  when  the  power 
of  life  and  death  is  supposed  to  have  been  no  longer 
in  the  Sanhedrin.  Assuming  the  two  facts  recorded 
in  Tahn.  Jer.  to  be  historical,  we  might  explain  them 
away,  just  as  the  stoning  of  St.  Stephen,  and  reconcile 
them  with  the  curtailing  of  the  Sanhedrin's  rights 
by  attributing  them  to  outbursts  of  popular  passion. 
Some  scholars,  however,  deny  that  the  Romans  ever 
deprived  the  Sanhedrin  of  any  part  of  its  power:  the 
Sanhedrin,  they  say,  owing  to  the  frequency  of  cases 
half-rehgious  and  half-pohtical  in  nature,  in  order 
not  to  alienate  the  feelings  of  the  people  and  at  the 
same  time  not  to  incur  the  displeasure  of  the  Roman 
authorities,  practically  surrendered  into  the  hands  of 
the  latter  the  right  to  approve  capital  sentences;  the 
cry  of  the  Jews:  "it  is  not  lawful  for  us  to  put  any 
man  to  death",  was  therefore  rather  a  flattery  to  the 
procurator  than  the  expression  of  truth. 

It  should  be  noticed,  however,  that  of  these  views 
the  former  is  more  favourably  received  by  schol- 
ars. At  all  events,  criminal  causes  were  tried 
before  a  commission  of  twenty-three  members  (in 
urgent  cases  any  twenty-three  members  might  do) 
assembled  under  the  presidency  of  the  Ab  Beth-Din; 
two  other  boards,  also  of  twenty-three  members  each, 
studied  the  questions  to  be  submitted  to  plenary 
meetings.  These  three  sections  had  their  separate 
places  of  meeting  in  the  Temple  buildings;  the  crimi- 
nal section  met  originally  in  the  famous  "Hall  of  the 
Hewn  Stone"  (Mishna.  I-'eM.h,  ii,  6;  Eduyoth,  vii,  4) 
which  was  on  the  w>uth  side  of  the  court  {Middoth, 
V,  4)  and  server]  also  for  the  sittings  of  the  "Great 
Sanhedrin",  or  plenary  meetings;  about  a.  d.  .30, 
that  same  section  was  transffirred  to  another  buikling 
closer  to  the  outer  wall ;  they  had  also  another  meeting 


place  in  property  called  khanyioth,  "trade-halls", 
belonging  to  the  family  of  Hanan  (cf.  John,  xvii,  13). 
The  members  of  the  Sanhedrin  sat  in  a  semicircle 
that  they  might  see  one  another  while  deliberating 
(Mishna^ Sarih.,  iv,  2;  Tos.,  Sanh.,  vii,  1).  Two  clerks 
stood  before  them,  the  one  to  the  right  and  the  other 
to  the  left,  to  take  down  the  votes  (Mishna,  Sanh., 
iv,  2).  The  members  stood  up  to  speak,  and  on 
matters  of  civil  or  ceremonial  law  the  voting  began 
with  the  principal  member  of  the  assembly,  whereas 
the  younger  members  were  the  first  to  give  their 
opinion  in  criminal  affairs.  For  judgments  of  the 
latter  description  a  quorum  of  at  least  twenty-three 
members  was  required:  a  majority  of  one  vote  sufficed 
for  the  acquittal;  for  a  condemnation  a  majority  of 
two  votes  was  necessary,  except  when  all  the  members 
of  the  court  (seventy-one)  were  present  (Mishna, 
Sanh.,  iv;  Tos.,  Sanh.,  vii). 

Since  in  spite  of  the  identity  of  names  there  is 
little  in  common  between  the  old  Great  Sanhedrin 
of  Jerusalem  and  the  schools  of  Jamnia  and  Tiberias, 
it  is  quite  useless  to  dwell  on  the  latter,  as  well  as 
on  the  Kalla  assemblies  of  Babylon.  But  it  will 
not  be  amiss  to  mention  the  fact  that  before  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem  there  were,  besides  the  Great  Sanhedrin 
we  have  dealt  with  above,  local  courts  of  justice  some- 
times designated  by  the  same  name,  in  all  the  Jewish 
cities. 

Besides  the  tracts  Sanhedrin  in  both  Talmuds,  and  the  works 
of  Josephus,  which  are  the  principal  sources  of  information  on 
the  subject,  we  may  cite  the  following  works:  Maimonides,  De 
synedriis  et  poenis,  Heb.  and  Lat.  (Amsterdam,  1695);  Reip- 
MANN,  Sanhedrin,  Heb.  (Berdichef,  1888);  Selden,  De  synedriis 
et  prwfecturis  juridicis  veterum  Ebrceorum  (London,  1650); 
Ugolini,  Thesaurus  antiquitatum,  XXV  (Paris,  1672);  Blum, 
Le  sanhedrin  .  .  .  son  origine  et  son  histoire  (Strasburg,  1889); 
Rabbinowicz,  Legislation  criminelle  du  Talrmid  (Paris,  1876); 
Idem,  Legislation  civile  du  Talmud  (Paris,  1877-80);  Staffer, 
La  Palestine  au  temps  de  Jesus-Christ  (3rd  ed.,  Paris,  1885),  iv; 
BticHLER,  Das  Synedrion  in  Jerusalem  (Vienna,  1902) ;  Jeuski, 
Die  innere  Einrichtung  des  grossen  Synedrion  zu  Jerusalem  und 
ihre  Forlsetzung  im  spdteren  palastinensischen  Lehrhause  bis  zur 
Zeit  des  R.  Jehuda  ha-Nasi  (Breslau,  1894);  Langen,  Dos 
jiidische  Synedrium  und  die  riimische  Procurator  in  Judda  in 
Tubing,  theol.  Quartalschr.  (1862),  411-63;  Levy,  Die  Prdsi- 
dentur  im  Synedrium  in  Frankel's  Monatsschr.  (1885);  Schurer, 
Geschichte  des  jiid.  Volkes  im  Zeitalter  Jesu  Christi,  II  (3rd  ed., 
Leipzig,  1898),  188  sq. 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 

San  Jose  de  Costa  Rica,  Diocese  of  (Sancti 
JosEPHi  DE  Costarica). — The  Repubhc  of  Costa 
Rica,  Central  America,  constitutes  this  diocese  as  a 
suffragan  see  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Guatemala.  It 
was  established  in  1850,  and  its  Catholic  population 
in  1910  amounted  to  308,000,  which  is  practically  the 
total  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  country.  There 
are  in  the  republic:  103  priests,  of  whom  101  are  secu- 
lar and  1 2  regular ;  68  parish  churches;  98  chapels;  1 
seminarj';  1  diocesan  college;  1  academy  for  girls;  2 
orphan  asylums;  and  4  hospitals,  all  supported  by  the 
Church.  "At  San  Jos^-,  the  capital  of  the  republic  and 
see  of  the  diocese,  are  located  the  seminary  with  10 
students;  the  diocesan  college  with  150  pupils;  the 
Acafiemy  of  the  Sisters  of  Our  I^ady  of  Sion  with  35 
sisters  and  100  girls;  1  school  for  poor  girls,  connected 
with  tlic  sjiinc  acadctny,  with  80  pupils;  1  or|)han  asy- 
lum, directed  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity  and  caring  for 
230  orphans.  There  is  in  the  city  of  Cart  ago  another 
orphan  asvluin,  under  tlie  Salesian  lathers,  with  233 
orphans.  In  1847  President  Jose  M.  Castro  entered 
into  negotiations  with  the  Holy  See  and  secured  the 
establishment  of  a  bishopric  at  Costa  Rica,  and  on 
10  Ai)ril,  1851  the  Rt.  Rev.  Anselmo  T.lorente  y  La 
Fuente  was  appointed  the  first  bishop,  and  conse- 
crated in  Guatemala,  7  Sept.,  of  the  same  year.  ^  The 
present  incumbent  is  Rt.  Rev.  Jvian  Caspar  Stork, 
consecrated  24  Aug.,  1904.  The  cathedral  of  San 
Jos6  is  the  largest  and  handsomest  religious  edifice  in 
the  capital,  and  is  noted  for  the  dignity  and  elegance 
of  its  architecture.  (See  Costa  Rica,  Reimthlic  of.) 
Julian  Mokbno-Lacallb. 


SAN  JUAN 


447 


SANKT  POLTEN 


San  Juan,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Joannis  deCuyo), 
in  the  Argentine  Republic  at  the  foot  of  the  Cordillera 
of  the  Andes  between  28°  and  41°  S.  lat.  It  is  a  suf- 
fragan of  the  Archdiocese  of  Buenos  Aires  and  com- 
prises the  civil  Provinces  of  San  Juan,  Mendoza,  and 
San  Luis,  and  the  national  district  of  Neuquen,  has 
an  area  of  151,096  sq.  miles  and  a  population  of 
540,000.  These  provinces  were  a  part  of  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Santiago  de  Chile  until  1776,  when  they 
passed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Diocese  of 
C6rdoba.  In  1826  they  were  constituted  into  a 
vicariate  Apostohc,  and  on  19  Sept.,  1834,  Gregory 
XVI  erected  the  Diocese  of  San  Juan  de  Cuyo.  The 
first  bishop  was  Fray  Justo  de  Santa  Maria  de  Oro, 
a  prominent  figure  in  the  history  of  Argentina.  He 
was  the  representative  from  San  Juan  to  the  Congress 
of  Tucumdn,  which,  on  9  July,  1816,  proclaimed  the 
independence  of  Argentina,  and  in  this  assemblage 
distinguished  himself  by  resolutely  opposing  the 
monarchical  form  of  government  for  the  infant  na- 
tion. He  died  in  1838,  and  a  handsome  bronze 
statue  has  been  erected  to  him  in  the  principal  square 
of  the  city  of  San  Juan.  He  was  succeeded  by:  Jose 
Manuel  Eufracio  de  Quiroga  Sarmiento,  who  died  on 
25  Jan.,  1852;  Fray  Nicolds  Aldazor,  died  in  1866; 
Fray  Jos6  Wenceslav  Achaval,  who  founded  the  semi- 
nary and  established  the  cathedral  chapter,  and  died 
on  25  Feb.,  1898;  and  the  present  incumbent,  Fray 
Marcolino  del  Carmelo  Benavente,  to  whom  is  due  the 
erection  of  the  statue  of  Christ  the  Redeemer  at  the 
crest  of  the  Andes,  on  the  boundary  line  between 
Chile  and  Argentina,  as  a  symbol  of  peace  and  good 
will  between  the  two  nations.  Mgr.  Benavente  was 
born  at  Buenos  Aires  on  17  Aug.,  1845;  entered  the 
Dominicans,  and  was  appointed  bishop  on  7  Jan., 
1899.  There  are  four  Catholic  primaiy  schools  for 
boys,  seventeen  schools  for  girls,  and  one  Catholic 
agricultural  college  in  the  diocese.  A  Catholic  daily 
paper,  "El  Porvenir",  is  published  at  San  Juan,  and 
ranks  highest  among  the  daily  papers  of  the  entire 
province.  There  are  one  or  more  confraternities  at- 
tached to  all  parish  churches  to  encourage  piety  and 
devotion.  Among  the  notable  edifices  of  the  diocese 
may  be  mentioned:  the  episcopal  palace  and  the 
Church  of  San  Domingo  in  San  Juan;  those  of  San 
Francisco,  Sagrado  Corazon,  and  Godoy  Cruz  in 
Mendoza;  and  the  Matriz  of  San  Luis.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  a  project  has  been  laid  befoie  the  National 
Congress  to  divide  this  diocese  into  three,  viz.,  San 
Juan,  San  Luis,  and  Mendoza. 

IsiDRO  Fernandez. 

Sankt  Polten,  Diocese  of,  in  Lower  Austria,  de- 
rives its  name  and  origin  from  Fanum  Snncli  Hippo- 
lyti,  a  monastery  founded  there  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury and  dedicated  to  St.  Hippolytus.  The  origin  of 
this  monastery  is  obscure.  Some  think  that  monks 
from  Lake  Tegernsee  in  Bavaria  founded  a  Benedic- 
tine abbey  on  the  Traisen  in  791,  when  Charlemagne 
united  a  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Avars  with  his  em- 
pire, and  Passau  took  this  district  as  a  mission  field. 
In  the  ninth  century  Sankt  Polten  was  the  eastern 
limit  of  Christian  civilization,  the  only  monastery  east 
of  the  Enns.  It  is  said  that  the  monastery  was  trans- 
ferred to  secular  canons  in  985,  and  in  1080  the  great 
reformer  Altmann  of  Passau  replaced  these  by  Re- 
formed Augustinian  Canons.  The  first  provost  was 
Engelbert.  The  bishops  of  Passau  attached  much 
importance  to  the  spiritual  and  material  improvement 
of  this  important  support  of  their  power  in  the  east. 
Hefele  in  his  "Konziliengeschichte"  (VI,  pt.  II,  230-2) 
gives  the  decisions  of  the  synod  that  Bishop  Gottfried 
of  Passau  held  at  Sankt  Polten  in  1284.  These  were 
of  importance:  if  a  priest  celebrates  solemnly  the  wed- 
ding of  his  son  or  his  daughter,  he  is  to  be  suspended; 
the  secular  clergy,  pastors,  vicars,  and  chaplains  must 
confess  their  more  serious  sins  to  the  dean,  the  latter 


to  the  bishop  or  archdeacon;  everyone  may  confess 
less  serious  sins  and  negligences  to  whom  he  will. 
Annates  are  mentioned  even  at  this  early  date;  "the 
first  year  of  the  episcopal  collation  of  vacant  churches 
is  used  for  the  church  at  Passau".  Another  synod 
was  held  at  Sankt  Polten  ten  years  later. 


The  Old  C 

Soon  after  this  (130Gj  llic  city  came  \  cry  near  de- 
struction. As  in  other  places  stories  were  current  of 
sacrilegious  acts  of  Jews,  especially  of  pierced  and 
bleeding  Hosts.  These  tales  led  to  the  founding  of 
churches  of  the  Sacred  Blood;  and  at  Sankt  Polten,  as 
elsewhere,  the  Jews  were  robbed  and  murdered.  Only 
the  intercession  of  Bishop  Wernhart  prevailed  upon 
King  Albert  I  not  to  destroy  the  city.  When  the  Ref- 
ormation began,  the  monastery  of  Augustinian  Can- 
ons was  not  strong  enough  to  withstand  it;  in  1565 
there  were  only  three  canons.  Aid,  however,  was 
given  by  Klesl  (q.  v.)  and  the  Jesuits,  through  whose 
efforts  many  citizens  were  converted.  Part  of  one  of 
Klesl's  sermons  is  preserved  in  the  city  archives: 
"Behold,  for  a  thousand  years  the  pictures  of  your 
forefathers  holding  rosaries  in  their  hands  have  stood 
in  this  church".  In  1706  the  first  settlement  of  the 
Institute  of  Mary  (q.  v.)  was  made  at  Sankt  Polten, 
whence  they  had  been  called  from  Munich  by  the 
vice-president  of  the  Government  of  Lower  Austria, 
Jakob  Freiherr  von  Kriechbaum.  At  the  same  time 
Carmelite  nuns  settled  there.  They  were  later  sup- 
pressed by  the  Emperor  Joseph  II,  and  the  same 
fate  befell  the  monastery  of  Augustinian  canons.  The 
fifty-ninth  and  last  provost  was  Ildefons  Schmidt- 
bauer.  The  emperor  took  the  monastery  for  the  epis- 
copal residence  and  the  monastery  church  for  the  ca- 
thedral. As  the  Diocese  of  Wiener-Neustadt  reached 
almost  to  the  capital,  Vienna,  Joseph  II  united 
its  territory  with  the  Archdiocese  of  Vienna,  and 
transferred  its  bishop  to  Sankt  Polten.  A  new 
diocese  was  established  at  Linz  and  both  bishops  were 
made  suffragans  of  the  Archbishop  of  Vienna. 

Since  1785  Sankt  Polten  has  had  thirteen  bishops, 


SAN  LE(5N 


448 


SAN  MARCO 


each  episcopate  averaging  less  than  ten  j-ears.  A  pop- 
ular tradition  relating  that  the  last  provost  had  pre- 
dicted that  no  bishop  would  reign  over  ten  years  was, 
however,  disproved  by  the  tenth  bishop,  FeigerJe,  who 
reigned  eleven  years.  Some  of  the  bishops  have 
been  very  distinguished:  Sigismund,  Count  Hohen- 
wart,  who  was  tutor  of  the  Emperor  Francis  and 
the  .\rchduke  Charles  and  became  Prince  Arch- 
bishop of  Vienna;  the  court  preachers  Jakob  Frint, 
Michael  Wagner,  and  Ignaz  Feigerle;  above  all  Jo- 
seph Fessler,  the  learned  professor,  skilful  diploma- 
tist, and  secretary  of  the  Vatican  Council  (d.  1872).  In 
1836  Johann  Leonhard  resigned  the  bishopric.  At 
present  the  diocese  has  two  seminaries  for  boys,  which 
train  candidates  for  the  priesthood.  P^cssler  united 
one  of  these  seminaries  witli  the  seminary  at  the  Bene- 
dictine Abbey  of  Seitenstetten;  the  other  was  estab- 
Ushed  at  Melk  by  the  present  Bishop  Johann  Rossler. 
In  190S  Rossler  held  the  first  diocesan  synod  of  the  in- 
dependent Bishopric  of  Sankt  Polten;  the  important 
constitutions  and  acts  of  this  synod  have  been 
printed.  The  Diocese  of  Sankt  Polten  contains  620,- 
000  Catholics;  479  secular  priests;  505  members  of 
male  orders  in  16  houses;  and  874  members  of  female 
orders  in  94  branch  houses. 

Felgel  and  Lampel.  Urkundenbuch  des  Chorherrenstiftes 
Sankt  Pdlten  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  1891-1901);  Kerschbadmer, 
Gesch.  des  Bistums  St.  Polten  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  1875-76);  Idem, 
Jubilaumskatalog  aller  Dwzesangeistlichen  seit  einem  Jahrh.  (1885); 
Erdin'ger,  Diozesan-Nekrologium.  Geschichtliche  Beilagen  zu  den 
Kurrenden  der  Diozese  (Vienna,  1885) ;  Idem,  Bihliographie  des 
Klerxis  der  Diozese  St.  Pollen  (Vienna,  1889);  Fohringer,  Das 
soziaU  Wirken  der  katholischen  Kirche  in  St.  Polten  (Vienna,  1900). 
C.    WOLFSGRUBER. 

San  Leon  del  Amazonas,  Prefecture  ArosTOLic 
OF,  in  Peru.  Though  the  section  of  Peru  lying  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Andes  was  comprised  in  the  Dio- 
ceses of  Ayacucho,  Chachapoyas,  Cuzco,  and  Hu- 
anuco,  yet  there  were  many  pagan  Indian  tribes,  for- 
merly evangelized  by  the  Jesuits,  living  outside  of  the 
sphere  of  civihzation,  roaming  through  the  forests, 
subject  to  no  laws.  Moved  bj^  their  pitiable  condi- 
tion the  Peruvian  bishops,  with  the  approval  of  the 
Government,  requested  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
Propaganda,  towards  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, to  interest  itself  in  their  evangelization.  As  a 
result  by  a  Decree  of  Propaganda,  on  5  February, 
1900,  the  uncivilized  eastern  portion  of  the  state, 
known  popularly  as  "la  Montana",  was  divided  into 
three  prefectures  Apo.stolic  depending  directly  on 
Propaganda,  that  of  San  Le6n  del  Amazonas  being 
the  most  northerly.  It  comprises  the  regions  drained 
by  the  Rio  Maran6n  and  the  Amazon  with  their  tribu- 
taries, except  the  Ryo  Ucayaly,  and  extends  to  the 
frontiers  of  Ecuador,  Colombia,  and  Brazil.  To  pre- 
vent controversies  as  to  jurisdiction,  which  might 
arise  with  the  existing  sees,  the  mission  territory,  by 
the  wording  of  the  Decree  of  erection,  is  to  be  coex- 
tensive with  the  uncivilized  portions  of  the  older  dio- 
ceses. As  the  Indians  are  nomadic  tlie  mi.ssionaries 
have  first,  by  teaching  them  tlic  rudiments  of  agri- 
culture, to  overcf>me  their  wandering  habits,  and  then 
strive  to  inculcate  the  fundamental  truths  of  Chris- 
tianity; but  frequently  when  success  seems  to  be 
crowning  their  efforts  the  savages  yield  to  their  rov- 
ing in.stincts,  and  take  again  to  their  forest  life.  The 
mission,  which  is  supported  partly  by  the  Govern- 
ment but  chiefly  by  the  Society  of  the  Propagation 
of  the  Faith  in  Eastern  Peru,  is  entrusted  to  the  Au- 
gustinians  and  contains  four  priests,  who  depend  di- 
rectly on  their  father  general.  The  superior,  R.  P. 
Paulin  Diaz,  rfisides  at  Iquitos;  there  are  stations  also 
at  Peba  and  Puento  Melander.  Another  was  estab- 
lished at  Huabica  in  1903,  but  six  months  later  it  waa 
destroyed  by  the  Indians  and  the  missionary  mar- 
tyr.'^-d.     (See  Pkua  Imkans.) 

Mitfvme*  Calholicm  (Flome,  1907);  Chantre  y  Hkrreka,  Hiitt. 
de  la»  mi»ione>  de  In  Compaflia  de  Jeniis  en  el  Marafidn  enpfitlol, 
1637-1767  (Madrid.  1901).  A.   A.    MacErLEAN. 


San  Luis  Potosi,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Ludovici 
PoTosiEX.-iis),  in  Mexico,  erected  by  Pius  IX  in  1854. 
It  includes  the  State  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  and  a  small 
portion  of  tlie  State  of  Zacatecas.  Its  cathedral  is 
richly  decorated.  The  Churcli  of  Mount  Carmel  is  a 
fine  specimen  of  the  Baroque  style  of  areliitecture. 
Before  the  revolution  ther(>  adjoined  it  a  splendid 
Carmelite  convent,  a  spacious  orchard,  and  lands 
that  extended  to  the  sea,  a  distance  of  400  miles.  At 
present,  part  of  the  convent  has  been  rebuilt  and 
given  to  the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  who  preside 
over  a  well-attended  school.  The  sanctuary  of  Our 
Lady  of  Guadalupe  is  also  a  magnificent  church.    The 


Church  of  Mount  Carmel,  San  Luis,  PoTOsf 


first  bishop  was  Don  Pedro  Barajas,  who  si)ent  most 
of  his  episcopal  life  in  exile.  The  second  and  third 
bi.shops  had  very  brief  episcopates.  The  present 
(and  fourth)  bishop,  Don  Ignacio  Montes  de  Oca  y 
Obreg6n,  rules  in  more  peaceful  times,  and  has  been 
able  to  build  a  large  .seminary,  where  not  only  Mexican 
subjects,  but  also  some  students  from  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  receive  a  solid  education,  imparted 
by  a  choice  staff  of  profe.s.sors  belonging  to  different 
orders  and  to  the  secular  clergy.  A  school  of  arts 
and  crafts  has  been  founded  under  the  Augustinian 
Fathers,  also  an  orphan  asylum  and  a  Catholic  hos- 
pital. The  cathedral  has  its  chapter,  canonically 
established;  and  there  are  56  parishes  with  their 
churches  anrl  schools,  and  about  three  times  as  many 
chapels.  The  population  of  the  diocese  is  (1910) 
624,748 ,  all  Catholic,  except  perhaps  some  fifty 
foreigners.  The  capital,  San  Luis  Potosi,  has  82,946 
inhabitants. 

iJinriKiiii  Archives;    Pena,  JUntorin  de  San  Luis. 

J.  MoNTKs  DE  Oca  y  Obrkg6n. 

San  Marco  and  Bisignano,  Diocese  of  (Sancti 
Marci  et  BiHiNiANE.VHis),  in  the  Province  of  Co- 
senza  in  Calabria,  Italy.  San  Marco  Argentano  (so 
called  because  it  is  near  the  ancient  Argenta)  was 
founded  in  the  eleventh  (lentury  by  the  Norman 
Drogo,  who  erected  a  high  tower  there.  Bisignano 
is  the  ancient  Besidias,  or  Besidianum,  which  in  the 
eleventh  century  became  the  residence  of  a  Norman 
count  and  later  a  fief  of  the  Orsini.     In  1467  Skan- 


i 

i 

B^BipMB  "^^Bp^^K^^^^  *X^^B 

i 

^^&* '^'fl^^^^l^^^^^^^^^^^l 

i 

KEi 

SAN  MARINO 


THE    CASTLE,    VIEW    FROM    THE    NORTH 
CHURCH    OF    ST.    MARINUS 


THE    PALACE    OF   THE    GOVERNMENT 
GATE    OF    ST.    FRANCIS 


SAN  MARINO 


449 


SANNAZARO 


derberg's  daughter,  wife  of  the  Prince  of  Bisignano, 
invited  thither  many  Albanian  families  who  estab- 
lished various  colonies,  spoke  their  own  language,  and 
used  the  Greek  Rite.  The  first  mention  of  a  bishop 
is  in  1179.  Bisignano  certainly  had  bishops  in  the 
tenth  century,  when  mention  is  made  of  Ulutto  in 
the  life  of  St.  Uilo  di  Rossano;  Bishop  Federico 
(1331)  was  killed  in  1339.  The  two  sees  were  united 
in  1818.  The  united  dioceses  are  immediately  sub- 
ject to  the  Holy  See,  and  contain  64  parishes,  256 
priests,  110,000  inhabitants,  some  convents  of  re- 
ligious, and  a  house  of  nuns. 

Cappelletti,  Le  chiese  d' Italia,  XXI  (Venice,  1857). 

U.  Benigni. 

San  Marino,  an  independent  republic  lying  be- 
tween the  Italian  Provinces  of  Forli,  Pesaro,  and  Ur- 
bino,  having  an  area  of  38  sq.  miles  and  a  poi)ulation 
of  10,000.  Its  chief  resources  are  agriculture  and  the 
growing  of  vines.  The  government  is  carried  on  by 
two  consuls  or  captains-regent,  elected  for  six  months 
from  the  members  of  the  General  Council,  composed 
of  sixty  members  elected  for  life  from  the  nobles,  the 
burgesses,  and  the  rural  landowners,  in  equal  num- 
bers. The  council  has 
legislative  powers; 
from  its  members 
is  selected  the 
Council  of  Twelve, 
which  is  the  supreme 
court.  The  Kingdom 
of  Italy,  by  the  Acts 
of  22  March,  1862, 
recognized  the  i  n  - 
dependence  of  the 
republic,  and  has 
retained  friendly 
relations  with  it,  the 
Sanmarinese  cur- 
rency being  accepted 
in  the  kingdom.  The 
territory  extends 
over  seven  hills,  on 
the  highest  of  which, 
II  Titano,  the  city 
of  San  Marino  is 
built.  There  are 
nine  communes,  in- 
cluding  the  capital, 


The  Cathedral,  San  Miniato,  XII-XVII  Century 


and  as  many  more  parishes,  some  of  which  belong  to 
the  Diocese  of  Montefeltro,  and  the  others  to  Rimini. 
The  Palace  of  the  Sui)reme  Council,  containing  paint- 
ings by  Guido  Reni,  is  worthy  of  notice. 

According  to  the  legend,  St.  Marinus,  a  stone- 
cutter, came  to  the  mountain  about  a.  d.  350  to  ply 
his  trade  and  spread  the  truths  of  Christianity. 
Monte  Titano  belonged  to  Felicissima,  a  Riminese 
lady,  who  at  her  death  bequeathed  it  to  the  moun- 
taineers, recommending  them  to  remain  always  united. 
San  Marino,  however,  in  the  Lombard  age,  belonged 
to  the  Duchy  of  Spoleto;  in  the  tenth  century  the 
abbots  of  the  monastery  were  under  the  civil  govern- 
ment, but  they  soon  freed  themselves  and  formed  a 
free  commune.  The  Holy  See  recognized  the  inde- 
pendence of  San  Marino  in  1291.  In  quick  succes- 
sion the  lords  of  Montefeltro,  the  Malatesta  of  Ri- 
mini, and  the  lords  of  Urbino  attempted  to  conquer 
the  little  town,  but  without  success.  WTien  the  in- 
habitants aided  Pius  II  against  Sigismondo  Malatesta, 
the  pope  granted  the  republic  some  castles.  In  1503, 
but  only  for  a  few  months,  it  formed  part  of  the  posses- 
sions of  Cffisar  Borgia.  In  the  same  century  some 
feudatory  lords  attempted  its  hberty;  the  last  effort 
being  made  by  Cardinal  Giulio  Alberoni,  legate  of 
Ravenna,  who  in  1739,  aiding  certain  rebels,  con- 
trary to  the  orders  of  Clement  XII,  invaded  the  re- 
public, imposed  a  new  constitution,  and  endeavoured 
to  force  the  Sanmarinese  to  submit  to  the  Government 
XIII.— 29 


of  the  Pontifical  States.  Twice  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury (1825  and  1853)  similar  attempts  were  made. 
The  celebrated  archaeologist  Bartolomeo  Borghesi 
was  a  native  of  San  Marino. 

U.  Benigni. 

SanMartino  alCimino,  a  prelature  nullius  in  the 
territory  of  the  Diocese  of  Viterbo,  Province  of  Rome. 
The  district  is  about  1840  feet  above  sea-level,  on  the 
western  slope  of  Monte  Fogliano  in  the  Cimini 
mountains,  amidst  an  extensive  forest  of  chestnut 
trees.  It  is  much  frequented  as  a  health  resort.  The 
principal  dignitary  of  the  collegiate  chapter  has  the 
title  of  abbot,  and  his  jurisdiction  extends  only  over 
the  commune  of  San  Martino,  which  consists  of  only 
one  parish .  In  early  times  it  was  a  Benedictine  abbey, 
first  mentioned  under  Benedict  VIII  (eleventh  cen- 
tury). In  1150  it  was  entrusted  by  Eugenius  III  to 
the  Cistercians  of  St-Sulpice  near  Belley;  in  1207  it 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  monks  of  Pontigny, 
who  (under  Abbot  John,  1213-32)  raised  it  to  a  state 
of  great  prosperity.  After  1379  the  abbots  were  al- 
ways commendatory;  in  1564  it  was  included  in  the 
mensa  of  St.  Peter's 
chapter.  In  1645 
the  castle  and  the 
abbey  buildings  were 
acquired  by  Olimpia 
Pamphih,  sister  of 
Innocent  X,  who 
established  a  still- 
existing  collegiate 
chapter.  The  Gothic 
church  possesses 
architectural  inter- 
est. 

Egidi  in  Riv.  storica 
benedettina  (1906-7). 
Concerning  the  church 
see  Frothingham  in 
American  Journal  of 
ATcheology  (1890).  299 
sqq. 

U.  Benigni. 

San  Miniato,  a 
city  and  diocese  in 
the  Province  of  Flor- 
ence, Central  Italy. 
It  is  first  mentioned 
in  the  eighth  century  as  a  "vicus  Wallari",  where  there 
was  an  oratory  of  S.  Miniato,  the  celebrated  martyr 
St.  Mennas.  From  the  eleventh  century  the  in- 
habitants of  this  town  were  frequently  at  war  with 
those  of  S.  Genesio,  a  neighbouring  city,  where  many 
councils  and  assemblies  of  the  nobles  and  cities  of 
Tuscany  were  held  (1074,  Council  of  S.  Peter  Igneus; 
1197,  Treaty  of  S.  Gene.sio  between  Celcstine  III  and 
the  Tuscan  cities).  The  inhabitants  of  San  Miniato 
were  of  the  imperial  party  and  the  town  was  frequently 
occupied  by  German  soldiers;  the  emperors  granted 
them  many  privileges.  In  1248  S.  Genesio  was  com- 
pletely destroyed.  In  1397  the  town  was  taken  by 
Florence.  From  1248  the  chapter  was  transferred 
from  S.  Genesio  to  S.  Miniato,  and  in  1526  the  head 
of  the  chapter  obtained  the  episcopal  dignity.  In 
1408  the  Republic  of  Florence  wished  to  have  it 
made  an  episcopal  see,  being  then  a  suffragan  of 
Lucca.  Finally  in  1622  it  became  a  diocese.  Its 
first  bishop  was  Francesco  Nori  (1624).  The  diocese 
is  a  suffragan  of  Florence  and  contains  100  parishes 
with  240  secular  and  42  regular  priests;  108,0(30  souls; 
5  convents  of  men,  13  convents  of  nuns,  with  7 
educational  establishments  for  girls. 

RoNDONi,  Memorie  storiche  de  S.  Miniato  al  Tedesco  (Venice, 
1877);    Cappelletti,  Le  chiese  d' Italia,  XVII    (Venice,   1844), 

305-47.  u.  Benigni. 

Sannazaro,  Jacopo  (Latin,  Actius  Sincerus  San- 
nazakius),  Italian  and  Latin  poet,  b.  at  Naples,  28 


SANOK 


450 


SAN  SALVADOR 


Julj',  1458;  d.  at  Rome,  in  Aug.,  1530.  He  belonged 
to  a  family  of  Spanish  origin,  in  the  service  of  Charles 
III  of  Durazzo,  holding  the  fief  of  Rocca  di  Mon- 
dragone  from  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
He  received  the  name  by  which  he  was  known  be- 
cause he  was  bom  on  the  feast  of  St.  Nazarius.  Hav- 
ing lost  his  father  at  an  early  age,  he  lived  in  Nocera 
d'ii  Pagani  ■with  his  mother;  returning  later  to  Naples, 
he  studied  with  Pontanus  and  was  a  member  of  the 
academy  which  assembled  about  this  scholar.  In 
this  group  he  received  the  name  of  Sincerus  by  which 
he  is  often  mentioned  in  the  letters  of  the  times.  He 
was  closely  allied  with  the  princes  of  Aragon  at 
Naples  and  followed  Federico  into  the  exile  to  which 
he  was  driven  by  Louis  XII,  King  of  France  (1521). 
Relying  on  the  generosity  of  the  French  king,  Federico 
established  himself  at  Tours,  and  Sannazaro  remained 
with  him  until  his 
death  (9  Sept., 
1504).  During 
this  time  Sanna- 
zaro discovered  a 
MS.  containing 
the  hitherto  un- 
knowai  works  of 
Latin  poets,  the 
fragment  of  the 
"Halieutica"  as- 
cribed to  Ovid  bv 
PHny  the  Elder, 
the  "Cynegetica" 
of  Grattius  Falis- 
cus,  Nemesianus, 
and  Rutilius  Na- 
matianus.MS.227 
of  Vienna  is  actu- 
ally the  portion  of 
this  MS.  which 
contained  the 
"Halieutica"  and 
Grattius.  MS. 
3261  of  Vienna  is 
only  a  sixteenth-century  copy  of  Nemesianus  and 
Rutilius.  On  returning  to  his  own  country  Sannazaro 
left  it  no  more.  In  his  old  age  he  had  the  sorrow  of 
seeing  his  villa  of  Tore  di  Mergoglino  destroyed  by 
the  imperial  forces.  He  had  just  rebuilt  it  when  he 
died. 

In  his  youth  Sannazaro  wrote  a  work  in  mingled 
verse  and  prose  entitled  "Arcadia",  in  which  he  de- 
scribed the  pastoral  hfe  according  to  the  traditions  of 
the  ancients.  This  work  had  great  success;  it  was 
translated  and  imitated,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century 
had  about  sixty  editions;  the  first  was  at  Venice,  12 
May,  1502.  The  "Arcadia"  gave  rise  to  the  pastoral 
style  of  writing  much  cultivated  in  Italy  and  else- 
where. A  scholarly  edition  was  issued  byScherillo 
(Turin,  1888).  Sannazaro's  other  Italian  poems  were 
sonnets  and  canzoni.  All  were  collected  by  Galli- 
poli  (Pa^lua,  1723).  A  correspondent  of  Paulus  Ma- 
nutius  mentions  another  work  called  "  Gliomero", 
now  lost.  A  work  entitled  "Far.sa"  affords  an  idea 
of  it.  It  consisted  of  detached  .scenes  of  a  popular 
character,  written  in  the  Neapolitan  dialect,  and  in- 
tended to  amuse  the  king's  Court. 

Sannazaro's  poetical  reputation  was  formerly 
founder!  on  his  Latin  works:  the  "Ecologia;  piscato- 
riae",  bucolic  verses  concr;rning  fishers,  elegi(!s  and 
epigrams  containing  interesting  details  concerning 
the  life  of  the  poet  and  contemporaries,  his  mistres.ses, 
Carmosina,  Bonifacia,  and  Ca-ssandra,  and  which 
are  the  best  evidences  of  his  sentiments;  "Salices", 
account  of  metamorphosis;  and  especially  the  "De 
partu  Virginia",  a  prjem  in  three  cantos  which  cost 
him  twenty  years  of  labour  and  won  him  the  name 
of  the  Christian  Virgil.  These  works  show  that  he 
waa  a  diligent  imitator  of  Ovid  and  Virgil.     The 


Christian  poem  is  a  mixture  of  the  antique  and  the 
modern,  of  mythology  and  Biblical  reminiscences. 
Digressions  often  far  from  happy  are  inserted  as  orna- 
ments, for  instance  in  connexion  with  the  ass  of  the 
manger  Sannazaro  reviews  all  the  legends  in  which 
the  ass  has  played  a  part.  He  also  abuses  allegorical 
personifications.  The  poem,  praised  by  Leo  X  before 
it  was  known,  is  dedicated  to  Clement  VII,  who 
covered  it  with  praise.  Sannazaro's  Latin  works 
were  pubhshed  by  Volpi  (Padua,  1719)  and  Janus 
Bronkhusius  (1728). 

Belox,  De  Sannazarii  rita  el  opcribus  (Paris,  1S95);  Sandys, 
A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  II  (Cambridge,  1908), 90;  Sabba- 
DiNi,  La  scoperte  dei  codici  latini  e  greci  (Florence,  1905),  140; 
Campaux,  De  ecloga  piscatoria  qualem  a  reteribus  adumbralam 
absolvere  sibi  proposuerit  Sannazarius  (Paris,  1859) ;  Nunziante, 
Un  divorzio  ai  tempi  di  Leone  X  (Rome,  1887) ;  Torraca,  Jacopo 
Sannazaro  (Naples,  1879). 

Paul  Lejay. 

Sanok.  See  Przemysl,  Sambor,  and  Sanok,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

San  Salvador,  the  name  given  by  Columbus  to  his 
first  discovery  in  the  New  World.  It  is  one  of  the  Ba- 
hama group  of  islands,  and  lies  to  the  east  of  the 
southern  extremity  of  Florida  in  24'  north  lat.  and 
75°  west  long.  It  is  also  known  under  its  Indian 
name  of  Guanahani.  There  has  been  endless  discus- 
sion as  to  exactly  which  one  of  the  Bahamas  was  first 
discovered  by  Columbus,  and  it  is  probable  that  men 
will  never  quite  agree.  All  that  can  be  said  posi- 
tively is  that  the  first  land  discovered  by  him  was  one 
of  the  Bahamas.  Different  writers  have  at  different 
times  claimed  the  distinction  for  Cat  Island,  Samana, 
Mariguana,  Grand  Turk,  and  Watling's  Island.  The 
name  San  Salvador  was  given  to  Cat  Island  during 
the  .seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  but  it  does 
not  fit  the  description  given  by  Columbus  in  as  much 
as  it  is  not  low  and  level  and  has  no  interior  lagoon. 
A  noteworthy  attempt  to  prove  that  Samana  was  the 
landfall  was  made  by  Captain  Gustavus  V.  Fox,  of 
the  United  States  Navy,  in  the  "Report  of  the  United 
States  Coast  Survey"  for  1880.  Navarrete  first  ad- 
vocated Grand  Turk  Island  in  182(5,  and  Varnhagen 
in  1864  wrote  a  paper  advocating  Mariguana.  The 
weight  of  modern  testimony,  however,  seems  to  fa- 
vour Watling's  Island.  Lieutenant  J.  B.  Murdoch, 
an  American  naval  officer,  made  a  careful  study  of  the 
subject,  and  found  that  in  Columbus's  description 
there  were  more  points  of  resemblance  in  Watling's 
Island  than  in  any  other  of  the  group.  Among  others 
whose  opinion  carries  weight,  and  who  are  advocates 
of  Watling's  Island,  are  Major,  the  map-custodian  of 
the  British  Museum,  and  the  eminent  geographer, 
Clements  R.  Markham. 
See  bibliography  of  Columbus. 

Ventura  Fuentes. 

San  Salvador,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Salva- 
TORis  IN  America  Centrali). — The  Republic  of 
Salvador,  often  incorrectly  called  San  Salvador  from 
the  name  of  its  capital,  is  the  smallest  and  most  thickly 
populated  state  of  Central  America.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  W.  by  Guatemala,  on  the  N.  and  F.  by  Hon- 
duras, on  the  S.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  lies  between 
92°  26'  55  '  and  89°  57'  W.  long.,  and  14°  27'  20" 
and  1.3°  2'  22"  N.  lat.,  being  50  miles  long  and  186 
mil(!s  broad.  It  is  7225  square  miles  in  area  and  is 
divided  politically  into  14  departments.  The  popula- 
tion in  190()  was  1,116,2.53,  of  whom  772,200  were 
Ladinos  (mixed  Spanish  and  Indian  blood),  and  224,- 
648  Indians,  the  latter  being  principally  Pipils,  but 
partly  Chontalli.  The  chief  towns  are  San  Salvador 
(59,540),  Santa  Anna  (48,120),  San  Miguel  (24,768), 
and  Nueva  San  Salvador  (18,770);  the  chief  port  is 
La  Union  (4000).  With  the  exception  of  a  narrow 
alluvial  seaboard  Salvador  is  a  high  i)lateau,  inter- 
sected by  mountains  containing  many  volcanoes,  five 
of  which  are  active.     The  most  remarkable  of  the 


SAN  SEPOLCRO 


451 


SAN   SEPOLCRO 


latter,  Izalco,  popularly  called  the  "Lighthouse  of 
Salvador"  from  its  almost  continual  eruptions  (three 
to  each  hour),  broke  out  in  a  small  plain  on  23  Febru- 
ary, 1770,  and  has  now  a  cone  over  6000  feet  high. 
Earthquakes  are  frequent  and  San  Salvador  has  often 
suffered,  especially  on  16  April,  1854,  when  the  entire 
city  was  levelled  in  ten  seconds.  Salvador  is  rich  in 
minerals,  gold,  silver,  copper,  mercury,  and  coal  being 
mined.  The  chief  imports,  which  in  1909  had  a  value 
of  $4,176,931  (gold),  are  machinery,  woollens,  cottons, 
drugs,  hardware;  the  chief  exports  besides  minerals 
are  indigo,  sugar,  coffee,  and  Peruvian  balsam,  valued 
at  $16,963,000  (silver). 

Railroads  connect  the  capital  with  Santa  Tecla 
and  the  port  of  Acajutla.  Education  is  free  and 
compulsory  but  very  backward.  There  are  about 
600  primary  schools,  with  30,000  enrolled  pupils,  20 
high  schools  (3  normal,  and  3  technical),  and  a  uni- 
versity at  San  Salvador  with  faculties  of  engineering, 
law,  medicine,  pharmacy,  and  dentistry.  The  Na- 
tional Library  (founded  1867)  has  20,000  volumes;  a 
National  Museum  was  established  in  1903.     Salvador 


form  of  his  name  is  the  traditional  one,  Piero  dblla 
Francesca,  which  is  better  authenticated  in  con- 
temporary documents  than  what  in  late  research  had 
been  supposed  to  be  the  more  correct  form,  Piero 
DEI  Franceschi  (Gronau,  "Repertorium  fiir  Kunst- 
wissenschaft",  xxiii,  392-4).  He  was  the  son  of  a 
notary,  Ser  Benedetto,  a  member  of  an  influential  fam- 
ily long  identified  with  the  government  of  the  town — 
the  Franceschi.  His  earliest  artistic  training  is  unknown, 
but  he  was  active  at  Perugia  in  1438,  probably  as  an 
assistant  to  Domenico  Veneziano,  and  he  was  certainly 
employed  in  the  same  capacity  in  the  Church  of 
Sant'  Egidio,  Florence,  in  1439-40.  To  Domenico 
and  probably  also  to  Paolo  Uccello,  Florentine  Realists 
who  did  much  for  the  technical  side  of  painting,  we 
may  ascribe  the  formative  influence  in  his  art.  Piero 
first  appears  as  an  independent  master  in  1445,  when 
he  painted  a  still  surviving  altar-piece  of  many  panels 
for  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Misericordia  in  his  native 
town.  He  is  said  to  have  laboured  with  Domenico 
at  Loreto,  and  he  was  certainly  at  Rimini  in  1451, 
when  he  painted  a  remarkable  fresco  in  the  chapel  of 


Portrait  of  Battist.v  Sforz.i 
Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence 


Piero  da  San  Skpolcro 

Virgin  and  Child 

Villamarina  Collection,  Koine 


was  invaded  by  Pedro  Alvarado  in  1524,  emancipated 
from  Spain  in  1821.  and  made  part  of  the  Fcsderation 
of  Central  America  in  1824.  In  1839  it  became  free. 
Its  Constitution  finally  adopted  in  1886  provides  for  a 
president  elected  for  four  years,  with  a  right  to  nomi- 
nate four  secretaries  of  State,  and  a  National  Assembly 
of  70  members,  42  of  whom  are  landholders,  all  elected 
by  universal  male  suffrage.  Catholici.sm  is  the  state 
religion,  but  the  civil  authorities  are  hostile  and  have 
confiscated  the  sources  of  church  revenue.  San  Sal- 
vador on  the  Rio  Acelhuate  in  the  valley  of  Las  Ha- 
macas  was  founded  in  1528,  but  rebuilt  in  1539,  about 
twenty  miles  south  of  its  first  site;  the  diocese,  erected 
on  28  September,  1842,  is  suffragan  of  Santiago  of 
Guatemala,  and  contains  .589  churches  and  chapels, 
190  secular  and  45  regular  clergy,  70  nuns,  89  parishes, 
3  colleges  for  boys  and  3  for  girls,  and  a  Catholic  popu- 
lation of  over  1,000,000;  the  present  bishop,  who  suc- 
ceeded Mgr.  Carcamo,  is  Mgr.  Antonio  Adolfo  P6rez 
y  Aguilar,  born  at  San  Salvador,  20  March,  1839,  and 
appointed  on  13  January,  1888. 

Salvador:  Bulletin  nf  the  Bureau  of  American  Republics 
(Washington,  1892);  Reyes,  Nociones  de  historia  del  Salvador 
(San  Salvador,  1S8G);  Pector,  Notice  sur  le  Salvador  (Paris, 
1889);  Gon.sAlez,  Datos  sobre  la  republica  de  El  Salvador  (San 
Salvador,   1901);    Keane,  Central  America,  II   (London,   1901), 

183-94.  A.  A.  MacErlean. 

San  Sepolcro.  See  Borgo  San-Sepolcro,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

San  Sepolcro,  Piero  da,  painter,  b.  at  Borgo  San- 
Sepolcro,  about  1420;  d.  there,  1492.     The  most  usual 


POKTKAIT   OF   FkDICUIGO    DA    MaLATESTA 

Uffizi  Gallery,  Floience 

San  Francesco,  representing  Sigismondo  Malatesta, 
Lord  of  Rimini,  venerating  his  patron  saint,  Sigismund. 
After  this  he  was  active  at  Ferrara  and  Bologna,  and, 
according  to  Vasari,  he  also  decorated  a  room  of  the 
Vatican  for  Pope  Nicholas  V.  In  1454  he  was  again 
at  Borgo  San-Sepolcro,  wh(ire  in  1460  he  painted  a 
fresco  of  St.  Louis  of  Toulouse,  now  preserved  in  the 
town  hall.  It  was  probably  between  this  date  and 
1466  that  he  painted  his  masterpiece,  the  frescoes  in 
the  choir  of  San  Francesco  at  Arezzo,  which  may, 
however,  have  been  begun  earlier.  The  subject  is 
the  "Story  of  the  True  Cross",  involving  incidents 
beginning  with  Adam  and  including  the  story  of 
Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  Constantine  and 
St.  llelcna,  Ileraclius  and  Chosroes.  These  frescoes 
rank  with  those  by  Masaccio  in  the  Brancacci  Chapel 
as  epoch-making  in  the  decorative  art  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

In  the  spring  of  1469  Piero  was  at  Urbino,  lodging 
in  the  house  of  Giovanni  Santi,  the  father  of  Raphael, 
in  which  city  a  large  part  of  his  later  activity  occurred. 
From  this  period  probably  dates  the  remarkable 
diptych  of  the  Uffizi,  containing  the  portraits  of  the 
Duke  (then  Count)  of  Urbino,  the  ideal  prince  of  the 
Renaissance,  and  the  mild  and  refined  image  of  his 
wife,  Battista  Sforza,  with  allegorical  triumphs  of  these 
rulers  on  the  reverse  sides.  About  this  tiiiic  he  also 
painted  the  well-known  "Madonna"  with  saints  and 
angels,  vencrat(Hl  by  the  Duke  of  Urbino,  now  in  the 
Brera,  Milan;  and  the  "Flagellation  of  Christ",  a 


SAN  SEVERING 


452 


SAN  SEVERING 


beautiful  architectural  composition  in  the  cathedral 
of  Urbino.  According  to  a  well-established  tradition 
recorded  by  Vasari,  Piero  became  blind  in  later 
life.  At  this  time  he  wrote  his  celebrated  treatises: 
"De  quinque  corporibus  regularibus",  which  show 
him  as  a  great  geometrician,  and  his  "Prospettiva 
Pingendi"  (Treatise  on  Perspective),  a  manual  for 
painters.  This  work  reveals  him  as  the  greatest 
master  of  the  theory  of  perspective  in  his  day, 
and  gave  him  a  reputation  beyond  Italy.  His 
testament  is  recorded  5  July,  1478,  and  he  was 
interred  in  the  present  cathedral  of  his  native  town 
in  1492. 

His  principal  frescoes,  besides  those  mentioned, 
include:  the  "Resurrection,"  in  the  town  haU  of 
Borgo  San-Sepolcro,  a  marvellous  piece  of  foreshort- 
ening and  per- 


'itir<o  i)r.j.i.A  KRWCF.srA pittouk 

,     ,.,     UAI.  BOnrx^AS..SEPOL.    ,-^.^_., 


spective;  a  "Her- 
cules", now  in  the 
possession  of  Mrs. 
J.  L.  Gardner  of 
Boston ;  and  an  im- 
liosing  "Magda- 
len" in  the  ca- 
thedral of  Arezzo. 
Amone;  his  panel 
pieces  are  the  "Tri- 
umph of  Chivalry" 
(New  York  His- 
torical SocietjO ; 
the  "Baptism  of 
Christ"  and  the 
"Nativity",  both 
in  the  National 
Gallery,  London, 
the  latter  the  first 
moonlight  scene  in 
modern  painting; 
an  "Annunciation" 
in  the  Gallery  at  Perugia;  "St.  Michael"  in  London; 
and  "St.  Thomas  Aquinas"  in  the  Poldo-Pezzoli  Mu- 
seum at  Milan.  The  charming  "Portrait  of  a  Young 
Girl"  attributed  to  him  in  this  gallery,  as  well  as  similar 
portraits  in  other  European  galleries,  is  now  generally 
a.scribed  to  another  artist.  Piero's  position  in  the  devel- 
opment of  Itahan  art  is  a  unique  and  important  one. 
He  is  the  greatest  of  that  group  of  pathfinders,  the 
Realists,  whose  scientific  experiments  created  the 
grammar  of  modern  painting.  In  mural  painting 
he  towers  above  his  contemporaries  as  the  worthy 
successor  of  Masaccio,  and  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween his  art  and  that  of  Raphael.  In  the  Central 
Italian  painting  of  the  Renaissance  his  position  was 
a  dominant  one;  he  may  be  called  the  founder  of 
the  school.  The  chief  masters  of  the  following  gener- 
ation —  Perugino  and  the  rest  —  either  studied 
under  or  were  influenced  by  him.  Of  his  more 
intimate  pupils,  Meiozzo  da  Fori!  carried  perspective 
to  the  highest  perfection,  while  Luca  Signnrelli 
developed  figure-painting  to  the  greatest  excellence 
attained  before  Michelangelo.  To  Florentine  excel- 
lence of  draughtsmanship  Piero  united  the  suix-rior 
colour  sense  of  the  Umbrians.  Most  remarkable 
was  his  rendition  of  light  and  air,  in  which  he  easily 
surpassed  his  contemporaries.  His  types  are  seldom 
beautiful,  hut  they  are  strong  and  primeval,  admir- 
ably modelled,  and  as  impassive  as  the  sculptures 
at  the  Parthenon.  Perhaps  the  most  striking  feature 
of  his  art  is  this  wonderful  objectivity,  in  which 
regard  he  stands  rivalled  by  Holbein  and  VelAzquez 
alone  in  modern  painting. 

Vahabi,  Vile,  ej].  Milanesi  (1878);  tr.  Blahhfield  and  Hop- 
kins (1897).  (){  the  hioKTuph'utH  of  Pioro  that  by  Pichi  (JIofko 
BauSaptAcTO,  189.3)  is  rath(;r  a  panegyric;  that  of  Wittino 
(Strasburg.  1898)  ia  the  most  scholarly;  another  is  by  Waters 
(London,  1901);  Ricci,  Piero  della  Francenra  (Rome,  1910),  is 
best  for  illustrations, 

Georqe  Kriehn. 


San  Severino,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Severini). — 
San  Severino  is  a  small  town  and  seat  of  a  bishopric 
in  the  Province  of  Macerata  in  the  Marches,  Cen- 
tral Italy.  It  has  two  cathedrals,  the  ancient  one 
near  the  old  castle,  which  contains  precious  quattro- 
cento paintings  and  inlaid  stalls  in  the  choir.  The 
new  cathedral,  dating  from  1821,  is  the  old  Augustin- 
ian  church  and  contains  paintings  by  Pinturicchio 
(Madonna),  Antonio  and  Gian  Gentile  da  S.  Severino, 
Pomarancio,  and  others.  The  Churches  of  S.  Domen- 
ico  andS.  Francesco  are  also  adorned  with  fine  pictures; 
the  Church  of  S.  Maria  in  Doliolo,  formerly  a  Benedic- 
tine monastery,  has  a  crypt  believed  to  be  the  ancient 
temple  of  Feronia  converted  later  into  a  church.  The 
two  sanctuaries  of  S.  M.  del  Glorioso  and  S.  Maria  dei 
Lumi  are  worthy  of  note.  The  most  imi)ortant  civic 
building  is  the  communal  palace,  which  contains  some 
halls  richly  decorated  and  a  collection  of  ancient  in- 
scriptions. S.  Severino  stands  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Septempeda,  a  city  of  Picenum,  later  a  Roman 
colony.  In  the  eighth  century  it  was  a  fortress  of  the 
Duchy  of  Spoleto.  The  Church  of  San  Severino  gave 
its  name  later  to  the  new  town  that  grew  up  around  it. 
In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  it  was  at  con- 
stant war  with  the  neighbouring  cities,  especially  with 
Camerino,  and  always  supported  the  cause  of  the 
emperors,  particularly  of  Frederick  II.  Louis  the 
Bavarian  named  as  vicar  of  San  Severino  Smeduccio 
della  Scala,  who,  passing  into  the  service  of  the 
Holy  See,  gave  great  help  to  the  expedition  of  Cardinal 


Thl  Old  Cathkdkal,  .San  Sevkkino,  XIII  Centuhy 


Albornoz  and  became  feudal  lord  of  San  Severino,  a 
post  held  later  by  his  son  Onofrio.  His  nephew 
Antonio  paid  with  his  life  for  attempting  to  resist 
the  arms  of  Pietro  Colonna,  the  representative  of 
Martin  V;  his  sons  tried  in  vain  to  recapture  the  city 
(1434),  which  remained  immediately  subject  to  the 
Iloly  See.  Among  its  illustrious  sons  were:  the 
lacquer-workers  Indovino  and  Giovanni  di  Pier  Gia- 
como,  the  poet  Panfilo,  the  physician  Eustacchi,  the 
condottiere  FrancucciodaS.  Severino,  and  the  Francis- 
can, Saint  Pacifico.  A  local  legend  attributes  the 
preaching  of  the  Gospel  to  a  holy  priest,  Maro.  Under 
the  high  altar  of  the  cathedral  are  the  relics  of  Sts. 


o  g 

2  1 

-^  a 

O  u 


SANSEVERINO 


453 


SANSOVINO 


Hippolytus  and  Justinus.  The  saint  from  whom  the 
city  takes  its  name  is  commonly  beUeved  to  have  been 
Bishop  of  Septempeda,  but  his  date  is  unknown.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  S.  Severino  was  suffragan  of  Came- 
rino;  the  old  cathedral  was  then  a  collegiate  church. 
In  1566  it  had  a  seminary.  In  1586  Sixtus  V  made  it 
an  episcopal  see,  the  first  bishop  being  Orazio  Marzari. 
Among  his  successors  were:  Angelo  Maldacchini, 
O.P.  (1646);  Alessandro  Calai  Organi  (1702),  the 
restorer  of  the  seminary;  Angelo  Antonio  Anselmi 
(1792),  exiled  in  1809.  The  diocese  is  a  suffragan  of 
Fermo,  and  has  29  parishes  with  18,000  inhabitants, 
3  houses  of  nuns  and  5  of  religious  men. 

Gentili,  De  ecclesia  septempedina  (Macerata,  1836),  8;  Idem, 
Sopra  gli  Smeducci  vicari  per  Santa  Chiesa  in  S.  Severino 
(Macerata,  1841);  Cappelletti,  Le  chiese  d' Italia,  III  (Venice, 
1854). 

U.  Benigni. 

Sanseverino,  Gaetano,  restorer  of  the  Scholastic 
philosophy  in  Italy,  b.  at  Naples,  1811;  d.  there  of 
cholera,  16  Nov.,  1865.  He  made  his  studies  in  the 
seminary  at  Nola,  where  his  uncle  was  rector.  After 
his  ordination,  he  continued  the  study  of  philosophy, 
with  the  special  view  of  comparing  the  various  sys- 
tems. He  became  a  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Naples, 
profe.s.sor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the  seminary, 
substitute-professor  of  ethics  in  the  university,  and 
eventually  scritlore  in  the  National  Library. 

Sanseverino  had  been  educated  in  the  Cartesian 
system,  which  at  that  time  prevailed  in  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal schools  of  Italy,  but  his  comparative  study  of  the 
various  systems  supplied  him  with  a  deeper  knowledge 
of  the  Scholastics,  particularly  St.  Thomas,  and  of  the 
intimate  connexion  between  their  doctrine  and  that 
of  the  Fathers.  From  that  time  until  the  end  of  his 
life,  his  only  concern  was  the  restoration  of  Christian 
philosophy,  in  which,  not  only  by  his  writing.s,  but 
by  his  lectures  and  conversation,  ho  was  of  supreme 
assistance  to  Leo  Xllt.  With  this  object,  he  founded, 
in  1840,  "La  ScienzaelaFede",  a  periodical  which  was 
continued  until  1887  by  his  disciples  and  associates,  Si- 
gnoriello  and  d'Amelio.  His  principal  work  is  "Philo- 
sophia  chri.stiana  cumantiqua  et  nova  coinparata"  (5 
vols.,  Naples,  1862).  This  work  is  incomplete,  covering 
only  logic  and  psychology,  but  one  hardly  knows 
whether  to  admire  mo.st  its  lucidity  of  exposition,  ita 
copiousness  of  argument,  or  the  vast  number  of  au- 
thors cited  and  discussed.  His  first  work  on  a  large 
scale,  and  that  which  assured  his  reputation  as  a 
teacher,  was  "I  principali  sistemi  della  filosofia  del 
criterio,  discussi  colla  dottrina  de'  Santi  Padri  e  de' 
Dottori  del  Medio  Evo"  (Naples,  1850-53),  in  which 
he  discusses  and  confutes  the  systems  of  Hume  and 
Gioberti  on  the  criterion  of  truth.  Another  important 
work  of  his  is  "La  dottrina  di  S.  Tomma.so  .suU'  origine 
del  potere  e  sul  preteso  diritto  di  resistenza"  (on  the 
origin  of  authority  and  the  pretended  right  of  resist- 
ance) (Naples,  1853).  "Elementa  philosophise  Chris- 
tiana;" (Naples,  1864-70)  was  written  for  tlieuseof  his 
classes,  the  last  volume  (Ethics)  being  edited  by  his 
disciple  Signoriello.  Besides  the  two  already  men- 
tioned, his  discii)les  included  Talamo,  Frisco  (now  a 
cardinal)  Cacace,  Galvanese,  and  Giustiniani. 

PitovERiTA,  Del  Canonico  Gaetano  Sanseverino  (Naples,  1867). 

U.  Benigni. 

San  Severe,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Severini),  in 
the  Province  of  Foggia  (Capitanata),  Southern  Italy, 
situated  in  a  fertile  plain,  watered  by  the  Radicosa 
and  Triolo.  The  origin  of  the  city  is  obscure.  Un- 
der the  Normans  it  became  the  residence  of  a  prince, 
then  passed  under  the  Benedictines  of  Torre  Mag- 
giore,  later  under  the  Templars,  on  whose  suppres- 
sion it  was  disamortized.  It  suffered  frequently  from 
earthquakes,  especially  in  1627,  1828,  and  1851.  The 
Diocese  of  San  Severo  was  established  in  1580.  The 
episcopal  see  is  only  the  continuation  of  that  of  Civi- 


tate,  which  in  turn  succeeded  the  ancient  city  of 
Teanum.  Civitate,  where  the  papal  troops  were  de- 
feated by  the  Normans  in  1052,  was  an  episcopal  see 
in  1062  under  Amelgerio.  Among  the  bishops  of 
Civitate  were:  Fra  Lorenzo  da  Viterbo,  O.P.  (1330),  a 
distinguished  theologian;  Luca  Gaurico  (1545),  a 
distinguished  astronomer;  Franc.  Alciato  (1561),  later 
a  cardinal.  In  1580  the  first  occupant  of  the  See  of 
San  Severo  was  Martino  de  Martini,  a  Jesuit;  other 
bishops  are:  Fabrizio  Verallo  (1606),  nuncio  in  Swit- 
zerland, later  a  cardinal;  Franc.  Venturi  (1625),  a 
distinguished  canonist  and  defender  of  the  rights  of 
the  Church;  Orazio  Fortunati  (1670),  who  restored 
the  cathedral;  Carlo  Felice  de  Mata  (1678),  founder 
of  the  seminary,  which  was  enlarged  by  two  of  his 
successors.  Carlo  Franc.  Giacoli  (1703)  and  Fra  Dio- 
dato  Sommantico  (1720),  an  Augustinian.  To  this 
diocese  was  added  later  the  territory  of  the  ancient 
Dragonaria,  a  city  built  in  1005  by  the  Byzantine 
Governor  of  Apulia.  Cappelletti  gives  the  names 
of  twent3^-eight  bishops  between  1061  and  1657.  It 
seems  never  to  have  been  formally  suppressed.  The 
diocese  is  suffragan  of  Benevento,  and  has  7  parishes, 
about  46,000  inhabitants,  and  6  religious  houses. 

Cappelletti,  Le  chiese  d'ltalia,  XIX  (Venice,  1857). 

U.  Benigni. 

Sansovino,  Andrea  Contucci  del,  b.  at  Monte 
San  Sovino,  Arezzo,  1460;  d.  1529.  He  was  a  sculp- 
tor of  the  transition  period  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
and  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  showed 
the  qualities  of  the  transition  in  his  style.  He  worked 
at  first  in  his  native  town  and  in  Florence,  then  for 
about  eight  years  in  Portugal.  His  best  sculptures 
were  produced  in  Florence  and  Rome  after  his  return. 
The  "Baptism  of  Christ",  a  marble  group  in  the 
baptistery  of  Florence,  contains  very  effective  fig- 
ures finely  contrasted.  The  monuments  of  Cardinals 
Bas.so  and  Sforza  Visconti  in  the  Church  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Popolo  at  Rome  are  also  striking.  They 
prove  that  he  was  able  to  combine  what  he  had 
fully  learned  from  antiquity  with  the  art  of  the 
mature  early  Renaissance.  The  central  and  chief 
niche  stands  upon  a  high  pedestal  between  Corinthian 
pillars;  above  the  round  arch  of  this  niche  is  an  attic, 
that  supports  the  figure  of  God  the  Father  upon  a 
shell  throne  with  a  genius  at  each  side.  In  the  cen- 
tral niche  the  dead  are  represented  asleep,  their 
heads  resting  upon  their  arms,  awaiting  resurrection ; 
above  them  in  the  vault  of  the  niche  is  a  figure  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  on  a  smaller  scale.  In  and  above 
side  niches  are  the  cardinal  virtues,  which  rise  up- 
wards towards  the  genii  just  mentioned.  The  unity 
in  the  conception  of  the  structure  and  the  rich  dec- 
oration of  the  details  show  great  skill  in  art.  It  has 
been  often  asserted  that  there  is  a  touch  of  the  spirit 
of  Raphael  in  the  combination  of  dignified  repose 
and  subdued  movement  in  the  figures.  Sansovino  had 
a  great  task  given  him  in  the  Casa  Santa  of  Loreto, 
where  he  was  to  produce  nine  reliefs  and  twenty- 
two  statues.  Bramante  had  encased  the  Casa  with  a 
marble  covering,  architecturally  very  fine,  which  was 
designed  to  have  rich  plastic  ornament.  Sansovino 
was  only  able  to  make  a  few  of  the  reliefs,  such  as  the 
"Annunciation"  and  the  "Birth  of  Christ",  the  other 
reliefs  and  statuettes  were  made  by  his  assistants  and 
successors. 

Among  these  pupils  was  Andrea  Tatti  (about  1480- 
1570)  of  Florence,  who  took  the  name  of  his  master 
Sansovino.  During  the  forty  later  years  of  his  long 
life  he  was,  next  to  Titian,  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished artists  of  Venice.  In  Venice  he  represents 
the  second  epoch  of  the  grand  style  in  art,  and  was 
the  head  of  a  clearly  defined  school.  Among  his  first 
works  were  a  statue  of  St.  James,  at  Florence,  which, 
with  exception  of  a  somewhat  unnatural  pose,  has 
striking  qualities,  and  a  Bacchus  entirely  in  the  an- 


SANTA    AGATA 


454 


SANTA   CASA 


JO^IOI 


mmtttttii  '^m^'tm 


tique  stj'le,  also  at  Florence.  Among  his  works  at 
Rome  isthe  celebrated  "Madonna  del  Prato"  in  the 
Church  of  San  Agostino.  At  Venice  he  adopted  a 
style  more  akin  to  painting,  which  is  pleasant  in 
small  works,  especially  if  movement  and  animation 
are  expressed.  Among  works  of  this  class  are  the 
statuettes  of  Pallas.  Apollo.  Mercury,  Pax.  the  relief 
of  Phrixos  and  Helle  which  adorns  the  small  loggia 
he  built  on  the  campanile,  a  terra-cot ta  Madonna, 
formerly  gilded,  placed  within  the  campanile,  a  statue 
of  Hope,  and  a  group  containing  the  Madonna  in 
the  palace  of  the  Doges.  The  colossal  statues  of 
Alars  and  Neptune  in  front  of  this  palace  are  less  suc- 
cessful. The  bronze  reliefs  around  the  choir  of  San 
Marco,  and  the 
bronze  doors  of  the 
sacristy  of  the  same, 
however,  show  pic- 
torial beauty.  San- 
sovino  made  for  the 
Chapel  of  St.  An- 
thony at  Padua  a 
marble  relief  in  the 
grand  style;  it  repre- 
sents the  bringing 
back  to  life  of  one 
who  had  been 
drowned,  and  con- 
tains extraordinary 
contrasts  of  graceful 
and  repellent  figures 
As  an  architect, 
Jacopo  adopted 
much  from  the  style 
of  Bramante,  and  in 
architecture  as  well 
as  in  sculpture 
brought  much  of  the 
Roman  Cinquecento 
to  Venice.  Mischief 
architectural  work,  the  public  library,  has  always  been 
greatly  admired  on  account  of  its  classic  form,  rich 
decoration,  and  whollj''  pictorial  arrangement.  It 
displays  a  double  order  of  columns,  Tuscan  and  Ionic, 
over  which  is  a  rich  frieze  and  a  balustrade  with 
statues.  One  of  his  most  beautiful  decorative  works 
Ls  the  small  loggia  mentioned  before.  The  best  of  the 
churches  he  built  is  San  Cliorgio  de'  Greci;  it  has  al- 
ways been  greatly  admired  for  its  fine  work  in  mar- 
ble. Another  building  of  tixsteful  construction  that 
Ls  ascribed  to  Sansovino  is  the  Palazzo  Corner  della 
Ca  Grande.  Sansovino  gathered  about  him  a  large 
number  of  a.ssLstants,  who  executed  the  decorations 
of  the  buildings  he  erected.  These  buildings  were 
architecturally  entirely  in  accordance  with  Venetian 
taste.  Thus  he  was  universally  regarded  in  Venice 
a.s  a  master  of  the  first  rank,  and  felt  himself  com- 
pletely at  home  there,  although  at  first  he  had 
thought  of  going  to  France. 

CicoGNARA,  Sloria  rlella  Scultura,  II   CPrato,   1823);    Sch6n- 

FELD,  A.  Sangovino  urui  xeine  Schuk  (StuttRart,  1881);   Perkins, 

I'rUmn    Sculptors    (London,   1808);     Le  fabbriche  di    Venezia,    I 

(Venice,  1815) ;  Mou.nier,  Venixe,  ses  arts  dicomlifs  (Paris,  1889). 

G.    GlETMANN. 

Santa  Agata  dei  Goti,  Diocese  of  (S.  AoATHiB 
GoTHORUM),  in  the  Province  of  Benevento,  Southern 
Italy;  the  city,  situated  on  a  hill  at  the  ba.se  of  Monte 
Tabumo,  contains  an  ancient  castle.  In  the  vicinity 
are  many  antifjuities  and  inscriptifjns  belonging  to  the 
ancient  Satirtula,  a  town  taken  from  the  Samnites  by 
the  lixjmans  anrl  ma^lc;  a  Latin  colony  in  ;il.'i.  The 
p^^s(;nt  name  is  derived  possibly  from  a  body  of  f  Joths 
who  took  refuge  there  after  the  battlc!  of  Vesuvius 
(552) ;  the  church  of  the  TJoths  in  Rome,  too,  wiw  dedi- 
cated to  St .  ,\gatlia.  In  800  Emperor  ]/>uis  1 1  capturfni 
it  from  the  Byzantines  who  harl  taken  it  from  the 
Duchy  of  Benevento ;  in  1066  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 


S.INSOVINO'S   LOGGETT  \ 


the  Normans.  It  was  almost  completely  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  in  1456.  Besides  the  Saticulan  in- 
scriptions there  are  two  Christian  inscriiitions  of  the 
sixth  century.  It  had  already  been  an  ejMscopal  see 
for  a  long  time  when  the  first  bishop,  Madelfridus,  was 
appointed  (970) ;  a  metrical  epitaph  of  his  successor, 
Adelardus,  is  preserved  in  the  Church  of  the  Miseri- 
cordia.  Of  the  other  bishops  we  may  mention  Felice 
Peretti  (1566),  later  Sixtus  V;  Fehciano  Ninguarda, 
O.P.  (1583),  visitor  of  the  monasteries  in  Germany; 
Giulio  Santucci,  a  Conventual  (1595),  and  distin- 
guished theologian;  FiUppo  Albini  (1699),  who  re- 
formed the  disciphne  and  studies  of  his  clergy;  St. 
Alphonsus  Liguori  (1762-75).  The  diocese  is  suf- 
fragan of  Beneven- 
to; it  contains  26 
parishes,  63  churches 
and  chapels,  93  secu- 
lar and  14  regular 
priests,  30,500  in- 
habitants, 3  houses 
of  religious  men  and 
(i  of  nuns,  1  institute 
for  young  boys,  and 
3  for  j^oung  girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  chi- 
ese  d'llalia,  XIX  (Ven- 
ice, 1870) ;  Anon.,  Memo- 
ric  istnriche  della  cittd  di 
S.  A  gala  dei  Goti  (Na- 
ples, 1841). 

U.  Benigni. 

Santa  Casa  di 
Loreto. — Since  the 
fifteenth  century, 
and  possibly  even 
earlier,  the  "Holy 
House"  of  Loreto 
has  been  numbered 
among  the  most  fa- 
mous shrines  of  Italy.  Loreto  is  a  small  town  a  few  miles 
south  of  Ancona  and  near  the  sea.  Its  mo.st  conspicu- 
ous building  is  the  basilica.  This  dome-crowned  edi- 
fice, which  with  its  various  annexes  took  more  than  a 
century  to  build  and  adorn  under  the  direction  of 
many  famous  artists,  serves  merely  as  the  setting  of 
a  tiny  cottage  standing  within  the  basihca  itself. 
Though  the  rough  walls  of  the  little  building  have 
been  raised  in  height  and  arc  cased  externally  in 
richly  sculptured  marble,  the  interior  measures  only 
thirty-one  feet  by  thirteen.  An  altar  stands  at  one 
end  beneath  a  statue,  blackened  with  age,  of  the  Virgin 
Mother  and  her  Divine  Infant.  As  the  inscription. 
Hie  Verbum  caro  factum  est,  reminds  us,  this  building 
is  honoured  by  Christians  as  the  veritable  cottage  at 
Nazareth  in  which  the  Holy  Family  lived,  and  the 
Word  became  incarnate.  Another  inscription  of  the 
sixteenth  century  which  decorates  the;  eastern  facade 
of  the  basilica  sets  forth  at  greater  length  the  tradi- 
tion whicn  makes  this  shrine  so  famous.  "Christian 
pilgrim  ",  it  says,  "you  have  before  your  eyes  the  Holy 
Hou.se  of  Loreto,  venerable  throughout  the  world  on 
account  of  the  Divine  mysteries  accomplished  in  it 
and  the  glorious  miracles  herein  wrought.  It  is  here 
that  most  holy  Mary,  Mother  of  CJod,  was  born;  here 
that  she  w.as  .saluted  by  the  Angel,  here  that  the  eter- 
nal Word  of  God  was  made  I'^lesh.  Angels  conveyed 
this  House  from  Palestine  to  the  town  Tersato  in 
Illyri.'i  in  the  year  of  .sjilv.-il ion  1291  in  the  pontificate 
of  Nichol.as  IV.  Three  years  later,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  |)oritific!ite  of  Jioniface  VIII,  it  was  carried 
again  by  the  ininistry  of  angels  and  jilaced  in  a  wood 
near  this  hill,  in  the  vicinity  of  Hecanati,  in  the  March 
of  Ancona;  where  having  changed  its  station  thrice 
in  the  course  of  a  year,  at  length,  by  the  will  of  God, 
it  took  up  its  permanent  i)osif ion  on  this  sj)ot  three 
hundred  years  ago  [now,  of  course,  more  than  600] 


SANTA  CASA 


455 


SANTA  CASA 


Ever  since  that  time,  both  the  extraordinary  nature 
of  the  event  having  called  forth  the  admiring  wonder 
of  the  neighbouring  people  and  the  fame  of  tlie  mira- 
olcs  wrought  in  this  sanctuary  having  sjM-cad  far  and 
wide,  this  Holy  House,  whose  walls  do  not  rest,  on  any 
foundation  and  yet  remain  solid  and  uninjured  after 
eo  many  centuries,  has  been  held  in  reverence  by 
all  nations."  That  the  traditions  thus  boldly  pro- 
claimed to  the  world  have  been  fully  sanctioned  by  the 
Holy  See  cannot  for  a  moment  remain  in  doubt. 
More  than  forty-seven  popes  have  in  various  waj^s 
rendered  honour  to  the  shrine,  and  an  immense  num- 
ber of  Bulls  and  Briefs  proclaim  without  qualification 
the  identity  of  the  Santa  Casa  di  Loreto  with  the 
Holy  House  of  Nazareth.  As  lately  as  1894  Leo  XHI, 
in  a  Brief  conceding  various  spiritual  favours  for  the 
sixth  centenary  of  the  translation  of  the  Santa  Casa 
to  Loreto,  summed  up  its  history  in  these  words: 
"The  happy  House  of  Nazareth  is  justly  regarded  and 
honoured  as  one  of  the  most  sacred  monuments  of  the 
Christian  Faith :  and  this  is  made  clear  by  the  many 
diplomas  and  acts,  gifts  and  jirivileges  accorded  by 
Our  predecessors.  No  sooner  was  it,  as  the  annals 
of  the  Church  bear  witness,  nuraculously  translated 
to  Italy  and  exposed  to  the  veneration  of  the  faithful 
on  the  hills  of  Loreto  than  it  drew  to  itself  the  fer- 
vent devotion  and  pious  asjjiration  of  all,  and  as  the 
ages  rolled  on,  it  maintained  this  devotion  ever  ar- 
dent. "  If,  then,  we  would  sum  up  the  arguments 
which  sustain  the  popular  belief  in  this  miraculous 
transference  of  the  Holy  House  from  Palestine  to 
Italy  by  the  hands  of  angels,  we  may  enumerate  the 
following  points:  (1)  The  reiterated  approval  of  the 
tradition  by  many  different  popes  from  Julius  II  in 
1511  down  to  the  present  d:iy.  This  approval  was 
emphasized  liturgically  by  an  insertion  in  the  Roman 
Martyrologium  in  Kiti!)  and  the  concession  of  a  proper 
Office  and  Mass  in  1()99,  and  it  has  been  ratified  by 
the  deep  veneration  paid  to  the  shrine  by  such  holy 
men  as  St.  Charles  BoiTomeo,  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  St. 
Ignatius  Loyola,  St.  Alphonsus  Liguori,  and  many 
other  servants  of  God.  (2)  Loreto  has  been  for  cen- 
turies the  scene  of  numerous  miraculous  cures.  Even 
the  sceptical  Montaigne  in  15S2  professed  himself  a 
believer  in  the  reality  of  these  (Waters,  "Journal  of 
Montaigne's  Travels",  II,  197-207).  (3)  The  stone 
of  which  the  original  walls  of  the  Santa  Casa  are  built 
and  the  mortar  used  in  their  construction  are  not  such 
as  are  known  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Loreto.  But 
both  stone  and  mortar  are,  it  is  alleged,  chemically 
identical  with  the  materials  most  commonly  found  in 
Nazareth.  (4)  The  Santa  Casa  does  not  rest  and  has 
never  rested  upon  foundations  sunk  into  the  earth 
where  it  now  stands.  The  point  was  formally  investi- 
gated in  1751  under  Benedict  XIV.  What  was  then 
found  is  therefore  fully  in  accord  with  the  tradition  of 
a  building  transferred  bodily  from  some  more  primi- 
tive site. 

It  must  be  acknowledged,  however,  that  recent 
historical  criticism  has  shown  that  in  other  directions 
the  Laurctan  tradition  is  beset  with  difficulties  of  the 
gravest  kind.  These  have  been  skilfully  presented 
in  the  much-discussed  work  of  Canon  Chevalier, 
"Notre  Dame  de  Lorette"  (Paris,  1906).  It  is  pos- 
sible that  the  author  lias  in  some  directions  pressed 
his  evidence  too  far  and  has  perhaps  overstated  his 
case,  but  despite  the  efforts  of  such  WTiters  as  Esch- 
bach,  Faloci-Pulignani,  Thomas,  andKresser,  the  sub- 
stance of  his  argument  remains  intact  and  has  aa 
yet  found  no  adequate  reply.  The  general  conten- 
tion of  the  work  may  be  summarized  under  five  heads: 
(1)  From  the  accounts  left  by  pilgrims  and  others  it 
appears  that  before  the  time  of  the  first  translation 
(1291)  there  was  no  little  cottage  venerated  at  Naza- 
reth which  could  correspond  in  any  satisfactory  way 
with  the  present  Santa  Casa  at  Loreto.  So  far  as 
there  was  question  at  all  in  Nazareth  of  the  abode  in 


which  the  Blessed  Virgin  had  lived,  what  was  pointed 
out  to  pilgrims  was  a  sort  of  natural  cavern  in  the 
rock.  (2)  Oriental  chnmicles  and  similar  accounts  of 
pilgrims  are  absolutely  silent  as  to  any  change  which 
took  place  in  1291.  There  is  no  word  of  the  disap- 
pearance at  Nazareth  of  a  shrine  formerly  held  in 
veneration  there.  It  is  not  until  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury that  we  find  among  Orientals  any  hint  of  a  con- 
sciousness of  their  loss  and  then  the  idea  was  sug- 
gested from  the  West.  (3)  There  are  charters  and 
other  contemporary  documents  which  prove  that  a 
church  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  already  ex- 
isted at  Loreto  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries, 
that  is  to  say,  before  the  epoch  of  the  supposed  trans- 
lation. (4)  When  we  eliminate  certain  documents 
commonly  appealed  to  as  early  testimonies  to  the  tra- 
dition, but  demonstrably  spurious,  we  find  that  no 
writer  can  be  shown  to  have  heard  of  the  miraculous 
translation  of  the  Holy  House  before  1472,  i.  e.,  180 
years  after  the  event  is  supposed  to  have  taken  place. 
The  shrine  and  church  of  Loreto  are  indeed  often 
mentioned;  the  church  is  sjxid  by  Paul  II  in  1464  to 
have  been  miraculously  founded,  and  it  is  further  im- 
plied that  th(>  statue  or  image  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
was  brought  there  by  angels,  but  all  this  differs  widely 
from  details  of  the  later  accounts.  (5)  If  the  papal 
confirmations  of  the  Loreto  tradition  are  more  closely 
scrutinized  it  will  be  perceived  that  not  only  are  they 
relatively  late  (the  first  Bull  mentioning  the  transla- 
tion is  that  of  Julius  II  in  1507),  but  that  they  are  at 
first  very  guarded  in  expression,  for  Julius  introduces 
the  clause  "ut  pie  creditur  et  fama  est",  while  they 
are  obviously  dependent  upon  the  extravagant  leaflet 
compiled  about  1472  by  Teramano. 

It  is  clearly  impossible  to  review  here  at  any  length 
the  discussions  to  which  Canon  Chevalier's  book  has 
given  rise.  As  a  glance  at  the  appended  bibliography 
will  show,  the  balance  of  recent  Catholic  opinion,  as 
represented  by  the  more  learned  Catholic  periodicals, 
is  strongly  in  his  favour.  The  weight  of  such  argu- 
ments as  those  drawn  from  the  nature  of  the  stone  or 
brick  (for  even  on  this  point  there  is  no  agreement) 
and  the  absence  of  foundations,  is  hard  to  estimate. 
As  regards  the  date  at  which  the  translation  tradition 
makes  its  appearance,  much  stress  has  recently  been 
laid  by  its  defenders  upon  a  fresco  at  Gubbio  repre- 
senting angels  carrying  a  little  house,  which  is  as- 
signed by  them  to  about  the  year  1350  (see  Faloci- 
Pulignani,  "La  s.  Casa  di  Loreto  secondo  un  affresco 
di  Gubbio",  Rome,  1907).  Also  there  are  appar- 
ently other  representations  of  the  same  kind  for  which 
an  early  date  is  claimed  (see  Monti  in  "La  Scuola 
Cattolica",  Nov.  and  Dec,  1910).  But  it  is  by  no 
means  safe  to  assume  that  every  picture  of  angels 
carrying  a  house  must  refer  to  Loreto,  while  the  as- 
signing of  dates  to  such  frescoes  from  internal  evi- 
dence is  one  of  extreme  difficulty.  With  regard  to 
the  papal  pronouncements,  it  is  to  be  remembered 
that  in  such  decrees  which  have  nothing  to  do  with 
faith  or  morals  or  even  with  historical  facts  which 
can  in  any  way  be  called  dogmatic,  theologians  have 
always  recognized  that  there  is  no  intention  on  the 
part  of  the  Holy  See  of  defining  a  truth,  or  even  of 
placing  it  outside  the  sphere  of  scientific;  criticism  so 
long  as  that  critici.sm  is  respectful  and  takes  due  re- 
gard of  place  and  season.  On  the  other  hand,  even 
if  the  Loreto  tradition  be  rejected,  there  is  no  reason 
to  doubt  that  the  simple  faith  of  those  who  in  all  con- 
fidence have  sought  help  at  this  shrine  of  the  Mother 
of  God  may  often  have  been  rewarded,  even  miracu- 
lously. Further  it  is  quite  unnecessary  to  suppose 
that  any  deliberate  fraud  has  found  a  place  in  the  evo- 
lution of  this  history.  There  is  much  to  suggest  that 
a  sufficient  explanation  is  afforded  by  the  hypothesis 
that  a  miracle-working  statue  or  picture  of  the  Ma- 
donna was  brought  from  Tersato  in  Illyria  to  Loreto 
by  some  pious  Christians  and  was  then  confounded 


SANTA  CATHARINA 


456 


SANTA  FE 


with  the  ancieni  rustic  chapel  in  wliich  it  was  har- 
boured, the  veneration  formerly  given  to  the  statue 
afterwards  passing  to  the  building.  Finally,  we  shall 
do  well  to  notice  that  at  Walsingham,  the  principal 
Enghsh  shrine  of  the  Blessed  \'irgin,  the  legend  of 
''Our  Lady's  house"  (written  down  about  1465,  and 
consequently  earlier  than  the  Loreto  translation  tra- 
dition) supposes  that  in  the  time  of  St.  Edward  the 
Confessor  a  chapel  was  built  at  Walsingham,  which 
exactly  reproduced  the  dimensions  of  the  Holy  House 
of  Nazareth.  When  the  carpenters  could  not  com- 
plete it  upon  the  site  that  had  been  chosen,  it  was 
transferred  and  erected  by  angels'  hands  at  a  spot  two 
hundred  feet  away  (see  "The  Month",  Sep.,  1901). 
Curiouslj'  enough  this  spot,  like  Loreto,  was  within  a 
short  distance  of  the  sea,  and  Our  Lady  of  Walsing- 
ham was  known  to  Erasmus  as  Diva  Parathalassia. 

Of  the  older  works  on  Loreto  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention 
Angelita,  Historia  della  Translatiotxe  etc.  (first  printed  about 
1579,  but  written  in  1531).  It  is  founded  upon  Baptista  Man- 
tuanus,  Teramano,  and  a  supposed  "tabula,  vetustate  et  carie 
consumpta".  The  oflScial  history  of  Loreto  may  be  regarded  as 
contained  in  Tcrselunus,  Laurelance  Historian  Libri  V  (Rome, 
1697) ;  and  Martorelli,  Teatro  istorico  delta  S.  Casa  nazarena 
(3  vols.,  fol.,  Rome,  1732-1735).  In  more  modern  times  we  have 
VoGEL,  De  ecclesiis  Recanatevsi  et  Lauretana  (written  in  1806, 
but  printed  only  in  1859),  and  Leopardi,  La  Santa  Casa  di  Loreto 
(Lugano,  1841).  Both  these  writers  showed  an  appreciation  of 
the  grave  critical  difficulties  attending  the  Loreto  tradition,  but 
they  did  not  venture  openly  to  express  disbelief. 

A  new  epoch  in  this  discussion,  already  heralded  by  Father 
Grisah  at  the  Munich  Congress;  by  M.  Boudinhon  in  Revue  du 
Clerge  FranQais,  XXII  (1900),  241;  by  L.  de  Feis,  La  S.  Casa  di 
Nazareth  (Florence,  1905);  and  by  Le  Hardi,  Hist,  de  Nazareth 
(Paris,  1905),  was  brought  to  a  climax  by  Chevalier,  Notre 
Dame  de  Lorette  (Paris,  1908).  Among  the  learned  Catholic  re- 
views which  have  openly  pronounced  in  Chevalier's  favour  may 
be  mentioned  the  Analecta  BoUandiana,  XXV  (1907),  478-94; 
Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach,  II  (1906),  373;  Revue  Biblique,  IV 
(1907),  467-70;  Revue  Benedictine,  XXIII  (1906),  626-27; 
ZeiUchriftf.  Kath.  Theologie,  XXVI  (1906),  109-16;  Theologische 
QuartaUchrift,  XCIX  (1907),  124-27;  Revue  d'Histoire  Eccle- 
aiaslique,  VII  (1906),  639-58;  Historisches  Jahrbuch,  XXVIII 
(1907),  356;  585;  Revue  des  Questions  Historigues,  LXXXI  (1907), 
308-10;  Revue  Pratique  d'Apologetique,  111.(1906),  7 5S-61) ;  Revue 
du  Clerge  FranQais,  XLIX  (1906),  80-86,  and  many  others.  On 
the  same  side  may  further  be  mentioned  Boudinhon,  La  Question 
di  Loretto  (Paris,  1910) ;  Bouffard,  La  Verite  sur  le  Fait  de  Lorelto 
(Paris,  1910);  and  Chevalier,  La  Santa  Casa  de  Loretto  (Paris, 
1908).  See  also  the  articles  on  Loretto  in  the  Kirchliches  Hand- 
lexihon  (Munich,  1908),  and  in  Herder's  Konversations-Lexikon 
(Freiburg,  1907). 

The  articles  that  have  openly  taken  part  against  Chevalier's 
thesis  are  comparatively  few  and  unimportant,  for  example  in 
L'Ami  du  Clerge  (1906-1907);  a  series  of  articles  by  A.  Monti  in 
La  Scuola  Cattolica  (Milan,  Jan. — Dec,  1910);  and  other  articles 
of  more  weight  by  G.  Kresser  in  Theol.  praktische  Quartalschrift 
(Tubingen,  1909),  212-247.  Isolated  works  in  favour  of  the 
Loreto  tradition  are  those  of  Eschbach,  La  Verite  sur  le  Fait  de 
LoreUe  (Paris,  1908) ;  F.  Thomas,  La  Santa  Casa  dans  VHistoire 
(Paris,  1909) ;  Poisat,  La  Question  de  Loreto  (Paris,  1907) ;  Faloci- 
PuLiG.NANi,  La  Santa  Casa  di  Loreto  secondo  un  affresco  di  Gubbio 
(Rome,  1907). 

For  an  account  of  Loreto  in  English  reproducing  the  old  tradi- 
tions from  an  uncritical  standpoint  see  Garratt,  Loreto  the  New 
Nazareth  (London,  1895). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Saxita  Catharina  (Florianopolis),  Diocese  of 
(Fl<jki.\noi'olitana),  a  suffragan  see  of  the  Archdio- 
cese of  Porto  Alegrc  (Sacj  Pedro  do  Rio  Grande),  in 
Brazil,  South  America,  created  in  1906.  Its  jurisdic- 
tion comprises  the  whole  territory  of  the  State  of 
Santa  Catharina,  with  a  Catholic  population  of 
405,800  out  of  a  total  of  about  5(X),(KX)  m  1909.  It  is 
conjectured  that  in  1515  .Juan  Diaz  Soils  and  Vicente 
Yanez  Pinz6n  were  the  first  white  men  who  explored 
thi.s  territory,  landing  in  the  Bay  dos  Perdidos;  Se- 
bastian Cabot  in  1525  and  Diego  Garcia  in  1526  dis- 
embarked on  the  Island  of  Santa  Catharina,  then 
known  as  the  Island  of  Patos,  and  thence  they  pro- 
ceeded to  the  River  Plate.  Santa  Catharina  was  con- 
stituted as  a  state  of  the  Brazilian  Union  11  Jun., 
1891,  having  a^lhered  to  the  republic  on  17  Nov., 
181K).  The  dioces*;  comprises  the  following  vicariates: 
P'lorianopolifl,  Santo  Antonio,  lilumenau.  Brusque, 
Crfisciuma,  Sarj  Francisco,  Itajahy,  Joinville,  Garo- 
paba,  Lagcs,  Laguna,  Tijucaa,  Tubarao,  Urussanga, 
and  Villa   Nova.     The  residence  of  the   bishop   is 


Florianopolis,  the  capital  of  the  state,  situated  on  the 
western  shore  of  Santa  Catharina  Island,  with  a  mag- 
nificent harbour,  pleasant  climate,  and  a  population 
of  18,000. 

Besides  the  cathedral,  there  are  at  Florianopolis 
12  churches,  2  monasteries  (Franciscans  and  Jesuits), 
and  2  nunneries  (Sisters  of  the  Divine  Providence, 
and  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception).  The 
diocese  maintains  an  excellent  high  school  in  the 
state  capital,  known  as  the  Gymnasio  de  Santa  Ca- 
tharina. There  is  also  a  college  for  girls,  in  charge  of 
the  Sisters  of  the  Divine  Providence,  called  Collegio 
Corayao  de  Jesus.  The  same  sisters  have  an  asylum 
for  orphan  girls.  Florianopolis  has  12  Catholic  cem- 
eteries, 1  Protestant,  and  1  municipal.  The  Fran- 
ciscan Friars  publish  two  periodicals  in  the  diocese, 
one  entitled  "L'Amico",  in  the  city  of  Blumenau,  and 
another,  "Sineta  de  Ceo",  in  the  city  of  Lages.  There 
is  another  Catholic  publication,  edited  in  Florian- 
opolis by  the  Associagao  Protectora  des  Desamjiara- 
dos  Irmao  Joaquim,  under  the  name  of  "A  Fc". 
The  present  bishop  of  Santa  Catharina,  Rt.  Rev. 
Joao  Becker,  was  b.  24  Feb.,  1879,  and  appointed 
3  May,  1908. 

Julian  Morexo-Lacalle. 

Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra,  Diocese  of  (Sanct^ 
Crucis  de  Sierra),  in  Bolivia,  erected  on  6  July, 
1605,  as  suffragan  of  Lima,  but  since  2  July,  1609,  it 
has  been  dependent  on  La  Plata  (Charcas) .  Its  first 
bishop  was  Mgr.  Antonio  Calderon.  The  diocese 
comprises  the  departments  of  Santa  Cruz  (area  126,- 
000  sq.  miles)  and  Beni  (district  of  Mojos),  which  lie 
immediately  west  of  Matto  Grosso,  Brazil.  The  rural 
and  wooded  portions  of  these  regions  are  inhabited 
by  the  Moxos  Indians,  among  whom  flourishing  mis- 
sions were  established  in  the  seventeenth  century  by 
the  Jesuits  under  Father  Cipriano  Baraza.  The  con- 
verted Indians  numbered  over  50,000  at  the  time  of 
the  suppression  of  the  society,  after  which  the  mis- 
sions dechned  rapidly;  but  though  many  of  the  Moxos 
are  now  pagan,  the  converted  Indians  are  fervent 
Catholics  (see  Moxos  Indians).  The  town  of  Santa 
Cruz  (population  18,000),  formerly  called  also  San 
Lorenzo  de  la  Frontera,  was  founded  in  1575  on  the 
Rio  Piray,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes.  The 
diocese  contains  about  250,000  Catholics;  103  priests; 
54  parishes;  and  74  churches  and  chapels.  The  pres- 
ent bishop,  Mgr.  Belisario  Santistevan,  was  born  in 
the  Diocese  of  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  on  2  January, 
1843;  and  on  26  June,  1890,  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Dansara  and  coadjutor  to  Mgr.  Baldivia,  whom  he 
succeeded  on  1  June,  1891. 

Sitiopsis  estad.  y  geogrdf.  de  la  republ.  de  Bolivia  (La  Paz,  1903) ; 
Ballivan,  Docum.  para  la  hist,  geogrdf.  de  la  repHb.  de  Bolivia  (La 
Paz,  1900). 

Santa  Fe,  Archdiocese  of  (Sanct^e  Fidei  in 
America),  in  New  Mexico,  was  erected  by  Pius  IX 
in  1850  and  created  an  archbishopric  in  1875.  It 
comprised  at  first  the  three  territories  of  New  Mexico, 
Colorado,  and  Arizona,  detached  from  the  Diocese 
of  Durango,  Mexico.  Since  1868  it  has  been  re- 
stricted to  the  larger  portion  of  New  Mexico.  Suf- 
fragans: the  Bishops  of  Tucson  and  Denver.  The 
Catholics  number  about  150,000,  of  whom  12,000  are 
Pueblo  Indians  (Tigucx  and  (^uirix);  the  majority 
of  the  remainder  arc  of  Spanish  descent.  There  are 
(1911)  50  parish  churches  and  '.i.W  mission  chapels, 
most  of  them  built  or  thoroughly  repaired  since 
1852;  these  are  attended  by  70  priests,  50  seculars, 
and  20  regulars  (Jesuits  and  Franciscans) ;  eat^h  priest 
is  a  mis.sionary  in  charge  of  from  six  to  ten  scattered 
missions,  some  of  them  very  far  apart.  Of  the 
priests,  there  is  but  one  native;  the  others  are  French, 
Belgian,  German,  and  Italian.  Their  ministerial 
work  is  governed  by  the  decrees  of  the  Baltimore 
Council  and  of  the  diocesan  synods;    they  have  ec- 


{  j-^J^^^ 


i.)  <^- 


SANTA  FE 


457 


SANTA  LUCIA 


clesiastical  conferences  and  annual  retreats;  they 
form  also  among  themselves  a  Clergy  Relief  Union, 
incorporated,  and  they  are  aided  by  160  rehgious: 
Christian  Brothers,  Sisters  of  Loretto,  of  Charity, 
of  the  Most  Blessed  Sacrament,  of  St.  Francis,  and 
of  the  Sorrowful  Mother. 

Despite  the  increase  in  recent  years  of  English- 
speaking  people  and  the  exclusive  teaching  of  English 
in  the  schools,  the  diocese  at  large  still  is  a  Spanish- 
American  community.  The  assimilation  of  Mexicans 
and  Indians  with  the  Americans,  desired  by  some 
and  dreaded  by  many,  is  an  arduous  task.  All  the 
priests  speak  both  English  and  Spanish,  besides  other 
languages;  but  Spanish  to-day  is  and  must  be  used 
in  the  confessional  and  from  the  pulpit,  except  in 
a  few  cities  (Santa  Fe,  Albuquerque,  Las  Vegas, 
Raton,  and  Roswell)  where  both  languages  are  used. 
Likewise  some  of  the  old  Spanish  customs  are  re- 
tained, such  as  the  administration  of  confirmation 
to  infants.  "Roma  non  objiciente",  the  privileges 
of  Spain  in  regard  to  fast  and  abstinence  are  still 
in  vogue,  and  the  clergy  live  on  the  offerings  of  the 
faithful  without  regular  salaries.  Education,  when 
the  diocese  was  erected,  was  limited  to  the  teaching 
in  Spanish,  exclusively,  of  the  primary  elements  of 
religion,  reading,  and  writing,  by  either  the  priests 
or  lay  teachers.  To-day  there  are  in  the  archdiocese: 
a  college  for  boys  (Santa  Fe);  a  high  school  (.\1- 
buquerque);  eight  academies  for  young  ladies;  two 
boarding  schools  for  Indians;  parochial  schools  in 
Santa  Fe,  Albuquerque,  Las  Vegas,  Bernalillo, 
Jemez,  Pena  Blanca,  Folsom,  Goswell,  and  Gallup, 
with  an  average,  daily  increasing,  of  4000  children 
under  Catholic  care,  despite  the  poverty  of  the  people, 
and  the  moneyed  competition  of  the  Presbj'terian 
and  Methodist  missions,  which  have  selected  New 
Mexico  as  a  field  of  operation.  There  is  also  in  the 
diocese  an  orphan  asylum  for  girls,  and  four  sanatoria 
with  hospital  annexed,  conducted  by  sisters,  at 
Santa  Fe,  Albuquerque,  Las  Vegas,  and  Roswell. 
The  flourishing  condition  of  the  diocese  is  due  to  the 
zeal  of:  Archbishop  Lamy  (1850-85);  Archbishop 
Salpointe  (1885-94);  Archbishop  Chapelle  (1894- 
97);  Archbishop  Bourgade  (1898-1908)  who  built 
the  cathedral  at  Tucson;  and  Archbishop  Pitaval 
(1909 — ) ;  and  of  the  pioneers:  Very  Rev.  P.  Eguillon, 
Revs.  G.  J.  Machebceuf  (afterwards  Bishop  of  Den- 
ver), J.  B.  Salpointe,  Gabriel  Ussel,  J.  M.  Coudert, 
A.  Truchard,  J.  B.  Halliere,  J.  B.  Fayet,  J.  Fialon, 
C.  Seux,  A.  Fourchegu  etc. 

The  relations  between  Church  and  State  authori- 
ties are  harmonious.  Mass  is  said  and  catechism 
taught  at  the  penitentiary  and  at  the  Government 
Indian  school;  at  every  Legislature  a  Catholic  priest 
is  chosen  for  chaplain  and  in  nearly  all  country  schools 
the  teachers  are  Catholics. 

Salpointe,  Soldierx  of  the  Cross  (Banning,  1898);  Defodri, 
Historical  Sketch  of  the  Cnlhulic  Church  in  New  Mexico  (San 
Francisco,  1887);  Engelhakdt,  The  Franciscans  in  Arizona 
(Harbor  Springs,  1899).  j^^ES    DeRACHES. 

Santa  Fe,  Diocese  of  (Sanct.e  Fidei),  in  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  suffragan  of  Buenos  Aires,  compris- 
ing the  Province  of  Santa  Fe  and  the  gobenui- 
ciones  of  El  Chaco  and  Formosa,  was  separated  from 
the  Diocese  of  Parand  (q.  v.)  on  15  February,  1897. 
Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe  (feast  on  second  Sunday  after 
Easter)  is  the  diocesan  patroness.  The  first  and  pres- 
ent bishop,  Mgr.  Juan  Agustin  Boneo  (b.  at  Buenos 
Aires,  23  June,  1845,  preconized  titular  Bishop  of 
Arsinoe,  15  June,  189:3,  as  coadjutor  to  Archbishop 
Le6n  Federico  Aneiros  of  Buenos  Aires),  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  newly-established  see  on  27  January, 
1898.  The  diocese  has  an  area  of  about  145,100  sq. 
miles  and  a  population  of  860,000  inhabitants,  mostly 
Catholics.  There  are  65  parishes;  48  vice-parishes; 
4  Indian  mission  centres;  143  secular  clergy:  aconciliar 
seminary  with  45  students,  and  two  students  in  the 


CoUegio  Pio  Latino  Americano,  Rome;  52  Catholic 
colleges  and  schools,  in  addition  to  several  Indian 
schools,  orphanages  at  Santa  Fe,  Esperanza,  and  Ro- 
sario,  and  Catholic  hospitals  at  Santa  Fe,  Rosario, 
Esperanza,  and  Las  Rosas.  The  rehgious  orders  in- 
clude the  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Fathers  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  Missionaries  of  the  Heart  of  Mary, 
Fathers  of  the  Divine  Word,  Jesuits,  and  Salesians; 
Dominicanesses,  Capuchin  Sisters,  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Union,  Daughters  of  Maria  Auxihadora.  Among  the 
many  Cathohc  societies  are  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer, 
Workingmen's  Circles,  Conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  and  Priests'  Eucharistic  League.  The  Prov- 
ince of  Santa  Fe  has  an  area  of  about  51,000  sq.  miles, 
and  a  population  of  820,000.  Its  capital,  Santa  Fe 
(45,000  inhabitants),  situated  on  the  Rio  Salado, 
founded  by  Juan  de  Garay  in  1573,  is  associated  with 
the  most  important  events  in  the  national  life  of  Ar- 
gentina. In  its  old  cabildo,  or  city  hall,  the  Con- 
stituent Congress  of  1882  and  the  National  Conven- 
tion of  1860  were  held.  It  contains  a  Jesuit  Church 
(1654)  and  a  large  Jesuit  College  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception.  There  are  14  churches  and  chapels  be- 
sides the  3  parish  churches;  the  cathedral  is  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Joseph.  The  "El  amigo  del  obrero"  is 
published  twice  a  week  in  the  interests  of  the  Catho- 
hc working  man. 

Rosario,  186  miles  from  Buenos  Aires,  the  most 
important  city  in  the  diocese  and  the  second  in  the  re- 
public, was  founded  in  1725  by  Francisco  Godoy,  as  a 
settlement  for  the  Calchaqui  Indians,  and  has  a  popu- 
lation of  about  190,000.  It  is  situated  on  the  Rio 
Paranil,  and,  being  the  centre  of  the  Argentine  grain 
trade,  has  very  extensive  commerce,  its  exports  be- 
ing valued  at  £7,301,398  and  its  imports  at£6,397,- 
579  in  1907.  The  town  is  beautifully  constructed  and 
contains  many  large  public  parks.  In  1907  it  had  130 
schools  attended  by  15,563  children.  It  contains  4 
parishes,  2  vice-parishes,  and  22  public  or  semi-public 
chapels,  including  an  Irish  church.  The  Salesian 
Fathers  publish  a  weekly  newspaper  "Cristoforo  Co- 
lombo". 

The  Territories  of  El  Chaco  (area  about  52,700 
sq.  miles,  population  25,000)  and  Formosa  (about 
41,400  sq.  miles,  population  15,000)  from  real  mis- 
sionary regions  entrusted  to  the  ministrations  of 
the  Franciscans  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Santa  Fe,  of  La 
Merced  at  Corrientes,  and  of  San  Francisco  in  Salta. 
They  form  a  vicariate  forane  with  h(>adquarter8  at 
Resistencia,  R.  P.  Pedro  Iturralde,  commissary  gen- 
eral of  the  Franciscan  missionaries,  being  the  present 
vicar  forane.  There  is  a  parish  church  at  Resistencia 
and  chapels  at  San  Josd  and  San  Antonio.  The 
fathers  have  a  mission  (founded  in  1900)  at  Nueva 
Pompeya  on  the  Rio  Bermejo,  with  a  school  for  the 
Mataco  Indians  (40  pupils);  they  minister  also  in  the 
colonies  of  La  Florencia  (Rio  Teuco),  La  Buenaven- 
tura (Rio  Pilcomayo),  and  Frias  (Rio  Berno).  There 
is  a  native  mission  at  San  Francisco  Solano  (Rio  Pil- 
comayo), with  an  Indian  school  equipped  with  forges, 
saw-mills,  carpentry  works,  and  a  sugar  factory. 
The  mission  at  San  Francisco  de  Laishi  near  Colonia 
Aquino  (Formosa)  is  exclusively  of  the  Tobas  Indians, 
and  contains  a  similar  school  directed  by  the  mission- 
aries. 

UssHER,  Guia  eclesidstica  Argentina  (Buenos  Aires,  1910); 
Anuario  estadlstica  de  la  ciudad  del  Rosario  de  Santa  Fe  (Rosario, 
current  issue);  Martin,  Through  Five  Republics  of  South  America 
(London,  1906);  Hirst,  Argentina  (London,  1910),  264-77. 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Santa  Lucia  del  Mela,  Prelature  Nullius  of, 
within  the  territory  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Messina, 
Sicily,  now  governed  by  an  administrator  Apostolic, 
who  is  always  a  titular  bishop.  It  comprises  7  par- 
ishes, with  72  secular  priests. 

For  bibliography,  see  Sicily;  Messina. 

U.  Benigni. 


SANTA  MARIA 


458 


SANTANDER 


Santa  Maria,  Diocese  of  (  Saxct.e  Mari.e),  a 
Brazilian  see,  suffragan  of  Porto  Alegre.  The  latter, 
formerly  known  as  the  See  of  Sao  Pedro  do  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul,  was  recently  made  an  archdiocese  and  divided, 
three  new  sees,  Pelotas,  Santa  Maria,  and  Uruguay- 
ana,  being  separated  from  it  bj'  Pius  X  on  15  August, 
1910.  Santa  Maria,  containing  twenty-two  parishes, 
comprises  the  central  and  northern  portions  of  the 
State  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  The  climate  is  mild,  the 
country  well  wooded  and  fertile,  and  there  are  many 
colonies  of  German  and  Italian  emigrants  among  the 
inhabitants,  who  are  chiefly  engaged  in  agriculture 
and  cattle-raising.  The  population  is  almost  entirely 
Catholic.  The  most  imiwrtant  town  is  C.achoeira  on 
the  Rio  Jacuhy,  120  miles  west  of  Porto  Alegre,  with 
which  it  communicates  by  steamboat  and  rail.  The 
other  main  centres  of  population  are  Rio  Pardo,  Santa 
Alaria,  Passo  Fundo,  and  Cruz  Alta  By  a  Decree  of 
the  S.  C.  of  the  Consistory.  6  Feb.,  1911,  Mgr.  Lima  de 
Valverde  was  appointed  first  Bishop  of  Santa  Maria. 

Galanti,  Compendia  de  Historia  de  Brazil  (Sao   Paulo,  1896- 

1905).  A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Santa  Maria  de  Monserrato  (Beatje  Marine 

ViRGINIS   DE    MOXTSERRATO),   AbBEY   NULLIUS   OF. — 

When  it  was  determined  to  restore  the  Benedictine 
Order  in  Brazil,  the  work  was  entrusted  to  the  Con- 
gregation of  Beuron,  24  April,  1895,  under  the  guid- 
ance of  Dom  Gerard  van  Caloen.  By  a  Decree  of  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Consistory,  15  Aug., 
1907,  the  Abbey  of  Santa  Maria  de  Monserrato  at  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  founded  in  1589,  was  erected  into  an  ab- 
bey nullius,  the  same  Decree  separated  the  District 
of  Rio  Bran  CO  from  the  Diocese  of  Amazones  and 
subjected  it  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Abbot  of  Santa 
Maria  de  Monserrato.  This  mission  territory  is 
bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by  Venezuela,  on  the 
north  and  east  by  British  Guiana,  on  the  south  by  the 
two  branches  of  the  Rio  Branco  and  the  Rio  Negro. 
In  the  early  part  of  1898  it  was  visited  by  Fathers 
Libermann  and  Berthon  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  who  did  a  little  apostohc  work  among 
the  Catholics  .scattered  along  the  banks  of  the  Rio 
Branco.  The  region  contains  6000  Catholic  Brazil- 
ians, and  .50,000  pagan  Indians.  Mgr.  van  Caloen, 
born,  12  March,  18.53;  entered  the  Benedictine  Con- 
gregation of  Beuron;  was  appointed  Abbot  of  Sao 
Bento  at  Olinda,  20  May,  189G,  and  general  vicar  of  the 
Brazilian  congregation  in  1899;  he  was  transferred,  28 
Feb.,  1905,  to  the  monaster}'  of  Sao  Bento,  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro;  made  titular  Bishop  of  Phocea,  1.3  Dec,  1907; 
and  elected  abbot-general  of  the  Brazihan  congrega- 
tion, 6  Sept.,  1908.  He  resides  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  On 
8  June,  1907  he  obtained  a  coadjutor.  Abbot  Dom 
Chrysostom  de  Saegher,  Abbot  of  St.  Martin  of  The- 
baen,  who  has  the  right  of  succession  to  the  abbatial 
See  of  Monserrato.  A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Santa  Marta,  Diocese  of  (Sanct^  Martha), 
in  Colombia,  erected  in  1.5.35,  its  first  bishop  being 
Alfonso  do  'i'obes;  suppressed  by  Paul  IV  in  1.562;  it 
was  re-established  by  (iregory  XIII — 15  April,  1577, 
as  sufTragan  of  Santa  Fe  de  Bogotd;  it  became  suf- 
fragan of  ('artagena  in  19(K),  at  which  time  it  com- 
prised the  State  of  Magdalena  and  the  territories  of 
Sierra  Nevada  y  Motilones  and  Goajira.  In  1905  the 
north-eastern  portion  of  the  diocese  was  formed  into 
the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Goajira.  Magdalena  was 
first  visited  by  Alonso  de  Ojeda  in  1499.  Santa 
Marta,  the  second  town  founded  by  the  Spaniards  in 
America,  was  fistablished  by  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas 
29  July,  1.525;  it  was  sacked  in  1.54.3  and  again  in 
15.55;  while  Sir  P'rancis  Drake  reduced  it  to  ashes  in 
1.596.  St.  IvCMiis  Bert  rand  laboured  at  Santa  Marta 
for  a  time,  and  baptized  15,000  pagans  there.  The 
town  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Manzaneres, 
on  the  Gulf  of  Santa  Marta,  46  miles  norfh-eaKt  of 
Barranquilla,  and  containe  about  6000  inhabitants, 


an  episcopal  palace,  public  college,  and  conciliar 
seminary.  Sim6n  Bolivar  d.  17  Dec,  1830,  at  San 
Pedro,  a  few  miles  distant.  A  diocesan  synod  was 
held  at  Santa  Marta  in  1881.  The  present  bishop, 
Mgr.  Francisco  Sim6n  y  Rodenas,  O.F.M.,  was  b. 
at  Orihuela,  2  Oct.,  1849;  appointed  as  successor  of 
Mgr.  Caledon  to  the  see,  1 1  June,  1904;  and  enthroned, 
14  Nov.  following.  The  diocese  has  an  area  of  20,400 
square  miles,  and  contains  8  deaneries,  42  parishes,  40 
secular  priests,  3  convents  of  the  Presentation  Sisters 
of  Tours  with  15  nuns,  and  about  KM), ()()()  inhabitants, 
practically  all  Catholics.  The  Sistersof  Charity  estab- 
lished a  hospital  and  school  at  Santa  Marta  in  1883. 

MozANS,   Up  the  Orinoco  and  down  the  Magdalena  (New  York, 

1910).  A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Santander,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Anderii,  San- 
TANDERiENsis),  in  Spain,  takes  its  name  not  from  St. 
Andrew  as  some,  misled  by  the  sound  of  the  name, 
believe,  but  from  St.  Hemeterius  (Santemter,  San- 
tenter,  Santander),  one  of  the  patrons  of  the  city 
and  ancient  abbey,  the  other  being  St.  Celedonius. 
The  diocese  is  bounded  on  the  north  bj'  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  on  the  east  by  Vizcaya  and  Burgos,  on  the 
south  bj'  Burgos  and  Palencia,  on  the  west  by  Leon 
and  Oviedo.  It  is  suffragan  of  Burgos,  and  comprises 
most  of  the  civil  Province  of  Santander  and  parts 
of  those  of  Alava  and  Burgos.  In  Roman  times 
Santander  was  called  Portus  Victoriaj,  in  memory  of 
Agrippa's  having  conquered  it  from  the  Cantabrians, 
and  in  the  period  of  the  reconquest  was  regarded  as 
one  of  the  Asturias — Asturias  de  Sant  Ander,  be- 
tween the  Rivers  Saja  and  Miesa.  The  territory  was 
repeopled  by  Alfonso  I,  the  Catholic.  Alfonso  II, 
the  Chaste,  founded  there  the  Abbey  of  Sts.  Heme- 
terius and  Celedonius,  where  the  heads  of  those 
holy  martyrs  were  kept.  Alfonso  VII,  the  Emperor, 
made  it  a  collegiate  church.  As  early  as  1068, 
King  Sancho  II,  the  Strong,  granted  a  charter  to  the 
Abbey  and  port  of  St.  Hemeterius  in  reward  for 
services,  and  Alfonso  V  did  as  much.  Alfonso  VIII 
gave  the  abbot  the  lordship  of  the  town  on  11  July, 
1187.  In  the  fourteenth  century  the  canons  were 
still  living  in  community  in  this  abbey,  and  Abbot 
Nuiio  Perez,  chancellor  to  Queen  Maria,  drew  up 
constitutions  for  them;  these  constitutions  were 
confirmed  by  King  Fernando  IV  in  i:U2,  and  later 
by  John  XXII.  The  town  of  Santander  aided  King 
St.  Ferdinand  when  he  conquered  Seville;  it  broke 
the  iron  chains  with  which  the  Guadalquiver  had 
been  closed,  by  ramming  them  with  a  ship — which 
is  the  armorial  blazon  of  the  city. 

Santander  did  not  become  an  episcopal  see  until 
the  reign  of  F'ernando  VI.  By  a  Bull  of  12  December, 
1754,  Benedict  XIV  confirmed  iho  creation  of  the 
Sec  of  Santander,  making  th(>  collegiate  church  a 
cathedral,  and  giving  it  territory  taken  from  the 
Archdiocese  of  Burgos.  In  1755  Fernando  VI  raised 
the  town  to  the  rank  of  a  city.  The  last  Abbot  and 
first  Bishop  of  Santander  was  Francisco  Javier  de 
Arriaza,  a  native  of  Madrid,  who  took  possession  in 
1755  and  ruled  until  1761.  The  Province  of  San- 
tander was  formed  in  1801,  and  in  1810  became  an 
independent  inlendcncin  and  one  of  the  provinces 
in  the  definitive  political  organization  (see  Spain). 
The  city  at  present  has  a  poj)ulation  of  54,700  and 
is  one  of  the  most  important  harbours  on  the  Bay  of 
Biscay.  The  cathedral  is  a  structure  of  very  diverse 
periods,  and  at  one  time  had  the  character  of  a  for- 
tress. Its  lower  portion  contains  a  spacious  crypt, 
called  the  parish  church  of  Christ  because  it  serves 
p.arochial  uses.  The  dark  and  sombre  character  of 
the  Htructtire  m.arks  its  original  purpose  of  a  pan- 
theon. It  consists  of  three  naves  with  three  apses 
forming  as  many  chajjels,  and  a  baptistery  has  been 
erected  in  it.  The  building  dates  from  the  twelfth 
or  early  thirteenth  century,  but  presents  .'idded  fea- 
tures  of    many    later   periods.     A    spiral    staircase, 


SANT'   ANGELO 


459 


SANTA   SEVERINA 


constructed  in  the  wall,  leads  from  the  crypt  to  the 
cathedral  properly  so  called,  to  which  the  cloister 
of  the  old  abbey  serves  as  vestibule,  opening  on  the 
principal  street  (Rua  Mayor)  of  the  city.  The 
church  itself,  exclusive  of  the  capilla  mayor,  is  formed 
of  three  naves  of  unequal  height,  1283^  feet  in  length, 
and  SOj  feet  in  width.  In  the  choir  is  buried  the 
abbot,  Pedro  Luis  Manso  y  Luniga  (d.  1669),  who 
had  it  built.  In  a  corner  of  the  nave  on  the  Gospel 
side  is  a  holy-water  font  of  Arabic  workmanship, 
probably  brought  as  a  memorial  of  the  conquest  from 
C6rdoba  where  it  served  as  a  basin  for  ablutions;  it 
bears  a  ver>'  poetical  Arabic  inscription,  which  has 
been  translated  by  Don  Pascual  Gayangos.  The 
capilla  mayor,  or  principal  chapel,  was  built  late  in 
the  seventeenth  century  by  Abbot  Manuel  Francisco 
de  Navarrete  y  Ladr6n  de  Guevara  (1695-1705). 
The  relics  of  the  martyrs  Sts.  Hemeterius  and  Cele- 
donius  are  kept  in  the  high  altar.  On  the  south  is 
a  cloister  which  long  served  as  a  cemetery;  and  in 
the  south-eastern  corner  was  the  Chapel  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  the  last  remains  of  the  hospice  founded  by 
Abbot  Nuno  P6rez  Monroy,  counsellor  to  Dona 
Maria  de  Molina  in  the  distracted  reigns  of  Fernando 
IV  and  Alfonso  XL 

The  other  parishes  of  Santander  are:  San  Francisco, 
an  ancient  convent  of  the  Friars  Minor,  facing  on 
the  Plaza  de  Becedo;  Consolaci6n;  the  parish  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  connected  with  the  old  Jesuit  col- 
lege; the  newparish  of  Santa  Lucia.  Among  the  benev- 
olent institutions  are:  the  civil  and  militarv  hospital 
of  San  Rafael,  built  in  1791  by  Hi.shop  Rafael  Tomds 
Menendez  de  Luarca;  the  House  of  Charity;  the 
Asylum  of  San  Jos6,  for  the  education  of  poor  boys; 
the  Casa  Cuna  (foundling  hospital);  the  provincial 
inclusa  (foundling  a.sylum),  founded  in  1778  by  Bishop 
Francisco  Laso  de  San  Pedro.  The  intermediate 
school.  Institute  de  Scgunda  Ensenanza,  has  been 
established  in  the  old  convent  of  the  nuns  of  St. 
Clare  since  1839;  and  the  ecclesiastical  seminary 
since  1852  in  the  monasterj^  of  Santa  Cat  alinade  Monte 
Corbdn,  formerly  Hieronymite,  a  short  distance  from 
the  city.  There  is  also  the  pontifical  seminary  of 
Comillas,  founded  by  Antonio  Lopez,  Marques  de 
Comillas,  placed  under  the  care  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers, 
and  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  pontifical  university.  The 
distinguished  men  whom  this  diocese  has  produced 
are  numberless;  among  them  may  be  mentioned:  St. 
Beatus  of  Liebana,  Fray  Antonio  de  Guevara,  Juan 
de  Herrera,  Amador  de  los  Rios,  and  Pereda. 

Florez,  Esp.  saqrada.  XXVII  (2ncl  ed.,  Madrid,  1824); 
Amador  de  los  Rios,  Santander.  Espaila.  sus  monumentoa 
(Barcelona,  1891);  Mariana,  /list.  gen.  de  Esp.  (Valencia,  1794). 

Ramon  Ruiz  Amado. 

Sant'  Angelo  de'  Lombardi,  Diocese  of  (Sancti 
Angeli  LoMnARDORUM  ET  Bis.\cciENSis),  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Avellino,  Southern  Italy.  The  city  w'as  estab- 
lished by  the  Lombards  at  an  unknown  period.  There 
are  sulphurous  springs  in  its  vicinity.  In  1664  it  was 
almost  completely  dcstroNcd.  It  became  an  episcopal 
see  under  (jregory  Vll,  but  its  first  known  bishop  is 
Thomas,  in  1 1 79,  when  the  see  was  a  suffragan  of  Conza. 
In  1540  under  the  episcopate  of  Rinaldo  de'  Cancel- 
lieri,  it  was  united  to  the  Diocese  of  Bisaccia  (the  an- 
cient Romulea),  a  Samnite  town  captured  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  295  B.  c;  it  appears  first  as  a  bishopric  in 
1179.  Another  of  its  prelates,  Ignazio  Cianti,  O.P. 
(1646),  was  distinguished  for  his  learning.  In  1818  it 
was  incorporated  with  the  See  of  Monteverde,  the 
earliest  known  bishop  of  which  is  Mario  (1049),  and 
which  in  1531  was  united  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Canne 
and  Nazareth,  from  which  it  has  been  again  separated. 
The  see  contains  9  parishes  with  40,000  souls,  45  secu- 
lar priests,  and  some  religious,  3  monastic  establish- 
ments, and  a  girls'  school. 

Cappelletti,  Le  chiese  d' Italia,  XX  (Venice,  18.57). 

U.  Benigni. 


Sant'  Angelo  in  Vado  and  Urbania,  Dio- 
cese OF  (Sancti  Angeli  in  Vado  et  Urbaniensis). 
S.  Angelo  in  Vado  is  a  city  in  the  Marches,  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  "Tifernum  Metaurense", 
a  town  of  the  Umbrian  Senones,  near  the  River 
Metaurus,  believed  to  have  been  destroyed  by 
the  Goths.  Later  there  arose  a  new  burg  called, 
from  the  Church  of  S.  Michele,  Sant'  Angelo  in 
Vado,  which  in  1635  became  a  city  and  an  epis- 
copal see.  Urbania  is  situated  on  the  River  Can- 
diano  near  S.  Angelo,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Aleria,  considerable  ruins  of  which  still  remain.  It 
was  destroyed  at  an  unknown  date,  and  rebuilt  under 
the  name  of  Castel  Ripeggiano,  but,  in  1280,  being  in 
favour  of  the  Guelphs  it  was  demolished  by  the  Ghi- 
bellines.  It  was  restored  again  through  the  munifi- 
cence of  the  Dominican  bishop,  Guglielmo  Durante, 
and  called  Castel  Durante;  it  was  included  in  the 
Duchy  of  Urbino,  and  contained  a  magnificent  ducal 
palace.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the  Tifernate  bishops 
Eubodius  (Euhodius?),  Marius,  and  Innocent,  who  as- 
sisted at  the  Roman  Councils  of  465,  499,  and  500, 
belonged  to  Tifernum  Tiberiacum  (Citta  di  Castello) 
or  to  S.  Angelo.  At  the  beginning  of  1635  S.  Angelo 
was  an  archpresbyterate  nullius,  subject  to  the  Abbot 
of  the  Monastery  of  S.  Cristoforo  of  Castel  Durante, 
to  whom  the  Archpresbyterate  of  Castel  Durante 
was  also  subject.  In  that  year  Urban  VIII  erected 
the  two  towns  into  dioceses,  changing  the  name  of 
Castel  Durante  to  Urbania,  and  uniting  them  o'que 
principalitcr  under  Onorato  degli  Onorati,  who  gov- 
erned it  for  forty-eight  years.  Other  bishops  were :  Gian. 
Vincenzo  Castelli,  O.P.  (1711),  who  restored  the  cathe- 
dral of  LTrbania,  and  Paolo  Zamperoli,  O.P.  (1779), 
sent  into  exile  under  Napoleon,  dying  there.  The  dio- 
cese is  a  suffragan  of  Urbino,  and  has  78  parishes  with 
about  20,000  souls,  a  Capuchin  convent,  and  8  houses 
of  nuns. 

Cappelletti,  Le  chiese  d' Italia,  III  (Venice,  18.57). 

U.  Benigni. 

Santarem,  Prelature  nullius  of,  created  in 
1903,  in  the  (■(•clcsiastical  Province  of  Belem  do  Pard, 
with  a  Catholic  i)oi)ulation  of  200,000.  The  present 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Armando  Bahlmann,  titular  Bishop 
of  Argos,  b.  8  May,  1862,  appointed  10  Jan.,  1907, 
consecrated  19  July,  1908.  The  residence  of  the  bishop 
is  at  Santarem,  State  of  Pard,  created  a  city  by  law  of 
24  Oct.,  1848.  It  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  north- 
ern shores  of  the  Tapajos  River,  and  has  a  popula- 
tion of  28,000.  The  city  is  divided  into  four  parishes: 
Santarem,  Alter  do  Chao,  Boim,  and  Villa  Franca. 
The  monastery  of  the  Franciscan  friars,  who  have 
charge  of  the  missions  of  the  prelature,  is  located 
also  in  Santarem.  In  this  town,  the  government  of 
the  State  of  Pard.  supplies  the  necessary  funds  for  a 
school  of  over  200  pupils;  there  are  also  3  colleges  for 
boys,  2  for  girls,  and  1  for  boys  and  girls. 

Julian  Moreno-Lacalle. 

Santa  Rufina.  See  Porto  and  Santa-Rufina, 
Diocese  of. 

Santa  Severina,  Archdiocese  of  (Sanct.e  Seve- 
riNvE),  in  the  Province  of  Catanzaro  in  Calabria, 
Southern  Italy.  Situated  on  a  rocky  precipice  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Siberena,  it  became  an  important 
fortress  of  the  Byzantines  in  their  struggles  with  the 
Saracens.  It  is  not  known  whether  it  was  an  epis- 
copal see  from  the  beginning  of  the  Byzantine  domi- 
nation; when  it  became  an  archbishopric,  probably  in 
the  tenth  century,  its  suffragan  sees  were  Orea,  Acer- 
enza,  Gallipoli,  Alessano,  and  Castro.  The  Greek 
Rite  disappeared  from  the  diocese  under  the  Normans, 
but  was  retained  in  the  cathedral  during  a  great  part 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  earliest  known  bishop 
was  one  Giovanni,  but  his  date  is  uncertain.  P>om 
1096,  when  the  name  of  Bishop  Stef  ano  is  recorded,  the 


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460 


SANTIAGO 


list  of  prelates  is  uninterrupted.  Among  them  we 
may  mention  Ugo  (1269),  formerly  prior  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  in  Jerusalem;  Jacopo  (1400),  who  died  in 
repute  of  sanctity;  Alessandro  della  Marra  (I-ISS), 
who  restored  the  episcopal  palace  and  tlie  cathedral; 
Giov.  Matteo  Sertori,  present  at  the  Latcran  Council; 
Giulio  Sertori  (1535),  legate  toFerrara  under  Charles 
V  and  Phihp  II;  Giulio  Antonio  Santorio  (1566), 
later  a  cardinal,  and  Fausto  Caffarello  (1624),  both 
renowned  for  learning  and  piety;  Gian  Antonio  Par- 
ravicini  (1654),  even  as  parish  priest  of  Sondrio  in  Val- 
tellina  was  distinguished  for  his  zeal  in  combatting 
and  converting  heretics;  Francesco  Falabello  (1660), 
who  suffered  much  in  defence  of  the  rights  of  his 
church;  Carlo  Berlingeri  (1678),  a  zealous  pastor; 
Xicolo  Carmini  Falco  (1743),  the  learned  editor  of  the 
history  of  Dio  Cassius. 

In  isiS  the  territories  of  the  suppressed  dioceses  of 
Belcastro  and  S.  Leone  were  united  to  Santa  Seve- 
rina.  Belcastro,  considered  by  some  authorities  to  be 
the  ancient  Chonia,  had  bishops  from  1122;  the  most 
noted  was  Jacopo  cli  Giacomelli  (1542),  present  at  the 
Council  of  Trent.  Bishops  of  S.  Leone  are  known 
from  1322  till  1571,  when  the  diocese  was  united  to 
that  of  S.  Severina.  The  archdiocese  has  now  only 
one  suffragan  see,  Caritati,  and  contains  21  parishes 
with  42,000  inhabitants,  80  priests,  4  convents,  and 
2  houses  of  nuns. 

Cappelletti,  Le  chiese  d'ltalia,  XXI  (Venice,  1857). 

\J.  Benigni. 

Santiago  (Cape  Verde).  See  Sao  Thiago  de 
Cabo  \erde,  Diocese  of. 

Santiago,  Knights  of.  See  Saint  James  of 
Compo.stela,  Order  of. 

Santiago,  LTxiversity  of.  It  has  been  asserted 
bj'  s<nne  historians  that  as  early  as  the  ninth  century  a 
course  of  general  studies  had  been  established  at  the 
University  of  Santiago  by  King  Ordono  who  sent  his 
sons  there  to  be  educated,  but  no  absolute  proof  can 
be  adduced  to  prove  it.  The  first  reliable  sources  say 
that  it  was  founded  in  1501  by  Diego  de  Muros 
(Bishop  of  the  Canaries),  Diego  de  Muros  (dean  of 
Santiago),  and  Lope  G6mez  Marzo,  who  on  17  July, 
1501,  executed  a  public  document  establishing  a  school 
and  aeademy  for  the  study  of  the  humanities,  intend- 
ing, as  the  document  proves,  to  later  include  all  the 
other  faculties.  The  founders  endowed  the  school 
from  their  private  fortunes.  On  17  December,  1504, 
Julius  11  issued  a  Bull  in  which  the  foundation  was  de- 
clared of  public  utility  for  the  whole  of  Galicia  and 
granted  it  the  same  privileges  as  those  enjoyed  by 
all  the  other  general  schools  (estiulios  generales).  In 
1.506  the  faculty  of  canon  law  was  founded  by  Bull  of 
Julius  1 1 .  The  faculties  of  theology  and  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture were  founded  in  1555  and  those  of  civil  law  and 
medicine  in  1048,  thus  completing  the  university 
courses  which  were  required  at  that  time.  The  real 
founder  of  the  University  of  Santiago  was  Archbishop 
Alfonsf>  de  Fon.seca,  who  founded  the  celebrated  col- 
lege which  bears  his  name.  He  endowed  it  munifi- 
cently and  obtained  from  Clement  VIII  (1526)  the 
riglit  to  found  faculties,  assign  salaries,  frame  statutes 
for  (lie  rerfor,  doctors,  lectors,  and  students  and  for 
conferring  degrees.  The  faculty  of  grammar  and  arts 
was  installed  in  the  hospital  of  Azabacheria  which 
hafJ  been  suitably  arranged.  In  1555  Charles  V  sent 
Cuesta  as  royal  delegate!  with  instructions  to  organ- 
ize the  infant  university.  Knowing,  doubtless,  the 
wrangling  which  generally  existed  between  the  higher 
colleges  and  the  universities,  Cucsta's  first  care  was 
to  completely  separate  the  University  and  the 
College  of  Fonseca,  both  as  to  organization  and 
administration. 

During  the  firfit  period  of  its  existence,  that  is  from 
ita  foundation  to  the  time  of  Fonaeca,  among  the  dis- 


tinguished professors  of  the  university  may  be  men- 
tioned Pedro  de  \'itoria  and  Alvaro  de  Cadabal,  and 
in  the  second  epoch  Villagran  and  Jose  Rodriguez  y 
Gonzillez,  professor  of  mathematics,  appointed  by  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  to  direct  the  observatory  of  St. 
Petersburg,  and  associated  with  Blot  and  Arago  in 
the  measurement  of  the  meridional  circle,  and  many 
others.  After  many  disputes  and  agreements  the 
Jesuits  were  given  charge  of  the  grammar  courses  in 
1593,  and  remained  in  charge  until  their  expulsion 
from  the  Spanish  possessions  in  1767.  The  depart- 
ment of  arts  was  transferred  from  the  Azabacheria  to 
the  university.  The  constitutions  of  Cuesta  were 
modified  by  Guevara,  by  Pedro  Portocarrero  in  1588, 
and  finally  by  Alonso  Munoz  Otalora.  All  these 
changes  were  approved  by  Philip  II  and  were  in  vogue 
until  the  general  reforms  which  took  place  in  the 
eighteenth  century. 

The  collegers  of  Fonseca,  San  Clemente,  San  Mar- 
tin, Pinario,  and  that  of  the  Jesuits  were  independent 
colleges  which  were  founded  and  which  thrived  in  the 
shadow  of  the  university.  In  the  seventeenth  century, 
in  this  as  in  all  the  other  universities,  studies  fell  into  a 
state  of  decadence;  between  the  university  and  Fon- 
seca College  arose  serious  differences  which  were  not 
settled  until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  in 
time  of  Ferdinand  VI.  About  this  time  (1751),  how- 
ever, many  notable  reforms  were  introduced,  the 
number  of  professorships  was  increased,  and  more 
extensive  attributes  were  granted  to  the  university; 
a  treasurer  was  also  appointed  and  the  rector  waa 
named  b}'  roj-al  order. 

In  1769  the  university  was  transferred  to  the  build- 
ing formerly  occupied  by  the  Jesuits  and  the  faculties 
were  increased  making  a  total  of  thirty-three,  seven  of 
theology,  five  of  canon  law,  six  of  civil  law,  five  of 
medicine,  one  of  mathematics,  one  of  moral  phil- 
osophy, one  of  experimental  physics,  three  of  arts,  and 
four  of  grammar.  After  the  university  had  taken  pos- 
session of  the  old  Jesuit  college  it  soon  became  evident 
that  some  additions  would  have  to  be  made,  and  al- 
though these  were  carried  out  without  any  special 
plan  they  resulted  in  a  spacious  building  with  a  severe 
and  dignified  fagade.  In  1799  the  faculty  of  medicine 
was  suppressed,  but  it  was  restored  once  more  in  1801. 
Canon  Juan  Martinez  Oliva  was  appointed  royal  visi- 
tor; his  visit,  however,  was  not  productive  of  lasting 
results,  the  recommendations  he  had  made  being  set 
aside  in  1807.  From  then  until  the  present  time  the 
university  has  suffered  from  the  constantly  alt(M'ing 
plans  of  the  Government  which  has  deprived  all  col- 
leges and  universities  of  their  former  state  of  auton- 
omy. The  faculty  of  theology  was  definitely  sup- 
pressed in  1852.  The  influence  of  the  university  in 
Galicia  has  been  great,  and  from  its  halls  men  eminent 
in  all  walks  of  life  have  passed.  The  library  of  40,000 
volumes  is  good,  as  are  also  the  laboratories  of  pliysi(!s, 
chemistry,  and  natural  history.  The  latter  possesses  a 
crystallographi(!al  collection  of  1024  wooden  modela 
which  formerly  belonged  to  the  Abb6  Haiiy.  The 
present  number  of  students  reaches  between  700  and 
1000,  the  majority  of  whom  follow  the  medical  and 
law  courses. 

ViSah,  Anuiirio  de  la  Univrrnidarl  de  SaTitiago  para  el  ctirso  de 
tfiHO  to  IS,57;  DE  i,A  FuENTE,  /list,  de  las  Universidades  (Madrid, 
1884);  DK  l,A  Campa,  HiM.  filondfica  de  la  Instruccidn  Piihlirn  de 
ExpafUi  (1872);  Semper  y  Guarinos,  Ensayo  de  una  liihlinlrca 
eapaflola  de  lot  Mejores  escritorea  del  reinado  de  Carlos  III  (178.5); 
Bolrtin  oficial  de  la  Direccidn  General  de  Instruccidn  Publico  del  afio 
de  ISOr,. 

Teodoro  RodrIouez. 

Santiago  de  Chile,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti 
Jacobi  de  Chile),  comprises  the  civil  Provinces  of 
Aconcagua  (area  6226  square  miles),  Valparaiso  (area 
1659  square  miles),  Santiago  (area  5223  square  miles), 
O'Higgins  (2.524  square  miles,  this  province  is  named 
after  the  liberator  of  Chile,  Hernard  O'Higgins),  Col- 
chagua  (area  3795  square  miles),  Curic6  (area  2913 


SANTIAGO 


461 


SANTIAGO 


square  miles),  and  Tulcas  (area  3678  square  miles), 
and  the  islands  of  Juan  Fernandez,  and  extends  from 
the  River  Choapa,  which  separates  it  from  the  Diocese 
of  Serena,  to  the  River  Alaule,  which  forms  the  bound- 
ary line  between  it  and  the  Diocese  of  Concepci6n.  Ita 
area  is  26,018  square  miles,  and  its  population  is  esti- 
mated at  1,600,000,  of  whom  14,000  are  non-Catho- 
lics. Erected  by  Pius  IV  in  1561  as  a  suffragan  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Lima,  it  comprised  all  of  Chile  and  the 
Argentine  Provinces  of  Cuyo  and  Tucumdn.  This  ex- 
tensive territory  was  gradually  subdivided,  portions 
being  taken  to  form  new  dioceses.  In  1.563  the  entire 
southern  portion  of  Chile  from  the  River  Biobio  was 
separated  to  form  the  Diocese  of  Imperial,  the  pres- 
ent Diocese  of  Concepci6n.  In  1570  Tucumdn  was 
separated  to  form  the  Diocese  of  Cordova,  the  Prov- 
ince of  Cuyo  being  added  in  1806.  In  1840  Santiago 
was  raised  to  metropolitan  rank  by  Gregory  XVI,  the 
Diocese  of  Serena  being  also  erected  by  him,  taking 
from  Santiago  all  the  territory  which  lay  north  of  the 
River  Choapa.  The  archdiocese  has  three  suffragan 
dioceses:  Concepci6n,  Serena,  and  Ancud.  The  prin- 
cipal cities  are:  Santiago  (area  eight  square  miles),  the 
capital  of  Chile,  has  400,000  inhabitants;  Valparaiso, 
170,000;  Talca,  42,000;  Curico,  19,000;  Quillota, 
12,000;  Vina  del  Mar,  27,000;  and  San  Fehpe,  11,000. 
Twenty-one  bishops  and  four  archbishops  have  gov- 
erned the  diocese,  the  Most  Rev.  Juan  Ignacio  Gon- 
zalez being  the  present  incumbent.  The  cathedral  is 
a  beautiful  three-naved  stone  edifice,  Roman  in  style; 
it  is  dedicated  to  the  Assumption  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin, was  built  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  was  re- 
stored during  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury by  Archbishoj)  Casanova.  It  is  321  feet  long, 
95  feet  wide,  and  52  feet  high.  The  cathedral  chap- 
ter is  composed  of  a  dean,  archdeacon,  precentor, 
vicestre  cscueln,  treasurer,  and  eight  canons. 

The  archdiocese  is  divided  into  117  parishes.  Val- 
paraiso and  Talca  are  governed  by  ecclesiastical  gov- 
ernors who  are  invested  with  some  episcopal  jurisdic- 
tion. The  churches  and  public  chapels  number  about 
481,  and  semi-public  oratories  are  very  numerous. 
There  are  20  religious  institutes  of  men,  with  905  mem- 
bers and  76  houses,  and  29  religious  orders  of  women, 
with  1727  members  and  120  houses.  The  secular  clergy 
number  412,  and  the  regular  451.  There  are  three 
seminaries,  with  43  students,  and  a  Catholic  univer- 
sity, with  619  students.  The  latter  has  faculties  of 
law,  engineering,  mines,  architecture,  agriculture,  and 
a  course  in  engineering.  The  Institute  o/  Humani- 
ties, which  is  attached  to  the  university,  has  400  pu- 
pils. In  the  secondary  schools,  for  men  as  well  as  for 
women,  directed  by  the  secular  clergy  or  members  of 
religious  institutes,  5140  students  are  in  attendance. 
Primary  instruction  is  given  to  more  than  25,000  chil- 
dren in  the  parochial  and  other  schools  under  religious 
direction.  Normal  schools  for  teachers  are  directed 
by  the  Christian  Brothers,  for  men,  and  by  the  Sa- 
lesians  and  the  Society  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  for 
women.  There  are  35  hospitals  in  the  archdiocese 
under  the  patronage  of  the  State,  the  municipalities, 
the  Church,  or  private  individuals;  30  of  these  are  un- 
der the  care  of  religious,  as  are  also  the  lunatic  asy- 
lums and  houses  for  deaf-mutes.  The  Little  Sisters 
of  the  Poor  conduct  two  homes  for  the  aged,  and  the 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  have  houses  of  correc- 
tion for  women,  and  ten  asylums  for  penitents.  More 
than  300  missions  are  preached  annually  in  the  arch- 
diocese to  prepare  the  people  for  complying  with  the 
Easter  precept,  and  more  than  15,000  persons  make 
retreats  in  the  19  houses  which  are  dedicated  to  this 
purpose. 

Among  the  numerous  Catholic  societies  may  be 
mentioned  those  of  Dolores  (Our  Lady  of  Sorrows), 
for  the  care  of  the  sick;  of  St.  Francis  Regis,  for  the 
regularization  of  marriages;  of  St.  Philomena,  for 
mutual  aid;  St.  Joseph's  Union,  for  working  men;  the 


National  Union,  also  for  working  men;  the  Society  of 
the  Buena  Prensa  (Good  Press),  the  Society  of  Pri- 
mary Instruction,  for  Catholic  schools,  under  the  pa- 
tronage of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas;  the  Federation  of  So- 
cial Works,  for  the  promotion  of  temperance;  the 
Centro  Cristiano,  for  the  promotion  of  learning;  the 
Centro  Apostolico,  for  aiding  the  missions  and  help- 
ing the  poor  of  the  different  parishes;  that  of  St.  Je- 
rome, for  spreading  a  knowledge  of  the  Holy  Gospels. 
There  are  forty  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
with  a  membership  of  1200,  who  help  more  than  500 
families.  There  are  15  patronatos  doviinicales  in  the 
city  of  Santiago,  and  8  workingmen's  clubs.  Several 
Catholic  societies  also  exist  whose  object  is  to  procure 
cheap  and  healthful  homes  for  the  famihes  of  working 
men,  and  seven  parishes  of  the  capital  and  of  Valpa- 
raiso have  houses  of  refuge  where  needy  women  are 
gratuitously  housed.  The  Society  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Faith  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Laza- 
rists;  these  priests  collect  annually  50,000  francs.  The 
Library  Society  supports  a  Cathohc  Hbrary  and  has 
been  the  means  of  estabhshing  many  others  through- 
out the  whole  repubhc.  Confraternities  of  all  kinds, 
about  230  in  number,  flourish  in  all  the  parishes.  The 
principal  are  those  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  Our 
Lady  of  Mount  Carmel,  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer, 
the  Sacred  Heart,  the  Children  of  Mary,  the  Congre- 
gation of  Mary  and  St.  Aloysius,  the  Most  Holy  Ro- 
sary, Christian  Doctrine,  Christian  Mothers,  and 
Peterspence. 

Six  diocesan  synods— 1586,  1612,  1625,  1670,  1688, 
1763,  1895 — have  been  held  in  the  archdiocese.  In 
the  latest  of  these  (1895)  all  canonical  legislation  use- 
ful for  the  government  of  the  archdiocese  was  col- 
lected in  a  code  of  1888  articles.  Constitutionally, 
the  state  is  Cathohc;  other  forms  of  rehgion  are  sim- 
ply tolerated,  and  all  public  manifestation  of  wor- 
ship on  their  part  prohibited.  Bishops,  canons,  parish 
priests,  curates,  and  substitutes  are  paid  by  the  State, 
which  also  contributes  to  the  building  of  the  churches 
pursuant  to  an  agreeement  made  with  the  Holj"^  See, 
to  compensate  for  the  suppressed  contribution  of  the 
diezmo,  which  was  in  force  until  1853.  The  constitu- 
tion gives  the  State  the  right  of  patronage,  by  virtue 
of  which  the  president  of  the  republic  proposes  to  the 
pope  the  candidates  for  all  sees,  and  to  the  bishops 
the  candidates  for  canonries.  The  parish  priests  are 
named  by  the  bishop,  subject  to  the  -placet  of  the 
president.  The  Holy  See  does  not  recognize  this 
right  of  patronage,  which  the  civil  power  has  arro- 
gated to  itself.  The  dioceses,  churches,  seminaries, 
chapters,  cathedrals,  parish  churches,  and  religious 
communities  established  with  the  consent  of  the  Gov- 
ernment are  incorporated  and  are  legal  persons. 
Canonical  legislation  is  recognized  in  these  matters, 
and  these  artificially  constituted  persons  can  acquire 
property  to  any  extent.  The  churches,  convents, 
schools,  and  charitable  institutions  do  not  pay  direct 
taxes.  The  present  (1911)  archbishop,  Mgr.  Juan 
Inigo  Gonzales  Eyzaguirre,  was  born  at  Santiago  de 
Chile,  11  July,  1844;  was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Flavias,  18  April,  1907:  and  was  promoted  to  the  arch- 
bishopric in  1909. 

Catdlogo  de  los  eclesidsticos  .  .  .  de  Chile  (Santiago,  1911); 
Anuario  Estadistico  de  Chile  (Santiago,  1910);  Censo  de  la 
Republica  de  Chile  en  1907  (Santiago,  1908);  La  Provincia 
Eclesidslica  de  Chile  (Freiburg,  1895);  Boletln  Eclesidslico  de  San- 
tiago (16  vols.,  Santiago,  1861  to  1908). 

Carlos  Silva  Cotapos. 

University  of  Santiago. — For  many  years  the 
prelates  and  influential  Catholics  of  Chile,  dissatisfied 
with  the  instruction  given  by  the  State  University 
which  had  under  its  control  all  the  seconilary  and 
higher  grades,  had  desired  to  found  in  Santiago  a 
free  Catholic  university.  The  Cathohc  Assembly  of 
1885  appointed  a  committee  which  in  accord  with  the 
bishops  formulated  a  plan  to  reaUze  this  desire.     On 


SANTIAGO 


462 


SANTINI 


21  June,  18SS,  Archbishop  Mariano  Casanova  issued 
the  decree  founding  the  Cathohc  University  and  nam- 
ing as  its  first  rector  D.  Joaquin  Larrain  Gandarillas, 
titular  Bishop  of  MartjTopohs.  The  university  was 
solemnly  opened  on  31  March,  1SS9;  at  that  time  it 
comprised  only  the  faculties  of  law  and  mathematics, 
and  an  institute  for  literary  and  commercial  courses. 
There  was  no  further  addition  until  1896,  when 
mathematics  was  divided  into  the  two  courses  of  civil 
engineering  and  architecture.  In  1900  the  Institute 
of  Humanities  was  founded,  adding  a  department  of 
letters  to  the  courses  at  the  university.  The  princely 
legacy  left  in  1904  by  D.  Frederico  Scott o  and  his 
mother  made  possible  the  foundation  of  an  industrial 
and  agricultural  school,  a  course  of  much  utility  in 
this  country  where  scientific  industry  and  agriculture 
are  still  in  their  infancy.  In  1905  a  sub-course  of  en- 
gineering was  founded  to  fiU  a  much  felt  want  for  the 
training  of  foremen  and  assistants  to  the  engineers. 
The  faculty  of  medicine,  although  undoubtedly  the 
most  necessary,  has  not  yet  been  established,  as  the 
cost  of  maintaining  it  would  be  more  than  that  of 
all  the  others  combined.  Up  to  the  present  time  no 
facultv  of  theology  has  been  founded,  owing  to  vari- 
ous difficulties,  but  it  wiU  not  be  long  before  this  also 
will  be  organized.  The  attendance  in  1910  for  the 
courses  of  law,  mathematics,  agriculture,  industries, 
and  engineering  was  619,  with  51  professors;  and  in 
the  Institute  of  Humanities  400,  with  44  professors. 
The  university  has  chemical,  physical,  electrical,  and 
mineralogicallaboratories  and  a  library  of  more  than 
30,000  volumes.  Its  property',  movable  and  immov- 
able, amounts  to  about  five  million  francs. 

The  Catholic  I'niversity,  although  in  many  respects 
incomplete,  is  beginning  to  exercise  considerable  in- 
fluence in  the  country  on  account  of  the  increasing 
number  of  students  and  the  high  standing  of  its  pro- 
fessors. Many  of  the  text  books  compiled  by  them 
have  been  adopted  by  the  State  University.  Much 
would  be  added  to  its  power  and  development  if  the 
state  would  authorize  it  to  confer  degrees  which  would 
enable  those  holding  them  to  exercise  the  professions 
of  lawyer,  engineer,  or  doctor  and  occupy  such  pub- 
lic offices  as  require  these  decrees.  Up  to  the  present 
the  official  university  reserves  this  right  exclusively  to 
itself,  imposing  at  the  same  time  its  programme  and 
plan  of  studies  on  the  Cathohc  University.  Since  its 
foundation  the  university  has  had  three  rectors.  The 
first  was  the  titular  Bishop  of  Martyropolis  later 
created  Archbishop  of  Anazarba,  D.  Joaquin  Larrain 
Gandarillas,  the  most  eminent  of  the  educators  of 
Chile,  for  to  him  principally  is  due  the  foundation  of 
the  seminary  and  the  Catholic  University  of  Santiago. 
He  devoted  his  entire  private  fortune  and  that  of 
many  of  his  relatives  to  the  maintenance  of  these  two 
great  works.  The  second  was  the  titular  Bishop  of 
Amatonte,  D.  Jorge  Montes,  who  on  account  of  poor 
health  was  obliged  to  resign  shortly  after  his  appoint- 
ment. The  third  is  the  Ilev.  Rodolfo  Vergara  Anti- 
rncz,  journalist,  orator,  poet,  and  author  of  variou.s 
histfjric  and  didactic  works  which  have  attracted  con- 
siderable notice.  Among  the  most  noted  professors 
of  the  university  may  be  mentioned:  D.  Abdon  Ci- 
fuentes,  senator  and  Minister  of  State,  who  has  de- 
voted his  entire  life  to  working  for  the  freedom  and  the 
progress  of  private  education;  D.  Clemente  Fabres, 
D.  Carlos  Kis<^>patr6n,  D.  Ventura  Blanco  Viel,  D. 
Iiam6n  Gutierrez,  D.  Enrique  Richard  Fontecilla,  all 
noted  jurists  and  public  men;  D.  Joaquin  Walker 
Martinez,  Chilian  representative  to  the  United  States 
and  the  Argentine  Hepublio,  parliamentary  orator 
and  stat<^'Hrnan ;  D.  Miguel  Cruchaga,  author  of  a 
Irfatise  on  intf-rnational  law;  I).  Luis  liarros  Mendez, 
litterateur;  I).  Francisco  de  Borja  Kclifverria,  econo- 
mist and  Bfjciologist;  Canon  P^steban  Munoz  Donaso, 
orator  and  fxjet;  and  Rev.  Ram6n  Angel  Jara,  the 
present  Bishop  of  Serena. 


Atitiario  de  la  Universidad  Catdlica  de  Santiago  de  Chile,  3  vols.; 
Catdlogo  de  los   eclesidxticos  de  .  .  .  Chile  (Santiago,  1911). 

Carlos  Silva  Cotapos. 
Santiago  de  Compostela  See  Compostela. 
Santiago  de  Cuba.    See  Cuba. 

Santiago  del  Estero,  Diocese  op  (Sancti  Jacobi 
DE  EsTERo),  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  erected  25 
March,  1907,  suflfragan  of  Buenos  Aires.  Its  terri- 
tory' exactly  corresponds  with  that  of  the  State  of  San- 
tiago, bounded  by  the  States  of  Salta  and  Tucuman 
on  the  N.  W.,  La  Rioja  on  the  W.,  Cordova  on  the  S., 
Sante  Fe  on  the  E.,  and  by  the  Territory  of  El  Chaco  on 
the  N.  E.  It  has  an  area  of  nearly  40,000  sq.  mile^ 
and  a  population  averaging  about  5  to  the  sq.  mile. 

Santiago,  the  cathedral  city  as  well  as  the  capital 
of  the  state,  is  situated  on  the  Rio  Dulce,  about 
forty  miles  north  of  the  Salinas  Grandes,  or  Great 
Salt  Marshes,  of  Northern  Argentina.  Although  the 
newest  diocese  in  the  republic,  its  capital  was  the 
seat  of  the  first  bishop  in  that  part  of  South  America. 
The  ecclesiastical  organization  of  what  afterwards 
became  the  Argentine  Republic  began  in  1570  under 
St.  Pius  V,  who  erected  what  was  at  first  known  as 
the  Diocese  of  Tucuman.  This,  the  original  diocese 
of  all  but  the  seaboard  of  that  country,  covered  a 
vast  and  almost  unexplored  territory  of  the  same 
name.  The  Spanish  settlement  of  Santiago  del 
Estero  was  then  designated  as  the  seat  of  the  Bishop 
of  Tucuman,  and  its  church,  built  about  1570,  was 
the  cathedral.  Not  until  nearly  one  hundred  and 
thirty  years  later  (1699),  in  the  episcopate  of  Juan 
Manuel  Mercadillo,  O.P.,  was  the  see  transferred  to 
Cordova.  The  old  diocese  thenceforward  took  its 
name  from  its  capital,  being  known  as  the  Diocese 
of  Cordova.  Thus  Cordova  is  still  regarded  as  the 
most  ancient  diocese  of  Argentina,  while  the  most 
ancient  cathedral  in  the  country  is  at  Santiago  del 
Estero.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  Diocese 
of  Salta  was  formed  out  of  that  part  of  the  Cordova 
jurisdiction  which  included  Tucuman  and  Santiago; 
from  a  portion  of  the  Salta  jurisdiction  the  (new) 
Diocese  of  Tucuman  was  formed  in  1897,  and  from 
this  new  diocese,  again,  was  formed,  ten  years  later, 
the  Diocese  of  Santiago  del  Estero. 

For  three  years  after  its  erection  the  diocese  was 
governed  by  Right  Rev.  Pablo  Padilla,  Bishop  of 
Tucuman,  as  administrator  Apostolic,  until  in  1907 
Right  Rev.  Juan  Martin  Janiz,  its  first  bishop,  was 
appointed  by  Pius  X.  It  is  divided  into  twelve 
parishes.  The  parochial  clergy  are  few  for  so  large 
a  territory — not  more  than  one  priest  to  each  parish, 
besides  a  vicar  forane  and  the  bishop's  personal 
staff.  There  are,  however,  three  schools  for  boys, 
and  an  orphanage  under  the  care  of  religious  at  the 
cai)ital,  besides  several  other  approved  Catholic 
educational  institutions. 

Guia  edes.  de  la  Rep.  Araenlina  (Buenos  Aires,  1910);  Bat- 
TANDIER,  Annuaire  pont.  (1911). 

E.  Macpherson. 

Santiago  de  Venezuela.  See  Caracas,  Arch- 
diocese OF. 

Santini,  Giovanni  Sante  Gaspero,  astronomer, 
b.  at  Cai)rese,  in  Tuscany,  30  Jan.,  1787;  d.at  Padua, 
26  June,  1877.  He  received  his  first  instruction  from 
his  parental  uncle,  the  Abate  Giovanni  Battista 
Santini.  This  excellent  teaciher  implanted  at  the 
same  time  the  deep  religious  sentiments  which  San- 
tini prc.scrvcd  lliroughout  his  life.  After  fitii.sliing 
his  philosopliic'i!  studies  in  the  school  year  1X01-2,  at 
the  seminary  of  I'rato,  he  entered  in  1802  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pisa.  He  very  .soon  abandoned  the  study 
of  law  in  order  to  devote  himself,  under  the  direction 
of  I'rof.  Paoli  and  Abate  Pacchiano,  exclusively  to 
mathematics  and  the  natural  sciences.  It  ai)i)earH 
that  at  Pisa  Santini  still  wore  the  cassock.     This  cir- 


SANTO   DOMINGO 


463 


SANTO   DOMINGO 


cumstanoc,  and  possibly  also  his  being  confused  with 
his  uncle  Giovanni  Battista,  may  account  for  the 
fact  that  in  bibliographical  dictionaries  he  still  fig- 
ures under  the  title  of  abate.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  he  never  received  major  orders.  In  1810  he 
married  Teresa  Pastrovich,  and  one  year  after  her 
death,  in  1843,  he  contracted  a  second  marriage  with 
Adriana  Conforti,  who  outlived  him.  During  his 
stay  at  Pisa  he  won  by  his  dihgence  the  love  and  con- 
fidence not  only  of  his  professors  but  also  of  the  rector 
of  the  university  and  of  the  influential  Fossombroni. 
At  their  urgent  suggestion  Santini's  family,  especially 
his  uncle,  made  great  sacrifices  to  enable  him  to  con- 
tinue his  studies  in  Milan  (1805-1806)  under  Oriani, 
Cesaris,  and  Carlini.  On  17  Oct.,  1806,  the  Italian 
Government  appointed  him  assistant  to  the  direc- 
tor of  the  observatory  at  Padua,  Abate  Chiminello, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1814.  In  1813  the  university 
offered  him  the  chair  of  astronomy,  a  position  in 
which  he  was  confirmed  by  the  Emperor  Francis  I 
in  1818  after  the  Venetian  territory  had  become  part 
of  Austria.  In  addition  he  taught  for  several  years, 
as  substitute,  elementary  alg('l)ra,  geometry,  and 
higher  mathematics.  During  the;  school  years  1824- 
1825  and  1856-7  he  was  rector  of  the  university,  and 
from  1845  to  1872  director  of  mathematical  studies. 
Towards  the  end  of  1873  he  sufTered  repeatedly  from 
fainting  spells  which  were  followed  by  a  steadily  in- 
creasing physical  and  mental  weakness  and  final 
breakdown.  He  died  in  his  ninety-first  year  at  his 
villa,  Novcnta  Padovana. 

Both  as  a  practical  and  theoretic  astronomer,  San- 
tini  has  made  the  Observatory  of  Padua  famous.  \Mien 
he  took  charge  the  observatory  was  located  in  an  old 
fortified  tower,  in  a  precarious  condition.  The  most 
valuabl(>  instrument  he  found  was  a  Ramsden  mural 
quadi-ant  ciglit  feet  in  diameter.  On  account  of  the 
political  coniplirjitions  and  Chiminello's  protracted 
illness,  the  i)ract  ical  work  was  reduced  to  a  minimum — 
regular  meteorological  observations.  Santini  at  once 
began  to  take  careful  observations  of  comets,  planets, 
planetoids,  occultations,  and  echpses.  In  1811  he 
determined  the  latitude  of  Padua  with  the  aid  of 
Gauss's  method  of  three  stars  in  the  same  altitude, 
and  in  1815  again,  with  a  new  repeating  circle.  In 
1822,  '24,  and  '28  he  assisted  the  astronomical  and 
geodetic  service  of  Italy  by  making  observations  in 
longitude.  Constantly  striving  to  equip  this  insti- 
tute in  accordance  with  the  latest  requirements  of  sci- 
ence, he  installed  in  1823  a  new  lUzschneider  equa- 
torial, and  in  1837  a  new  meridian  circle.  \\'ith  the.se 
last  he  began  at  once  to  make  zonal  observations  for  a 
catalogue  of  .stars  bet  ween  declination  +  Kf  and  — 10°, 
an  undertaking  which  he  carried  out  on  a  large  scale, 
and  which  he,  with  the  aid  of  his  assistant,  Trette- 
nero,  completed  in  1857,  after  ten  years  of  work.  In 
1843  he  made  a  scientific  journey  through  Germany, 
and  in  the  most  scientific  centres  he  conferred  with 
distinguished  savants  in  his  own  and  related  fields. 
As  a  theoretic  astronomer,  Santini  deserves  notice  for 
his  researches  concerning  the  comets.  In  the  Encke- 
Galle  catalogue  he  is  credited  with  the  calculation 
of  nineteen  orbits.  He  acquired  his  greatest  fame 
by  his  calculations  of  the  orbital  disturbances  dur- 
ing the  period  from  1832-1852  caused  by  the  great 
planets  on  the  comet  of  Biela.  The  time  and  place  of 
the  appearance  of  this  comet  in  1846  corresponded 
exactly  with  previous  calculations.  In  1819-20  he 
published  his  "Elementi  di  Astronomia"  (2nd  ed., 
Padua,  1830),  a  work  in  two  parts,  of  classic  soberness 
and  thoroughness.  In  1828  appeared  his  "Teorica 
degli  Stromenti  Ottici",  also  published  in  Padua,  in 
which  he  explains  by  means  of  the  most  simple  for- 
mulas the  construction  of  the  different  kinds  of  tele- 
scopes, microscopes  etc.  A  number  of  dissertations 
on  geodetic  and  astronomic  subjects  from  his  pen  ap- 
peared in  the  annals  of  learned  associations,  in  the 


"Correspondance  du  Baron  de  Zach",  "Astrono- 
mische  Nachrichten",  etc.  Besides  some  twenty  Ital- 
ian scientific  societies,  Santini  became  a  member 
in  1825  of  the  London  Royal  Astronomical  Society; 
in  1845  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Institut  de 
France;  and  in  1847  member  of  the  Kaiserliche 
Akademie  der  Wissenschaften  of  Vienna.  When  in 
1866  Venice  was  separated  from  Austria,  he  became  a 
corresponding  member  of  the  last-named  association. 
Danish,  Austrian,  Spanish,  and  Italian  decorations 
were  bestowed  upon  him.  A  complete  list  of  his 
writings  may  be  found  in  the  "Discorso"  (pp.  42-67) 
by  Lorenzoni,  mentioned  below. 

LoRENZONi,  Giovanni  Santini,  la  sua  vita  e  le  sue  opere.  Dis- 
corso letto  nella  chiesa  di  S.  Sofia  in  Padova  (Padua,  1877) : 
Idem,  In  occasione  del  prima  centenario  dalla  nascita  dell'  astro- 
nomo  Sayitini  (Padua,  1887);  von  Wurzbach,  Biograf.  Lexikon 
des  Kaiserthums  Oestreich  mit  Untersliitzung  durch  die  Kais.  Akad. 
der  IFiss. (Vienna,  1874), s.  v.;  Poggendorff,  Biograf.  lilt.  Handb., 
II  (Leipzig,  1859),  s.  v. 

J.  Stein. 

Santo  Domingo,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Dom- 
iNici),  erected  on  8  August,  1511,  by  Julius  II, 
who  by  the  Bull  "Pontifex  Romanus"  on  that  date 
established  also  the  Sees  of  Concepci6n  de  la  Vega 
and  of  San  Juan  of  Porto  Rico  Three  prelates,  who 
had  been  appointed  to  the  sees  comprising  the  ecclesias- 
tical province  created  previously  (1504)  by  the  same 
sovereign  pontiff,  united  their  petition  to  that  of  the 
Crown  in  requesting  the  Holy  See  (see  Porto  Rico) 
to  suppress  the  same  and  to  establish  the  three  new 
dioceses  as  suffragans  to  the  See  of  Seville.  This 
alteration  was  effected  before  any  one  of  the  prelates 
in  question  had  tak(>n  i)().s.session  of  his  diocese  or  had 
received  consecration.  Father  Francisco  Garcia  de 
Padilla,  Franciscan,  who  had  been  in  1504  the  prel- 
ate designed  to  occujjy  the  See  of  Bayuna  (Baynoa, 
Baiunensis),  on  the  extinction  of  the  .same  was  chosen 
the  first  Bishoy)  of  Santo  Domingo,  having  been  so 
mentioned  in  the  Bull  of  the  erection  of  the  diocese. 
He  died  before  his  consecration,  after  having  named 
Rev.  Carlos  de  Arag6n  his  vicar-general  and  having 
authorized  him  to  take  possession  of  the  diocese  in  the 
name  of  the  bishop,  who  never  reached  America.  The 
first  bishop  to  occupy  the  See  of  Santo  Domingo  was 
Alessandro  Geraldini,  appointed  in  1516  and  died  in 
1524.  He  was  a  native  of  Italy,  and  perhaps  the  only 
representative  of  all  America  to  assist  at  the  Fifth 
Lateran  Council. 

Paul  III  on  12  Feb.,  1545,  elevated  Santo  Domingo 
to  the  rank  of  an  archdiocese,  the  incumbent  of  the 
see  at  the  time,  Bishop  Alonso  de  P'uenmayor,  be- 
coming the  first  archbishop.  Santo  Domingo  as  the 
first  metropolitan  see  of  America,  according  to  the 
terms  of  the  Bull  of  erection  "Super  Universas  Orbis 
Ecclesias",  had  five  .suffragan  sees,  as  follows:  San 
Juan  in  Porto  Rico,  Santiago  in  Cuba,  Coro  in  Vene- 
zuela, Santa  Marta  of  Cartagena,  and  Trujillo  in  Hon- 
duras. The  Diocese  of  Concepcion  de  la  Vega  had 
been  united,  after  the  death  of  its  first  bishop,  Pedro 
Sudrez  de  Deza,  to  the  See  of  Santo  Domingo  by  Apo.s- 
tolic  authority.  Nothing  in  the  text  of  the  Bull  of 
erection  would  warrant  the  u.se  of  the  title  of  Primate 
of  the  Indies  by  the  archbishop  of  this  see,  although  it 
remains  indisputable  that  it  is  the  first  metropolitan 
see  of  all  America.  Santo  Domingo  is  equally  en- 
titled to  be  called  the  cradle  of  Christianity  in  America, 
being  the  centre  of  the  religious  and  missionary  zeal 
that  radiated  thence  to  the  adjoining  islands  and  main- 
land. The  Bull  of  Alexander  VI,  dated  24  June, 
1493,  designated  the  Franciscan  Father  Buil  (Boil) 
to  accompany  Columbus  on  his  .second  voyage  of 
discovery,  with  ample  faculties  as  Apostolic  dele- 
gate or  vicar,  and  to  bring  to  the  New  World  a 
body  of  zealous  missionaries.  The  unfortunate  inci- 
dent which  deprived  America  of  his  services  doubtless 
marred  the  growth  of  the  Church  in  the  beginning. 
But  on  30  August,  1495,  a  band  of  Franciscans  and 


SANTORIN 


464 


SAN  XAVIER 


other  missioners  arrived  in  Hispaniola  to  replace  a  dis- 
contented element  that  occasioned  no  small  annoy- 
ance to  the  great  discoverer,  and  to  laj-  the  solid  foun- 
dation of  the  Faith  among  the  native  Indians. 

The  archdiocese  contains  (500,000  Cathohcs;  66 
secular  and  12  regular  priests;  32  Sisters  of  Charity;  68 
churches;  103  chapels;  1  seminary;  257  schools.  The 
present  archbishop,  Mgr.  Adolfo  Xouel,  was  born  at 
Santo  Domingo,  12  December,  1S62;  elected  titular 
Archbishop  of  Methymna,  S  October,  1904;  conse- 
crated at  Rome  eight  days  later  as  coadjutor  to  Arch- 
bishop de  Merino  of  Santo  Domingo,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  August,  1906. 

Boletin  eclesidstico  de  la  arquididcesis  de  Santo  Domingo;  Bull 
PonHfei  Romanus  in  ATchito  de  Simancas;  Brac,  La  colonizacion 
de  Puerto  Rico  (San  Juan,  1907);  Documents  in  episcopal  archives, 
San  Juan,  Porto  Rico. 

W.  A.  Jones. 
Santorin.     See  Thera,  Diocese  of. 

Santos,  JoAO  dos,  Dominican  missionary  in  India 
and  Africa,  b.  at  Evora,  Portugal;  d.  at  Goa  in  1622. 
His  book  "Ethiopia  Oriental"  is  the  best  description 
of  the  Portuguese  occupation  of  Africa  at  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  Portugal  was  at  the 
zenith  of  her  power  there.  His  account  of  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  Bantu  tribes  at  that  date  is 
most  valuable;  he  was  a  keen  observer,  and  generally 
a  sober  narrator  of  things  that  he  saw.  This  work 
is  now  a  Portuguese  classic.  On  13  August,  1586, 
four  months  after  leaving  Lisbon,  dos  Santos  arrived 
in  Mozambique.  He  was  at  once  sent  to  Sofala, 
where  he  remained  four  years  with  Father  Joao 
Madeu-a.  Between  them  they  baptized  some  1694 
natives  and  had  built  three  chapels  when  they  were 
ordered  back  to  Mozambique.  After  a  journey  of 
great  hardships  they  were  forced  to  remain  on  the 
Zambesi  River,  dos  Santos  staying  at  Tete  for 
eight  months.  From  registers  found  there  he  dis- 
covered that  the  Dominicans  had  baptized  about 
20,000  natives  before  the  year  1.591  at  Tete  alone. 
From  Mozambique  he  was  sent  to  the  small  island 
of  Querimba,  where  he  remained  for  two  years.  The 
registers  here  gave  the  information  that  16,000 
natives  had  been  baptized  before  the  year  1593. 
Next  he  was  appointed  commissary  of  the  Bulla  da 
Cruzada  at  Sofala,  where  he  stayed  more  than  a 
year.  His  labours  in  Africa  ended  on  22  August, 
1.597,  when  he  left  Mozambique  for  India.  With  the 
exception  of  eleven  j'ears  spent  in  Europe  (1606-17) 
he  lived  the  rest  of  his  life  in  India. 

Ethiopia  Oriental  (Lisbon,  1891);  Theal,  Tfie  Portuguese  irt 
South  Africa  (Cape  Town,  1896). 

Sidney  R.  Welch. 

San  Xavier  del  Bac,  Mission  of,  one  of  the  eight 
mi.s.sions  founded  by  the  Spanish  Padres  between  1687 
and  1720  in  the  Pimeria  Alta,  within  the  present  lim- 
its of  the  State  of  Arizona,  viz.  Guevavi,  San  Xavier 
del  Bac  (of  the  water),  Tumacacuri  (San  .Jos6,  which 
has  been  reserved  by  Act  of  Congress  as  a  national 
monument),  Tubac  (Santa  Gertrudis),  Sonoitag  (San 
Miguel),  Arivaca,  Santa  Ana,  and  Calabasas  (San 
Cayetano).  Of  these  only  Tumacacuri  and  San 
Xavier  del  Bac  are  extant :  the  former,  situated  forty- 
five  miles  south  of  Tucson,  is  in  a  ruinous  condition ;  the 
hitter,  nine  miles  south  of  Tucson,  in  the  fertile  Santa 
Cruz  valley  and  close  to  the  Papago  village,  has  re- 
mained in  a  remarkable  state  of  preservation  and  is 
visited  annually  by  a  great  number  of  pilgrims,  tour- 
ists and  students  of  art  and  history.  Founded  in  1699 
by  the  Jesuit  missionary  Eusebius  Kino  (Kiihne),  a 
native  of  the  Austrian  Tyrol  who  resigned  the  chair  of 
mathematics  at  the  University  of  Ingolstadt  to  evan- 
geUze  the  aborigines  of  the  New  World,  the  Church  of 
San  Xavier  del  Jiac  was  completed  by  the  Spanish 
Franciscans  at  a  later  date,  with  the  exception  of  one 
of  the  towers,  which  remained  unfinished.  It  is  built 
of  Btone  and  brick,  with"a  mortar  the  proceed  of  which 


is  now  lost  and  which  has  retained  to  this  day  the  con- 
sistency of  cement.  Its  inside  dimensions  are  105  feet 
by  70  in  the  transept  and  27  in  the  nave.  It  has  the 
form  of  the  Latin  cross.  Experts  have  been  at  vari- 
ance regarding  the  style  of  architecture  at  San  Xa- 
vier, some  pronouncing  it  Moorish,  others  Byzantine, 
others  again  describing  it  as  a  mixture  of  both.  It 
seems  now  established  that  it  may  not  be  called  Moor- 
ish, as  it  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  Moorish 
architecture  as  exemplified  in  the  Orient  and  South- 
ern Spain,  although  it  bears  traces  of  the  influence 
exercised  by  Moorish  art  over  the  Renaissance  in 
Spain.  The  proper  denomination  should  be  the 
Spanish  Mission  style,  viz.  Spanish  Renaissance  as 
modified  by  local  conditions  in  the  Spanish  colonies 
of  the  New  World. 

Directly  in  front  of  the  church  is  an  atrium,  en- 
closed by  a  fence  wall,  where  the  Indians  used  to  hold 
their  meetings.  The  facade,  profusely  adorned  with 
arabesques  of  varied  colours  and  bearing  the  coat- 
of-arms  of  St.  Francis,  is  flanked   by   two  towers  80 


f 

H*. 

■^i 

jPjjMtfc.''               --    \                 ! 

;■ 

1^^^^^^ 

^^ 

i^^pf 

W3^^r',.     - 

Mission   of  San  Xavier  del  Bac 

feet  high.  From  the  top,  made  accessible  by  easy 
winding  stairs  cut  in  the  thickness  of  the  walls,  a 
comprehensive  view  may  be  obtained  over  the  ver- 
dant Santa  Cruz  valley,  the  distant  city  of  Tucson 
and  the  circle  of  lofty,  pinnacled  mountains. 

The  interior  is  frescoed  throughout,  and  contains  a 
great  number  of  artistic  statues  made  of  wood.  The 
reredos  of  the  main  altar  and  of  the  side  chapels  are 
elaborately  decorated  in  bas-relief  with  scroll  work 
covered  with  gold  leaf,  and  are  .supported  by  columns 
of  unique  designs.  Above  the  centre  of  the  transept 
a  cupola  ri.ses  to  a  height  of  55  feet.  Six  minor  domes 
divide  the  remaining  space.  Two  figures  of  lions 
carved  in  wood  guard  the  access  to  the  sanctuary. 
The  terraced  rof)f  is  surrounded  by  a  balustrade  in 
masonry,  each  baluster  tapering  into  a  cement 
finial  and  supporting  on  either  side  a  lion's  head, 
reminiscent  of  th(^  escutcheon  of  Castile  and  Leon. 
To  the  west  of  the  church  is  an  open  cortile,  the 
ancient  burying  ground,  with  fourteen  pillars  in 
the  wall  bearing  niches  for  the  Stations  of  the  Cross 
worked  in  high-relief.  At  the  west  end  of  the  cortile 
stands  a  domed  chapel  with  a  belfry,  used  formerly  a.s 
a  mortuary  chapel,  since  dedicated  to  Our  Lady  of 
Sorrows. 

Adjacent  to  the  church  are  gathered  the  mission 


SlO  CARLOS 


465 


SAO  PAULO 


buildings,  surrounding  a  spacious  -patio  lined  with 
arcades  and  a  monumental  entrance  consisting  of 
seven  arches.  As  it  now  stands,  SanXavier  delBac 
is  considered  the  most  remarkable  rehc  of  the  Spanish 
period  north  of  Mexico;  many  important  features 
which  had  gradually  disappeared  were  replaced  dur- 
ing the  years  1906-10  by  the  Bishop  of  Tucson  on  his 
own  responsibility,  in  an  effort  to  restore  the  ancient 
and  venerable  pile  to  its  pristine  grandeur  and  to 
preserve  it  for  future  generations. 

From  1827,  the  date  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Spanish 
missionaries,  to  18G6,  when  the  Rev.  J.  B.  Salpointe 
(later  Archbishop  of  Santa  Fe)  came  to  Tucson,  the 
mission  of  San  Xavier  del  Bac  was  completely  aban- 
doned and  left  to  the  care  of  the  Papago  Indians,  who 
saved  it  from  destruction  by  the  Apa(;hes.  Since 
1868,  when  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Arizona  was 
erected,  the  bishops  of  Tucson  have,  by  unremitting 
care  and  frequent  outlay,  warded  off  decay  and  ulti- 
mate ruin  from  the  precious  monument,  constantly 
devoting  at  the  same  time  especial  and  personal  at- 
tention to  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  Papago  In- 
dians gathered  around  the  mission.  J'or  the  past 
thirty-five  years  a  school  has  been  maintained  by  the 
clergy  of  the  parish  of  Tucson  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Papago  children.  It  is  located  in  the  mission  build- 
ings and  is  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Saint  Joseph 
of  Carondelet. 

Arricivita,  CrSnica  serdfica  del  Apostdlico  colegio  de  QuerStaro; 
Gditeras  in  Bull.  Am.  Cath.  Hist.  Soc,  V,  no.  2  (June,  1894) ;  Or- 
tega, Hisloria  del  Nayaril,  Sonora,  Sinaloa  y  Ambas  Californias 
(Mexico,  1887) ;  Cr^tineau-Joly,  Hist,  de  la  compagnie  de  Jtsus, 
V  (Paris,  1859),  iii;  de  Long,  Hist,  of  Arizona;  Hamilton,  Re- 
sources ojf  Arizona ;  History  of  Arizona  Territory  (San  Francisco, 
1884);  Salpointe,  Soldiers  of  the  Cross  (Banning,  Cal.,  1898); 
Francisco  Garces,  Diary,  tr.  Codes  (New  York,  1900). 

Henry  Granjon. 

Sao  Carlos  do  Pinhal,  Diocese  op  (S.  Caroli 
PiNHALENSis),  suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Sao 
Paulo,  Brazil,  South  America,  created  on  7  June, 
1908.  The  Rt.  Rev.  Jo.s6  Marcondes  Homem  de 
Mello,  the  j)resent  bishop,  was  born  on  1.'5  Feb.,  1860, 
and  elcvat(>d  in  May,  1900;  he  had  been  Archbishop 
of  Pant,  from  which  he  resigned.  The  residence  of 
the  bishop  is  at  Sao  Carlos  do  Pinhal,  State  of  Sao 
Paulo,  founded  in  1857  and  raised  to  the  rank  of  city 
on  21  April,  1880.  It  is  connected  with  the  city  of 
Sao  Paulo,  capital  of  the  state,  by  a  railroad,  the  trip 
occupying  about  six  hours.  Its  population  is  estimated 
at  67,000,  mostly  Catholics.  13esides  the  public 
schools  and  those  maintained  by  the  diocese,  there  is 
an  excellent  institution  for  the  education  of  girls, 
known  as  "Collegio  de  Sao  Carlos"  and  directed  by 
the  Sisters  of  the  Most  Holy  Sacrament. 

Julian  Moreno-Lacalle. 

Sao  Luiz  de  Caceres,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Aloy- 
sii  DE  Cacekes),  in  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Cuyabd, 
from  which  diocese  (arch<liocese  since  .">  April,  1910) 
it  was  separated  by  a  papal  Decree  of  10  March,  1910. 
Sao  Luiz  de  Cdcercs,  otherwise  known  as  Villa  ^laria, 
is  situated  in  the  State  of  Matto  Grosso  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rio  Paraguay  about  115  miles  W.  S.  W. 
of  Cuyabd  and  50  miles  from  the  Bolivian  boundary. 
Founded  in  1776  by  Luiz  de  Albuquerque  de  Mello 
Pereira  e  Caceres  as  a  fort  to  oppose  the  Spaniards 
and  called  Maria  in  honour  of  the  Queen  of  Portugal, 
it  was  chartered  as  a  town  in  1859.  In  1895  its  popu- 
lation was  only  about  1500  (mostly  Indians),  but 
owing  to  the  increasing  commerce  between  Matto 
Grosso  and  the  South  which  is  carried  on  entirely  by 
river,  Sao  Liiiz  (being  the  most  southerly  Brazilian 
port  on  the  Rio  Paraguay)  has  become  an  important 
centre.  The  cathedral  church  is  dedicated  to  St.  Aloj'- 
sius.     The  diocesan  statistics  are  not  yet  available. 

Galanti,  Compendia  de  hisloria  do  Brazil,  III  (Sao  Paulo, 
1902),  226-41. 

A.  A.  MacErlean, 
XIIL— 30 


Sao  Luiz  de  Maranhao,  Diocese  of  (Sancti 
LuDOVici  de  Maragnano),  suffragan  of  Belem  de 
Pard,,  comprises  the  State  of  Maranhao  in  Northern 
Brazil.  The  Prefecture  of  Sao  Luiz  was  annexed  to 
the  See  of  Olinda  by  Innocent  XI,  15  July,  1614;  on 
30  Aug.,  1677,  it  was  created  a  bishopric  depend- 
ent on  Lisbon;  Frei  Antonio  de  S.  Maria,  a  Capu- 
chin of  S.  Antonio,  was  appointed  to  the  see,  but 
before  he  took  possession  he  was  transferred  to 
Miranda,  and  Gregorio  dos  Anjos,  a  secular  canon 
of  the  Congregation  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  be- 
came its  first  bishop.  It  comprised  then  all  Maran- 
hao, Pard,  and  Amazonas.  The  see  was  vacant  from 
1813  till  1820;  Leo  XII  made  it  suffragan  to  Sao  Sal- 
vador (15  June,  1827).  In  Jan.,  1905,  the  Diocese  of 
Piahuy  was  separated  from  Sao  Luiz,  which  became 
suffragan  to  Belem  de  Pard,  3  May,  1906.  The  Dio- 
cese of  Sao  Luiz  has  an  area  of  177,560  square  miles, 
and  contains  about  500,000  inhabitants,  practically 
all  Catholics;  57  parishes;  36  secular  clergy;  12  La- 
zarists  and  Capuchins;  2  congregations  of  nuns;  and 
about  100  churches  and  chapels.  The  present  bishop, 
Francisco  de  Paula  Silva,  CM.,  successor  of  Mgr 
Albano,  was  born  at  Douradinho  on  31  Oct.,  1866; 
joining  the  Lazarists  he  was  professed  in  1891;  or- 
dained on  24  Jan.,  1896;  appointed  master  of  novices  at 
Petropolis,  and  later  rector  of  the  Lazarist  College,  at 
Serra  de  Caracas,  named  Bishop  of  Sao  Luiz  on  18 
April,  1907;  consecrated  on  14  July  following  by 
Cardinal  Arcoverde  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

The  territory  of  Maranhao  was  discovered  by 
Pinz6n  in  1500  and  granted  to  Joao  de  Barros  in 
1534  as  a  Portuguese  hereditary  captaincy.  The 
Island  of  Maranhao  lies  between  the  Bays  of  Sao 
Marcos  and  Sao  Jose.  It  was  seized  in  1612  by  the 
French  under  Danic^l  de  La  Touche,  Seigneur  de  La 
Rividiere,  who  founded  Sao  Luiz,  near  the  Rio 
Itapicuru,  the  site  being  blessed  by  the  Capuchins 
who  accompanied  him  and  who  established  the  Con- 
vent of  St.  Francis.  The  island  was  seized  by  the 
Portuguese  under  Albuquerque  in  1614.  Very  suc- 
cessful Indian  missions  were  soon  begun  by  the 
Jesuits,  who  were  temporarily  expelled  as  a  result 
of  a  civil  war  in  1684  for  their  opposition  to  the  en- 
slavement of  the  Indians.  Sao  Luiz  city  has  about 
30,000  inhabitants,  and  contains  several  convents, 
charitable  institutes,  the  episcopal  palace,  a  fine 
Carmelite  church,  and  an  ecclesiastical  seminary. 

Galanti,  Hist,  do  Brazil  (Sao  Paulo,  1896-1905). 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Sao  Paulo,  Archdiocese  of  (S.  Pauli  in  Bra- 
silia).— The  ecclesiastical  province  of  Sao  Paulo,  in 
the  Repubhc  of  Brazil,  South  America,  comprises  the 
Dioceses  of  Campinas,  Ribcrao  Preto,  Taubate,  Bo- 
tucatii,  Corityba,  and  Sao  Carlos  clo  Pinhal,  all  these 
dioceses  being  in  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo.  Created  a 
bishopric  in  1745  it  was  raised  to  metropolitan  rank 
in  1908,  when  the  above  mentioned  dioc(>ses  were  also 
created.  The  Catholic  population  in  the  province  in 
1910  amounted  to  over  2,500,000  souls.  There  are 
203  secular  priests;  50  regular  priests,  distributed 
among  7  rehgious  orders  and  institutions  of  learn- 
ing; 4  convents;  530  churches  and  chapels;  and  36 
Catholic  schools.  In  the  city  of  Sao  Paulo,  the  seat 
of  the  archdiocese,  are  located:  the  Seminario  Pro- 
vincial, for  ecclesiastical  students;  the  Seminario  Cen- 
tral; the  Seminario  das  Educandas,  under  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph,  for  the  education  of  poor  girls;  the 
Gymnasio  de  S.  Bento,  directed  by  the  Benedictines; 
the  Gymnasio  Diocesano  de  S.  Paulo,  under  the  Mar- 
ist  Brothers;  the  Gymnasio  de  Nossa  Senhora  do 
Monte  Carmo;  and  the  Lyceu  de  Artes  e  Officios  do 
Sagrado  Cora^ao  de  Jesus.  The  Catholic  publica- 
tions in  the  diocese  are:  the  "Boletin  ecclesiastico", 
the  official  organ;  "Ave  Maria";  "Estandarte  Catho- 
lico";   "Uniao  Catholica".     The  city  of  Sao  Paulo. 


SAO  PEDRO 


466 


SAO   SEBASTIAO 


founded  in  1561.  is  one  of  the  most  populous  (350,000 
in  1910)  and  prosperous  in  Brazil;  it  is  the  centre  of  the 
coffee  trade,  Brazil's  greatest  industry.  The  present 
archbishop,  the  Most  Rev.  Duarte  Leopoldo  da  Silva 
(b.  4  Apr.,  1S04),  was  transferred  to  Sao  Paulo  in 
1907,  and  consecrated  in  1908. 

Julian  IMoreno-Lacalle. 

Sao  Pedro  do  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  See  Porto 
A-LEGRE,  Archdiocese  of. 

Sao  Salvador  de  Bahia  de  Todos  os  Santos, 

Archdiocese  of  (Saxcti  Salvatoris  omnium  Sanc- 
torum), a  Brazilian  see  erected  by  Julius  III,  25 
Feb.,  1551,  as  suffragan  of  Lisbon,  and  raised  to 
archiepi-scopal  rank  by  Innocent  XI,  16  Nov.,  1676. 
The  diocese  at  first  comprised  all  Brazil,  which  had 
previously  formed  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Funchal;  the 
first  Mass  in  Brazil  was  celebrated  on  26  April,  1500, 
at  Coroa  Vermelha  Island  by  Henrique  de  Coimbra, 
O.F.M.  In  1537  the  Mercy  Hospital  was  erected  at 
Santos.  The  first  bishop,  Pedro  Fernandes  Sardinha, 
arrived  at  Bahia  on  22  June,  1552;  he  left  on  2  June, 
1556,  to  return  to  Europe,  but  was  shipwrecked  be- 
tween the  rivers  Sao  Francisco  and  Cururipu,  and 
murdered  by  the  Indians,  16  June,  1556.  The  Church 
was  then  governed  by  Francisco  Fernandes  till  the  ar- 
rival of  the  second  bishop,  Pedro  Leitao  (1559),  who 
held  the  first  Brazihan  synod  at  Bahia,  where  he  died 
in  1573.  B}^  1581  there  were  sixty-two  churches  at 
Bahia  and  in  the  neighbouring  region,  the  Reconcavo. 
The  first  archbishop,  Caspar  de  Mendonga,  took  pos- 
session of  his  see  by  procuration  on  3  June,  1677. 
Archbishop  SebastiaoMonteiro  da  Vida  (1702-22) 
held  a  provincial  council  and  published  the  statutes, 
known  as  " Constituicao  do  Arcebispado  da  Bahia". 
The  first  governor  of  Brazil,  Thome  de  Souza,  arrived 
at  Bahia  on  29  March,  1549;  with  him  were  six  Jes- 
uits, the  first  sent  to  the  New  World,  under  Manoel 
da  Nobrega.  Two  days  later  the  first  Mass  was  said 
at  Bahia.  On  1  July,  1553,  there  arrived  at  Bahia  the 
Venerable  Jose  Anchieta,  S.J.,  the  Apostle  of  Brazil. 
A  native  mission,  Sao  Andre,  was  begun  forthwith 
near  the  city.  In  1554  Father  da  Nobrega  opened  a 
college  at  Piratininga.  The  early  Jesuit  missionaries 
contributed  greatly  to  the  progress  of  the  new  colony, 
giving  free  education,  curbing  the  violence  of  the 
pioneers,  and  protecting  the  Indians  from  .slavery,  for 
which  purpose  they  obtained  a  royal  decree  in  1570. 
They  also  constructed,  from  Santos  to  Sao  Paulo,  a 
road  which  for  three  centuries  remained  the  princi- 
pal highway  of  the  region.  They  compiled  many  im- 
portant works  on  the  native  Indian  languages,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  grammars  by  Anchieta, 
Manoel  da  Veiga,  Manoel  de  Aloraes,  Luiz  Figueira, 
and  Montoya;  and  Mammiani's  "Catechismo  dadou- 
trina  christa  na  lingua  brazilica  da  nagao  kiriri ".  The 
seminary  at  Bahia  was  founded  by  Damasus  de  Abreu 
Vieira,  O.F.M. ;  in  1.583  the  Benedictines  established 
the  .\bbey  of  Sao  Sebastiao  at  Bahia. 

The  episcopal  city,  Bahia,  was  founded  by  Thom<3  de 
Souza  in  1.549  near  the  site  of  Victoria  which  had  been 
established  in  1536  by  Francisco  Pereira  Coutinho. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  con- 
tained houses  of  the  Benedictines,  F'ranciscans,  Car- 
melites, Augustinians,  Italian  Capuchins,  and  the 
Mendicants  of  the  Holy  Land;  also  the  Carmelite, 
Trinitarian,  Franciscan,  and  Dominican  tertiari(*s,  a 
mercy  hospital,  a  leper  hospital,  and  two  orphanages, 
in  addition  to  many  schools.  It  has  now  a  popula- 
tion of  over  200,rKX)  inhabitants;  the  archdiocese  con- 
tains about  2,5fX},fXXJ  Catholics,  .5fXX)  Protestants,  208 
parishes,  240  .s«;cular  and  80  regular  priests,  3  colleges, 
and  725  churches  and  chapels.  The  present  arch- 
bishop, Jerome  Thome  da  Silva,  was  born  at  Sobral 
on  12  June,  1849;  educated  at  the  Collegio  Pio-latino- 
americano,  Jitjma;  ordained  there  on  21  Dec,  1872; 
appointed  Vicar-General  of  Olinda;  named  Bishop  of 


Belem  do  Pard  on  26  June,  1890;  and  transferred  as 
successor  of  Mgr  Macedo  Costa  to  Sao  Salvador  on 
12  Sept.,  1893,  being  enthroned  in  Feb.,  1894. 

GAL.iNTi,  Cotnpendio  de  historia  do  Brazil  (Sao  Paulo,  1896- 
1905),  an  excellent  account  of  the  early  Indian  tribes,  their 
languages,  customs,  and  religions  is  given  in  I,  90-139;  Southet, 
Hist,  of  Brazil  (London,  1810-19). 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Sao  Sebastiao  do  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Archdiocese 
OF  (S.  Sebastiani  Fluminis  Januarii). — The  ecclesi- 
astical province  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  third  of  the 
seven  constituting  the  Brazilian  episcopate,  was  first 
created  a  bishopric,  as  a  suffragan  see  of  the  Archdio- 
cese of  Sao  Salvador  da  Bahia,  by  a  Bull  of  22  Nov., 
1676.  It  was  raised  to  an  arclibishopric  in  1893, 
its  jurisdiction  comprising  the  Dioceses  of  Nictheroy 
(1893)  and  Espirito  Santo  (1892)  and  the  Prefecture 
ofRioBranco.  The  total  Catholic  population  of  the 
whole  province  in  1910  was  2,051,800,  and  that  of  the 
archdiocese  proper,  800,000.  The  jurisdiction  of  the 
latter  extends  over  the  whole  territory  of  the  federal 
district  in  which  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  capital  of  the  re- 
public and  seat  of  the  archdiocese,  is  located.  There 
are  in  the  federal  district  20  parish  churches,  59  chap- 
els, various  monasteries  and  nunneries,  and  63  Catho- 
hc  associations  prominent  among  which  are:  the"Ir- 
mandade  do  Sancti.ssimo  Sacramento  da  Candelaria", 
founded  in  1669  and  in  charge  of  the  bureau  of  chari- 
ties caring  for  nearly  1000  indigent  persons,  and  of  the 
Asylum  of  Our  Lady  of  Piety  for  the  education  of  or- 
phan girls;  the  "Irmandade  da  Santa  Casa  da  Miseri- 
cordia",  operating  since  1545  and  maintaining  a  gen- 
eral hospital,  a  foundling  asylum,  an  orphan  asjdum, 
and  a  funeral  establishment  for  the  burial  of  the  poor. 
These  benevolent  associations,  known  in  Brazil  as 
irrnandades  (brotherhoods),  do  a  highly  charitable  and 
eminently  Christian  work,  assi.sting  the  poor  and  car- 
ing for  the  orphans  and  the  sick,  bj'  the  maintenance 
of  hospitals,  asylums,  savings  banks,  schools,  etc. 
There  are  also  several  associations  of  St.  Vincent  of 
Paul,  performing  similar  work.  Of  religious  orders, 
there  are  in  the  archdiocese  Jesuits,  Franciscans,  Car- 
melites, Lazarists,  Dominicans,  and  Benedictines;  of 
female  orders,  there  are  Sisters  of  Charity,  Ursulines, 
Carmelites,  Poor  Clares,  and  others.  The  archdio- 
cese maintains  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  the  Seminary  of  St. 
Joseph.  Among  other  Catholic  institutions  of  learn- 
ing are:  the  College  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  for 
girls;  the  Jesuit  college;  the  College  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Jesus;  the  College  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Mary  for  girls.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the 
"Circulo  Catholico",  a  large  association  founded  on 
15  Sept.,  1899,  for  the  propagation  of  the  Faith,  and 
to  provide  young  men  with  moral  recreation.  The 
organ  of  the  Church  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  "  O  Uni verso  " 
(Rua  Evaristo  Vega  No.  01). 

Rio  de  Janeiro  was  the  first  spot  in  the  New  World 
where  a  colony  of  Protestants  settled.  A  little  island 
in  the  bay  was  (;olonized  and  fortified  by  Villegaignon 
under  the  patronage  of  Admiral  Coligny  in  1555.  This 
Huguenot  settlement  was  destroyed  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1.5()(),  and  the  nam(!  of  the  island  changed  to 
Sao  Sebastiao.  The  city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  was  pro- 
claimed the  capital  of  Brazil  in  1763.  After  the  em- 
pire was  (>stal)lislic(l,  the  iiii])('rial  chapel  near  the  pal- 
ace was  selected  for  a  cathedi'al,  which  building  is  at 
pres(!nt  being  reconstructed.  Adjacent  to  it  is  the 
Church  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel.  Both  are 
small  structures,  but  preserve  to  a  wonderful  degree 
the  effects  of  Latin-American  architecture.  The 
most  noteworthy  place  of  worship  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  ia 
the  Church  of  the  Candelaria.  The  corner-stone  waa 
laid  about  1780,  the  funds  having  been  donated  by  a 
pioua  Brazilian  lady  in  gratitude  for  her  re.sc;ue  from 
a  great  peril  at  sea.  The  building  was  jjlanned  by  a 
Brazilian  architect,  Evaristo  de  Vega.  Its  two  towera, 
surmounted  by  glittering  domes,  are  among  the  first 


SAO  THIAGO 


467 


SAPPA 


objects  to  attract  the  eye  on  entering  the  Bay  of  Rio 
(le  Janeiro;  they  rise  to  a  height  of  228  feet  above  the 
street,  but,  unfortunately,  the  narrowness  of  the  thor- 
oughfare prevents  a  good  impression  of  the  size  and 
beauty  of  the  structure.  The  three  bronze  doors,  with 
relief  work  showing  extraordinary  artistic  detail,  and 
the  interior,  finished  in  marble,  with  fine  wall  and  ceil- 
ing paintings,  are  among  the  best  of  their  kind  in 
Latin-America.  The  present  Archbishop  of  Sao  Se- 
bastiao  do  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  His  Eminence  Joaquim 
Cardinal  Arcoverde  de  Albuquerque  Cavalcanti,  born 
18  Jan.,  1850,  elected  26  June,  1890,  transferred  to  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  24  July,  1898,  and  created  cardinal  on 
11  Dec,  1905.     (See  Brazil,  the  United  States  of.) 

Allain,  Rio  (le  Janeiro  (Paris,  1SS6);  Ferreira  da  Rosa,  Rio 
de  Janeiro  (Rio  de  Janeiro,  190.5). 

Julian  Moreno-Lacalle. 

Sao  Thiago  de  Cabo  Verde,  Diocese  of  (Sancti 
Jacdhi  Cai'itis  Vikidis),  JKis  the  scat  of  its  bishopric 
on  tlic  Island  of  S.  Xicolau  and  comprises  the  Cape 
Verde  Archipelago,  which  forms  one  civil  province, 
and  Portuguese  Guinea,  on  the  coast  of  Senegambia, 
which  forms  another.  Each  of  tliese  two  provinces 
is  under  a  governor  who  is  appointed  by  the  national 
Government. 

The  Province  op  Cape  Verde  (Cabo  Verde), 
with  the  seat  of  the  civil  and  military  Government  at 
Praia,  on  the  Island  of  S.  Thiago,  lies  between  14°  40' 
and  17°  14'  N.  latitude  and  between  22°  50'  and 
25°  30'  longitude  W.  of  Greenwich.  It  is  made  up  of 
ten  islands  which  are  divided  into  the  two  groups  of 
Barlavento  and  Sotavento.  The  Barlavento  group 
consists  of  the  islands  of  Boa-Vista,  Sal,  S.  Nicolau, 
Santa  Luzia,  S.  Vicente,  and  S.  Antao;  the  Sota- 
vento group,  of  Maio,  S.  Thiago,  Fogo,  and  Brava. 
In  the  Barlavento  group  of  islands  there  are  two  judi- 
cial districts,  one  with  its  seat  at  Santo  Antao,  the 
other  at  Mindello,  on  the  Island  of  S.  Vicente.  Tlie  So- 
tavento group  forms  but  one  judicial  district,  the  scat 
of  which  is  at  Praia,  on  the  Island  of  S.  Thiago.  Each 
of  these  islands  is  under  a  municipal  council  (viuni- 
cipio),  excejit  Maio,  which  belongs  to  the  municiino 
of  Praia,  and  Santa  Luzia,  which  is  still  uninhabited. 

The  province  has  a  population  of  142,000,  of  whom 
4718  are  whites,  50,033  blacks,  and  87,249  mulattoes. 
The  number  of  foreigners  is  very  small,  not  exceed- 
ing 828.  The  areas  and  population  of  the  islands 
are:  Boa  Vista,  236' 3  square  miles,  2691  inhabitants; 
Sal,  79'2  square  miles,  640  inhabitants;  S.  Nicolau, 
94'^^  square  miles,  10,462  inhabitants;  S.  Vicente, 
75'. i  square  miles,  10,086  inhabitants;  Santa  Luzia, 
I5J2  square  miles,  uninhal)itcd;  Santo  Antao,  302*2 
square  miles,  33,SoS  inhabitants;  Maio,  42  scjuare 
miles,  1895  inhal)itants;  S.  Thiago,  419'4  scjuare 
miles,  56,082  inhabitants;  Foga,  204-3  square  miles, 
17,582  inhabitants;  Brava,  2Vi  square  miles,  8970 
inhabitants.  S.  Vicente  is  an  important  port  and 
coaling  station. 

Ecclesiastically  the  province  is  divided  as  follows: 
Boa  Vista,  2  parishes;  Sal,  1;  S.  Nicolau,  2;  S.  Vi- 
cente, 1;  Santo  Antjio,  6;  Maio,  1;  S.  Thiago,  11; 
Fogo,  4;  Brava,  2.  Boa  Vista  contains  3  primary 
schools;  Sal,  2;  S.  Nicolau,  1  lyceum-seminary  and  6 
primary  schools;  S.  Vicente,  1  school  of  navigation, 
and  7  primary  schools;  Maio,  1;  S.  Thiago,  22;  Fozo, 
7;  Brava,  6. 

The  Province  of  Portuguese  Guinea  has  an 
area  of  about  14,270  square  miles,  with  a  population 
of  300,000.  Its  capital,  Bolama,  is  the  seat  of  the  only 
judicial  district  in  the  province,  and  of  the  municipal 
council.  It  has  also  three  military  districts,  Bissau, 
Cacheu,  and  Geba.  Portuguese  Guinea  has  a  vicar- 
general  who  is  nominated  by  the  bishop  of  the 
diocese.  It  contains  six  parishes:  Bolama,  Bissau, 
Cacheu,  Farim,  Buba,  and  Geba.  There  are  a  few 
primary  schools,  which,  however,  are  poorly  attended. 


Ethnography. — The  population  of  Cape  Verde 
consists  of  European  and  native  whites,  blacks,  and 
mixed  (mestigos).  The  language  is  a  dialect  called 
crioulo,  which  is  made  up  from  various  languages 
with  Portuguese  predominating.  The  people  are  half 
civilized,  are  mild  in  disposition,  not  inclined  to  hard 
work,  and  by  no  means  provident,  so  that  whenever 
the  rains  fail  they  are  liable  to  suffer  from  great 
scarcity  of  food.  They  have  little  practical  ability 
and  are  given  to  pleasure,  particularly  to  dancing; 
balls,  which  are  organized  on  the  slightest  pretext,  be- 
ing their  favourite  pastime.  The  arts  are  not  culti- 
vated; industry  and  commerce — what  little  there  is 
— are  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  Europeans.  The 
Catholic  rehgion  is  professed,  but  its  practice  is 
mingled  with  many  superstitions.  The  average  an- 
nual frequentation  of  the  sacraments  is:  baptisms, 
4872;  marriages,  534;  confessions  and  communions, 
36,000. 

With  respect  to  Guinea  little  can  be  said,  its  popu- 
lation being  still  in  a  condition  of  savagery.  Its  an- 
nual statistics  are:  baptisms,  330;  marriages,  10;  con- 
fessions and  communions,  20.  Arabic  and  various 
African  dialects  are  spoken. 

History. — It  is  known  that  the  Cape  Verde  Archi- 
pelago was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1460,  and 
Guinea  in  1445.  In  1553  these  territories  were 
erected  into  a  diocese  by  a  Bull  of  Clement  VII  dated 
31  January.  The  diocese  has  been  governed  by 
prelates  of  great  learning,  some  of  them  also  of  great 
virtue,  and  to  them  is  due  all  the  iinprovcinciit  that 
has  been  wrought  in  the  condition  of  C'ape  Vcnle.  It 
has  no  charitable  organizations  except  a  Confrater- 
nity of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  on  the  Island  of  S. 
Nicolau,  wliicli  supports  a  i)rimary  school  and  supplies 
the  lack  of  rural  banks  by  lending  capital  at  a  low 
rate  of  interest.  Mitra,  Cabido,  and  some  of  the 
parishes  enjoy  the  benefit  of  legacies  made  by  bene- 
factors of  the  diocese,  which  are  liberally  adminis- 
tennl.  There  are  no  religious  societies.  The  clergy 
are  subsidized  by  the  State  and  are  exempt  from  the 
public  burdens  of  military  service,  jury  duty,  etc.  It 
is  expected,  however,  that  the  legal  separation  of 
Church  and  State,  already  put  in  force  at  the  national 
capital,  will  very  soon  be  applied  in  this  colony,  and 
the  changes  which  will  result  are  as  yet  unknown. 
Josfi  Alves  Martins. 

Sappa,  Diocese  of  (Sappensis,  Sappatensis, 
Zapp.\tensis),  in  Albania,  establislicd  in  1062,  by 
Alexander  II.  In  1491  Innocent  VII I  joined  to  it  the 
See  of  Sarda  (Sardoniki),  and  the  united  sees  were  suf- 
fragans of  Antivari  until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  See  of  Sarda  comprised  also  the  Diocese 
of  Daynum  (Dagnum,  Dagno,  Danj;  Daynensis), 
founded  as  suffragan  of  Antivari  about  the  second 
half  of  the  fourteenth  century  and  united  with  Sarda 
by  Martin  V  in  1428.  The  exact  number  of  bishops 
of  Sappa  is  unknown.  The  first  Bishop  of  Sappa  men- 
tioned is  Paulus  about  1370.  The  most  famous  bishops 
of  Sappa  were  George  Blanko  (1623-35),  deliverer  of 
his  fatherland  from  the  Turks,  and  Lazarus  Vladanja 
of  Scutari  (1746-49).  The  present,  forty-first,  Bishop 
of  Sappa  is  Mgr.  James  Serecci,  suffragan  of  Scutari. 
He  has  his  residence  at  the  village  of  Nensat  (Nen- 
sciati).  His  diocese  comprises  about  22,000  inhabi- 
tants of  various  creeds,  of  whom  17,2S0  are  Catholics. 
By  the  Albanian  Council  in  1703  the  Bishoj)  of  Sappa 
obtained  some  parishes  pertaining  to  the  Diocese  of 
Pulati.  The  ecclesiastical  students  of  this  diocese  are 
educated  at  the  seminary  of  Scutari.  The  Diocese  of 
Sappa  also  includes  the  Franciscan  monastery  at 
Trosan  (Trosciani),  where  the  Minorites  have  a 
"Collegium  seraphicum"  for  their  students  of  phi- 
losophy. 

Farlati-Coleti,  Illyricum  sacrum,  VII  (Venice,  1819), 
229-32,    271-91;    Gams,    Series    episcoporum   ecclesice   calholiccB 


SARA 


468 


SARAGOSSA 


(Ratisbon.  1873  and  1886),  405-406,  415-416;  Theiner, 
Monumenia  Slavorum,  I,  nos.  148,  153;  II,  nos.  233,  219;  Hoffer 
in  Zeitschrift  fur  kath.  Theol.  (Innsbruck,  1895),  360  (1896), 
164;  MiHACEVic,  Serafinski  Perivoj,  XXIII,  126;  Markovic, 
Dukljansko-barska  metropolija  (Agram,  1902),  47-50. 

Anthony  Lawrence  Gancevic. 


(~^u,  princess;  another  form,  *'"ir,  Sarai, 
the  signification  of  which  is  doubtful,  is  found  in  pas- 
sages occurring  before  Gen.,  x^-ii,  15).  Sara  was  the 
wife  of  Abraham  and  also  his  step-sister  (Gen.,  xii,  15; 
XX,  12).  We  do  not  find  any  other  account  of  her 
parentage.  When  Abraham  goes  down  to  Egypt  be- 
cause of  the  famine,  he  induces  Sara,  who  though 
sixty-five  j'ears  of  age  is  very  beautiful,  to  say  that  she 
is  his  sister;  whereupon  she  is  taken  to  wife  by  the 
King  of  Egji^t,  who,  however,  restores  her  after  a 
Divine  admonition  (Gen.,  xii).  In  a  variant  account 
(Gen.,  xx),  she  is  represented  as  being  taken  in  simi- 
lar circumstances  bj'  Abimelech,  King' of  Gerara,  and 
restored  hkewise  to  Abraham  through  a  Divine  inter- 
vention. After  having  been  barren  till  the  age  of 
ninety,  Sara,  in  fulfilment  of  a  Divine  promise,  gives 
birth  to  Isaac  (Gen.,  xxi,  1-7).  Later  we  find  her 
through  jealousy  ill-treating  her  handmaiden  Agar 
the  Egyptian,  who  had  borne  a  child  to  Abraham,  and 
finally  she  forces  the  latter  to  drive  away  the  bond- 
woman and  her  son  Ismael  (Gen.,  xxi).  Sara  lived  to 
the  age  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  years,  and 
at  her  death  was  buried  in  the  cave  of  Macphelah  in 
Hebron  (Gen.,  xxiii).  Isaias,  li,  2,  alludes  to  Sara 
as  the  mother  of  the  chosen  people;  St.  Peter  praises 
her  submission  to  her  husband  (I  Pet.,  iii,  6).  Other 
New  Testament  references  to  Sara  are  in  Rom.,  iv, 
19;    ix,  9;    Gal.,  iv,  22-23;   Heb.,  xi,  11. 

VoN"  Hl'mmelauer,  Comment,  in  Genesim,  passim. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Sarabaites,  a  class  of  monks  widely  spread  before 
the  time  of  St.  Benedict.  They  either  continued,  like 
the  early  a.scetics,  to  live  in  their  own  homes,  or  dwelt 
two  or  three  together  in  or  near  cities.  They  ac- 
knowledged no  monastic  superior,  obeyed  no  definite 
rule,  and  dispo.sed  individual!}^  of  the  product  of  their 
manual  labour.  St.  Jerome  speaks  of  them  under  the 
name  of  Remoboth,  and  John  Cassian  tells  of  their 
wide  diffusion  in  Egj-pt  and  other  lands.  Both 
writers  ex^iress  a  verj^  unfavourable  opinion  concerning 
their  conduct,  and  a  reference  to  them  in  the  Rule  of 
St.  Benedict  (c.  i)  is  of  similar  import.  At  a  later 
date  the  name  Sarahaites,  the  original  meaning  of 
which  cannot  be  determined,  designated  in  a  general 
way  degenerate  monks. 

St.  Jerome,  Eput.,  xxii,  34;  Cassian,  Coll.,  xviii,  4,  7;  Funk, 
tr.  Cappadelta,  Church  History,  I,  213. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Saragossa,  Diocese  of  (CiESARAUGusTANA),  in 
Spain,  comprises  a  great  part  of  the  civil  Prov- 
ince of  Saragos.sa  (Zaragoza).  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Navarre  and  Huesca;  on  the 
east  by  Huesca,  L6rida,  and  Tarragona;  on  the 
south  by  Valencia  and  Teruel;  on  the  west  by  Gua- 
dalajara and  Soria.  The  episcopal  city,  situated  on 
tli('  lObro,  has  72,(XX)  inhabitants.  Before  the  Roman 
period  the  site  of  Saragossa  appears  to  have  been 
occupied  by  Salduba,  a  little  village  of  Edetania, 
within  the  boundaries  of  Celtiberia.  Here  in  a.  u.  c. 
727  Octavius  Augustus,  then  in  his  seventh  consulate, 
founded  the  colony  of  Ca;.sar  Augusta,  giving  it  the 
Italian  franchi.se  and  making  it  the  cai)ilalof  a  juridi- 
cal coni'en<u.s.  Pomponias  Mela  called  it  "the  most 
illustrious  of  the  inland  cities  of  Hispania  Tarra- 
conen.sis".  In  a.d.  452  it  fell  under  the  power  of  the 
Suevian  king  Reciarius;  in  400  under  that  of  the  Visi- 
goth Euric.  St.  Isidore  extolled  it  as  one  of  the  best 
cities  of  Spain  in  the  Gothic  period,  and  Pacensis 
called  it  "the  most  ancient  and  most  flourishing". 

The  diocese  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  Spain,  for  ita 


origin  dates  back  to  the  coming  of  the  Apostle  James 
— a  fact  of  which  there  had  never  been  any  doubt 
until  Baronius,  influenced  by  a  fabulous  story  of 
Garcia  de  Loaisa,  called  it  in  question.  Urban  VIII 
ordered  the  old  lesson  in  the  Breviary  dealing  with 
this  point  to  be  restored  (see  Compostela).  Closely 
involved  with  the  tradition  of  St.  James's  coming  to 
Spain,  and  of  the  founding  of  the  church  of  Sara- 
gossa, are  those  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Pillar  (see  Pilar, 
NuESTRA  Senora  del)  and  of  Sts.  Athanasius  and 
Theodore,  disciples  of  St.  James,  who  arc  supposed  to 
have  been  the  first  bishops  of  Saragossa.  About  the 
year  250  there  appears  as  bishop  of  this  diocese  Felix 
Caesaraugustanus,  who  defended  true  discipline  in 
the  case  of  Basilides  and  Martial,  Bishops,  respec- 


Faqade  of  the  Old  Cathedkal,  Saragossa 

tively,  of  Astorga  and  M6rida.  St.  Valerius,  who 
assisted  at  the  Council  of  Iliberis,  was  bishop  from 
290  to  315  and,  together  with  his  disciple  and  deacon 
St.  Vincent,  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  persecution 
of  Dacian.  It  is  believed  that  there  had  been  mart  yrs 
at  Saragossa  in  previous  persecutions,  aa  Prudentius 
seems  to  affirm;  but  no  certain  record  is  to  be  found 
of  any  before  this  time,  when,  too,  St.  Engratia  and 
the  "numberless  saints"  {sanlos  innurnerahlcs),  aa 
they  are  called,  gained  their  crowms.  It  is  said  that 
Dacian,  to  detect  and  so  make  an  end  of  all  the  faith- 
ful of  Saragossa,  ordered  that  liberty  to  practise  their 
religion  .should  be  promised  them  on  condition  that 
they  all  went,  out  of  the  city  at  a  certain  fixed  time 
and  by  certain  designated  gates.  As  soon  as  they 
had  thus  gone  forth,  he  ordered  them  to  be  put  to 
the  sword  and  their  corp.ses  burned.  Their  ashes 
were  mixe(l  with  those  of  criminals,  so  that  no  vener- 
ation might  be  paid  them.  But  a  shower  of  rain  fell 
and  washed  the  ashes  apart,  forming  those  of  the 
martyrs  into  certain  white  masses.  These,  known 
as  the  "holy  nui-sses"  (las  mnlas  inasas),  were  depos- 
ited in  the  cryj)t  of  the  church  dedicated  to  St.  En- 
gratia, where  they  are  still  preserved. 
St.  Vincent  was  taken  to  Valencia,  where  he  Buf- 


SARAGOSSA 


469 


SARAGOSSA 


fered  a  long  and  terrible  martyrdom.  St.  Valerius 
was  exiled  to  a  place  called  Enet,  near  Barbastro, 
where  he  died,  and  whence  hi.s  relics  were  translated 
first  to  Roda,  the  head  and  arm  being  brought  thence 
to  Saragossa  when  that  city  had  been  reconquered. 

The  See  of  Saragossa  was  occupied  during  the 
Gothic  period  by  two  illustrious  bishops:  St.  Braulius 
(q.  v.),  who  assisted  at  the  Fourth,  Fifth,  and  Si.xth 
Councils  of  Toledo;  and  Tajon,  famous  for  his  own 
writings  and  for  having  discovered  at  Rome  the  third 
part  of  St.  Gregory's  "Morals".  From  592  to  619 
the  bishop  was  Maximus,  who  assisted  at  the  Coimcils 
of  Barcelona  and  Egara,  and  whose  name,  combined 
with  that  of  the  monk  Marcus,  has  been  used  to  form 
an  alleged  Marcus  Maximus,  the  apocryphal  contin- 
uator  of  Flavius  Dexter.  In  542,  when  the  Franks 
laid  seige  to  Saragossa  to  take  vengeance  for  the 
wrongs  of  the  Catholic  princess,  Clotilde,  the  besieged 
went  forth  in  procession  and  delivered  to  the  enemy, 
as  the  price  of  their  raising  the  siege,  a  portion  of  the 
blood-stained  stole  of  St.  Vincent,  the  deacon. 

Before  the  Saracen  invasion  three  national  coun- 
cils were  held  at  Saragossa.  The  first,  earlier  than 
those  of  Toledo,  in  380,  when  Valerius  II  was  bi.shop, 
had  for  its  object  the  extirpation  of  Priscillianism; 
the  second,  in  592,  in  the  episcopate  of  Maximus, 
was  against  the  Arians;  the  third,  under  Bishop 
Valderedus,  in  691,  provided  that  queens,  when 
widowed,  should  retire  to  some  monastery  for  tlieir 
security  and  for  the  sake  of  decorum.  During  the 
Saracen  occupation  the  Catholic  worship  did  not 
cease  in  this  city;  the  churches  of  the  Virgin  and  of 
St.  Engratia  were  maintained,  while  that  of  the 
Saviour  was  turned  into  a  mosque.  Of  the  bishops 
of  this  unhappj'  period  the  names  are  preserved  of 
Senior,  who  visited  St.  Eulogius  at  Cordoba  (.S-49), 
and  of  Eleca,  who  in  890  was  driven  from  the  city 
by  the  Moslems  and  took  refuge  at  Oviedo.  Pater- 
nus  was  sent  by  Sancho  the  Great  to  Cluny,  to  intro- 
duce the  Cluniac  reform  into  Spain  in  the  monasteries 
of  S.  Juan  de  la  Pcna  and  S.  Salvador  de  Leyre,  and 
was  afterwards  appointed  Bishop  of  Saragossa. 

Alfonso  I,  the  Fighter,  of  Aragon,  reconquered  the 
city  on  18  Dec,  1118,  and  named  as  bishop  Pedro 
de  Librana,  whose  appointment  was  confirmed  by 
Gelasius  II.  L6pez,  in  his  "Historia  de  Zaragoza", 
says  that  Librana  first  resided  at  the  Church  of  the 
Pillar,  and  on  6  Jan.,  11 19,  purified  the  great  mosque, 
which  he  dedicated  to  the  Saviour,  and  there  estab- 
lished his  episcopal  see.  Ilcnce  the  controversy, 
which  began  in  1135,  in  the  episcopate  of  Garcia 
Guerra  de  Majones,  between  the  canons  of  the 
Pillar  and  those  of  St.  Saviour  as  to  the  title  of  cathe- 
dral. 

In  1318  the  See  of  Saragossa  was  made  metropoli- 
tan by  a  grant  of  John  XXII  (14  June),  Pedro  L6pez 
de  Luna  being  bishop.  For  more  than  a  century 
(1458-1577)  princes  of  the  royal  blood  occupied  the 
Bee:  Juan  of  Aragon,  natural  son  of  Juan  II  (1458); 
Alonso  of  Aragon  (1478);  another  Juan  of  Aragon 
(1520);  Fernando  of  Aragon,  who  had  been  the  Cis- 
tercian Abbot  of  Vcruela. 

In  the  factions  which  followed  upon  the  death 
of  King  Martin,  Archbishop  Garcia  Femdndez  de 
Heredia  was  assassinated  by  Antonio  de  Luna,  a 
partisan  of  the  Count  of  Urgel  (1411).  In  1485  the 
first  inquisitor-general,  St.  Peter  Arbues,  fell  a  martyr 
in  the  cathedral,  slain  by  some  relapsed  Jews  who 
were  led  by  Juan  de  la  Abadia. 

The  cathedral  is  dedicated  to  the  Saviour,  as  it 
had  been  before  the  Mohammedan  invasion.  It 
shares  its  rank  with  the  Church  of  Nuestra  Senora 
del  Pilar,  half  of  the  chapter  residing  at  each  of  the 
two  churches,  while  the  dean  resides  six  months  at 
each  alternately  The  building  of  the  cathedral  was 
begun  by  Pedro  Tarrjao  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
In  1412  Benedict  XIII  caused  a  magnificent  balda- 


chinum  to  be  erected,  but  one  of  its  pillars  fell  down, 
and  it  was  reduced  to  its  present  condition.  In  1490 
Archbishop  Alonso  of  Aragon  raised  the  two  lateral 
naves,  which  had  been  lower,  to  an  equal  height 
with  the  central,  and  added  two  more;  Fernando  of 
Aragon  added  three  other  naves  beyond  the  choir, 
to  counterbalance  the  excessive  width  of  the  building, 
and  thus,  in  1550,  was  the  Gothic  edifice  completed. 
The  great  chancel  and  choir  were  built  by  order  of 
Archbishop  Dalmau  de  Mury  Cervell6n  (1431-58). 
In  the  chapel  of  S.  Dominguito  del  Val  are  preserved 


CuUUCH  OK  .S.  Engracia,  Sahaqossa 

the  relics  of  that  saint,  a  boy  of  seven  who  was  cruci- 
fied by  the  Jews  in  1250.  The  fagade  of  the  cathedral 
is  Renaissance,  and  beside  it  rises  the  tower,  more 
modern  than  the  body  of  the  church,  having  been 
begun  in  1790. 

The  Church  of  Nuestra  Senora  del  Pilar  is  beheved 
to  have  originated  in  a  chapel  built  by  the  Apostle 
James.  Bishop  Librana  found  it  almost  in  ruins 
and  appealed  to  the  charity  of  all  the  faithful  to 
rebuild  it.  At  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century 
four  bishops  again  stirred  up  the  zeal  of  the  faithful 
to  repair  the  building,  which  was  preserved  until 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  In  1681  work 
was  commenced  on  the  new  church,  the  first  stone 
being  laid  by  Archbishop  Diego  de  Castrillo,  25 
July,  1685.  This  grandiose  edifice,  500  ft.  (about 
457  Enghsh  feet)  in  length,  covers  the  capella  angelica, 
where  the  celebrated  image  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  is 
venerated.  Though  the  style  of  the  building  is 
not  of  the  best  period,  attention  is  attracted  by  its 
exterior,  its  multitude  of  cupolas,  which  are  reflected 
in  the  waters  of  the  Ebro,  giving  it  a  character  all 
its  own. 

Saragossa  possesses  many  very  noteworthy 
churches.  Among  them  are  that  of  St.  Engratia, 
built  on  the  spot  where  the  victims  of  Dacian  were 
martyred.      It  was  destroyed  in  the  War  of  Inde- 


SARAJEVO 


470 


SARAYACT^ 


pendence,  only  the  crypt  and  the  doorway  being 
left;  a  few  years  ago,  however,  it  was  rebuilt,  and 
now  serves  as  a  parish  church.  The  ITniversity  of 
Saragossa  obtained  from  Carlos  I  (the  Emperor 
Charles  \)  in  1542,  the  privileges  accorded  to  others 
in  Spain.  Its  importance  was  afterwards  promoted 
by  Pedro  Cerduna,  Bishop  of  Tarazona;  he  gave  it 
a' building  which  lasted  until  it  wjis  blown  up  by 
the  French  in  ISOS.  A  sci)arate  building  has  been 
erected  for  the  faculties  of  medicine  and  sciences. 

The  archieiiisc()i)al  palace  is  a  splendid  edifice 
erected  by  Archbishop  Agustin  de  Lezo  y  Palomeque. 
There  are  two  ecclesi:istical  seminaries:  that  of  Sts. 
Valerius  and  Braulius,  founded  by  Archbishop  Lezo 
in  17SS,  was  destroyed  by  an  explosion  and  was 
rebuilt  in  1824  by  'Archbishop  Bernardo  Frances 
Caballero;  that  of*  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  formerly 
a  Jesuit  college,  was  converted  into  a  seminary  by 
Carlos  III. 

Florez-Risco,  Esp.  sagrada,  XXX,  XXXI  (2nd ed., Madrid); 
Lamberto  de  Zaragoza,  Teatro  hist,  de  las  iglesias  .  .  .  de 
Aragdn  (Pamplona,  17S0);  Cuadrado,  Aragdn  in  Espafla,  sus 
monumentos  y  artes  (Barcelona,  ISSC) ;  Blancas,  Diego  de  Espes, 
Carrillo,  Episcopologios;  de  la  Fcente,  Hist,  de  las  wiiversidades 
de  Espatia  (Madrid,  1899) ;  O'Reilly,  Heroic  Spain  (New  York, 
1910). 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Am  ado. 

Uxn-ERSiTY  OF  Saragossa. — This  universitj^  was 
not  definitively  established  until  1585,  its  real  founder 
being  Don  Pedro  Cerbunc,  Prior  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Saragossa,  and  later  Bishop  of  Tarrazona,  who,  by 
commission  of  the  city  of  Saragossa,  organized  the 
university,  prepared  its  statutes,  and  endowed  it  watli 
an  income  of  30,000  reales.  At  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth centurj'  theology,  philosophj^,  canon  and  civil 
law,  medicine,  and  the  humanities  were  taught.  The 
university  was  subject  to  the  municipalitj'  that  had 
created  it  until  the  time  of  Charles  III.  The  influ- 
ence of  this  university  was  always  great  in  lower 
Aragon,  and  during  the  reign  of  Charles  III,  it  was 
great  throughout  the  kingdom.  It  produced  tlic 
economists  and  the  principal  Jesuits  who  contributed 
so  much  to  give  to  the  reign  of  Charles  III  the  laicist 
character  that  it  developed.  At  about  this  time  the 
so-called  Voltairean  ideas  were  introduced  into  the 
university,  the  "  Academia  de  Buen  Gusto  "  was  estab- 
lished, and  political  economy  began  to  be  dealt  with, 
which  gave  ri.se  to  many  noisy  polemics,  led  by 
Normante  and  Carcaviella.  The  study  of  economics 
was  introduced  by  Aio  and  Aurano,  and  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Aragon  and  the  Academia  de  San  Lucas 
helped  in  the  development  of  letters.  Among  the 
profe.s.sors  were  the  physician  Juan  Sobrarias,  the  poet 
Antonio  (jeron,  Pedro  Malon  de  Chaide,  Juan 
Loernzo  Palmireno,  Pedro  Simon  de  Abril,  the  Jesuit 
Mice  Andres  Serveto  de  Avinon,  Clemente  Comenge, 
Bishofi  of  Ciuflad  Rodrigo,  Juan  Francisco  Guillen, 
Archbishop  of  Burgos,  Ustarroz,  Aramburo,  Carrillo, 
Portolc'-s,  Vargas  \Iachuca,  etc.  With  regard  to  its 
government  and  to  the  programme  of  its  studies,  the 
University  of  Saragossa,  like  all  the  universities  of 
Spain,  has  lost  its  individual  life,  the  professors  being 
reduced  to  the  level  of  state  officials,  cacli  having  the 
anarchical  individual  licence  of  exj)]aiiiing  Die  matter 
a.s.signed  to  liirn  according  to  any  i)rogranime  he  may 
Bee  fit,  or  according  to  no  programme  at  all.  The 
university  ha«  faculties  of  law,  medicine^  exa(!t 
Bciences,  physic-s  and  chemistry,  and  lettei-s  (liistDrical 
section).  There  are  on  an  average  000  students, 
nearly  half  of  whom  study  medicine,  and  about  (jne 
quarter  each,  law  and  science,  while  the  remainder 
follow  the  Ktudi<?H  of  letters. 

Thatlla,  HiiUjria  de  la  Univemirlad  de  Zaragoza  (1603); 
Lajana  and  Qiamtanet,  EKtatuloK  de  la  Unitersidad  y  estudio 
general  de  la  ciudad  de  Zarayoza  flOlH);  Johef,  IHncurKOH  fiint/i- 
ricot  pollliroi  O0H4);  de  Cakmon  y  Trami;i.leh,  Memori^m  lilera- 
Tvt»  de  Zaragoza  M70H);  Borao,  HiKtoria  de  Ui  Uriivemiflad  de 
Zaragoza  fs.  (\.)\  de  La  Fuente,  Hiatoria  de  Urn  Vnivertidadei 
de  Etpafia  (1887). 

Teodobo  Rodkiguez. 


Sarajevo.     See  Seuajevo,  Diocese  op. 

Sarayacu  Mission,  the  chief  Franciscan  mission 
of  the  Ucayali  river  t-ountry,  Department  of  Loreto, 
north-east  Peru,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  situated 
uponasmall  arm  of  the  river,  on  the  west  side,  ahovit 
6° 45' south  and  275  miles  above  its  jinictioii  with  tlie 
Amazon.  The  name  signifies "Ri\('r of  th(>  Wasp".  Tlie 
evangelization  of  the  wild  tribes  of  Eastern  Peru,  in  the 
forests  beyond  th(^  main  Cordillera,  was  divided  be- 
tween the  Jesuits  and  the  Franciscans,  the  former  hav- 
ing the  territory  immediately  along  the  Marafion 
(.\mazon)  and  its  northern  afiluents,  directed  from  the 
college  of  Quito,  while  the  Franciscans  took  under 
their  care  the  territory  along  the  middle  and  upper 
courses  of  the  Huallaga  and  Ucayali,  directed  latterly 
from  the  Franciscan  college  of  Ocopa,  near  Jauja, 
Central  Peru,  founded  in  1712,  especially  for  the 
education  of  missionaries.  Sarayacu  was  established 
in  1791  by  Father  Narciso  Girbal,  his  first  colonists 
being  some  of  the  wild  Setebo  Indians.  These  were 
soon  joined  by  bands  from  other  tribes,  and  the  popu- 
lation grew  rapidly.     In  1801  it  was  placed  in  charge 


Old  Mission  Church,  .Sarayacu 

of  Fr.  Manuel  Plaza,  who  remained  with  it  nearly 
fifty  years  until  his  death  and  was  succeeded  by  Fr. 
Vicente  Calvo.  In  the  half-century  during  which 
Fr.  Plaza  with  his  three  or  four  assistants  thus 
governed  their  little  community  in  the  heart  of  a 
savage  wilderness,  they  saw  visitors  from  the  outside 
world  only  twice,  viz.  Smyth  and  Lowe  in  1835  and 
Castelnau  in  1846.  Under  his  direction  a  church 
and  residence  were  built,  and  the  grass-thatched  houses 
laid  out  upon  a  regular  town  i)Ian.  The  portico  of 
the  church,  which  callerl  forth  the  admiration  of 
these  travellers,  was  designed  and  executed  by  one 
of  the  fathers,  an  Italian  with  architectural  training. 
With  the  opening  of  the  revolutionary  struggle 
in  1815  all  governmental  aid  was  withdrawn  from 
the  missions,  most  of  which  were  abandoned,  a  part 
of  the  Indians,  in  some  cases,  joining  these  at  Saray- 
acii,  which  continued  to  prosper  through  the  tireless 
energy  of  Fr.  Plaza.  In  1835  it  contained  a  popula- 
tion of  about  2000  souls,  rej)resenting  many  tribes 
—  Pano,  Omagua,  Yameo,  Conibo,  Setebo,  Sipibo. 
Sensi,  Amahuaca,  Remo,  Camf)a,  Mayoruna,  and 
Capanahua,  some  of  them  from  as  far  as  the  Huallaga 
and  the  Amazon.  Each  of  the  three  jirincnpal  tribes 
first  named  occupied  a  distinct  section  of  the  town. 
The  Pano  language  was  the  medium  of  intercom- 
munication. Besicles  the  main  town  there  were 
several  other  branch  villages  along  the  river,  chief 
of  which  was  Tierra  Blanca.  All  of  t,hc  few  travellers 
who  have  left  records  of  their  visits  to  Sarayacti  are 
full  of  prai.se  for  the  hospitable  kindness  of  the 
fathers  and  the  good  effect  of  their  t(>aching  upon 
the  mission  Indians  as  compared  with  the  wild  tribes 
of  the  forest,  except  as  to  the  besetting  sin  of  drunk- 
enness, from  the  drinking  of  chicha,  a  sort  of  beer 


SARBIEWSKI 


471 


SARBIEWSKI 


made  from  corn  or  plantains  (bananas),  in  which  both 
sexes  constantly  indulged,  despite  the  protests  and 
warnings  of  the  missionaries. 

Smyth,  the  English  officer,  who  saw  it  at  perhaps  its 
best  in  1835,  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  town, 
the  various  tribes,  the  routine  of  mission  life,  and  the 
holiday  celebrations.  Ten  years  later  a  general  epi- 
demic wasted  all  the  tribes  of  the  Ucayali,  and  in  1846 
Castelnau  found  only  1200  Indians  at  the  mission. 
A  large  part  of  this  decrease,  however,  was  due  to  the 
removal  of  the  men  to  engage  with  the  rubber  gath- 
erers and  the  boat  crews  on  the  Amazon.  In  1851 
the  American  Lieutenant  Hemden  stopped  there  and 
was  kindly  received  by  Fr.  Calvo,  who  was  then  in 
charge.  "Father  Calvo,  meek  and  humble  in  personal 
concerns,  yet  full  of  zeal  and  spirit  for  his  office,  clad 
in  his  long  serge  gown,  belted  with  a  cord,  with  bare 
feet  and  accurate  tonsure,  habitual  stoop  and  gener- 
ally bearing  upon  his  shoulder  a  beautiful  and  saucy 
bird  of  the  parrot  kind,  was  my  beau  ideal  of  a  mis- 
sionary monk.  He  is  an  Arragonese,  and  had  served 
as  a  priest  in  the  army  of  Don  Carlos."  Two  other 
priests,  an  Italian  and  a  Catalan,  with  a  lay  brother, 
who  did  the  cooking  and  was  unwearied  in  his  at- 
tentions, made  up  the  household.  He  adds,  "I  was 
sick  here,  and  think  that  I  shall  ever  remember  with 
gratitude  th(>  affectionate  kindness  of  these  pious  and 
devoted  friars  of  St.  Francis." 

The  government  was  patriarchal,  through  Indian 
officers  under  supervision  of  the  priest.  The  Indians 
were  tractable  and  docile,  but  drunken,  and  although 
the  location  was  healthy,  and  births  exceeded  deaths, 
the  i)opulation  constantly  diminished  from  emigra- 
tion down  the  river.  From  various  industries  they 
derived  an  annual  income  of  about  twelve  hundred 
dollars,  from  which,  with  their  garden,  the  four  priests 
and  lay  brother  supported  themselves,  bought  vest- 
ments and  supplies,  and  kept  the  church  in  repair  and 
decoration.  In  1856  the  mission  was  visit  eel  by  an- 
other epidemic.  In  1859  the;  official  geographer  Rai- 
mondi  found  thfire  lO.'U)  inhabitants  and  a  flourishing 
school,  besides  about  200  more  at  Tierra  Blanca.  In 
the  same  year  Fr.  Calvo  established  another  branch 
station  at  Callaria,  higher  Uf)  the  Ucayali,  as  a  meet- 
ing-ground for  the  wild  tribes  in  that  direction.  This 
had  the  efTec-t  of  further  drawing  from  the  diminish- 
ing importance  of  Sarayacu,  which  was  finally  aban- 
doned as  a  mission  in  1863.  It  continues,  however,  as 
the  chief  port  of  the  Ucayali,  with  a  mixed  Indian  and 
Spanish  population  with  the  Quichua  language  as  the 
medium.  (See  also  Pano  Indians;  Setebo  Indians.) 

Castelnau,  Expedition  dans  les  partes  centrales  de  V Amerique 
du  Sud,  IV  (Paris,  ISol) ;  Herndon.  Exploration  of  the  Valley  of  the 
Amazon,  I  (Washington,  18.54);  Ordinaire,  Les  Sauvages  du 
Perou  in  Reme  d' Ethnographic,  VI  (Paris,  1887);  Raimondi,  El 
Peru,  III  (Lima,  1879);  Idem,  Apuntes  sabre  la  Provincia  litoral 
de  Loreto  (Lima,  1862);  S.myth  and  Lowe,  Narrative  of  a  Journey 
from  Lima  to  Pard  (London,  1836).  JaMES  MoONEY. 

Sarbiewski,  Mathias  Casimir,  the  Horace  of 
Poland,  b.  near  Plonsk,  in  the  Duchy  of  Masovia, 
24  February,  1.595;  d.  2  April,  1649.  He  entered  the 
novitiate  of  the  Jesuits  at  Vilna  on  25  July,  1612; 
studied  rhetoric  and  philosophy  during  1614-17; 
taught  grammar  and  humanities  during  1617-18, 
and  rhetoric  at  Polotsk  during  1618-20;  studied  theol- 
ogy at  Vilna  from  1620-22;  was  sent  in  1622  to  com- 
plete his  theology  at  Rome,  and  was  there  ordained 
priest  in  1623.  Returning  to  Poland  he  taught 
rhetoric,  philo.sophy,  and  theology  at  Vilna  from 
1626  to  1635,  was  then  made  preacher  to  King  Wla- 
dislaw,  and  was  for  four  years  companion  in  his 
travels.  The  fame  of  Sarbiewski  is  as  wide  as  the 
world  of  letters.  He  was  gifted  with  remarkable 
general  talent,  especially  in  music  and  the  fine  arts, 
but  his  chief  excellence  was  as  a  poet  versed  in  all 
the  metres  of  the  ancients.  He  was  especially  de- 
voted to  Horace,  whose  odes  he  knew  by  heart.  He 
also  made  the  lyrical  poetry  of  Pindar  his  own.     To 


his  familiarity  with  these  great  poets  he  added  an 
industry  which  has  given  the  splendid  yield  of  his 
poetic  works.  The  latest  edition  of  these,  printed 
at  Starawids  in  1892,  embraces  four  books  of  lyrics, 
a  book  of  epodes,  his  posthumous  "Silviludia" 
(Woodland  Notes),  and  his  book  of  epigrams.  Of 
all  these  the  lyrics  furnish  the  best  example  of  his 
qualities  of  mind  and  heart.  All  are  pitched  in  a 
high  key  of  thought,  sentiment,  or  passion.  His 
themes  are  for  the  most  part  love  and  devotion  for 
Christ  Crucified,  for  Our  Blessed  Lady,  or  friendship 
for  a  noble  patron,  such  as  Bishop  Lubienski,  Cardi- 
nal Francis  Barberini,  nephew  to  Urban  VI 1 1,  and 
that  pontiff  himself,  whom  he  hailed  as  his  Maece- 
nas in  several  odes  of  exquisite  finish.  His  noblest 
and  most  sustained  efforts,  however,  are  his  patriotic 
odes  upon  the  fatherland,  the  Knights  of  Poland, 
and  kindred  sub- 
jects. His  tender- 
est  pieces  are 
those  in  praise  of 
the  rose,  the 
violet,  and  the 
grasshopper,  in 
which  he  rivals 
the  grace  and 
happy  touch  of 
Horace  himself. 
He  was  crowned 
with  the  poet's 
wreath  by  King 
Wladislaw  IV. 
Urban  VIII 
named  him  one 
of  the  revisers  of 
the  hymns  of  the 
Breviary,  and  he  Mathm,-.'  i<„n:«sKi 

in  particular  is  From  the  title  imgr  ,,l  an  edition  <.f  his 
credited  with  hav-  lyrics  published  at  iStrasburg,  1803 

ing  softened  their  previous  ruggedness  of  metre.  Some 
critics  have  urged  that  in  his  love  of  Horace  he  went  so 
far  as  to  become  servile  in  imitating  him,  while  others 
again  have  made  a  very  virtue  out  of  this  close 
imitation.  As  a  religious  he  was  noted  for  his  love 
of  solitude,  turning  from  the  attractions  of  court 
life  to  solitude,  prayer,  and  useful  study  and  occu- 
pation. His  prose  works  are:  (1)  "De  acuto  et 
arguto  fiber  unicus";  (2)  "Dn  gentium",  a  specula- 
tive work  on  the  ancient  arts  and  sciences;  (3)  "De 
perfecta  poesi  libri  quattuor";  (4)  "De  Deo  uno  et 
trino  tractatus " ;  (5)  "Deangelis";  (6)  "De  physico 
continuo";  (7)  "MemorabiUa";  (8)  scattered  ora- 
tions, sermons,  and  letters. 

Select  poems  of  Sarbiewski  have  been  translated 
from  the  original  Latin  into  other  languages.  But 
his  poetical  works,  as  a  whole,  have  found  few  trans- 
lators. In  Polish  may  be  counted  no  less  than 
twenty-two  versions  of  the  poet;  yet,  only  two  of 
these  are  in  any  meiisure  complete,  the  rest  being 
translations  of  chosen  odes.  The  most  notable 
Polish  version,  embracing  almost  all  the  poems,  is 
that  of  Louis  Kondratowicz,  who  also  wrote  the  life 
of  Sarbiewski  and  translated  his  letters.  There  is 
also  a  copy  in  Polish  of  all  the  odes  extant  in  manu- 
script at  Starawies,  the  work  of  some  few  Jesuit 
fathers  of  the  province  of  White  Russia.  Detached 
translations  also  exist  in  Italian,  Flemish,  and  Bohe- 
mian. In  German  there  are  at  least  eight  or  nine 
translations,  principally  from  the  odes,  and  also 
incomplete.  The  French  versions  are  of  the  same 
character:  they  are  three  or  four  in  number,  choice 
odes  or  pieces  taken  from  the  "Poems".  The  Eng- 
hsh  translations  are  fuller  and  more  complete  than 
any  others.  There  are  at  least  four  that  may  be 
styled  integral  versions:  "Odes  of  Casimire  by 
G.  H.,"  printed  for  Humphrey  Moseley  at  the  Princes 
Armes  in  St.  Paul's  Church  Yard,  1646;  "Transla- 


SARCOPHAGUS 


472 


SARDICA 


tions  from  Casimir  •mth  Poems,  Odes,  and  specimens 
of  Latin  Prose",  J.  Kitchener  (London  and  Bedford, 
1821);  "Wood-notes;  the  Silvihidia  Poetica  of  M.  C. 
Sarbie\4us  \\-ith  a  translation  in  Enghsh  verse",  by 
R.  C.  Coxe  (Xewcastle-on-lVne,  184S);  "Specimens 
of  the  PoUsh  poets,  with  notes  and  observations  on 
the  Literature  of  Poland",  by  Jolin  Bowring  (printed 
for  the  author,  London,  1827). 

SoMMERVOGEL,  BM.  de  la  C.  de  J.,  t.  VII,  vol.  II;  Mathiw  Casi- 
miri  Sarbieuski,  S.J  ■  Poemala  Orw/iia  (Staravies,  1812);  Father 
Prout's  Reliques;  Baumgart.ner,  WeltlMeratur,iy;  Kolanow- 
SKi,  De  M.  C.  Sarbierio  Poloniw  Horatio  disxertatio;  Diel  in  Stim- 
men  aus  Maria-Laach  (1S73) ;   Daniel,  Etudes  classique/t. 

John  F.  Quirk. 

Sarcophagus.     See  Catacombs,  subtitle  V. 

Sardes,  a  titular  see  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  prob- 
ably the  ancient  Hyde  of  Homer  (Iliad,  H,  844;  XX, 
38.5),  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tmolus;  see  also  Strabo 
(XIII,  iv,  5);  Phny  (Hist,  nat.,  v,  29);  Stephen  of 
Byzantium,  s.  v.  The  name  Sardes,  which  replaced 
that  of  Hyde,  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
Shardani,  a  people  mentioned  in  the  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions as  inhabiting  this  region.  At  an  early 
period  Sardes  was  the  capital  of  the  Lydians,  an  early 
dynasty-  of  whom  reigned  from  766  to  687  b.  c. ;  a  sec- 
ond, that  of  Mermnades  founded  by  Gyges  in  687  b.  c, 
reigned  until  546  b.  c.  Its  last  king,  the  celebrated 
Croesus,  was  dethroned  by  Cyrus.  Thenceforth  it 
was  the  residence  of  the  Persian  satraps,  who  adminis- 
tered the  conquered  kingdom.  The  capture  of  the 
city  by  the  lonians  and  the  Athenians  in  498  b.  c.  was 
the  cau.se  of  wars  between  the  Persians  and  Greeks. 
In  334  it  surrendered  without  a  struggle  to  Alexander 
the  Great,  after  whose  death  it  belonged  to  Antigonus 
until  301,  when  it  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Seleucides. 
Antiochus  III  having  been  defeated  at  Magnesia  by 
the  Piomans  190  B.  c,  Sardes  was  incorporated  with 
the  Kingdom  of  Pergamus,  then  with  the  Roman 
Empire,  becoming  the  capital  of  the  Province  of 
Lydia.  The  famous  river  Pactolus  flowed  through  its 
agora,  or  forum. 

In  the  Apocalypse  (iii,  1-3)  a  letter  is  written  to  the 
Church  of  Sardes  by  St.  John,  who  utters  keen  re- 
proaches against  it  and  its  bishop.  Among  its  martyrs 
are  mentioned  the  priest  Therapon,  venerated  27 
Maj',  and  Apc)llonius  (10  July).  Among  its  bishops, 
of  whom  Le  Quien  (Oriens  Christ.,  I,  S.59-66)  gives  a 
long  list,  were  St.  Mcliton  (second  century),  writer 
and  apologist;  St.  Euthymius,  martyred  for  the  ven- 
eration of  images  (26  Dec,  824);  John,  his  succes.sor, 
who  also  sufTercd  for  the  Faith ;  Andronicus,  who  made 
several  attempts  for  the  reunion  of  the  Churches.  As 
religious  metropolis  of  Lydia,  Sardes  ranked  sixth  in 
tlie  hierarchy.  As  early  as  the  seventh  century 
((jclzcr,  "Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte  der  Notitia? 
episcopatuum",  5.37),  it  had  27  suffragans,  which 
number  scarcely  varied  until  the  end  of  the  tenth 
centur>\  At  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century 
the  town,  which  was  still  very  populous,  was  captured 
and  destroyed  by  the  Turks.  In  1369  it  ceased  to 
exist,  and  Philadelphia  replaced  it  as  metropolis 
i^Waechter,  "DerVerfall  des  Griechentums  in  Kleina- 
im  XIV  Jahrhundert",  44-46).  Since  then  it  has 
been  a  Greek  titular  metropolitan  see.  At  present, 
under  the  name  of  Sart,  it  is  but  a  mi.serable  Turkish 
village  in  the  sandjak  of  Saroukhan,  and  the  vilayet 
of  Smyrna.  Not  one  well-preserved  and  important 
monument  is  found  among  the  very  extensive  ruins. 

Arlndell,  DiHcriTerirn  in  Ani/i  Minor,  I  (Lonflon,  IS.'M),  2f)-28; 
Fellow,  Jourruil  wrilten  durinf/  an  excumion  in  Aiiti  Minor 
(Lfjndon.  1S:W),  2V)-2'.)r,:  Hbad,  Catalogue  of  the  Greek  Coinn  of 
Lydia  (Ixjnrion,  1(K)1,  230-77);  Ram.say,  The  Leltem  to  the  Seven 
Churrhef  of  A  Mia  (JaitkIod,  19f)8),  .'i.M-fiS;  Smith,  Did.  Greek  and 
Roman  Geog.,  h.  v.;  Fillion  in  Vio.,  DirJ..  de  Ui  liih.,  b.  v.;  Ha- 
DET,  Iva  hydie  M  le  monde  grer.  au  temps  den  Mermnades  (PariH, 
1893);  TfHiHATCHEr,  AHe  Mineure,  I.  232-42;  Texieh,  Axie 
Mineure  fPariH,  18R2),  2.')2-.59;  Pakooire,  Sainl-Eulhi/me  eX  Jean 
dr.  Sardei  in  Erhoi,  d'Orierd,  V,  1.57-61;  Le  Cami-h,  Leji  gepl 
Egliret  de  VApocnlvpue  fPariff,  1K90).  21H-.30;  Lamhakes,  The 
Seven  Stars  of  the  Apocalypse,  in  Greek  (Athens,  1909). 

S.  Vailh6. 


Sardica,  a  titular  metropolitan  see  of  Dacia  Medi- 
terranea.  The  true  name  of  the  city  (now  Sophia, 
the  capital  of  Bulgaria)  was  Serdica,  the  city  of  the 
Serdi,  a  Thracian  people  defeated  by  Crassus  in  29 
B.  c.  and  subjected  to  the  Kingdom  of  Thrace,  the  vas- 
sal of  Rome.  When  this  kingdom  was  suppressed  in 
49  B.  c.  the  Serdi  were  included  in  the  Roman  Prov- 
ince of  Thracia.  The  Emperor  Trajan  transformed 
the  borough  of  the  Serdi  into  a  city  which  he  called 
Ulpia  Serdica.  In  275  Aurelian  caused  Dacia  beyond 
the  Daiu)l)e  to  be  evacuated,  and  trans])lanted  to  Moe- 
sia  and  Thracia  the  soldiers  and  colonists  who  were 
faithful  to  the  Roman  cause.  The  country  occupied 
by  these  immigrants  formed  the  new  Province  of  Da- 
cia, Sardica  being  included  in  this  province  (Homo, 
"Essai.sur  le  regne  de  I'empereur  Aurelien",  313-21). 
Later,  Diocletian  divided  IDacia  into  Dacia  Ripensis 
and  Dacia  Mediterranea.  Sardica  was  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  the  latter.  Gallienus  es- 
tablished a  mint  at  Sardica,  and  Constantine  the 
Great,  who  was  born  in  the  region,  contemplated 
making  it  his  capital.  Ecclesiastically,  Sardica  be- 
longed to  the  Patriarchate  of  Rome  until  733,  when  it 
was  annexed  to  that  of  Constantinople  until  809. 
Upon  the  conversion  of  the  Bulgarians,  in  865,  Sardica 
was  one  of  the  first  cities  which  had  a  see.  Until  1204 
it  was  included  in  the  Grai-co-Bulgarian  Patriarchate 
of  Achrida,  until  1393  in  the  Bulgarian  Patriarchate  of 
Tirnovo,  and  until  1872  in  that  of  Constantinople. 
Since  then  Sardica,  or,  as  it  is  now  called,  Sophia,  be- 
longs to  the  national  Church  of  Bulgaria.  The  earli- 
est known  bishoj)  is  Protagenes,  who  assisted  at  the 
Council  of  N^ica'a  in  325;  the  best  known  is  Bonosus, 
who  shortly  afterwards  attacked  the  virginity  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  (For  the  council  held  here  in  the 
fourth  century  see  Sardica,  Council  of.) 

Although  taken  by  Attila  and  often  destroyed  by 
the  Slavs,  the  town  remained  under  Byzantine  do- 
minion until  809,  when  it  was  captured  by  the  Bul- 
gars,  who  changed  its  name  to  Sredetz,  later  trans- 
formed by  the  Greeks  into  Sraditza  and  Triaditza. 
Again  occupied  by  the  Greeks  from  1018  to  1186,  it  en- 
joyed great  prosperity;  a  section  of  the  population 
was  Paulician  or  Manicha>an.  After  some  years  of 
troubles  it  again  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Bulgars. 
Its  present  name  of  Sophia  dates  from  the  ]\Iiddle 
Ages,  though  the  precise  date  of  its  first  use  cannot  be 
assigned.  In  the  sixteenth  century  Sredetz  and  So- 
phia were  used  simultaneously.  In  1382  the  city  was 
captured  by  the  Turks,  and  for  more  than  four  cen- 
turies it  was  the  residence  of  the  beijlcrbcg,  or  governor 
general,  of  Rumelia.  In  1878  Sophia  was  chosen  aa 
the  capital  of  the  Principality  of  Bulgaria,  ami  since 
1908  has  been  the  capital  of  the  King(iom  of  Bulgaria. 
A  vicariate  Ai)()st()lic  was  (•n>ate{l  licre  at  an  early  date 
;ind  confided  to  tlic  I'raiiriscmis.  In  1610  Rome  re- 
establislied  the  See  of  S()i)liia,  which  in  1(513  w;is  made 
archicpiscopal.  It  was  suppressed  towards  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  because  the  Catiioiics  were 
pensecuteci  by  the  Turks  and  had  emigrated,  mostly  to 
Austria  and  Russia.  Relative  peace  was  restored  in 
1835,  and  Rome  confided  the  direction  of  the  Cat  holi(!s 
to  the  Rcdemptorists,  under  a  vicar  Apostolic  who 
had  not  received  episcopal  consecration.  The  Rc- 
demptorists were  replaced  by  the  Capuchins  in  1841. 
their  superior  being  consecrated  bishop  in  1848.  At 
present  an  archbishop  is  at  the  head  of  this  vicariate 
Apostolic.  Sophia  has  105,000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
a  small  number  are  Catholics.  The  Christian  Broth- 
ers have  a  schof)l  there,  and  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
of  the  Apparition  three  convents. 

Le  Quif.n.  Orient  rhrisl..  II,  301-00;  Gams,  Series  episropo- 
rum,  410;  Echos  d'Orifit,  VII,  200-1 1 ;  Jireck,  Das  FUrstrnthum 
liuUliriens  (Praeiic,  1801),  357-78;  VailhJS  in  Vacant,  Dirt,  de 
Ihtol.  rath.,  II,  1233;  Hii.airk  de  Barendon,  La  France  ratho- 
lif/ue  en  Orient  (Paris,  1902),  200-03;  Mennini,  Relazione  .  .  . 
suilo  statu  del  sun  aiiostnlico  ririirin  nel  1890-1891  (Milan,  1801); 
DCPUY-P^yor,  La  liulmrie  aur  liulo'irei  (Paris,  189.5),  278-.324; 
Missiones  Calholicm  (Rome,  1790),  117.  S.    VaILHJ6. 


SARDICA 


473 


SARDINIA 


Sardica,  Council  of,  one  of  the  series  of  councils 
called  to  adjust  the  doctrinal  and  other  difficulties 
caused  by  the  Arian  heresy,  held  most  probalDly  in 
343.  (For  date  see  Hefele,  French  tr.,  "Histoire  des 
conciles",  II,  pt.  II,  737-42,  and  Duchesne,  "Hist, 
ancienne  de  I'Eglise",  II,  215.)  It  was  convoked  by 
the  Emperors  Constans  and  Constantius  at  the 
urgent  entreaty  of  Pope  Julius.  Hosius  of  Cordova 
and  other  Western  bishops,  desirous  of  peace  and 
hoping  to  secure  a  final  judgment  in  the  case  of  St. 
Athanasius  and  other  bishops  alternately  condemned 
and  vindicated  by  councils  in  the  East  and  the  West; 
desirous,  also,  of  settling  definitively  the  confusion 
arising  from  the  many  doctrinal  formulae  in  circula- 
tion, suggested  that  all  such  matters  should  be  re- 
ferred to  a  general  council.  In  order  to  make  the 
council  thoroughly  representative,  Sardica  in  Dacia 
(now  Sofia,  in  Bulgaria),  was  chosen  as  the  meeting- 
place.  Athanasius,  driven  from  Alexandria  by  the 
Prefect  Philadrius  in  339,  was  summoned  by  the 
Emperor  Constans  from  Rome,  where  he  had  taken 
refuge,  first  to  Milan  and  afterwards  to  Trier.  At 
the  latter  place  he  met  Hosius,  who  was  commissioned 
by  the  pope  and  the  emperor  to  preside  over  the 
council,  and  whom  he  accompanied  to  Sardica.  Pope 
Julius  was  represented  by  the  priests  Archidamus  and 
Philoxenus,  and  the  deacon  Leo.  Ninety-six  Western 
bishops  i)resented  themselves  at  Sardica:  those  from 
the  East  were  not  so  numerous. 

Being  in  the  minority,  the  Eastern  bishops  decided 
to  act  as  a  body,  and,  fearing  defections,  they  all 
lodged  in  the  same  place.  On  the  ground  of  being  un- 
willing to  recognize  Athanasius,  Marcellus  of  Ancyra, 
and  Asclepas,  who  had  been  excommunicated  in 
Eastern  synods,  they  refused  to  sit  in  council  with  the 
Western  bishops.  Hosius  of  Cordova  attempted  to 
effect  a  comi>romise  by  inviting  them  to  present 
privately  to  him  their  complaints  against  Athanasius, 
and  by  promising,  in  case  Athanasius  should  be  ac- 
quitted, to  take  him  to  Spain.  These  overtures  failed. 
The  Eastern  bishops — although  the  council  had  been 
called  expressly  for  the  puqiose  of  reopening  the  case 
in  regard  to  those  who  had  been  excommunicated — 
defended  their  conduct  on  the  fictitious  plea  that  one 
council  could  not  revise  the  decisions  of  another. 
They  withdrew  from  Sardica  and  met  at  Philippop- 
olis,  where  they  composed  an  encyclical  and  a  new 
creed,  which  they  falsely  dated  from  Sardica.  The 
Western  bishops,  thus  abandoned,  examined  the  cases 
of  Athanasius,  Marcellus,  and  Asclepas.  No  fresh 
investigation  of  the  charges  against  Athanasius  was 
considered  necessary,  as  these  had  been  already  re- 
jected, and  he  and  the  other  two  bishops,  who  were 
permitted  to  present  exculpatory  documents,  were 
declared  innocent.  In  addition  to  this,  censure  was 
passed  on  the  Easterns  for  having  abandoned  the 
council,  and  several  of  them  were  deposed  and  ex- 
communicated. 

The  question  of  a  new  creed  containing  some  ad- 
ditions to  that  of  Nicaja  was  discussed,  but  although 
the  formula)  had  been  drawn  up,  the  bishops  wisely 
decided  to  add  nothing  to  the  accepted  symbol,  and 
thus  gave  the  Arians  no  pretext  for  saying  that 
hitherto  they  had  not  been  explicitly  condenmed. 
Though  the  form  of  the  proposed  creed  was  presented 
to  the  council,  it  was  not  inserted  in  the  encyclical 
addressed  by  the  council  to  "all  the  bishops  of  the 
Catholic  Church".  Before  separating,  the  bishops 
enacted  several  important  canons,  especially  concern- 
ing the  transfer  and  trial  of  bishops  and  appeals. 
These  canons,  with  the  other  documents  of  the  coun- 
cil, were  sent  to  Pope  Julius  with  a  letter  signed  by 
the  majority  of  the  attending  bishops.  The  council 
failed  entirely  to  accomplish  its  purpose.  The  paci- 
fication of  the  Church  was  not  secured,  and  the 
Eastern  bishops  grew  bolder  and  more  contu- 
macious. 


Hefele,  Conciliengeschichle,  Fr.  tr.,  Hixt.  des  conciles;  GwatkiH 
Studies  of  Arianism(Ca.mhndge,imiQ),  120  sq.;  Tubmel,  La  pa- 
paute a. Sardigue  in  Rev. Cath.  des Eglises  (1906)  -.Turner,  TheGen- 
uineness  of  the  Sardica  Canons  in  Journal  of  Theological  Studies 

Patrick  J.  Healy. 

Sardinia,  the  second  largest  Italian  island  in  the 
Mediterranean,  lying  between  41°  15'  and  38°  51' 
N.  lat.  and  having  an  area  of  9294  square  miles.  The 
principal  gulfs,  almost  all  on  the  western  coast,  are 
those  of  Caghari,  the  largest,  Teulada,  Palmas,  Car- 
loforte,  Terranova,  and  Tortoh.  These  gulfs  give 
their  names  to  as  many  ports,  all  of  which,  hke  the 
smaller  ports,  are  fine  natural  harbours.  The  largest 
islands  belonging  to  Sardinia  are:  S.  Antioco,  S.  Pie- 
tro,  Asinara,  Caprera,  and  S.  Stefano.  There  are 
three  mountain  ranges  in  the  island ;  the  most  north- 
erly— the  mountains  of  Limbara — rise  to  an  elevation 
of  4468  feet;  the  central  range  contains  Gennargentu, 
the  culminating  point  of  Sardinia,  6016  feet  high; 
and  the  southern  Monte  Linas,  4055  feet.  There 
are  numerous  extinct  volcanos:  Monte  Ferru 
(3448  ft.),  Monte  Mannu  Nurri  (3104  ft.),  Chere- 
mule  (2924  ft.),  etc.  The  largest  river  is  the  Tirso, 
94  miles  long,  rising  in  the  Budduso  mountains,  with 
two  estuaries,  one  at  the  lagoon  of  St.  Giusta,  the 
other  at  the  sea  near  Oristano.  Among  the  other 
rivers  are  the  Rio  di  Porto  Torres,  Coquinas,  Mannu, 
Flumendosa,  and  Samassi.  There  are  thirty-seven 
lagoons  along  the  sea-coast  (Cagliari,  a  great  fishing 
centre,  Oristano,  Sassu,  Palmas,  etc.).  In  addition 
there  are  many  marshes  now  being  reclaimed  for 
agricultural  purposes.  The  most  extensive  plains 
are  the  Campidano  near  Cagliari,  the  Piano  della 
Nurra,  and  the  Campo  di  Ozieri.  The  island  is  formed 
chiefly  of  granite,  trachyte,  basalt,  other  volcanic 
rocks,  and  of  chalk  deposits.  The  climate  is  tem- 
perate, but  malaria  prevails  in  the  plains  in  summer, 
which  accounts  for  the  small  p()[)ulation.  The 
fata  morgana  (mirage)  is  of  common  occurrence.  In 
1901  the  population  was  791,754;  at  present  (1911) 
it  is  estimated  to  be  about  850,000  (90  to  the  square 
mile). 

Sardinia  is  rich  in  minerals;  the  most  plentiful  metal 
is  lead,  ininglcHl  with  silver.  The  richest  beds  of  ore 
lie  in  the  circumsc'riptions  of  Iglesias,  Nuoro,  Lanusei, 
Sassari,  and  in  the  mountains  of  Nurra.  Iron  is 
found  chiefly  in  the  mountains  of  the  south-west, 
especially  about  Capoterra  and  Oghastra.  Copper, 
manganese,  antimony,  and  zinc  are  mined  in  certain 
districts.  Lignite  occurs  in  fairly  extensive  beds 
near  Gonnesa,  Iglesias,  and  Sulcis;  anthracite  and 
graphite  in  smaller  quantities.  There  are  117  mines, 
employing  12,000  men,  and  having  an  output  valued 
at  about  21,000,000  francs  (1903).  The  flora  of  the 
island  includes  vast  forests  of  oak  which  supply  an 
immense  quantity  of  cork,  olives,  oranges,  quinces, 
chestnuts,  walnuts,  and  carob-beans.  Among  the 
fauna  the  principal  are  the  numerous  herds  of  mouf- 
flons {Ovis  Ammon),  with  large  curving  horns,  and  of 
goats;  deer,  stags,  and  wild  boars  are  plentiful  in  the 
wooded  mountains;  wild  horses  disappeared  only  a 
few  decades  ago.  The  domesticated  horses  are  re- 
markably sturdy;  a  species  of  small  horse  is  largely 
exported  to  Algeria.  The  small  Sardinian  ass  is  in 
great  demand  as  a  pet  on  the  peninsula.  Oxen  are 
used  in  ploughing,  the  beef  is  good,  but  the  milk 
supply  very  short.  In  the  oak  forests  there  still 
exists  a  species  of  wild  pig,  like  the  wild  boar. 

Agriculture  is  in  a  backward  state  owing  to  the 
scanty  population;  the  farms  are  mostly  medium-sized 
or  small;  618^  square  miles  are  incapable  of  culti- 
vation. One  of  the  worst  agricultural  pests  in  Sar- 
dina  is  the  locusts  which  come  over  from  Africa  in 
large  swarms.  The  total  produce  for  1903  was 
wheat,  4,824,090 bushels;  Indian  corn,  178, 775 bushels; 
wine,  63,664,970  gallons;  oil,  221,110  gallons;  the  salt- 


SARDINIA 


474 


SARDINIA 


pans  of  Cagliari  arc  the  most  jiroductive  in  Italy,  the 
output  for  the  year  1905  being  1,403,372  pounds. 
The  birds  most  "worthy  of  notice  are  the  pelicans, 
herons,  and  flamingos  which  come  over  during  Au- 
gust in  large  flocks  from  Africa.  The  seas  abound 
in  fish  of  every  kind,  sardines,  anchovies,  and  espe- 
cially tunny-fish,  of  which  more  than  661,386  pounds 
are  exported  annually.  Near  the  island  of  S.  Pietro, 
the  Gulfs  of  Palmas,  Asinara,  Oristano,  and  Cape 
Carbonara  there  are  extensive  beds  of  coral,  5512 
pounds  of  which  are  exported  each  year. 

In  historic  times  the  people  of  Sardinia  have  under- 
gone less  amalgamation  than  any  other  Italian  popu- 
lation. According  to  the  ancient  geographers,  the 
primitive  population  of  Sardinia  was  akin  to  the 
Libyans;  Iberians,  Greeks,  Phoenicians,  Carthagin- 
ians, and  Italians  came  later.  Certainly  the  Latin 
language  was  adojited  in  the  island,  and  even  to-day 
the  Sardinian  resembles  Latin  more  than  any  other 
of  the  Italian  dialects.  There  are  three  chief  Sardin- 
ian dialects:  that  of  Sassari  which  approaches  Cor- 
sican  and  Tuscan,  that  of  Logudoro,  and  that  of 
Cagliari  (Sardinian  properly  so-called,  somewhat  like 
Sicilian).  The  most  striking  characteristic  of  the 
Sardinip,n  language  is  that,  while  throughout  the 
peninsula  of  Italy  the  article  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
pronoun  ille  {il,  In,  la,  'o,  'u),  in  Sardinian  it  is  derived 
from  ipse  (su,  masculine;  sa,  .feminine).  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  Alghero,  Catalan  is  spoken.  The 
Sardinian  is  by  nature  taciturn  and  laborious,  but 
clings  to  his  ancient  customs;  the  women  provide 
all  the  household  necessities  (flour,  bread,  linen,  cloth 
etc.);  they  like  bright  coloured  clothing,  es])ecially 
red,  while  the  men  dress  in  black:  the  latter  wear  a 
peculiar  cap,  which  is  like  a  long  stocking  covering 
the  head  and  hanging  down  the  back.  They  are 
vivacious  and  love  singing  and  dancing  to  the  ac- 
companiment of  the  lauiiedda,  the  ancient  tibia. 
In  the  environs  of  Gallura  the  people  meet  together 
in  the  winter  evenings  and  practise  improvisation. 
There  is  little  education  among  the  poorer  classes, 
but  the  wealthier  families  fully  appreciate  the  value 
of  higher  education,  jurisprudence  being  a  favourite 
study.  The  percentage  of  illiterates  is  comparatively 
speaking  lower  (68-3  per  cent  of  those  under  the  age 
of  21  and  69-6  for  those  over  21)  than  in  the 
Abruzzi,  Apulia,  Sicily,  Basilicata,  and  Calabria. 
There  are  in  the  island  1056  public  elementary,  and  40 
private,  schools,  48  evening  and  vacation  schools, 
4  normal  schools,  9  public  academies  and  one  not  yet 
completed,  2  Ij^ceums  and  one  in  course  of  construc- 
tion, 3  technical  schools,  2  technical  institutes,  1 
school  of  applied  art,  2  schools  of  music,  2  universities 
in    Cagliari    and   Sassari. 

The  bonds  of  family  life  are  very  strong,  there 
being  few  illegitimate  births ;  the  Sardinian  is 
quick  to  avenge  the  honour  of  his  wife  or  family. 
The  percentage  of  convictions  is  higher  than 
that  of  the  kingdom,  but  serious  offences  are 
less  frequent  (25  per  100,000  inhabitants  against 
25-3).  Hrigandage,  which  in  times  gone  by  afflicted 
the  island,  was  caused  partly  by  the  sparse- 
ness  of  the  population,  which  offered  malefactors 
a  greater  chance  of  escaping,  or  by  the  custom  of 
the  vendetta,  on  account  of  which  one  who  had  been 
guilty  of  an  act  of  vendetta  or  who  feared  to  fall  a 
vicfirri  to  it  ha^l  to  conceal  himself  and  to  become  a 
brigarifl;  another  cause,  in  the  last  century,  was  the 
radical  changes  introduced  in  the  eighteenth  and 
ninet^HTith  centuries  in  regard  to  economic  customs 
and  rights  (^the  right  of  cutting  timber,  of  pastur- 
age etc.).  However,  for  some  years  there  have  been 
no  properly  authenticatc;d  cases  of  brigandage  in 
Sardinia.  The  island  is  divided  civilly  into  two 
provinces:  Cagliari  (called  under  the  Spanish  regime 
Capo  di  HOtt^j)  and  Sassari  (CafjO  di  sopraj.  These 
two  provinces  contain  9  departments,  92  boroughs, 


and  363  communes.  Ecclesiastically  it  is  divided 
into  3  archdioceses  and  8  dioceses:  Cagliari,  with  its 
suffragan  sees  Galtelli-Nuoro,  Iglesias,  Ogli;ustra; 
Oristano  with  its  suffragans  Ales  and  Terralba; 
Sassari  wdth  its  suffragans  Alghero,  Ampurias  and 
Tempio,  Bisarchio,  Bosa.  Formerly  there  existed 
the  Sees  of  Doglia,  Forum  Traianum,  Fasiana,  Suello 
(Cagliari),  Sulcis  (Iglesias),  Torres,  Sorra,  Ploaghe 
(Sassari),  Ottaba,  Castro  (Alghero),  Civita  (Ampu- 
rias), Sta  Giusta  (Oristano). 

History. — The  name  of  the  island  is  derived  from 
Sardon  or  Sardus,  the  principal  god  venerated  by 
the  inhabitants,  who  had  a  large  temple  at  the  Gulf 
of  Oristano.  Some  writers  wish  to  ifl.^ntify  the  Sar- 
dinians with  the  Shardana  who,  in  the  reign  of  liameses 
III,  invaded  Egypt.  Concerning  their  race,  ancient 
writers  believe  them  akin  to  the  Libyans,  the  Iberians, 
or  the  Corsicans.  A  comparison  of  the  idols  of  the 
most  ancient  inhabitants  with  the  style  of  dress  of 
the  present  inhabitants  shows  that  the  present  Sar- 
dinian race  is  practically  identical  with  the  primitive 
race.  To  the  latter  must  be  attributed  the  peculiar 
monuments  (about  3000  in  number),  called  ntiraghe, 
scattered  through  the  island,  wiiich  are  like  truncated 
cones,  53  feet  high,  and  99  wide  at  the  base,  con- 
structed of  large  masses  of  limestone,  granite,  or  tufa, 
superimposed  without  mortar.  The  entrance  to  the 
nuraghe  faces  the  south  and  is  about  five  or  six  feet 
high,  and  two  feet  wide;  it  leads  to  a  spiral  stairway 
in  the  wall  of  the  nuraghe,  which  communicates  with 
the  two  or  three  superimposed  circular  rooms,  having 
a  sharp  angular  roof  like  that  of  the  treasury  of  j\I}'- 
cenaj.  Other  smaller  cones  are  frequenth'  found 
around  the  principal  nuraghe.  There  are  various 
opinions  as  to  the  object  of  these  buildings:  fortified 
towers,  dwellings,  sacerdotal  sepulchres  (in  none 
have  arms  been  found;  all  contained  skeletons  and 
ornaments),  pyres  etc. 

Scattered  throughout  the  length  of  the  entire  is- 
land and  not  unlike  the  nuraghe  in  appearance  are  a 
number  of  groups  of  circular  dwellings  of  stone  meas- 
uring from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  in  diameter. 
Their  proximity  to  each  other  would  suggest  that  they 
had  once  formed  part  of  villages.  They  are  not  often 
met  with  in  the  north-eastern  extremity,  but  in  the 
middle  of  the  island  they  are  very  frequent.  Close  to 
each  of  these  buildings  was  the  tombe  de  gianli  or 
giant's  tomb;  a  vaulted  chamber  of  about  thirty  or 
forty  feet  in  length,  with  sides  of  rough  masonry  and  a 
roof  formed  by  a  superimposed  slab.  Smaller  tombs 
(domus  de  gianas)  were  also  found  in  a  great  many 
places,  but  were  more  often  met  with  in  the  most  in- 
accessible regions,  and  assumed  the  shape  of  grottoes 
chiselled  from  the  rock  rather  than  that  of  vaulted 
chambers.  The  Phoenician  traders  naturally  visited 
the  island;  Caralis  (Cagliari)  was  their  great  market; 
Phoenician  inscriptions  too  have  been  found.  The 
Carthaginians  were  not  content  to  trade  with  Sar- 
dinia, they  wished  to  subdue  it  (about  500  b.  c);  bit- 
ter wars  were  waged.  Nevertheless,  various  cities 
were  founded.  In  the  First  Punic  War,  L.  Cornelius 
Scipio  defeated  the  Carthaginians  (259)  near  Olbia 
(Terranova).  A  little  later  the  mercenaries  rebelled 
against  their  C;u-1haginian  masters  and  established  a 
military  govenimeiil  against  which  the  natives  re- 
volted, thus  giving  the  Romans  an  excuse  for  inter- 
vening (238)  and  taking  possession  of  the  island,  which 
along  with  Corisca  was  formed  into  a  province  under  a 
pra-tor.  Native  ui)risiiigs  wen;  re))resse(l  with  ex- 
treme severity:  Sempronius  Gracchus  (181)  partly 
killed  and  partly  sold  into  slavery  80,000  of  the;  in- 
habitants; again  in  114  Cajcilius  Metellus  had  to 
crush  an  insurrection. 

The  Romans  by  constructing  roads  improved  the 
economic  conditions  of  the  island,  which,  although  it 
was  considered  by  the  Government  for  the  most  part 
poor  and  unproductive  and  a  place  of  punishment 


SARDINIA 


475 


SARDINIA 


for  those  condemned  to  the  mines,  enjoyed  great 
prosperity.  The  chief  towns  were  Caralis,  Sulci, 
Nura,  NeapoUs,  Tharros,  Othoca,  Olbia,  Forum 
Traiani,  Bosa,  Tibulae.  The  province  was  now 
imperial  and  now  senatorial.  It  is  possible  that  the 
first  seeds  of  Christianity  were  introduced  into  Sar- 
dinia by  the  few  Christians  who  with  4000  Jews  were 
exiled  to  the  island  by  Tiberius.  In  the  second  and 
third  centuries  many  Roman  Christians,  including 
Calhstus,  later  pope,  Pope  St.  Pontianus,  and  the 
antipope  Hippolytus,  were  sent  to  the  island  (de- 
scribed as  nociva):  the  last  two  died  there.  Among 
the  Sardinian  martyrs  are  the  bishops  who  preceded 
St.  Lucifer  of  Caghari,  of  whom  St.  Athanasius  speaks, 
which  shows  that  at  least  in  the  time  of  the  Diocle- 
tian persecution  that  city  was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric; 
St.  Bonifacius,  Bishop  of  Cagliari,  whose  tombstone 
was  discovered  in  1617  in  the  cathedral  (Corpus 
Inscript.  Lat.  Sicilia?  et  Sardiniae,  II,  n.  7753),  was 
not  a  personal  disciple  of  Christ  but  belonged  to  the 
age  after  Constantius.  Other  martyrs  are  recorded 
at  Cagliari,  Sulci,  Torres;  not  all  of  them,  however, 
have  been  authenticated.  Up  to  the  present  time 
only  one  Christian  cemetery  is  known,  that  of  Bonorva 
near  Cagliari;  there  are  ruins  of  a  fourth-century 
Christian  basilica  at  Tharros.  Christian  inscriptions 
have  been  found  in  Cagliari  (66),  Tharros,  Torres, 
Terranova. 

In  456  the  island  was  taken  by  the  Vandals,  who 
were  wont  to  exile  thither,  especially  to  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Cagliari,  the  African  bishops  and  Catho- 
lics. In  534  it  was  recovered  for  the  empire  by  Cyril- 
lus,  and  included  in  the  Diocese  of  Africa.  In  551 
it  was  captured  by  Totila.  As  far  as  is  known  the 
Longobards  raided  the  island  only  once  (589),  but  did 
not  obtain  control  of  it.  Sardinia,  moreover,  was 
abandoned  to  its  fate  by  the  Byzantines  more  than 
the  peninsula,  and  consequently  the  tradition  which 
dates  in  the  sixth  century  the  origin  of  the  three 
(later  four)  judicatures,  into  which  the  island  was 
later  divided,  may  have  a  historical  foundation. 
The  tradition  runs  that  Taletus,  a  citizen  of  Caghari, 
rebelled  against  the  Byzantine  Government,  pro- 
claimed himself  King  of  Sardinia,  and  divided  the 
island  among  his  three  sons.  From  the  letters  of 
St.  Gregory  we  know  that  in  some  parts  of  the  island, 
especially  in  the  ecclesiiistical  possessions,  there 
were  many  pagans  who  had  to  pay  a  tax  to  the  judex 
of  the  island  for  each  sacrifice.  In  the  ninth  century 
such  was  the  general  depravity  that  Paulus,  Bishop 
of  Populonia,  and  Abbot  Saxo,  legate  of  Nicholas  I, 
placed  the  whole  island  under  excommunication. 
The  episcopal  sees  were  reduced  to  four  in  the  tenth 
century.  This  decadence  is  to  be  attributed  in  part 
to  the  inroads  in  the  seventh  century  of  the  Saracens, 
who  were,  however,  always  repulsed  by  the  Sardin- 
ians. The  latter  had  to  establish  an  autonomous 
military  organization,  which  naturally  led  to  a 
political  organization,  the  chiefs  of  which,  while 
preserving  the  title  of  Byzantine  governor,  were 
called  judges.  In  the  tenth  century  there  were 
four  of  these  judges  in  Torres,  Arborea,  Gallura,  and 
Cagliari;  this  distribution  of  the  island  remained  till 
the   Aragoncse   conquest. 

Shortly  after  1000,  Mughebid,  Emir  of  the  Balearic 
Islands,  conquered  Sardinia  and  from  there  made  de- 
scents on  the  Tuscan  coast  (Pisa  and  Luni).  En- 
couraged by  the  pope,  to  whom  Charlemagne  had 
given  Sardinia,  the  Pisans  with  the  assistance  of  the 
Sardinians  drove  him  out.  Mughebid  was  defeated  a 
second  time  with  the  help  of  the  Pisans  and  Genoese. 
The  pope's  suzerainty  was  then  recognized  willingly 
by  the  judges.  The  Genoese  and  the  Pisans  had  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade  and  also  possession  of  several 
towns  on  the  coast,  and  moreover  acted  as  arbiters 
in  the  quarrels  of  the  judges.  But  later  a  dispute 
arose  between  the  two  cities,  in  regard  to  the  limits  of 


their  respective  rights.  Moreover,  as  Pisa  was  an 
imperial  city,  the  emperors  claimed  rights  over  the 
island.  In  the  struggle  only  the  seaboard  towTis  suf- 
fered, but  the  commercial  advantages  compensated 
the  damage  caused  by  war.  The  interior  which  was 
under  the  control  of  the  judges  exclusively  continued 
to  flourish.  Barbarossa  named  his  uncle  Welf,  King 
of  Sardinia,  but  in  1164  sold  the  kingdom  to  Barisone, 
judge  of  Arborea,  who  was  cro\\Tied  at  Pavia.  Other 
families  in  the  peninsula  hke  the  Malaspina  of  Luni, 
the  Visconti  of  Pisa,  and  the  Doria  of  Genoa,  had  ac- 
quired property  in  the  island  and  become  related  to 
the  judges  by  marriage.  The  judicatures  of  Cagliari, 
Torres,  and  Gallura  were  suppressed  by  the  Pisans. 
When  later  Adelasia,  widow  of  Ubaldo  Visconti  and 
mistress  of  the  judicatures  of  Torres  and  Gallura, 
married  (1238)  Enzo,  Frederick  IPs  bastard,  the  latter 
proclaimed  himself  King  of  Sardinia;  but  he  was  soon 
overthro\\-n  and  after  twenty-two  years'  imprisonment 
died  at  Bologna.  The  marriage  of  the  Genoese  Mi- 
chele  Zanche  with  Enzo's  mother  embittered  the  war 
between  Pisa  and  Genoa.  When  Pisa  was  victorious 
their  vassals,  the  della  Gherardesca  and  Nino  di  Gal- 
lura, rose  in  revolt,  some  signiories  passing  to  the  Vis- 
conti of  Milan.  Finally  the  Genoese  got  the  north- 
west and  the  Pisans  the  south-east. 

In  1297  Boniface  VIII,  in  order  to  induce  the  King 
of  Aragon  to  restore  Sicily  to  Charles  of  Anjou, 
granted  the  investiture  of  Sardinia  to  Alfonso  of  Ara- 
gon. The  latter  aided  by  Branca  Doria,  judge  of 
Logudoro  and  lord  of  Alghero,  Ugone  of  Arborea,  and 
the  commune  of  Sassari,  began  war  against  the  Pisans, 
who  in  1324  had  to  sign  a  treaty  which  left  them  only 
the  port  and  lagoon  of  Cagliari  and  two  suburbs;  and 
from  these  they  were  expelled  later.  On  the  defeat 
of  the  Pisans  it  was  necessary  to  subdue  the  ancient 
allies:  i.  e.  the  Genoese  and  the  rulers  of  Arborea.  Ma- 
riano IV  fought  successfully  against  th<'  Aragonese,  but 
was  carried  ofT  by  a  pestilence  (1367);  his  son  Gu- 
glielmo  IV  abdicated  in  favour  of  the  Aragonese,  and 
died  a  little  later.  In  the  beginning  the  King  of 
Aragon  planted  colonies  of  Catalonians  and  Arago- 
nese in  the  island.  Sardinia  had  a  viceroy  and  a  par- 
liament composed  of  the  three  orders:  barons,  clergy, 
and  the  commons  meeting  s(>i)arutely  and  communi- 
cating among  themselves  by  means  of  deputies.  The 
charter  of  Eleanora  was  adopted  as  a  Constitution; 
and  the  King  of  Aragon  swore  in  the  presence  of  the 
Sardinian  deputies  to  observe  it.  Nevertheless,  the 
Aragonese  Government  succeeded  in  establishing  in 
the  island  a  dominant  Spanish  class,  either  by  grant- 
ing most  of  the  fiefs  to  Spanish  nobles  or  by  appoint- 
ing Spanish  prelates  to  most  of  the  sees.  This  stirred 
up  enmity  between  the  natives  and  the  ruling  classes; 
but  only  one  attempt  at  rebellion  is  recorded,  that  of 
Leonardo  Alagon  (1470).  In  the  history  of  the  suc- 
ceeding years  we  may  note  the  expulsion  of  all  the 
Corsicans  (1479)  and  Jews  (1492),  some  Saracen  in- 
roads, and  three  attempts  of  the  French  to  conquer 
the  island  (1528  at  Castel  Sardo;  1637  at  Oristano; 
1644  at  Alghero). 

The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  plunged  the 
island  in  anarchy.  By  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  (1713) 
Sardinia  was  given  to  Austria,  for  which  the  moun- 
taineers of  Gallura  had  declared  themselves  from  the 
beginning.  Cardinal  Alberoni's  bold  attempt  (1717) 
regained  the  island  for  the  Spaniards;  but  in  1718  by 
the  Treaty  of  London  it  was  given  to  Savoy  in  ex- 
change for  Sicily  which  was  awarded  to  Austria. 
The  dukes  of  Savoy  then  assumed  the  title  of  King 
of  Sardinia.  The  kingdom  comprised  at  that  time 
the  Island  of  Sardinia,  the  Duchies  of  Savoy,  Aosta, 
and  Monferrato,  the  Principality  of  Piedmont,  the 
Marquisate  of  Saluzzo,  the  Counties  of  Asti  and  Nizza, 
and  some  Lombard  towns  as  far  as  the  Ticino.  King 
Charles  Emmanuel  III  (1720-73)  and  his  minister 
Bogino  began  certain  reforms  in  the  island,  a  work 


SAREPTA 


476 


SAREPTA 


which  was  interrupted  from  1773  till  1820.  In  1792 
the  French  admiral,  Truquet,  attempted  to  land  at 
Caghari  but  was  repulsed.  In  the  following  years 
there  were  several  attempts  to  throw  off  the  power  of 
the  Piedmontese.  Iving  Charles  Emmanuel  IV  took 
refuge  in  the  island  from  1799  till  1S06,  when  his 
domains  were  invaded  by  the  French.  The  Congress 
of  Vienna  gave  the  RepubUc  of  Genoa  to  the  Sardin- 
ians. The  kingdom  then  contained  thirtj^-seven 
pro%'inces.  Between  1S20  and  1848  feudalism,  which 
in  1807  had  caused  widespread  rebellion  of  the  bur- 
gesses against  the  nobles,  was  abolished.  Another 
project  was  the  construction  of  a  vast  network  of 
roads  which  were  greatly  needed.  In  general  however 
the  Savoy  and  Italian  Governments  have  neglected 
the  wants  and  interests  of  the  Sardinians.  In  1861 
after  the  annexation  of  almost  all  the  peninsula  the 
Kingdom  of  Itaty  was  proclaimed  at  Florence  and 
that  of  Sardinia  came  to  an  end. 

The  follo^^ing  is  a  hst  of  the  kings:  Victor  Ama- 
deus  II  (1718-30),  who  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
son  Charles  Emmanuel  III  (1730-73),  regretting  which 
he  was  imprisoned  at  Moncalieri  where  he  died  (1732). 
Charles  Emmanuel  to  conquer  the  Milanese  allied 
himself  with  France  and  Spain,  in  the  War  of  the  Po- 
lish Succession;  he  was  frequently  victorious  but  only 
obtained  the  region  on  the  right  of  the  Ticino  (1738). 
He  took  part  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession; 
gained  splendid  victories  (the  siege  of  Toulon,  1746; 
the  battle  of  Col  dell'  Assietta,  1747),  but  with  very 
little  profit,  gaining  only  the  county  of  Angera  and 
Arona,  the  valley  of  Ossola,  Vigevano,  and  Bobbio. 
Victor  Amadeus  III  (1773-96),  for  having  crushed 
the  nationalist  movement  in  Savoy  (1791)  with  ex- 
cessive severitj^,  was  overthrown  b)^  the  revolutionary 
armj-  which  captured  Savoy  and  Nizza.  He  allied 
himself  with  Austria  and  the  campaign  was  conducted 
with  varying  fortunes,  but  when  Bonaparte  took  com- 
mand of  the  French  troops  Victor  Amadeus  had  to 
agree  to  a  humiliating  peace.  Charles  Emmanuel  IV 
(1796-1802)  made  an  offensive  treaty  with  France, 
whereupon  his  subjects  revolted.  The  rebeUion  was 
crushed  with  severity  and  thousands  of  democrats 
emigrated  either  into  PVance  or  to  the  Cisalpine  Re- 
public, whence  they  returned  in  arms.  The  royal- 
ists having  obtained  the  upper  hand,  France  inter- 
vened and  obliged  the  king  to  abandon  his  possessions 
on  the  mainland  (19  December,  1798).  Charles 
Emmanuel  withdrew  to  Sardinia;  and  in  1802  abdi- 
cated in  favour  of  his  brother  Victor  Emmanuel  I 
(1802-21),  who  in  1814  was  returned  to  Turin  and 
saw  his  dominions  increased  by  the  inclusion  of  Genoa. 

As  happfncnl  elsewhere  the  restoration  did  not  do 
justifc  to  the  legitimate  aspirations  of  the  democrats. 
There  f<jl!owed  the  revolution  of  1821  caused  by  a 
demand  for  a  C<mstitution  and  for  war  with  Austria 
to  obtain  pos-session  of  I^ombardy,  which  Piedmont 
ha<^i  coveted  for  centuries.  As  the  king  had  agreed 
with  Austria  and  Naples  not  to  grant  the  Constitution, 
he  abdicated  in  favour  of  Charles  Fe\\\,  his  brother, 
who  wa.s  absent  at  the  time;  Charles  Albert,  Prince  of 
Carignano,  assumed  the  regency  and  on  13  March, 
1821,  promulgated  the  Constitution  of  Spain,  which 
wa.s  not  accepted  by  Charles  Felix  (1821-31).  Mean- 
while, the  revolutionary  party  ha/1  joined  in  the  move- 
ment for  Italian  unity,  but  there  was  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  the  form  of  that  unity,  whether  there 
should  be  a  great  republic,  or  a  federation  of  repub- 
lics, or  again  a  single  monarchy  or  a  federation  of 
principalities.  Many  however  were  indifferent  to  the 
form.  In  1831,  therf;fore,  disturbances  began  in  Cen- 
tral Italy  but  were  easily  suppres.sf;d.  The  same  year 
Charles  Iu;lix  died  without  offspring  and  was  succeeded 
by  Charles  Albert  (1831-48).  The  Piedmontese  then 
decided  in  favour  of  a  United  Kingdom  of  Italy  under 
the  Housf!  of  Savoy,  and  to  that  end  all  th(!  efforts 
of  the  Sardinian  Government  were  henceforward  di- 


rected. In  1S47  Charles  Albert  granted  freedom  of 
the  press  and  other  liberal  institutions.  On  8  Feb- 
ruary he  promulgated  the  statute  which  still  remains 
the  fundamental  law  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  One 
month  later  he  declared  war  on  Austria  in  order  to 
come  to  the  rescue  of  the  Lombards  who  were  eager 
to  throw  off  the  Austrian  yoke  at  once.  Though 
victorious  in  the  first  engagements,  he  suffered  a 
severe  defeat  at  Custoza  and,  after  the  armistice  of 
Salasco,  was  again  defeated  at  Novara  (1849). 

The  King  of  Sardinia  had  for  the  time  being  to 
abandon  his  idea  of  conquest.  Charles  Albert  ab- 
dicated in  favour  of  his  son  Victor  Emmanuel  II 
(1849-78)  and  withdrew  to  Oporto  where  he  died  the 
same  year.  There  followed  ten  years  of  militarj' 
preparations,  which  were  tested  in  the  Crimean  War, 
and  vigorous  diplomatic  and  sectarian  operations  to 
the  detriment  of  the  other  Italian  rulers,  carried  out 
under  the  direction  and  inspiration  of  Count  diCavour, 
who  did  not  hesitate  to  enter  into  league  with  Mazzini, 
the  head  of  the  Republicans,  knowing  well  that  the 
latter's  principles  while  bringing  about  the  destruction 
of  the  other  ItaUan  states  on  the  one  hand,  could  not. 
on  the  other,  serve  as  a  basis  for  a  permanent  political 
organization.  In  1859  the  Sardinian  Government, 
aided  by  France,  declared  war  on  Austria  and  captured 
all  Lombardy  with  the  exception  of  Mantua.  At  the 
same  time  in  Tuscany,  the  Duchies  of  Parma  and 
Modena,  the  legations,  the  marcjuisates,  and  in  Umbria 
the  national  committees  established  provisional  gov- 
ernments and  declared  the  supremacy  of  the  House 
of  Savoy.  Garibaldi  landed  in  Sicily  and  passed 
thence  into  Calabria.  The  royal  armies  everywhere 
joined  with  the  revolutionary  party  and  on  27  March, 
1861,  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  was  proclaimed  which 
included  all  the  peninsula  except  Venice  and  the 
Patrimony  of  St.  Peter. 

The  King  of  Sardinia  was  confirmed  by  Pope  Bene- 
dict XIII  in  his  right  of  nominating  bishops  and 
other  high  dignitaries,  a  right  conceded  previously 
by  Nicholas  V  to  the  dukes  of  Savoy.  In  1742  a 
concordat  was  concluded  between  the  Sardinian 
Government  and  the  Holy  See,  which  granted  ex- 
tensive privileges  to  the  Government,  which  were 
increased  further  by  Clement  XIV  and  Pius  VI.  As 
the  Italian  Concordat  of  1803  was  extended  to  Pied- 
mont after  the  restoration  there  was  no  doubt  as  to 
the  validity  of  the  old  and  the  new  treaties.  Conse- 
quently in  1816  Pius  VII  made  suitable  provisions, 
and  in  1824  an  agreement  concerning  the  adminis- 
tration and  distribution  of  ecclesia.stical  property  waa 
arrived  at.  In  1854  attempts  were  made  to  have  a 
new  concordat,  but  as  on  the  one  hand,  the  demands 
of  the  Government  were  too  exorbitant,  and,  on  the 
other,  the  civil  authorities  had  enacted  laws  injurious 
to  the  Church,  nothing  was  done.  After  the  promul- 
gation of  the  Constitution  of  th(!  Kingdom  of  Sardinia 
the  following  dioceses  wen;  founded  or  else  re-estab- 
H.shed:  in  Sardinia,  Iglesi:us  (1764);  Galtelli-Nuoro 
(1780);  Bisarchio  (1805);  Ogliastro  (1824);  on  the 
peninsula:  Pinerolo  (174S),  Susa  (1772),  Cuneo  (1817), 
Biella(1772).  Duringtlie  Revolutionary  epoch  (1805) 
the  dioceses  of  Alba,  I^'ossano,  Alessandria,  Pinerolo, 
Susa,  Biella,  Aosta,  Bobbio,  Tortona,  were  suppressed. 
In  1817  Vcrcelli  became  an  archiepiscopal  see. 

CoHHU,  La  Snrrleijna  (Home,  1901);  Hrewiani,  /  costumi 
dclla  Srirdcgna  (Milan,  18!)()):  Cimhai.i,  La  Sarilcgna  i  in  Italiaf 
Mattel  Sardinia  Sacra  (Homo,  1701);  Vi'stv a,  Sardinia  Sacra, 
I  (lK!esias,  1001);  Bogcjio,  La  f'liir.vi  e.  In  Slalo  di  Sardeona  dot 
WOO  al  isr,/,  (Turin,  1851);  Manno,  Sloria  di  Sardegna  (.3rd  ed., 
Turin,  IS.'J.J). 

U.  Benigni. 
Sardis.     See  Sardes. 

Sarepta,  a  t  itular  see  in  Phoenicia  Prima,  suffragan 
of  Tyre.  It  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  the  voy- 
age of  an  Egyptian  in  the  fourteenth  century  n.c. 
Chabas,  "Voyage  d'un  Egyjitien"  (Chalons,  1866), 
20,  101,  163.     Abdias  (i,  20),  says  it  was  the  northern 


SARLAT 


477 


SARPI 


boundary  of  Chanaan.  Sennacherib  captured  it  in 
701  B.C.  (Schrader,  "Die  Keilinschriften  und  das 
Alte  Testament",  1883,  200  and  288).  We  learn 
from  III  Kings,  xvii,  8-24,  that  it  was  subject  to 
Sidon  in  the  time  of  Achab  and  that  the  Prophet 
Elias,  after  having  multipHed  the  meal  and  oil  of  a 
poor  woman,  raised  her  son  from  the  dead;  the 
charity  of  this  widow  was  recalled  by  Our  Saviour 
(Luke,  iv,  26).  It  was  probably  near  this  place  that 
Christ  cured  the  daughter  of  the  Chanaanite  or  Sjto- 
phoenician  woman  whose  faith  He  praised  (Mark,  vii, 
24-30).  Sarepta  is  mentioned  also  by  Joscphus, 
"Ant.  jud.",  VIII,  xiii,  2;  Pliny,  "Hist,  natur.", 
V,  17;  the  "Itinerarium  Burdigalense;  the"Onomas- 
ticon"  of  Eusebius  and  St.  Jerome;  by  Theodosius 
and  Pseudo-Antoninus  who,  in  the  sixth  century  calls 
it  a  small  town,  but  very  Christian  (Geyer,"Intinera 
hierosolymitana",  Vienna,  1898,  18,  147,  150).  It 
contained  at  that  time  a  church  dedicated  to  St. 
Elias.  The  "Notitia  episcopatuum"  of  Antioch  in 
the  sixth  century,  speaks  of  Sarepta  as  a  suffragan  see 
of  TjTe  (Echos  d'Oricnt,  X,  145);  none  of  its  bishops 
are  known.  Some  Latin  bishops,  but  merely  titulars, 
are  mentioned  after  1346  (Eubel,  "Hicrarchia 
catholica  medii  aevi",  I,  457;  II,  253;  III,  310; 
"Revue  benedictine",  XXI,  281,  345-53,  353-65; 
XXIV,  72).  In  1185,  the  Greek  monk  Phocas 
(De  locis  Sanctis,  7),  found  the  town  almost  in  its 
ancient  condition;  a  century  later,  according  to 
Burchard,  it  was  in  ruins  and  contained  only  seven  or 
eight  houses  (Descriptio  Terra;  sancta;,  II,  9).  To- 
day, Sarepta  is  known  as  Khirbet  Sarfend  between 
Tyre  and  Sidon,  on  the  seashore;  the  ruins  show  that 
the  town  extended  1800  metres  north  and  south,  but 
that  it  was  not  very  wide. 

Smith,  Did.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geog.,  s.  v.;  Renan,  Mission 
de  Phenicie  (Paris,  1864),  663-6G;  Vigourocx  in  Did.  de  la 
Bible,  8.  v.;  Gu^rin,  Description  de  la  Palestine.  GaliUe,  II 
(Paris,  1880),  478-81. 

S.  Vailh£. 

Sarlat.     See  P^rigueux,  Diocese  of. 

Samelli,  Januarius  Maria,  one  of  S.  Alphonsus's 
earliest  companions,  fourth  son  of  Baron  Angelo 
Samelli  of  Ciorani,  b.  in  Naples  12  Sept.,  1702;  d. 
30  June,  1744.  Prom  his  childhood  he  was  remarkable 
for  modesty,  self-denial,  piety,  and  great  diligence  in 
his  studies.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  desired  to  be- 
come a  Jesuit,  but  his  fatlier  objected  and  directed 
him  to  study  law.  He  succeeded  admirably  in  the 
legal  profession,  while  daily  Mass,  visits  to  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  and  attendance  on  the  sick  in  the 
hospital  of  incurables  filled  up  all  his  spare  time.  At 
twenty-six  he  abandoned  the  bar  and  became  a  cleric. 
His  zeal  showed  itself  at  once  in  his  labours  for  chil- 
dren, whom  he  catechized  with  wonderful  success. 
Admirable  instructions  on  this  most  important  matter 
may  be  found  in  his  works  for  ecclesiastics.  He  was 
ordained  priest  in  1732  and  immediately  became  a 
member  of  the  Propaganda  of  Naples,  a  congrega- 
tion of  secular  priests  devoted  to  Apostolic  work. 
A  year  later  he  went  to  Scala  and  became  one  of  the 
earliest  companions  of  S.  Alphonsus  in  founding  the 
Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer.  Both 
these  holy  men  worked  together  and  gave  missions 
along  the  coast  of  Amalfi  till  1735,  when  Ven.  Sar- 
nelli's  health  gave  way.  He  had  to  return  to  Naples, 
where  he  spent  nine  years  in  a  poor  apartment  with 
one  lay  brother  as  companion.  Scarcely  had  his 
health  improved  than  he  began  a  crusade  against  the 
immorality  of  his  time  which  has  rarel.y  been  sur- 
passed in  boldness.  In  his  WTitings  he  laid  the  respon- 
sibility at  the  doors  of  ministers  of  state,  while  by  his 
exhortations  he  created  a  public  opinion  which  helped 
him  on  to  success;  and  God  evidently  protected  him 
in  the  dangers  to  which  his  zeal  exposed  him.  His 
triumph  was  complete.  His  labours  amongst  the  lowly 
and  abandoned  were  continual;    yet  he  found  time 


to  write  many  excellent  works.  He  will  always  be 
known  for  his  insistence  on  meditation  as  morally 
necessary  for  perseverance.  He  showed  how  simple 
it  is  and  within  the  reach  of  everyone.  It  was  his 
labours  and  success  in  this  matter  that  occasioned, 
after  the  servant  of  God's  death,  the  Apostolic  letter 
of  Benedict  XIV  and  the  Indulgences  then  granted  to 
meditation  (16  Dec,  1746).  A  complete  edition  of 
Venerable  Sarnelli's  works  has  been  published  at 
Naples,  Tipografia,  Largo  S.  Martino,  No.  4,  as 
follows:  II  Alondo  Santificato,  2  vols.;  L'Anima 
Illuminata;  II  Mondo  Reformato,  3  vols.;  L'Eccle- 
siastico  Santificato;  Le  Glorie  e  Grandezze  della 
Divina  Madre;  Le  Discrezione  dcgli  Spiriti;  II  Cris- 
tiano  Illuminato;  Dirretto  ed  amma?strato;  Opera 
contra  la  Bestemmia;  Ragioni  Cattoliche,  legali  e 
politiche,  in  difesa  della  citta  rovinata  dall'insolentito 
meretricio;  II  Crist iano  Santificato;  Lettere  Spiri- 
tuali;  Devozioni  pratiche  per  onorare  la  SS.  Trinita 
e  Maria  e  Devozioni  per  apparecchio  ad  una  buona 
morte. 

He  died  in  his  forty-second  year.  His  first  biog- 
rapher, S.  Alphonsus,  writes:  "As  soon  as  he  had 
breathed  his  last  breath  his  countenance  suddenly 
became  beautiful — and  his  body  exhaled  a  sweet 
odour — which  remained  in  the  room  long  after  the 
interment."  His  body  repo.ses  in  a  side  chapel  in  the 
Redemptorist  church  in  Naples.  He  was  declared 
\'enerable  in  1874.  A  decree  on  his  heroic  virtues 
was  published  in  1906,  and  now  only  miracles  are 
required  for  his  Beatification. 

Vita  de  Gennnro  P.  D.  M.  Samelli  S.  Alfonso,  tr.  in  Com- 
panions of  S.  Alphonsus,  Oratorian  Series;  Dumortier,  Le  Ven6- 
rahle  Serviteur  de  Dieu,  Le  Pire  Janvier- Marie  Sarnelli  (Paris, 
1886) — Introductio  causae.     See  Alphonsus  Liguori,  St. 

J.  Magnier. 

Same.     See  Cava  and  Sarno,  Diocese  of. 

Sarpi,  Paolo,  a  Ser\-ite  and  anti-papal  historian 
and  statesman,  b.  at  Venice,  14  August,  1552;  d. 
there  14  or  15  January,  1623.  At  the  age  of  13  he 
joined  the  Servite  Order,  exchanging  his  baptismal 
name  of  Pietro  for  that  of  Paolo.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  theology  and  canon  law  when 
he  was  only  twenty.  After  four  years  he  spent  a 
short  time  at  Milan  and  then  taught  philosophy  in 
his  monastery  at  Venice.  Having  been  ordained  in 
1574,  he  was  elected  provincial  of  his  order  for  the 
Venetian  Republic  in  1579,  and  held  the  office  of 
procurator  general,  with  residence  in  Rome,  from 
1.585  to  1588.  Returning  to  Venice  he  devoted  him- 
self chiefly  to  literary  pursuits,  and  about  this  time 
his  anti-ecclesiastical  tendencies  became  manifest. 
His  intimacy  with  Protestants  and  statesmen  hostile 
to  the  Church  caused  on  various  occasions  com- 
plaints to  be  lodged  against  him  before  the  Venetian 
inquisitor.  His  hatred  of  Rome  was  further  in- 
creased when  on  three  different  occasions  the  Roman 
Curia  rejected  his  nomination  for  an  episcopal  see 
by  the  Republic  of  Venice.  The  three  sees  to  which 
Venice  had  nominated  him  were  Milopotamo  in 
1593,  Caorle  in  1600,  and  Nona  in  Dalniatia  in  1601. 
The  more  he  hated  Rome,  the  more  acceptable  he  was 
to  Doge  Leonardo  Donato  and  the  Wnetian  senate, 
which  by  a  special  decree  guaranteed  him  protection 
against  Rome  and  appointed  him  theological  con- 
suitor  of  the  state  with  an  annual  salarj'  of  two  hun- 
dred ducats.  In  this  capacity  he  effected  the  enact- 
ment of  various  anti-ecclesiastical  laws,  and  it  was 
chiefly  due  to  the  influence  of  "the  terrible  friar" 
that  the  interdict  which  Paul  V  placed  upon  Venice 
(1606)  remained  without  effect  and  was  revoked 
(21  April,  1607).  A  murderous  assault  made  upon 
him  on  5  October,  1607,  is  often  ascribed  to  his 
ecclesiastical  enemies,  but  there  is  not  sufficient  tes- 
timony for  their  complicity  (see  the  authentic  tes- 
timony of  the  witnesses,  edited  by  Bazzoni  in  "Arch- 
ivio  Storico  ItaUano",  third  series,  XII,  I,  Florence, 


SARSFIELD 


478 


SARTO 


1870,  8  sq.)-  "VMien  peace  had  been  restored  between 
Venice  and  the  pope,  Sarpi's  political  influence  grew 
less,  and  during  the  remainder  of  his  life  he  gave  vent 
to  his  hatred  of  Rome  by  pubUshing  bitter  invectives 
against  the  pope  and  the  Catholic  Church.  Despite 
his  desire  to  subvert  the  CathoUc  religion  and  make 
Venice  a  Protestant  republic,  he  hypocritically  per- 
formed the  ordinary-  offices  of  a  Cathohc  priest  until 
his  death.  His  best  kno^\-n  work  is  a  histor>'  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  "Istoria  del  Concilio  Tridentino" 
(London,  1619)  pubUshed  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Pietro  Soave  Polano  by  the  apostate  Marcantonio 
de  Dominis,  with  additions  by  the  latter.  Without 
these  additions  it  was  pubUshed  at  Geneva,  1629, 
and  was  translated  into  Latin  and  some  modern 
languages.  It  is  a  bitter  invective  against  the  popes, 
and  even  Protestants,  like  Ranke,  consider  it  devoid 
of  all  authority.  For  the  refutation  of  this  work  by 
Pallavicino  see  Pallavicixo,  Pietro  Sforz.\.  His 
works  were  pubUshed  in  six  volumes  (Helmstadt, 
1761-5)  and  two  supplementarj^  volumes  (Verona, 
1768).  His  letters  are:  "Lettere  Italiane  di  Fra 
Sarpi"  (Geneva,  1673);  "Scelte  lettere  inedite  de  P. 
Sarpi",  edited  by  Bianchi-Giovini  (Capolago,  1S33); 
"Lettere  raccolte  di  Sarpi",  ecUted  by  PoUdori 
(Florence,  1863);  "Lettere  inedite  di  Sarpi  a  S. 
Contarini",  edited  by  Castellani  (Venice,  1892); 
important  new  letters  (1608-16)  edited  by  Benrath 
(Leipzig,  1909). 

BiANCHi-GioviKi,  Biografia  di  Fra  Sarpi  (Brussels,  1836); 
Campbell,  Vita  di  Fra  P.  Sarpi  (Turin,  1875);  Cappaso,  P. 
Sarpi  e  I'Jnterdetlo  di  Venezia  (Florence,  1880);  Balan,  Fra  P. 
Sarpi  (Venice,  1887);  Pascol.*.to,  Fra  P.  Sarpi  (Milan,  1893); 
Trollope,  Paul  the  Pope  and  Paid  the  Friar  (London,  1860); 
RoBERT.sON,  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi  (London,  1894),  extremely  anti- 
papal,  compare  Mcrphy  in  Irish  Eccl.  Review,  XV  (1894),  524- 
40;  Campbell,  The  Terrible  Friar  in  The  Messenger,  fifth  series, 
V  (New  York,  1904),  24.3-59;  Rein,  Paolo  Sarpi  und  die  Protes- 
tanten  (Helsingfors,  1904) ;  concerning  the  sources  of  his  history 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  see  Ehses  in  Historisches  Jahrbuch, 
XXVI  (Munich,  1905),  299-313;    XXVII  (1906),  66-74. 

Michael  Ott. 

Sarsfield,  Patrick,  b.  at  Lucan  near  Dublin, 
about  16.50;  d.  at  Huy  in  Belgium,  1693.  On  his 
mother's  side  he  was  descended  from  the  O'Mores, 
princes  of  Leix,  his  grandfather  being  Roger  More, 
the  ablest  of  the  leaders  who  planned  the  rebellion 
of  1641;  on  his  father's  side  from  Anglo-Norman 
stock.  One  of  his  ancestors  was  mayor  of  Dublin 
in  1566  and  was  knighted  by  Sir  Henr>'  Sidney  for 
valuable  serNnces  rendered  to  the  Government  against 
Shane  O'Neill.  Another  Sarsfield,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I,  became  a  peer  with  the  title  of  Lord 
Kilmallock.  His  father  left  him  landed  property 
bringing  an  income  of  £2000  a  year.  His  elder 
brother  was  married  to  an  illegitimate  daughter  of 
Charles  II,  sister  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  and  it 
was  as  an  ensign  in  Monmouth's  Regiment  of  Foot 
that  Sarsfield  first  saw  service  in  the  army  of  Luxem- 
bfjurg;  but  at  Sedgemoor,  where  he  was  wounded, 
Sarsfield  was  on  the  king's  side.  In  1688  he  followed 
Jamc«  II  U)  France,  and  landed  with  him  at  Kinsale 
in  the  following  year.  James  recognized  his  bravery, 
but  thought  hirri  incapable  of  high  command.  Never- 
theless in  1<>S9  he  captured  Sligo  and  secured  all 
Cfjnnaught  for  the  king.  At  the  Boyne  he  was 
compelled  to  inax^'tivity,  and  when  James  fled  to 
Dublin  he  t^K>k  Sansfield  with  him.  After  James's 
departure  for  France,  it  was  largely  through  Sarsfield 
that  Limerick  was  defenfled  so  well,  and  it  was  he 
who  dr-stroyed  William's  siege  train,  the  most  brilliant 
exploit  of  the  whole  war.  James  was  so  well  pleased 
with  him  that  he  creaU;d  him  Earl  of  Lucan.  In  the 
campaign  of  1691  he  held  a  subordinate  position 
und'T  St.  Ruth.  The  two  often  fJi.sagnKjd,  and  at 
Aughrim  St.  Ruth  allowed  Sarsfield  no  active;  share 
in  the  battle,  leaving  him  in  command  of  the;  cavalry 
reserve.  When  St.  Ruth  fell  Sarsfield  could  not 
turn  defeat  into  victory,  but  he  saved  the  Irish  from 


utter  destruction.  In  the  second  siege  of  Limerick 
he  was  again  prominent,  but  finding  prolonged  re- 
sistance impossible  assented  to  the  Treaty  of  Lime- 
rick, which  ended  the  war.  He  then  joined  the  army 
of  France,  in  which  with  the  Irish  Brigade  he  saw 
much  service.  At  Landen  in  1693,  he  commanded  the 
left  wing  of  Luxembourg's  armj%  and  there  received 
his  death  wound.  There  is  a  tradition  that  as  he 
lay  mortallj'  wounded  he  put  his  hand  to  his  wound, 
and  dra\A-ing  it  forth  covered  with  blood,  he  lamented 
that  the  blood  was  not  shed  for  Ireland.  He  was 
carried  to  Huy  where  he  lingered  for  a  few  daj's. 
His  widow  married  the  Duke  of  Berwick. 

0'Call.\ghax,  Irish  Brigades  in  the  Seriice  of  France  (Glasgow, 
1870);  Kellt,  Macarice  Eicidium,  ed.  O'Callaghan  (Dublin, 
18.50);  D'Alton,  King  James's  Army  List  (London,  1S61); 
ToDHUKTER,  Life  of  Sarsfield  (London,  1895) ;  Clarke,  Memoirs 
of  James  II  (London,  1816);  Story,  Wars  of  Ireland  (London, 
1693)-    D'Alton,  History  of  Ireland  (London,  1910). 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

Sarsina,  Diocese  of  (Sarsinatensis),  in  Emilia, 
Province  of  Forli,  Italy.  Besides  agriculture  and  cat- 
tle-raising, the  principal  employments  of  the  popula- 
tion are  the  sulphur  and  maganese  industries.  There 
are  some  deposits  of  fossilized  carbon  and  various  sul- 
phur springs.  Ruins  of  temples,  baths,  and  fortifica- 
tions; and  urns,  pillars,  bronze  objects,  etc.,  show 
that  this  towTi,  the  birthplace  of  Plautus,  was  impor- 
tant in  ancient  days.  It  was  an  Umbrian  city,  was 
captured  by  CorneUus  Scipio  in  271  and  was  later  a 
munidpium.  In  the  tenth  century  the  bishops  ob- 
tained the  temporal  sovereignty  of  the  city  and  the 
surrounding  district.  From  1327  till  1400  it  was  dis- 
puted for  by  the  Ordelaffi  of  Forli,  the  popes,  and  the 
bishops.  In  the  fifteenth  centurj'  it  was  subject  in 
turn  to  the  Malatesta  of  Cesena,  and  then  to  those  of 
Rimini,  from  whom  it  was  taken  by  Cicsar  Borgia 
(1500-03),  on  whose  death  it  was  captured  bv  the 
Venetians  (1503-09).  In  1518  it  was  enfeoffed  to 
the  Pio  di  Meldola,  passing  later  to  the  Aldobrandini. 
The  cathedral  is  a  noteworthy  monument  of  the  eighth 
century.  The  patron  of  the  city  is  St.  Vicinus,  believed 
to  have  been  bishop  about  the  year  300;  another 
bishop  was  St.  Rufinus  (fifth  century).  We  may  also 
mention:  Benno  (770),  who  erected  the  cathedral; 
St.  ApoUinaris  (1158),  monk;  Guido  (1255),  who  de- 
fended the  rights  of  his  church  and  was  killed  for  so 
doing;  Francesco  CalboU  (1327),  had  to  defend  the 
city  by  force  of  arms  against  Francesco  OrdelaflS; 
Benedetto  Mateucci  Accorselli  (13S5),  the  last  prince 
bishop;  Gianfilipi)o  Negusanti  (1398),  renowned  for 
his  piety  and  erudition;  Raffaele  degli  Alessi  (1.524), 
reformed  the  discipline  and  the  morals  of  the  people; 
Nicold  Braiizi  (1()()2)  was  imprisoned  in  the  Castle 
of  S.  Angclo  Init  liberated  later.  In  1807  Najjoleon 
suppressed  the  see,  which,  having  been  re-estab- 
lished in  1817,  was  in  1824  united  to  that  of  Berti- 
noro;  but  in  1853  was  again  re-established.  The 
diocese  is  suffragan  of  Ravenna,  and  contains  34  par- 
ishes, with  90  secular  priests,  32,000  inhabitants,  and 
2  houses  of  monks. 

Cappelletti,  Le  rhiese  d'ltalia;  Azzalli-Frediani,  Delle  anti- 
chitA  di  S'lr.iina  (Facnza,  1769);  Copirr  quorumdem  pritilegiorum 
Ecclcsitc  Sarsina:  conccssorum  (i'orll,  1692). 

U.  Benigni. 

Sarto,  Andrea  del  (Andrea  d'Agnolo),  b.  at 
Florence  in  1486;  d.  there  in  1531.  He  received  the 
surname  Sarto  from  the  fact  that  he  was  the  son  of  a 
tailor.  At  first  he  was  the  pupil  of  an  obscure  mas- 
ter, G.  Barile,  but  in  1498  he  entered  the  studio  of 
Piero  di  Cosimo.  He  visited  Rome  for  a  short  time. 
Vasari  says,  that  had  he  remained  there  long  enough 
to  study  its  masterpieces,  Ik;  would  have  "surpa.ssed 
all  the  artists  of  his  day".  Naturally  diffident,  lie 
felt  him.self  a  stranger  there,  and  hastened  to  return  to 
Florence.  Despite  his  bri<'f  career,  he  produced  a 
large  number  of  frescoes  and  easel  pictures.     In  1509 


SARTO 


479 


SARUM 


he  began  the  fresco  decoration  of  the  httle  cloister  of 
the  Annunziata,  connected  with  the  Servite  church 
anfl  convent  at  Florence.  He  depicted  five  scenes 
from  the  life  of  St.  Philip  Benizi,  General  of  the  Ser- 
vitcs;  "His  Charity  to  a  Leper";  "The  Smiting  of  the 
Blasphemers";  "The  Cure  of  the  Woman  Possessed 
with  a  Devil";  "The  Resurrection  of  Two  Children 
near  the  Tomb  of  the  Saint";  "The  Veneration  of  his 
Relics".  Later  he  added  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi" 
(1511)  and  the  "Nativity  of  the  Virgin"  (1514).  In 
1525,  by  way  of  farewell,  he  painted  for  this  convent 
the  masterpiece,  "The  Madonna  of  the  Sack",  so 
called  because  in  it  St.  Joseph  is  represented  leaning 
against  a  sack.  In  1514,  in  the  cloister  of  the  Scalzo, 
he  executed  a  series  of  ten  frescoes,  recounting  the 
history  of  St.  John  the  Baptist.  Four  allegorical 
figures.  Faith,  Hope,  Charity,  and  Justice,  complete 
the  decorative  cycle.  The  in- 
fluence of  Albrecht  Diirer  has 
been  traced  in  several,  but  that 
of  Ghirlandajo  has  been  recog- 
nized in  this  as  well  as  in  the 
preceding  cycle,  though  here 
Andrea  displays  a  more  origi- 
nal bent.  In  Poggio's  villa  at 
Cajano  he  painted  the  fresco 
(1521),  "Ca;sar  receiving  the 
Tribute  of  the  Animal  World", 
by  way  of  complimenting  the 
zoological  tastes  of  Lorenzo  the 
Magnificent.  The  work  was 
finished  in  1582  by  Al.  Allori. 
A  beautifully  executiul  series 
of  figures,  es{)erially  tliose  of 
Sts.  Agnes,  Catherine,  and 
Margaret,  were  painted  (1524) 
in  the  cathedral  of  Pisa.  His 
last  fresco,  "The  Last  Supper", 
was  done  for  the  refectory  in  the 
convent  of  San  Salvi,  at  the 
gates  of  Florence.  Here  An- 
drea drew  his  inspiration  from 
Leonardo  da  Vinci.  The  beau- 
tiful work  shows  lively  and 
varied  colouring,  but  lacks  the 
perfection  of  drawing  and  es- 
pecially the  dramatic  quaUty  of  the 
of  Milan. 

His  principal  pictures  are:  at  the  Pitti  Palace,  "The 
Annunciation"  (1513);  "  Madonna  with  Sts.  Francis 
and  John  the  Evangelist"  (1517);  "Disputation  con- 
cerning the  Trinity"  (1517),  a  very  careful  painting 
in  which  the  artist  "comes  closest  to  intellectual  ex- 
pression" (Burckhardt) ;  "Descent  from  the  Cross" 
(1524);  "Madonna  with  four  saints"  (1524);  "The 
Assumption  "  ( 1 526) ,  of  which  there  are  two  variations ; 
at  the  Uffizi  "Madonna  of  the  Harpies,  with  St. 
Francis  and  St.  John"  (1517),  so  called  because  of  the 
decorations  on  the  pedestal  on  which  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin stands  with  the  Infant  Jesus  in  her  arms;  at  the 
Museum  of  Berlin,  "The  Virgin  with  Saints"  (1528); 
in  the  Dresden  Gallery,  "The  Sacrifice  of  Abraham"; 
"The  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine";  at  the  Hermitage 
Museum,  St.  Petersburg,  "Madonna  between  Sts. 
Catherine  and  Ehzabeth";  at  the  Museum  of  Vienna, 
"The  Pieta"  (1517);  at  the  Louvre,  "The  Virgin  with 
the  Infant  Jesus,  St.  Ehzabeth  and  St.  John,"  which 
is  an  imitation  of  Raphael's  "Madonna  Canigiani"; 
"Charity".  These  two  pictures  were  purchased  by 
Francis  I.  According  to  Vasari,  the  King  of  France 
was  charmed  with  his  talent  and  induced  him  to  come 
to  Paris.  His  portrait  of  the  dauphin  and  "Charity" 
must  have  been  painted  during  his  stay  at  the 
court.  Obtaining  permission  to  visit  Florence,  he 
departed,  with  money  to  collect  works  of  art  for 
Francis  I;  but,  being  of  weak  character  and  dom- 
inated by  his  wife,   a  beautiful  and  unscrupulous 


Self-portrait  op  Andrea  del  Sarto 
Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence 


'Last  Supper' 


coquette,  he  squandered  the  money  and  did  not  re- 
turn to  Paris.  He  has  left  several  portraits  of  himself 
(Pitti  Palace,  Uffizi,  and  National  (jall(>ry).  Andrea 
del  Sarto  owes  much  to  Fra  Bartolonimeo,  borrowing 
from  him  the  architectural  arrangement  of  his  composi- 
tions, as  in  "Charity"  of  the  Louvre,  where  tri- 
angle grouping  is  used.  Andrea  was  above  all  a 
colourist,  "the  greatest  colourist  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  in  the  region  south  of  the  Apennines" 
(Burckhardt).  In  this  also  he  resembles  Bartolom- 
meo  but  shows  more  care  for  chiaroscuro.  Like 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  he  excels  in  sfumato.  His  draw- 
ings, many  of  which  are  preserved  at  the  Uffizi  and 
the  Louvre,  are  characterized  by  a  melting  softness 
which  recalls  Correggio's  delicate  execution,  but  this 
excessive  love  of  colour  led  him  to  neglect  the 
superior  beauty  of  expression;  his  pictures  lack  con- 
viction and  character.  Not  un- 
'Icrstaiiding  the  true  character 
which  each  face  should  express, 
lie  usually  confines  himself  to 
ri]){"ating  the  same  type  of  Ma- 
'Idimas  and  Infant  Christs,  and 
thus  produces  an  effect  of  cold- 
ness and  artificiality. 

Vasari,  Le  vile  de'  piu  eccellenti 
piltori,  ed.  Milanesi,  V  (Florence, 
ISSO),  .5-72;  Reumont,  Andrea  del 
Siirlo  (Leipzig,  1835);  Crowe  and 
Cavalcaselle,  History  of  Painting  in 
Italy,  III  (London,  1806),  542;  Mantz, 
Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts  (1876),  I,  465; 
(1877),  L  38,  261,  338;  Champlin, 
Cyclopedia  of  Painters  and  Paintings, 
IV  (New  York  and  London,  1888); 
Muntz,  Hist,  de  I'art  pendant  la  Re- 
naissance, III  (Paris,  1895).  508-10; 
GtiNNEss,  Andrea  del  Sarto  (London, 
1.S99):  Knapp,  Anilrea  del  Sarin  (Biele- 
feld, 1907);  Vtn.KTi,  Andrea  d.l  Sarto  m 
Michel,  Hist,  del  Art,  IV  d'ariw,  1909), 

382-so.  Gaston  Sortais. 

Sarto,  Giuseppe  Melchi- 
ORKE.     See  Plus  X,  Pope. 

Sarum  Rite  (more  accu- 
rately Sarum  Use),  the  man- 
ner of  regulating  the  details 
of  the  Roman  Liturgy  that  ob- 
tained in  ])re-Kcforniation  times 
in  the  south  of  England  and  was  thence  propagated  over 
the  greater  part  of  Scotland  and  of  Ireland.  Other, 
though  not  very  dissimilar  Uses,  those  of  York, 
Lincoln,  Bangor,  and  Hereford,  prevailed  in  the 
north  of  England  and  in  Wales.  The  Christian 
Anglo-Saxons  knew  no  other  Liturgy  than  that  of  the 
Mother  Church  of  Rome.  Their  celebrated  Synod 
of  Clovesho  (747)  lays  down:  "That  in  one  and  the 
same  manner  we  all  celebrate  the  Sacred  Festivals 
pertaining  to  Our  Lord's  coming  in  the  Flesh;  and 
so  in  everything,  in  the  way  we  confer  Baptism,  in 
our  celebration  of  Mass,  and  in  our  manner  of  singing. 
All  has  to  be  done  according  to  the  pattern  winch  we 
have  received  in  writing  from  the  Roman  Church" 
{Canon  13). — "That  the  Seven  Canonical  Hours  be 
everywhere  gone  through  with  the  fitting  Psalmody 
and  with  the  proper  chant;  and  that  no  one  presume 
to  sing  or  to  read  aught  save  what  custom  admits, 
what  comes  down  to  us  with  the  authority  of  Holy 
Scripture,  and  what  the  usage  of  the  Roman  Church 
allows  to  be  sung  or  read"  {Canon  15). 

St.  Osmund,  a  Norman  nobleman,  who  came  over 
to  England  with  William  the  Conqueror,  and  was  by 
him  made  Bishop  of  Sarum  or  Salisbury  (1078), 
compiled  the  books  corresponding  to  our  Missal, 
Breviary,  and  Ritual,  which  revised  and  fixed  the 
Anglo-Saxon  readings  of  the  Roman  Rite.  With 
these  he  appears  very  naturally  to  have  incorporated 
certain  liturgical  traditions  of  his  Norman  fellow- 
countrymen,  who,  however,  equally  with  the  con- 
quered  English,    ever   sought   to   do   all    things   in 


SARUM 


480 


SARUM 


church  exactly  as  was  done  in  Rome.  In  appreciat- 
ing the  wide-spread  Sarum  Use,  concerning  which  the 
extant  hterature  is  very  copious,  it  is  well  to  boar  in 
mind  that  just  as  the  Roman  Rite  itself  has  always 
been  patient  of  laudable  local  customs,  so,  in  medieval 
times  the  adopting  of  the  Sarum  Service  Books  did 
not  necessarilj'  mean  the  rejecting  of  existing  cere- 
monial usages  in  favour  of  those  in  vogue  at  Salis- 
buTN",  but  onlj'  the  fitting  thereof  into  the  framework 
outlined  in  the  Sarum  Missal,  Breviary,  and  other 
liturgical  manuals.  Again,  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  Sarum  Use  represents  in  the  main  the  Roman 
Rite  as  carried  out  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  that 
the  reforms  introduced  by  Gregory  VII  and  his  im- 
mediate successors  which  culminated  in  the  thirteenth- 
century  Franciscan  revision  of  the  Breviary,  only  very 
slowly  and  verj^  partially  found  their  way  into  the 
service  books  of  the  Gallic  and  British  Churches. 
Hence,  the  marked  resemblance  of  the  Sarum  Use 
to  those  of  the  Dominicans,  Calced  Carmelites,  and 
other  medieval  religious  orders. 

The  following  are  the  more  noticeable  variants  of 
the  Use  of  Sarum  from  the  developed  Roman  Rite 
of  our  own  times. 

(1)  At  Mass,  as  in  the  Dominican  Use,  the  Sarum 
priest  began  by  saying  a  verse  of  the  psalm  "Con- 
fitemini",  with  a  shortened  Confiteor  followed  by  the 
verse  "Adjutorium  nostrum  in  nomine  Domini". 
Nevertheless,  at  Salisbury  every  celebrant  was  bound 
to  have  recited  the  whole  psalm  "Judica  me  Deus" 
in  the  sacristy  before  coming  to  the  foot  of  the  altar. 
The  prayer  "Aufer  a  nobis"  was  said,  but  not  that 
which  now  follows  it,  in  lieu  of  which  the  priest 
simply  made  the  sign  of  the  cross  and  proceeded  to 
read  the  Officium,  or  aswe  call  it,  the  Introit,  repeating 
it  not  only  after  its  Gloria  Patri  but  also  after  the 
psalm-verse  which  precedes  the  latter.  From  the 
Kj'rie  to  the  Offertory  the  deviations  from  our  actual 
usage  are  slight,  though  on  festival  days  this  section 
of  the  sacred  rite  was  often  enormously  lengthened 
by  varied  and  prolix  sequences.  Like  the  Dominican 
and  other  contemporaneous  Uses,  that  of  Sarum  sup- 
pKDses  the  previous  preparation  of  the  chalice  (put  by 
the  Sarum  Missal  between  the  Epistle  and  Gospel), 
and  thereby  materially  abbreviates  the  Offertory 
ceremonial.  According  to  an  archaic  usage,  still 
familiar  to  ourselves  from  the  Roman  Good-Friday 
Rite,  the  prayer  "In  spiritu  humilitatis"  followed  in 
place  of  preceding  the  washing  of  the  priest's  hands, 
and  the  psalm  "Lavabo"  was  omitted,  so  also  to  the 
"Orate  Fratres"  (at  Sarum,  "Orate  Fratres  et 
Sorores")  no  audible  response  was  made.  From  the 
Preface  onward  througli  the  Canon,  the  Sarum  Mass 
was  word  for  word  and  gesture  by  gesture  that  of  our 
own  MLssals,  except  that  a  profound  inclination  of 
head  and  shoulders  took  the  place  of  the  modern 
genuflection  and  that  during  the  first  prayer  after  the 
Elevation  the  celebrant  stood  with  arms  stretched 
out  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  As  in  France  and  generally 
in  Northern  and  Western  Europe  the  Benediction 
given  at  the  breaking  of  the  Sacred  Host  was  not 
curtailr;d  to  the  mere  pronouncing  of  the  words 
"Pax  Domini  sit  semper  vobi.scum"  but,  more  par- 
ticularly when  a  bishop  officiated,  was  very  solemnly 
given  with  a  formula  varying  aecording  to  the  festival. 
The  Agnus  Dei  in  the  Sarum  Use  was  said  as  by  th(! 
Dominicans  after  and  not  before;  the  Commingling, 
but  the  yjraycrs  before  thf;  j)riest's  Communion  were 
other  than  thosf;  with  which  we  are  familiar.  The  kiss 
of  peace  was  given  as  with  us  but  there  was  no 
"Domine  non  sum  dignus".  'llie  words  pronounced 
by  the  celebrant  at  the  moment  of  his  own  Communion 
are  striking  and  seem  peculiar  to  the  Sarum  Missal. 
They  may  therefore  be  fittingly  quoted:  "Hail  for 
evermore,  Thou  most  holy  Flesh  of  Christ;  sweet 
to  rne  before  and  beyond  all  things  beside.  To  me 
a  sinner  may  the  Body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  be 


the  Way  and  the  Life."  The  "Quod  ore  sumpsimus" 
and  some  other  prayers  accompanied  the  taking  of 
the  ablutions,  and  the  Communion  and  Postcommun- 
ion  followed  as  now.  But  no  Blessing  was  given  and 
the  beginning  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  was  recited 
by  the  priest  on  his  way  from  the  sanctuary  to  the 
sacristy. 

(2)  The  Sarum  Breviary,  like  the  Sarum  IMissal, 
is  essentially  Roman.  The  Psalter  is  distributed 
through  the  seven  Canonical  Hours  for  weekly  recita- 
tion exactly  as  with  us,  though  naturally  the  psalms 
(XXI-XXV)  left  over  from  the  Sunday  Matins  and 
assigned  by  Pius  V  for  the  Prime  of  different  ferias 
are,  as  in  the  Dominican  and  Carmelite  Breviaries, 
marked  to  be  recited  together  on  Sundays  in  their  old 
place  at  the  beginning  of  that  Canonical  Hour.  Nor 
in  the  Sarum  Alatins  do  there  occur  the  short  prayers 
termed  Absolutions.  On  the  other  hand,  a  ninth 
Responsory  always  preceded  the  Te  Deum  which 
was  followed  by  the  so-called  "Versus  Sacerdotalis", 
that  is  to  say,  a  versicle  intoned  by  the  officiating 
priest  and  not  by  a  cantor.  At  least  on  festival  days, 
a  Responsory  was  sung  between  the  Little  Chapter 
and  Hymn  of  Vespers.  When  there  were  Commem- 
orations or  Memories  as  they  are  called  in  the  Sarum, 
Dominican  and  alhed  Uses,  the  "Benedicamus 
Domino"  of  Vespers  and  Lauds  was  twice  sung;  once 
after  the  first  Collect,  and  once  after  the  last  of  the 
Commemorations.  Compline  began  with  the  verse 
"Converte  nos  Deus",  the  hymn  followed  instead  of 
preceding  the  Little  Chapter,  and  the  Confiteor,  as  at 
Prime,  was  said  among  the  Preces.  The  Compline 
Antiphons,  hymn,  etc.,  varied  wnth  the  ecclesiastical 
seasons;  but  the  introduction  of  a  final  Antiphon  and 
Prayer  of  Our  Blessed  Lady  closing  the  Divine  Office 
(Divine  Service,  it  was  called  at  Sarum)  is  posterior 
to  Sarum  times.  The  Antiphons  of  the  Sarum  Offices 
differ  considerably  from  those  in  the  actual  Roman 
Breviary;  but  both  from  the  literary  and  from  the 
devotional  point  of  view  the  latter  are  in  most  in- 
stances preferable  to  those  they  have  superseded.  The 
proper  psalms  for  the  various  Commons  of  Saints  and 
for  feast  days  are  nearly  always  the  same  as  now;  but 
for  the  First  Vespers  of  the  greater  solemnities  the 
five  psalms  beginning  with  the  word  "Laudate" 
were  appointed  as  in  the  Dominican  Breviary.  The 
order  of  the  reading  of  Holy  Scripture  at  Matins  is 
practically  identical  with  that  of  the  Breviary  of 
Pius  V,  though  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  First  Nocturn 
was  not  as  now  reserved  for  these  Lections  only.  An 
interesting  feature  of  the  Sarum  Breviary  is  its  inclu- 
sion of  Scripture  Lections  for  the  ferias  of  Lent.  The 
Lections  taken  from  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  and 
from  the  Legends  of  the  Saints  were  often  dispropor- 
tionately long  and  obviously  needed  the  drastic  re- 
vision they  received  after  the  Council  of  Trent.  The 
Sarum  hymns  are  in  the  main  those  of  the  Roman 
Breviary  as  sung  before  their  revision  under  Urban 
VIII  and  comprise  by  consequence  the  famous  "Veni 
Redemptor"  of  Christmas  Vespers  and  the  "O  quam 
glorifica"  of  the  Assumption  with  one  or  two  others 
in  like  manner  now  obsolete. 

(3)  Very  striking  in  the  Sarum  Use  is  the  elaborate 
spk^ndour  of  the  accompanying  ceremonial,  which 
contrasts  vividly  with  the  comparative  simplicity  of 
Roman  practice.  Three,  five,  seven  deacons  and  as 
many  subdeacons,  two  or  more  thurifers,  three  cross- 
bearers  and  so  on  are  often  prescribed  or  at  least  con- 
templated. Two  or  four  priests  vested  in  copes, 
termed  Rectores  Chori  or  Rulers  of  the  Choir,  presided 
over  the  sacred  chants.  There  was  censing  of  many 
altars,  and  even  during  the  reading  of  the  Lections  at 
Matins  priests  in  their  vestments  offered  incense  at 
the  high  altar.  Processions  were  frequent,  and  that 
preceding  the  High  Mass  on  Sundays  was  specially 
magnificent.  On  the  altar  itself  rarely  more  than  two 
or  at  the  most  four  candlesticks  were  placed,  but 


SARZANA 


481 


SARZANA 


standing  round  or  suspended  from  the  roof  were  many 
other  Hghts.  An  ornament  used  at  Sarum,  which  at 
present  survives  only  at  papal  functions,  was  the 
ritual  fan.  It  was  made  of  rich  materials  and  was 
waved  by  a  deacon  over  the  priest  during  his  cele- 
bration of  the  Holy  Mysteries. 

(4)  The  Sarum  churches  followed  the  Roman  ecch;- 
siastical  calendar,  supplementing  it,  as  is  still  done, 
with  a  multiplicity  of  local  feasts.  We  note  one  or 
two  variants.  The  feast  of  the  Apparition  of  St. 
Michael  at  Mont-St-Michel  in  Normandy  (16  Oct.) 
was  kept  in.stead  of  that  of  the  same  archangel  in 
Italy  (8  May) ;  Sts.  Cri.spin  and  Crispinian  take  as  in 
France  and  elsewhere  the  place  of  Sts.  Chrysanthus 
and  Darias  (25  Oct.) ;  a  feast  of  Relics  is  kept  in  July; 
that  of  the  Most  Sweet  Name  of  Jesus  on  7  August; 
that  of  St.  Linus  the  Pope  in  November  instead  of  in 
September,  etc.  The  classification  of  festivals  in 
Sarum  Use  is  slightly  more  complicated  than  that 
which  now  prevails.  To  the  cleverly  drawn  up  Book 
of  Rules  for  finding  out  the  particulars  of  the  Office  or 
Mass  to  be  said,  which  was  parti-coloured,  being 
written  in  red  and  black,  the  name  of  "Pica"  or 
" Pie"  was  given.  Feasts  are  either  double  or  simple, 
the  former  being  subdivided  into  principal  doubles, 
non-principal  doubles,  greater  doubles,  etc.  Simple 
feasts  (among  which  are  reckoned  days  within  octaves) 
have  only  three  lessons  at  Matins,  though  the  no(!turn 
preceding  these  is  sometimes  of  three,  sometimes  of 
nine  and  sometimes  of  twelve  psalms. 

(5)  The  order  of  Collects,  Epistles,  and  Gospels 
differs  from  that  of  our  Missals  in  that  the  summer 
Sundays  being  called  First,  Second,  etc.,  after  Trinity, 
instead  of  being  counted  from  Pentecost,  there  is  some 
slight  inversion  of  order.  The  Second  Sunday  of  Lent 
had  its  proper  Go.spel  (Matt.,  XV,  21)  in  lieu  of  that 
of  the  Transfiguration  now  repeated  from  the  pre- 
ceding Saturday.  P^or  the  Sunday  next  before  Advent, 
the  Gospel  assigned  was  not  that  of  the  Last  Judg- 
ment, but  the  entering  of  our  Lord  into  Jerusalem  on 
Palm  Sunday  (Matt.,  XXI,  1),  our  Gospels  of  the 
First,  Second,  and  Third  Advent  Sundays  becoming 
those  of  the  Second,  Third,  and  Fourth  respectively. 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  selection  of  Sunday 
Gospels  in  the  Anglican  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
merely  perpetuates  a  Catholic  tradition. 

(6)  The  Sarum  sequence  of  colours  is  very  ill- 
defined.  However,  as  in  the  Dominican  Missal,  it  is 
expressly  laid  down  that  on  solemn  days  the  most 
precious  vestments  be  used  irrespective  of  their  hue. 
Otherwise,  the  recognized  Sarum  colours  were  white, 
red,  green,  and  yellow,  with  black  for  Masses  for  the 
Dead.  In  the  later  centuries  purple  or  violet,  and 
blue,  seem  to  have  been  very  generally  added.  Yellow 
vestments  are  prescribed  for  feasts  of  Confessors.  To 
our  Blessed  Lady  white  was  allotted,  but  never  blue, 
which  colour,  on  its  introduction  from  the  Continent, 
was  looked  upon  as  merely  a  substitute  for  purple  or 
violet.  In  Passion-tide  (Good  P'riday  included)  the 
Sarum  liturgical  colour  was  red — a  custom  still  ob- 
served at  Milan.  A  striking  peculiarity  of  the  Sarum 
Use  was  the  appointing  of  white  vestments  for  Lent, 
except  at  the  Blessing  of  Ashes  on  Ash  Wednesday, 
when  the  celebrant  wore  a  red  cope.  Similarly  the 
sacred  pictures  and  statues  were  veiled  in  white  and 
not  as  with  us  in  purple.  They  were  thus  covered  not 
only  during  the  two  last  weeks  of  Lent,  but  from  its 
beginning  until  Easter  Sunday  morning. 

(7)  Sarum  customs  included  elaborate  ceremonial 
observance  at  Christmas-tide,  of  the  feast  of  Deacons 
on  St.  Stephen's  Day  (26  Dec),  of  the  feast  of  Priests 
on  St.  John's  Day  (27  Dec),  and  of  the  feast  of 
Children  or  Childermas,  on  Holy  Innocents'  Day  (28 
Dec).  Much  also  was  made  of  the  traditional  re- 
hearsing of  the  twofold  genealogy  of  our  Blessed  Lord; 
on  Christmas  Day  itself  that  according  to  St. Matthew, 
and  on  the  Epiphany  that  according  to  St.  Luke. 

XIII.— 31 


(8)  The  Sarum  Holy  Week  was  imposing.  The 
Palm-Sunday  procession  moved  to  a  tent  or  chapel 
at  some  distance  from  the  church,  whith(-r  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  had  been  conveyed  at  daybreak,  and  r(;- 
turned  preceding  two  priests  bearing  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  in  a  feretory  on  their  shoulders.  At  the 
words  in  the  Passion:  "And  the  veil  of  the  temple 
was  rent  in  the  midst",  a  great  white  curtain  which 
from  tlie  first  day  of  Lent  had  concealed  the  altar  and 
sanctuary  from  the  choir  and  people  was  divided  and 
drawn  aside.  The  Tenebrse  candles  were  twenty-four 
in  number  instead  of  fifteen,  and  the  Office  itself  was 
almost  identically  that  now  in  use  among  the  Domin- 
icans, Calced  Carmelites,  etc.  On  Maundy  Thursday, 
three  hosts  were  consecrated:  for,  in  addition  to  the 
one  to  be  consumed  in  the  Good-Friday  service,  an- 
other was  needed  to  remain  m  the  sepulchre  until 
Easter  Sunday  morning,  beside  which  on  Good  Fri- 
day, with  much  ceremony  and  the  formal  sealing  of 
the  tomb,  the  unveiled  crucifix  was  laid.  The  Easter 
Sepulchre  itself  was  mostly  a  permanent  stone  struc- 
ture recalling  in  its  shape  and  decoration  the  altar- 
tombs  of  the  period.  Very  much,  too,  was  made  of 
the  Easter  Sunday  procession  of  the  return  of  the 
crucifix  and  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  to  the  high 
altar,  the  latter  again  to  be  enshrined  in  the  pendant 
dove  for  which  our  tabernacle  has  been  substituted. 
The  Holy  Saturday  function  was  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  present  day.  The  grand  old  hymn  of  Pruden- 
tius  "Inventor  rutili"  has,  however,  long  since  given 
place  to  our  "Lumen  Christi",  and  the  prolix  five- 
fold and  seven-fold  Litanies  have  been  materially 
abridged.  In  medieval  England,  as  in  French  churches 
almost  to  our  own  day,  the  solemn  visit  to  the  font 
by  the  officiating  clergy  during  the  Second  Vespers 
of  Easter  was  the  occasion  of  much  musical  display. 

(9)  Holy  Church  in  all  ages  has  tolerated  consider- 
able diversity  in  the  accessory  ceremonies  accompany- 
ing the  ministering  of  Sacraments  other  than  that  of 
the  Holy  Eucharist.  The  ritual  still  in  use  in  England 
perpetuates  some  of  the  Sarum  peculiarities  such  as 
the  manner  of  the  plighting  of  troths,  the  giving  of 
gold  and  silver  by  bridegroom  to  bride  during  the 
marriage  ceremony,  and  the  like,  though  some  other 
observances,  such  as  the  holding  of  a  silken  canojiy 
over  the  newly-married  couple  and  the  falling  of  the 
bride  at  her  husband's  feet  to  kiss  them  in  token  of 
subjection,  have  dropped  out.  As  evidence  of  the 
dependence  of  the  Sarum  Use  on  the  Roman  tradition, 
it  may  also  be  noted  that  in  place  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  form  for  the  Sacrament  of  Extreme  Unction 
"Ungo  oculos  tuos",  etc.,  the  Sarum  books  prescribe 
the  Roman  formula  "Per  istam  sanctam  Unctionem", 
etc,  a  change  which  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
theologian  is  of  real  importance. 

During  the  few  years  of  the  reign  of  Mary  Tudor 
an  attempt  was  made  in  England  to  resuscitate  the 
Sarum  Use,  which  lingered  on  for  sometime  after- 
wards among  the  Seminary  priests  of  persecution 
times;  but  it  is  now  wholly  obsolete,  except,  as  the 
reader  will  have  remarked,  in  so  far  as  the  Dominican, 
Carmelite  and  kindred  Uses,  cling,  like  that  of  Sarum, 
to  certain  liturgical  practices  derived  from  early 
Roman  discipline,  but  which  the  Church  has  allowed 
to  fall  into  desuetude. 

Sarum  Missal  (Cambridge,  1880);  Sarum  Breviary  (Cambridge, 
1886);  Rock,  Church  of  our  Fathers  (London,  1903);  Idem, 
Hierurgia  (London,  1892) ;  Frere,  Use  of  Sarum  (Cambridge, 
1898) ;  Wordsworth,  Mediceval  Services  in  England  (London, 
1898) ;  Idem,  Salisbury  Processions  and  Ceremonies  (Cambridge, 
1901);  Maydston,  Tracts  (Bradshaw  Society,  1894);  Feasey, 
Ancient  English  Holy  Week  Ceremonial  (London,  1897); 
Maskell,  Ancient  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England  (Oxford, 
1882);  Proceedingg  of  the  St.  Paul's  amd  other  ecclesiological 
societies,  etc. 

F.  Thomas  Bergh. 

Sarzana.  See  Ltjni,  Sarzana-Brugnato,  Dio- 
cese OF. 


SASIMA 


482 


SASKATCHEWAN 


Sasima,  a  titular  see  in  Cappadocia.  Sasima  is 
mentioned  only  in  three  non-religious  documents: 
"Itiner.  Anton.",  144;  "Itiner.  Hiersol.",  577; 
Hierocles,  700,  6.  This  poor  hamlet,  hidden  in  an 
arid  region,  is  known  to  all  as  the  first  see  of  St. 
Gregory  of  Xazianzus  who  was  appointed  to  it  by 
St.  Basil.  The  saint  soon  left  it  without  having 
exercised  any  episcopal  functions  there.  One  of  the 
reasons  was  that  Anthimus,  metropolitan  of  Tyana, 
claimed  jurisdiction  over  the  see,  which  is,  in  fact, 
said  by  all  the  Greek  "Xotitia?  episcopatuum"  to 
be  subject  to  Cappadocia  Secunda;  however,  the 
official  catalogue  of  the  Roman  Curia  continues  to 
place  it  under  Cappadocia  Prima,  i.  e.,  as  a  suffragan 
of  Ca^sarea.  Ambrose  of  Sasima  signed  the  letter 
of  the  bishops  of  the  province  to  Emperor  Leo  in 
458.  About  the  same  time  Eleusius  appears  as  an 
adversary  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  Towards 
1143  Clement  was  condemned  as  a  Bogamile.  The 
"Xotitiae"  mention  the  see  until  the  following  cen- 
tury-. Sasima  is  the  present  village  of  Zamzama,  a 
little  to  the  north  of  Yer  Hissar,  in  the  \nlayet  of 
Koniah,  where  a  few  inscriptions  and  rock  tombs  are 
to  be  found. 

Smith,  Did.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geography,  s.  v.;  Ramsat, 
Asia  Minor,  293  and  passim;  Le  Qcien,  Oriens  Christianus, 
I,  405;  Gregoire  in  Bulletin  de  correspondance  hellenique, 
XXXIII,   129. 

S.  Petrid^s. 

Saskatchewan  and  Alberta,  the  twin  provinces 
of  the  Canadian  West,  so  called  because  they  were 
formed  on  the  same  day  (1  Sept.,  1905),  by  an  Act  of 
the  Dominion  Parliament,  which  gave  them  an 
identical  constitution.  The  former  derives  its  name 
fiom  the  important  river,  Kissiskatchiwan,  or  Swift 
Current,  now  better  kno\^Ti  under  the  abbreviation 
of  Saskatchewan,  whose  two  blanches  drain  it  from 
west  to  east.  The  latter  was  called  after  the  episco- 
pal borough  of  St.  Albert,  nine  miles  from  Edmonton, 
which  itself  had  been  named  after  its  founder.  Father 
Albert  Lacombe,  O.M.I.,  the  veteran  missionary  of 
the  Far  West. 

Boundaries  and  Area. — Saskatchewan  was  made  up 
of  the  unorganized  districts  of  Assiniboia,  Sa.skatche- 
wan,  and  Eastern  Athabasca,  while  the  original  Terri- 
tory of  Alberta  and  the  remaining  half  of  Athabasca 
contributed  to  form  the  second  province.  Both  prov- 
inces have  identical  southern  and  northern  boundaries 
(4rf  and  60°  N.  lat.).  Saskatchewan  lies  between 
102°  and  110°  W.  long,  while  the  western  frontier  of 
Alberta  Ls  the  summit  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  as  far 
as  54°  X.  lat.  and  the  120th  meridian.  The  greatest 
length  of  both  provinces  is  760  miles.  Saskatchewan 
is  39.3  miles  wifle  in  the  south,  and  277  in  the  north, 
thus  forming  an  immense  quadrangle  of  250,650 
sq.  miles,  of  which  X318  are  water.  The  breadth 
of  Alberta  varies  from  200  miles  in  the  south,  to  nearly 
400  in  its  northern  half.  Its  total  area  is  estimated  at 
253,4.50  square  miles. 

Phyniail  CharnctcriHlicH. — Saskatchewan  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  vast  plain,  quite  treeUtss  in  the  south,  with 
an  average  elevation  of  150t)  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
Its  northernmost  part  is  consiflerahly  lower,  since 
Lake  Athaba-sca,  in  the  extreme  north-east,  is  only  690 
fftef  above  sea-level.  The  mean  altitude  of  Alberta  is 
30(X)  feet,  which  lik(^wisf;  notably  decrea.s<!s  in  the  north. 
Th(!  climate  of  both  provinces  is  exceedingly  healthful, 
though  the  wjld  is  at  tim(«  intense  on  the  treeless 
prairi(»i  of  Saskatch<!wan.  A  warm  south-west  wind, 
calWl  C/iinooA;,  occasionally  cros.ses  the  Rooky  Moun- 
tains, and  renders  the  winters  of  Alberta  appreciably 
milder  and  shorter  in  spite  of  its  great  altitude.  This 
immen.se  region  is  traversed  by  the  Pu'vei  Saskatche- 
wan, which  has  its  source  in  the  liocky  Mountains,  and 
after  wirirling  its  way  for  some  1200  mik^s,  empties  into 
Lake  Winriir)eg.  There  is  also  in  the  Province  of 
Saskatchewan  proper  the  Beaver  River  which,  after 


passing  through  a  long  chain  of  more  or  less  important 
lakes,  becomes  the  Churchill,  and  pursues  its  course  in 
an  easterly  direction  until  it  empties  itself  into  Hudson 
Bay,  at  the  trading  post  of  the  same  name.  Xorth(^rn 
Alberta  is  drained  by  still  larger  rivers,  such  as  the 
Peace,  which  lises  in  Lake  Thutage  (Thutade),  British 
Columbia.  It  is  first  called  the  Finlay,  and  after  its 
confluence  with  the  Parsnip,  is  known  as  the  Peace, 
but  north  of  Lake  Athabasca  it  again  changes  its 
name  to  the  Slave,  only  to  course  further  on  the  great 
Canadian  Northland  as  the  Mackenzie  River.  South 
of  the  Peace  is  the  Athabasca  River,  which  flows  into 
the  lake  of  the  same  name.  This  fine  sheet  of  water 
is  common  to  both  provinces.  It  has  an  area  of  2842 
square  miles.  Alberta  can  boast  onlj'  one  important 
lake,  namely  Lesser  Slave  Lake,  which  in  spite  of  its 
name  is  almost  70  miles  in  length.  Saskatchewan,  on 
the  other  hand,  counts  such  bodies  of  water  as  Cree 
Lake,  407  square  miles;  Wollaston  Lake,  906  miles; 
Reindeer  or  Caribou  Lake,  2437  miles,  and  a  host  of 
smaller  ones,  which  lie  mostly  in  the  north.  There 
are  in  either  province  few  mountains,  none  of  which 
are  important. 

Resources. — Saskatchewan  is  par  excellence  the 
wheat-gro^\ang  region  of  Canada.  Its  plains  are 
famous  for  their  fertility.  They  extend  from  the  in- 
ternational boundar3%  practically  to  Prince  Albert, 
53°  15'  X"^.  lat.,  where  the  northern  forest,  which  it.self 
contains  important  stretches  of  agricultural  land,  com- 
mences. The  total  area  under  cultivation  (1910)  was 
7,558,170  acres.  The  crops  were  then  poorer  than 
usual.  The  previous  year  (1909)  the  yield  in  the 
various  cereals  had  been  as  follows:  wheat,  90,215,000 
bashels;  oats,  105,465,000;  barley,  7,833,000;  and  flax, 
4,448,700.  The  acreage  under  cultivation  this  j'ear 
(1911)  is  considerably  larger.  Alberta's  best  farm- 
ing-lands are  in  the  northern  interior  (the  region  of 
which  Edmonton  is  the  centre),  and  this  extends  much 
farther  north  than  in  Saskatchewan,  while  the  south- 
ern portion  of  Alberta,  being  rather  high  and  of  lighter 
soil,  is  better  adapted  to  stock-raising.  In  addition  to 
the  above  cereals  the  province  also  grows  alfalfa,  and 
all  classes  of  roots,  notablj^  the  sugar-beet,  whose  culti- 
vation constitutes  one  of  its  most  important  indus- 
tries. Lumbering  is  carried  on  around  the  upper 
waters  of  the  North  Saskatchewan  and  Athabasca 
Rivers  in  Alberta,  while  in  Saskatchewan  large  saw- 
mills have  been  established  at  and  near  Prince  Albert. 
Alberta  is  also  rich  in  coal  and  oil.  Its  principal 
mining  centres  are  Lethbridge,  Coleman,  Frank,  Can- 
more,  Edmonton,  and  Morinville.  Oil  is  also  found  at 
the  last-named  place,  as  well  as  in  the  south  of  the 
province. 

Population. — Few  countries  have  such  a  cosmopol- 
itan population  as  the  twin  provinces  of  the  Canadian 
West.  The  liritish  Isles,  the  United  States,  Austro- 
Hungary ,  and  Germany,  together  with  Eastern  Canada 
are  the  great  feeders  of  the  stream  of  immigration, 
which  is  there  so  active  that  statistics,  wliicli  are  ])er- 
fectly  correct  one  day  are  far  below  the  mark  a  few 
months  afterwards.  The  total  populationof  Saskatch- 
ewan is  now  estimated  at  over  453,508  though  five 
years  ago  it  was  barely  255,211.  Of  the  i)rescnt  in- 
habitants almost  one-fourth,  or  104,000,  are  Catholics. 
Among  th(!  latter  .some  31,000  are  of  French  origin; 
28,000  came  from  Galicia,  and  follow  the  Ruthenian 
rite;  26,900  are  fJermans;  and  8000  have  lOngli.sh  for 
their  mother-tongue.  In  Alberta,  the  present  (1911) 
population  is  given  as  372,919,  its  two  chief  cities, 
Calgary  and  Edmonton  (the  capital),  having  of 
late  grown  rajjidly.  The  former  has  43,736  inhabi- 
tants, and  the  latter  41,000.  Regina,  the  capital 
of  Siiskatchcwan,  to-day  counts  about  30,210  inlinbi- 
tants.  The  Catholics  of  Alberta  number  about  70,- 
000,  of  whom  perhaps  6,000  are  Indians.  The  (otal 
nativ(!  population  of  S;iskatchcwan  is  officially  put 
down  at  7971  by  the  lilue  Book  of  the  Ottawa  Indian 


SASKATCHEWAN 


483 


SASKATCHEWAN 


Department,  which  gives  the  number  of  Catholics 
among  them  as  2939.  The  aboriginal  races  within 
the  two  provinces  are  the  Blackfeet  and  cognate 
tribes,  in  the  south  of  Alberta;  the  Sarcees,  a  small 
Dene  division  adopted  by  the  Blackfoot  confederacy; 
the  Assiniboines,  or  Stone  Indians,  a  branch  of  the 
Sioux  family;  the  Sioux  proper,  groups  of  whom  have 
remained  in  Saskatchewan  ever  since  Custer's  Mas- 
sacre (1876);  the  Saulteux,  an  Algonquin  tribe  for- 
merly stationed  considerably  to  the  east  of  its  present 
haunts,  and  the  Crees,  who  can  claim  as  their  owti 
the  great  Saskatchewan  plains,  the  muskegs  of  the 
north-east,  and  the  southern  fringe  of  the  great  north- 
ern forest.  To  these  may  be  added  a  few  Dene  tribes, 
who  are  to  be  found  near  the  northern  boundaries  of 
both  pro\nnces  at  He  a  la  Crosse  on  Lake  Athabasca, 
near  Caribou  Lake,  etc.  The  French,  and  the  French 
half-breed  population  of  Alberta  is  estimated  at  23,- 
000,  who  have  at  least  a  score  of  parishes,  mostly 
around  and  north  of  Edmonton. 

Ecclesiastical  Organization. — The  two  provinces 
of  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta  comprise  to-day 
five  ecclesiastical  divisions,  \nz.:  The  Diocese 
of  St.  Albert,  in  Alberta;  those  of  Prince  Albert, 
and  Regina,  in  Saskatchewan,  and  the  two  Vica- 
riates x\postolic  of  Athabasca,  mo.stly  in  Northern 
Alberta,  and  of  Keewatin,  partly  in  Northern  Saskat- 
chewan (separate  articles  are  devoted  to  tho.se  dio- 
ceses, and  to  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Athabasca). 
The  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Keewatin  was  erected  on 
4  March,  1910,  the  Right  Rev.  Ovide  Charlebois, 
O.M.L,  being  appointed  vicar  Apostolic  8  August  fol- 
lowing, and  consecrated  Bishop  of  Berenice  by  Mgr. 
Langevin,  Archbishop  of  St.  Boniface  on  30  Nov.  of 
the  same  year.  The  limits  of  the  new  vicariate  are 
very  complicated.  They  run  from  the  North  Pole 
along  100°  W.  long,  as  far  as  60°  N.  lat.  then  follow 
the  watershed  56°  N.  lat.,  where  they  coincide  with  the 
eastern  boundaries  of  the  Athabasca  vicariate,  and  the 
northern  limits  of  the  Dioceses  of  Prince  Albert  and  St. 
Boniface  as  far  as  91°  W.  long,  which  they  then  follow 
to  Hudson  Bay.  The  territory  included  is  of  the  most 
desolate  character;  marshes  and  dreary  wastes,  which 
afford  meagre  support  to  a  native  population  of  10,000 
or  12,000  souls,  almost  all  of  whom  are  Crees,  Denes,  or 
Eskimos.  Among  these  there  are  about  6000  Catho- 
lic converts.  The  most  prosperous  group  is  that 
which  has  settled  at  the  pioneer  mission  of  He  k  la 
Cros.se,  established  in  1844. 

Education. — In  the  west  as  in  the  east  of  Canada 
the  education  of  j-outh  has  long  been  a  bone  of  con- 
tention between  the  secular  and  the  religious  au- 
thorities. What  is  now  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta 
had  been  for  five  years  governed  from  Ottawa, 
under  the  name  of  North-West  Territories,  when,  in 
1875,  some  sort  of  autonomy  was  granted  them, 
and  the  Cathohcs  settled  therein  were  accorded 
the  right  of  having  their  own  schools,  without  contrib- 
uting to  the  maintenance  of  any  others.  This  equi- 
table arrangement  coming  from  a  higher,  or  constitu- 
tive authority,  should  have  been  considered  beyond 
the  reach  of  a  lower  legislature.  Yet  in  1892  it  was 
abrogated  by  an  ordinance  of  the  territories,  which 
decreed  the  absolute  neutrality,  from  a  denominational 
standpoint,  of  all  the  schools  of  the  Far  ^^'est.  This 
act  was  afterwards  admitted  by  some  la^\'\-ers  of  note 
to  be  unconstitutional.  Therefore  when  the  new 
provinces  were  created  in  1905,  Sir  Wilfrid  Lauricr, 
then  Premier  of  Canada  made  an  effort  to  insert  in 
their  constitution  a  provi.so  (clause  xvi)  whereby  the 
school  system  of  1875  was  reintroduced.  Unfortu- 
nately he  did  not  succeed  in  overcoming  the  opposi- 
tion of  one  of  his  co-ministers  supported  by  the  clam- 
ours of  the  anti-Catholic  element  in  the  east.  The 
result  was  a  sort  of  compromise,  which  does  not  satisfy 
the  Catholic  minority,  though  it  certainly  gives  it 
some  appreciable  advantages. 


The  present  educational  situation  is  this:  con- 
formably to  the  Act  of  1905  there  are  in  Sas- 
katchewan and  Alberta  pubHc  and  separate  schools. 
The  former  are  established  by  the  majority  of 
the  rate-payers  of  a  place,  the  latter  may  be  set 
up  by  the  minority  of  the  same.  Either  kind  is 
supported  by  the  taxes  le\ied  on  that  part  of  the 
population  for  which  it  is  intended,  to  which  is  added 
a  Government  grant  based  on  the  qualit}'  of  the 
teaching  and  the  number  of  days  the  school"  is  open. 
On  the  petition  of  three  resident  rate-payers,  a  sepa- 
rate school  district  may  be  erected,  which  will  thence- 
forth be  governed  by  commissioners,  electefl  by  the 
rate-payers  interested  therein,  and  wall  enjoy  the  same 
rights  and  privileges  as  those  of  a  public  school  dis- 
trict. One  of  the.se  consists  in  the  right  to  choose  the 
teacher  who,  whether  in  separate  or  public  schools, 
must  hold  a  certificate  of  qualification.  No  religious 
instruction  is  allowed  except  during  the  last  half-hour 
of  the  afternoon  class.  All  the  schools  must  be  taught 
in  English,  though  it  is  permissible  for  the  board  of 
any  district  to  cause  a  primarj^  course  to  be  taught  in 
French.  This  is  the  only  concession  made  to  the  spirit 
of  the  Federal  Constitution,  such  as  is  represented 
by  the  North  America  Act  of  1867,  which  practically 
declares  both  English  and  French  to  be  the  official 
languages  of  the  Dominion. 

By  the  side  of  real  advantages  the  school  laws  in 
force  in  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta  have  regrettable 
drawbacks.  The  advantages  consist  in  the  fact  that, 
wherever  they  are,  Catholics  can  have  schools  of  their 
own.  If  they  form  the  majority  of  a  place,  their 
school  is  termed  public.  They  elect  the  commission- 
ers best  suited  to  their  wants  and  aspirations,  and 
through  them  the  teachers.  If  they  are  in  the  minor- 
t}',  they  can,  with  the  consent  of  the  proper  authority, 
erect  a  separate  school  district  with  exactly  the  same 
privileges.  The  drawbacks  consequent  on  present 
conditions  lie  mostly  in  the  text-books  used,  since 
some  of  the  histories  prescribed  unfortunately  con- 
tain assertions  and  omissions  that  are  quite  objec- 
tionable from  a  Catholic  standpoint.  A  short  time  ago 
the  (lovernment  of  Saskatchewan  authorized  the  use 
of  Catholic  readers  for  the  Catholic  separate  schools  of 
that  province.  It  happens  also  that  both  in  Saskatch- 
ewan and  in  Alberta  there  is  a  council  of  public 
instruction  composed  of  five  members,  two  of  whom 
are  Catholics.  But  neither  of  these  advantages  is 
guaranteed  by  the  constitution.  Furthermore,  Catho- 
lic normal  schools  are  a  boon  which  is  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  Catholic  population  of  either  pro\ince. 
As  exemplifying  the  educational  activities  of  that  i)art 
of  Canada,  it  may  be  stated  that  (1905)  there  were  in 
Saskatchewan  716  schools;  873  (1906);  1101  (1907), 
and  1422  in  1908.  Between  1  Sept.,  1905,  and  the 
close  of  1909,  the  number  of  school  districts  increased 
from  942  to  2001.  There  are  in  each  province  a  num- 
ber of  non-denominational  collegiate  schools,  as  well 
as  two  State  Universities,  whose  seats  are  at  Saska- 
toon, and  at  Strathcona  (Edmonton)  respectively. 
In  this  connexion  it  may  be  worth  while  to  remark 
that  the  first  unofficial  lecturer  appointed  by  the 
University  of  Sa.skatchewan  was  a  Catholic  priest, 
who  was  also  its  first  graduate,  though  his  degree  was 
conferred  ad  honor  em. 

History. — The  first  white  man  to  set  foot  in  what 
is  now  the  Province  of  Saskatchewan,  was  Henry  Kel- 
sey,  a  boy  in  the  employ  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company 
traders.  He  started  from  Fort  Nelson,  and  reached  a 
point  between  the  valley  of  the  Saskatchewan  and 
Lake  Athabasca.  This  was  in  the  summer  of  1691. 
In  the  autumn  of  1748,  th(>  sons  of  De  Laverendrye, 
the  real  discoverer  of  the  Canadian  West,  navigated 
the  Saskatchewan  to  its  forks,  where  they  established 
Fort  Poskoyac.  In  the  course  of  1751  Boucher  de 
Niverville  sent  ten  Frenchmen  from  that  post  up  the 
river,  who  erected  a  fort  (La  Jonquiere)  on  the  Bow 


SASKATCHEWAN 


484 


SASKATCHEWAN 


River,  where  Calgary  now  stands.  Two  years  later 
St-Luc  de  La  Corne,  one  of  the  successors  of  De 
Laverendrye,  explored  the  valley  of  the  Carrot  River, 
where  he  estabhshed  (1754)  Fort  Pasquia,  and  made 
the  first  attempt  on  record  to  cultivate  land  within  the 
limits  of  the  present  Saskatchewan  province.  Fort 
Pasquia  was  ^'isited  the  same  year  by  an  English  ad- 
venturer, Anthony  Hendrj',  who  crossed  the  whole 
north-west,  and  went  as  far  as  the  country  of  the 
Blackfeet,  in  Alberta.  Then  follows  the  founding  of 
Cumberland  House,  in  1742,  and  omng  to  the  rivalry 
between  the  North- West  Company  (founded  1784), 
and  the  older  Hudson  Bay  Company,  various  other 
trading  posts  were  soon  after  estabhshed,  such  as 
Forts  He  a  la  Crosse  (1791),  Carlton  (1793),  Augiistus 
(or  Edmonton)  (1798),  and  a  few  others.  Until  the 
arrival  of  the  first  missionaries,  Father  F.  N.  Blanchet 
and  Father  M.  Demers  in  1838,  revelry  and  lawless- 
ness prevailed  in  the  north-west,  which  were  due  to 
intoxicants  furnished  by  the  rival  traders. 

The  religious  history  of  the  two  provinces  will  be 
found  under  the  heads  of  the  various  dioceses  within 
their  boundaries.  Further  events  of  a  secular  char- 
acter are  the  ex^plorations  of  Captain  Palliser  (1857); 
the  Hind-Daws  on  surveys  (1858);  the  journey  of  the 
Earl  of  Southesk  to  the  sources  of  the  Saskatchewan 
(1859);  that  of  Lord  Milton  and  Dr.  Cheadle  in  1862; 
and  the  survejing  ex-pedition  of  Sandford  Fleming  ten 
years  later. 

The  Louis  Reil  Rebellion. — To  understand  the  event 
which  took  place  in  1885  we  must  go  back  to  the 
troubles  which  agitated  Manitoba  in  1869-70.  Half 
the  population  of  that  country'  was  then  made  up  of 
French  half-breeds,  whose  native  land  was  sold,  with- 
out their  consent,  to  the  newly-formed  Dominion  of 
Canada.  Prompted  by  the  arrogance  of  the  agents 
of  Ottawa,  and  by  their  interference  with  the  rights  of 
the  original  settlers,  now  threatened  with  being  dis- 
possessed of  their  farms  by  parties  who  had  at  the  time 
no  jurisdiction  over  them,  the  French  and  some  of  the 
English  rose  against  the  intruders  under  the  lead  of 
Louis  Riel  (b.  at  St.  Boniface,  22  Oct.,  1844),  a  young 
man  \^^th  a  college  education,  and  for  about  ten  months 
held  possession  of  the  country,  sending  demands  to 
Ottawa,  the  reasonableness  of  which  was  so  far  recog- 
nized that  corresponding  clauses  were  inserted  in  what 
was  called  the  Manitoba  Act.  Sore  at  the  thought 
that  they  had  been  outdone  by  mere  Metis,  the  anti- 
Catholic  and  anti-French  strangers  from  the  East 
wreaked  vengeance,  after  the  arrival  of  Wolselej^'s 
troops,  on  the  leaders  and  partisans  of  the  insurrection 
which  had  been  perfectly  legitimate.  To  escape  the 
petty  persecution  that  ensued  numbers  of  half-breeds 
headed  for  the  north  and  settled  in  the  valley  of  the 
Saskatchewan,  between  Saskatoon  and  the  forks  of 
that  river,  just  below  Prince  Albert.  Unfortunately 
with  the  increase  of  white  immigration  to  the 
prairies,  difficulties  similar  to  those  which  had  resulted 
m  trouble  on  the  Red  River  soon  arose  among  them. 
They  vainly  petitioned  for  the  titles  to  their  lands, 
which  were  threatened  with  bfing  surveyed  in  such  a 
way  as  to  render  useless  the  improvements  they  had 
made  on  thr-rn,  and  even  jeopardized  tlieir  rights  to 
the  same.  They  also  repeatedljr  asked  for  the  re- 
dress of  several  other  grievances  in  whic;h  claims  they 
had  the  sympathy  of  their  clergy  and  the  respectable 
part  of  the  white  population.  Tired  of  being  ignored 
by  the  Federal  authorities,  they  next  called  to  their 
assistance  Ivouis  Riel.  He  was  then  teaching  school 
in  Montana,  after  having  been  in  various  asylums  as 
a  result  of  the  persecution  of  those  who  tracked  him 
for  the  sake  of  the  money  put  on  his  hea<i  by  the  On- 
tario Government. 

Unfortunately  his  mind  proved  unequal  U)  the  task 
of  lea<^ling  a  sr-cond  agitation  successfully.  Hr;  gradu- 
ally broke  away  from  thr;  control  of  the  clergy  who, 
conscious  oi  the  fact  that  the  case  was  now  quite  dif- 


ferent from  that  of  1869,  when  the  proper  authority 
had  abdicated  its  rights,  were  striving  to  keep  him 
within  legal  bounds.  As  the  priests  refused  their 
ministrations  to  him  and  his  abettors,  he  tried  to  re- 
place them  by  his  own,  and  proclaimed  himself  a 
prophet.  At  the  same  time  he  raised  the  standard  of 
revolt  against  the  Canadian  Government,  and,  26 
March,  1885,  was  present  at  the  engagement  of  Duck 
Lake  in  which  the  troops  were  defeated.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  battles  of  Fish  Creek  (24  April),  Cut  Knife 
(2  May),  and  Batoche,  where  the  M6tis  were  finally 
routed  (12  May)  after  four  days'  fighting  with  troops 
vastly  superior  in  number  and  equipment.  Perhaps 
the  most  regrettable  incident  of  this  ill-advised  in- 
surrection was  the  massacre  of  Fathers  Fafard  and 
Marchand,  O.M.L,  with  a  number  of  white  settlers 
of  Frog  Lake,  at  the  hands  of  pagan  Crees.  The 
country  was  laid  waste  and  numerous  missions  were 
ruined  by  the  same  tribe  of  natives.  Despite  the  testi- 
mony of  the  physicians,  who  declared  his  irresponsi- 
bility, Louis  Riel  was  sentenced  to  death  and  executed 
at  Regina,  dving  in  the  profession  of  the  most  Chris- 
tian-like sentiments  (16  Nov.,  1885).  Then  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Canada  did  what  it  had  so  long  neglected. 
It  examined  the  claims  of  the  half-breeds  and  re- 
dressed their  grievances. 

Later  History. — The  one  good  result  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan Rebellion,  apart  from  the  necessity  to 
which  the  Ottawa  Government  was  put  of  recognizing 
the  rights  of  the  northern  Metis,  consisted  in  the  fact 
that  it  drew  the  attention  of  the  civilized  world  to  the 
fertile  plains  of  the  Canadian  West.  The  first  trans- 
continental railway  was  completed  (7  Nov.,  1885). 
It  served  to  bring  thither  large  numbers  of  colonists 
of  all  nationalities,  some  of  whom  (the  Doukhobors  of 
Saskatchewan  and  the  Mormons  of  Alberta)  were 
scarcely  of  a  desirable  class.  The  new  inhabitants 
soon  clamoured  for  a  larger  share  of  influence  in  the 
territorial  government  than  had  previously  been  en- 
joyed by  the  people,  and  their  agitation  resulted  in 
the  Federal  Parliament  granting  the  territories,  in  the 
course  of  1888,  a  legislative  assembly  with  a  correspond- 
ingly larger  degree  of  autonomy.  On  4  July  of  that 
year,  a  French  Catholic,  in  the  person  of  Joseph  Roj-^al, 
was  ajipointed  lieutenant-go^•ernor.  The  territories 
had  then  a  common  capital  in  Regina,  previous 
to  27  March,  1882  this  had  been  at  Battlcford  (at  the 
confluence  of  the  Battle  and  Saskatchewan  Rivers). 
The  total  white  population  was  (1888)  69,500. 

Then,  following  a  long  agitation  for  still  fuller 
provincial  riglits,  there  came  (1905),  the  formation  of 
the  territories  into  the  two  pro\'inces  of  Saskatchewan 
and  Alberta,  each  with  a  lieutenant-governor  and  a 
legislative  assembly,  together  with  a  constitution 
which,  among  other  things,  determined  the  nature  of 
the  education  which  was  to  be  imparted,  as  stated 
above.  At  the  same  time  Edmonton,  heretofore 
scarcely  more  than  a  Hudson's  Bay  Company  trading- 
post  by  the  Northern  Saskatchewan,  was  made  the 
capital  of  Alberta,  while  Regina  continued  to  hold  the 
same  rank  with  regard  to  the  Province  of  Saskalche- 
wan.  The  first  lieutenant-governor  of  flie  latter  wiis 
A.  E.  Forget,  a  Cnlliolic,  wlio  had  long  been  employed 
in  Gov<'rnmental  offices.  Ever  since,  the  two  i)rov- 
inces  have  smoothly  pursued  identical  lines  of  self- 
development,  and  the  few  events  worth  recording 
have  been  of  a  purely  political  character. 

RoBBON,  An  Account  of  Six  Years'  Rr.iidence  in  Hwhon'n  Bay 
(London,  17.')2);  Kank,  Wanrlrrint/s  of  nn  Arlisl  (London,  1859); 
Dawbon,  Report  of  Ihr  KxjiloTiilidn  of  the  ( 'ountry  (ToTonU),  18,59); 
IIiND,  NorlhwcHl  Ttrrilori/:  Ur,,„rt  of  l'rn,/rr.ts  (Toronto,  18.59); 
Idkm,  Narrative  of  the  CiuKuliiin  lied  liivir  Expiilition  (2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1860);  Pai.I.IHKR,  Further  I'lipern  Itiinlire  to  Ihr  Expedition 
(Ix.ndon.  1800);  Butlkk,  The  Great  Lone  Loml  (London,  187:5); 
Mii.TON  AND  Cheadle,  North-WeM  Pasnai/e  /<;/  Land  (I,oiidon, 
180.5) ;  GliANT,  Orean  to  Ocean  (London,  187.5) ;  Fl-E-MiNfi.  Em/land 
and  Canada  (London,  188-1);  Hkoo,  Ilistort/  of  the  Northwest 
(.'5  voIh.,  Toronto,  1894);  Wii.i.hon,  The  drenl  Company  (Toronto. 
1899);  Laut,  The  ComineM  of  the  Great  Northwest  (2  voIh.,  New 
York,  8.  A.);  Bukpee,  The  Search  for  the  Wealern  Sea  (Toronto, 


SASSARI 


485 


SATALA 


8.  d.);  MoRicE,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Western  Canada 
(2  vols.,  Toronto,  1910) ;  alao  other  works.  Also  The  School  Act 
(Regina,  1911);  Saskatchewan,  Canada  (Regina,  s.  d.);  Land  and 
Agricultitre  in  Alberta  (Edmonton,  1911). 

A.  G.  MoRiCE. 

Sassari,  Archdiocese  of  (Turritan.\),  in  Sar- 
dinia, Italy,  situated  on  the  River  Rosello  in  a  fertile 
region :  a  centre  of  the  oil,  fruit,  wine,  and  tobacco  in- 
dustries. The  city  has  a  university  founded  in  1634. 
There  is  a  monument  to  the  Duke  of  Maurienne  in  the 
cathedral;  the  Church  of  the  Most  Blessed  Trinity 
contains  a  beautiful  picture  by  an  unknown  artist  of 
the  Quattrocento.  Other  noteworthy  buildings  are 
the  palace  of  the  Duke  of  Vallombro.sa,  the  Aragonese 
castle  with  its  high  tower,  the  Fontana  del  Rossello, 
and  a  thirteenth-century  wall.  Sassari  was  unknown 
till  about  the  eleventh  century;  it  developed  with 
the  decay  of  the  ancient  Torres  {Turris  Lybissonis) , 
which  till  then  had  been  the  principal  city  on  the 
island.  It  was  sacked  by  the  Genoe-se  in  1166.  In 
1294  it  became  a  republic  with  the  consent  of  the  Gen- 
oese, who  were  pleased  to  see  it  thus  withdrawn  from 
the  control  of  the  Pisans.  Its  statutes  of  1316  are 
remarkable  for  the  leniency  of  the  penalties  imposed 
when  compared  with  the  penal  laws  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  In  1390  it  was  united  to  the  giudicatura  of 
Arborea,  of  which  it  became  the  capital,  but  in  1420  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Aragonese.  In  1527  it  was 
sacked  by  the  French.  The  ecclesiastical  history  of 
Sassari  commences  with  that  of  Torres.  In  304  the 
soldier  Gavinus,  Protus  a  priest,  and  the  deacon  Janu- 
arius  suffered  martyrdom  there.  Later  Gavinus  and 
Protus  were  reputed  bisho])s,  and  said  to  have  lived  in 
the  second  and  third  centuries  respectively.  St.  Gau- 
dentiu-s,  who  seems  to  have  heioiigeil  to  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  century,  is  also  venerated  there.  The 
first  bishop  whose  date  is  known  is  Felix  (404). 
Other  bishops:  Marinianus,  a  contemporary  of  St. 
Gregory  the  Great;  Novellus  (6S.5),  whose  ordination 
caused  a  controversy  between  John  V  and  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Cagliari;  Felix  (727),  who  took  refuge  at 
Genoa  to  escape  the  cruelty  of  the  Saracens;  almost 
nothing  is  known  concerning  bishops  of  Torres  for  the 
next  three  centuries,  till  Simon  (1065).  His  succes- 
sor, Costantino  de  Crasta  (1073),  was  an  archbishop. 
Other  archbishops:  Blasius  (1199),  representative  of 
Innocent  III,  on  several  occasions;  Stefano,  O.  P. 
(1238),  legate  of  Innocent  IV  in  Sardinia  and  Corsica; 
Trogodario  (about  1278)  who  erected  the  episcopal 
palace  in  Sassari,  to  which  Teodosio  (1292)  added  the 
Church  of  St.  Andrea;  after  this  the  archbishops  re- 
sided habitually  at  Sassari.  Pietro  Spano(1422)  was 
a  restorer  of  discipline;  under  him  the  episcopal  see 
was  definitively  transferred  to  Sassari  by  Eugenius 
IV.  This  bishop  intended  to  erect  a  seminary  for  the 
training  of  the  clergy,  but  his  death  frustrated  the 
plan.  Angelo  Leonini  (1509)  was  at  the  Fifth  Lateran 
Council;  Salvatore  Salepusi  (1553)  was  distinguished 
at  the  Council  of  Trent;  Alfonso  de  Sorca  (1585), 
highly  esteemed  by  Clement  VIII.  At  about  the 
year  1500  there  were  united  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Sas- 
sari the  Sees  of  Sorca  (Saralapsis)  which  is  mentioned 
as  a  bishopric  in  1106,  and  whose  last  bishop  was  Ja- 
copo  Poggi;  and  of  Ploaghe  {Pluhium),  the  first  known 
bishop  of  which  is  Jacentius  (1090).  The  sees  suffra- 
gan to  Sassari  are:  Alghero,  Ampurias  and  Tempio, 
Bisarchio,  Bosa.  The  archdiocese  contains  35  par- 
ishes, 140  secular;  41  regular  priests:  112,500  inhabi- 
tants, 9  convents  of  reUgious,  and  13  monasteries,  7 
boys',  and  5  girls'  institutions. 

Cappelletti,  Le  chiese  d' Italia  (Venice,  1870):  Filia,  La 
Sardegna  cristiana,  I  {Sussslt'i,  1909).  \J _    BeNIGNI. 

Sassoferrato,  Giovanni  Battista  Salvi  da,  b. 
at  Sassoferrato  in  the  March  of  Ancona,  1609;  d.  at 
Rome,  1689,  where  he  had  passed  the  greater  part  of 
his  life.  His  father,  Tarquinio  Salvi  was  his  first 
master.     At  Naples,  he  studied  under  Dominichino 


Giovanni  Battista  Salvi,  called 

Sassofekrato 

Self-portrait,  UfEzi  Gallery,   Florence. 


and  through  him  was  a  pupil  of  the  Carracci.  Sev- 
eral of  his  pictures  are  direct  imitations  of  Perugino. 
Raphael,  and  Titian.  His  Madonnas,  especially,  are 
inspired  by  Raphael,  and  in  their  quiet  sweetne.ss  rival 
those  of  Carlo  Dolci.  In  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  Blessed  Virgin  was  too  frequently  portrayed  with  a 
cold  dignity,  and  reserve  so  austere  towards  the  Child 
Jesus  that  it  is  difficult  to  realize  her  motherhood. 
"Consequently,  men  grew  more  fond  of  Sassoferrato 
whose  Madonnas,  tender,  lovely,  carefully  painted,  all 
reveal  the  mother's  heart,  as  men  more  readily  for- 
give certain  errors  when  they  are  lofty,  and  certain 
weaknesses  when 
they  are  pictur- 
esque" (Burck- 
hardt).  Sassofer- 
rato gave  to  his 
compositions  a 
pleasing  air  of 
intimacy,  and  a 
certain  naivete, 
in  happy  contrast 
to  the  melancholy 
exi)ressi()n  too  fre- 
quently foimd  in 
the  paintings  of 
his  time.  Among 
others  the  "Ador- 
ation of  the  Shep- 
herds", and  the 
"Workshop of  the 
Carpenter  Joseph 
with  the  Infant 
Jesus  Sweei)ingthe 
Shavings"  (Mu- 
seum of  Naples)  present  this  charming  character  of  in- 
timacy. His  masterpiece,  however,  is  to  be  found  in 
Rome,  in  the  Church  of  St.  Sabina  on  the  Aventine: 
"Our  Lady  of  the  Rosary  with  St.  Dominic  and  St. 
Catherine".  This  was  painted  at  the  request  of  the 
Princess  de  Rossano,  and  finished  in  1643,  the  artist  re- 
ceiving the  sum  of  one  hundred  ecus  (crowns)  in  pay- 
ment. "The  Virgin  in  a  blue  cloak  and  {)urple  (Iress 
is  seated  in  the  centre  with  the  Infant  Jesus  on  her  left 
knee;  kneeling  at  the  right  is  St.  Dominic  to  whom  she 
presents  the  rosary,  whilst  the  Divine  Child  with  one 
hand  ext(>nding  the  rosary  to  St.  Catherine,  who  kneels 
at  the  left,  with  the  other  places  upon  her  head  rever- 
ently bent,  the  crown  of  thorns.  Circling  the  head  of 
the  Virgin  is  a  crown  of  five  small  angels  of  ravishing 
grace  and  devotion"  (Berthier).  Besides  these,  there 
is  at  the  Louvre,  the  "Assumption  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin";  at  the  Mu.sce  des  Offices,  the  "Infant  Jesus 
asleep  on  His  Mother's  knees"  (this  last  subject  is  also 
found  in  the  Museums  of  Dresden  and  Madrid);  his 
Portrait;  "The  Virgin  of  Sorrows";  at  the  Vatican 
there  is  the  "Madonna  with  Angels";  at  Turin,  the 
"Madonna  of  the  Rose";  at  Berlin,  the  "Holy  Fam- 
ily"; at  Frankfort-on-thc-Main,  Galerie  Stadel,  the 
"Virgin  praying".  Madonnas  of  Sassoferrato  arc 
likewise  to  be  found  in  the  Museums  at  London,  St. 
Petersburg,  Brussels,  Vienna. 

Lanzi,  History  of  Painting  in  Italy,  tr.  from  the  Italian  by 
Roscoe,  I  (London,  1847),  469;  Blanc,  Histoire  des  peintres 
de  toutes  les  Ecoles:  Ecole  omhrienne  (Paris,  1869-77) ;  Burck- 
HARDT  AND  BoDE,  Le  Cicerone,  tr.  GiSrard,  II  (Paris,  1892), 
810-11;  Bryan,  Dictionary  of  Painters  and  Engravers,  V  (Lon- 
don, 1905);  BEmmEH,  L' Eglise  de  sainte  Sabine  d  Rome  (Rome, 
1910;,  313-16. 

Gaston  Sortais. 

Satala,  a  titular  see  in  Armenia  Prima,  suffragan 
of  Sabastia.  Satala  according  to  the  ancient  geog- 
raphers was  .situated  in  a  valley  surrovmded  by 
mountains,  a  little  north  of  the  Euphrates,  where  the 
road  from  Trapezus  to  Samosata  crossed  the  boundary 
of  the  Roman  F^mpire.  Later  it  was  connected  with 
Nicopolis  by  two  highways.  This  site  must  have 
been  occupied  as  early  as  the  annexation  of  Lesser 


SATAN 


486 


SAUL 


Armenian  under  Vespasian.  Trajan  visited  it  in 
115  and  received  the  homage  of  the  princes  of  the 
Caucai^us  and  the  Euxine.  It  was  he  doubtless  who 
estabUshed  there  the  Legio  XV  ApolUnaris  and  began 
the  construction  of  the  great  castra  stativa  (per- 
manent camp)  which  it  was  to  occupy  till  the  fifth 
centun,'.  The  town  must  have  sprung  up  around 
this  camp;  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  it  was  already  im- 
portant. In  530  the  Persians  were  defeated  under 
its  walls.  Justinian  constructed  more  powerful  for- 
tifications there,  but  these  did  not  prevent  Satala 
from  being  captured  in  607-S  by  the  Persians.  It  is 
now  Sadagh,  a  village  of  500  inhabitants,  in  the 
vilayet  of  Erzeroum.  The  remains  of  the  camp  still 
exist  strewn  with  fragments  of  brick  bearing  the  stamp 
of  the  legion;  there  are  also  the  ruins  of  an  aqueduct 
and  of  Justinian's  citadel;  some  Latin  and  Greek 
inscriptions,  the  latter  Christian,  have  been  dis- 
covered. The  Christians  were  numerous  in  the  time 
of  Diocletian.  Le  Quien,  "Oriens  Christianus", 
I,  431,  mentions  seven  of  its  bishops:  Evethius,  at 
Nicaea,  325;  Elfridius,  360;  Poemenius,  about  378; 
Anatolius,  451;  Epiphanius,  458;  Oregon,',  692; 
Philip,  879.  The  see  is  mentioned  in  the  "Xotitiaj 
episcopatuum "  until  the  thirteenth  centuni-.  and  we 
know  the  name  of  the  bishop,  Cosmas,  in  1256. 

Smith,  Did.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geog.,  a.  v.;  Muller,  (ed. 
Didot),  Notes  a  Ptolemy,  I,  SS4 :  Chapot,  La  fronticre  de  I'Euphrate 
de  Pompee  a  la  conquite  arabe  (Paris,  1907),  351;  Ccmoxt,  Studia 
Pontica  (Brussels,  1906),  343-51. 

S.  Petrides. 
Satan.     See  DE^^L. 
Satisfaction.     See  Penance. 
Satisfaction  of  Christ.     See  Redemption-. 

Satolli,  Francesco,  theologian,  cardinal,  first  Apos- 
tolic delegate  to  the  United  States,  b.  21  July,  1839, 
at  Marsciano  near  Perugia;  d.  8  Jan.,  1910,  at  Rome. 
He  was  educated  at  the  .seminarj-  of  Perugia,  ordained 
in  1862,  and,  after  receiving  the  doctorate  at  the 
Sapienza,  was  appointed  (1864)  professor  in  the  sem- 
inar>'  of  Perugia.  In  1870  he  became  pastor  at  Mars- 
ciano and  in  1872  went  to  Montecassino,  where  he  re- 
mained two  years.  Called  to  Rome  bj'  Leo  XIII  in 
1880,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  dogmatic  the- 
ology- in  the  Propaganda  and  (1882)  in  the  Roman 
Seminary,  rector  of  the  Greek  College  (1884),  presi- 
dent of  the  Accademia  dei  Xobili  Eccle.siastici  (1886), 
and  Archbi.shop  of  Lepanto  (1888).  As  professor  he 
had  an  important  share  in  the  neo-Scholastic  move- 
ment inaugurated  by  Leo  XIII.  His  lectures,  al- 
ways fluent  and  often  eloquent,  aroused  the  enthu- 
siasm of  his  students  for  the  study  of  St.  Thomas, 
while  his  wTitings  opened  the  way  for  an  extended 
literature  in  Thomistic  philosophy  and  theology. 

Satolli  came  to  the  United  States  in  1889,  was  pres- 
ent at  the  centenary  of  the  hierarchy  celebrated  in 
Baltimore,  and  deUvered  an  address  at  the  inaugura- 
tion of  the  Cathohc  University  of  America  in  No- 
vember. On  his  second  visit,  he  attended  (16  Nov., 
lS92j  a  meeting  of  the  archbishops  held  in  New  York 
City,  and  formulated  in  fourteen  propositions  the 
solution  of  certain  schcxjl  problems  which  had  been 
for  some  time  under  di.scu.sKion.  He  then  took  up 
his  residence  at  the  Catholic  University  of  America, 
where  he  gave  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  philo.sophy 
of  St.  Thomas.  On  24  Jan.,  1893,  the  Apostolic  Del- 
egation in  the  Unitf^i  States  was  established  at 
Washington,  and  Satolli  was  appointed  first  delegate. 
He  wa.s  created  cardinal-priest  on  29  Nov.,  1895,  with 
the  title  of  Sta.  Maria  in  Ara  Coeli.  Returning  to 
Rome  in  October,  1896,  he  wa.s  appointed  prefect  of 
the  Congregation  of  Studies  and  archpriest  of  the 
Lateran  Basilica.  He  became  Cardinal  Bishop  of 
Frascati  22  June,  1903.  His  last  visit  to  the  United 
States  waa  on  the  occasion  of  the  St.  Louis  Exposi- 
tion, 1904. 


Satolli's  works  include:  "Enchiridion  Philosophise" 
(Rome,  1SS4);  Commentaries  on  the  Summa  Theol. 
of  St.  Thomas  (5  vols.,  Rome,  1SS4-SS);  "Prima 
principia  juris  pubhci  eccles.  de  concordatis"  (Rome, 
1888);  "Lovaltv  to  Church  and  State"  (Baltimore, 
1895). 

America,  15  Jan.,  1910;  Catholic  University  Bulletin,  Feb.,  1910. 

Edward  A.  Pace. 

Satuminus,  Saixt,  was,  says  Tillemont,  one  of 
the  most  illustrious  martyrs  France  has  given  to 
the  Church.  We  pos.sess  only  his  Acts,  which  are 
very  old,  since  they  were  utilized  by  St.  Gregory  of 
Tours.  He  was  the  first  Bishop  of  Toulouse,  whit  her 
he  went  during  the  consulate  of  Decius  and  Gratus 
(250).  Whether  there  were  already  Christians  in 
the  town  or  his  preaching  made  numerous  conver- 
sions, he  soon  had  a  little  church.  To  reach  it  he 
had  to  pass  before  the  capitol  where  there  was  atemple. 
and  according  to  the  Acts,  the  pagan  priests  ascribed 
to  his  frequent  passings  the  silence  of  their  oracles. 
One  day  they  seized  him  and  on  his  unshakable 
refusal  to  sacrifice  to  the  idols  they  condemned  him 
to  be  tied  by  the  feet  to  a  bull  which  dragged  him 
about  the  to^sTi  until  the  rope  broke.  Two  Chris- 
tian women  piously  gathered  up  the  remains  and 
buried  them  in  a  deep  ditch,  that  they  might  not  be 
profaned  by  the  pagans.  His  successors,  Sts.  Hilary 
and  Exuperius,  gave  him  more  honourable  burial. 
A  church  was  erected  where  the  bull  stopped.  It 
still  exists  and  is  called  the  church  of  the  Taur  (the 
bull).  The  body  of  the  saint  was  transferred  at  an 
early  date  and  is  still  preserved  in  the  Church  of  St. 
Sernin  (or  Satuminus),  one  of  the  most  ancient  and 
beautiful  of  Southern  France.  His  feast  was  entered 
on  the  HieronATiiian  Mart>Tology  for  29  November; 
his  cult  spread  abroad.  The  account  of  his  Acts  was 
embellished  with  several  details,  and  legends  linked 
his  name  with  the  beginning  of  the  churches  of 
Eauze,  Auch,  Pamplona,  and  Amiens,  but  these  are 
without  historic  foundation. 

RciNART,  Acta  Martyrum  (Ratisbon.  18.59),  177-80;  Gregorii 
Buronensis  opera  Hist.  Francorum,  ed.  .\rndt  and  Krusch, 
I  (Hanover,  1884),  xxxix;  Tillemont,  Hist,  ecclesiastique.  III 
(Paris,  1701),  297;  Laban,  Vie  de  Saint  Saturnin  (Toulouse, 
1864);  Duchesne,  Pastes  ipiscopaux  de  I'ancienne  Gaule 
(Paris,  1894),  25,  295. 

Antoine  Degert. 

Sauatra,  a  titular  see  of  Lycaonia,  suffragan  of 
Iconium.  Nothing  is  kno\sTi  of  the  histon*-  of  this 
town,  but  some  of  its  coins  have  been  preserved  and 
it  is  mentioned  by  Strabo,  XIV,  668;  Ptolemy,  V, 
4,  12;  Hierocles,  672,  2;  and  the  Tabula  Peutinge- 
riana.  The  name  in  this  title  is  spelled  as  it  occurs 
on  the  coins;  Sabatra  which  is  its  equivalent  in 
pronunciation  is  also  found,  also  Soatra,  in  Strabo. 
The  town  was  situated  in  an  arid  region  on  the  road 
from  Laodicea  to  Archelais,  that  is,  near  the  village 
of  Souverek,  in  the  vilayet  of  Koniah:  according  to 
Ramsay  "A.sia  Minor",  343,  at  the  niins  four  hours 
south-west  of  Eskil;  according  to  Muller,  "Notes  to 
Ptolemy",  ed.  Didot,  I,  858,  near  Djelil  between 
Obrouklou,  or  Obrouk,  and  Sultan  Khan.  Le 
Quien,  "Oriens  Christianus",  I,  1083,  mentions  two 
bishops  of  Sauatra:  Aristophanes,  present  at  the 
First  (Efumenical  Council  of  Constantinople,  381; 
and  Eustathius,  who  was  living  at  the  time  of  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  451.  The  Greek  "Notitise 
epi.scopatuum"  mention  the  see  till  the  thirteenth 
century. 

.Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geog.,  a.  v.;  Rambay,  Axia 
Minor  (London,   1890),  343,  and  passim. 

S.  P6tridI:8. 

Saul,  V'Xr,  postulatus,  referring  probably  to  the 
petition  mentioned  in  I  Kings,  viii,  5,  the  first  King 
of  Israel,  the  son  of  Cis  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
(ix,  1,  2).  Waiving  critical  discussion  of  the  parallel 
though  often  divergent  sources  underlying  I  Kings, 


SAXTLI 


487 


SAULT 


suffice  it  to  say  that  the  narrative  of  the  Hfe  and  times 
of  Saul  is  constructed  from  two  traditional  accounts 
each  of  which  has  its  particular  viewpoint.  This  ap- 
pears especially  in  the  divergent  accounts  relative  to 
the  circumstances  attending  the  election  of  Saul  and 
his  fall  from  Divine  favour.  The  prophet  Samuel,  who 
is  counted  as  the  last  of  the  great  Judges  of  Israel, 
was  growing  old  and  the  administration  of  civic  and 
religious  affairs  had  been  confided  to  his  sons.  These 
proved  unfaithful  to  their  trust  and  the  people  being 
dissatisfied  petitioned  Samuel  to  select  a  king  to  rule 
over  them  after  the  manner  of  the  other  nations. 
Samuel  resents  this  request,  and  the  Lord,  though 
affirming  it  to  be  an  offence  against  Himself,  a  virtual 
rejection  of  the  theocratic  regime,  nevertheless  in- 
structs the  prophet  to  accede  to  the  demands  of  the 
people.  Samuel  informs  them  of  the  Lord's  displeas- 
ure and  predicts  the  retributory  evils  that  will  come 
upon  them  through  the  exactions  of  the  future  king 
(I  Kings,  viii).  The  choice  of  the  new  ruler  is  deter- 
mined by  a  providential  incident.  Saul,  in  quest  of  his 
father's  strayed  asses,  happens  to  consult  Samuel  the 
"seer"  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  information  as  to 
their  whereabouts.  The  prophet  assures  him  of  their 
safety,  and  after  entertaining  Saul,  reveals  to  him  his 
mission  with  regard  to  the  Chosen  People  and  anoints 
him  king.  Forthwith  Saul's  heart  is  changed,  and  to 
the  suiprise  of  many  he  prophesies  in  the  midst  of  the 
company  of  prophets  (livings,  x,  10).  A  month  after 
these  events  the  newly-chosen  king,  who  had  hitherto 
refrained  from  asserting  his  royal  prerogatives,  justi- 
fies his  election  by  defeating  the  Ammonites  and  de- 
livering Jabes  Galaad.  Later  he  engages  in  war  with 
the  Philistines,  and  being  in  straits,  he  presumes  to 
offer  the  holocaust  because  of  Samuel's  unexplained 
delay  in  arriving  on  the  scene.  For  this  usurpation 
of  the  priestly  function  he  is  reproved  by  the  prophet 
and  already  the  end  of  his  kingdom  is  announced 
(I  Kings,  xiii). 

Illustrative  of  the  composite  character  of  the  narra- 
tive is  the  fact  that  an  entirely  different  motive  for  his 
rejection  is  given  in  chapter  xv,  viz.  his  failure  to  carr>' 
out  fully  the  command  of  the  Lord  to  utterly  destroy 
the  tribe  of  Amalec.  Consequently  upon  the  Lord's 
disfavour  Samuel  is  directed  to  anoint  David  to  be  a 
king  "after  God's  own  heart",  and  though  merely  a 
shepherd  boy  he  is  taken  into  Saul's  household.  The 
many  graphic  incidents  connected  with  Saul's  jeal- 
ousy and  persecution  of  David  are  narrated  in  I  Kings 
xviii-xxvii.  The  narrative  goes  on  to  relate  how  on  the 
occasion  of  a  new  invasion  by  the  Philistines,  Saul, 
being  now  forsaken  by  Yahweh  and  still  seeking  su- 
perhuman guidance,  has  recourse  to  a  witch  living  at 
Endor.  Through  her  mediation  the  spirit  of  Samuel, 
who  in  the  meantime  had  passed  to  his  reward,  is 
recalled.  The  departed  prophet  reproaches  Saul  for 
his  infidelity  and  announces  his  impending  fate  at  the 
hands  of  the  Philistines  (I  Kings,  xxviii).  The  fulfil- 
ment of  this  dire  prediction  is  related  in  the  final  chap- 
ter of  the  First  Book  of  Kings.  Saul  and  his  forces 
are  overwhelmed  by  the  Philistines;  the  valiant  Jona- 
than and  his  brothers  are  slain  in  the  battle,  and  the 
king,  fearing  lest  he  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  uncir- 
cumcised,  begs  his  armour  bearer  to  take  his  life.  The 
latter,  fearing  to  lay  hands  on  the  Lord's  anointed,  re- 
fuses, and  Saul  being  in  desperate  straits  ends  his  life 
by  falling  on  his  own  .sword.  His  head  was  cut  off  by 
the  victorious  Philistines  and  sent  as  a  trophy  to  the 
various  towns  of  their  country,  while  his  body  and 
those  of  his  sons  were  hung  on  the  walls  of  Bethsan, 
but  the  inhabitants  of  Jabes  Galaad  hearing  of  these 
things  came  in  the  night,  and  removing  the  bodies 
carried  them  to  their  own  town  and  burnt  them  there, 
burying  the  a,shes  in  the  neighbouring  woods  (I  Kings, 
xxxi).  Achinoam  is  mentioned  as  the  wife  of  Saul 
(I  Kings,  xiv,  50).  Three  of  his  .sons  perished  with  him 
(I  Kings,  xxxi,  2),  and  another,  Isboseth,  who  endeav- 


oured to  continue  the  dynasty  of  his  father's  house, 
was  assassinated  by  two  captains  of  his  own  army 
(II  Kings,  v,  6).  Thus  was  removed  the  last  obsta- 
cle to  the  accession  of  King  David. 

ScHULTZ,  Diss.  Saulis  regimen  anlecedentia  exhibens  (Strasburg, 


1074). 


James  F.  Driscoll 


Sauli,  Alexander.  See  Alexander  Sauli, 
Blessed. 

Sault  Sainte  Marie  (Sanct^-Mari^-Ormensis)  , 
Diocese  of,  was  erected  by  Decree  of  16  Sep- 
tember, 1904.  It  embraces  the  southern  paits  of  the 
districts  of  Thunder  Bay,  Algoma,  and  Nipissing  (i.e. 
between  the  height  of  land  and  the  Lakes  Superior, 
Huron,  and  Nipissing.  The  Recollects  were  the  first 
missionaries  in  the  Nipissing  region.  Father  Guil- 
laume  Poullain  (1622)  and  Jacques  de  la  Foyer  (1624) 
spent  a  few  months  there  and  baptized  several  chil- 
dren on  the  point  of  death.  However,  Father  Claude 
Pijart,  a  Jesuit,  was  the  piincipal  apostle  of  the  Al- 
gonquins  at  Nipissing  and  around  Geoigian  Bay.  He 
devoted  to  their  conversion  nine  years  of  indefatigable 
zeal  (1641-50),  being  aided  in  his  work  by  Father 
Charles  Ravmbault  (1641-42),  Rene  May nard  (1641- 
44;  1648-50),  Leonard  Gareau  (1644-46),  Joseph 
Poncet  (1646-50),  Adrien  Daran  (1649-50).  They 
were  the  first  who  preached  the  Gospel  to  the  tribes 
of  the  Manitoulin  Islands  and  Georgian  Bay  as  far 
as  Sault  Sainte  Marie.  As  early  as  1641  Fathers 
Jogues  and  Raymbault  had  visited  the  latter  place. 
The  Jesuits  established  three  missions  in  the  midst  of 
the  Algonquins  of  thi.s  country :  St-Espritj  St-Charles 
and  St-Pierre.  Their  ministry  was  not  altogether 
fruitless:  travelling  to  Lake  Nipigon,  in  1667,  Father 
Allouez  found  some  of  their  neophytes  who  had  stood 
firm  in  the  Faith,  although  they  had  not  seen  a  priest 
for  nearly  twenty  years.  The  ruin  of  the  Algonquin 
missions  accompanied  the  destrufition  of  the  Huron 
nation.  In  1668  the  Jesuits  founded  the  mission  of 
Sault  Sainte  Marie.  From  this  centre  they  evangel- 
ized the  adjacent  country,  and  pushed  their  apostolic 
expeditions  as  far  as  the  regions  of  the  Nipissirinians. 
Well-known  among  the  apostles  of  this  period  are 
Fathers  Gabriel  Druillettes,  Louis  Andr6,  Henri  Nou- 
vel,  and  Pierre  Bailloquet.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  founding  of  Detroit  caused  the 
centre  of  the  western  missions  to  be  transferred  east- 
ward; those  of  Georgian  Bay  were  abandoned,  be- 
ing resumed  only  in  1836,  when  Rev.  Jean  Baptiste 
Proulx,  a  diocesan  priest,  settled  in  Manitoulin  Island. 
In  1838  another  secular  priest,  the  zealous  Father 
Pierz,  founded  the  missions  of  Grand  Portage,  Michi- 
picoton,  etc.  Hardly  had  the  Jesuits  returned  to  the 
country,  when  the  evangelization  of  the  savages  of 
what  is  now  New  Ontario  was  entrusted  to  their  care. 
In  1844  they  replaced  Father  Proulx  at  Wikwemi- 
kong,  founded  Garden  River  in  1846,  and  two  years 
later  erected  at  Riviere  aux  Tou'-tes  (Pigeon  River), 
a  mission  which  they  transferred  in  1849  to  Fort 
WilUam.  From  these  different  stations  they  bore  the 
consolations  of  religion,  not  only  to  the  Indians,  but 
also  to  the  miners  and  woodcutters  scattered  along  the 
shores  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior.  Among  the  new 
missionaries  Fathers  Chon^,  Hanipaux,  Duranquet, 
Hebert,  and  Baxter  are  to  be  mentioned. 

In  1874  Pius  IX,  adding  to  the  territory  already 
described  the  districts  of  Parry  Sound,  created  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Northern  Canada,  with  Mgr 
Jean-Francois  Jamot  as  its  first  titular.  The  Catho- 
lics of  the  new  vicariate  numbered  8500.  A  few  other 
districts  were  added  in  1882,  when  the  vicariate  Apos- 
tolic became  the  Diocese  of  Peterborough.  The  con- 
struction of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  opened 
these  regions  to  progress  and  brought  thither  numbers 
of  workmen  and  colonists.  Mgr  Jamot  called  in  the 
Jesuits,  and  opened  to  their  zeal  the  eastern  country 
extending  from  North  Bay  to  Sudbury,  and  later  the 


SAULT 


488 


SAVARIC 


country  as  far  as  Bonheur  (a  stretch  of  SOO  miles). 
At  its  erection  the  Diocese  of  Sault  Sainte  Marie  had 
a  fixeti  population  of  2G,0G4  Cathohcs.  20,090  of  whom 
were  French  Canadians,  the  rest  being  of  different 
nationalities.  There  were  besides  5000  Catholic  In- 
dians. To-day  (1911)  the  Cathohcs  number  37,S75, 
including  24,470  French  Canadians.  The  diocese 
has  50  churches,  3  hosjjitals,  30  parishes,  and  50  mis- 
sions. The  school  system  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Province  of  Ontario  (see  Ontario)  .  The  Daughters 
of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  (from  Buffalo) 
direct  the  Indian  industrial  school  and  the  boarding- 
school  at  Wikwemikong.  The  Sisters  of  Saint  Joseph, 
besides  many  other  schools,  have  at  Fort  William  a 
boarding-school  for  the  Indians  and  the  whites,  and 
a  hospital  and  boarding  school  at  Port  Arthur.  The 
Grey  Nuns  (from  Ottaw^a)  have  charge  of  the  tw^o 
hospitals  of  Sudbury  and  of  Sault  Sainte  Marie,  and 
also  a  few  schools.  The  Daughters  of  Wisdom  direct 
the  schools  of  Blind  River  and  Sturgeon  Falls. 
Right  Rev.  David  Joseph  Scollard,  the  first  bishop, 
was  born  at  Ennismore,  Ontario,  4  Nov.,  1862,  and 
was  ordained  priest  on  21  December,  1890.  He  was 
curate  at  the  cathedral  of  Peterborough  until  his  ap- 
pointment to  the  rectory  of  North  Bay  (1896),  and 
wa.s  con.secrated  bishop  at  Peterborough  on  24  Feb., 
1905.     He  resides  temporarily  at  North  Bay. 

Jesuit  Relations,  1640-1071 ;  Jones,  Huronia  (published  by 
the  Bureau  of  Archives,  Toronto,  1907);  Rezek,  Hist,  of  the 
Dioc.  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie  and  Marquette  (Houghton,  Michigan, 
1906);  Congres  d'Education  des  Canadiens-Fran^ais  d'Ontario 
(Ottawa,  1910);    Missiones  catholica  (Rome,  1907). 

Arthur  Melancon. 

Sault  Saint  Louis.     See  Caughnawaga. 

Savannah,  Diocese  of  (Savanensis),  comprises 
the  State  of  Georgia  and  was  created  as  such  by  Pius 
IX,  1850.  The  first  bishop,  Rev.  F.  X.  Gartland,  V. 
G.  of  Philadelphia,  was  consecrated  10  September, 
1850;  died  20  September,  1854;  succeeded  bj'  Rev. 
John  Barry  of  Augusta,  who  was  consecrated  2  Au- 
gust, 1857,  and  died  21  November,  1859.  Rev.  Au- 
gustus Verot,  Vicar-Apostolic  of  Florida,  was  ap- 
pointed to  succeed  Bishop  Barry  but  resigned  in  1870 
and  returned  to  Florida  where  he  died  10  June,  1876. 
Rt.  Rev.  Ignatius  Persico,  then  in  the  Diocese  of 
Charleston,  was  transferred  to  Savannah,  11  March, 
1870,  resigning  two  years  after  through  ill  health. 
On  27  April,  1873,  Rev.  William  H.  Gross,  C.SS.R., 
was  con.secrated  but  transferred  to  the  Archiepiscopal 
See  of  Oregon  City  in  1885,  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  A.  Becker,  who  was  transferred 
from  the  See  of  Wilmington,  16  May,  1886.  He  died 
27  July,  1899,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  in- 
cumbent Very  Rev.  B.  J.  Keiley.  Bishop  Keiley  was 
bom  in  1847;  went  to  school  at  Petersburg,  Va.; 
entered  the  Confederate  .service  in  1864;  went  to  St. 
Charles  College,  EUicott  City,  Md.,  for  a  brief  period 
in  1868;  went  to  Rome  in  1869;  was  ordained  priest 
31  December,  1873;  appointed  pastor  of  New  Castle, 
Delaware,  24  September,  1873;  transferred  to  rector- 
ship of  pro-cathedral,  Wihnington,  Delaware,  August, 
1880.  On  the  transfer  of  Bishop  Becker  to  Savannah 
in  May,  1886,  he  obtained  permission  from  Rome  to 
go  to  that  diocese,  where  he  was  made  pastor  of  Im- 
maculate Cfjnception  Church  and  vicar-general  3 
December,  1886.  Called  to  Savannah,  12  July,  1896, 
he  was  mafle  rector  of  the  cathedral,  appointed  Bishop 
of  Savannah,  19  April,  1900,  and  consecrated  by 
Cardinal  Gibbons,  3  June,  1900,  in  St.  Peter's  Cathe- 
dral, Piif;hmond.  The  Bisliop  of  Savannah  is  a  cor- 
poration i¥)\(i  and  title  U)  church  property  rests  in 
him.  A  majority  of  the  secular  priests  are  of  Irish 
descent,  with  a  few  German  and  French.  There  is 
no  diocesan  seminary;  students  are  sent  to  St.  Ber- 
nard's, Rochester,  Dunwoodie,  N.  Y.,  and  Belmont, 
N.  C.  The  present  cathedral,  that  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist,  waa  finished  during  the  administration  of  the 


present  bishop  upon  the  ruins  of  the  one  completed 
by  Bishoj)  Gross,  destroyed  by  fire  6  February, 
1898.  The  cornerstone  of  the  first  church  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist  was  laid  30  May,  1800.  There  are  acad- 
emies in  Savannah,  Macon,  Augusta,  Columbus, 
and  Washington  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  and  Sisters  of  Mercy;  clay  colleges  for  boys: 
in  Augusta,  under  the  Jesuit  Fathers;  in  Savannah, 
under  the  Benedictine  Fathers,  and  in  Atlanta  under 
the  Marist  Fathers.  There  is  an  orphanage  for  girls, 
in  Savannah,  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  and 
for  boys,  in  Washington,  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph.  Hospitals,  at  Savannah  and  Atlanta, 
are  under  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  Under  certain  re- 
strictions. Mass  is  said  in  the  Federal  prison  at  Atlanta 
where  a  Catholic  priest  exercises  the  duties  of  chaplain 
under  a  salary  from  the  Government.  Under  the 
administration  of  Bishop  Keiley  the  entire  charge  of 
the  coloured  people  has  been  given  to  the  Fathers  of 
the  African  IVIission,  who  have  established  churches 
in  Savannah,  Atlanta,  and  one  at  Macon,  adjoining 
the  novitiate  of  the  Jesuits.  Diocesan  collections  are 
taken  annually.  The  Eucharistic  League  is  widely 
established,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Conferences  and  Holy 
Name  Societies  are  local  throughout  the  diocese,  as 
well  as  Sodalities  of  the  Sacred  Heart  and  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  In  addition  to  the  orders 
mentioned  there  are  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  for  the  col- 
oured people  at  Savannah  and  Augusta,  and  Little 
Sisters  of  the  Poor  at  Savannah.  The  annual  re- 
treats are  attended  by  everj^  priest  in  the  diocese. 
The  statistics  in  May,  1911,  were:  priests,  regular  and 
secular,  74;  churches  with  resident  priests,  19;  mis- 
sions with  churches,  14;  stations  regularlj'^  attended, 
81;  chapels,  14;  colleges,  3;  academies,  10;  parish 
schools,  16;  white  orphanages,  2;  coloured,  2;  home 
for  aged  poor,  1;  hospitals,  2;  population,  15,583. 

Shea,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  U.  S.,  IV  (New 
York,  1892),  passim. 

Jarvis  Keiley. 

Savaric,  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Glastonbury,  and 
cousin  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VI,  date  of  birth  un- 
known; d.  at  Rome,  1205.  He  was  archdeacon  of 
Canterbury,  1175,  and  archdeacon  of  Northampton, 
1180.  In  1191,  while  on  the  continent  wath  the 
crusaders,  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Bath,  and  the 
following  year  was  ordained  priest  at  Rome.  Pope 
Celestine  III  consented  to  the  annexation  of  Glaston- 
bury Abbey  to  the  See  of  Bath,  and  Savaric's  plan 
was  to  be  joint  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Glastonbury. 
The  monks  of  Glastonbury  objected  to  the  incor- 
poration and  appealed  to  Rome,  but  their  appeal 
was  disallowed  in  1196.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that 
Savaric  had  been  one  of  the  hostages  at  Mainz 
for  the  ransom  of  Richard  I,  the  king,  on  his  release, 
supported  the  monks,  and  it  was  not  till  1199  that 
the  bishop,  after  a  forcible  entry,  was  enthroned  in  the 
abbey.  A  second  apijcal  of  the  monks  to  the  new 
pope.  Innocent  HI,  was  dismissed  and  in  1202  Savaric 
was  again  declared  abbot.  From  that  time  all  ojjjk)- 
sition  vanished  and  Savaric  became  a  considerable 
benefactor  to  Glastonbur3\  At  Wells  he  instituted 
a  daily  Mass  in  honour  of  Our  Lady,  and  left  instruc- 
tions for  the  feeding  of  100  poor  persons  both  at  Wells 
and  at  Bath.  Savaric  also  gave  a  charter  to  Wells, 
and  persuaded  King  John  to  grant  a  charter  from  the 
crown  to  that  city.  Not  the  least  of  his  services  to 
Bath  was  his  intervention  to  save  the  treasury  of  the 
abbey  from  being  emptied  for  the  ransom  of  Richard 
I.  Savaric  died  whilst  busying  himself  on  behalf  of 
Peter  des  Roches,  epincopus  designatus  of  Winchester. 

EpistoliE  Canluarirnsis;  Benedict  of  Peterboho,  Chronicle  of 
Henry  II  and  liirhard  /;  Roger  de  Hoveden;  R.  de  Diceto;  Gervase 
of  Canterbury;  ed.  Stubds.  R.  de  ('nfiueshatl,  ed.  Stevenson, 
All  in  Rolls  Series.  Church,  Chapters  in  Wells  History:  Wells 
Cathedral  MSS.  (Hiatorio  M8S.  CommiB.sion). 

Joseph  CiiATTON. 


SAVARY 


SAVONA 


Savary. — A  noble  French  familj^  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  especially  devoted  to  trade  and  to  the 
publication  of  works  on  commercial  matters  of  last- 
ing and  widespread  authority.  The  most  illustrious 
member  was  Jacques  Savary,  b.  at  Doue  in  Anjou, 
22  September,  1622;  d.  7  October,  1690.  He  be- 
longed to  the  younger  branch  of  the  Savary.  His 
parents  being  in  the  commercial  class  had  destined 
their  son  Jacques  for  that  career.  After  having 
studied  law  in  Paris  with  a  procureur  he  entered  the 
ranks  of  the  haberdashers  as  a  wholesale  merchant, 
and  in  1658  his  fortune  was  made.  His  relations  with 
the  superintendent,  P'ouquet,  enabled  him  to  devote 
his  abilities  to  the  service  of  the  State;  the  contract  for 
collecting  the  revenues  of  crown  lands  was  given  to  him. 
After  Fouquet's  fall  Savary  gained  the  favour  of  the 
Chancellor  Seguier,  and  as  the  numerous  arbitrations 
with  which  Savary  was  charged  in  all  commercial  ques- 
tions daily  increased  his  prestige,  he  was  summoned  in 
1670  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  commission  for  the 
revision  of  the  laws  pertaining  to  trade.  So  well  did  he 
acquit  himself  there  that  Pussort,  president  of  this 
commission,  named  the  ordinance  of  1673  the  "Code 
Savary".  On  the  appearance  of  this  ordinance  Pou.s- 
sort  and  .several  other  commissioners  requested  Sa- 
vary to  pubhsh  in  book  form  the  numerous  memoirs 
read  by  him  before  the  Commission  during  the  prep- 
aration of  the  ordinance.  This  book  appeared  in 
1675  under  the  title,  "Le  parfait  negociant  ou  In- 
struction gen^rale  pour  ce  qui  regarde  le  c;ommerce 
dcs  marchandises  de  France  et  des  pays  etrangers." 
(The  Perfect  Merchant  or  General  Instruction  re- 
garding the  mercantile  trade  of  France  and  foreign 
countries).  Numerous  editions  followed,  and  it  was 
translated  into  various  languages.  "Les  Pareres,  ou 
Avis  et  Conseils  sur  les  plus  importantes  INIatieres  de 
Commerce"  was  published  by  Savary  in  1688  as  a 
sequel  to  "Le  parfait  negociant". 

Such  was  the  authority  of  Savary  that  during  his 
lifetime  lawyers  quoted  his  opinion  as  equal  in  value 
almost  to  a  law.  After  the  death  of  Colbert  (1683), 
the  controller  general  of  finances,  Pelletier,  continued 
his  patronage  of  Savary,  and  ordered  him  to  make  an 
investigation  of  the  financial  affairs  of  the  \\'e.steni 
crown  lands.  His  family  was  very  numerous.  He  had 
seventeen  children,  eleven  of  whom  survived  him. 
His  son  Jacques  Savary  des  Bruslons  (h.  1()57;  d. 
1716)  was  appointed  by  Louvois,  in  16S6,  insjjector 
general  of  the  Custom  House  in  Paris.  He  under- 
took the  composition  for  his  personal  use  of  an  alpha- 
betical li.st  of  all  ol)j('cts  sul)ject  to  duty,  then  of  all 
the  words  relating  to  coniinerce  and  industry.  He 
added  a  repertoire  of  the  ordinances  and  rules  regard- 
ing commerce  in  France  and  abroad.  Tins  double 
work  was  the  starting-point  of  his  "Dictionnaire  du 
Commerce",  which  he  undertook  in  colhiljoration 
with  his  brother  Louis-Philemon  and  which  he  left  un- 
finished. But  Loui.s-Philemon  Savary  (b.  1654;  d. 
1727),  at  first  a  preacher,  later  canon  of  the  Chai>ter 
of  Saint-Maur,  and  French  agent  for  the  reigning 
house  of  Mantua,  finished  the  dictionary  and  pub- 
lished it  in  1723.  This  Dictionary  of  Commerce  was 
translated  into  English  in  1774.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  Louis  Philemon  had  nearly  completed  a  sup- 
plementary volume,  which  appeared  in  1730. 

Vie  (le  Savary,  prefixed  to  Le  parfait  negociant  (Paris,  1721); 
MoRERi,  Grand  Diet.  Hist.,  s.  v. 

Georges  Goyau. 

Savigny,  Abbey  of,  situated  on  the  confines  of  Nor- 
mandy and  Brittany,  Diocese  of  Coutances,  France, 
founded  by  Vital  de  Mortain,  Canon  of  the  Collegiate 
Church  of  St.  Evroul,  who,  resigning  his  prebend 
to  embrace  an  eremitical  life  under  Robert  of  Arbrissel 
in  the  forest  of  Craon  (Anjou),  and  leaving  the  latter, 
retired  to  the  forest  of  Savigny  (1105),  where  he  built 
a  hermitage.  Soon,  however,  the  number  of  dis- 
ciples who  gathered   around  him   necessitated   the 


construction  of  adequate  buildings,  in  which  was  in- 
stituted the  monastic  life,  following  the  Rule  of  St. 
Benedict,  and  interpreted  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
Cistercians.  Rudolph,  lord  of  Fougeres,  confirmed 
to  the  monastery  (1112)  the  grants  he  had  formerly 
made  to  Vital,  and  from  then  dates  the  founda- 
tion of  the  monastery.  Once  firmly  established,  its 
growth  was  rapid,  and  it  soon  became  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  in  France.  Its  founder  was  judged  worthy 
of  canonization,  and  many  of  his  successors  in  the 
abbatial  office,  as  well  as  simple  religious  of  the  Abbey, 
were  canonized  or  beatified  by  the  Church;  the  best 
known  of  them  being  St.  Aymon.  From  the  number 
of  its  foundations  Savigny  became  the  head  of  a 
Congregation,  numbering  thirty-three  subordinate 
houses,  within  thirty  years  of  its  own  inception.  In 
1119  Pope  Celestine  II.,  then  in  Angers,  took  it 
under  his  immediate  protection,  and  strongly  com- 
mended it  to  the  neighbouring  nobles.  Under 
Geoffroy,  successor  to  Vital,  Henry  I.,  of  England, 
established  and  generously  endowed  twenty-nine 
monasteries  of  this  Congregation  in  his  dominions. 
St.  Bernard  also  held  them  in  high  esteem,  and  it 
was  at  his  request  that  their  monks,  in  the  troubled 
times  of  the  antipope  Anacletus,  declared  in  favour 
of  Pope  Innocent  II.  Serlon,  third  successor  of  the 
Founder,  found  it  difficult  to  retain  his  jurisdiction 
over  the  English  monasteries,  who  wished  to  make 
themselves  indcix-ndcnt,  and  so  determined  to 
affiliate  the  entire  Congregation  to  Citeaux,  which  was 
effected  at  the  General  Chapter  of  1147.  Several 
English  monasteries  objecting  to  this,  were  finally 
ol)lige(l  to  submit  by  Poi)e  Eugene  III  (1148).  Little 
by  little  (lisci])lin('  becjuue  relaxed,  and  commenda- 
tory Abbots  being  introduced  (1501)  it  never  re- 
gained its  first  greatness.  In  1509  it  was  pillaged  and 
partly  burno^d  by  the  Calvinists,  and  records  of  the 
following  year  mention  but  twenty-four  monks  re- 
maining. It  continued  to  exist  until  the  Revolution 
reduced  it  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  and  scattered  its  then 
existing  members.  The  church,  a  model  of  Cis- 
tercian architecture,  was  restored  in  1869,  and  now 
serves  for  parish  purposes.  Of  all  its  former  de- 
jx'iidencies.  there  remains  only  La  Grande  Trappe. 
Tliis,  though  not  founded  directly,  was  a  daughter  of 
the  Al)l)ey  of  Hreuil-Benoit,  which  latter  was  a  direct 
filiation  of  Savigny. 

TissiKit.  liihliotheca  patrum  cisterciensum  (Bonnefont,  1660- 
69);  Mkki.kt  and  Moutier,  Cartulaire  des  Vaux  de  Cernay 
(Pari.s,  18.57) ;  de  Dion,  Eludes  sur  le.i  iglises  de  I'ordre  de  Citeaux 
(Tours,  1889);  du  Monstier,  Neustria  Pia  (Rouen,  1663); 
Hist.  Liu.  de  la  France,  by  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Maur  IX,  X, 
XII  (Paris,  1868-70);  Manrique,  .Atinales  cistercienses  (Lyons, 
1642-59);  Martene  and  Durand,  Thesaurus  novus  anecdo- 
torum  (Paris,  1717);  Gallia  Christiana,  XI  (Paris,  1865);  Janatt- 
8CHEK,  Originum  cisterciensuim  (Vienna,  1877),  I;  Dodsworth, 
Monasticon  anglicanum  (London,  1682),  II;  Jongblinus,  Notitia 
nbhatiarum  ord.  cist.  (Cologne,  1640);  Migne,  Diet,  des  Ord. 
lielig.  (Paris,  1850). 

Edmond  M,  Obrecht. 

Saviour.     See  Jesus  Christ. 

Savona  and  Noli,  Diocese  of(Savonensis  et  Nau- 
LENSi.s),  province  of  Cienoa,  on  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  hav- 
ing a  small  but  safe  luubour.  In  addition  to  its  maritime 
trade  and  ship-building,  the  jiopulation  is  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  manufactures  of  steel,  gla.ss,  delph,  majolica, 
and  in  the  quarrying  of  lignite  and  marble.  The 
cathedral,  dating  from  1589,  restored  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  has  three  naves  and  a  cupola;  it  con- 
tains beautiful  frescoes  by  Coghetti.  Close  by  the 
cathedral  is  the  Sistine  chapel,  erected  by  Sixtus  IV, 
whose  ancestors  belonged  to  Savona.  The  other 
churches  contain  paintings  of  great  value.  Among 
the  secular  buildings  the  most  noteworthy  is  the 
Palazzo  della  Rovere,  constructed  by  Sangallo;  the 
paintings  of  Seniini  were  destroyed  when  the  palace 
was  converted  into  a  convent.  Savona  was  formerly 
called  Salabatia  or  Savo.  In  the  tenth  century  its 
bishops  were  counts  of  Savona,  but  later  the  count- 


SAVONAROLA 


490 


SAVONAROLA 


ship  passed  to  the  marquesses  of  Monferrato  (9S1) 
and  afterwards  to  the  marquesses  of  Vasto  (1084); 
Savona  was  even  then  oishged  to  recognize  a  certain 
protectorate  of  the  Repubhc  of  Genoa.  From  1191 
till  1215  it  was  a  free  commune.  In  1238  it  became 
subject  to  Genoa,  but  succeeded  later  on  several 
occasions  in  gaining  its  independence  (1238-51 ;  1318- 
1332;  1335-50).  In  1525,  the  Genoese  through  jeal- 
ousy obstructed  its  port.  In  1745  it  was  bombarded 
by  the  English;  the  following  j^ear  it  was  taken  by  the 
King  of  Sardinia,  who  restored  it  to  Genoa,  whose 
fortune  it  thenceforward  shared.  In  1809  Pius  VII 
was  imprisoned  there  by  the  French;  he  returned 
thither  in  1816  to  crown  the  Madonna  della  Miser- 
icordia.  Savona  is  the  birthplace  of  Popes  Sixtus  IV 
and  Julian  II,  as  also  of  the  poet  Gabriele  Chiebrera. 
The  See  of  Savona  derives  from  that  of  Vadum 
Sabbatium,  now  a  small  village  three  miles  from 
Savona.  The  first  known  bishop  was  Benedict  (680) ; 
Bishop  Bernard  in  992  established  the  monastery  on 
the  island  of  Berzezzi,  after  the  see  had  been  trans- 
ferred to  Savona; 
Blessed  Amicus 
(1049)  reformed  the 
canons.  Grossolanus 
(1098),  previously 
Abbot  of  Ferranii, 
founded  by  Mar- 
quese  Boniface  of 
Savona  (1097),  w:is 
selected  as  Arch- 
bishop of  Milan,  bat 
was  o  ]j  p  o  s  e  d  by 
others  and  ])assed  his 
days  in  continued 
turmoil ;  Blessed 
Vidone  Lomello  was 
present  at  the 
Lateran  Council  of 
1179;  Ambrogiodel 
Carretto  (1191)  in- 
duced the  marquess, 
his  brother,  to  grant 
independence  to  the 
Comune  of  Savona; 
Blessed  Alberto  di 
Novara    had    frequent 


Chtjrch  of  IMadoxna  della  Mibericordia,  Savona 


(1248);  among  his  successors  maj-  be  mentioned  the 
pious  and  gifted  Barnabite  Paolo  Andrea  Borelli 
(1700)  and  Benedetto  Solaro,  O.P.  (1778),  a  supporter 
of  the  Synod  of  Pistoia.  Savona  is  suffragan  of  Genoa 
and  contains  60  parishes  with  88,000  inhabitants,  170 
secular  and  75  regular  priests,  9  educational  institu- 
tions for  boys  and  15  for  girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  chiese  d' Italia;  Risso,  Notizie  della  chiesa 
vescovile  di  Vado  (Genoa,  1829) ;  Tarteroli,  Storia  del  Comune 
di  Savona  (Savona,  1849) ;  Savonensis  reipublicm  monumenta 
hisloriai  (Savona,  1851);  GAnoai,  D die  memorie  parlicolari,  etc. 
di  Sarona  (Savona,  1885-91);  Verzellinio,  Guida  storica  e 
artistica  di  Savona  (Savona,  1S74). 

U.  Benigni 

Savonarola,  Girolamo,  b.  at  Ferrara,  21  Septem- 
ber, 1452;  d.  at  Florence,  23  May,  1498.  The  Do- 
minican reformer  came  from  an  old  ifamily  of  Ferrara. 
Intellectually  very  talented  he  devoted  himself  to  his 
studies,  and  especially  to  philosophy  and  medicine. 
In  1474  while  on  a  journey  to  Faenza  he  heard  a  pow- 
erful sermon  on  repentance  by  an  Augustinian  and  re- 
solved to  renounce  the  world.     He  carried  out  this  de- 

cision  at  once   and 

entered  the  Domin- 
ican Order  at  Bo- 
logna without  the 
knowledge  of  his 
parents.  Feehng 
deeply  the  wide- 
spread di'pravity  of 
the  era  of  the  Re- 
naissance, as  is  evi- 
dent from  the  poem 
"On  the  Dechne  of 
the  Church  ",  which 
h(>  wrote  in  the  first 
year  of  his  monas- 
tic life,  the  young 
Dominican  devoted 
iiiinself  with  great 
/t;il  to  prayer  and 
ascetic  practices. 
In  the  monastery 
at  Bologna  he  was 
entrusted  with  the 
instruction  of  the 
novices.      He  here 


conflicts    with  the    comune,  began  to  write  philosophical  treatises  based  on  Aris- 

which  took  possession  of  the  property  of  the  Church;  totle  and  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.    In  1481  or  1482  he  was 

Enrico  Ponsoni   (1288)  made  peace  with  the  neigh-  sent  by  his  superior  to  preach  in  Florence.     In  this 

bouring  cities.    In  1327  the  city  adhered  to  the  anti-  centre  of  the  Renaissance  he  immediately  opposed 


pope  Nicholas  V,  for  which  it  was  put  under  in- 
terdict for  several  years;  Antonio  Viale,  a  soldier 
rather  than  a  bishop,  had  trouble  with  the  Genoese, 
who  kept  him  imprisoned  at  Noli;  later,  he  avenged 
him.self  by  having  the  doge,  Antoniotto  Adorno,  de- 
posed; Vincenzo  Viale  (1413)  was  famous  for  his 
erudition;  .Jacopo  della  Rovere  (1.504)  is  saifl  to  have 
died  because  he  was  not  made  a  cardinal.  In  the 
sixteenth  century  the  Rei)ublic  of  Cienoa  destroyed, 
without  compensation,  many  churches  and  religious 
places  to  make  way  for  fortifications.  As  the  cathe- 
dral, constructed  by  .Julius  II,  was  amongst  these,  the 
canons  in  1.5.50,  of  thr-ir  own  accord,  occupied  the  church 
of  the  Conventuals,  who  were  absent  that  day,  and  the 
latter  were  deprived  of  their  church  till  1.589,  when 
the  new  cathedral  was  completed.  Bishop  Gio.  Batt. 
Centurione  (1.592)  was  distinguished  by  his  zeal  in 
introducing  reforms;  Francesco  M.  Spinola  (1632) 
had  frequent  disputes  with  the  Genoese  government, 
by  whom  he  was  exilr-d;  Domenico  M.  Gentile  (1775) 
restored  the  seminary;  Vine.  M.  Maggiolo  (1804)  en- 
t<?rtained  Pius  V'll  for  several  years;  Agostino  M. 
de'  Mari  (1833),  a  zealous  pastor,  instituted  evangel- 
ical works.  In  1820  the  Diocese  of  Noli,  the  ancient 
Naulum,  wim  united  to  Savona.  That  diocese  had 
been  separated  from  Savona  in  1239  at  the  request  of 
the  Republic  of  Genoa.    The  first  bishop  was  Filippo 


with  p-reat  energy  the  pagan  anrl  often  immoral  life 
prevalent  in  many  classes  of  society  and  especially  at 
the  court  of  Lorenzo  de  Medici.  Savonarola's  ser- 
mons made  no  impression,  for  his  method  and 
mode  of  speaking  were  repulsive  to  the  Florentines; 
but  this  did  not  discourage  his  reforming  zeal.  He 
preached  in  the  other  cities  of  Italy  during  the  vears 
148.5-89.  At  Brescia,  in  ]4S(),  he  (■"xiilained  the  Book 
of  Revelation  and  from  that  tini(>  became  more  and 
more  absorbed  in  Apocalyptic  ideas  concerning  his 
own  era,  the  judgment  of  God  which  threatened  it, 
and  the  regeneration  of  the  Chin-ch  that  was  to  follow. 
At  the  .same  time  he  was  filled  with  an  intense  zeal  for 
the  salvation  of  souls,  and  was  ready  to  risk  all  in  or- 
der to  combat  wickedness  and  to  spread  holiness  of 
life.  In  1489  he  returned  to  Florence  which  was  to  be 
the  scene  of  his  future  labours  and  triumphs  as  well  as 
of  his  fall. 

In  August,  1490,  Savonarola  began  his  sermons  in 
the  pulpit  of  San  Marco  with  the  interpretation  of  the 
Apocalypse.  His  success  was  complete.  All  Flor- 
ence throngefl  to  hear  him,  so  that  from  his  sermons 
in  the  cathedr.il  lie  acquired  a  constantly  growing  in- 
fluence over  the  pef)ple.  In  1491  he  became  prior  of 
the  monastery  of  San  Marco.  He  made  manifest  his 
feelings  towards  the  ruler  of  Florence  by  failing  to 
visit  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  although  the  Medici  had 


SAVONAROLA 


491 


SAVONAROLA 


always  shown  themselves  generous  patrons  of  the 
monastery.  Lorenzo  took  no  notice  of  this  but  con- 
tinued his  benefits,  without  however  changing  the 
opinion  of  the  new  prior.  Savonarola  began  at  once 
with  the  inner  reform  of  the  monastery  itself.  San 
Marco  and  other  monasteries  of  Tuscany  were  sepa- 
rated from  the  Lombard  Congregation  of  the  Domini- 
can Order  and  were  formed  in  1493  with  papal  ap- 
proval into  an  independent  congregation.  Monastic 
hfe  was  reformed  in  this  new  congregation  by  rigid 
observance  of  the  original  Rule.  Savonarola,  who 
was  the  vicar-general  of  the  new  congregation,  set  the 
example  of  a  strict  life  of  self-mortification;  his  cell 
was  small  and  poor,  his  clothing  coarse,  his  food  sim- 
ple and  scanty.  The  lay  brothers  were  obliged  to 
learn  a  trade  and  the  clerics  were  kept  constantly  at 
their  studies.  Many  new  brethren  entered  the  mon- 
astery; from  50  the  number  of  the  monks  of  San 
Marco  rose  to  238,  among  them  being  members  of  the 
first  families  of  the  city. 

Meanwhile  Savonarola  preached  with  burning  zeal 
and  rapidly  won  great  influence.  He  was  looked 
upon  and  venerated  by  his  followers  as  a  prophet. 
His  sermons,  however,  were  not  free  from  extrava- 
gance and  vagaries.  Without  r(>gard  to  consequences 
he  lashed  the  immoral,  vain-glorious,  pleasure-seeking 
life  of  the  Florentines,  so  that  a  very  large  part  of  the 
inhabitants  became  temporarily  contrite  and  returned 
to  the  exercise  of  Christian  virtue.  Both  his  sermons 
and  his  whole  personality  made  a  deep  impression. 
He  bitterly  attacked  Lorenzo  the  Alagnificpnt  as  the 
promoter  of  paganized  art,  of  frivolous  living,  and  as 
the  tyrant  of  Florence.  Nevertheless,  when  on  his 
death  bed,  Lorenzo  summoned  the  stern  preacher  of 
morals  to  administer  spiritual  consolation  to  him.  It 
is  said  that  Savonarola  demanded  as  a  condition  of 
absolution  that  Lorenzo  restore  its  liberties  to  Flor- 
ence; which,  however,  the  latter  refused  to  do.  This 
however  cannot  be  proved  with  ab.solute  historical 
certainty.  From  1493  Savonarola  spoke  with  in- 
creasing violence  against  the  abuses  in  ecclesiastical 
life,  against  the  immorality  of  a  large  part  of  the 
clergy,  above  all  against  the  immoral  life  of  many 
members  of  the  Roman  Curia,  even  of  the  wearer  of 
the  tiara,  Alexander  VI,  and  again.st  the  wickedness  of 
princes  and  courtiers.  In  prophetic  terms  he  an- 
nounced the  approaching  judgment  of  God  and  the 
avenger  from  whom  ho  lK)p<nl  the  reform  of  Church 
life.  By  the  avenger  he  meant  Charles  VIII,  King  of 
France,  who  had  entered  Italy,  and  was  advancing 
against  Florence.  Savonarola's  denunciation  of  the 
Medici  now  produced  its  results.  Lorenzo's  son 
Pietro  de  Medici,  who  was  hated  both  for  his  tyranny 
and  his  immoral  life,  was  driven  out  of  the  city  with 
his  family. 

The  French  king,  whom  Savonarola  at  the  head  of 
an  embassy  of  Florentines  had  visited  at  Pisa,  now 
entered  the  city.  After  the  king's  departure  a  new 
and  peculiar  constitution,  a  kind  of  theocratic  democ- 
racy, was  established  at  Florence,  based  on  the  politi- 
cal and  social  doctrines  the  Dominican  monk  had  pro- 
claimed. Christ  was  considered  the  King  of  Florence 
and  protector  of  its  liberties.  A  great  council,  as  the 
representative  of  all  the  citizens,  became  the  govern- 
ing body  of  the  republic  and  the  law  of  Christ  was  to 
be  the  basis  of  political  and  social  life.  Savonarola 
did  not  interfere  directly  in  politics  and  affairs  of 
State,  but  his  teachings  and  his  ideas  were  authorita- 
tive. The  moral  life  of  the  citizens  was  regenerated. 
Many  persons  brought  articles  of  luxury,  playing- 
cards,  ornaments,  pictures  of  beautiful  women,  the 
writings  of  pagan  and  immoral  poets,  etc.,  to  the  mon- 
astery of  San  Marco;  these  articles  were  then  publicly 
burned.  A  brotherhood  founded  by  Savonarola  for 
yoimg  people  encouraged  a  pious.  Christian  life  among 
its  members.  Sundays  some  of  this  brotherhood  went 
about  from  house  to  house  and  along  the  streets  to 


take  away  dice  and  cards  from  the  citizens,  to  exhort 
luxuriously  dressed  married  and  single  women  to  lay 
aside  frivolous  ornament.  Thus  there  arose  an  actual 
pohce  for  regulating  mdrahty,  which  also  carried  on  its 
work  by  the  objectionable  methods  of  spying  and  de- 
nunciation. The  principles  of  the  severe  judge  of 
morals  were  carried  out  in  practical  life  in  too  extreme 
a  manner.  Success  made  Savonarola,  whose  speech 
in  his  sermons  was  often  recklessly  passionate,  more 
and  more  daring.  Florence  was  to  be  the  starting 
point  of  the  regeneration  of  Italy  and  the  Church. 
In  this  respect  he  was  constantly  looking  for  the  inter- 
position of  Charles  VIII  for  the  inner  reform  of  the 
Church,  although  the  loose  life  and  vague  extrava- 
gant ideas  of  this  monarch  in  no  way  fitted  him  to  un- 
dertake such  a  task. 

These  efforts  of  Savonarola  brought  him  into  con- 
flict with  Alexander  VI.  The  pope,  Uke  all  Itahan 
princes  and  cities,  with  the  exception  of  Florence,  was 
an  opponent  of  the  French  policy.  Moreover,  Charles 
VIII  had  often  threatened  him  with  the  calling  of  a 
reform  council  in  opposition  to  him.  This  led  Alex- 
ander VI  to  regard  all  the  more  dubiously  the  support 
that  Florence  under  the  influence  of  Savonarola  gave 
the  French  king.  Furthermore  the  Dominican  preach- 
er spoke  with  increasing  violence  against  the  pope 
and  the  Curia.  On  25  July,  1495,  a  papal  Brief  com- 
manded Savonarola  in  virtue  of  holy  obedience  to 
come  to  Rome  and  defend  himself  on  the  score  of  the 
prophecies  attributed  to  him.  Savonarola  excused 
himself  on  the  plea  of  impaired  health  and  of  the  dan- 
gers threatening  him.  By  a  further  Brief  of  8  Sep- 
tember the  Dominican  was  forbidden  to  preach,  and 
the  monastery  of  San  Marco  was  restored  to  the 
Lombard  Congregati(m.  In  his  reply  of  29  Septem- 
ber, Savonarola  sought  to  justify  himself,  and  de- 
clared that,  as  regards  his  teaching,  he  had  always 
submitted  to  the  judgment  of  the  Church.  In  a  new 
pai)al  Brief  of  IG  Oc^tober  written  with  great  modera- 
tion the  union  of  the  monastery  of  San  Marco  with  the 
Lombard  Congregation  was  withdrawn,  Savonarola's 
conduct  was  judged  mildly,  but  the  prohibition  to 
preach,  until  his  vindication  at  Rome,  was  main- 
tained. 

In  the  meantime  Savonarola  had  again  entered  the 
pulpit  on  1 1  October  in  order  to  rouse  the  Florentines 
against  Pietro  de  Medici,  and  on  11  February  the 
Signoria  of  Florence  actually  commanded  the  Domin- 
ican to  preach  again.  Savonarola  now  resumed  his 
sermons  on  17  February  and  was  thus  unjustifiably 
disobedient  to  ecclesiastical  authority.  In  these  Len- 
ten sermons  he  violently  lashed  the  crimes  of  Rome 
thereby  increasing  the  passionate  excitement  at  Flor- 
ence. A  schism  threatened  and  the  pope  was  again 
forced  to  interpose.  On  7  November,  1496,  the  Do- 
minican monasteries  of  Rome  and  Tuscany  were 
formed  into  a  new  congregation,  the  first  vicar  of 
which  was  Cardinal  Caraffa.  Even  then  Savonarola 
refused  obedience  and  again  during  the  Lenten  season 
of  1497  preached  with  uncontrolled  violence  against 
the  Church  in  Rome.  On  12  May,  1497,  he  was  ex- 
communicated. Under  the  date  of  19  June  he  pub- 
hshed  a  letter  "against  the  excommunication"  as  be- 
ing fraudulently  obtained  and  sought  to  show  that  the 
judgment  against  him  was  null  and  void.  The  Flor- 
entine ambassadors  at  Rome  probably  hoped  to  pre- 
vent any  further  measures  on  the  part  of  the  pope,  but 
their  hopes  were  unfounded,  especially  as  Savonarola 
became  more  defiant.  Notwithstanding  his  excom- 
munication he  celebrated  Mass  on  Christmas  Day 
and  distributed  Holy  Communion.  Moreover,  disre- 
garding an  archiepiscopal  edict,  he  began  again  on 
11  February,  1498,  to  preach  at  the  Cathedral  and  to 
demonstrate  that  the  sentences  against  him  were  void. 
Even  at  this  juncture  the  pope  desired  to  act  with  gen- 
tleness, if  the  obstinate  monk  would  submit,  but  the 
latter  remained  defiant  and  with  his  adherents  set 


SAVOY 


492 


SAVOY 


about  calling  a  council  in  opposition  to  the  pope.  He 
drew  up  letters  to  the  rulers  of  Christendom  urging 
them  to  carrj'  out  this  scheme  which,  on  account  of 
the  alliance  of  the  Florentines  with  Charles  VIII,  was 
not  altogether  beyond  possibility. 

In  Florence  itself  the  opposition  to  Savonarola  grew 
more  powerful,  and  an  adversary-  from  the  Franciscan 
Order  offered  to  undergo  the  ordeal  by  fire  in  order  to 
prove  him  in  error.  Savonarola  himself  did  not  want 
to  take  up  the  challenge,  but  some  of  his  ardent  ad- 
herents among  the  Dominicans  declared  themselves 
ready  for  it.  The  ordeal  for  both  sides  was  to  take 
place  on  7  April,  1498,  before  a  large  public  gathering. 
Everything  was  ready  for  the  test,  but  it  did  not  take 
place.  Two  people  now  turned  against  Savonarola. 
There  were  outbreaks,  and  the  monasterj'  of  San 
Marco  was  attacked;  Savonarola  and  a  fellow-mem- 
ber of  the  order,  Domenico  da  Pescia,  were  taken 
prisoners.  The  papal  delegates,  the  general  of  the 
Dominicans  and  the  Bishop  of  Ilerda  were  sent  to 
Florence  to  attend  the  trial.  The  official  proceed- 
ings, which  were,  however,  falsified  by  the  notary, 
still  exist.  The  captured  monks  were  tortured;  Sa- 
vonarola's following  in  the  city  fell  away.  On  22  May, 
1498,  Savonarola  and  two  other  members  of  the  order 
were  condemned  to  death  "on  account  of  the  enor- 
mous crimes  of  which  they  had  been  convicted". 
They  were  hanged  on  25  May  and  their  bodies 
burned.  In  the  beginning  Savonarola  was  filled  with 
zeal,  piety,  and  self-sacrifice  for  the  regeneration  of 
religious  life.  He  was  led  to  offend  against  these  vir- 
tues by  his  fanaticism,  obstinacy,  and  disobedience. 
He  was  not  a  heret  ic  in  mat  t  ers  of  fait  h .  The  erect  ion 
of  his  statue  at  the  foot  of  Luther's  monument  at 
Worms  as  a  reputed  "forerunner  of  the  Reformation" 
is  entirely  unwarranted.  Among  his  writings  men- 
tion should  be  made  of:  "Triumi)hus  Crucis  de  fidci 
veritate"  (Florence,  1497),  his  chief  work,  an  apol- 
ogy for  Christianity;  "Compendium  revelationum " 
(Florence,  1495);  "Scelta  di  prcdiche  e  scritti",  ed. 
Villari-Casanova  (Florence,  1898);  "Trattato  circa  il 
Reggimento  di  Firenze",  ed.  Rians  (Florence,  1848); 
further  letters  edited  by  Marchese  in  the  "Archivio 
Btorico  italiano",  App.  XIII  (1850);  poems  edited  by 
Rians  (Florence,  1847).  The  "Dialogo  della  verita" 
(1497)  and  fifteen  sermons  were  placed  later  on  the 
Index. 

Della  Mirandola,  Vila  Savonarola,  ed.  Qu^tif  (Paris,  1674); 
BcRLAMACCHi,  Vita  del  Era  G.  Savonarola,  ed.  Mansi  (Lucca, 
1701  J;  Gherardi,  Kuoti  documenli  e  sludi  intorno  a  Gir.  Savona- 
rola (2nd  ed.,  Florence,  1887);  Villari,  Sloria  di  Gir.  Savonarola 
(3rd  ed.,  2  vols.,  Florence,  1898);  Cappelli,  Fra.  G.  Savonirola 
e  Xotizie  inlomo  al  sua  tempo  (Slodena,  1809) ;  Procter,  II  do- 
menicano  Savonarola  e  la  Riforma  (Milan,  1897);  Ferretti,  Per 
la  eaunn  di  Fra  Gir.  Savonarola  (Milan,  1897);  Pastor,  History 
of  the  Popes,  ed.  Antrobu.s,  V  (St.  Louis,  1902),  pas-sim;  Idem, 
Zur  Beurteilung  SavonaroUis  (Freiburg,  1898) ;  Luotto,  Gir. 
Savoruirola  (Florence,  1897;;  Schnitzer,  Quellen  u.  Fornchungen 
zur  Gesch.  Savonarolas,  I-III  (Munich,  1902 — ),  IV  (Leipzig, 
1910);  Olschki,  Bibliolheca  Savonaroliana  (Florence,  1898); 
Rtdeh,  Essays  (London,  1911),  s.  v.;  Hogan,  A  Great  Reformer — 
Fra  Gir.  Savonarola  in  Irish  Eccl.  Record  (Dublin,  July,  1910); 
LuCA8,  Fra  Girolamo  Savonarola  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1900) ;  O'Neil, 
Jerome  Savonarola  (Boston,  1898);  Idem,  Was  Savonarola  really 
excammuriic/iledf  (Boston,  1900). 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Savoy  (Ital.  Savoja;  Fr.  Savoie),  a  district  in  the 
BOuth-<'a«tem  part  of  France  that  extends  from  the 
Lake  (Geneva  to  south  of  the  River  Arc,  and  forms 
tfwlay  the  French  Departments  of  Savoie  and  Haut- 
Savoie.  The  House  of  Savoy  which  at  the  pre.sent 
time  rules  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  take«  its  name  from 
thi.s  countr>'.  Savoy,  the  Roman  Sahawlia,  was  in- 
habited in  antiquity  by  the  Celtic  Allobroges  who 
were  conquenMl  by  the  Romans  in  the  first  century  be- 
fore Christ  anfl  gradually  became  Romanized.  When 
in  A.  u.  437  the  kingdom  of  the  Germanic  Burgun- 
dians,  with  Worms  a.s  its  capital,  was  destroyed  by  the 
Hunnic  horrlew.  King  flundikar  anrl  the  greater  num- 
ber of  his  people  were  kille<l.  With  the  permission  of 
the  Roman  general  ^Etius,  the  remainder  of  the  Bur- 


gundians,  with  Gundiok  as  their  ruler,  settled  in  Sa- 
baudia,  as  allies  of  the  Romans,  and  after  the  fall  of 
tlie  Roman  power  they  estabhslied  a  new  kingdom 
which,  towards  the  end  of  tlie  fifth  century,  extended 
over  the  entire  basin  of  the  Rhone  :is  far  as  the  Ce- 
vennes  and  to  the  Mediterranean.  In  532  Savoy  was 
incorporated  along  with  this  Burgundian  kingdom  in 
the  Prankish  emp)ire.  During  the  supremacy  of  the 
Franks  the  people  changed  from  Arianism  to  Catholi- 
cism. In  the  ninth  century  the  Empire  of  the  Franks 
was  divided  into  several  kingtloms,  and  Savoy 
fell  to  the  Kingdom  of  Aries,  or  Ix)wer  Burgundy, 
which  was  founded  in  879  by  Count  Boso  of  Vienne. 
Together  with  tliis  territor^^  it  pivssefl  in  930  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Upper  Burgundy,  established  in  887  by 
the  Guelpli  Rudolph  between  the  Swiss  Jura  Alps  and 
the  Pennine  Alps.  Rudoli)h  III  (964-10.32)  had  no 
direct  heirs,  and  bequeathed  his  land  to  the  German 
Emperors  Henry  II  and  Conrad  II  who  were  related 
to  him.  After  Rudolph's  deatli  Conrad  II  main- 
tained his  claim  to  the  country'  against  Odo  of  Cham- 
pagne, the  candidate  whom  a  number  of  Burgun- 
dian spiritual  and  secular  lords  set  up  for  the  throne. 

In  these  struggles  much  aid  was  given  the  German 
ruler  by  a  Burgundian  noble.  Count  Humbert  White 
Hands  of  Savoy;  for  these  services  the  count  was  re- 
warded with  large  gifts  of  land.  The  ancestors  of  this 
Humbert  came  apparently  from  eastern  Saxony,  not 
far  from  Magdeburg;  the  earliest  known  members  of 
the  family  are  the  brothers  Amadeus  and  Humbert, 
who  are  mentioned  in  the  second  half  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury. The  oldest  possessions  of  the  line  of  Savoy 
were  the  counties  of  Maurienne  (the  upper  valley  of 
the  River  Arc),  Savoy  (the  district  between  Arc, 
Isere,  and  the  middle  course  of  the  Rhone),  and  also 
Belley,  with  Bugey  as  its  chief  town.  In  the  eleventh 
centun,'  there  was  added  to  this  territory'  the  valley  of 
Aosta,  the  Tarantaise  (the  upper  valley  of  the  Isere), 
and  Chablais  (the  district  on  the  Rhone  between 
Martigny  and  Lake  Geneva).  About  1050  Hum- 
bert's son  Odo  married  Adelaide,  the  oldest  daughter 
and  heiress  of  Count  Manfred  of  Turin,  and  by 
this  marriage  the  House  of  Savoj'  gained  large  pos- 
sessions in  Italy,  particularly  the  greater  part  of  Pied- 
mont, while  at  the  same  time  the  possessions  east  and 
west  of  the  Alps  were  joined  together.  Odo's  second 
son,  Amadeus  II,  aided  his  brother-in-law,  the  Em- 
peror Henrj^  lY,  while  on  his  e\^ledition  to  Canossa, 
in  return  for  which  Henry  resigned  to  him  the  secu- 
lar administration  of  five  Italian  dioceses.  After  the 
death  of  his  mother  Adelaide,  Humbert  II  took  pos- 
session of  the  Italian  inheritance  (1091).  His  son 
Amadeus  III  joined  the  Second  Crusade  and  died  in 
1149  on  the  Island  of  Cyprus  while  returning  home. 
Thomas  I  (1189-1233),  grand.son  of  .Vmadeus,  as  im- 
perial vicar  did  much  to  aid  Frederick  II,  and  en- 
larged his  possessions  by  acquiring  Chamb(^ry,  Ro- 
mont,  etc.  His  eight  sons  divided  the  inheritance 
among  themselves,  yet  the  eldest  Amadeus  IV  (1233- 
53),  who  was  an  adherent  of  Frederick  II  in  his  con- 
test with  the  popes,  maintained  a  certain  supremacy 
over  his  brothers.  Of  all  1  lie  brothers  only  Thomas  II 
(d.  12.59)  left  any  male  heirs;  his  sons  Thomas  III  and 
Ama/leus  V  were  the  founders  of  the  two  lines  of  Sa- 
voy and  Piedmont  that  were  reunited  in  1418. 

Amadeus  V  (128.5-1323),  who  inherited  Savoy,  ob- 
tained in  1290  the  secvdar  governorship  of  the  city  of 
Geneva.  He  accompanied  Henry  VII  on  his  expedi- 
tion to  Italy,  and  was,  as  a  reward,  made  a  prince  of 
the  empire  (1311).  He  was  succeeded  by  his  sons 
Edward  (1323-29)  and  Aymon  (1329-43).  The  lat- 
ter by  marriage  gained  a  claim  to  Montferrat.  Ay- 
mon's  son  Amadeus  VI  (1343-83),  called  the  "Queen 
Count"  because  of  the  colour  of  his  ensign  at  tourna- 
ments, was  a  famous  warrior  who  fought  over  half 
of  Europe  and  in  1300  battled  against  the  Turks  in 
Greece;  he  won  Vaud,  Gex,  and  parts  of  the  dioceses 


GIROLAMO  SAVONAROLA 

FRA   BARTOLOMMEO,    MUSEUM   OF   ST.   MARK,    FLORENCE 


SAXE 


493 


SAZE-ALTENBURG 


of  Ivrea  and  Vercelli,  and  made  a  law  that  his  terri- 
tories should  never  be  divided  and  that  the  succession 
should  be  by  primogeniture.  In  order  to  form  a  bar- 
rier against  the  increasing  influence  of  the  French 
kings  the  Emperor  Charles  IV  in  1361  separated  Savoy 
from  Aries  and  appointed  Amadeus  imperial  vicar 
for  Aries  (until  1378).  Amadeus  VII  (1383-91),  the 
"Red  Count",  gained  Nice,  VentimigUa,  and  Chi- 


Amadeus  VIII  (1391-1434),  known  as  the  antipope 
FeUx  V  (q.  v.),  was  made  a  duke  by  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund  in  1416;  in  1422  he  received  the  County  of 
Geneva  in  fief,  and  in  1426  gained  VercelU  and  feudal 
supremacy  over  Montferrat.  Under  his  weak  and 
idle  son  Louis  (1334-65)  the  power  of  the  rising  house 
dechned.  Amadeus  IX  the  Fortunate  (1465-72)  left 
the  government  to  his  wife  Yolande,  sister  of  the 
French  king  Louis  XI,  who  was  also  regent  for  her 
minor  son  Philibert  I  (1372-82).  French  influence 
increased  in  Havoy  and  involved  the  country  in  the 
wars  between  France  and  the  emperors.  Philibert  II 
(1497-1504)  inclined  in  politics  more  to  the  Austrian 
and  Spanish  side;  this  was  also  the  policy  of  Charles 
III  (1504-53).  The  latter  received  Asti  in  1530  from 
his  brother-in-law,  the  Emi)eror  Charles  V,  but  in  1534 
lost  Geneva,  in  1536  Vaud  and  the  southern  shore  of 
the  Lake  of  Geneva  as  far  as  the  Swiss  cantons  of 
Berne,  Freiburg,  and  Valais,  and  in  1536  he  was 
driven  out  of  Savoy  and  Piedmont  by  the  French  king. 
The  Truce  of  Nice  in  1538  left  the  French  in  possession 
of  their  conquests,  and  Charles  retained  only  Cuneo, 
Asti,  and  Vercelh.  However,  his  son  Emmanuel  Phili- 
bert (1553-80)  regained  nearly  all  his  territories  in 
1559  by  the  Peace  of  Cateau-Cambr^sis ;  in  1564  he 
concluded  the  Treaty  of  Lausanne  with  the  Swiss  Con- 
federation, in  agreement  with  which  he  recovered  Cha- 
blais,  but  renounced  his  claim  to  Geneva  and  the 
Vaud.  He  acquinvl  Tenda  and  Oneglia,  founded  the 
University  of  AI(>nd<)\i,  and  replaced  the  feudal  sys- 
tem by  an  enlightened  absolutism  which  afterwards 
became  a  model  for  Europe. 

Emmanuel  I  the  Great  (1580^1630),  son  of  Em- 
manuel Philibert,  sided  in  politics  sometimes  with 
Spain  and  the  emperor,  sometimes  with  France,  ac- 
cording as  he  hoped  to  gain  the  greater  advantage. 
In  1588  he  conquered  the  Margraviate  of  Saluzzo,  to 
which  France  also  laid  claim,  and  retained  it  in  the 
Peace  of  Lyons  (1601)  as  the  ally  of  Philip  of  Spain. 
In  return,  however,  he  was  obliged  to  concede  the 
provinces  of  Gex,  Bresse,  and  Valromy  to  P>ance. 
During  this  reign  Chablais,  which  had  become  almost 
entirely  Protestant  during  its  dependency  on  Berne, 
was  regained  for  the  Catholic  Faith  by  the  labours  of 
St.  Francis  of  Sales  (q.  v.).  The  ambition  of  Em- 
manuel I  even  led  him  in  1619  to  aim  at  the  imperial 
crown.  On  account  of  his  claims  to  Montferrat. 
which  in  1536  had  fallen  to  Mantua,  he  took  part  in 
the  War  of  the  Mantuan  Succession  (1628-31).  His 
son  Victor  Amadeus  I  (1630-37)  by  the  treaty  of 
peace  obtained  parts  of  IVIontferrat,  but  was  obliged 
to  yield  Pinerolo  and  the  valley  of  Perosa  to  France. 
In  1635  he  supported  the  French  army  in  the  struggle 
with  the  emp(>ror  for  the  Duchy  of  Milan. 

Charles  Emmanuel  II  (1638-75),  a  prince  fond  of 
art  and  anxious  for  the  prosperity  of  his  people,  came 
into  possession  of  the  lands  of  the  counts  of  Geneva,  a 
branch  of  the  House  of  Savoy.  Victor  Amadeus  II 
(1675-1730),  son  of  Charles  Emmanuel,  refused  in 
1690  to  bring  an  army  to  the  aid  of  Louis  XIV  against 
the  alliance  between  the  emperor,  England,  Sweden, 
Spain,  and  the  Netherlands;  in  return  the  French 
seized  Savoy  and  Piedmont.  When  in  1696  the  duke 
withdrew  from  the  alliance  by  an  independent  treaty 
he  received  from  France  not  only  all  that  had  been 
lost  but  also  Pinerola  and  Perosa.  Consequently  in 
the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  Victor  Emmanuel 
at  first  was  a  partisan  of  Louis  XIV,  but  in  1703  he 


joined  Austria  and  its  confederates.  Upon  this  the 
French  took  possession  once  more  of  his  country;  the 
victory  of  Eugene  of  Savoy  (a  member  of  the  Carig- 
nan  branch  of  the  family)  at  Turin  in  1706  freed  Pied- 
mont from  the  enemy.  In  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  in 
1713  the  duke  recovered  Savoy  and  Nice  from  the 
French,  while  the  emperor  gave  him  Montferrat  from 
the  Spanish  inheritance,  parts  of  the  Duchy  of  Milan, 
and  the  Island  of  Sicily,  as  well  as  the  title  of  king. 
In  1718  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  Sicily  to  Austria 
and  accept  in  return  the  much  less  valuable  island  of 
Sardinia,  but  in  consideration  of  this  he  was  acknowl- 
edged as  king  by  Spain.  The  House  of  Savoy  now 
took  the  title  of  King  of  Sardinia  from  the  island  of 
that  name,  although  Savoy  and  Piedmont  remained 
its  chief  possessions.  Henceforth  the  history  of  Savoy 
is  in  general  the  same  as  that  of  the  Kingdom  of  Sar- 
dinia (q.  v.).  During  the  French  Revolution  Savoy 
was  occupied  bj^  the  French,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Nice 
in  1796  was  surrendered  to  France  together  with  Nice. 
It  was  restored  to  Sardinia  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 
In  the  war  of  1859  with  Austria  Lombardy  fell  to  Pied- 
mont, but  in  1860  King  Victor  Emmanuel  II  was 
obliged  to  cede  Savoy  and  Nice  to  P>ance  in  return 
for  the  aid  that  Napoleon  III,  in  accordance  with  the 
secret  treaty  of  Plombieres  (1858),  had  given  the  king 
in  this  war.  Thus  the  ancestral  lands  of  the  Italian 
royal  family  belong  to-day  to  the  French,  much  to  the 
vexation  of  the  Italians. 

Manno,  Bibliografia  storico  degli  stati  delta  monarchia  di  Savoia 
(8  vols.,  Turin,  1884-1908);  Cibrario,  NoHzia  sopra  la  stnria  dei 
principi  di  Savoia  (2nd  eel.,  Turin,  1866);  Idem,  Storia  della 
monarchia  di  Savoia  (3  vols.,  Turin,  1840-44);  Idem,  Origini  e  pro- 
gresso  delle  istituzioni  della  monarchia  di  Savoia  (2  vols.,  Flor- 
ence, 1869);  RicoTTi,  Storia  della  monarchia  piemontese  (6  vols., 
Florence,  18C1-70);  St-Genis,  Hist,  de  Savoie  (3  vols.,  Cham- 
bfry,  1869);  Cardtti,  Storia  della  diplomazia  delle  corte  di  Savoia 
(4  vols.,  Turin,  1875-80) ;  Idem,  Regesta  comitum  Sabaudioe  ab 
ultima  stirpis  origine  ad  annum  1S63  (Turin,  1889) ;  Gerbai.ic  di 
SoNNAZ,  Studi  storici  sul  contado  di  Saroia  e  sul  marchesato  in 
Italia  (3  vols.,  Turin,  1883-1903);  Gabotto,  Lo  stato  Sabaudo  da 
Amadeo  VIII  ad  Emanuele  Filiberto  (3  vols.,  Turin,  1892-95); 
Perrin,  Hist,  de  Savoie  (ChamWry,  1900) ;  Hellman,  Die  Grafen 
ton  Savoyen  u.  das  Reich  bis  zum  Ende  des  staufisch.  Periode  (Inns- 
bruck, 1900) ;  de  Angeli,  Storia  di  casa  Savoia  (Milan,  1906) ; 
Ardouin-Dumazet,  Voyage  en  France,  VIII-X  (Paris  and 
Nancy,  1903). 

Joseph  Lins. 

Saze,  Jean  de. — For  a  long  time  two  astronomers 
of  the  Middle  Ages  were  confounded  under  this  name. 

(1)  Joannes  Danko,  or  de  Danekowe,  de  Sax- 
ONiA,  composed  (1297)  the  "Notulse  super  compo- 
tum";  there  is  also  in  Paris  a  copy  of  the  Canons  of 
Jean  de  LiniSres  made  by  him  (1323). 

(2)  Jean  de  Counnout  (de  Connaught),  called 
DE  Saxonia,  was  likewi.se  a  disciple  and  great  admirer 
of  Jean  de  Linieres,  and  a  composer  of  various  as- 
tronomical and  astrological  works.  In  1327  he  drew 
up  the  "Canones  super  tabulas  Alfonsii  regis  Cas- 
tellai",  of  great  and  lasting  fame;  in  1331  he  reviewed 
the  "Introductorium  ad  judicia  astronomiae"  of  .-\.l- 
Kabici  (Alchabitius).  In  1355  he  composed  examples 
of  numerical  computation  on  the  "Canons"  of  Jean  de 
Linieres,  later  on  his  own  "Canons",  to  give  the 
students  of  the  University  of  Paris  practice  in  the  use 
of  astronomical  tables.  The  "Canones  in  tabulas  Al- 
fonsii" were  printed  following  the  "Alfonsian  Tables" 
in  1483.  The  "Scriptum  super  Alkabicium"  was  pub- 
lished at  Venice,  1489,  1491,  1502,  1503,  and  in  Paris 
in  1520. 

BoNCOMPAGNi,  Intorno  alle  vile  inedite  di  tre  matematiri  (Gio- 
van7ii  Danck  di  Sassonia,  Giovanni  de  Lineriis  e  Fra  Luca  Pacioli 
di  Borgo  San  Sepolcro)  scritte  da  Bernardino  Baldi  in  Bulletino  di 
Bibliografia  e  di  Storia  delle  Scienze  matematiche  e  fisiche,  t.  XII, 
1879. 

Pierre  Duhem. 

Saze-Altenburg,  one  of  the  Saxon  duchies  in  the 
east  of  Thuringia.  situated  on  the  west  frontier  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Saxony.  It  has  an  area  of  511  sq.  miles, 
and  consists  of  two  parts  (separated  by  the  principal- 
ity of  the  younger  branch  of  the  Reuss  family),  the 


SAXE-COBURG 


494 


SAXE-COBURG 


Ostkreis  (254  sq.  miles)  and  the  Westkreis  (257  sq. 
miles).  It  contained  216,312  inhabitants  in  1910; 
206,508  in  1905,  including  5,449  Catholics  (3  per 
cent),  200,511  Protestants,  and  131  Jews.  The 
duchy  became  a  separate  state  in  1826,  when  in  con- 
sequence of  the  extinction  of  the  Saxe-Gotha  line 
(1821),  its  possessions  were  divided  among  the  Saxon 
ducal  lines,  the  territory  of  Altenburg  falling  to  the 
Saxe-Hildburghausen  line  as  an  independent  domain. 
Duke  Ernest  II  (b.  1S71)  has  ruled  since  1902.  The 
present  duchy  was  sejiarated  from  the  former  Burgra- 
vnate  of  Altenburg,  which  belonged  to  the  ancestral 
estates  of  the  House  of  Saxe-^Ieissen,  by  the  jiar- 
tition  treat}'  of  1485,  to  which  is  to  be  traced  the  divi- 
sion of  the  princely  House  of  Saxony  into  the  Ernestine 
Line,  ruhng  over  the  various  Thuringian  states,  and 
the  Albert ine  Line,  ruling  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony. 
Altenburg  fell  to  the  Ernestine  Line.  A  special 
Duchy  of  Saxe-Altenburg  was  founded  in  1603,  but, 
on  the  extinction  of  the  ruling  family  (1672),  the 
territorj'  fell  to  Saxe-Gotha. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  territory  constituting  the 
modern  duchy  were  prevailingly  Protestant  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Reformation  movement.  The  few 
Catholics  in  the  duchj'  are  mostly  immigrants  who 
settled  there  during  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth 
centur\';  in  1871  the  Catholics  formed  only  0.14  per 
cent  of  the  population.  Catholic  services  have  been  • 
held  in  the  city  of  Altenburg  by  priests  from  Leipzig 
(Kingdom  of  Saxony)  since  the  third  decade  of  the 
nineteenth  century — in  the  beginning  only  at  long  in- 
tervals. Since  1880  Altenburg  has  had  its  own  priest, 
and  to-day  Catholic  service  and  religious  instruction 
are  held  in  seven  places  in  the  duchy,  partly  by  priests 
from  the  Principality  of  Reuss  and  the  neighbouring 
Pru.ssian  territories.  By  a  Rescript  of  the  Propaganda 
of  27  June,  1869,  the  Catholics  of  the  duchy  were 
placed  under  the  Bishop  of  Paderborn,  and  by  Decree 
of  the  Propaganda  of  19  Sept.,  1877,  under  the  vicar 
Apostolic  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony.  There  are  no 
legal  provisions  governing  the  relations  between  the 
Catholic  Church  and  the  State,  the  government  usu- 
ally conforming  to  the  principles  observed  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Saxony.  The  public  primary  schools  are 
all  Evangelical-Lutheran;  there  is  a  Catholic  private 
school  (220  pupils  in  1910)  in  the  town  of  Rositz,  to 
which  the  State  has  granted  a  subsidy  since  1909. 
The  erection  of  a  private  Catholic  elementary  school 
in  the  city  of  Altenburg  (120  Catholic  children  under 
obligation  to  attend  school)  has  not  yet  materialized 
owing  to  lack  of  funds.  The  CathoUcs  are  mostly 
poor  immigrant  factory  hands. 

Braun,  Erinnerungshl/itleT  nun  der  Gesch.  AUenhurgs  von  1SS5 
bis  I8S1G  (Altenburg,  1870) ;  LSbe,  Gesch.  der  Kirchen  u.  Schulcii 
des  Herzoytumn  .'iachsen-AUenburg  (3  vols.,  Altenburg,  1887-91). 
Protestant;  Freise.v,  Stoat  u.  kath.  Kirche  in  den  deutschen 
Bundegstaalen,  II  (Stuttgart,  1900),  327  sq. 

Hermann  Sacher. 

Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha.one  of  the  Saxon-Thurin- 
gian  diK-hics,  has  an  area  of  751  scj.  miles  and  two  chief 
divisions,  the  Duchy  of  Coburg  (216  sq.  miles)  and  liie 
Duchy  of  Gotha  (541  sq.  miles).  These  divisions  are 
separated  from  each  oth(;r  by  a  portion  of  Saxe-Mein- 
ingen  and  a  strip  of  land  belonging  to  Pru.ssia  (Kreis 
Schleasingen).  In  1910  the  territory  had  257,208  in- 
habitants; in  1905  its  population  of  242,432  includfid 
3897  Catholics  (2  per  cent),  237,187  Evangelicals, 
and  714  Jews.  The  two  duchies  were  united  in  1826, 
but  eafih  territory  has  still  its  own  constitution,  diet, 
and  internal  a/lministration,  even  as  regards  religion 
and  e<]ucation.  Only  for  certain  specified  kinds  of 
business  do  the  diets  hold  a  common  session.  Apart 
from  thf!  separation  of  the  two  states,  and  the  mark(!d 
difference  in  the  extent  of  their  Crown  lands,  which 
greatly  influences  questions  of  taxation,  racial  differ- 
ences also  contribute  to  keep  the  states  separate,  the 
inhabitants  of  Saxe-Gotha  being  of  Saxon  Btock  and 


the  inhabitants  of  Saxe-Coburg  of  Prankish.  The 
two  duchies  originated  in  the  division  of  the  ancestral 
estates  of  Duke  Ernest  the  Pious  (d.  1675),  the  founder 
of  all  the  Saxon  ducal  hnes  (except  the  grand-ducal 
line  of  S;lxe-^^'eimar-Eisenach),  among  his  seven  sons. 
With  Duke  Frederick  IV,  who  had  become  a  Catholic 
at  Rome  in  1807,  the  line  of  Saxe-Gotha  became  ex- 
tinct (1821),  and,  after  long  disputes  concerning  the 
succession,  the  territory  of  Gotha  fell  to  the  line  of 
Coburg-Saalfeld  in  1826.  Members  of  the  ruling 
house  of  Coburg-Gotha  ascended  the  thrones  of  several 
European  countries  during  the  nineteenth  century; 
by  his  marriage  with  Queen  Victoria  (1840),  Prince 
Albert  became  the  founder  of  the  present  roj^al 
house  of  England ;  Prince  Leopold  was  elected  heredi- 
tary King  of  Belgium  in  1831,  the  Belgian  branch  of 
the  House  of  Saxe-Coburg  becoming  Catholic.  The 
hne  of  the  House  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha  (often 
called  Coburg-Kohary),  founded  through  the  marriage 
of  Prince  Ferdinand  with  the  heiress  of  the  Hun- 
garian princely  House  of  Kohary  (1810),  is  also  Catho- 
lic. A  son  of  this  marriage,  Ferdinand,  was  the 
founder  (1837)  of  the  dynasty  which  ruled  in  Portugal 
until  1910;  a  grandson,  also  named  Ferdinand,  became 
in  1887  hereditary  Prince,  and  in  1909  King  (Tsar)  of 
Bulgaria.  In  the  Duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha 
the  main  line  became  extinct  in  1893,  the  succession 
falling  to  the  English  branch;  Duke  Charles  Edward 
(b.  1884),  son  of  the  Duke  of  Albany  and  grandson  of 
the  Prince  Consort  Albert  and  Queen  Victoria,  has 
reigned  since  1899  (until  1905  under  a  guardian). 

In  the  old  Catholic  days  the  territory  of  the  present 
Duchy  of  Gotha  belonged  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Mainz, 
the  episcopal  jurisdiction  being  exercised  by  the  coad- 
jutor bishop  living  at  Erfurt.  The  Reformation  de- 
stroyed all  Catholic  life,  and  it  was  only  at  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century  that  a  small  Catholic  commu- 
nity was  again  formed  in  the  town  of  Gotha,  the  re- 
ligious ministration  being  supplied  from  Erfurt  and 
by  the  Franciscans  of  the  Saxon  province.  Though 
accorded  parish  rights  in  1S()7,  this  community  had 
not  a  special  priest  until  1857.  In  1868  all  Catholics 
in  the  Duchy  of  Gotha  were  assigned  to  the  parish  of 
Gotha.  The  relations  between  the  Catholic  Church 
and  the  State  were  fixed  in  one-sided  fashion  by  the 
"Regulativ  fiir  die  kirchliche  Verfassung  der  romisch- 
katholischen  Glaubensgenossen  im  Herzogtum  Gotha" 
of  23  August,  1811 ;  regulations  were  therein  made  for 
the  state  supervision  of  the  entire  ecclesiastical  life, 
for  the  establishment  of  the  ruler's  placet,  etc.  The 
validity  of  this  "Regulativ"  has  never  been  recog- 
nized by  the  Catholic  Church.  On  the  reorganization 
of  the  German  sees  at  the  b(>ginning  of  llu;  nineteenth 
century  the  Catholics  of  Gotha  were  assigned  to  no 
diocese.  At  the  desire  of  the  Governm(>nt  of  Gotha, 
express(Hl  through  the  medium  of  Prussia,  the  Catho- 
lics of  the  du('hy  were  assigned  to  the  Diocese  of 
Paderborn  by  papal  Decree  of  13  Dec,  1853.  The 
publication  of  this  D(!cree,  however,  was  forbidden  by 
the  Government  of  Gotha,  because  the  Bishop  of 
Paderborn  refused  to  recognize  the  validity  of  the 
"Regulativ"  of  1811,  and  the  sovereign  prerogatives 
of  the  duke  in  ecclesiastical  afTairs.  Despite  frequent 
attempts  at  settlement  (the  last  in  1899),  this  dispute 
continues  to  the  present  day,  the  bi.shop  being  allowed 
to  discharge  episcopal  functions  in  the  duchy  only 
after  sec\iring  the  permission  of  the  Government.  The 
duke  and  diet  grants  a  small  annual  subsidy  (about 
$200)  for  Catholic  objects.  The  raising  of  church 
taxes  is  forbidden,  and"  the  administration  of  church 
proi)erty  is  controlled  by  the  State.  There  are  no 
special  legal  regulations  concerning  religious  orders; 
the  Sisters  of  St.  ]']lizabeth  (Cirey  Sisters)  from  Bres- 
lau  have  an  establishment  in  the  duchy. 

The  territory  of  the  Duchy  of  Coburg  was  eccle- 
siast  ically  subject  to  the  Diocese  of  Wiirzburg  until  the 
Reformation,  after  the  inauguration  of  which  the  few 


SAXE-MEININGEN 


495 


SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH 


remaining  Catholics  were  ministered  to  by  the  Bene- 
dictines from  the  Monastery  of  Banz  (on  the  Main). 
At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  small  Catholic 
community  was  again  formed  in  Coburg.  The  rela- 
tions between  Church  and  State  were  regulated  here 
also  in  a  partial  manner  by  the  "  Herzoglich-Coburg- 
ische  Regulativ  fiir  die  kirchliche  Verfassung  der 
katholischen  Glaubensgenossen  "  of  30  October,  1812. 
This  "Regulativ"  has  also  failed  to  find  recog- 
nition from  the  Church.  At  the  request  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Bamberg,  the  Catholics  of  the  Duchy  of 
Coburg  were  assigned  to  that  see;  the  duke  refused, 
however,  to  give  his  consent  to  the  Decree,  pending 
the  results  of  the  negotiations  then  being  conducted 
by  some  German  princes  concerning  the  formation  of 
a  new  diocese  (Frankfort  Conferences),  but  offered  no 
objection  to  the  provisional  assignment  of  priests  and 
the  provisional  exercise  of  episcopal  jurisdiction  in  the 
duchy.  There  has  been  no  change  in  these  relations 
to  the  present  day.  The  priests  take  an  oath  to  up- 
hold the  constitution.  In  1868  all  the  Catholics  of  the 
duchy  were  assigned  to  the  parish  of  Coburg;  the 
parish  priest  has  for  some  years  received  a  small  an- 
nual allowance  from  the  State  (about  $12.)).  No 
church  tax  may  be  levied.  Religious  orders  which 
care  for  the  sick  are  free  to  enter  without  State  por- 
mi.ssion.  The  question  of  the  religious  training  of  the 
children  of  mixed  marriages  is  left  open  in  both 
duchies;  until  1900,  how(>ver,  the  principle  reliqio 
sequilur  sexum  was  applied  to  such  children.  The 
public  elementary  schools  of  both  duchies  are  Evan- 
gelical-Lutheran, although  religious  supervision  has 
been  abolished  since  18G3,  antl  a  complete  separa- 
tion of  Church  and  State  thus  effected.  Private  Cath- 
olic elementary  schools  exist  in  Gotha  (since  1857;  100 
pupils  in  1910)  and  Coburg  (since  1807;  100  pupils 
in  1910). 

Beck,  Gesch.  des  gothaischen  Landes  (3  vols.,  Gotha,  1868-76); 
LoTz,  Coburgische  Landesgesch.  (Coburg,  1892) ;  Freisen,  Slaat 
u.  kaih.  Kirche  in  den  deutschen  Landesslaaten,  II  (Stuttgart, 
1900),  .361  .sqq.;  Idem,  Der  Aoiftoi.  u.  protest.  Pfarrzwang  (P&dcT- 
born,  1906),  94  sqq. 

Herman  Sacher. 

Saxe-Meiningen,  a  Saxon-Thuringian  duchy.  It 
has  an  area  of  953  sq.  miles,  and  278,792  inhabi- 
tants (1910).  In  1905  its  population  of  208,916 
included  4870  Catholics  (2  per  cent),  262,283  Evan- 
gelicals, and  1276  Jews.  The  duchy  came  into  exist- 
ence in  1681,  as  the  result  of  the  various  succession 
agreements  among  the  seven  sons  of  Duke  Ernest 
the  Pious  of  Saxe-Gotha.  Later  agreements  in- 
creased the  territory  of  the  duchy,  especially  that  of 
1826,  when  the  previously  independent  Duchy  of 
Saxe-Hildburghausen  was  assigned  to  it  (560  sq. 
miles,  with  70,000  inhabitants).  In  the  Austro- 
Prussian  War  of  1866,  Duke  Bernard  II  (d.  1882) 
was  the  only  Thuringian  prince  of  the  Saxon  house 
to  adhere  to  Austria  or  the  German  Confederation. 
Prussia  therefore  occupied  his  territory  and  had  the 
government  transferred  to  his  son,  George  II  (b. 
1826),  who  is  still  reigning  (1911).  The  heir  apparent 
is  Prince  Bernard,  who  married  Charlotte,  sister  of 
the  German  Emperor.  In  pre-Reformation  times  the 
territory  of  the  present  Duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen 
belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  A\'urzburg,  to  whose  care 
to-day  also  the  few  Catholics  of  the  country  are 
committed.  The  Reformation  caused  the  disap- 
pearance of  Catholicism. 

In  1808,  in  consequence  of  a  treaty  between  Saxe- 
Meiningen  and  the  then  Grand  Duchy  of  Wurzburg, 
the  Catholic  parish  of  Wolfmannshausen  was  ceded 
to  Saxe-Meiningen.  In  the  course  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  Catholic  pastoral  stations  were  established 
at  Meiningen,  Hildburghausen,  Poessneck,  and  Sonne- 
berg  Cseat  of  the  celebrated  toy  industry).  The 
legal  statute  of  the  various  parishes  or  stations  is 
regulated  by  special  treaties  between  the  bishop  and 


the  Government.  Before  making  an  appointment, 
the  bishop  presents  to  the  ducal  Government  a  priest 
of  the  Diocese  of  Wurzburg  provided  with  the  royal 
Bavarian  titulus  viensoe,  and  asks  if  this  cleric  is  a 
■persona  grata  to  the  duke.  On  the  approval  of  the 
duke,  the  priest  receives  episcopal  institution,  and 
promises  on  oath  before  the  ducal  Government  that  he 
will  observe  the  laws  of  the  land  and  faithfully  fulfil 
his  duty.  The  State  grants  a  small  subsidy  towards 
the  payment  of  the  clergy.  Several  districts  are 
attended  as  a  matter  of  charity  by  priests  of  neigh- 
bouring dioceses.  If  Catholic  priests  wish  to  exercise 
their  priestly  functions  outside  of  their  appointed 
district,  they  must  first  inform  the  Evangelical  clergy- 
man of  their  intention.  In  the  case  of  interments, 
the  Catholic  priest  must,  even  within  their  special 
district,  obtain  the  approbation  of  the  Evangelical 
clergyman  as  regards  the  time.  There  are  no  legal 
ordinances  concerning  religious  orders.  For  the  es- 
tablishment in  Meiningen  of  the  Daughters  of  the 
Divine  Redeemer  from  Wlirzbiu-g  notice  to  the  po- 
lice only  was  necessary.  The  primary  schools  are 
Evangelical  Lutheran,  although  this  is  not  expressly 
provided  for  in  the  law.  Religious  instruction  for 
the  denominations  in  the  minority  (and  thus  for 
Catholics)  must  be  provided  in  a  manner  deemed  suf- 
ficient by  the  representatives  of  such  churches. 
A  public  Catholic  ])rimary  school  exists  at  Wolf- 
mannshausen (70  pupils),  and  a  private  school  with- 
out state  or  communal  support  at  Poessneck  (since 
1883;  31  pupils  in  1910).  The  Primary  School  Law 
of  1908  definitively  set  aside  the  religious  supervision 
of  schools,  and  effected  a  sharp  division  of  church 
and  school;  even  the  supervision  of  religious  in- 
struction no  longer  pertains  to  the  parish  priest. 

BrCtkner,  Landeskunde  des  I/erzogtums  Meiningen  (2  vols., 
Meiningen,  1851-53);  Zertel,  Kleine  Landeskunde  (Hildburg- 
hausen, 1903);  Freisen,  Der  Aotfc.  und  evang.  Pfarrzwang  (Pa- 
derborn, 1906). 

Hermann  Sacher. 

Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach,  a  grand  duchy  in  Thu- 
ringia,  also  known  in  recent  times  as  the  Grand  duchy 
of  Saxony.  It  has  an  area  of  1397  sq.  miles,  and  consists 
of  three  non-contiguous  parts:  Weimar  (678 sq.  miles); 
Eisenach  (-165);  and  Neustadt  (254).  In  1910  the 
grand  duchy  had  417,166  inhabitants;  in  1905  it  had 
a  population  of  388,095,  including  18,049  Catholics 
(5  per  cent),  367,789  Protestants,  and  1412  Jews. 
Like  the  other  Saxon-Thuringian  minor  states,  the 
grand  duchy  originated  in  the  partitions  among  the 
heirs  of  the  House  of  Wettin,  which  ruled  in  Saxony. 
The  House  of  Saxe-Wettin  divided  in  1485  into  the 
Ernestine  and  Albertine  lines.  John  Frederick  the 
Magnanimous,  of  the  former  line,  lost  in  the  Witten- 
berg Capitulation  of  1547  (see  Saxony),  in  addition 
to  his  electoral  dignity,  his  estates  with  the  exception 
of  Thuringia.  Even  under  the  sons  of  John  Fred- 
erick Thuringia  began  to  be  divided  up  into  separate 
principalities.  Since  the  division  of  1672  the  Ernes- 
tine line  is  represented  by  two  main  branches — the 
Weimar  (now  the  grand  ducal)  line  which  rules  in 
Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach,  and  the  Gotha  line,  from  which 
three  ducal  lines  have  issued,  ruling  to-day  in  Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha,  Saxe-]Meiningen,  and  Saxe-Altenburg 
respectively.  The  Weimar  line  also  divided  into 
three  branches — the  lines  of  Weimar,  Jena,  and  Eisen- 
ach; the  last  two  lines  however  became  extinct,  so  that 
the  three  duchies  were  reunited  in  1741.  The  best- 
known  ruler  of  the  grand-duchy  is  Charles  Augustus 
(1758-1828),  who  made  his  capital,  Weimar,  the  intel- 
lectual centre  of  Germany  by  attracting  to  liLs  court  the 
most  famous  Germans  of  his  day;  the  poets  Goethe, 
Schiller,  Wieland,  and  Herder  shed  lustre  on  his  reign. 
In  the  war  between  Prussia  and  France  (1806)  Charles 
Augustus  first  espoused  the  cause  of  Prussia,  but  to 
save  his  domains  he  was  compelled  to  join  the  Rhein- 
bund  formed  by  Napoleon  after  the  defeat  of  Prussia 


SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH 


496 


SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH 


at  Jena  (14  Oct.,  1806).  In  consequence  of  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  (1815)  Prussia  surrendered  to  Saxe- 
Weimar  a  territory  of  6600  sq.  miles  with  78,000  in- 
habitants— including  Xeustadt,  which  had  previously 
belonged  to  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  and  the  Cathohc 
Eisenach  Highlands.  On  31  April,  1815,  Duke  Charles 
Augustus  received  the  title  of  grand  duke.  In  the 
Austro-Prussian  War  of  1S66  Saxe- Weimar  supported 
Prussia ;  it  was  a  member  of  the  North  German  Confed- 
eration, and  in  1871  became  a  federal  state  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire.  William  Ernest  (b.  1876)  has  been  the 
reigning  grand  duke  since  1901. 

Before  the  Reformation  of  the  six-teenth  century,  the 
territories  constituting  the  present  grand  duchy  were, 
ecclesiastically  speaking,  under  the  Archdiocese  of 
Mainz,  the  coadjutor  bishop  residing  at  Erfurt  exer- 
cising jurisdiction  in  the  name  of  the  archbishop. 
The  Reformation  removed  every  vestige  of  Catholic 
life.  In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
some  Catholics  immigrated  sporadically  into  the  terri- 
tories of  Weimar,  Jena,  and  Eisenach.  Spiritual 
ministration  was  supphed,  as  far  as  possible,  by  the 
Benedictines  and  secular  priests  of  the  city  of  Erfurt, 
which  remained  a  secular  possession  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Mainz  until  1802,  when  it  fell  to  Prussia.  Duke 
Ernest  Augustus  II  (1748-58)  of  Weimar  erected  a 
chapel  for  his  CathoUc  soldiers,  so  that  they  could 
not  desert  under  pretence  of  attending  service  at  Er- 
furt. CathoUc  Divine  Service  was  inaugurated  in 
1795  for  the  CathoUc  students  of  the  University  of 
Jena.  The  spiritual  care  of  the  students  was  entrusted 
to  the  French  priest  Gabriel  Henry,  who  had  been 
compelled  to  leave  France  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution,  because  he  refused  to  take  the  oath  of 
the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy  demanded  by  the 
French  National  Assembly.  After  the  battle  of  Jena, 
Napoleon,  at  the  request  of  Father  Henry,  proclaimed 
the  political  and  religious  equality  of  Catholics  and 
Protestants;  it  was  also  due  to  Father  Henry  that  the 
declaration  of  the  various  German  states  on  joining 
the  Rheinhund  contained  the  article  concerning  the 
equality  of  Catholics  and  Protestants.  Through 
Father  Henry's  exertions  the  first  CathoUc  parish  in 
Jena  was  estabUshed  in  1808;  it  was  endowed  by 
Napoleon,  and  all  the  Catholics  of  the  territory  were 
assigned  to  it.  In  1819  the  seat  of  the  parish  was 
transferred  to  Weimar.  In  1815  Prussia  ceded  the 
Eisenach  Highlands  to  the  grand  duchy.  Until  1802 
this  territory,  entirely  Catholic,  had  belonged  to  the 
immediate  ecclesiastical  domain  of  Fulda;  it  contained 
nine  pari.shes,  united  in  the  deanery  of  Geisa. 

To-day  (1911)  the  grand  duchy  contains  altogether 
14  parishes  and  a  number  of  curacies  and  chaplaincies, 
21  priests,  and  about  30  churches,  all  of  which  are  sub- 

f'ect  to  the  deanery  of  Geisa.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy 
rom  Fulda  have  estabUshments  in  four  places;  the 
Sistf-rs  of  St.  Elizabeth  (Grey  Sisters)  from  Breslau 
have  a  house  at  Ei.senach.  Male  religious  orders  are 
forbidden  to  open  houses  in  the  grand  duchy.  With 
the  agreement  of  the  grand  ducal  government,  the 
grand  duchy  was  placed  under  the  ecclesiastical  juris- 
diction of  the  Diocese  of  Paderborn  by  the  Bull  "De 
salute  animarum"  of  16  July,  1821 ;  the  Bull  "  Provida 
Bolersque"  of  16  Aug.,  1821,  placed  the  nine  parishes 
of  the  deanery  of  Geisa  under  the  Diocese  of  Fulda; 
but  it  was  only  in  1829  that  the  grand  ducal  govern- 
ment recognized  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of 
Fulda  over  these  parishes.  In  answer  to  the  petition 
of  the  Bishop  of  Fulda  (17  Dec,  1856),  the  whole 
grand  duchy  was  placed  under  his  jurisdiction  by 
brief  of  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State  Antonelli  (17  Feb., 
1857j.  The  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  each  new 
Bishop  f)f  Fulda  in  the  grand  duchy  is  recognized  by 
the  Government  only  after  the  receipt  of  an  announce- 
ment of  his  entry  into  ofTicf  and  of  a  written  guarantee 
(a  bond),  in  which  the  bishop  promises  to  observe  all 
the  grand  ducal  rights  and  powers,  and  promises,  in 


the  name  of  his  Catholic  subjects,  fidelity,  homage, 
and  obedience.  The  State  has  regulated  the  condi- 
tions of  the  Catholic  Church  in  a  narrow  spirit  by  the 
law  of  1  Oct.,  1823;  these  conditions  have  not  been 
substantially  changed  by  the  laws  of  6  May,  1857, 
and  10  April,  1895.  "  For  the  preservation  and  exer- 
cise of  the  rights  of  the  State,  which,  as  regards  the 
Catholic  Church,  its  goods,  and  servants,  are  derived 
from  the  secular  supreme  direction  and  the  power  to 
maintain  order",  there  exists  an  " Immediatkommis- 
sion  fiir  das  katholische  Kirchen-  und  Schulwesen" 
(Commission  for  the  CathoUc  Church  and  Schools) 
immediately  responsible  to  the  Government;  to  this 
must  be  referred  all  matters  in  which  the  cognizance, 
agreement,  confirmation,  etc.  of  the  Government  have 
been  expressly  required.  Purely  dogmatic  decrees 
and  decrees  relating  to  the  domestic  discipline  of  the 
Church  and  not  affecting  the  State  are  excepted. 

In  the  course  of  time  custom  has  given  rise  to  the 
state  regulations  that  all  episcopal  ordinances,  papal 
briefs  etc.,  in  so  far  as  they  affect  the  grand  duchy, 
must  be  laid  before  the  Government  for  inspection  be- 
fore promulgation  or  delivery,  and  that  spiritual  pre- 
cepts may  not  be  published  without  the  ruler's  placet, 
except  they  be  of  purely  moral  or  dogmatic  import. 
Until  1857  processions  outside  the  church  and  church- 
yards and  to  places  of  pilgrimage  were  forbidden. 
Parochial  positions  and  prebends  are  assigned  by  the 
bishop  with  the  approval  of  the  grand  duke,  in  so  far 
as  the  right  of  patronage  does  not  pertain  to  the  latter 
alone.  In  every  parish  and  succursal  church  there  is 
a  church  directorate,  which  consists  of  the  pastor  and 
two  Catholic  parishioners,  and  is  entrusted  with  the 
administration  of  the  church  property,  the  mainten- 
ance of  buildings,  etc  For  a  long  period  the  terri- 
torial dean  {Landdechant) ,  the  pastor  of  Geisa,  had  to 
visit  each  pastor  and  church  once  annually,  and  for- 
ward a  report  of  his  visitation  to  the  Immediatkom- 
mission.  Should  the  bishop  wish  to  make  a  visitation 
in  person,  he  must  first  inform  the  territorial  ruler  of 
his  purpose,  whereupon  it  is  decided  whether  or  not  a 
secular  counsel  shall  be  co-ordinated  with  the  visita- 
tion. As  regards  the  children  of  mixed  marriages  and 
change  of  religion  the  law  of  10  April,  1895,  decrees 
that  the  children  must  follow  the  religion  of  the 
father,  even  when  he  changes  his  reUgion.  However, 
the  change  of  religion  in  the  case  of  the  father  does 
not  affect  the  denomination  of  the  children  who  are 
more  than  twelve  years  old.  The  father  can  also 
agree  to  the  training  of  the  children  in  the  religion  of 
the  mother,  although  not  before  the  birth  of  the  first 
child  and  only  by  means  of  a  declaration  before  the 
courts.  Persons  who  have  completed  their  eighteenth 
year  may  choose  their  own  denomination.  Whoever 
wishes,  after  the  completion  of  his  eighteenth  year, 
to  leave  the  Catholic  or  EvangeUcal  Church,  must 
first  declare  his  intention  to  the  proper  clergyman, 
who  will  instruct  him  as  to  the  importance  of  the  step, 
and  draw  up  an  attestation  of  the  conversion.  The 
declaration  of  secession  must  be  made  before  the  courts. 
The  school  system  is  regulated  by  the  law  of  24  Jime, 
1874,  in  the  form  published  on  5  December,  1903. 
The  public  primary  schools  are  maintained  by  the 
political  community  or  a  special  school  community. 
They  are  denominational — either  Catholic  or  Evan- 
geUcal according  as  either  creed  is  in  the  majority. 
Only  in  one  place  (Dermbach)  is  there  both  a  Catholic 
(170  pupils  in  1910)  and  an  EvangeUcal  division  of  the 
public  primary  school.  In  Geisa  there  are  Catholic 
and  Jewish  divisions  in  the  public  primary  schools, 
thanks  tf)  the  tolerance  of  the  Catholics — an  example 
not  imitated  in  the  Evangelical  towns.  In  six  places, 
where  the  C'atholies  are  in  a  minority  (Weimar,  Eisen- 
ach, Apolda,  Jena,  Noistadt  on  the  Orla,  and  Weida), 
there  are  Catholic  private  primary  schools,  to  which 
the  State  grants  no  subsidy.  Negotiations  between 
the  CathoUc  primary  schools  and  the  Supreme  School 


SAXO 


497 


SAXONY 


Board  are  effected  through  the  medium  of  the  Im- 
mediatkommission  for  the  Catholic  Church  and  Catho- 
lic Schools. 

Kronfeld,  Landeskunde  des  Grossherzogtums  Sachsen  (2  vols., 
Weimar,  1878-79);  Freisen,  Die  bischdfliche  Juriadiktion  ilber  die 
Katholiken  im  Grossherzogtum  Sachsen- Weimar-Eisenach  (.Stutt- 
gart, 1910). 

Hermann  Sacher. 

Saxo    Grammaticus,    Danish    historian   of   the 

thirteenth  century,  author  of  the  "Gesta  Danorum". 
The  scanty  information  we  have  concerning  his  Ufe 
is  based  chiefly  on  statements  in  his  work,  especially 
in  the  preface.  His  father  and  grandfather  took  part 
in  the  campaigns  of  Waldemar  I  of  Denmark  (1157- 
1182).  He  him.self  was  a  cleric ;  a  layman  of  that  time 
would  hardly  have  had  his  knowledge  of  theology 
and  classic  lore.  No  doubt,  he  studied  at  foreign 
universities,  probably  in  Paris.  In  the  eleventh  book 
of  his  history  he  speaks  of  the  funeral  of  Bishop  Asker 
(Esger)  as  having  taken  place  in  his  own  time.  As 
that  event  happened  in  1158  we  may  conclude  that 
Saxo  was  born  about  1150,  but  we  do  not  know  where; 
from  the  favour  shown  to  Zealand,  it  has  been  in- 
ferred that  that  was  his  birthplace. 

Saxo's  history  was  written  at  the  suggestion  of 
Archbishop  Absalon  of  Lund,  who  died  in  1201 
before  the  work  wa.s  finished,  whereupon  the  historian 
addressed  himself  to  Absalon's  successor  Anders, 
who  held  the  see  until  1222.  There  is  some  doubt 
as  to  Saxo's  po.sition.  In  his  preface  he  modestly 
refers  to  himself  as  the  least  among  the  followers  of 
Absalon,  but  it  is  not  likely  that  the  bishop  would 
have  entrusted  to  an  obscure  and  unimportant  man 
the  important  task  of  writing  a  history  of  his  native 
land.  It  is  much  more  probable  that  Saxo  held  a 
high  office,  possibly  a  secretaryship,  and  that  he 
enjoyed  the  bishop's  intimate  acquaintance.  More 
than  this  we  do  not  know.  Attempts  to  identify 
him  with  a  provost  at  llo.skilde,  a  subdeacon  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Luurentius  at  Lund,  or  with  a 
scribe  named  in  Absalon's  will,  are  purely  conjectural 
and  cannot  be  verified.  The  date  of  his  death  is  also 
uncertain.  The  writing  of  the;  history-  occupied  tlie 
greater  part  of  Saxo's  life.  About  the  year  11S5  the 
chronicler  Swen  Aggeson  refers  to  the  history  aa 
already  i)l:uined,  and  the  preface  was  not  written 
until  Waldemar  II  (1202-41)  had  "encompassed  the 
ebbing  and  flowing  waves  of  the  Elbe".  This  seems 
to  refer  to  events  of  1215  (or  1208?).  Originally  the 
work  was  to  be  a  history  of  Absalon's  own  time,  but 
it  grew  to  be  a  complete  history  of  Denmark  from  the 
earhest  mythical  period  to  the  year  11S7.  It  is 
written  in  an  elegant,  highly  ornate  Latin  which 
excited  the  admiration  of  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam. 
The  style  is  carefully  modelled  on  that  of  the  Latin 
authors  of  the  "Silver  Age",  especially  Valerius 
Maximus  and  Martinus  Capella. 

The  work  is  divided  into  sixteen  books,  of  which  the 
first  nine  contain  mainly  mythological  and  legendary 
material,  which  is  presented  in  uncritical  fashion. 
The  last  seven,  however,  relating  the  events  nearer 
to  Saxo's  time,  are  historical,  and  are  believed  to  have 
been  written  first.  For  these  he  relied  on  oral  com- 
munication, especially  on  Absalon's  own  reports 
which,  so  Saxo  tells  us,  he  accepted  like  a  Divine 
revelation.  For  the  first  nine  books  dealing  with 
Northern  antiquity  the  sources  are  old  Danish  poems. 
Runic  inscriptions,  and  Norwegian-Icelandic  sagas. 
These  books  possess  a  special  interest  for  us  on  ac- 
count of  the  ancient  legendary  material  preserved 
therein,  much  of  which  has  come  down  to  us  in  no 
other  form.  Among  the  famous  legends  found  here 
may  be  mentioned  those  of  Balder  and  Ilother 
(Book  III),  of  Amleth  (ibid.),  the  basis  of  Shake- 
speare's Hamlet,  and  of  the  archer  Toko  or  Palnatoki 
(Book  X),  the  prototype  of  the  Tell  of  Swiss  legend. 
No  complete  MS.  of  Saxo's  history  is  extant.  Even 
XIII.— 32 


in  his  own  time  the  work  received  scant  attention, 
partly,  no  doubt,  because  it  was  written  in  such 
difficult  Latin.  An  epitome  was  made  by  an  anony- 
mous writer  in  1431  and  here  the  epithet  "Gram- 
maticus" (the  lettered  one)  was  first  used.  The  first 
printed  edition,  made  from  a  MS.  since  lost,  appeared 
in  Paris  in  1514  and  has  been  the  basis  of  all  subse- 
quent editions.  The  first  critical  edition  was  given 
by  Stephanus  Johannes  Stephanius  (Soro,  1644).  The 
best  modern  editions  are  those  of  Miiller-Velschow 
(3  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1839-58)  and  of  Alfred  Holder 
(Strasburg,  1886).  The  latter  contains  also  a  careful 
bibUography.  Translations  were  made  into  Danish 
by  Anders  Soffrinson  Vedel  (Copenhagen,  1575),  by 
Grundtvig  (Copenhagen,  1818)  and  by  W.  Horn 
(Christiania  and  Copenhagen,  1898).  The  first  nine 
books  have  been  translated  into  English  by  O.  Elton, 
with  notes  by  F.  York  Powell  (London,  1894);  into 
German  by  H.  Jantzen  (Beriin,  1900)  and  Paul 
Herrmann  (Leipzig,  1901). 

Con.sult  the  introductions  to  the  works  of  Elton  and  Powell; 
MuLLf;R-VKLsrHOw;  Jantzen;  see  also  Herrmann,  op.  cit., 
400-470;  Olrik,  Kilderne  til  Sakses  Oldhistorie  (Copenhagen, 
1892  and  1894);  Pineau,  Saxo  Grammaticus  (Tours,  1901); 
Wattenbach,  Deutschlands  Geschichtsguellen,  II   (6  ed.,   1893), 

Arthur  F.  J.  Remy. 

Saxony. — I.  The  Saxon  Tribe. — There  arose  in 
Germany  during  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  after 
Christ  the  great  tribal  confederations  of  the  Alamanni; 
Bavarians,  Thuringians,  Franks,  Frisians,  and  Saxons, 
which  took  the  place  of  the  numerous  petty  tribes 
with  their  popular  tribal  form  of  government.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Saxons  all  these  confederations 
were  ruled  by  kings;  the  Saxons  were  divided  into  a 
number  of  independent  bodies  under  different  chiefs, 
and  in  time  of  war  they  elected  a  duke.  The  Saxons 
(Lat.,  Saxones)  were  originally  a  small  tribe  living  on 
the  North  Sea  between  the  Elbe  and  Eid(>r  Rivers 
in  the  present  Holstein.  Their  name,  (k^ived  from 
tlieir  weapon  called  Sax,  a  stone  knife,  is  first  men- 
tioned by  the  Roman  author  Claudius  Ptolemiius 
(about  130  A.  D.).  In  the  third  and  fourth  centuries 
the  Saxons  fought  their  way  victoriously  towards  the 
west,  and  their  name  was  given  to  the  great  tribal 
confederation  that  stretched  towards  the  west  exactly 
to  the  former  boundary  of  the  Roman  Empire,  con- 
sequently almost  to  the  Rhine.  Only  a  small  strip 
of  land  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  remained  to  the 
Frankish  tribe.  Towards  the  south  the  Saxons 
pu.shed  as  far  as  the  Harz  Mountains  and  the  Eichs- 
feld,  and  in  the  succeeding  centuries  absorbed  the 
greater  part  of  Thuringia.  In  the  east  their  power 
extended  at  first  as  far  as  the  Elbe  and  Saale  Rivers; 
in  the  later  centuries  it  certainly  extended  much  far- 
ther. All  the  coast  of  the  German  Ocean  belonged 
to  the  Saxons  excepting  that  west  of  the  Weser,  which 
the  Frisians  retained.  The  history  of  the  powerful 
Saxon  tribe  is  also  the  history  of  the  conversion  to 
Christianity  of  that  part  of  Germany  which  lies  be- 
tween the  Rhine  and  the  Oder,  that  is  of  almost  the 
whole  of  the  present  Northern  Germany.  From  the 
eighth  century  the  Saxons  were  divided  into  the  four 
sub-divisions:  Westphalians,  between  the  Rhine  and 
Weser;  the  Engern  or  Angrians,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Weser;  the  Eastphalians,  between  the  Weser  and 
Elbe;  the  Transalbingians,  in  the  present  Holstein. 
The  only  one  of  the.se  names  that  has  been  preserved 
is  Westphalians,  given  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Prus- 
sian Province  of  Westphalia. 

In  company  with  the  German  tribe  of  Angles  a  part 
of  the  Saxons  settled  on  the  Island  of  Britain  from 
which  the  Romans  had  mthdrawii,  wliere  as  Anglo- 
Sa.xons,  after  having  accepted  Cliristiaiiity  about  600, 
they  laid  the  foundation  of  Anglo-Saxon  civilization 
and  the  present  Great  Britain.  In  attempting  to 
reach  Gaul  by  land  the  Saxons  came  into  violent 


SAXONY 


498 


SAXONY 


conflict  with  the  Franks  living  on  the  Rhine.  The 
Frankish  king  Clo\'is  (4S1-5U)  united  the  various 
Frankish  tribes,  conquered  Roman  Gaul,  and  -n-ith  his 
people  accepted  Christianity.  The  new  Frankish 
kingdom  was  able  to  brmg  all  German  tribes  except 
the  Saxons  under  its  authority  and  to  make  them 
Christian.  For  more  than  a  hundred  j'ears  there  was 
almost  uninterrupted  warfare  between  Frank  and 
Saxon.  Many  Anglo-Saxon  Christian  missionaries 
sought  to  con'\-ert  the  Saxons,  some  were  killed,  some 
driven  away;  the  names  of  only  a  few  of  these  men 
have  been  preserved,  as  St.  Suitbert,  St.  Egnert,  the 
saint  called  Brother  Ewald,  St.  Lebuin,  etc.  St. 
Boniface  also  preached  without  success  among  the 
Saxons.  The  Saxons  were  finally  brought  under 
Frankish  supremacy  bj'  the  great  Frankish  ruler, 
Charlemagne,  after  a  bloody  struggle  that  lasted 
thirty  years  (772-804).  Charlemagne  was  also  able 
to  win  them  to  Christianity,  the  Saxons  being  the  last 
German  tribe  that  still  held  persistently  to  belief  in 
the  Germanic  gods.  At  different  times  the  Saxon 
wars  of  Charlemagne  have  been  called  "religious 
wars"  and  the  assertion,  which  cannot  be  proved,  has 
been  made  that  Pope  Adrian  had  called  upon  Charle- 
magne to  convert  the  Saxons  by  force.  Charle- 
magne's campaigns  were  intended  mainly  to  punish 
the  Saxons  for  their  annual  marauding  expeditions  to 
the  Rhine,  in  which  they  burned  churches  and  monas- 
teries, killed  the  priests,  and  sacrificed  their  prisoners 
of  war  to  the  gods.  The  earliest  date  at  which  it  can 
be  proved  that  Charlemagne  had  the  conquest  of  the 
Saxon  districts  in  view  is  776.  It  is  evident  that  if 
peace  was  to  be  permanent  the  overthrow  of  the  Sax- 
ons must  be  accompanied  by  their  conversion  to 
Christianity.  The  necessity  for  this  was  based  also 
on  the  nature  of  the  Frankish  kingdom  in  which  poli- 
tics and  religion  were  never  separated.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  true  that  various  measures  taken  by  Charle- 
magne, as  the  execution  of  4500  Saxons  at  Verden 
in  782  and  the  hard  laws  issued  to  the  subjugated, 
were  shortsighted  and  cruel.  The  Church,  however, 
cannot  be  made  responsible  in  any  case  for  this  policy 
of  Charlemagne's  which  it  never  approved.  Although 
the  opposition  in  the  Saxon  territories  to  Christian 
teaching  had  been  obstinate  only  a  few  decades  before, 
the  Saxons  grew  accustomed  to  the  new  life.  The 
Christian  conception  of  life  sank  deep  into  the  hearts 
of  the  people,  and  in  little  more  than  a  hundred  years 
the  Saxons  were  the  messengers  and  defenders  of  a 
Christian,  German  civilization  among  the  Slavonic 
tribes.  The  work  of  converting  Saxony  was  given 
to  St.  Sturmi,  who  was  on  terms  of  friendship  with 
Charlemagne,  and  the  monks  of  the  monastery  of 
Fulda  founded  by  Sturmi.  Among  the  successful 
mLssionaries  of  the  Faith  were  also  St.  Willihad,  the 
first  Bishop  of  Bremen,  and  his  Anglo-Saxon  com- 
panions. After  St.  Sturmi's  death  (779)  the  country 
of  the  Saxons  was  divided  into  missionary  districts, 
and  each  of  these  placed  under  a  Frankish  bishop. 
Parishes  were  established  within  the  old  judicial  dis- 
tricts. With  the  generous  aid  of  Charlemagne  and 
hia  nobles  large  numbers  of  churches  and  monasteries 
were  founded,  and  as  .soon  as  peace  and  quiet  had  been 
re-established  in  the  different  districts,  permanent 
dioceses  were  founded. 

The  Medieval  Duchy  of  Saxony. — When  the  Frank- 
ish kingdom  was  divided  by  the  Treaty  of  Verdun 
(84.'}  j  the  territory  east  of  the  Rhine  became  the  East 
Frankish  Kingdom,  from  which  the  present  Germany 
has  developed.  A  strong  central  authority  was  lack- 
ing during  the  reigns  of  the  weak  East  Frankish  kings 
of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty.  Each  German  tribe  was 
forced  to  rely  upon  itself  for  defence  against  the  incur- 
sions of  the  Normans  from  the  north  and  of  the  Slavs 
from  the  east,  consequently  the  tribes  once  more 
chose  dukes  as  rulers.  The  first  Saxon  duke  was  Otto 
the   Illustrious   (880-912)    of   the    Liudolfinger   line 


(descendants  of  Liudolf ) ;  Otto  was  able  to  extend  his 
power  over  Thuringia.  Otto's  son  Henry  was  elected 
King  of  Germany  (919-936);  Henry  is  justly  called 
the  real  founder  of  the  German  Empire.  His  son 
Otto  I  (936-973)  was  the  first  German  king  to  receive 
from  the  pope  the  imperial  Roman  crown  (962). 
Otto  I  was  followed  as  king  and  emperor  by  his  son 
Otto  II  (973-983),  who  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Otto  III  (983-1002) ;  both  the  kings  last  mentioned 
vainly  endeavoured  to  establish  German  authority  in 
Itaty.  The  line  of  Saxon  emperors  expired  with 
Henry  II  (1002-1024),  who  was  canonized  in  1146. 
Henry  I  had  been  both  King  of  Germany  and  Duke 
of  Saxony  at  the  same  time.  Mainly  for  the  sake  of 
his  ducal  possessions  he  had  carried  on  a  long  and  diffi- 
cult struggle  with  the  Slavs  on  the  eastern  boundary 
of  his  country.  The  Emperor  Otto  I  was  also  for  the 
greater  part  of  his  reign  Duke  of  Saxony.  Otto  I 
brought  the  Slavonic  territory  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Elbe  and  Saale  under  German  supremacy  and 
Christian  civilization.  He  divided  the  region  he  had 
acquired  into  several  margravates,  the  most  impor- 
tant being:  the  North  Mark,  out  of  which  in  the  course 
of  time  the  present  Kingdom  of  Prussia  developed, 
and  the  Mark  of  Meissen,  from  which  has  sprung  the 
present  Kingdom  of  Saxony.  Each  mark  was  di- 
vided into  districts,  not  only  for  military  and  political 
purposes  but  also  for  ecclesiastical:  the  central  point 
of  each  district  was  a  fortified  castle.  The  first 
churches  built  near  these  castles  were  plain  buiklings 
of  wood  or  rubble-stone. 

Otto  I  laid  the  basis  of  the  organization  of  the 
Church  in  this  territory,  that  had  been  won  for  the 
German  race  and  Christianity,  by  making  the  chief 
fortified  places  which  he  established  in  the  different 
marks  the  sees  of  dioceses.  The  Ottonian  emperors 
also  aided  much  in  bringing  to  Christianity  the  great 
Slavonic  people,  the  Poles,  who  lived  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Oder,  as  for  a  time  the  Polish  country  was 
under  German  suzerainty.  Unfortunately  the  prom- 
ising beginnings  of  Christian  civilization  among  the 
Slavs  were  largely  destroyed  by  the  violence  of  the 
Slavonic  rebellions  in  the  years  980  and  1060.  In  960 
Otto  I  had  transferred  the  ducal  authority  over  Sax- 
ony to  a  Count  Hermann,  who  had  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  struggle  with  the  Slavs,  and  the  ducal  title 
became  hereditary  in  Count  Hermann's  family. 
This  oki  Duchy  of  Saxony,  as  it  is  called  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  Duchy  of  Saxe-Wittenberg,  became  the 
centre  of  the  opposition  of  the  German  princes  to  the 
imperial  power  during  the  era  of  the  Franconian  or 
Salian  emperors.  With  the  death  of  Duke  Magnus 
in  1106  the  Saxon  ducal  family,  frequently  called  the 
Billung  line,  became  extinct.  The  Emperor  Henry  V 
(1106-2.'))  gave  the  Duchy  of  Saxony  in  fief  to  Count 
I^othair  of  Supplinburg,  who  in  112,5  became  King  of 
Germany,  and  at  his  death  (1137)  transferred  the 
Duchy  of  Saxony  to  his  son-in-law,  Duke  Henry  the 
Proud,  of  the  princely  family  of  the  Guelphs.  The 
hundred  years  of  war  waged  by  the  family  of  Guelph 
with  the  Hohenstaufen  emperors  is  famous  in  history. 
The  son  of  Henry  the  Proud  (d.  1139)  was  Henry  the 
Lion  (d.  119.5),  who  extended  Cerman  authority  and 
Christianity  into  the  prcsi'ut  Mecklenburg  and  Pom- 
erania,  and  re-establishe(l  Christianity  in  the  terri- 
tories devastated  by  the;  Slavonic  revolts.  Henry 
the  Lion  refused  to  aid  the  Emperor  Frederick  I 
Barbarossa  in  his  campaign  against  the  cities  of 
I^ombardy  in  1176,  con.sequently  in  1180  the  bann  of 
the  empire  was  proclaimed  against  Henry  at  Wurz- 
burg,  and  1181  the  old  Duchy  of  Saxony  was  cut  up 
at  the  Diet  of  Gelnhausen  into  many  small  portions. 
The  greater  share  of  its  western  portion  was  given, 
as  the  Duchy  of  Westphalia,  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Cologne.  The  Saxon  bishops  who  had  before  this 
pos-sessed  sovereign  authority  in  their  territories, 
though  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Duke  of  Saxony, 


SAXONY 


499 


SAXONY 


were  now  subject  only  to  the  imperial  government; 
the  case  was  the  same  with  a  large  number  of  secular 
countships  and  cities. 

The  Diet  of  Gelnhausen  is  of  much  importance  in 
the  history  of  Germany.  The  Emperor  Frederick  exe- 
cuted here  a  great  legal  act.  Yet  the  splitting  up  of 
the  extensive  country  of  the  Saxons  into  a  large  num- 
ber of  principalities  subject  only  to  the  imperial 
government  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  system  of 
petty  states  which  proved  so  disadvantageous  to 
Germany  in  its  later  history.  The  territory  of  the 
old  duchy  never  again  bore  the  name  of  Saxony;  the 
large  western  part  acquired  the  name  of  WestphaUa. 
However,  as  regards  customs  and  peculiarities  of 
speech,  the  designation  Lower  Saxony  is  still  in  exist- 
ence for  the  districts  on  the  lower  Elbe,  that  is,  the 
northern  part  of  the  present  Province  of  Saxony, 
Hanover,  Hamburg,  etc.,  in  distinction  from  Upper 
Saxony,  that  is,  the  present  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  and 
Thuringia.  From  the  era  of  the  conversion  of  the 
Saxons  up  to  the  revolt  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
a  rich  religious  Ufe  was  developed  in  the  territory 
included  in  the  medieval  Duchy  of  Saxony.  Art, 
learning,  poetry,  and  the  writing  of  history  reached  a 
high  degree  of  perfection  in  the  many  monasteries. 
Among  the  most  noted  places  of  learning  were  the 
cathedral  and  monastery  schools  of  Clorbie,  Hildes- 
heim,  Paderborn,  and  Munster.  This  era  produced 
architecturally  fine  churches  of  the  Romanesque  style 
that  are  still  in  existence,  as  the  cathedrals  of  Goslar, 
Soest,  and  Brunswick,  the  chapel  of  St.  Hartliolomew 
at  Paderborn,  the  collegiate  churches  at  Quedlinburg, 
Konigslutter,  Gernrode,  etc.  Hildesheim,  which  con- 
tains much  Romanesque  work,  has  especially  fine 
churches  of  this  style.  The  cathedrals  at  Naumburg, 
Paderborn,  Munster,  and  Osnabriick  are  striking  ex- 
amples of  the  Transition  period.  Only  a  few  of  these 
buildings  still  belong  to  the  Catholic  Church. 

II.  Electoral  Saxony. — After  the  dissolution  of 
the  medieval  Duchy  of  Saxony  the  name  Saxony  was 
first  applied  to  a  small  part  of  the  ancient  duchy  situ- 
ated on  the  Elbe  around  the  city  of  Wittenberg. 
This  was  given  to  Bernard  of  A.scania,  the  second 
son  of  Albert  the  Bear,  who  was  the  founder  of  the 
Mark  of  Brandenburg,  from  which  has  come  the  pres- 
ent Kingdom  of  Prussia.  Bernard's  son,  Albert  I, 
added  to  this  territory  the  lord.ship  of  Lauenburg,  and 
Albert's  sons  divided  the  possessions  into  Saxe-Wit- 
tenberg  and  Saxc- Lauenburg.  When  in  L3.56  the 
Emperor  Charles  IV  issued  the  Goldcm  Bull,  the  fun- 
damental law  of  the  empire  which  settled  the  method 
of  electing  the  German  emperor,  the  Duchy  of  Saxe- 
Wittenberg  was  made  one  of  the  seven  electorates. 
The  duke  as  elector  thereby  received  the  right  to 
elect,  in  company  with  the  other  six  electors,  the  Ger- 
man emperor.  In  this  way  the  country,  though  small 
in  area,  obtained  an  influential  position.  The  elec- 
toral dignity  had  connected  with  it  the  obligation  of 
primogeniture,  that  is,  only  the  oldest  son  could  suc- 
ceed as  ruler;  this  excluded  the  division  of  the  terri- 
tory among  several  heirs  and  consequently  the  dis- 
integration of  the  country.  The  importance  of  this 
stipulation  is  shown  by  the  history  of  most  of  the  Ger- 
man principalities  which  were  not  electorates.  The 
Ascanian  line  of  Saxe-Wittenberg  became  extinct  in 
1422.  The  Emperor  Sigismund  bestowed  the  country 
and  electoral  dignity  upon  Margrave  P'rederick  the  Val- 
iant of  Meissen,  a  member  of  the  Wettin  line.  As  was 
mentioned  above,  the  Margravate  of  Meissen  had  been 
founded  by  the  Emperor  Otto  I.  In  1089  it  came  into  • 
the  possession  of  the  Wettin  family,  who  from  1247  also 
owned  the  eastern  part  of  the  Margravate  of  Thurin- 
gia. In  1422  Saxe-Wittenberg,  and  the  Margravatesof 
Meissen  and  Thuringia  were  united  into  one  country, 
which  gradually  received  the  name  of  Saxony.  Elec- 
tor Frederick  the  Valiant  died  in  1464,  and  his  two 
eons  made  a  division  of  his  territories  at  Leipzig  on  26 


August,  1485,  which  led  to  the  still  existing  separation 
of  the  Wettin  dynasty  into  the  Ernestine  and  Alber- 
tine  lines.  Duke  Ernest,  the  founder  of  the  Ernestine 
line,  received  by  the  Partition  of  Leipzig  the  Duchy 
of  Saxony  and  the  electoral  dignity  united  with  it, 
besides  the  Landgravate  of  Thuringia;  Albert,  the 
founder  of  the  Albertine  line,  received  the  Margravate 
of  Meissen.  Thus  the  Ernestine  line  seemed  to  have 
the  greater  authority.  However,  in  the  sixteenth 
century  the  electoral  dignity  fell  to  the  Albertine  line, 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  re- 
ceived the  royal  title  as  well. 

The  Protestant  revolt  of  the  sixteenth  century  was 
effected  under  the  protection  of  the  electors  of  Saxe- 
Wittenberg.  The  Elector  Frederick  the  Wise  estab- 
lished a  university  at  Wittenberg  in  1502,  at  which  the 
Augustinian  monk  Martin  Luther  (q.  v.)  was  made 
professor  of  philosophy  in  1508;  at  the  same  time  he 
became  one  of  the  preachers  at  the  castle  church  of 
Wittenberg.  On  31  October,  1517,  he  posted  up  on 
this  church  the  ninety-five  theses  against  indulgences 
with  which  he  began  what  is  called  the  Reformation. 
The  elector  did  not  become  at  once  an  adherent  of  the 
new  opinions,  but  granted  his  protection  to  Luther; 
consequently,  owing  to  the  intervention  of  the  elector, 
the  pope  did  not  summon  Luther  to  Rome  (1518); 
also  through  the  elector's  mediation  Luther  received 
the  imperial  safe-conduct  to  the  Diet  of  Worms  (1521). 
When  Luther  was  declared  at  Worms  to  be  under  the 
ban  of  the  empire  the  elector  had  him  brought  to  the 
Castle  of  the  Wartburg  in  Thuringia.  The  new  doc- 
trine spread  first  in  Saxe-Wittenberg.  The  succes- 
sor of  Frederick  the  Wise  (d.  1525)  was  his  brother 
John  the  Constant  (d.  1532).  John  was  already  a 
zealous  Lutheran;  he  exerci.sed  full  authority  over  the 
Church,  introduced  the  Lutheran  Confession,  ordered 
the  deposition  of  all  priests  who  continued  in  the 
Catholic  Faith,  and  directed  the  use  of  a  new  liturgy 
drawn  up  by  Luther.  In  1531  he  formed  with  a  num- 
ber of  other  ruling  princes  the  Smalkaldic  League  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  Protestant  doctrine  and  for 
common  defence  against  the  German  Emperor  Charles 
V,  because  Charles  was  an  opponent  of  the  new  doc- 
trine. The  son  and  successor  of  John  the  Constant 
was  John  Frederick  the  Magnanimous  (d.  1554).  He 
also  was  one  of  the  heads  of  the  Smalkaldic  League, 
which  was  inimical  to  the  emperor  and  Catholicism. 
In  1542  he  seized  the  Diocese  of  Naumburg-Zeitz,  and 
attacked  and  plundered  the  secular  possessions  of  the 
Dioceses  of  Meissen  and  Hildesheim.  The  Catholic 
Faith  was  forcibly  suppressed  in  all  directions  and  the 
churches  and  monast(Ties  were  robbed.  John  Fred- 
erick was  defeated  and  captured  by  Charles  V  at  the 
Battle  of  Miihlberg  on  the  Elbe,  24  April,  1547.  In 
the  Capitulation  of  Wittenberg,  19  May,  1547,  the 
elector  was  obliged  to  y'uM  Saxe-Wittenberg  and  the 
electoral  dignity  to  Duke  Maurice  of  Saxe-Meissen. 
After  this  the  only  possession  of  the  Ernestine  line  of 
the  Wettin  family  was  Thuringia,  which,  however,  on 
account  of  repeated  divisions  among  the  heirs  was  soon 
cut  up  into  a  number  of  duchies.  Those  still  in  exist- 
ence are:  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar-Eise- 
nach, the  Duchies  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Saxe-Mein- 
ingen,  and  Saxe-Altenburg. 

Duke  Albert  (d.  1500)  was  succeeded  in  the  Duchy 
of  Saxe-Meissen  by  his  son  George  the  Bearded  (d. 
1539).  George  was  a  strong  opponent  of  the  Lu- 
theran doctrine  and  had  repeatedly  sought  to  influ- 
ence his  cousins  the  Electors  of  Saxe-Wittenberg  in 
favour  of  the  Catholic  Church,  but  George's  brother 
and  successor,  Henry  the  Pious  (d.  1541),  was  won 
over  to  Protestantism  by  the  influence  of  his  wife 
Catharine  of  Mecklenburg,  and  thus  Saxe-Meissen 
was  also  lost  to  the  Church.  Henry's  son  and  suc- 
cessor Maurice  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  per- 
sons of  the  Reformation  period.  Although  a  zealous 
Protestant,  ambition  and  desire  to  increase  his  pos- 


SAXONY 


500 


SAXONY 


sessions  led  him  to  join  the  emperor  against  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Smalkaldic  League.  The  Capitulation  of 
Wittenberg  gave  him,  as  already  mentioned,  the  elec- 
toral dignity  and  Saxe-^Yittenberg,  so  that  the  Elec- 
torate of  Saxony  now  consisted  of  Saxe- Wittenberg 
and  Saxe-Meissen  together,  under  the  authority  of 
the  Albertine  line  of  the  Wet  tin  family.  Partly  from 
resentment  at  not  receiving  also  what  was  left  of  the 
Ernestine  possessions,  but  moved  still  more  by  his 
desire  to  have  a  Protestant  head  to  the  empire,  Mau- 
rice fell  away  from  the  German  Emperor.  He  made 
a  treaty  witli  France  (1551)  in  which  he  gave  the  Dio- 
ceses of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun  in  Lorraine  to  France, 
and  secretly  shared  in  all  the  princely  conspiracies 
against  the  emperor  of  whom  he  was  apparently  a 
faithful  adherent.  In  L552  he  even  led  an  imperial 
army  against  the  emperor  who  only  escaped  capture 
by  flight ;  and  during  the  same  year  the  emperor  was 
obliged  by  the  Treaty  of  Passau  to  grant  freedom  of 
religion  to  the  Protestant  Estates.  Maurice  died  in 
1553  at  the  age  of  thirty-two.  His  brother  and  suc- 
cessor Elector  Augustus  took  the  Dioceses  of  Merse- 
burg,  Xaumburg,  and  Meissen  for  himself.  The  last 
Bishop  of  Menseburg,  Michael  Helding,  called  Sido- 
nius,  died  at  Vienna  in  1561.  The  emperor  demanded 
the  election  of  a  new  bishop,  but  the  Elector  Augustus 
forced  the  election  of  his  son  Alexander,  who  was  eight 
years  old,  as  administrator;  when  Alexander  died  in 
1565  he  administered  the  diocese  himself.  In  the  same 
manner  after  the  death  of  Bishop  Pflug  (d.  1564),  the 
last  CathoUc  bishop  of  Naumburg,  the  elector  con- 
fiscated the  Diocese  of  Naumbmg  and  forbade  the 
exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion.  Those  cathedral 
canons  who  were  still  Catholic  were  only  permitted 
to  exercise  their  religion  for  ten  years  more. 

In  1581  John  of  Haugwitz,  the  last  Bishop  of 
Meissen,  resigned  his  office,  and  in  1587  became  a 
Protestant.  The  episcopal  domains  fell  likewise  to 
Saxony,  and  the  cathedral  chapter  ceased  to  exist. 
During  the  reigns  of  the  Elector  Augustus  (d.  1586), 
and  Christian  (d.  1591),  a  freer  form  of  Protestantism, 
called  Crypto-Calvinism  prevailed  in  the  duchy. 
During  the  reign  of  Christian  II  (d.  1611)  the  chan- 
cellor, Crell,  who  had  spread  the  doctrine,  was  over- 
thrown and  beheaded  (1601)  and  a  rigid  Lutheranism 
was  reintroduced  and  with  it  a  reUgious  oath.  The 
great  religious  war  called  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
(1618-48)  occurred  during  the  reign  of  Elector  John 
George  (1611-56).  In  this  struggle  the  elector  was 
at  first  neutral,  and  for  a  long  time  he  would  not 
listen  to  the  overtures  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King 
of  Sweden.  It  was  not  until  the  imperial  general 
Tilly  advanced  into  Saxony  that  the  elector  joined 
Sweden.     However,  after  the  Battle  of  Nordlingen 

(1634)  the  elector  concluded  the  Peace  of  Prague 

(1635)  with  the  emperor.  By  this  treaty  Saxony 
received  the  Margravates  of  Upper  and  Lower  Lusatia 
as  a  Bohemian  fief,  and  the  condition  of  the  Church 
lands  that  had  been  secularized  was  not  altered.  The 
Swedes,  however,  revenged  themselves  by  ten  years 
of  plundering.  The  Treaty  of  Westphalia  of  1648 
took  from  Saxony  forever  the  possibility  of  extending 
its  territory  along  the  lower  course  of  the  Elbe,  and 
confirmexi  the  preponderance  of  Prussia.  In  1653 
the  direction  of  the  CorpiLs  Evangelicorum  fell  to 
Saxony,  because  the  elector  became  the  head  of  the 
union  of  the  Protestant  Imperial  Estates.  Under  the 
following  electors  religious  questions  were  not  so 
prominent;  a  rigid  Lutheranism  n^mained  the  prevail- 
mg  faith,  and  the  practice  of  any  other  was  strictly 
prohibited.  About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
c<;ntury  Italian  merchants,  the  first  Catholics  to  re- 
appear in  the  country,  settled  at  Dresden,  the  capital 
and  at  I><'ipzig,  the  most  important  commercial  city; 
the  exercise  of  the  CathoUc  religion,  however,  was  not 
permhUid  to  them. 

A  change  followed  when  on   1   June,   1697,   the 


Elector  Frederick  Augustus  I  (1694-1733)  returned 
to  the  Catholic  Faith  and  in  consequence  of  this  waa 
soon  afterwards  elected  King  of  Poland.  The  forma- 
tion of  a  Catholic  parish  and  the  private  practice  of 
the  Catholic  Faith  was  jiermitted  at  least  in  Dresden. 
As  the  return  of  the  elector  to  the  Church  aroused  the 
fear  among  Lutherans  that  the  Catholic  religion  would 
now  be  re-established  in  Saxony,  the  elector  trans- 
ferred to  a  government  board,  the  Privy  Council,  the 
authority  over  the  Lutheran  churches  and  schools 
which,  until  then,  had  been  exercised  by  the  sovereign; 
the  Pri\'^^  Council  was  formed  exclusively  of  Protes- 
tants. Even  after  his  conversion  the  elector  remained 
the  head  of  the  Corpus  Evangelicorum,  as  did  his 
Catholic  successors  until  1806,  when  the  Corpus  vfaa 
dissolved  at  the  same  time  as  the  Holy  Roman  Empu-e. 
His  son.  Elector  Fredeiick  Augustus  II  (1733-63), 
was  received  into  the  Catholic  Cliurch  on  28  Novem- 
ber, 1712,  at  Bologna,  Italy,  while  heir-apparent. 
With  this  conversion,  which  on  account  of  the  excited 
state  of  feeling  of  the  Lutheran  population  had  to  be 
kept  secret  for  five  years,  the  ruling  family  of  Saxony 
once  more  became  Catholic.  Before  this,  individual 
members  of  the  Albertine  line  had  returned  to  the 
Churcli,  but  they  had  died  without  issue,  as  did  the 
last  ruler  of  Saxe-Weissenfels,  a  collateral  line  founded 
in  1657,  and  the  master  of  the  imperial  ordnance,  John 
Adolphus  of  Saxe-Weissenfels  (d.  1746).  Another 
collateral  line  founded  in  1657  was  that  of  Saxe- 
Naumburg-Zeitz,  which  became  extinct  in  1759. 
Those  who  became  Catholics  of  this  line  were  Chris- 
tian Augustus,  cardinal  and  Archbishop  of  Gran  in 
Hungary  (d.  1725),  and  Maurice  Adolphus,  Bishop  of 
Leitmeritz  in  Bohemia  (d.  1759).  The  most  zealous 
promoter  of  the  Catholic  Faith  in  Saxony  was  the 
Austrian  Archduchess  Maria  Joscpha,  daughter  of  the 
Emperor  Joseph  I,  who  in  1719  married  Frederick 
Augustus,  later  the  second  elector  of  that  name.  The 
Court  church  of  Dresden  was  built  1739-51  by  the 
Italian  architect,  Chiaveri,  in  the  Roman  Baroque 
style;  this  is  still  the  finest  and  most  imposing  church 
edifice  in  Saxony  and  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
churches  in  Germany  Notwithstanding  the  faith 
of  its  rulers,  however,  Saxony  remained  entirely  a 
Protestant  coimtry;  the  few  Catholics  who  settled 
there  remained  without  any  political  or  civil  rights. 
When  in  1806  Napoleon  began  a  war  with  Prussia, 
Saxony  at  first  alUed  itself  to  Prussia,  but  afterwards 
joined  Napoleon  and  entered  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine.  Elector  Frederick  Augustus  III  (1763-1827) 
received  the  title  of  King  of  Saxony  as  Frederick 
Augustus  I. 

III.  The  Kingdom  of  Saxony. — The  new  kingdom 
was  an  ally  of  France  in  all  the  Naj)oleonic  wars  of 
the  years  1807-13.  At  the  beginning  of  the  great 
War  of  Liberation  (1813)  the  king  sided  neither  with 
Napoleon  nor  with  his  allied  opponents,  but  united 
his  troops  with  those  of  France  wlien  Napoleon  threat- 
ened to  treat  Saxony  as  a  hostile  country.  At  the 
Battle  of  Leipzig  (16-18  October,  1813),  when  Napo- 
leon was  completely  defeated,  the  greater  part  of  the 
Saxon  troops  deserted  to  the  allied  forces.  The  King 
of  Saxony  was  taken  as  a  Prussian  prisoner  to  the 
Castle  of  Friedrichsfeld  near  Berlin  The  Congress 
of  Vienna  (1814-15)  took  from  Saxony  the  greater 
part  of  its  land  and  gave  it  to  Prussia,  namely  7800 
sfnian;  ini](!S  witli  al)out  850,000  inhabitants;  this 
ceded  territory  included  tlic^  former  Duchy  of  Saxe- 
WittenlxTg,  tlie  former  possessions  of  the  Dioceses  of 
Mersel)urg  and  Naiinihurg,  a  large  i)art  of  Lusatia,  etc. 
What  Prussia  had  obtained,  with  addition  of  some  old 
Prussian  districts,  was  formed  into  the  Province  of 
Saxony.  The  K.ingdom  of  Saxony  had  left  only  an 
ansa  <)f  57.S9  sriuanr  miUis  with  a  population  at  that 
era  of  1,500,000  inhabitants;  under  these  conditions 
it  became  a  membcsr  of  the  Ge^rman  Confc;deration 
that  was  founded  in   1815.     King  John    (1854^73) 


SAXONY 


501 


SAXONY 


sided  with  Austria  in  the  struggle  between  Prussia 
and  Austria  as  to  the  supremacy  in  Germany.  Con- 
sequently in  the  War  of  18(36,  when  Prussia  was  suc- 
cessful, the  independence  of  Saxony  was  once  more 
in  danger;  only  the  intervention  of  the  Austrian 
Emperor  saved  Saxony  from  being  entirely  absorbed 
by  Prussia.  The  kingdom,  however,  was  obliged  to 
join  the  North  German  Confederation  of  which 
Prussia  was  the  head.  In  1871  Saxony  became  one 
of  the  states  of  the  newly-founded  German  Empire. 
King  John  was  followed  by  his  son  King  Albert  (1873- 
1902) ;  Albert  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  George 
(1902-04);  the  son  of  George  is  King  Frederick 
Augustus  III  (b.  1865).  Prince  Maximilian  (b.  1870), 
a  brother  of  the  present  king,  became  a  priest  in  1896, 
was  engaged  in  parish  work  in  London  and  Nurem- 
berg, and  since  1900  has  been  a  professor  of  canon  law 
and  liturgy  in  the  University  of  Freiburg  in  Switzer- 
land. 

The  Kingdom  of  Saxony  is  the  fifth  state  of  the 
German  Empire  in  area  and  third  in  population;  in 
1905  the  average  population  per  square  mile  was 
778.8.  Saxony  is  the  most  densely  peopled  state  of 
the  empire,  and  indeed  of  all  Europe;  the  rea.son  is 
the  very  large  immigration  on  account  of  the  de\-elop- 
ment  of  manufactures.  In  1910  the  population 
amounted  to  5,302,485;  of  whom  218,033  wen;  Cath- 
olics; 4,250,398  Evangelican  Lutherans;  14,697  Jews; 
and  a  small  proportion  of  other  denominations.  The 
Cathohc  population  of  Saxony  owes  its  present  num- 
bers largely  to  immigration  during  the  nineteenth 
century.  Catholicism  that  can  Ix'  traced  back  to  the 
period  before  the  Reformation  is  found  only  in  one 
section,  the  governmental  department  of  IJautzen. 
Even  here  there  is  no  continuous  Catholic  district, 
but  there  are  a  nvnnber  of  \illag('s  where  the  popula- 
tion is  almost  entirely  Catholic,  and  two  cities  (Ostritz 
and  Schirgiswalde)  where  Catholics  are  in  the  major- 
ity. It  should  also  be  mentioned  that  about  1.5  per 
cent  of  the  inhabitants  of  Saxony  consists  of  the  re- 
mains of  a  Slavonic  tribe  called  by  the  Germans 
Wends,  and  in  their  own  language  "Serbjo".  These 
Wends,  who  number  about  120,000  persons  and  live 
in  Saxon  and  Prussian  Lusatia,  are  entirely  surrounded 
by  a  German  poj)ulation;  consequently  owing  to 
German  influence  the  Wendic  language,  manners,  and 
customs  are  gradually  disappearing.  About  50,000 
Wends  live  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony;  of  the.se  about 
12,000  belong  to  the  Catholic  Church;  some  fifty 
Wendic  villages  are  entirely  Catholic.  There  is  also 
a  large  Wendic  poijulatioii  in  the  city  of  Bautzen, 
where  among  30,000  inhabitants  7,000  are  Wends. 

The  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Saxony,  and  the  Prefect- 
ure Apostolic  of  Saxon  Upper  Lusatia. — As  regards  the 
Cathohc  Church  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  is  dividerl  into 
two  administrative  districts:  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
Saxony,  and  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Saxon  Upper 
Lusatia.  The  vicariate  Apostolic  includes  the  hered- 
itary lands,  that  is,  those  portions  of  Saxony  which 
before  1635  belonged  to  the  Electorate  of  Saxony  and 
which  the  Treaty  of  Vienna  of  1815  did  not  take  from 
the  country;  the  vicariate  also  includes  the  Duchy  of 
Saxe-Altenburg,  and  the  two  principalities  of  Reuss. 
The  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Lusatia  includes  the  for- 
mer Margravate  of  Lusatia,  which  in  1635  was  sepa- 
rated from  Bohemia  and  given  to  Saxony;  since  the 
Treaty  of  Vienna  of  1815,  however,  this  ecclesiastical 
district  comprises  only  that  part  of  Upper  Lusatia 
that  has  remained  Saxon,  the  present  fifth  Saxon 
administrative  Department  of  Bautzen.  Since  the 
adjustment  of  the  parishes  in  1904  the  Vicariate  Apos- 
tolic of  Saxony  comprises  (including  the  small  princi- 
palities of  Reuss  and  Saxe-Altenburg),  26  parishes 
and  7  expositorships,  with,  in  1909,  55  priests;  Upper 
Lusatia  comprises  16  parishes,  of  which  7  are  Wen- 
dic, and  2  expositorships,  with  altogether  30  priests. 
The  clergy  are  educated  at  the  Wendic  seminary  at 


Prague,  the  capital  of  Bohemia;  this  seminary,  which 
was  founded  in  1740  by  two  Wends,  was  oViginally 
intended  only  for  Lusatia  but  now  is  used  for  the  whole 
of  Saxony.  Its  pupils  first  attend  the  gymnasium  of 
Prague  and  then  the  university  there. 

The  Vicariate  Apostohc  of  Saxony  was  established 
in  1763  by  Pope  Clement  XIII;  before  this  the  con- 
fes.sors  of  the  electors,  who  like  all  the  priests  in  Sax- 
ony at  that  era  were  Jesuits,  conducted  the  affairs 
of  the  Church  under  the  title  of  superior.  The  most 
celebrated  of  these  was  Father  Carlo  Maurizio  Vol- 
tor,  an  Italian,  the  confessor  of  the  elector  and  King 
Frederick  Augustus  I.  Father  Voltor  was  also  a  noted 
diplomatist  who  had  much  influence  at  the  Court  of 
Vienna,  for  example,  he  had  some  share  in  obtaining 
the  title  of  King  of  Prussia  (1701)  for  the  Protes- 
tant Elector  of  Brandenburg.  The  first  vicar  Apos- 
tolic was  Father  Augustin  Eggs,  S.J.;  for  some  un- 
known reason  he  left  Saxony  after  the  death  of  the 
Elector  Frederick  Christian  (1764).  He  was  followed  by 
Father  Franz  Herz,  S.J.,  who  continued  to  adminis- 
ter his  oflfice  after  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  in 
1773;  after  his  death  (1800)  Dr.  Johann  Alois  Schneider 
(d.  1818)  was  appointed  vicar  Apostolic.  In  1816 
Dr.  Schneider  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Argia, 
being  the  first  Saxon  vicar  to  be  made  a  bishop.  In 
the  troubled  times  of  1813-14  he  was  the  true  friend 
and  trusted  adviser  of  the  royal  family;  he  also  ac- 
compani(Hl  the  king  when  the  latter  was  imprisoned 
by  Prussia.  His  succes.sor,  Ignatz  Beriihanl  Mauer- 
riiann  (d.  1845),  had  the  title  of  titular  Bishop  of  Pel- 
lia.  In  1831  the  canons  of  the  (uithedral  of  Bautzen 
elected  Bi.shop  Mauermann  as  cathedral  dean  of 
Bautzen.  After  Bishop  Mauermann's  (leath  this 
union  of  the  two  highest  ecclesiastical  oflSces  in  Sax- 
ony was  dis.solved,  but  since  the  death  of  the  cathe- 
dral dean  of  Bautzen,  Johann  Kutschank  (1844),  the 
bishop  has  held  both  ofhces  with  the  exception  of  the 
years  1900-04.  Bishop  Mauermann  was  succeeded 
by  his  older  brother  Franz  Lorenz  Mauermann  (d. 
1845)  with  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Rama.  The  next 
bishop  was  Johann  Dittrich  (d.  1853),  titular  Bishop 
of  Korykus,  who  in  1844  had  been  elected  cathedral 
dean  of  Bautzen;  he  was  followed  by  Ludwig  Forwerk 
(d.  1875),  titular  Bishop  of  Leontopohs. 

After  the  Vatican  Council  (1869-70)  Bishop  For- 
werk's  skill  enabled  him  to  prevent  the  spread  of  Old 
Catholicism  in  Saxony  at  the  time  when  the  procla- 
mation of  the  Dogma  of  Infallibility  led  to  its  devel- 
opment in  Germany.  He  was  followed  by  Franz 
Bernert  (d.  1890),  titular  Bishoj)  of  Azotus,  who  was 
succeeded  by  Dr.  Ludwig  Wahl  (d.  1904),  titular  Bishop 
of  Cocusus  (Cocrun).  From  1900  this  bi.shop  was 
not  able  to  exercise  his  office  on  account  of  severe 
illness;  during  this  period  the  Apostohc  See  appointed 
the  prothonotary,  Monsignor  Karl  Maas,  adminis- 
trator for  the  vicariate  Apostolic,  and  the  canon  of 
the  cathedral  at  Bautzen,  Monsignor  Georg  Wu- 
schanski,  as  administrator  for  Upper  Lusatia.  In 
1904  Wuschanski  was  made  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Saxony 
and  titular  Bishop  of  Samos.  Bishop  Wuschanski 
died,  however,  by  the  end  of  1905.  In  1906  his  place 
was  filled  by  Dr.  Alois  Schafer.  Dr.  Schafer  was  born 
at  Dingelstadt  in  the  Eichfelde  (Pru-ssian  Province  of 
Saxony)  on  2  May,  1853,  and  in  1863  his  parents 
settled  at  Chemnitz  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony.  In 
1878  Dr.  Schafer  was  ordained  priest,  and  was  at  first 
active  in  parish  work;  in  1881  he  was  made  professor 
of  exegesis  at  the  lyceum  at  Dillingen  in  Bavaria; 
in  1885  he  became  professor  of  New  Testament  exe- 
gesis at  the  University  of  Miinster  in  Westphalia;  in 
1894  he  was  a  professor  of  the  same  at  the  University 
of  Breslau,  and  in  1903  at  the  University  of  Stras- 
burg.  His  title  is:  Titular  Bishop  of  Abila,  Vicar 
Apostohc  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  Administrator 
Ecclesiasticus  in  Saxon  Upper  Lusatia.  The  vicar 
Apostohc  is  appointed  by  the  pope  upon  the  nomina- 


SAXONY 


502 


SAXONY 


tion  of  the  King  of  Saxony.  According  to  the  Con- 
stitution of  Saxony  the  dean  of  the  cathedral  at  Baut- 
zen is  a  permanent  member  of  the  I'pper  House  of  the 
Saxon  diet,  but  not  the  vicar  Apostohc  as  such;  he  is 
a  member  only  because  the  two  offices  are  generally 
united.  The  "two  ecclesiastical  offices  are  combined 
on  account  of  the  revenues,  and  the  union  is  effected 
thus:  the  chapter  of  Bautzen  elects  as  dean  the  vicar 
Apostolic  who  has  already  been  appointed  for  the 
hereditary  possessions  of  Saxony.  It  should  be  said, 
however,  that  the  union  is  only  a  personal  one  and 
that  the  two  administrative  districts  of  the  Church 
exist  the  same  after  as  before  the  union. 

At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  Lusatia  belonged 
politically,  as  has  already  been  said,  to  Bohemia,  i.e., 
to  Austria.  Before  his  resignation  the  last  Bishop 
of  Mei.s.sen  transferred  in  1581,  with  the  approval  of 
the  Holy  See,  the  ecclesiastical  administration  of 
Lusatia  to  Johann  Leisentritt  of  Juhusberg,  dean  of  the 
cathedral  chapter  of  Bautzen,  as  adminidrator  epis- 
copatus.  When  the  Reformation  entered  the  country 
Dean  Leisentritt  was  able  to  keep  at  least  a  part  of 
the  population  faithful  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
Most  important  of  those  bodies  that  remained  Catho- 
hc  were:  the  cathedral  chapter  of  St.  Peter's  at  Baut- 
zen; the  two  celebrated  Cistercian  abbeys  for  wonien, 
Marienthal  near  Ostritz  on  the  Neisse  and  Marien- 
stem  between  the  cities  of  Kamenz  and  Bautzen; 
a  part  of  the  parishes  that  had  been  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  monasteries,  and  some  other  independent 
towns.  The  only  members  of  the  chapter  of  St. 
Peter's  at  Bautzen  that  remained  Catholic  were  the 
dean,  the  senior,  the  cantor,  and  the  scholasticiis;  the 
provo.st,  who  according  to  the  rules  of  the  foundation 
was  elected  from  the  chapter  at  Meissen,  became  a 
Lutheran.  Ever  since  that  time  the  provostship  has 
been  granted  by  the  Saxon  Government  to  a  Protes- 
tant, generally  to  one  of  the  higher  state  officials. 
This  secular  provost  has,  however,  no  connexion 
whatever  with  the  cathedral  chapter;  he  receives  from 
the  government  ministry  the  revenues  yielded  by  the 
lands  belonging  to  the  provo.stship.  The  cathedral 
chapter  consists  of  four  resident  canons  and  eight 
honorary  ones;  when  the  position  of  dean  is  vacant 
the  p)ower  of  aidministration  belongs  to  the  cathedral 
canons;  the  dean  is  elected  by  the  regular  and  hono- 
rary canons  in  the  presence  of  a  royal  commissioner 
and  is  confirmed  by  the  Apostolic  See.  The  Cathe- 
dral of  St.  Peter's  at  Bautzen  is  the  oldest  church  in 
Lusatia,  and  was  built  121.5-21;  at  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  it  was  much  altered.  Since  the  Ref- 
ormation the  choir  has  belonged  to  the  Catholics, 
and  the  rest  of  the  cathedral,  which  is  divided  from 
the  choir  by  a  grating,  belongs  to  the  Protestants. 
Another  church  in  Bautzen  retained  by  the  Catholics 
ifl  the  Church  of  Our  Lady,  built  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  in  which  the  services  for  the  Catholic  Wends 
are  held.  The  cathedral  chapter  has  the  right  of 
patronage  for  six  Catholic  parishes,  the  right  of  ap- 

g ointment  for  the  Catholic  seminary  for  teachers  at 
autzen,  the  same  for  the  cathedral  school,  and  also 
the  right  of  patronage  for  five  Protestant  parishes. 
The  convent  of  Marienstern,  in  the  Wendic  district 
of  Lusatia,  that  was  founded  in  the  mifMle  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  the  convent  of  Marienthal  in 
the  German  section,  that  was  founded  before  1234, 
have  done  much  to  preserve  Catholic  life  in  Lusatia. 
For  hundrwls  of  years  the  pastoral  care  of  the  two 
convents  has  been  exercised  bv  priests  of  the  Cister- 
cian mona«tery  of  Osseg  in  Bohemia.  A  pilgrimage 
church  much  visited,  especially  by  the  Wends,  is  at 
Rf>8enthal  in  the  Wendic  parish  of  Ralbitz.  In  the 
treaty  bet wwin  Saxony  and  Austria  of  13  May,  1635, 
by  which  Lusat  ia  was  transferred  to  Saxony,  the  Saxon 
elector  was  obliged  to  grant  his  special  sovereign  pro- 
tection to  the  Catholic  communities  of  Lus.itia  and  the 
two  conventa,  the  emperor,  aa  suzerain,  retaining  the 


supreme  right  of  protection.  The  Catholics  of  Lusa- 
tia had  the  right  to  the  free  exercise  of  religion,  but 
in  agreement  with  the  earlier  legal  rights  of  the  State 
Church,  only  so  far  as  they  belonged  to  one  of  the 
old  parishes.  Catholics  who  lived  within  the  bound- 
aries of  Protestant  parishes  were  obliged  to  call 
upon  the  Protestant  pastor  of  the  community  for  all 
baptisms,  marriages,  and  burials,  or  at  least  must  pay 
for  these  the  customary  fees.  This  compulsion  ex- 
ercised upon  the  Catholics  living  in  Protestant  par- 
ishes was  not  annulled  for  Lusatia  until  1863. 

By  a  treaty  of  peace  between  Saxony  and  France 
that  was  signed  at  Posen  11  December,  1806,  Saxony 
was  made  a  kingdom  and  entered  the  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine.  This  trcatj'  granted  the  Catholics  of 
Saxony  nominally,  although  not  in  reality,  civil  and 
political  equality  with  the  Lutherans.  The  fifth 
article  of  the  treaty  declared  that  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  services  were  placed  on  an  absolute  parity 
with  the  services  of  the  Augsburg  and  allied  confes- 
sions, and  subjects  belonging  to  both  religions  were 
to  enjoy  equal  rights.  Now  for  the  first  time  the 
bells  of  the  Court  Church  at  Dresden,  which  had 
hung  silent  in  the  tower  for  fifty  years,  could  be  rung. 
The  concessions  to  Saxon  Catholics  made  in  the  con- 
vention of  1806  were  confirmed  by  the  royal  edict  of 
16  February,  1807,  and  by  the  Constitution  of  the 
German  confederation  of  1815  (art.  XVI).  The  re- 
lations between  Church  and  State  were  still  further 
defined  by  the  Edict  of  19  February,  1827,  which  is 
still  in  force.  This  edict  abrogated  for  the  hereditary 
territories  the  compulsorj^  dependence  of  Catholics 
on  Protestant  ))ast<)rs  and  created  the  Catholic  Con- 
sistory for  the  administration  and  jurisdiction  of  the 
Church  including  matters  pertaining  to  marriage. 
This  consistory  is  made  up  of  three  ecclesiastical  and 
two  secular  councillors.  The  vicar  Apostolic  has  the 
right  of  nomination  for  the  appointments.  A  vica- 
rial court  was  created  as,  with  the  exception  of  Rome, 
the  highest  court  of  appeal;  it  consists  of  the  vicar 
Apostolic,  two  ecclesiastical  councillors,  one  secular 
Catholic  councillor,  a  legal  assistant,  and  in  addition 
for  matters  pertaining  to  marriage  two  Protestant 
councillors.  At  the  same  time  the  vicariate  Apos- 
tolic was  declared  to  be  simply  a  special  department 
for  Church  and  school  matters  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Protestant  state  ministry.  In  Upper  Lusatia 
the  ecclesiast  i(;al  administration  and  jurisdiction  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  "consistory  of  the  chapter 
at  Bautzen",  which  consists  of  the  dean,  three  eccle- 
siastical councillors  and  a  secular  justiciary.  The 
vicarial  court  was  made  the  court  of  appeal. 

The  Constitution  of  4  S(')itom})er,  1831,  confirmed 
the  ordinances  and  arrangcniciits  that  were  then 
valid.  It  was  forbidden  to  establish  new  monasteries 
in  addition  to  the  two  convents  of  Marienthal  and 
Marienstern  already  in  existence  in  Lusatia,  or  to 
admit  into  Saxony  the  Jesuits  or  other  religious  or- 
ders. It  was  not  until  a  few  years  ago  that  a  few  Grey 
Sisters  and  nuns  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  were  allowed 
to  settle  in  Saxony,  in  all  in  thirteen  places  within 
eight  cities.  The  authority  of  the  State  over  the 
Church,  the  supreme  supervision  and  the  right  of 
protection  were  assigned  by  the  Constitution  to  the 
king  as/w-s  circa  sacra.  By  the  Law  of  7  November, 
1837,  this  authority  was  given  to  the  department  of 
the  minister  of  education  and  worship,  who  by  the 
Constitution  must  always  be  a  Protestant.  The  ad- 
ministration and  use  made  of  the  property  of  the 
Church  is  also  under  the  supervision  of  the  State. 
Money  for  the  needs  of  the  Church  beyond  what  is 
provided  by  the  property  of  the  parish  or  endowments 
13  obtained  from  a  Church  tax  laid  by  the  State  (law 
of  2  August,  1878).  The  tax  is  raised  as  a  supple- 
mentary income  tax;  the  yearly  amount  of  the  tax 
is  fixed  by  the  Protestant  minister  of  worship  and  edu- 
cation, while  the  Protestants  can  fix  the  amount  of 


I 


SAXONY 


503 


SAXONY 


their  Church  tax  theinsehes.  In  the  years  succeed- 
ing 1870  there  was  a  bitter  struggle  in  most  of  the 
German  states  between  Church  and  State  called  the 
KuUurkampf  (q.  v.);  during  this  period  a  law  was 
issued  in  Saxony  concerning  the  exercise  of  State 
supervision.  This  law  contains  the  greater  part  of 
the  ordinances  which  had  been  up  to  then  in  effect, 
and  in  its  measure  for  putting  the  law  into  action 
follows  the  Austrian  and  Prussian  laws  of  the  decade 
of  1870-1880,  that  were  inimical  to  the  Church.  Pub- 
lic church  service  can  only  be  held  in  the  57  parishes, 
dependent  parishes,  and  chapels ;  mission  services  and 
religious  instruction  can  further  be  held  at  certain 
periods  of  time  in  about  sixty  places.  In  addition 
there  are  8  churches  and  chapels  that  are  private  prop- 
erty. Very  few  church  processions  are  permitted. 
The  approval  of  the  State  is  necessary  for  the  general 
decrees  of  the  Church  authorities  when  these  in  any 
way  encroach  upon  State  or  municipal  affairs;  the 
State  authorities  are  to  decide  whether  infringement 
has  taken  place.  The  approval  of  the  ministry  is  nec- 
essary for  the  founding  of  new  churches  and  institu- 
tions for  prie.sts,  for  .settling  or  changing  the  boun- 
daries of  parishes,  for  establishing  church  service  at 
new  stations,  in  general  for  new  acts  of  ecclesiastical 
administration  of  any  kind,  which  in  any  way  what- 
ever come  into  contact  with  national  affairs  or  the 
ordinary  ones  of  civil  life. 

A  Catholic  ecclesiastical  office,  whether  in  public 
or  private  .service,  permanent  or  subject  to  recall,  can 
only  be  given  to  a  Ciennan  who  has  finisliod  the  course 
at  a  gymnasium,  studied  three  years  at  a  university, 
and  has  passed  a  theological  examination  for  his  office. 
Whoever  has  been  trained  at  a  seminary  conducted 
by  the  Jesuits  or  a  similar  order  is  excluded.  Fur- 
ther, the  national  Government  can  reject  anyone  who 
has  been  chosen  for  an  ecclesiastical  office,  if  it  be- 
lieves that  he  will  use  his  influence  against  the  State 
laws  or  ordinances.  The  State  Government  is  to  be 
notified  at  once  of  every  vacancy  and  of  ever}'  appoint- 
ment of  a  spiritual  office.  As  a  rule  change  of  re- 
ligion is  not  permitted  before  the  twenty-first  year; 
before  change  of  faith  the  convert  must  notify  the 
pastor  of  the  parish  of  his  intention  and  may  have  a 
four  weeks'  period  of  reflection  a.ssigned  to  him;  after 
the  expiration  of  this  term  the  convert  can  demand  a 
certificate  of  dismi.ssal.  The  religion  of  the  father  is 
determinative  for  children  of  mixed  marriages,  unless 
the  parents  have  made  a  legal  agreement  otherwise 
before  the  child  is  six  years  ohl.  AU  the  State  schools 
are  denominational;  they  are  not  established  and 
maintained  by  the  political  communes  but  by  special 
school  communes.  In  localities  where  the  population 
is  of  different  faiths  the  religious  minority,  if  able 
to  do  so,  can  form  a  new  school  commune;  special 
religious  instruction  for  the  benefit  of  the  religious 
minority  is  not  given  at  the  expen.se  of  the  school 
commune  of  the  majority  where  that  alone  exists.  Up 
to  the  twelfth  year  Protestant  religious  instruction 
is  legally  permissible  for  Catholic  children.  At  pres- 
ent a  new  school  law  is  being  prepared,  as  the  School 
Law  of  1873  contains  many  ordinances  that  are  now 
out  of  date;  however,  the  confessional  character  of  the 
schools  and  the  religious  supervision  of  the  schools  by 
the  pastor  of  the  respective  place  is  to  be  retained;  but 
efforts  have  been  and  are  still  made  to  set  aside  at 
least  the  religious  supervision  of  the  schools.  As  re- 
gards Catholic  schools  there  is  a  preparatory  gymna- 
sium in  Dresden,  a  seminary  at  Bautzen,  for  train- 
ing Catholic  teachers  for  the  primary  schools,  that 
is  supported  by  the  cathedral  chapter  of  Bautzen, 
and  51  Catholic  public  primary  schools.  There  are 
about  300  Catholic  male  teachers  and  about  20 
Catholic  female  teachers.  Special  Catholic  religious 
instruction  is  given  at  more  than  one  hundred  and 
thirty  places  where  there  are  onlv  Protestant  schools. 
Only  about   15,000  of  the  24,000  Catholic  school 


children  attend  Catholic  schools;  of  the  remaining 
9000  children  about  3500  have  no  Cathohc  religious 
instruction.  The  pressing  necessity  of  new  schools 
cannot  be  met  on  account  of  the  lack  of  money,  as 
most  of  the  Cathohcs  who  have  come  into  the  coun- 
try are  poor  factory  hands.  On  account  both  of  this 
lack  of  schools  and  of  the  equally  great  lack  of 
churches,  far  more  than  10,000  Catholics  became 
Protestant  during  the  years  1900  and  1910. 

IV.  The  Prussian  Province  of  S.\xony. — The 
province  has  an  area  of  9,746  square  miles,  and  in 
1905  had  2,979,221  inhabitants.  Of  its  population 
230,860  (7.8  per  cent)  are  Catholic,  2,730,098  (91 
per  cent)  are  Protestant;  9981  hold  other  forms  of 
Christian  faith,  and  8050  are  Jews.  During  the 
summer  months  about  15,000  to  20,000  Catholic 
labourers,  called  Sachsengdnger,  come  into  the  coun- 
try; they  are  Slavs  from  the  Prussian  Province  of 
Posen,  from  Russian  Poland,  or  Galicia.  The  prov- 
ince is  divided  into  the  three  government  depart- 
ments of  Magdeburg,  Merseburg,  and  Erfurt.  The 
Prussian  Province  of  Saxony  was  formed  in  1815 
from  the  territories,  about  8,100  square  miles  in 
extent,  ceded  by  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  with  the 
addition  of  some  districts  already  belonging  to 
Prussia,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  Alt- 
mark,  from  which  the  State  of  Prussia  sprang;  the 
former  immediate  principalities  of  the  Arclibishop  of 
Magdeburg  and  of  the  Bishop  of  Halberstadt,  which 
Prussia  had  received  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia 
(1648)  at  the  close  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;  and  the 
Eichsfeld,  with  the  city  of  Erfurt  and  its  surround- 
ings. Up  to  1802  the  Eichsfeld  and  Erfurt  had 
belonged  to  the  principality  of  the  Archbi.shop  of 
Mainz;  a  large  part  of  the  population  had,  therefore, 
retained  the  Catholic  Faith  during  the  Reformation. 
As  regards  ecclesiastical  affairs  the  Province  of 
Saxony  had  been  assigned  to  the  Diocese  of  Paderborn 
by  the  papal  Bull  "De  salute  animarum"  of  16 
Jul}',  1821.  The  province  contains  three  ecclesia.s- 
tical  administrative  divisions:  the  episcopal  commis- 
sariat of  Magdeburg  that  einliraces  the  entire  govern- 
mental department  of  Magdeburg  and  consists  of 
four  deaneries  and  25  parishes;  the  "ec(!lesiastical 
Court"  of  Erfurt,  which  includes  the  governmental 
Department  of  Merseburg  and  the  eastern  half  of 
the  governmental  Department  of  Erfurt;  and  con- 
sists of  2  deaneries  (Halle  and  Erfurt)  and  28  par- 
ishes; the  episcopal  commissariat  of  Heiligenstadt, 
which  embraces  the  western  half  of  the  governmental 
department  of  Erfurt,  that  is  called  the  Upper  Eichs- 
feld, and  consists  of  16  deaneries  and  129  parishes. 

In  those  parts  of  the  governmental  Department  of 
Magdeburg  which  belonged  originally  to  the  former 
Archdiocese  of  Magdeburg  and  the  Diocese  of  Hal- 
berstadt all  Catholic  life  was  not  entirely  destroyed 
during  the  Reformation.  Besides  fourteen  monas- 
teries that  continued  in  existence,  there  were  in 
Halberstadt  a  number  of  benefices  in  connexion  with 
the  cathedral  and  the  collegiate  Church  of  Sts. 
Peter  and  Paul.  As  the  entire  native  population 
had  become  Protestant  these  monasteries  were  only 
maintained  by  the  immigration  of  Catholics  who, 
from  the  time  of  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  though 
in  small  numbers,  steadily  came  into  the  country; 
thus  there  arose  around  the  monasteries  small 
Catholic  communities.  The  monasteries  wore  all 
suppressed  during  the  great  secularization  of  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  thirteen 
parishes  were  formed,  for  which  the  State  provided 
a  fund  from  a  part  of  the  property  of  the  monasteries. 
The  other  parishes  in  the  governmental  Department 
of  Magdeburg  were  created  after  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  when,  in  con.sequence  of  the 
development  of  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  increas- 
ing numbers  of  Catholics  came  into  the  country; 
the  St.   Boniface   Association   gave   the   money   to 


SAXONY 


504 


SAXONY 


found  these  parishes.  In  1905  the  governmental 
Department  of  Magdeburg  contained  76,28S  Catlio- 
lics,  that  is,  6.25  per  cent  of  the  population.  The 
Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  had  its  origin 
in  the  present  governmental  Department  of  ^lerse- 
burg,  which  includes  parts  of  the  old  dioceses  of 
Magdeburg,  Halberstadt,  Mcrseburg,  Xaumburg- 
Zeitz,  and  Brandenburg;  in  this  region  all  Catholic 
life  was  destroyed.  It  was  not  until  after  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia  that  small  Catholic  communities  arose, 
from  the  entrance  into  the  district  of  miners,  mer- 
chants, pedlars,  etc.;  these  communities  grew  espe- 
cially in  the  nineteenth  century  on  account  of  the 
development  of  manufactures.  The  first  Catholic 
church  service  to  be  held  again  in  this  district  was 
established  in  1710  at  Halle  on  the  Saale  by  Fran- 
ciscans of  the  Monastery  of  St.  Andreas  at  Halber- 
stadt; the  first  parish  was  also  erected  at  Halle  in 
1810;  the  other  parishes  were  founded  by  the  St. 
Boniface    A.ssociation. 

In  1905  the  governmental  Department  of  Merse- 
biu-g  contained  47,3S2  Catholics,  that  is,  4  per  cent 
of  the  population.  The  governmental  Department  of 
Erfurt  is  an  almost  entirely  Protestant  district  in 
which,  during  the  nineteenth  century,  scattered 
Catholics  settled  near  districts  which  had  preserved 
their  faith  amid  the  storms  of  the  Reformation  era; 
these  districts  are  the  Eichsfeld  and  a  part  of  the 
population  of  Erfurt  and  its  vicinity.  Erfurt  was 
founded  in  742  by  St.  Boniface  as  the"^  See  of  Thurin- 
gia.  The  first  and  only  bishop,  St.  Adelar,  suffered 
martyrdom  in  755  with  St.  Boniface,  and  the  terri- 
tory of  the  diocese  was  united  with  the  Archdiocese 
of  Mainz.  From  the  beginning,  however,  the  arch- 
bi.shops  of  Mainz  had  episcopal  assistants  at  Erfurt, 
who,  from  early  in  the  fourteenth  century,  were  in 
reality  coadjutor  bishops  and  gradually  retained 
almost  the  .same  position  as  a  diocesan  bishop.  After 
the  suppre-ssion  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Mainz  (1.S02), 
the  Diocese  of  Erfurt  was  assigned  to  the  Diocese  of 
Ratisbon,  then  in  1S07  to  Corbie,  and  in  1821  to 
Paderborn.  Up  to  the  present  day  there  is  still  in 
existence  at  Erfurt  an  ecclesiastical  board  with  cer- 
tain episcopal  powers  which  is  called  the  "Ecclesias- 
tical Court".  Celebrated  Catholic  churches  of  Er- 
furt are:  the  cathedral  that  was  begun  about  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century  upon  the  spot  where 
had  stood  a  church  built  by  St.  Boniface;  and  the 
Church  of  St.  Severus,  erected  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. In  1905  the  governmental  Department  of 
Erfurt  contained  107,190  Catholics,  that  i.s,  21.53 
per  cent  of  the  population;  the  number  of  Catholics 
steaclily  declines,  in  1817  it  amounted  to  29  per  cent. 
Outside  of  Erfurt  and  its  immediate  vicinity,  where 
the  Catholics  form  12  per  cent  of  the  population,  the 
Catholics  in  the  main  live  together  in  communities 
in  the  Upper  Eichsfeld  in  the  three  counties  of  Hei- 
ligenstadt  (91  per  cent  Catholic),  Worbis  (77  per  cent 
Catholic),  and  Mulhausen-Land  (43  per  cent  Cath- 
olic). The  soil  of  the  Upper  Eichsfeld  is  not  pro- 
ductive; it  does  not  offer,  therefore,  any  of  the 
conditions  for  industrial  development,  and  many  of 
its  inhabitants  are  forced  to  emigrate.  In  the  De- 
partment of  Erfurt  the  collegiate  founflation  of  Nord- 
hausen  has  also  remained  Catholic  from  the  early 
limes;  in  1811  it  was  made  into  a  pari.sh.  Aa  regards 
schools,  the  religious  orders,  and  the  other  questions 
concerning  the  rojations  between  Church  and  State, 
the  laws  of  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  are  in  force. 

Weisse,  Genrh.  der  kurxarMfchen  SUiaten  (7  vols.,  Ijoinzii?, 
1802-12);  ORETHf-HKi^BCi.M-.  Ge-rh.  de.^  HarhUr.Km  Volhrn  (^ 
vols..  2n')  od.,  I>!ipziK.  180.3-04):  BftTTioER-FL^THB.  G&tck.  del 
KuntUuiien  un4  K/inu/reichn  Sachnen  f.3  voU.,  2n'l  nd.,  Gotha, 
1807-7.3);  StubnhOfel,  Gr.Hch.  der  n/tchUchen  Lande.  u.  ihrer 
Hnrncher  <2  voli,.,  Chemnitz,  1808-1909);  .Jacobs.  Gnich.  der 
in  dfT  ProHm  Sar.hnen  vereinigten  Gehiele  (Gotha,  1884) ;  Thbiver, 
Gfich.  der  RUrkk'hr  der  reyieTerulen  ffauner  von  Braunnrhweuj  u. 
Snrhnen  in  den  .S'c/Uoim  der  knth.  Kxrche  im  IS.  Jahrh.  (EinHicrloln, 
1843);    FoBWBBK,  Getch.  der  kath.  Hof kxrche  zu  Dresden  nebst 


einer  kurzen  Gesch.  der  kath.  Kxrche  in  Sachsen  (Dresden,  1851); 
Machatschek,  Gesch.  des  KOnigrexchs  Sachsen  (Leipzig,  1861); 
Idem,  Gesch.  der  Bxschofe  des  Hochstiftes  Meissen  (Dresden,  1884). 

Hermann  Sacher. 

Saxony,  Albert  of  (Albert  of  Helmstadt), 
fourteenth-century  philosopher;  nicknamed  Albertus 
Parvus,  Albertutius,  and  Albertilla  by  the  Italian 
Scholastics  of  the  Renaissance.  In  1351  he  passed 
the  first  examination  {deter minatio)  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris,  where  he  figured  as  a  member  of  the 
English  Nation.  In  the  same  year  he  was  elected 
procurator  of  the  English  Nation;  in  1353  rector 
of  the  university;  in  1361,  collector  of  dues  of  the 
English  Nation;  in  1358  he  had  been  one  of  the 
representatives  of  this  Nation  in  the  concordat  with 
the  Picard  Nation.  In  1361  the  Enghsh  Nation  sug- 
gested him  for  the  suburban  parish  of  Sts.  Cosmas  and 
Damian,  which  depended  on  the  university.  In  1368 
he  still  belonged  to  the  faculty  of  arts  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris,  where  he  compiled  his  questions  on  Aris- 
totle's "  De  (Dajlo  et  Mundo".  Owing  to  their  common 
surname  of  Albert  of  Saxony,  Albert  of  Helmstadt  has 
often  been  confused  with  Albert,  son  of  Bernard  the 
Rich,  of  Ricmerstorp  (Diocese of  Halberstadt).  The 
latter 's  name  occurs  for  the  first  time  in  1362  among  the 
masters  of  the  English  Nation  at  the  University  of 
Paris;  in  1363  he  was  rector  of  the  university;  in  1365 
Rudolf,  Duke  of  Austria,  sent  him  as  ambassador  to 
Pope  Urban  V.  In  that  same  year  the  University  of 
Vienna  was  founded  and  through  the  influence  of 
Rudolf,  Albert  of  Ricmerstorp  was  elected  first  rector. 
He  was  conseqviently  appointed  a  canon  of  Hildes- 
heim  and  (21  Oct.,  1366)  Bishop  of  Halberstadt. 

All  the  works  which  we  possess  under  the  name  of 
Albert  of  Saxony  belong  to  Albert  of  Helmstadt. 
Some  were  devoted  to  logic,  others  to  physics.  The 
study  of  these  books  is  admirably  calculated  to  in- 
form us  on  the  views  current  at  the  University  of 
Paris  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The 
treatises  on  logic  written  by  Albert  of  Saxony  are  de- 
voted to  the  detailed  and  subtle  dialectic  whicli  at  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century  Petrus  llispaiius  had 
introduced  into  the  teaching  of  the  Parisian  Scholas- 
ticism, but  they  present  luntlior  the  disorder  nor  the 
multitude  of  empty  quibbles  wliich  about  the  same 
time  were  introduced  into  the  instruction  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  and  which  became  predominant 
there  under  the  influence  of  William  Heytesbury. 
Albert  of  Saxony's  treatises  on  physics  consist  of  a 
"Tractatus  proportionum "  and  questions  on  Aris- 
totle's "physics",  "De  Coelo",  and  "De  generatione 
et  corruptione".  These  contain,  in  a  clear,  precise, 
and  concise  form,  an  explanation  of  numerous  ideas 
which  exercised  great  influence  on  the  development 
of  modern  science,  which  ideas,  however,  were  not 
wholly  personal  to  Albert  of  Helmstadt,  many  of  the 
most  important  of  them  being  derived  from  his  mas- 
ter, Jean  Buridan.  He  abandoned  the  old  Peripa- 
tetic dynamics  which  ascribed  the  movement  of  pro- 
jectiles to  disturbed  air.  With  Buridan  he  jjlaced  the 
cause  of  this  movement  in  an  imjietus  put  into  the 
projectile  by  the  person  who  threw  it;  the  i)art  he 
assigned  to  this  impetus  is  very  like  that  which  we 
now  attribute  to  living  force.  With  Buridan  he  con- 
sidered that  the  heavens  were  not  moved  by  intelli- 
gences, but.  like  projectiles,  by  the  impetus  which 
God  gave  them  when  He  created  them.  With  Buri- 
dan he  saw  in  the  increase  of  impetus  the  reason  of 
the  acceleration  in  the  fall  of  a  heavy  body.  He  fur- 
ther taught  that  the  velocity  of  a  falling  weight  in- 
creased in  proportion  either  to  the  space  traversefl 
from  the  b(!ginning  of  the  fall  or  to  the  time  elapsed, 
but  he  did  not  decide  between  these  two. 

The  equilibrium  of  the  earth  and  .seas  is  the  subject 
of  a  favourite  theory  of  Albert's.  The  entire  terres- 
trial clement  is  in  equilibrium  when  its  centre  of 


SAXONY 


505 


SCALA 


gravity  coincides  with  the  centre  of  the  world.  More- 
ov(!r,  the  terrestrial  mass  has  not  everywhere  the  same 
density,  so  that  its  centre  of  gravity  does  not  coincide 
with  the  centre  of  its  figure.  Thus  the  lightest  part 
of  the  earth  is  more  distant  from  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  the  earth  than  the  heaviest  part.  The  erosion  pro- 
duced by  rivers  constantly  draws  terrestrial  particles 
from  the  continents  to  the  bosom  of  the  sea.  This 
erosion,  which,  by  scooping  out  the  valleys,  has 
shaped  the  mountains,  constantly  displaces  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  terrestrial  mass,  and  this  mass  is  in 
motion  to  bring  back  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
earth  to  the  centre  of  its  figure.  Through  this  motion 
th(^  submerged  portions  of  the  earth  constantly  push 
upwards  the  emerged  parts,  which  are  incessantly  be- 
ing eaten  away  and  afterwards  replaced  by  the  sub- 
merged parts.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury this  theory  of  Albert's  strongly  attracted  the 
attention  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  it  was  to  confirm 
it  that  he  devoted  himself  to  numerous  observations 
of  fossils.  Albert  of  Saxony,  moreover,  ascribed  the 
precession  of  the  equinoxes  to  the  similar  very  slow 
movement  of  the  terrestrial  element. 

His  "Tractatus  proportionum "  went  through 
eleven  editions;  one  bears  no  date  or  indication  of  its 
origin;  three  were  i.ssued  at  Padua  in  14S2,  1484,  and 
1487;  four  were  printed  at  Venice  in  1487,  1404,  and 
twice  in  1490;  two  were  printed  at  Venice  in  1.502  and 
1506;  finally,  an  edition  without  date  or  printer's 
name  was  issued  at  Paris.  The  "  Subtilisimte  qua^s- 
tiones  super  octo  libros  Physicorum"  were  printed  at 
Padua  in  1493,  at  Venice  in  1504  and  1516.  The 
"Quffistioncs  in  Aristotelis  libros  de  Cct'loet  Mundo" 
were  published  at  Pavia  in  1481,  at  Venice  in  1492  and 
1497.  The  "Qua'stiones  in  libros  de  generatione  et 
corruptione",  with  the  commentaries  and  qu(\stions 
which  Gilles  of  Rome  and  Marsilius  of  Inghen  had 
compiled  on  the  same  subject,  were  ])rinted  at  \'enice 
in  1504,  1505,  and  1518.  Albert's  "Qua-stiones"  on 
the  Physics,  the  "De  Qelo",  and  the  "  De  genera- 
tione", followed  by  the  questions  of  Themon  and  of 
Buridan  on  the  "De  anima",  were  i>rinted  in  Paris 
in  1516  and  1518.  The  "Qua;stiones  super  libros 
posteriorum  /Vristotelis "  were  printed  at  Venice  in 
1497;  the  "Sophismata"  at  Paris  in  1489;  the 
"Tractatus  obligationum"  at  Lyons  in  1498;  the  two 
last-named  works,  joined  with  the  "Insolubilia", 
were  published  at  Paris  in  1490,  1495,  and  at  an  un- 
known date.  In  1496  was  printed  at  Bologna  the 
"Expositio  aurea  et  admodum  utilis  super  artera 
veterem,  edita  per  venerabilem  inceptorem  fratrem 
Gulielmum  de  Ocham  cum  questionibus  Alberti  parvi 
de  Saxonia".  Finally,  the  "Logica  Albertucii"  was 
edited  at  Venice  in  1522. 

Prantl,  Genchichte  der  Logik  im  Abendlande,  IV  (Leipzig, 
1867) ;  Thurot,  Recherches  historiques  sur  le  principe  d' Archimide, 
3rd  article  in  Revue  archSologique,  new  series,  XIX  (1869);  Bon- 
COMPAGNI,  Intorno  al  Tractatus  proportionum  di  Alberto  di  Sas- 
aonia  in  BuUetino  di  Bihliografia  e  di  Storia  delle  Scienze  jnale- 
matiche  e  fisiche,  IV  (1871);  Jacoli,  Intorno  ad  un  comento  di 
Benedetto  Vittori,  medico  Faentino,  al  Tractatus  proportionum  di 
Alberto  di Sassoniaiuibid.;  Suter,  Der  Tractatus,  "  De  quadratura 
circuli"  des  Albertus  de  Saxonia  in  Zeitschrift  fiir  Mathematik  und 
Physik,  XXIX  (1884);  Suter,  Die  Queslio  "  De  proportione 
dyametri  quadrati  ad  costam  ejusdem"  des  Albertus  de  Saxonia, 
ibid.,  XXXII  (1887);  Duhem,  Les  origines  de  la  statigue,  II 
(Paris,  1906);  Idem,  Etudes  sur  Leonard  de  Vinci,  ceux  qu'il 
a  lus  et  ceux  qui  I'ont  lu,  1st  ser.  (Paris,  1906) ;  2nd  ser.  (Paris, 
1909);    3rd  ser.  (in  press). 

Pierre  Duhem. 

Saxony,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.    See  Saxony. 

Scalabrini  Fathers.  See  Missionaries  op  Saint 
Charles  Borromeo,  Congregation  of. 

Scala  Sancta  (Holy  Stairs),  consisting  of  twenty- 
eight  white  marble  steps,  at  Rome,  near  the  Lateran; 
according  to  tradition  the  staircase  leading  once  to 
the  prajtorium  of  Pilate  at  Jerusalem,  hence  sancti- 
fied by  the  footsteps  of  Our  Lord  during  his  Passion. 
The  historians  of  the  monument  relate  that  the  Holy 


Stairs  were  brought  from  .Jerusalem  to  Rome  about 
326  by  St.  Helena,  mothesr  of  Constantine  the  Great. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  they  were  known  as  *Scata 
Pilati,  the  Stairs  of  Pilate.  From  old  plans  it  can 
be  gathered  that  they  led  to  a  corridor  of  the  Lateran 
Palace,  near  the  Chapel  of  St.  Sylvester,  were  covered 
with  a  special  roof,  and  had  at  their  sides  other  stairs 
for  common  use.  When  Sixtus  V  in  1589  destroyed 
the  old  papal  palace  and  built  the  new  one,  he  ordered 
the  Holy  Stairs  to  be  transferred  to  their  present  site, 
before  the  Sancta  Sanctorum  (Holy  of  Holies).  The 
latter  is  the  old  private  papal  chajiel,  dedicated  to  St. 
Lawrence,  and  the  only  remaining  part  of  the  former 


The  Scala  Sancta 
Church  of  S.  Salvatore,  Rome 

Lateran  Palace,  receiving  its  name  from  the  many 
precious  relics  preserved  there.  The  Sancta  Sanc- 
torum also  contains  the  celebrated  image  of  Christ, 
"not  made  by  human  hands",  which  on  certain  occa- 
sions used  to  be  carried  through  Rome  in  procession. 
These  holy  treasures,  which  since  Leo  X  (1513-21) 
have  not  been  seen  by  anybody,  have  recently  been 
the  object  of  learned  dissertations  by  Grisar  and 
Lauer. 

In  its  new  site  the  Scala  Sancta  is  flanked  by  four 
other  stairs,  two  on  each  side,  for  common  use,  since 
the  Holy  Stairs  may  only  be  ascended  on  the  knees, 
a  devotion  much  in  favour  with  pilgrims  and  the 
Roman  faithful,  especially  on  Fridays  and  in  Lent. 
Not  a  few  popes  are  recorded  to  have  performed  this 
pious  exercise;  Pius  IX,  who  in  1853  entrusted  the 
Passionist  Fathers  with  the  care  of  the  sanctuary, 
ascended  the  Holy  Stairs  on  19  Sept.,  1870,  the 
eve  of  the  entrance  of  the  Piedmontese  into  Rome. 
Pius  VII  on  2  Sept.,  1817  granted  tho.se  who  ascend 
the  stairs  in  the  prescribed  manner  an  indulgence  of 
nine  years  for  every  step.  Finally  Pius  X,  on  26  Feb., 
1908,  granted  a  plenary  indulgence  to  be  gained  as 
often  as  the  stairs  are  devoutly  ascended  after  con- 
fession and  communion.  Imitations  of  the  Scala 
Sancta  have  been  erected  in  various  places,  as  in 
Lourdes  and  in  some  convents  of  nuns,  and  indul- 
gences are  attached  to  them  by  special  concessions. 

Thurston,  The  Holy  Year  of  Jubilee  (London,  1900),  185- 
196;  Manner  of  visiting  and  devoutlij  asrt'ndinq  the  Holy  Stairs 
(Rome,     1907);     Tomasi,     Scalx    Sanctw     pice      deosculatxones 


SCALIGER 


506 


SCANDAL 


(Rome.  1667):  Sores:ni.  De  Scili  Sancta  ante  Sancia  Sanctorum 
in  Laterano  culta  (Rome,  1072);  Marangoni,  Istoria  delV 
antichissimo  oratorio  o  cappeJla  di  S.  Lorenzo  nel  Palriarchio 
Lateranense  .  .  .  (Rome,  1747);  Bambi,  Memorie  sacre  delta 
cappelia  di  Sancia  Sanctorum  e  della  Scala  del  Palazzo  di  Pi- 
lato  delta  rolgarmente  la  Scala  Sancia  (Rome,  1798);  Maz- 
zrccONi,  Memorie  storiche  delia  Scala  Santa  e  dell'  insigne  san- 
tuario  di  Sancta  Sanctorum  (Rome,  1S40);  Rasponi,  De  Basilica  et 
Palriarchio  Lateranensi  (Rome,  1656)  331-33:361-84;  Quaren- 
siMUS,  Historica  .  .  .  Terra  Sancta:  elucidatio,  II  (2nded.,  Venice, 
1S81),  140-41:  Adin-olfi,  Roma  nelVetd.  di  mezzo,  I  (Rome,  1881), 
232  sqq.;  Armeluni,  Le  Chiese  di  Roma,  2nd  ed.  (Rome,  1891), 
108  sqq.;  Berixger,  Die  Ablasse,  13th  ed.  (Paderborn,  1910), 
435-36;  Lauer,  Le  tresor  du  Sancta  Sanciorutn  (Paris,  1906); 
Grisar,  II  Saticta  Sanctorum  ed  il  suo  tesoro  sacro  (Rome,  1907). 

LivARius  Oliger. 

Scaliger  (It.,  Della  Scala),  Julius  C^sar, 
humanist,  b.  at  Riva  on  Lake  Garda  in  1484;  d.  at 
Agen,  France,  21  Oct.,  1558.  He  was  brought  to 
France  as  physician  to  Antonio  de  la  Rovera,  Bishop 
of  Agen,  and  became  a  French  citizen  under  the 
name  of  Jules 
Cesar  de  I'Escale 
de  Bordonis.  He 
took  part  in  the 
discussion  c  o  n  - 
cerning  Cicero- 
ni anism  and  be- 
gan his  career  as 
a  humanist  by  a 
violent  work 
against  Erasmus, 
"Oratio  pro  Ci- 
cerone contra 
Erasmum"  (Paris, 
1.531).  He  de- 
fended the  abso- 
lute perfection  of 
Cicero's  style  and 
denounced  Eras- 
mus as  a  mere 
proof  corrector,  a 
parasite,  and  a 
parricide.  Eras- 
mus kept  silence. 
In  1536  ScaUger 
issued  a  still  more  \-iolent  discourse.  The  two  dis- 
courses were  combined:  "Adversus  D.  Erasmum  ora- 
tiones  duse  eloquentiae  romana;  vindices  cum  auctoris 
opuscuhs"  (Toulou.se,  1621).  He  ■wTote  a  more  sohd 
work  in  a  calmer  tone  in  "De  causis  linguae  latinae 
libri  XIII"  (Lyons,  1540;  Geneva,  1.580),  in  which 
he  analyzed  the  correct  style  of  Cicero  and  indicated 
634  mistakes  of  Valla  and  his  predeces-sors.  He  was 
the  first  to  attempt  a  systematic  treatise  on  poetry: 
"Poetices  libri  octo"  (Lyons,  1561;  Leyden,  1581; 
Heidelberg,  1607).  The  general  principles  of  this 
work  are  derived  from  Aristotle  whom  he  calls  "  im- 
perator  ncster;    omnium  bonarum   artium   dictator 

Eerpetuus".  Like  Aristotle  he  makes  imitation  the 
asis  of  all  poetry.  He  spoiled  his  work  by  exagger- 
ations; not  only  does  he  place  Virgil  above  Homer 
but  he  places  the  Homeric  epics  below  the  "Hero 
and  Ivcander"  of  Mu.sa;u8,  a  poet  of  the  Byzantine 
period;  it  Ls  true  that  Scahger  identifies  him  with 
the  legendary  Musaus,  a  disciple  of  Orp)hcu8  (Poet., 
V,  2).  He  declared  that  Seneca  was  not  surpassed 
in  grandeur  by  any  of  the  Greek  tragedians.  This 
last  opinion  was  not  without  its  con.sequences;  it 
explains  the  exces.sive  liking  of  Shakespeare,  Cor- 
neille,  and  many  of  their  contemporaries  for  the 
tragedies  of  Senwa. 

Scaliger  is  also  the  author  of  the  following  works: 
"De  comicis  dimensionibus"  (Lyons,  15.39);  "Exo- 
tcricanim  exercitationum  de  subtilitate  ad  H.  Car- 
danum"  (Pari.s,  1537;  Ba.sle,  1.560);  "Poemata" 
(Geneva,  1.574;  Heidelberg,  1600);  "Epi.stola;  ct 
Orationfis"  (lycyden,  16(K)).  He  translated  into 
Latin  Ari.st/jtle's  "Natural  Hi.story"  (Toulouse, 
1619;,  the  "Insomnia;"  of  Hippocrates,  and  wrote 


commentaries  on  the  treatises  on  plants  of  Theo- 
phrastes  and  Aristotle.  As  a  physician  he  was  much 
interested  in  botany;  he  demonstrated  the  necessity 
of  abandoning  the  classification  of  plants  based  on 
their  properties  and  of  establisliing  one  based  on 
their  distinctive  characteristics.  He  was  violent, 
vain,  and  given  to  exaggeration.  His  faults  spoiled 
pleasing  natural  gifts  and  wide  learning. 

NisARD,  Lf.<  gladiateurs  de  la  republique  des  Icttres  aux  X  V', 
XVI',  et  XVII<:  siecles,  I  (Paris,  I860),  305-400;  Saintsbury, 
History  of  literary  criticism,  II  (Edinburgh  and  London,  1902), 
69;  LiNTiLHAC,  De  J.  C.  Scaligeri  Poetica  (Paris,  1887);  Sandys, 
A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  II  (Cambridge,  1908),  177. 

Paul  Lejay. 

Scalimoli,  theologian,  better  known  by  his  reli- 
gious name,  Andrea  di  Castellana,  from  his  place  of 
origin  in  Apulia.  He  entered  the  Order  of  the  Con- 
ventual Franciscans  in  the  Province  of  St.  Nicholas 
(Bari),  of  which  he  was  later  appointed  provincial. 
His  experience  as  a  missionary  in  Moldavia,  Wal- 
lachia,  and  Transylvania,  as  Prefect  Apostolic  of  Hun- 
gary, and  as  visitor  general  of  the  Franciscan  missions 
in  Russia  led  liim  to  the  composition  of  a  work  which 
was  approved  by  ihv  general  of  the  order  in  1642,  and 
is  dedicated  to  Cardinal  Barberini  "Missionarius 
apostohcus  a  Sacra  Congregatione  de  Propaganda 
Fide  instructus  quomodo  debeat  inter  ha^reticos  vi- 
vere,  pravitates  eorum  convincere,  et  in  fide  catholica 
proficere  per  Germaniam,  Poloniam,  Ungariam,  et  per 
omnes  partes  ubi  vigent  blasphemiae  lutheranae" 
(Bologna,  1644). 

Wadding,  Scriplores  ordinis  minorum  (Rome,  1906),  16; 
Sbaraglia,  Supplementum  et  castigatio  ad  scriptores  trium  ordinum 
S.  Francisci  (Rome,  1908),  35-36;  Franchini,  Bibliosofia  e 
memorie  letterarie  di  scrittori  francescani  conventuali  (Modena, 
169.3),  36. 

C.   A.    DUBRAY. 

Scammon,  Ellakim  Parker,  educator,  b.  at 
Whitefield,  Maine,  U.  S.  A.,  27  Dec,  1816;  d.  at 
New  York,  7  Dec,  1894.  Having  received  an  ap- 
pointment to  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point  he  made  the  usual  course  there  and  graduated 
(1837)  fifth  in  a  class  of  fifty-two.  He  remained  at 
the  academy  as  a  tutor  in  mathematics,  having  among 
his  pupils  the  future  Generals  Grant,  Rosecrans, 
Newton,  and  other  famous  army  officers.  During 
the  Seminole  war  he  .saw  active  service  and  was  one 
of  General  Scott's  aides  in  the  Mexican  war  (1846- 
47),  his  bravery  at  Vera  Cruz  winning  him  promotion. 
Just  before  starting  from  New  York  for  the  war  in 
1846  he  became  a  convert.  From  1847  to  1854  he 
was  attached  to  the  topographical  corps  surveying 
the  Upper  Lakes.  In  1856  he  left  the  army.  Later 
he  taught  mathematics  at  St.  Mary's  College,  and  at 
the  Polytechnic  College,  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  He  took 
an  active  part  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Civil  War,  re- 
ceiving the  commission  of  brigadier-general  on  15 
Oct.,  1862.  He  was  U.  S.  Consul  at  Prince  Edward 
Island  from  1866  to  1871,  and,  from  1875  until  his 
retirement  (1882),  was  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Seton  Hall  College,  South  Orange,  New  Jersey. 

CuLLUM,  Biog.  Register  Officers  and  Graduates  U.  S.  Military 
Acadamy  (Boston,  1891);  Fi.ynn,  Catholic  Church  in  New 
Jersey  (Morristown,  1904);  Nat.  Cyclopedia  Am.  Biog.,  s.  v.; 
Freeman's  Journal  (New  York),  files. 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

ScandaL— This  article  will  treat:  I.  The  Notion 
OF  Scandal;  II.  Its  Divisions;  111.  Its  Malice; 
IV.  Cases  in  which  the  Sin  of  Scandal  Occurs. 

I.  Notion  of  Scandal. — According  to  St.  Thomas 
(II-II,  (2.  liii,  a.  1)  scandal  is  a  word  or  action  evil  in 
itself,  whicli  occasions  another's  si)iritual  ruin.  It  is 
a  word  or  action,  that  is  either  an  external  act — for  an 
int(!rnal  act  can  have  no  influence  on  the  conduct 
of  another — or  the  omission  of  an  external  act,  be- 
cause to  omit  what  one  should  do  is  equivalent  to 
doing  what  is  forbidden;  it  must  be  evil  in  itself,  or  in 
appearance;  this  is  the  interpretation  of  the  words  of 


SCANDAL 


507 


SCANDAL 


St.  Thomas:  minus  rectum.  It  is  not  the  physical 
cause  of  a  neighbour's  sin,  but  only  the  moral  cause,  or 
occasion;  further,  this  moral  causahty  may  be  un- 
derstood in  a  strict  sense,  as  when  one  orders,  re- 
quests, or  advises  another  to  commit  the  sin  (this 
is  strictly  inductive  scandal,  which  some  call  co-opera- 
tion in  a  broad  sense),  or  in  a  large  sense,  as  when  a 
person  without  being  directly  concerned  in  the  sin 
nevertheless  exercises  a  certain  influence  on  the  sin  of 
his  neighbour,  e.  g.  by  committing  such  a  sin  in  his 
presence  (this  is  inductive  scandal  in  a  broad  sense). 
For  scandal  to  exist  it  is  therefore  essential  and  suffi- 
cient, with  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  act  and  the 
circumstances  under  which  it  takes  place,  that  it  be 
of  a  nature  to  induce  sin  in  another;  consequently  it  is 
not  necessary  that  the  neighbour  should  actually  fall 
into  sin;  and  on  the  other  hand,  for  scandal  strictly 
so-called,  it  is  not  enough  that  a  neighbour  take  oc- 
casion to  do  evil  from  a  word  or  action  which  is  not  a 
subject  of  scandal  and  exercises  no  influence  on  his 
action;  it  must  be  a  cause  of  spiritual  ruin,  that  is  of 
sin,  consequently  that  is  not  scandal  which  merely 
dissuades  the  neighbour  from  a  more  perfect  act,  as  for 
instance,  prayer,  the  practice  of  the  Evangelical  vir- 
tues, the  more  frequent  use  of  the  sacraments,  etc. 
Still  less  can  that  be  considered  scandal,  which  only 
arouses  comment,  indignation,  horror  etc.,  for  in- 
stance blasphemy  committed  in  the  presence  of  a 
priest  or  of  a  religious;  it  is  true  that  the  act  arouses 
indignation  and  in  common  parlance  it  is  often  called 
scandalous,  but  this  way  of  speaking  is  inaccurate,  and 
in  strictly  theological  terminology  it  is  not  the  sin  of 
scandal.  Hence  scandal  is  in  itself  an  evil  act,  at 
least  in  appearance,  and  as  such  it  exercises  on  the  will 
of  another  an  influence  more  or  less  great  which  in- 
duces to  sin.  Furthermore,  when  the  action  from 
which  another  takes  occasion  of  sin  is  not  bad,  either 
in  itself  or  in  appearance,  it  may  violate  charity  (see 
below),  but  strictly  speaking  it  is  not  the  sin  of  scan- 
dal. However,  some  authorities  undenstanding  the 
word  scandal  in  a  wider  sense  include  in  it  this  case. 

II.  Divisions. — (1)  Scandal  is  divided  into  active 
and  passive.  Active  scandal  is  that  which  has  been  de- 
fined above;  passive  scandal  is  the  sin  which  another 
commits  in  consequence  of  active  scandal.  Pa.ssive 
scandal  is  called  scandal  given  {scandalum  datum), 
when  the  act  of  the  scandalizer  is  of  a  nature  to  oc- 
casion it;  and  scandal  received  (ncceptum),  when  the 
action  of  the  one  who  scandalizes  is  due  solely  to  ig- 
norance or  weakness — this  is  scandal  of  the  weak 
{infirmorum), — or  to  malice  and  evil  inclinations — this 
is  Pharisaical  scandal,  which  was  that  of  the  Pharisees 
with  regard  to  the  words  and  actions  of  Christ.  (2) 
Active  scandal  is  direct  when  he  who  commits  it  has 
the  intention  of  inducing  another  to  sin;  such  is  the 
sin  of  one  who  solicits  another  to  the  crime  of  adultery, 
theft  etc.  If  one  prevails  upon  another  to  commit  the 
sin  not  only  because  of  an  advantage  or  pleasure  be- 
lieved to  accrue  therefrom  but  chiefly  because  of  the 
sin  itself,  because  it  is  an  offence  to  God  or  the  ruin  of 
a  neighbour's  soul,  direct  scandal  is  called  by  the  ex- 
pressive name  of  diabolical  scandal.  On  the  other 
hand  scandal  is  only  indirect  when  without  the  inten- 
tion to  cause  another  to  fall  into  sin  we  say  a  word  or 
perform  a  deed  which  is  for  him  an  occasion  of  sin. 

III.  Malice. — (1)  That  active  scandal  is  a  mortal 
sin  Christ  Him.self  has  taught  (Matt.,  xviii,  6sqq.)  and 
reason  makes  evident.  If  charity  obliges  us  to  assist 
our  neighbour's  temporal  and  spiritual  necessities 
(see  Alms;  Correction)  it  obhges  us  still  more 
strongly  not  to  be  to  him  a  cause  of  sin  or  spiritual 
ruin.  Hence  it  follows  that  every  sin  of  scandal  is 
contrary  to  charity.  Moreover  (2)  direct  scandal  is 
obviou.sly  contrary  to  the  virtue  against  which  an- 
other is  induced  to  sin;  in  fact  every  virtue  forbids  not 
only  its  violation  by  ourselves  but  also  that  we  should 
desire  its  violation  by  another.     (3)  Indirect  scandal 


is  also  contrary  to  charity  (see  above);  but  is  it  also 
opposed  to  the  virtue  violated  by  another?  St.  Al- 
phonsus  answers  in  the  affirmative;  others,  and  this 
seems  the  true  opinion,  deny  this.  In  fact  no  one  has 
hitherto  proved  this  species  of  malice,  and  those  who 
admit  it  are  not  consistent  with  themselves,  for  they 
should  also  maintain,  which  no  one  does,  that  anyone 
who  is  indirectly  the  cause  of  an  injustice  by  another 
is  also  bound  to  restitution;  what  is  true  of  justice 
should  hold  good  for  the  other  virtues. 

IV.  The  question  remains:  When  is  there  a  sin  of 
scandal?  for  it  is  obvious  that  not  all  who  are  the 
occasion  of  sin  to  others  are  thereby  guilty.  (1)  As 
a  general  rule  the  sin  of  scandal  exists  when  one  di- 
rectly induces  another  to  do  a  thing  which  he  cannot 
do  without  sin,  either  formal  or  material,  e.  g.  by 
soliciting  a  person  to  perjury,  drunkenness,  sins  of  the 
flesh,  etc.,  even  though  the  person  induced  to  this  act 
is  habitually  or  at  the  time  disposed  to  commit  it. 
It  is  otherwise  when  the  thing  we  ask  is  good  or  indif- 
ferent; this  may  be  done  without  scandal  and  ■w^thout 
sin,  when  there  is  a  just  cause  or  serious  reason  for 
asking  it;  even  though  one  foresees  that  the  other  will 
probably  sin  in  granting  it;  thus  for  the  common  weal 
a  judge  may  demand  an  oath  even  from  those  who 
will  probably  commit  perjury;  one  who  has  need  of 
money  and  who  cannot  find  anyone  who  will  lend  to 
him  may  have  recourse  to  an  usurer  although  he  fore- 
sees that  the  latter  wll  exact  exorbitant  and  unjust 
interest,  etc.  The  thing  asked  must  be  without  sin 
either  formal  or  material  because  it  is  not  allowed  to 
l)rofit  by  the  ignorance  of  another  to  induce  him  to 
commit  what  is  forbidden;  to  cause  a  child  to  utter 
blasphemies,  to  induce  someone  who  is  unaware  of  the 
precept  of  the  Church  to  eat  flesh  on  a  fast  day,  and 
so  on.  In  fact  in  all  these  cases  the  sin  is  to  be  as- 
cribed to  the  person  who  endeavours  to  cause  it. 
This  is  the  general  rule,  but  here  the  question  arises, 
may  one  advise  another  bent  on  committing  a  great 
crime  to  be  satisfied  instead  with  doing  something  less 
evil?  This  question  is  much  discussed,  but  the  opin- 
ion which  considers  such  a  course  justifiable  is  prob- 
able and  may  be  followed  in  practice.  In  fact  the 
advice  thus  given  is  not  properly  speaking  advice  to 
do  evil  but  to  do  a  lesser  evil  or  rather  not  to  do  the 
greater  evil  which  a  man  intends  to  commit;  therefore 
some  writers  exact  that  the  words  or  circumstances 
must  demonstrate  that  one  advises  the  evil  solely  as 
the  le.s.ser  evil;  others,  however,  consider  it  suflicient 
that  such  be  the  intention,  even  when  not  made  mani- 
fest, of  the  jxTsoii  who  gives  the  advice.  Nevertheless, 
if  a  man  had  decided  to  do  an  injury  to  a  certain  per- 
son one  could  not — unless  in  exceptional  circumstances 
— induce  him  to  do  a  lesser  injury  to  any  other  person. 

(2)  He  is  guilty  of  the  sin  of  scandal  who  without 
positively  pledging  or  inducing  to  sin  nevertheless  per- 
forms an  act  evil  in  itself  which  will  be  an  occasion 
of  sin  to  another.  The  same  must  be  said  when  the 
act  is  evil  only  in  appearance,  unless  there  be  sufficient 
reason  to  act  and  to  permit  the  fault  of  another. 
Thus  those  who  blaspheme  before  others  when  they 
foresee  that  their  example  will  cause  the  latter  to 
blaspheme  are  guilty  of  scandal;  so  also  those  who 
attack  rehgion  or  morals,  hold  immoral  conversation, 
sing  immoral  .songs  or  (by  their  behaviour,  dress,  writ- 
ings etc.)  offend  against  the  laws  of  decency  and 
modesty,  when  they  foresee,  as  is  usual,  that  those 
who  see,  hear,  or  read  will  be  impelled  to  sin.  (.3)  To  pre- 
vent another  s  sin  one  may  even  be  bound  to  forego  an 
act  which  is  sinful  neither  in  it.self  nor  in  appearance, 
but  which  is  nevertheless  the  occasion  of  sin  to  an- 
other, unless  t  here  be  sufficient  reason  to  act  otherwise. 
It  has  already  been  shown  that  when  there  is  a  just 
cause  we  may  ask  of  another  a  thing  which  he  can  do 
without  sin  although  we  may  foresee  that  he  will  not 
do  it  without  fault.  Likewise  we  are  not  bound  to  be 
disturbed  by  pharisaical  scandal,  which  may  follow  an 


SCANLON 


508 


SCAPULAR 


action  we  perform;  but  we  must  avoid  scandalizing  the 
weak  if  we  can  do  so  easily.  The  application  of  these 
principles  depends  on  concrete  circumstances,  which 
vary  with  each  case;  however,  the  following  general 
rules  may  be  given:  (1)  To  prevent  scandahzing 
another  we  must  never  transgress  the  negative  pre- 
cepts of  the  natural  law,  nor  its  positive  precepts  in 
cases  where  they  truly  bind;  thus  it  is  not  permitted 
to  lie  to  prevent  a  mortal  sin,  neither  can  one  neglect 
receiving  baptism  to  avoid  the  blasphemies  of  one's 
parents.  (2)  It  is  not  permitted  to  pass  over  any 
precept  whatever  in  order  to  prevent  pharisaical  scan- 
dal, but  we  may  and  even  should,  in  special  cases  and 
for  one  oi  two  occasions,  pass  over  a  precept  whether 
Divine  or  human,  to  avoid  scandalizing  the  weak. 
(3)  We  should,  to  avoid  scandal,  forego  good  or  in- 
diflferent  works  wliich  are  not  of  precept,  if  we  can  do 
so  without  great  inconvenience.  (4)  Finally,  to  pre- 
vent the  scandal  of  the  weak  we  are  sometimes  obliged 
to  sacrifice  some  temporal  good  of  less  importance, 
but  we  are  not  bound  to  do  this  when  the  goods  are  of 
greater  importance. 

Beh.vkdi,  Thenlonia  moralis,  theorico-pmctica  (Faenza,  1904) ; 
Bri.OT,  Compend.  Iheol.  mor.  ad  mentem  P.  Gury  (Paris,  1908) ; 
D'Anxibale,  Summula  iheol.  mor.  (Rome,  1908);  G^nicot- 
Salsmans,  Theol.mor.in.fHt.  (Brussels,  1909);  Lehmkuhl,  Theol. 
mor.  (Freiburg,  1910);  Xoldin,  Summa  theologia:  moralis:  De 
pr<TceptU  et  ecdesia  (Innsbruck,  1908) ;  St.  Thomas,  Summa  theol. 
II-II.  Q.  xliii,  with  Cajetan's  commentary;  S.  Alphonsu.s,  Theol. 
mor.  II,  tr.  Ill  (Rome,  1905) ;  Bodquillon,  De  virtutibus  theologicis 
(Bruges,  1890)  with  annotations  by  Waffelaert  (Bruges,  1900); 
Waffelaert,  Qxielle  espice  de  peche  commet  celui  qui  donne  h  scan- 
dalef  in  Nouvelle  revue  theologique,  XV  (Tournai,  1883) ;  Colla- 
tiones  brugenses  (Bruges,  189&— ),  especially  VIII  (1903)  and  XIV 
(1909). 

A.  Van  der  Heeren. 
Scanlon,  Lawrexce.    See  Salt  Lake,  Diocese 

OF. 

Scannabecchi,  Filippo  [Dalmasio;  Lippo  di 
Dalmasio;  Lippo  Dalle  Madoxne;  Muratori(?)], 
Bolognese  painter,  b.  about  1360;  d.  about  1410.  Of 
his  life  and  career  we  know  exceedingly  little.  Mal- 
vasia  gives  few  details,  but  regards  his  work  as  of 
the  highest  importance,  and  says  that  no  great 
family  in  Bologna  was  without  an  example  of  it. 
It  is  not  easy  at  the  present  day  to  know  upon  what 
basis  Malvasia  wrote,  because  there  is  no  work  of 
Scannabecchi  which  seems  to  modern  critics  to  de- 
serve such  praise.  He  was,  however,  one  of  the  earliest 
Eainters  of  Bologna,  and  one  of  the  first  to  reveal 
eauty  in  the  features  of  the  Madonna  and  Child. 
His  father,  Dalmasio  Scannabecchi,  who  painted  in 
the  same  city,  trainecl  him,  and  also  Vitale  da  Bologna. 
We  have  no  definite  dates  concerning  him,  save  that 
he  made  his  will  in  1410.  The  name  Muratori,  by 
which  one  or  two  writers  have  styled  him,  really 
belongs  to  another  artist  of  the  name  of  Scannabecchi, 
a  woman,  Teresa,  a  seventeenth-century  painter,  and 
should  not  be  applied  to  him.  His  name  of  Lippo 
Dalle  Madonne  was  given  him  because  he  usually 
painted  the  Madonna. 

Th(T<-  is  a  reference  to  him  in  Le  Pubhliche  Pitlure  di  Piacenza 
(Piaoenza,  1780);  Malvasia,  Fehinn  PiUrire  (Bologna,  1678); 
the  unpublished  memoirs  of  Dretti  in  the  Bologna  Museum. 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Scannell,  Richard.    See  Omaha,  Diocese  of. 

Scap\ilar. — I.  Name,  Meaning,  and  Origin. — 
The  scapular  (from  Lat.  naipula,  shoulder)  forms  a 
part,  and  now  the  most  important  part,  of  the  habit 
of  the  mon;tstic  orders.  Other  (jrders  and  numerous 
religifjUH  congregations  (both  male  and  fernah;)  have 
also  a<lopted  the  sriapular  from  the  monastic  orders. 
It  is  usually  worn  over  the  habit  or  soutane.  It 
consistK  fRs^-ntially  of  a  piece;  of  cloth  about  the  width 
of  fhcr  brc;i,st  from  one  shoulder  U)  the  other  (i.  e., 
alxiut  fourteen  U>  eighteen  inches),  and  of  such  a 
lengtli  that  i1  n^iiches  not  quite  to  the;  feet  in  front  and 
behind.  Thfjn;  an;  also  short^rr  forrri.s  of  tlie  Hcaj)ular. 
In  the  middle  is  the  ofKjning  for  the  head,  the  scapular 


thus  hanging  down  from  two  narrow  connecting 
segments  resting  on  the  shoulders.  Originally  the 
longitudinal  segments  of  cloth  were  confined  by  cross 
segments  passing  under  the  arms — a  form  which 
exists  even  to-day.  In  former  times  also  two  seg- 
ments of  cloth  hung  over  the  shoulders,  which  they 
covered,  and  thus  formed  a  cross  with  the  longi- 
tudinal segments  over  the  breast  and  back  (cf.  P. 
L.,  cm,  1231,  editorial  note).  This  monastic  scap- 
ular, hke  the  whole  monastic  habit  and  indeed  the  lit- 
urgical vestments  of  the  priest,  developed  from  the 
ordinary  clothing  of  the  laity.  And,  just  as  the 
stole  is  the  special  sign  of  the  priestly  dignity  and 
power,  the  scapular  is  now  the  sign  of  the  monk. 
In  the  West,  in  the  case  of  St.  Benedict,  the  scapular 
was  at  first  nothing  else  than  a  working  garment  or 
apron  such  as  was  then  worn  by  agricultural  labourers. 
Thus,  in  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  it  was  expressly 
termed  "scapulare  propter  opera"  (c.  xxv  in  P.  L., 
LXXVT,  771).  From  this  developed  the  special 
monastic  garment,  to  which  a  hood  could  be  fas- 
tened at  the  back.  In  fact,  the  original  scapular 
of  the  Dominican  Order  was  so  made  that  it  acted 
also  as  a  covering  for  the  head,  and  thus  as  a  hood 
(cf.  Quctif-Echard.  "Scriptores  ord.  prsed.",  I,  75; 
"  Theodemari  epist.  ad  Carol.  Reg."  in  Mon. 
Germ,  hist.:  Epp.,  IV,  Carol,  aev.,  2,  513;  cf.  "S. 
Benedicti  Anianensis  concord,  regular.",  c.  Ixii, 
in  P.  L.,  cm,  1231,  and  ibid.,  editorial  note;  Du 
Cange-Favre,  " Glossarium " ,  s.  v.  Scapulare).  The 
scapular  of  the  West  corresponded  to  the  analabus 
of  the  East  (cf.  "S.  Dorothei  abbatis  doctrina", 
I,  xiii,  in  P.  G.,  LXXXVIII,  1634;  Cassian,  "De 
coenob.  instit.",  in  P.  L.,  XLIX,  68  sqq.;  Simeon 
Thessal.  archiep.,  "De  poenitentia",  cclxxiii,  in 
P.  G.,  CLV,  495;  Goar,  "Euchologium",  2nd  ed., 
Venice,  1730,  pp.  411,  417  sqq.). 

Monastic  formulte  of  profession  of  the  West  from 
the  ninth  century  make  no  mention  of  the  investment 
with  the  scapular.  It  was  only  gradually  that  it 
became  one  of  the  important  parts  of  the  monastic 
habit.  Later,  like  the  analabus,  it  was  solemnly 
presented  during  the  clothing,  and  the  symbolism 
of  the  scapular  is  emphasized  in  the  formula  used 
during  this  ceremony.  Especially  the  analabus  but 
also  the  scapular  was  often  called  simply  crux  (cross) 
on  account  of  its  shape,  and  symbolism  intro- 
duced accordingly.  It  was  thus  natural  to  term 
the  scapular  jugum  Chrisli  (the  yoke  of  Christ); 
it  was  also  called  senium  (shield),  as  it  was  laid  over 
the  head,  which  it  originally  covered  and  protected 
with  one  portion  (from  which  the  hood  afterwards  de- 
veloped). (Cf.  "S.  Dorothei  doctrina",  loc.  cit.;  Goar, 
loc.  cit.;  "Vetusdiscipl.  monast.",  Paris,  1726,  formulae 
professionis ;  Gianius,  "  Annales  ord.  Servor.",  2nded., 
I,  Lucca,  1719,  499  .sq.,  409  sqq.).  In  the  rules  of 
the  religious  it  is  expressly  prescribed  under  penalties 
that  even  at  night  the  scapular  must  be  worn,  e.  g. 
in  the  case  of  the  Servites  and  Carmelites  ("Mon. 
Ord.  Servorum  B.  M.  V.",  I,  .xxi;  "Const,  s.  Bona- 
junta)  1257";  "Mon.  hist.  Carmel.  Const.",  1324,  in 
Zimmerman,  31:  "Statuimus  quod  fratres  in  tunica 
et  scapulari  dormiant  supracincti,  sub  poena  gravis 
culpa;  ).  For  night  the  Carmelites  nave  now  a 
special  smaller  scapular  which,  however,  is  still  much 
larger  than  the  so-called  great  scapular  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis;  it  measures  about  twenty 
inches  in  length  and  ten  in  width.  In  the  Con- 
stitutions of  the  Carmelite  Order  of  1369  (Cod. 
Vatic,  lat.  3991  fol.  33  v.)  it  is  appointed  that  each 
candidate  of  the  order  must  bring  with  him  his  bed 
and  in  addition:  "habeat  etiam  cum  rauba  sua 
parvum  scapulare  cum  tunica  ad  jacendum"  (cf. 
Wes.sels,  "Analecta  Ord.  Carmel.",  Rome,  1911,  p. 
122).  Perhaps  the  smaller  scapular  for  the  night  is 
here  hinted  at  or  ff)reshadowed.  Perhaps  even  the 
Bmall  scapular  of   the  confraternity    (that   for  the 


SCAPULAR 


509 


SCAPULAR 


laity)  may  be  suggested,  since  the  reference  is 
to  persons  coming  from  the  world  (novices)  who 
should  have  this  small  scapular.  It  is  likewise  pre- 
scribed in  the  Constitutions  of  the  Servites  of  1257 
"quod  nuUus  accedat  sine  scapular!  et  tunica  dor- 
mitum".  Again,  after  St.  Benedict  had  declared 
in  his  Rule  XXII:  "Vestiti  dormiant  et  cincti 
cingulis  aut  funibus",  it  was  prescribed  in  the  "Con- 
suetudines  sublacenses " :  "Vestiti  autem  dormiant 
id  est  ad  minus  in  una  tunica  et  scapular!  et  cincti, 
ut  sint  parati  surgere"  (Albers,  "Consuet.  monas- 
ticae",  II,  126).  This  scapular  thus  appears  to  have 
been  a  portion  of  the  night  clothing  of  monks. 

II.  The  Scapular  op  the  Third  Orders. — To  the 
first  orders  have  been  gradually  added  the  second 
and  third  orders  and  the  oblates,  who  receive  the 
proper  habit  from  the  first  orders.  Early  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  numerous  lay  persons  had  already  joined 
the  Benedictine  Order  as  oblates;  these  often  re- 
ceived from  the  first  order  the  entire  monastic  habit, 
which  they  wore  either  constantly  in  the  world  or 
at  least  during  Divine  Service.  It  was  regarded  as  a 
great  grace  and  privilege  to  be  able  to  die  and  be 
buried  in  the  monastic  habit,  which  was  frequently 
given  to  the  dying  or  placed  on  the  deceased  before 
burial.  In  the  revised  statutes  of  the  Oblates  of  the 
Benedictine  Order,  confirmed  in  1891  and  1904,  it 
is  stated  in  conclusion:  "The  Oblates  may  be  buried 
in  the  black  habit  of  the  order,  with  scapular  and 
girdle,  wherever  the  conditions  allow  the  fulfilment 
of  this  pious  wish"  (Beringer,  "Die  Ablas.se",  13th 
ed.,  817;  French  tr.  "Les  indulgences",  3rd.  ed.,  II, 
516).  In  the  first  Rule  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis 
of  1221  (also  in  that  of  1289),  the  inve.stment  is 
fairly  e.xactly  described,  but  there  is  no  mention  of  a 
scapular  (cf.  Sabatier,  "Opuscules  de  critique  his- 
torique",  I,  Paris,  1903,  "Regula  antiqua  fratrum  et 
sororum  de  pcenitcntia",  pp.  17  sq.,  "De  modo  ves- 
tium";  "Seraphicse  Icgislationis  textus  originales", 
III,  Quaracchi,  1897,  pp.  81  sq.,  "De  forma  habitus 
et  qualitate  indumentorum").  The  first  Rule  of  the 
Third  Order  of  St.  Dominic  in  the  first  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century  prescribed  likewise  a  formal  and 
complete  investment.  Here  also  there  is  no  mention 
of  the  scapular.  As  in  the  case  of  the  other  third 
orders  this  made  its  appearance  later,  until  finally  it 
became  usual  to  wear  the  scapular  under  one's  ordinary 
clothing  instead  of  the  full  ha})it  of  t  he  order  (cf."Regola 
del  terz'  ordine  di  San  Domenico",  Rome,  1888,  pp. 
26  sqq.  Concerning  the  investment  of  the  Oblati, 
Mantellatae,  and  Bizzoche,  see  also  Giani,  "Annales", 
2nd  ed.,  I,  Lucca,  1719,  pp.  198,  405  sqq.,  626; 
2nd  ed.,  II  Lucca,  1721,  pp.  319,  392,  414,  420, 
442;  "Bullar.  Carmelit.",  II,  Rome,  1718,  p.  373; 
III,  Rome,  1768,  p.  611;  Linas,  "Bullar.  B.  M.  V.  de 
Mercede",  Barcelona,  1696,  p.  15;  cf.  Potthast, 
"Regest.  Pontif.",  1825  sq.).  By  the  Decree  of  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars  of 
20  December,  1616,  it  was  declared  that  the  Bizzoche, 
who  lived  in  the  houses  of  relatives  (and  thus  quite 
without  restraint  in  the  world),  might  wear  the  ter- 
tiary habit,  but  without  supriectum,  sottogola,  and 
palientia  (i.  e.,  without  veil,  pectorale,  and  scapular). 
Later,  the  wearing  of  the  special  habit  of  an  order 
became  unusual,  and  the  constant  wearing  of  such 
was  regarded  as  a  privilege.  Gradually,  however, 
the  most  distinctive  article  of  the  monastic  habit, 
the  scapular,  was  given,  and  is  in  an  ever  smaller 
form.  It  has  thus  come  to  pass  that  the  third  orders 
for  the  laity,  such  as  those  of  the  Franciscans,  Servites 
and  Dominicans,  wear  to-day  as  tlieir  special  badge 
and  habit  a  "large"  scapular,  consisting  essentially 
of  two  segments  of  woollen  cloth  (about  four  and  a  half 
inches  long  and  two  and  three-eighths  inches  broad 
in  the  case  of  the  Franciscan  .scapular;  much  longer 
and  broader  in  the  case  of  the  Carmelite — although 
no  particular  length  or  breadth  is  prescribed)   con- 


nected with  each  other  by  two  strings  or  bands. 
The  best  known  scapular  is  that  of  the  Third  Order 
of  St.  Francis,  or,  as  it  is  simply  called,  the  Scapular 
of  St.  Francis;  it  is  brown,  grey,  or  black  in  colour, 
and  has  (at  least  generally)  on  one  of  the  woollen 
segments  the  image  of  St.  Francis  and  on  the  other 
that  of  the  little  church  of  Portiuncula.  For  these 
large  scapulars  the  same  general  rules  hold  good  as 
described  in  detail  below  in  the  case  of  the  small 
scapulars.  It  is  especially  necessary  that  persons 
who  desire  to  share  in  the  indulgences  and  privileges 
of  the  third  orders  shall  wear  the  scapulars  con- 
stantly. However,  the  Congregation  of  Indulgences  ex- 
pressly declared  on  30  April,  1885,  that  the  wearing 
of  the  scapulars  of  smaller  form  and  of  the  same  size 
as  those  of  the  confraternities  entitled  one  to  gain  the 
indulgences  of  the  third  order  (cf.  Constit.  Leonis 
XIII,  "Misericors  Dei  Filius",  30  May,  1883; 
"Acta  S.  Sed.",  XV,  513  sqq.;  Beringer,  "Les  in- 
dulgences", 3rd  ed.,  II,  499  sqq.). 

III.  The  Small  Scapulars. — Like  the  large  scapu- 
lars the  first  and  oldest  small  scapulars  originated  to  a 
certain  extent  in  the  real  monastic  scapular.  Pious 
lay  persons  of  either  sex  attached  themselves  to  the 
Servites  for  instance;  man}'  of  those  who  were  in  a 
position  to  do  so  attached  themselves  to  the  third 
order  with  vows,  but  in  the  case  of  many  others 
either  this  was  impossible  or  the  idea  of  doing  so 
had  as  yet  not  occurred  to  them.  In  this  manner 
developed,  shortly  after  the  foundation  of  the  Servite 
Order,  the  Confraternity  of  the  Servi  B.  M arise 
Virginis  (cf.  Giani,  "Annales",  I,  2nd  ed.,  Lucca, 
1719,  p.  162;  1st  ed.,  Florence,  1618,  p.  58).  Similarly 
originated  the  Confraternity  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount 
Carmel;  that  this  existed  in  1280  is  proved  by  the 
still  extant  "Libro  degli  ordinamenti  de  la  compagnia 
di  Santa  Maria  del  Carmine  scritto  nel  1280"  (ed- 
ited by  Giulio  Piccini  at  Bologna,  1867,  in  "Scelta 
di  Curiosity  letterarie").  The  members  of  these  con- 
fraternities were  called  the  confratres  and  consorures 
of  the  respective  orders;  they  had  special  rules  and 
participated  in  the  spiritual  goods  of  the  order  to 
which  they  belonged.  It  is  probable  also  that  many 
of  those  who  could  not  be  promoted  to  the  third 
order  or  who  were  special  benefactors  of  the  first 
order  received  the  habit  of  the  order  or  a  large 
scapular  similar  to  that  of  the  oblates,  which  they 
might  wear  when  dying  and  in  which  they  might  be 
buried.  It  was  only  later  and  gradually  that  the 
idea  developed  of  giving  to  everyone  connected  with 
the  order  the  real  scapular  of  the  order  in  miniature 
as  their  badge  to  be  always  worn  day  and  night  over 
or  under  their  ordinary  clothing. 

It  was  now  that  the.se  confraternities  developed 
into  scapular  confraternities  in  the  modern  sense. 
On  account  of  the  scapulars  the  faithful  resorted  ever 
more  to  these  confraternities,  especially  after  they  had 
heard  of  the  wonderful  graces  which  members  had 
received  through  the  scapulars,  and  above  all  when 
the  story  of  the  apparition  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and 
of  her  promise  to  all  who  wore  the  Scapular  of  Mount 
Carmel  faithfully  until  death  became  known.  Con- 
sequently, the  four  oldest  small  scapulars  are  like- 
wise the  badges  of  four  confraternities,  attached  re- 
spectively to  the  Carmelites,  Servites,  Trinitarians, 
and  Mercedarians.  Later  on  the  Franciscans  gave  the 
members  of  their  third  order  for  the  laity  the  large 
scapular,  and  founded  also  a  Franciscan  confraternity, 
the  members  of  whicih  were  given  as  their  badge, 
not  a  small  scapular,  but  a  girdle.  The  Dominicans 
likewise  assigned  to  their  third  order  the  large  scapular 
as  its  badge,  and  to  their  principal  confraternity  the 
rosary.  Since  1903,  however,  there  is  a  small  scapular 
of  St.  Dominic  provided  with  an  indulgence  but  con- 
nected with  no  confraternity  ("  Analecta  ecd.",  1904, 
p.  261).  The  Bene(ii(;tines,  on  the  other  hand, 
founded  a  special  confraternity  in  the  latter  half  of 


SCAPULAR 


510 


SCAPX7LAR 


the  nineteenth  century,  and  gave  to  its  members 
a  small  scapular  of  St.  Benedict.  An  attempt  was 
later  made  to  give  the  oblates  of  the  Benedictines  a 
larger  scapular  which  could  be  worn  constantly. 
However,  the  regulation  which  was  alreadj^  quoted 
from  the  new  statutes  of  the  Benedictines  Oblates 
still  remains  in  force. 

In  the  course  of  time  other  orders  received  the 
faculty  of  blessing  small  scapulars  and  investing  the 
faithful  with  them,  although  such  scapulars  were  not 
always  connected  with  a  confraternity.  Thus  orig- 
inated the  Blue  Scapular  of  the  Theatines  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  in  connexion  with  which  a 
confraternity  was  not  founded  untU  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  Fathers  of  the  Precious  Blood  have 
a  scapular  and  confraternity  named  after  then- 
order.  Similarly  the  CamiUians  have  the  Confra- 
ternity and  Scapular  of  Our  Lady  the  Help  of  the 
Sick,  and  the  Augustinians  the  Confraternity  and 
Scapular  of  the  ]\Iother  of  Good  Counsel,  in  which 
ca.ses  the  scapular  and  confraternity  are  not  insepara- 
bly united;  finally  the  Capuchins  have  the  Scapular 
of  St.  Joseph  without  a  corresponding  confraternity. 
The  Lazarists  have  the  Red,  and  the  Passionists 
the  Black  Scapular  of  the  Passion.  lender  Leo  XIII 
originated  in  Rome  the  Scapular  Confraternity  of  St. 
Michael  the  Archangel,  which  is  attached  not  so 
much  to  an  order  as  to  the  church  in  which  it  exists. 
Also  under  Leo  XIII,  in  1900,  were  approved  the 
Scapular  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  the  Scapular  of  the 
Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary  (both  without  a 
corresponding  confraternity),  and  the  Scapular  of  the 
Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary,  which  originated  in  1877. 
The.se  complete  the  list  of  the  seventeen  known 
small  scapulars. 

The  historj-  of  the  origin  of  the  first  four  small 
scapulars  is  still  to  a  great  extent  obscure.  It  is 
probable  that  the  revival  of  the  religious  life  in  the 
sixteenth  century  (the  Counter-Reformation)  gave 
the  chief  impetus  to  the  development  of  the  scapulars, 
as  to  other  institutions  and  practices  (e.  g.,  con- 
fraternities and  novenas).  To  assign  an  exact  date 
to  the  origin  of  the  first  small  scapular  is  still  impos- 
sible; it  appears,  however,  that  the  Carmelite  scapular 
antedated  all  the  others,  as  a  prototype  well  worthy 
of  imitation,  and  had  its  origin  in  the  above-men- 
tioned scapular  prescribed  for  wearing  at  night.  At 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  scapular  was 
certainly  widespread,  as  is  clear  from  the  information 
given  by  the  Carmehte  Joseph  Falcome  in  "La 
Cronica'Carmelitana",  a  book  which  was  published 
at  Piacenza  in  1595  (cf.  Wessels,  "Analecta  Ord. 
Carmel.",  Rome,  1911,  pp.  120  sq.).  Before  entering 
into  further  detail  concerning  the  individual  scapulars, 
we  mu.st  give  the  general  rules  and  regulations  which 
apply  to  all  the  small  scapulars. 

IV.  General  Ecclesiastical  Regulations  Con- 
cerning THE  S.\iall  Scapulars. — The  small  scapulars 
consist  es.sentially  of  two  quadrilateral  segments  of 
woollen  cloth  (about  two  and  three-quarter  inches 
long  by  two  inches  wide),  connected  with  each  other 
by  two  strings  or  bands  in  such  a  manner  that,  when 
the  bands  rest  on  the  shoulders,  the  front  segment 
rf^ts  before  the  breast,  while  the  other  hangs  down 
an  equal  distance  at  the  back.  The  two  segments  of 
cloth  need  not  necessarily  be  equally  large,  various 
scapulars  having  the;  .sogmc-nt  before  the  breast  of  (lie 
above  dimensions  wliilf  the  segment  at  the  back  is 
much  smaller.  Thr-  material  f)f  these  two  essential 
parts  of  the  scapular  must  be  of  woven  wool;  the 
strings  or  bands  may  b(!  of  any  material,  and  of  any 
one  colour.  Tht;  colour  of  the  segments  of  woollen 
cloth  depenriii  on  the  colour  of  the  monastic  habit, 
which  it  to  a  certain  ext<-nt  represents,  or  on  the 
myster\'  in  honour  of  which  it  is  worn.  Here,  how- 
ever, it  must  be  remarked  that  the  so-called  jirown 
Scapular  of  the  Carmelites  may  be  black,  and  that 


the  bands  of  the  Red  Scapular  of  the  Passion  must 
be  of  red  wool.  On  either  or  both  of  the  woollen 
segments  may  be  sewn  or  embroidered  becoming 
representations  or  other  decorations  (emblems,  names 
etc.)  of  a  different  material.  It  is  only  in  the  case 
of  the  Red  Scapular  that  the  images  are  expressly 
prescribed. 

Several  scapulars  may  be  attached  to  the  same 
pair  of  strings  or  bands;  each  scapular  must  of  course 
be  complete,  and  must  be  attached  to  both  bands. 
In  many  cases  the  five  best-known  of  the  early 
scapulars  are  attached  to  the  same  pair  of  bands; 
this  combination  is  then  known  as  the  "fivefold 
scapular".  The  five  are:  the  Scapular  of  the  Most 
Blessed  Trinity,  that  of  the  Carmelites,  of  the  Ser- 
vites,  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  and  the  Red 
Scapular  of  the  Passion.  When  the  scapulars  are 
thus  joined  together,  the  bands  must  be  of  red  wool, 
as  required  by  the  Red  Scapular;  it  is  customary  to 
wear  the  Red  Scapular  uppermost  and  that  of  the 
Most  Blessed  Trinity  undermost,  so  that  the  images 
specially  prescribed  in  the  case  of  the  Red,  and  the 
small  red  and  blue  cross  on  the  Scapular  of  the  Blessed 
Trinity,  may  be  visible. 

Only  at  the  original  reception  of  any  scapular  is 
either  the  blessing  or  the  investxnent  with  such  by  an 
authorized  priest  necessary.  When  a  person  needs 
a  new  scapular,  he  can  put  on  an  unblessed  one. 
If  the  investment  with  a  scapular  be  inseparably 
connected  with  reception  into  a  confraternity,  the 
reception  and  enrolment  must  take  place  on  the  same 
occasion  as  the  blessing  and  investment.  To  share 
in  the  indulgences  and  privileges  of  a  scapular,  one 
must  wear  it  constantly;  it  may  be  worn  over  or 
under  one's  clothing  and  may  be  laid  aside  for  a  short 
time,  if  necessarj'.  Should  one  have  ceased  wearing 
the  scapular  for  a  long  period  (even  through  indif- 
ference), one  gains  none  of  the  indulgences,  during 
this  time,  but,  by  simply  resuming  the  scapular,  one 
again  participates  in  the  indulgences,  privileges,  etc. 
Every  scapular,  which  is  not  merely  an  object  of 
private  devotion  (for  there  are  also  such)  but  is  also 
provided  with  an  indulgence,  must  be  approved  by 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  the  formula  of 
blessing  must  be  sanctioned  by  the  Congregation  of 
Rites.  In  this  article  we  speak  only  of  scapulars 
approved  by  the  Church. 

V.  The  Scapular  Medals. — Since  1910  and  the 
regulation  of  the  Holy  Office  of  16  December  of  that 
year  (Acta  Apost.  Sedis,  III,  22  sq.)  it  is  permitted 
to  wear,  instead  of  one  or  more  of  the  small  scapulars, 
a  single  medal  of  metal.  This  medal  must  have  on 
one  side  a  representation  of  Jesus  Christ  with  His 
Most  Sacred  Heart  and  on  the  other  any  image  of  the 
Mother  of  God.  All  persons  who  have  been  validly 
invested  with  a  blessed  woollen  scapular  may  replace 
such  by  this  medal.  The  medal  must  be  blessed  by  a 
priest  pos.se.ssing  the  faculty  to  bless  and  invest  with 
the  scapular  or  scapulars,  which  the  medal  is  to  re- 
place. The  facilities  to  bless  these  medals  are  subject 
to  the  .same  conditions  and  limitations  as  the  faculties 
to  bless  and  invest  with  the  c()rrcsi)()nding  scapulars. 
If  the  medal  is  to  be  worn  instead  of  a  number  of 
different  scapulars,  it  must  receive  the  blessing  that 
would  be  attached  to  each  of  them,  i.  e.  as  many 
blessings  as  the  number  of  sca|)ulars  it  replaces. 
For  each  blessing  a  sign  of  the  Cross  suffices.  This 
medal  must  also  be  worn  constantly,  either  about  the 
neck  or  in  sf>mf  ()ther  seemly  manner,  and  with  it 
may  be  gainerl  all  the  indulgences  and  privileges 
of  the  small  s(;apulars  without  exception.  Only  the 
small  (not  the  large)  scapulars  may  be  validly  re- 
placed by  such  medals. 

VI.  The  Individual  Small  Scapulars. — A.  The 
Scapular  nf  the  Most  lilrssrd  Trinity. — The  small 
white  scanuiar,  provided  with  the  blue  and  red  cross, 
is  the  badge  of  the  members  of  the  Confraternity  of 


SCAPULAR 


511 


SCAPULAR 


the  Most  Blessed  Trinity.  To  Innocent  III,  who 
Banctioned  the  Order  of  the  Trinitarians  on  28 
January,  1198,  an  angel  is  said  to  have  appeared, 
wearing  a  white  garment  and  on  his  breast  a  cross, 
of  which  the  transverse  shaft  was  blue  and  the 
longitudinal  shaft  red.  The  Trinitarians  were  ac- 
cordingly assigned  this  as  their  habit.  When  later 
the  faithful  sought  to  associate  themselves  more 
closely  with  their  order  in  confraternities,  the  Trini- 
tarians gave  them  as  their  outward  badge  the  scapular 
described  above.  The  red  and  blue  cross  is  essential 
only  on  the  front  segment  of  woollen  cloth  which 
hangs  before  the  breast.  Each  person  who  joins  the 
Confraternity  of  the  Blessed  Trinity  must  be  in- 
vested with  this  scapular  and  must  constantly  wear 
it.  The  indulgences  of  this  confraternity  were  last 
approved  by  a  Decree  of  the  Congregation  of  Indul- 
gences of  13  August,  1899.  The  General  of  the 
Trinitarians  may  communicate  to  other  priests  the 
faculty  of  receiving  into  the  confraternity  and  of 
blessing  and  investing  with  the  scapular  (Beringer, 
"Die  Ablasse",  13th  ed.,  584  sqq.;  French  tr., 
3rd  ed.,  II,  107;  cf.  Baro  Bonav.,  "Annales  Ord. 
SS.  Trinit.",  Rome,  1684,  p.  Ixxviii  ad  an  1598). 

B.  The  Scapular  of  Our  Lady  of  Ransom  {B. 
Marice  V.  de  Mercede  redemptionis  caplivorum). — 
Like  the  Trinitarians,  the  Fathers  of  the  Order  of 
Our  Lady  of  Mercy  for  the  Ransom  of  Prisoners 
give  the  faithful  a  special  scapular  on  their  entering 
the  confraternity  erected  by  them.  The;  order  was 
founded  by  St.  Peter  Xolasco  (d.  1256) .  The  scapular 
is  of  white  cloth,  and  bears  on  the  front  part,  which 
hangs  over  the  breast,  the  picture  of  Our  Lady  of 
Ransom.  The  other  part  consists  simply  of  a  smaller 
segment  of  white  cloth.  The  summary  of  indulgences 
of  the  confraternity  was  last  approved  by  the  Con- 
gregation of  Indulgences  on  30  July,  1868  (Rescr. 
auth.  S.  C.  Indulg.,  pp.  483  sqq.,  n.  36).  The  General 
of  the  Mercedarians  communicates  to  other  priests 
the  faculty  of  receiving  into  the  confraternity  and 
of  blessing  and  investing  with  the  scapular.  In 
the  "BuUar.  Ord.  B.  M.  V.  de  Mercede"  (Barcelona, 
1696),  p.  16,  mention  is  made  of  a  Constitution  of 
Urban  IV  issued  at  Viterbo  on  25  March,  1263, 
granting  afresh  to  the  laity  who  wear  the  scapular 
of  the  order  {habitum  7ioslrum)  in  the  world  many 
graces  and  indulgences.  We  do  no  more  than  record 
this  circumstance  exactly  as  it  is  related  in  the 
"Bullarium".  However,  the  encyclical  could  not 
have  been  issu(>d  from  Viterbo  on  25  March,  1263,  for 
Urban  IV  was  at  that  time  in  Orvieto. 

C.  The  Scapular  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel  is 
the  best  known,  most  celebrated,  and  most  widespread 
of  the  small  scapulars.  It  is  spoken  of  as  "the 
Scapular",  and  the  "feast  of  the  Scapular"  is  that 
of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel  on  16  July.  It  is 
probably  the  oldest  scapular  and  served  as  the  proto- 
type of  the  others.  According  to  a  pious  tradition 
the  Blessed  Virgin  appeared  to  St.  Simon  Stock  (q. 
V.)  at  Cambridge,  England,  on  Sunday,  16  July, 
1251.  In  answer  to  his  appeal  for  help  for  his  oj)- 
pressed  order,  she  appeared  to  him  with  a  scapu- 
lar in  her  hand  and  said:  "Take,  beloved  son, 
this  scapular  of  thy  order  as  a  badge  of  my  con- 
fraternity and  for  thee  and  all  Carmelites  a  special 
sign  of  grace;  whoever  dies  in  this  garment,  will  not  suf- 
fer everlasting  fire.  It  is  the  sign  of  salvation,  a  safe- 
guard in  dangers,  a  pledge  of  peace  and  of  the  covenant" . 
This  tradition,  however,  appears  in  such  a  precise  form 
for  the  first  time  in  1642,  when  the  words  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  were  given  in  a  circular  of  St.  Simon  Stock, 
which  he  is  said  to  have  dictated  to  his  companion, 
secretary,  and  confessor,  Peter  Swanyngton.  Although 
it  has  now  been  sufficiently  shown  that  this  testimony 
cannot  be  supported  by  historical  documents  (cf. 
B.  Zimmerman,  "Mon.  hist.  Carmelit.",  I,  Lerins, 
1907,  pp.  323  sqq.;    Louis  Saltet  in  "Bulletin  de 


litt.  eccl.",  1911,  pp.  24  sqq.,  85  sqq.),  still  its 
general  content  remains  a  reliable  pious  tradition; 
in  other  words,  it  is  credible  that  St.  Simon  Stock  was 
assured  in  a  supernatural  manner  of  the  special  pro- 
tection of  the  Blessed  Virgin  for  his  whole  order  and 
for  all  who  should  wear  the  Carmelite  habit;  that  the 
Blessed  Virgin  also  jjromised  him  to  grant  special 
aid,  especially  in  the  hour  of  death,  to  tho.se  who 
in  holy  fidelity  wore  this  habit  in  her  honour  through- 
out life,  so  that  they  should  be  preserved  from  hell. 
And,  even  though  there  is  here  no  direct  reference 
to  the  members  of  the  scapular  confraternity,  in- 
directly the  promise  is  extended  to  all  who  from 
devotion  to  the  Mother  of  God  should  wear  her  habit 
or  badge,  like  true  Christians,  until  death,  and  be 
thus  as  it  were  affiliated  to  the  Carmelite  Order. 

Heretofore  no  authenticated  testimony  has  been 
discovered  proving  that  the  small  scapular  was  known 
from  the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  and 
was  given  to  the  members  of  the  Confraternity  of 
Our  Lady  of  Mt.  Carmel.  On  the  contrary  there 
are  many  reasons  for  the  view  that  the  small  scapu- 
lar, as  we  now  know  it  and  in  the  form  it  has 
certainly  had  since  the  sixteenth  century,  is  of 
much  later  origin.  Zimmerman  (Mon.  hist.  Carmelit., 
loc.  cit.)  and  Saltet  (loc.  cit.)  give  very  reasonable 
grounds  for  this  view.  In  any  case,  the  scapular 
was  very  widespread  in  European  countries  at  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  as  is  evident  from 
"La  cronica  Carmelitana"  of  the  Carmelite  Joseph 
Falcone  (Piacenza,  1595).  In  1600  appeared  at 
Palermo  the  "Giardino  Carmelitano"  of  the  Car- 
melite Egidio  Leoindelicato  da  Sciacca  (the  approval 
is  dated  1592).  Towards  the  end  the  author  gives, 
after  the  formula  of  benediction  for  the  Fratelli 
and  Sorelle  della  Compagnia  della  Madonna  del 
Carmine  (who  receive  the  complete  habitof  the  order), 
the  formula  for  the  blessing  of  the  scapular  for  the 
Devoti  della  Compagnia  Carmelitana  (pp.  239  sqq.). 
This  is  the  earliest  form  of  benediction  for  the  small 
scapular  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  It  is  also 
noteworthy  that  the  formula  for  the  sisters  con- 
tains no  reference  to  the  scapular,  while  in  that  for 
the  brothers  there  is  a  special  blessing  for  the  scapular 
(cf.  ibid.,  pp.  228  sqq.). 

Nevertheless,  even  should  we  admit  that  the  small 
scapular  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel  originated 
even  as  late  as  the  beginning  of  the  sixte(>nth  century, 
yet  the  above  promise,  whi(;h  is  designated  the  first 
privilege  of  the  Carmelite  Scapular,  remains  unim- 
paired. For  this  privilege  declares  nothing  else  than 
that  all  those  who  out  of  true  veneration  and  love 
for  the  Blessed  Virgin  constantly  wear  the  scapular 
in  a  spirit  of  fidelity  and  confiding  faith,  after  they 
have  been  placed  by  the  Church  itself  with  this  habit 
or  badge  under  the  special  protection  of  the  Mother 
of  God,  shall  enjoy  this  special  protection  in  the  mat- 
ter and  crisis  which  most  concerns  them  for  time 
and  eternity.  Whoever,  therefore,  even  though  he  be 
now  a  sinner,  wears  the  badge  of  the  Mother  of  God 
throughout  life  as  her  faithful  servant,  not  pre- 
sumptuously relying  on  the  scapular  as  on  a  miracu- 
lous amulet,  but  trustfully  confiding  in  the  power 
and  goodness  of  Mary,  may  securely  hope  that  Mary 
will  through  her  powerful  and  motherly  intercession 
procure  for  him  all  the  necessary  graces  for  true 
conversion  and  for  perseverance  in  good.  Such  is 
the  meaning  and  importance  of  the  first  privilege 
of  the  Carmelite  Scapular,  which  is  wont  to  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  word:  "Whoever  wears  the  scapular 
until  death,  will  be  preserved  from  hell".  The  second 
privilege  of  the  scapular,  otherwise  known  as  the 
Sabbatine  privilege,  may  be  briefly  defined  as  mean- 
ing that  Mary's  motherly  assistance  for  her  servants 
in  the  Scapular  Confraternity  will  continue  after 
death,  and  will  find  effect  especially  on  Saturday 
(the  day  consecrated  to  her  honour),  provided  that 


SCAPULAR 


512 


SCAPULAR 


the  members  fulfil  faithfully  the  not  easy  conditions 
necessary  for  obtaining  this  privilege  (see  Sabbatine 
Privilege). 

As  regards  the  external  form  of  the  scapular,  it 
should  consist  of  two  segments  of  brown  woollen 
cloth:  black,  however,  is  also  admissible.  This 
scapular  usually  bears  on  one  side  the  image  of  our 
Lady  of  Mount  Carmel,  but  neither  this  nor  any  other 
image  is  prescribed.  The  authentic  list  of  indulgences, 
privileges,  and  indults  of  the  Scapular  Confraternity 
of  Blount  Carmel  was  last  approved  on  4  July,  1908, 
by  the  Congregation  of  Indulgences.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  this  summary  says  nothing  of  the  above- 
mentioned  first  privilege;  what  it  says  of  the  Sab- 
batine privilege  is  explained  in  the  article  on  that 
subject.  Concerning  the  often  miraculous  protection 
which  Mar>'  on  account  of  this  her  badge  has  granted 
to  pious  members  of  the  Scapular  Confraternity  in 
great  perils  of  soul  and  body,  there  exist  many  rec- 
ords and  reliable  reports  (some  of  recent  times),  to 
which  it  is  impossible  to  refuse  credence.  Like  the 
rosar>',  this  scapular  has  become  the  badge  of  the 
devout  Cathohc  and  the  true  servant  of  Mary  (cf. 
op.  cit.;  Beringer,  "Les  indulgences",  3rd  ed.,  II, 
244  sqq.). 

D.  The  Black  Scapular  of  the  Seven  Dolours  of 
Mary. — Shortly  after  Alexander  IV  had  sanctioned 
the  Ser\ate  Order  in  1255,  many  of  the  faithful  of 
either  sex  associated  themselves  with  the  order  in 
ecclesiastical  confraternities  in  honour  of  the  Seven 
Dolours  of  Marj'.  The  members  of  this  Confra- 
ternity of  the  Seven  Dolours  of  Mary  also  wore  in 
later  times  a  scapular,  which,  like  the  habit  of  the 
order,  had  to  be  of  black  cloth.  In  other  respects 
nothing  is  prescribed  concerning  this  scapular,  al- 
though it  usually  bears  on  the  front  portion  (over  the 
breast)  an  image  of  the  Mother  of  Sorrows.  This 
scapular  must  likewise  be  worn  constantly,  if  one 
wishes  to  gain  the  indulgences  of  the  confraternity. 
The  summary  of  indulgences  was  last  approved  by 
the  Congregation  of  Indulgences  on  7  March,  1888. 
Priests  may  obtain  from  the  General  of  the  Servites  the 
faculty  to  "receive  the  faithful  into  the  confraternity 
and  to  bless  and  invest  with  the  scapular  (cf .  Beringer, 
"Die  Ablasse",  13th  ed.,  pp.  680  sqq.;  "Les  in- 
dulgences", 3rd  ed.,  II,  277).  For  the  history  of  the 
scapular  consult  especially  Giani,  "Annales  Ord. 
Servorum  B.  Mariai  Virginis",  III  (2nd  ed.),  25. 

E.  The  Blue  Scapular  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion.— The  Venerable  Ursula  Benicasa,  foundress  of 
the  Order  of  Theatine  Nuns,  relates  in  her  autobiog- 
raphy how  the  habit  which  she  and  her  sisters  were 
to  wear  in  honour  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  was 
revealed  to  her  in  a  vision.  When  Jesus  Christ  had 
in  return  promised  great  favours  for  her  order,  she 
begged  the  same  graces  for  all  the  faithful  who  should 
devoutly  wear  a  small  sky-blue  scapular  in  honour 
of  the  Imma^;ulate  Conception  and  to  secure  the  con- 
version of  sinners.  Her  petition  having  been  granted, 
she  henself  dis.seminated  such  scapulars,  after  they 
ha<^l  been  blessed  by  a  priest.  This  devotion  bore 
such  rich  fruits  that  Clement  X  by  the  Brief  of  30 
Janijary,  1071,  expressly  granted  the  faculty  to  bless 
and  invest  with  this  scapular.  Clement  XI  grant(!d 
certain  indulgences  for  the  wearing  of  the  scapular, 
and  succeeding  popes  increased  the  number.  The 
summary  was  approved  by  the  Congregation  of  In- 
dulgencf*  first  in  1845  and  finally  on  26  August, 
1882  (Rescr.  auth.  S.  C.  Indulg.,  pp.  574  sqq.,  n. 
57).  Only  the  blue  woollen  cloth  is  essential  and 
necessary.  The  scapular  usually  bears  on  one  portion 
a  symbolization  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  and 
on  the  other  the  name  of  Mary.  In  1894  a  con- 
fraternity of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  Mother  of  God  Mary  was  erect<'d  in  the 
Theatine  Church  of  S.  Anrlrea  delia  Valle  at  lix)me. 
In  the  same  year  it  was  endowed  with  various  in- 


dulgences, and  then  raised  to  an  archconfratemity 
(cf.  Analecta  ecclesiastica,  p.  189  sq.).  According 
to  the  statutes  of  the  confraternity  admission  is 
effected  by  the  blessing  and  investing  with  the  Blue 
Scapular,  the  presentation  of  the  small  chaplet  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception,  and  the  enrolling  of  the 
name  in  the  register  of  the  confraternity.  However, 
those  who  received  the  scapular  before  18  September, 
1894,  are  not  obliged  to  have  themselves  enrolled 
in  the  confraternity.  Similarly,  priests  who  may  have 
received  the  faculty  only  of  blessing  and  investing 
with  the  scapular  may  continue  to  exercise  it. 
At  present  priests  who  receive  this  facultj''  from  the 
General  of  the  Theatines,  receive  simultaneously  the 
faculty  of  admitting  the  faithful  into  the  confraternity, 
and  must  forward  the  names  of  those  admitted  to 
Rome  or  to  some  other  canonically  erected  confra- 
ternity of  this  kind  (Beringer,  "Die  Ablasse",  13th 
ed.,  424  sqq.;  "Les  indulgences",  3rd  ed.,  I,  560). 

F.  The  Scapular  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood. — 
Priests  who  can  receive  the  faithful  into  the  Con- 
fraternity of  the  Precious  Blood  have  also  the 
faculty  of  blessing  and  investing  these  with  this 
red  scapular  (or  a  red  girdle).  No  special  indul- 
gences, however,  are  connected  with  the  wearing  of 
this  scapular,  and  the  wearing  of  it  is  left  optional 
to  the  members  of  the  confraternity.  For  the  scapu- 
lar it  is  prescribed  only  that  it  be  of  red  cloth.  The 
scapular  as  used  in  Rome  bears  on  one  portion  a 
representation  of  the  chalice  with  the  Precious  Blood 
adored  by  angels;  the  other  segment  which  hangs 
at  the  back  is  simply  a  smaller  portion  of  red  cloth 
(Beringer,  "Die  Ablasse",  13th  ed.,  618;  "Les  in- 
dulgences", 3rd  ed.,  II,  161). 

G.  The  Black  Scapular  of  the  Passion. — It  is 
related  in  the  hfe  of  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross  that, 
before  founding  the  Congregation  of  (lie  Passionists, 
he  received  in  apparitions  the  black  habit  of  the 
order  with  the  badge  on  the  breast.  Later,  after 
the  foundation  of  the  congregation,  the  Passionist 
Fathers  gave  the  faithful  who  wished  to  associate 
themselves  more  closely  with  their  order  a  black 
scapular  in  honour  of  the  Passion  of  Christ.  This 
bears  an  exact  replica  of  the  badge  of  the  Passion- 
ists, namely  a  heart  above  a  cross,  on  which  is  written 
"Jesu  XPI  Passio"  and  below  "sit  semper  in  cor- 
dibus  nostris".  The  other  portion  of  the  scapular, 
hanging  at  the  back,  consists  simply  of  a  small 
segment  of  black  woollen  cloth.  At  various  times 
indulgences  have  been  granted  to  the  faithful  who 
wear  this  scapular,  the  summary  being  last  approved 
by  the  Congregation  of  Indulgences  on  10  May, 
1877.  The  Superior-General  of  the  Passionists  com- 
municates to  other  priests  the  faculty  to  bless  and 
invest  with  the  scapular  ("  Rescr.  auth.  S.  C.  Indulg.", 
Ratisbon,  1885,  pp.  571  sqq.,  n.  56). 

H.  The  Red  Scapular  of  the  Passion  owes  its  origin 
to  an  apparition  which  Jesus  Christ  vouchsafed  to  a 
Sister  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in  1846. 
Jesus  Christ  showed  the  sister  a  scapular,  such  as  is 
worn,  and  promised  to  all  who  should  wear  it  on 
every  Friday  a  great  increase  of  faith,  hope,  and 
charity.  Th(!  apparition  having  been  several  times 
repeated,  and  finally  in  the  following  year  reported 
to  Pius  IX,  the  latter  sanctioned  the;  scapular  by  a 
Rescri[)t  of  25  June,  1847,  and  granted  the  Priests 
of  th(»  Mission  (the  Lazarists)  the  faculty  of  blessing 
the  scapular  and  investing  the  faithful  with  it.  He 
simultaneously  granted  many  indulg(!nc(!s  for  the 
wearing  of  the  scapular.  The  Superior-General  of 
the  Lazarists  can  communicate  the  faculty  of  blessing 
and  investing  with  this  scapular  to  other  regular 
or  secular  i)riests.  The  scapular  and  bands  must 
both  be  of  red  woollen  material.  On  one  woollen 
segment  Jc!sus  Christ  is  r(!presented  on  the  Cro.ss; 
at  the  foot  of  the  Cross  are  the  implcunents  of  the 
Passion,  and  about  it  are  the  words:    "Holy  Passion 


# 


SCAPULAR 


513 


SCAPULAR 


of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  save  us."  On  the  other 
are  represented  the  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  and 
above  these  a  cross  with  the  inscription:  "Sacred 
Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  protect  us."  These  im- 
ages aLso  are  essential  to  the  scapular  (Acta  S.  Sedis, 
XXX,  748;  Hilgers,  "Goldenes  Buchlein",  2nd  ed., 
pp.  192  sqq.;  French  tr.,  "Livre  d'or",  Paris,  1911, 
pp.    164  sqq.). 

I.  Scapular  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  under  the 
title  of  "Help  of  the  Sick". — In  the  Church  of  St. 
Magdalen  at  Rome,  belonging  to  the  Clerks  Regular 
of  St.  Camillus,  a  picture  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  is 
specially  venerated  under  the  title  of  Help  of  the 
Sick.  This  picture  is  said  to  have  been  painted  by 
the  celebrated  Dominican  painter,  Fra  Angelico  da 
Fiesole,  and  before  it  Pope  St.  Pius  V  is  said  to  have 
prayed  for  the  victory  of  the  Christian  fleet  during 
the  battle  of  Lepanto.  This  picture  suggested  to  a 
brother  of  the  Order  of  St.  Camillus,  Ferdinand 
Vicari,  the  idea  of  founding  a  confraternity  under  the 
invocation  of  the  Mother  of  God  for  the  poor  sick. 
He  succeeded  in  his  plan,  the  confraternity  being 
canonically  erected  in  the  above-mentioned  church 
on  15  June,  1860.  At  their  reception,  the  members 
are  given  a  scapular  of  black  woollen  cloth;  the  por- 
tion over  the  breast  is  a  copy  of  the  above  picture 
of  the  Mother  of  God  and  at  her  feet  Sts.  Joseph  and 
Camillus,  the  two  other  patrons  of  the  sick  and  of  the 
confraternity.  On  the  small  segment  at  the  back  is 
sewed  a  little  red  cloth  cross;  although  this  receives 
separate  and  special  blessing  for  the  sick,  it  does  not 
constitute  an  essential  portion  of  the  scapular.  The 
scapular  is  the  badge  of  the  confraternity,  which 
received  its  indulgenc<!s  from  Pius  IX  and  Leo  XIII 
in  1860  and  188:};  these  were  last  ratified  by  a  Re- 
script of  the  Congregation  of  Indulgences,  21  July, 
1883.  (Cf.  the  manual  of  the  archconfraternity, 
Rome,  1883;  Seeberg(!r,  "Key  to  the  Spiritual 
Treasures",  1897,  p.  214.) 

J.  The  Scapular  of  the  Jmmaculale  Heart  of 
Mary. — This  scapular  originated  with  the  Sons  of 
the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  in  1877,  and  was 
sanctioned  and  endowed  with  indulgences  by  Pius 
IX  on  11  May  of  that  year.  The  scapular  was  later 
approved  by  the  Congregation  of  Rites  in  1907, 
and  its  form  more  exactly  decreed;  in  the  same  year 
it  was  assigned  new  indulgences.  The  superior- 
general  of  the  above  congregation  can  communicate 
to  other  priests  the  faculty  of  blessing  and  investing 
with  this  scapular  ("Acta  Pontificia",  Rome,  March, 
1911,  appendix).  The  scapular  is  of  white  woollen 
cloth:  on  the  portion  which  hangs  before  the  breast 
is  represented  the  burning  heart  of  Mary,  out  of 
which  grows  a  lily;  the  heart  is  encircled  by  a  wreath 
of  roses  and  pierced  with  a  sword. 

K.  The  Scapular  of  St.  Michael  the  Archangel. — 
While  this  scapular  originated  under  Pius  IX,  who 
gave  it  his  blessing,  it  was  first  formally  approved 
under  Leo  XIII.  In  1878  a  confraternity  in  honour 
of  St.  Mi(thael  the  Archangel  was  founded  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Eustachiusut  Rome,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  in  the  Church  of  Sant'  Angelo  in  Pescheria 
(Sancti  Angeli  in  foro  Piscium).  In  1880  Leo  XIII 
raised  it  to  the  rank  of  an  archconfraternity,  which 
was  expressly  called  the  Archconfraternity  of  the 
Scapular  of  St.  Michael.  At  first  (1878)  the  con- 
fraternity received  indulgences  from  Leo  XIII  for 
seven  years;  the  summary  of  indulgences  of  the 
Pious  Association  of  St.  Michael  was  last  approved 
for  ever  by  a  Decree  of  the  Congregation  of  Indul- 
gences, 28  March,  1903.  The  scapular  is  so  associated 
with  the  confraternity  that  each  member  is  invested 
with  it.  The  formula  for  blessing  and  investing 
with  the  scapular,  given  in  the  Rituale  Romanum, 
was  first  approved  by  the  Congregation  of  Rites 
on  23  August,  1883.  In  outward  form  this  scapular 
is  different  from  the  others,  inasmuch  as  the  two  seg- 
XIII.— 33 


ments  of  cloth  have  the  form  of  a  small  shield;  of 
these  one  is  made  of  blue  and  the  other  of  black 
cloth,  and  of  the  bands  likewise  one  is  blue  and  the 
other  black.  Both  portions  of  the  scapular  bear  the 
well-known  representation  of  the  .Archangel  St. 
Michael  .slaying  the  dragon,  and  the  inscription 
"Quis  ut  Deus"  ("Libretto  di  aggregazione  alia  pia 
Unione  di  S.  Michele  Arcangelo  in  S.  Angelo  in  Pes- 
cheria", Rome,  1910;  "Acta  S.  Sedis",  XV,  286). 

L.  The  Scapular  of  St.  Benedict. — To  associate 
the  faithful,  who  were  not  Oblates  of  St.  Benedict, 
in  a  certain  measure  with  the  Benedictine  Order,  a 
confraternity  of  St.  Benedict  was  founded  in  the 
second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  at  first  by  the 
English  Congregation.  Reception  is  effected  by 
the  enrolment  of  the  members  and  investment  with 
a  small  blessed  scapular  of  black  cloth.  One  of  the 
segments  usually  has  a  picture  of  St.  Benedict,  but 
no  j)icture  is  necessary.  The  confraternity  was  en- 
dowed with  indulgences  in  1882  and  1883.  (Beringer, 
"Die  Ablas.se",  13th  ed.,  762  sq.;  French  tr.,  "Les 
Indulgences",  II,  3rd  ed.,  361). 

M.  The  Scapular  of  the  Mother  of  Good  Counsel. — 
At  the  petition  of  the  August  inian  monks  this 
scapular  was  approved  and  endowed  with  indulgences 
by  Leo  XIII  in  a  Decree  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites 
of  19-21  December,  1893.  The  faculty  of  blessing 
and  investing  with  the  scapular  belongs  primarily 
to  the  August  inian  monks,  but  the  General  of  the 
Augustinians  communicates  this  privilege  to  other 
priests.  The  two  segments  of  cloth  must  be  of  white 
wool;  though  the  bands  are  usually  also  white,  this 
is  not  essential.  The  segment  of  cloth  which  hangs 
before  the  breast  bears  the  image  of  the  Mother  of 
Good  Counsel  (after  the  well-known  picture  in  the 
Augustinian  church  at  Genazzano)  with  the  inscrip- 
tion: "Mother  of  Good  Counsel".  On  the  other 
segment  the  papal  arms  (i.  e.,  the  tiara  and  the  keys 
of  Peter)  with  the  inscription:  "Son,  follow  her 
counsel.  Leo  XIII".  (Beringer,  "Die  Ablas.se",  13th 
ed.,  pp.  429  sq.;  French  tr.,  "Les  indulgences", 
3rd  ed.,  I,  .567;  "Acta  S.  Sedis",  XXVI,  503). 

N.  The  Scapular  of  St.  Joseph. — This  scapular 
was  approved  for  the  Diocese  of  Verona  by  a  Decree 
of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  of  8  July,  1880.  On  15 
April,  1898,  Leo  XIII  granted  to  the  General  of  the 
Capuchins  the  faculty  of  blessing  and  investing  the 
faithful  everjn^^here  with  this  scapular.  From  the 
Diocese  of  St-Claude  in  France  this  scapular  (at 
first  white)  was  spread  by  the  Capuchins  (cf .  Analecta 
ord.  Min.  Capuc,  IX,  1893,  pp.  161  sqq.);  but  it  was 
later  decreed  that  the  shape  and  colour  of  that  used 
in  Verona  should  be  used.  Nevertheless,  owing  to  a 
mistake,  a  slight  difference  crept  in,  and  it  was  ex- 
pressly declared  later  by  the  Congregation  of  Indul- 
gences that  the  scapular  might  be  lawfully  retained 
in  the  form  now  customary  among  the  Capuchins. 
In  this  form,  the  two  segments  of  woollen  cloth  are 
of  a  violet  colour;  to  these  are  sewed  two  pieces  of 
gold-coloured  material  (linen,  cotton,  etc.)  of  equal 
size.  On  the  gold-coloured  segment  before  the  breast 
is  the  representation  of  St.  Joseph  with  the  Child 
Jesus  on  his  right  arm  and  the  staff  of  lilies  in  his 
left  hand,  while  underneath  is  the  inscription:  "St. 
Joseph,  patron  of  the  Church,  pray  for  us."  On  the 
other  gold-coloured  segment  is  represented  the  papal 
crown,  the  tiara,  above  it  the  dove  as  the  symbol 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  underneath  it  a  cross  and  the 
keys  of  Peter  with  the  inscription:  "Spiritus  Domini 
ductor  eius"  (The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is  his  Guide). 
The  bands  are  white.  This  scapular  having  been  ap- 
proved by  the  Congregation  of  Rites  on  18  April, 
1893,  various  indulgences  were  granted  for  all  the 
faithful  who  wear  it  by  a  Rescript  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  Indulgences,  8  June,  1893  ("Acta  S.  Sedis", 
XXXIV,  317;  Beringer,  "Les  indulgences",  3rd 
ed.,  I,  569  sqq.). 


SCARAMELLI 


514 


SCARAMPI 


O.  The  Scapular  of  the  Most  Sacred  Heart  of 
Je^us. — The  constant  wearing  of  a  small  picture  of 
the  Heart  of  Jesus  was  already'  recommended  by- 
Blessed  Margaret  Marj'  Alacoque,  who  herself  made 
and  distributed  them.  They  were  made  of  a  small 
piece  of  white  woollen  cloth,  on  which  was  embroid- 
ered or  sewed  in  red  a  picture  of  the  Heart  of  Jesus. 
This  badge  was  especially  employed  during  the  plague 
at  Marseilles  as  a  protection  against  the  pest.  Dur- 
ing the  terrors  of  the  French  Revolution  it  also 
served  as  a  safeguard  for  the  pious  faithful.  Al- 
though this  badge  is  often  called  a  scapular,  it  is  not 
realh'  such;  consequenth-  the  conditions  governing 
scapulars  do  not  apply  to  it.  It  was  only  in  1872 
that  an  indulgence  was  granted  by  Pius  IX  for  the 
wearing  of  this  badge  (Hilgers.  "Goldenes  Biichlein", 
2nd  ed..  Ratisbon,  1911,  pp.  182  sqq.;  "Livre  d'or", 
Paris,  1911,  pp.  155  sqq.).  A  real  scapular  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  was  first  introduced  in  France  in  1876, 
when  it  was  approved  by  Decree  of  the  Congregation 
of  Rites  and  a  special  formula  for  blessing  and  in- 
vesting with  it  appointed  4  April,  1900.  This  scapu- 
lar consists  of  two  segments  of  white  woollen  cloth, 
connected  in  the  usual  manner  by  two  strings;  one 
segment  bears  the  usual  representation  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  while  the  other  bears  that  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
under  the  title  of  Mother  of  Mercy.  By  a  Brief  of  10 
July,  Leo  XIII  granted  many  indulgences  for  the 
pious  wearing  of  this  scapular  (Hilgers,  "Livre  d'or 
du  Coeur  de  Jesus",  Paris,  1911,  pp.  158  sqq.;  "Acta 
S.  SedLs",  XXXII,  630). 

P.  The  Scapular  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus 
and  Mary. — This  is  very  similar  to  the  Red  Scapular 
of  the  Passion.  Like  the  Scapular  of  the  Heart  of 
Jesus,  it  was  approved,  at  the  request  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Marseilles,  by  a  Decree  of  the  Congregation 
of  Rites,  4  April,  1900.  The  two  segments  of  cloth 
are  of  white  wool ;  one  bears  the  image  of  the  Heart  of 
Jesus  with  the  well-known  emblems  and  also  the 
Heart  of  Mary  pierced  with  a  sword,  underneath 
being  the  implements  of  the  Passion;  the  other  seg- 
ment has  a  small  cross  of  red  material.  Indul- 
gences were  granted  for  the  wearing  of  this  scapular 
in  1901,  and  increased  by  Pius  X  in  1906  (Hilgers, 
"Li\Te  d'or  du  Coeur  de  Jesus",  170  sqq.).  The 
scapular  owes  its  origin  and  spread  to  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Daughters  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
founded  at  .Antwerp  in  1873  (Acta  S.  Sedis,  XXXII, 
633  sq.). 

Q.  The  Scapular  of  St.  Dominic— On  23  Novem- 
ber, 1903,  thLs  scapular  was  endowed  by  Pius  X  with 
an  indulgence  of  300  days  in  favour  of  all  the  faithful 
who  wear  it,  as  often  as  they  devoutly  kiss  it.  The 
scapular  is  thereby  also  approved.  It  is  made  of 
white  wool,  but  the  bands,  as  in  the  case  of  so  many 
other  scapulars,  may  be  of  another  material.  No 
image  is  prescribed  for  the  scapular,  but  the  scapular 
given  in  the  hoase  of  the  Dominican  General  at  Rome 
has  on  one  side  the  picture  of  St.  Dominic  kneeling 
before  the  crucifix  and  on  the  other  that  of  B.  Regi- 
nald receiving  the  habit  from  the  hands  of  the  Mother 
of  God.  The  General  of  the  Dominicans  communi- 
catees to  other  priests  the  faculty  of  blessing  and  in- 
vesting with  the  scapular  ("The  Booklet  of  the 
Faculties",  Rome,  1909;  cf.  Beringer,  "Die  Ablasse", 
432;    "L<!S  indulgences",  I,  711). 

R.  Finally,  to  complete  this  article,  we  must  men- 
tion the  Scapular  of  the  Holy  Face.  It  bears  on  a 
piece  of  while  cloth  the  well-known  Roman  picture 
connect^Hj  with  St.  Veronica.  This  scapular  is  woni 
by  the  members  of  the  Arch  con  fraternity  of  the  Holy 
Face.  Thf!  members  can,  however,  wear  the  picture 
on  a  mr^lal  or  cross,  in  place  of  the  scapular.  The 
wearing  of  this  picture  is  simply  one  of  the  pious 
practices  of  the  an-hconfratemity,  without  any  special 
mdulgences  (Berinuer,  "  Les  Indulgences",  11,150; 
Hilgers,  "  Manuel  des  Indulgences",  p.  317). 


Zimmerman.  The  Origin  of  the  Scapular  in  Irish  Eccl.  Ree.. 
XV  (Dublin,  1904),  142-53,  206-34,  331-51;  Pdtzer,  B.  V.  M. 
de  M.  Carmeli  in  Am.  Eccl.  Rec,  XIV  (Philadelpliia,  1896), 
.345-52;  Thurston,  Scapular  Tradition  and  Its  Defenders  in  Irish 
Eccl.  Rec,  XXIX  (Dublin,  1911),  492;  Lambing,  SacramentaU 
of  the  Catholic  Church  (New  York,  1892);  Beringer,  Die  Ablasse 
(P.aderborn,  1900),  Fr.tr.  (Paris,  1905);  Ousterlau,  The  Sig- 
nificance and  Use  of  the  Scapular  in  Irish  Eccl.  Rec,  X  (Dublin, 
1901),  311-29. 

Joseph  Hilgers. 

Scaramelli,  Giovanni  Battista,  ascetical  writer, 
b.  at  Rome,  24  Nov.,  1687;  d.  at  Macerata,  11  Jan., 
1752.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  21  Sept.,  1706. 
He  devoted  himself  to  preaching  for  fifteen  years,  and 
long  fulfilled  the  duties  of  the  sacred  ministry.  He 
wrote  the  following  works:  (1)  "Vita  di  Suor  Maria 
Crocifissa  Satellico  Monaca  francescana  nel  mo- 
nastero  di  monte  Nuovo",  Venice,  1750;  5th  ed., 
revised  and  corrected,  Rome,  1819;  (2)  "Discerni- 
mento  de'  spirit i  per  il  retto  regolamento  delle  azione 
proprie  ed  altrui.  Operetta  utile  specialemente  ai 
Direttori  delle  anime",  Venice,  1753;  7th  ed.,  Rome, 
1866;  Sp.  tr.,  Madrid,  1804;  Ger.  tr.,  Mainz,  1861  j 
(3)  "Direttorio  ascetico  in  cui  s'  insegna  il  modo  di 
condurre  1' Anime  per  vie  ordinarie  della  grazia  alia 
perfezione  Christiana,  indirizzato  ai  direttori  delle 
Anime",  Naples,  1752,  still  reprinted;  tr.  and  ed. 
Eyre,  "The  Directorium  Asceticum",  with  preface 
by  Cardinal  Manning,  Dublin  and  London,  1870-71; 
new  revised  ed.,  London,  1879-81;  Lat.  tr.,  Brixen, 
1770;  Louvain,  1848;  Ger.  tr.,  Augsburg,  1778; 
Sp.,  Madrid,  1806;  Fr.,  Paris,  1854;  still  reprinted. 
In  this  work  the  author  devotes  four  treatises  to  the 
study  of  (a)  the  means  and  h(?lps  necessary  to  attain 
Christian  perfection;  (b)  the  obstacles  which  hinder 
us  and  the  way  to  surmount  them;  (c)  the  virtues 
to  be  acquired  (cardinal  virtues,  virtues  of  religion, 
those  opposed  to  the  capital  sins) ;  (d)  the  theological 
virtues  and  especially  charity,  which  is  the  essence  of 
Christian  perfection.  His  manner  of  dividing  his 
subject  and  his  method  are  frankly  traditional  and 
intellectual ist;  his  unoriginal,  but,  as  it  were,  classic 
doctrines  are  proved  bj'  reason  and  authority-,  while 
the  study  of  scruples  at  the  end  of  the  second  treatise 
retains  all  its  value  after  the  researches  of  modern 
psychologists. 

(4)  "II  direttorio  mistico  indirizzato  a'  direttori  di 
quelle  anime  che  Iddio  conduce  per  la  via  della  con- 
templazione"  (Venice,  1754;  Lat.  tr.,  Brixen,  1764; 
Louvain,  1857;  Sp.,  Madrid,  1817;  Ger.,  Ratisbon 
and  Mainz,  1855-56;  Fr.,  Paris,  1865;  Polish,  War- 
saw, 1888;  Italian  abridgement  in  the  form  of  dia- 
logues by  Santoni,  Rome,  1776;  new  abridgement, 
Rome,  1895).  This  work  completes  the  method  of 
spiritual  direction  the  first  part  of  which  is  set  forth 
in  the  preceding  work.  Here  likewise  the  doctrine 
is  intellectualist  and  strongly  opposed  to  the  purely 
sentimental  forms  of  mysticism  such  as  Quietism. 
(5)  "Dottrina  di  S.  Giovanni  della  Croce  compresa 
con  metodo  chiaro  in  tre  brevi  trattati  nel  primo  dei 
quali  si  contiene  la  'Salita  del  Monte',  nel  secondo 
le  'Notti  oscure',  nel  terzo  'I'Esercizio  di  Amore'  e  la 
'Fiamma  di  Amor  vivo'  "  (Lucca,  1860). 

SoMMERvoQEL,  Bib.  de  la  comp.  de  Jesus  (Brussels,  1896), 
Buppl.  (Brussels,  1900);  Etudes  religieuses,  published  by  the 
Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  (1893),  bibl.,  p.  321. 

Henhy  Ollion. 

Scarampi,  Pierfrancesco,  Oratorian,  papal 
'envoy,  b.  of  a  noble  and  ancient  family  in  the  Ducny 
of  Monferrato,  Piedmont,  1596;  d.  at  Rome,  14  Oct., 
1656.  He  was  destined  by  his  parents  for  the  mili- 
tary career,  but  during  a  visit  to  the  Roman  Court 
he  felt  called  to  tlui  religious  state.  After  much 
prayer  and  with  the  advice  of  liis  confessor,  he  entered 
the  Roman  Oratory  of  St .  Phiiif)  Neri  on  4  November, 
1636.  At  the  request  of  Fr.  Luke  Wadding,  the  agent 
at  Rome  for  the  Irish  Confcnlcrates,  I'rban  VIII,  by 
Brief  dated  18  April,  1643,  sent  Fr.  Scarampi  to  assist 


SCARISBRICK 


515 


SCARLATTI 


at  the  Supreme  Council  of  the  Confederation.  At  the 
same  time  the  pope  addressed  letters  to  the  arch- 
bishops and  bishops  of  Irehind  and  also  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Supreme  Council,  telling  them  that  in 
order  to  show  his  great  love  and  admiration  for  the 
Irish  people  he  had  decided  to  send  to  their  aid  Fr. 
Scarampi,  a  man  of  noble  birth  and  eminent  for  his 
virtues  and  great  administrative  abilities.  He  told 
them  to  place  full  confidence  in  him  as  his  representa- 
tive and  give  him  all  help  in  the  fulfilment  of  his  duties. 
He  was  received  by  the  Irish  Catholics  as  an  angel 
from  heaven.  Wherever  he  went  he  was  met  by  the 
bishops,  clergy,  and  nobihty.  He  was  received  with 
military  honours  and  firing  of  canon.  On  his  arrival 
in  Kilkenny  he  immediately  saw  that  the*danger  that 
threatened  the  existence  of  the  Confederation  was  dis- 
sension amongst  its  members.  He  made  an  earnest 
appeal  to  the  Council  to  avoid  all  dissension  and  to 
make  no  compromise  with  the  enemies  of  their  religion 
and  country.  Richard  Bellings,  Secretary  of  the 
Council,  addressed  to  Fr.  Scarampi  a  statement  of  the 
reasons  in  favour  of  a  cessation  of  hostiUties.  Fr. 
Scarampi  immediately  gave  a  noble  answer  showing 
why  the  war  should  be  continued,  and  that  the  EngUsh 
desired  the  ces.sa- 
ion  of  hostiUties 
solely  to  relieve 
heir  present  ne- 
cessities. The 
l»ishops  and  the 
Supreme  Council 
tlianked  the  pope 
for  having  sent  to 
heir  aid  a  person 
)f  such  exemplary 
ife  and  excellent 
abilities  of  mind, 
and  rejoiced  at 
presence 
ainongst  them. 
The  author  of 
' '  Contemporarv 
History  of  Affairs 
in  Ireland"  says 
that  Fr. Scarampi 
was  a  "verie  apt 
and  understand- 
inge  man,  and 
was  receaved  with  much  honour.  This  man  in  a  shorte 
time  became  soe  learned  in  the  petegrees  of  the  re- 
spective Irish  families  of  Ireland,  that  it  proved  his  witt 
and  diligence,  and  allsoe  soe  well  obsearved  all  the 
proceedings  of  both  ancient  and  recent  Irish,  that  to 
an  ince,  he  knewe  whoe  best  and  worst  beheaved 
himself  in  the  whole  kingdome. " 

The  Supreme  Council  decirhsd  to  supplicate  the  pope 
to  raise  Fr.  Scarampi  to  the  dignity  of  archbishop  and 
Apostohc  nuncio,  and  the  bishops  of  Ireland  entreated 
him  to  accept  the  Archbishopric  of  Tuain,  which  was 
vacant  at  the  time.  He  declincMl  all  honours  and  re- 
fused to  walk  under  the  canopy  prepared  for  him  in 
Waterford.  He  was  present  with  the  Confederate 
forces  at  the  siege  of  Duncannon,  and  when  the  fort 
was  taken  on  the  eve  of  St.  Patrick,  he  ordered  a 
chapel  to  be  immediately  erected  in  honour  of  the 
saint  and  celebrated  the  first  Mass.  On  5  May,  164.5, 
he  was  recalled  to  Rome  by  Innocent  X.  In  taking 
leave  of  the  General  Assembly,  he  thanked  all  the 
members  for  their  kindness  to  him,  and  again  urged 
them  to  be  firmly  united.  The  President  of  the 
Assembly,  after  referring  to  all  the  fatigues  that  Fr. 
Scarampi  had  endured  for  the  Irish  cause,  said  "that 
as  long  as  the  name  of  the  Catholic  religion  remained 
in  Ireland,  so  long  would  the  name  of  Scarampi  be 
affectionately  remembered  and  cherished."  After 
receiving  the  Apostolic  nuncio,  Rinuccini,  he  set  out  on 
his  journey  to  Rome.     He  was  followed  to  the  ship 


by  the  bishops,  clergy,  and  laity,  many  comparing  his 
departure  to  that  of  St.  Paul  from  Miletus.  All  were 
in  tears.  He  was  accompanied  by  five  Irish  youths 
destined  for  the  priesthood,  whom  he  wished  to  edu- 
cate and  support  at  his  own  expense  at  Rome.  Among 
these  youths  was  Oliver  Plunket,  the  martyr  Arch- 
bishop of  Armagh.  On  his  arrival  at  Rome  he  was 
thanked  and  praised  by  the  pope  for  the  great  work  he 
had  done  in  Ireland.  When  the  plague  broke  out  in 
Ronie  in  1656,  he  asked  to  be  allowed  to  attend  the 
sick  in  the  lazaretto.  He  caught  the  sickness  and  died. 
By  special  permission  he  was  buried  in  the  BasiUca 
of  SS.  Nereus  and  Achilleus  on  the  Appian  Way, 
the  titular  church  of  Cardinal  Baronius.  In  the 
lazaretto  he  wrote  a  most  touching  letter  to  Oliver 
Plunket.  Benedict  XIV  commanded  the  Master  of 
the  Sacred  Palace  to  make  known  to  the  Fathers  of 
the  Oratory  that  the  title  of  Venerable  was  to  be 
given  to  Fr.  Scarampi  when  writing  about  him  and 
on  his  pictures. 

Har.\ldu8,  Vita  L.  Waddingi  (Rome,  1662) ;  Rinuccini,  Nun- 
ziatura  in  Irlanda  (Florence,  1S44) ;  Aringhi,  Memorie  Storiche 
delta  vita  del  Ven.  P.  F.  Scarampi  (Rome,  1744) ;  Haverty,  Hist, 
of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1860) ;  Brenan,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Ireland  (Dub- 
lin, 1864);  Mebhan,  Confederation  of  Kilkenny  (Dublin,  1882); 
Rise  and  Fall  of  I.  F.  Monasteries  (Dublin,  1877) ;  Moran,  Spicile- 
gium  Ossoriense  (Dublin,  1874) ;  Gilbert,  Contemporary  Hist,  of 
Affairs  in  Ireland  (Dublin,  1879);  Bellings,  Hist,  of  the  Irish 
Confederation  (Dublin,  1882);  D'Alton,  History  of  Ireland 
(London,  1911);  Gardiner,  History  of  the  Civil  War  1643-49 
(London,  1910);  MS.  Life  of  F.  Scarampi  and  other  MS.S.  in 
Vallicellana  Library,  Rome;  Barberini  MSS.  in  Vatican  Li- 
brary;  MSS.  in  Franciscan  Library,  Dublin. 

Gregory  Cleary. 

Scarisbrick,  Edward  (Neville).  See  Neville, 
Ed.mund. 

Scarlatti,  Ales.sandro,  b.  in  Sicily,  either  at 
Trapani  or  at  Palermo,  in  1659;  d.  at  Naples  24  Oct., 
1725;  buried  there  in  the  musicians'  chapel  of  the 
Church  of  Montesanto.  On  his  tombstone  he  is 
called  musices  instaurator  maximus,  which  title  he 
deserves  in  that  he  originated  the  classical  style  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  and  gave  a  high  development 
to  concerted  instrumental  music.  The  scenes  of  his 
activity  were  alternately  Rome  and  Naples.  His 
first  opera  (1679),  "Gli  Equivoci  nel  Sembiante" 
was  performed  at  the  palace  of  Queen  Christina  of  Swe- 
den, who  lived  in  Rome  after  her  abdication  and  con- 
version to  the  Catholic  Church.  Five  years  later  we 
find  him  in  Naples,  where  he  obtained  the  position 
of  Maestro  di  capella  to  the  Viceroy.  He  remained 
there  for  about  eighteen  years.  After  a  short  stay 
at  Florence,  he  returned  to  Rome  (1702),  where  he 
was  made  assistant  maestro  and  afterwards  maestro 
at  S.  Maria  Maggiore.  In  1708  or  1709  he  returned 
to  Naples  and  lived  there  for  ten  years.  He  lived 
in  Rome  from  1718  until  1721,  thence  proceeding  to 
Naples,  where  he  died  in  1725.  His  fertility  of  pro- 
duction is  astonishing.  He  wrote  more  than  a  hun- 
dred operas  (of  which  less  than  half  are  extant). 
It  is  said  that  he  composed  two  hundred  Masses, 
which  is  questionable,  as  but  few  survived  him;  he 
left  several  Oratorios,  the  best  of  which  are  "Agar 
ed  Ismaele",  "La  Vergine  addolorata",  and  "S. 
I"ili{)po  Neri";  many  motets  and  innumerable 
chamber- cantatas  and  serenatas.  Moreover  he 
shows  great  capacity  in  his  compositions  for  the 
organ,  the  cembalo,  and  other  instruments.  Not  all 
his  religious  music  is  for  liturgical  use;  but  many  of 
his  compositions,  although  in  his  days  the  Pales- 
trinian-style  was  fast  declining,  are  written  in  severe 
and  noble  polyphony.  We  may  quote  here  his 
mass  for  Cardinal  Ottoboni  (edited  by  Proske), 
his  "Missa  ad  usum  Cappella?  Pontificise"  (recently 
found  by  Giulio  Bas  in  the  library  of  the  Academy  of 
S.  Cecilia  at  Rome,  and  published  by  L.  Schwann  at 
Diisseldorf),  his  famous  "Tu  es  Petrus",  performed 
in  Paris  by  the  Roman  singers  at  the  coronation  of 
Napoleon  I  (printed  by  Ricordi  of  Milan). 


SCARRON 


516 


SCEPTICISM 


His  great  distinction  in  the  musical  world  was 
to  have  laid  the  foundation  for  the  new  style,  after- 
wards brought  to  perfection  by  the  most  famous 
composers,  not  only  of  the  Neapolitan  school,  which 
was  in  great  part  formed  by  his  influence  (Leo, 
Durante,  Pergolesi),  but  also  of  Germany  (Haydn, 
Mozart,  and  Beethoven).  Domenico  Alessandro's 
eldest  son  was  born  at  Naples  26  Oct.,  1685  (in  the 
baptismal  register  he  is  called  Giuseppe  Domenico), 
and  died  in  1757.  The  esteem  in  which  Alessandro 
was  held,  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  Domenico's 
godfather  was  the  Duke  of  Addaloni,  and  his  god- 
mother the  Princess  of  Colobrano.  Domenico  made 
himself  famous  by  his  great  skill  on  the  harpsichord. 
Ricordi  of  Milan  has  published  his  works  for  the 
clavicembalo,  in  si.x  volumes,  under  the  supervision 
of  Alessasdro  Longo  (1906).  The  manuscripts  of 
these  are  chiefly  in  the  library  of  S.  Marco  at  Venice. 
The  compositions  are  not  of  equal  merit.  His  genius 
often  seems  to  forecast  the  style  of  the  next  century. 
For  a  few  years  (171.5-1719)  he  was  choirmaster  in 
S.Peter's  Rome;  during  four  years  (1721-1725),  he  was 
engaged  at  the  Court  of  Lisbon ;  for  twenty-five  years  he 
was  at  Madrid  (1729-1754),  but  spent  the  last  j-ears  of 
his  life  again  in  Naples,  where  he  died.  Of  Francesco, 
brother  of  Alessandro,  we  know  that  in  1684  he  became 
violinist  in  the  royal  chapel  at  Naples,  that  fifteen 
years  later  his  oratorio,  "Agnus  occisus  ab  origine 
mundi",  was  sung  in  Rome,  and  that  in  1720  he  gave 
a  concert  in  London,  where  Domenico  was  staying  at 
the  same  time.  Giusej)pe  Scarlatti  was  either  grand- 
son or  nephew  of  Alessandro  (nipote  can  have  the 
two  meanings).  Born  at  Naples  1712,  he  died  in 
Vienna,  1777,  where  he  was  considered  a  distinguished 
composer.     He  left  several  operas. 

Dent,  A.  Scarlatti:  His  Life  and  Works  (London,  1905); 
Grove,  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians  (London,  1880); 
Thibaut,  Die  Reinheit  der  Tonkunst,  123. 

A.  Walter. 

Scarron,  Paul,  French  poet  and  dramatist,  b.  in 
Paris,  4  July,  1610;  d.  7  October,  1660.  His  father 
was  a  judge  and  one  of  his  uncles  was  Bishop  of 
Grenoble.      After 


graduating  from 
the  Sorbonne,  he 
received  tonsure 
at  the  age  of  nine- 
teen and  soon 
after  became  at- 
tached to  the 
house  of  Charles 
de  Beaumanoir, 
Bishop  of  Le 
Mans,  whom  he 
accompanied  to 
Rome  in  1635. 
A  year  later  he 
was  made  a  canon 
in  Saint  Julian's 
Cathedral  with- 
out being  in  lioly 
orders,  a  benefice 
he  resigned  in 
-•  .January,    16.52, 

when   he  married 
Fran^'oi.s(^     d'Au- 
bigne,  later  Ma<lariie  de  Maiiitenon.     He  was  then  a 
cripple  and  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  confined 
U)  bed,  being  nursed  by  his  young  wife,  whose  devotion, 

Eiety,  and  patience  were  a<imirable.  In  a  distorted 
ody,  he  presf-rved  the  acutcmess  of  his  mind,  and  pur- 
sued his  literary  career.  His  comedies  "Jodclet,  ou 
lernaUre valet"  fl645j;  "Ivfistrois  Dorothf^es"  (1646); 
"L'hZ-ritier  ridicule"  (1649);  "  Don  Japhetd'Ann<;nie" 
(16.52);  "L'Kcoiier  de  Salarnanque"  (16.54);  "Ix;  gar- 
dien  de  mi-mfimc."  (16.55);  "Le  marquis  ridicule" 
(1656)  contained  quite  a  number  of  amusing  scenee  and 


odd  characters  that  Moliere  borrowed.  He  achieved  a 
lasting  reputation  by  his  burlesque  productions,  "Le 
Typhon"  (1644),  and  "Le  Virgile  travesti"  (1648- 
1652),  in  which  he  displayed  all  the  resources  of  his 
humour.  The  "Roman  comique"  (1649-1657),  whose 
realistic  presentation  of  customs  and  manners  was  imi- 
tated by  later  novelists,  is  not  far  from  being  a  master- 
piece. There  is  no  certainty  about  the  place  where 
Scarron's  remains  were  taken,  but  it  is  now  believed 
that  he  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Saint-Gervais. 

MoRiLLOT,  Scarron  el  le  genre  burlesque  (Paris,  1888) ;  Idem, 
Scarron,  Etude  biographigue  et  Uttcraire  (Paris,  1890);  Chardon, 
Scarron  inconni  (Paris,  1904);  Magne,  Scarron  et  son  milieu 
(Paris,    1905). 

Louis  N.  Delamarre. 

Scepticism  (Gr.ffK^^Li,  speculation,  doubt;  ffK^irre- 
a-dai,  to  scrutinize  or  examine  carefully)  may  mean  (1) 
doubt  based  on  rational  grounds,  or  (2)  di.sbelief  based 
on  rational  grounds  (cf.  Balfour,  "Defence  of  Phil. 
Doubt",  p.  296),  or  (3)  a  denial  of  the  possibility 
of  attaining  truth;  and  in  any  of  these  senses  it  may 
extend  to  all  spheres  of  human  knowledge  (Universal 
Scepticism),  or  to  some  particular  spheres  of  the  same 
(Mitigated  Scepticism).  The  third  is  the  strictly- 
philosophical  sense  of  the  term  Scepticism,  which 
is  taken,  unless  otherwise  specified,  to  be  universal. 
Scepticism  is  then  a  systematic  denial  of  the  capacity 
of  the  human  intellect  to  know  an3^thing  whatso- 
ever with  certainty.  It  differs  from  Agnosticism 
because  the  latter  denies  only  the  possibility  of  meta- 
physics and  natural  theology;  from  Positivism  in 
that  Postivism  denies  that  we  do  de  facto  know  any- 
thing beyond  the  laws  by  which  phenomena  are  re- 
lated to  one  another;  from  Atheism  in  that  the  atheist 
denies  only  the  fact  of  God's  existence,  not  our  ca- 
pacity for  knowing  whether  He  exists. 

History  of  Scepticism.— The  great  religions  of 
the  East  are  for  the  most  part  essentially  sceptical. 
They  treat  life  as  one  vast  illusion,  destined  some 
time  or  other  to  give  place  to  a  state  of  nescience, 
or  to  be  absorbed  in  the  life  of  the  Absolute.  But 
their  Scepticism  is  a  tone  of  mind  rather  than  a  rea- 
soned philo.soi)hical  doctrine  based  upon  a  critical 
examination  of  the  human  mind  or  upon  a  study  of 
the  history  of  human  specmlation.  If  we  wish  for 
the  latter  we  must  seek  it  among  the  i)hilosophies  of 
ancient  Greece.  Among  the  (Jreeks  the  (>:u-liest  form 
of  philosophical  speculation  was  directed  towards  an 
explanation  of  natural  phenomena,  and  th(>  (contradic- 
tory theories  which  were  soon  evolved  by  t  he  prolific 
genius  of  the  (»reek  mind,  inevitably  led  to  Scepticism. 
Heraclitus,  Parmenides,  Democritus,  Empedoclcs, 
Anaxagoras,  though  differing  on  other  points,  one 
and  all  came  to  the  conclusion  that  th(>  senses, 
whence  they  had  derived  the  data  upon  which  their 
theories  were  built,  could  not  be  trusted.  Accord- 
ingly Protagoras  and  the  Sophists  distinguish  "ap- 
pearances" from  "reality";  but,  finding  that  no  two 
philosophers  could  agree  as  to  the  nature  of  the  latter, 
they  pronounced  reality  unknowaljle.  The  t  liorough- 
going  Scepticism  which  resulted  is  apparent  in  the 
three  famous  propositions  of  Gorgi;us:  "Nothing 
exists";  "If  anything  did  exist  it  could  not  be 
known";  "If  it  was  known,  the  knowledge  of  it 
would  be  incommunicable." 

The  first  step  towards  the  refutation  of  this  Scep- 
ticism was  the  Socratic  doctrine  of  the  concept. 
There  can  be  no  science  of  the  particular,  said  Socra- 
tes. Hence,  before  any  science  at  all  is  possible,  we 
must  clear  up  our  general  notions  of  things  and  come 
to  some  agreement  in  n^gard  to  definitions.  Plato, 
adopting  this  attitude,  but  still  holding  to  the  view 
that  the  senses  can  give  only  o6i,a.  (o})inion)  and  not 
iiriffTT)nr)  (true  knowledge),  worked  out  an  intellectual 
theory  of  the-  univense.  Aristotle,  who  followed,  n\- 
jected  Plato's  theory,  and  proposed  a  very  different 
one  in  its  place,  with  the  result  that  another  epidemic 


SCEPTICISM 


517 


SCEPTICISM 


of  Scepticism  succeeded.  But  Aristotle  did  more 
than  this.  He  propounded  the  doctrine  of  intuition 
or  self-evident  truth.  All  things  cannot  be  proved, 
he  said;  yet  an  infinite  regress  is  impossible.  Hence 
there  must  be  somewhere  self-evident  principles, 
which  are  no  mere  assumptions,  but  which  underlie 
the  structure  of  human  knowledge  and  are  presup- 
posed by  the  very  nature  of  things  (Metaph.,  1005  b, 
1006  a).  This  doctrine,  later  on,  was  to  prove  one 
of  the  chief  forces  that  checked  the  destructive  on- 
slaught of  the  Sceptics ;  for,  even  if  Aristotle's 
dictum  cannot  be  proved,  it  none  the  less  states  a 
fact  which  to  many  is  itself  .self-evident.  It  was  the 
Stoics  who  first  took  "evidence"  as  the  ultimate 
criterion  of  truth.  Perceptions,  they  taught,  are 
valid  when  they  are  characterized  by  ivapyeia,  i.  e. 
when  their  objects  are  manifest,  clear,  or  obvious. 
Similarly  conceptions  and  judgments  are  valid  when 
we  are  conscious  that  in  them  there  is  KaTd\r}\pis  an 
apprehension  of  reality.  Contemporaneously,  how- 
ever, with  Zeno,  the  founder  of  Stocism,  lived  Pyrrho 
the  Sceptic  (d.  about  270  b.  c),  who,  though  he  ad- 
mitted that  we  can  know  "appearance",  denied  that 
we  can  know  anything  of  the  reality  that  underlies 
it.  Ou5^v  fxaWov — nothing  is  more  one  thing  than 
another.  Contradictory  statements,  therefore,  may 
both  be  true.  A  scepticism  so  radical  as  this,  the 
Stoics  argued,  is  useless  for  practical  life;  and  this 
argument  bore  fruit,  .\rcesilaus,  founder  of  the  Mid- 
dle Academy  (third  century  b.  c),  though  rejecting 
the  Stoic  criterion  and  affirming  that  nothing  could 
be  known  for  certain,  nevertheless  admitted  that  some 
criterion  is  needed  whereby  to  direct  our  actions  in 
practice,  and  with  this  in  view  suggested  that  we 
should  assent  to  what  is  reasonable  (rd  eiXoyof). 
For  "the  reasonable"  Carneades,  who  founded  the 
Third  Academy  (second  century  b.  c),  substituted 
"the  probable":  propositions  which  after  careful 
examination  manifest  no  contradiction,  external  or 
internal,  are  iriOavr]  (probable)  Kal  dirfpiaTaros  (secure) 
Kal  irepi5evn4vri  (thoroughly  tested)  (Sextus  Empiricus 
"Adv.  Math.",  VII,  166).  A  sub.sequent  attempt 
to  reconcile  conflicting  doctrines  having  proved  futile, 
however,  the  Academy  lapsed  into  Pyrrhonism, 
.^nesidemus  sums  up  the  traditional  arguments  of 
the  Sceptics  under  ten  heads,  which  later  on  (second 
century  a.  d.)  were  reduced  by  Sextus  Empiricus  to 
five:  (1)  human  judgments  and  human  theories  are 
contradictory;  (2)  all  proof  involves  an  infinite  re- 
gress; (3)  perceptual  data  are  relative  both  to  the 
percipient  and  to  one  another;  (4)  axioms,  or  self- 
evident  truths,  are  really  assumptions;  (5)  all 
syllogistic  reasoning  involves  a  didWrjXos  (a  vicious 
circle),  for  the  major  premise  can  be  proved  only  by 
complete  induction,  and  the  possibility  of  complete 
induction  supposes  the  truth  of  the  conclusion  (Sextus 
Emp.,  "Hyp.  Pyrrh.",  I,  164;  II,  134;  Diogenes 
Laertius,  IX,  88). 

From  Scepticism  the  neo-Platonists  sought  refuge 
in  the  immediacy  of  a  mystic  experience;  Augustus 
and  Anselm  in  faith  which  in  supernatural  matters 
must  precede  both  experience  and  knowledge  (cf. 
Augustine,  "De  vera  relig.",  xxiv,  xxv;  De  util. 
cred.",  ix;  Anselm,  "De  fid.  Trin.",  ii);  St.  Thomas 
and  the  Scholastics  in  a  rational,  coherent,  and  sys- 
tematic theory  of  the  ultimate  nature  of  things,  based 
on  self-evident  truths  but  consistent  also  with  the  facts 
of  experience,  and  consistent  too  with  the  tnith  of 
revelation,  which  thus  serves  to  confirm  what  we  have 
already  discovered  by  the  light  of  natural  reason. 
But  with  the  Renaissance,  characterized  as  it  was  by 
an  indiscriminate  enthusiasm  for  all  forms  of  Greek 
thought,  it  was  only  natural  that  the  Scepticism  of  the 
Greeks  should  be  revived.  In  this  movement  Mon- 
taigne (d.  1592),  Charron  (d.  1603),  Sanchez  (d.  1632), 
Pascal  (d.  1662),  Sorbicre  (d.  1670),  Le  Vayer  (d. 
1672),  Hirnhaym  (d.  1679),  Foucher  (d.  1696),  Bayle 


(d.  1706),  Huet  (d.  1721),  all  took  part.  Its  aim  was 
to  discredit  reason  on  the  old  grounds  of  contradiction 
and  of  the  impos.sibility  of  proving  anything.  Huet, 
Bishop  of  Avranches,  and  others  sought  to  argue  from 
the  bankruptcy  of  reason  to  the  necessity  and  suffi- 
ciency of  faith.  But  for  the  most  part,  faith,  under- 
stood in  the  Catholic  sense  of  belief  in  a  system  of  re- 
vealed doctrines  capable  of  intelligent  expression  and 
rational  interpretation,  so  far  from  being  exempt  from 
the  attacks  of  the  Sceptics,  was  rather  (as  it  still  is)  the 
chief  object  against  which  their  efforts  were  directed. 
Faith,  as  they  understood  it,  was  blind  and  unreason- 
ing. The  diversity  of  doctrine  introduced  by  Pro- 
testantism had  rendered  all  other  faith,  in  their  view, 
no  less  contradictory  than  philosophy  and  natural 
belief. 

In  Hume  Scepticism  finds  a  new  argument  derived 
from  the  psychology  of  Locke.  A  critical  examina- 
tion of  human  cognition,  it  was  said,  reveals  the  fact 
that  the  data  of  knowledge  consist  merely  of  impres- 
sions— distinct,  successive,  discreet.  These  the  mind 
connects  in  various  ways,  and  these  ways  of  connect- 
ing things  become  habitual.  Thus  the  principle  of 
causality,  the  propositions  of  arithmetic,  geometry, 
and  algebra,  physical  laws,  etc.,  in  short  all  forms  of 
synthesis  and  relation,  are  subjective  in  origin.  They 
have  no  objective  validity,  and  their  alleged  "neces- 
sity" is  but  a  psvchological  feeling  arising  from  the 
force  of  habit.  We  undoubtedly  believe  in  real  thmgs 
and  real  causes;  but  this  is  merely  because  we  have 
grown  accustomed  so  to  group  and  connect  our  mental 
impre.s.sions.  The  arguments  of  Pyrrho  and  other 
Sceptics  are  unanswerable,  their  Scepticism  reasonable 
and  well-founded;  but  in  practical  life  it  is  too  much 
trouble  to  think  otherwise  than  we  do  think,  and  we 
could  not  get  on  if  we  did.  Kant's  answer  to  Hume 
was  embodied  in  a  philosophy  as  eminently  subjec- 
tive as  that  of  Hume  himself.  Consequently  it  failed, 
and  resulted  only  in  further  Scepticism,  implicit,  if 
not  actually  professed.  And  nowadays  physical 
science,  which  in  Kant's  time  alone  held  its  own 
against  the  inroads  of  Scepticism,  is  as  thoroughly  per- 
meated with  it  as  the  rest  of  our  beliefs.  One  in- 
stance must  sufficc^-that  of  Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour,  who  in 
his  "Defence  of  Philosophic  Doubt"  seeks  to  uphold 
religious  belief  on  the  equivocal  ground  that  it  is 
no  less  certain  than  scientific  theory  and  method. 
There  is,  he  says,  (1)  no  satisfactory  means  of  mf er- 
ring the  general  from  the  particular  (c.  ii),  (2)  no 
empirical  proof  of  the  law  of  causaUty  (c.  iii),  (3)  no 
adequate  guarantee  of  the  uniformity  of  nature  and 
the  persistence  of  physical  law  (cc.  iv,  v).  Again,  of 
the  popular  philosophic  arguments  which  are  ".pu* 
forward  as  final  and  conclusive  grounds  of  belief" 
(p.  138),  the  argument  from  general  consent  is  not 
ultimate;  that  from  success  in  practice,  though  it 
gives  us  ground  for  confidence  in  the  future,  cannot  be 
conclusive,  since  it  is  empirical  in  character;  whilst 
the  argument  from  common  sense  which  affirms  that 
the  intellect,  when  working  normally,  is  trustworthy, 
involves  a  vicious  circle,  since  normal  workings  can 
be  distinguished  from  abnormal  only  on  the  ground 
that  they  lead  to  truth  (c.  vii) .  Similarly  the  original 
"deliverances  of  consciousness",  to  which  Scottish  In- 
tuitionists  appeal,  are  of  no  avail  because  it  is  impos- 
sible to  determine  what  deliverances  of  consciousness 
are  original  and  what  are  not.  Returning  to  the 
question  of  science,  Mr.  Balfour  finds  that  it  contra- 
dicts common  sense  in  that  (e.  g.)  it  declares  bodies, 
which  appear  coloured  to  our  senses,  to  be  made  up  in 
reality  of  uncoloured  particles,  and,  while  thus  dis- 
crediting the  trustworthiness  of  observation,  provides 
no  criterion  whereby  to  distinguish  observations 
which  are  trustworthy  from  those  which  arc  not.  Its 
method,  too,  is  inconclusive,  for  there  may  always  be 
other  hypotheses  which  would  explain  the  facts  equally 
well  (c.  xii).     Lastly  the  evolution  of  belief  tends 


SCHADOW 


518 


SCHADOW 


wholly  to  discredit  its  validity,  for  our  beliefs  are 
largely  determined  by  non-rational  causes,  and,  even 
when"e\'idence  is  their  motive,  what  we  regard  as  evi- 
dence is  settled  by  circumstances  altogether  beyond 
our  control  (c.  xiii). 

Critical  Examixation  of  Scepticism. — A  reply 
to  the  copious  arguments  of  the  Sceptic  enumerated 
above,  might  take  the  following  hne: 

(1)  The  Sceptic  fails  to  distinguish  between  prac- 
tical moral  certainty  which  excludes  all  reasonable 
grounds  for  doubt,  and  absolute  certainty  which  ex- 
cludes all  possible  grounds  for  doubt.  The  latter  can 
be  had  only  when  evidence  is  complete,  proof  wholly 
adequate,  obvious,  and  conclusive,  and  when  all  diffi- 
culties and  objections  can  be  completely  solved.  In 
mathematics  this  is  sometimes  possible,  though  not 
alwaj's;  but  in  other  matters  "practical  certainty"  as 
a  rule  is  all  we  can  get.  And  this  is  sufficient,  since 
"practical  certainty ' '  is  certainty  for  reasonable  beings. 

(2)  Axiomatic,  or  self-evident,  truth  must  be  in- 
sisted on.  The  truth  of  an  axiom  can  never  be 
proved,  j'et  may  become  manifest,  even  to  those  who 
for  the  time  being  doubt  it,  when  its  meaning  and  its 
application  are  clearly  understood. 

(3)  Perceptual  judgments  refer  qualities  (not  sensa- 
tions) to  things,  but  they  do  not  declare  what  is  the 
nature  of  these  quaUties,  and  hence  do  not  contradict 
scientific  theory. 

(4)  Perception  is  trustworthy  in  that  it  reveals  to  us 
the  general  character  and  behaviour  of  things — both  of 
ourselves  and  of  external  objects.  We  do  not  often 
mistake  a  spade  for  a  table-knife  or  a  turkey  for  a 
hippopotamus.  The  senses  do  not  pretend  to  be  ac- 
curate in  detail  (unless  assisted  by  instruments)  or  in 
abnormal  circumstances. 

(5)  The  "normal"  working  of  our  faculties  can  be 
determined  independently  of  any  question  as  to  the 
truth  of  their  deliverances.  The  work  of  our  facul- 
ties is  "normal",  (1)  when  they  are  free  from  the  influ- 
ence of  subjective  factors,  other  than  those  which  be- 
long to  their  proper  nature  (i.  e.  free  from  disease, 
impediment,  the  influence  of  prejudice,  expectancy, 
desire,  etc.),  and  (2)  when  they  are  exercised  upon 
their  own  proper  objects.  In  the  case  of  the  senses 
this  means  upon  objects  we  meet  with  day  by  day 
under  ordinary  circumstances.  If  the  circumstances 
are  extraordinary,  our  senses  are  still  trustworthy, 
however,  provided  the  circumstances  be  taken  into 
account. 

(6)  Alleged  contradictions  inherent  in  philosophical 
terms  are  due  to  ambiguity,  misunderstanding,  the 
lack  of  precise  definition,  or  the  influence  of  a  false 
philosophy.  For  instance,  the  contradictions  which 
Mr.  Bradley  points  out  (Appearance  and  Reality, 
bk.  I)  in  terms  such  as  time,  space,  substance  and  ac- 
cident, causality,  self,  are  not  to  be  found  in  these 
terms  as  defined  by  the  Scholastics. 

(7)  Contradictions  between  different  philosophical 
theories  may  be  (a)  accounted  for,  and  (b)  eliminated, 
(a)  They  arise  from  ambiguity,  variety  of  definition, 
misconception,  misinterpretation,  careless  inference, 
groundless  assumption,  unv(Tifie<l  hypothesis,  and  the 
neglect  of  relevant  facts.  Yet  (b)  all  error  contains 
an  element  of  truth,  and  contradictions  suppose  a 
common  principle  already  granted  anterior  to  their 
divergence;  and  thfise  underlying  principles  and  ele- 
ments of  truth  contained  in  all  theories  can  be  dis- 
tingui.shed  from  the  errors  in  which  they  are  wrapped 
up. 

(8)  Beliefs  arising  from  non-rational  or  from  un- 
known grounfis  should  either  be  re-established  on 
ratif)nal  grounds  or  discarded.  All  beliefs  should  be 
evident  either  (1)  immediately,  as  in  the  ca.se  (e.  g.)  of 
our  belief  in  external  reality,  or  (2)  metiiately  by  in- 
ference from  known  truth,  or  (3)  on  the  ground  of 
adequate  testimony. 


(9)  The  Sceptic  assumes  the  capacity  of  the  intel- 
lect to  criticize  the  faculty  of  knowledge,  and  thus,  in 
so  far  as  he  denies  its  capacity  to  know  anything,  im- 
pficitly  contradicts  himself. 

St.  .\ugu8Tine,  De  uUlitate  credendi  in  Corp.  scrip,  eccl.  lat.,  VI 
(Vienna,  1891) ;  Balfour,  Defence  of  Philosophic  Doubt  (London, 
1879);  Idem,  Foundations  of  Belief  (8th  ed.,  London,  1901); 
Brochard,  Les  Sceptigues  grecs  (Paris,  1887);  Charron,  De  la 
sagesse  (Paris,  1820);  Cicero,  Academica  II.  De  natura  deorum; 
Dillon,  Sceptica  of  the  Old  Testament  (London,  1895) ;  Flint, 
Agnosticism  (Edinburgh,  1903);  Glanville,  Scepsis  scicntifica, 
ed.  Owen  (London,  1885);  Gomperz,  Greek  Thinkers,  tr.  (Lon- 
don, 1891);  Hume,  Enquiry  concerning  the  Human  Understanding 
(Boston,  1854);  Idem,  Treatise  on  Human  Nature,  ed.  Selby- 
BiGGE  (Oxford,  1888) ;  Huxley,  Collective  E.^says,  VI  (London. 
1873) ;  Janet  and  S^ailles,  History  of  the  Problems  of  Philosophy, 
tr.  (London,  1902);  Jourdain,  Se.rtus  Empir.  et  la  philosophic 
scolastique  (Paris,  1858) ;  Maccoll,  Greek  Sceptics  from  Pyrrho 
to  Sextus  (London  and  Cambridge,  1869) ;  Mansel,  Limits  of  Re- 
ligious Thought  (5th  ed.,  London,  1870);  McCosh,  Intuitions  of 
the  Mind  (London,  1860);  Mivart,  On  Truth  (London,  1889); 
Montaigne,  Essais,  ed.  Hazlitt  (London,  1877) ;  Owen,  Even- 
ings with  the  Sceptics  (4  vols.,  London,  1881);  Idem,  The  Skeptics 
of  the  French  Renaissance  (London,  1893);  Idem,  The  Skeptics  of 
the  Italian  Renaissance  (London,  1893) ;  Paschal,  Pensees,  ed. 
Faugere  (Paris,  1897),  tr.  Paul  (London,  1885);  Pillon  in 
L' Annie  Philosophique  (1867-8);  Saisset,  Le  scepticisme  (Paris, 
1867);  Sertillangbs,  Agnosticisme  ou  Anthropomorphismef  in 
Rev.  de  Phil.  (Febr.-August,  1906);  Sextus  Empiricus,  Contra 
Mathematicos;  Idem,  Institutiones  Pyrrhonicw;  Stephen,  An 
Agnostic's  Apology  (London,  1893);  Waddington,  Pyrrhon  et  le 
Pyrrhonisme  (Paris,  1877) ;  Wells,  Scepticism  of  the  Instru- 
ment in  Mind,  new  series,  XL  (July,  1904) ;  Zeller,  Stoics,  Epi- 
and  Sceptics,  tr.  Reichel  (London,  1880). 

Leslie  J.  Walker. 


Schadow,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  painter,  b.  at  Ber- 
lin, 1789;  d.  at  Diisseldorf,  1862.  He  was  the  son 
of  the  sculptor,  Johann  Gottfried  Schadow  of  Berlin. 
The  year  after  Cornelius  left  Diisseldorf,  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  Schadow  took  his  place  as  director  of  the 
Diisseldorf  Academy  of  Painting.  He  had  been  with 
Cornelius  at  Rome  among  those  who  gathered  around 
Overbeck,  and  while  at  Rome  had  become  a  Catholic. 
In  1819  he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  Academy 
of  Berlin.  He  was  a  capable  and  poinilur  teacher,  and 
a  large  number  of  pupils  followed  him  to  Dusseldorf, 
where  he  went  in  1826  and  where  he  had  great  success. 
He  was  more  in  harmony  with  the  artists  of  the  Rhine 
than  his  predecessors  at  Diisseldorf  had  been.  He 
laid  stress  on  realism,  colour,  and  a  sober  modera- 
tion, all  based  upon  a  through  technic,  whereby  his 
school  gained  many  friends  at  home  and  abroad. 
After  the  founding  of  the  Art  Association  in  1829  the 
graceful,  animated  pictures  of  the  Diisseldorf  school, 
which  appealed  either  to  Christian  devotion  or  every- 
day taste,  and  were  greatly  admired  by  the  friends  of 
the  school,  found  acceptance  in  all  directions.  Scha- 
dow did  not  at  first  take  up  the  ideal  fresco,  as  did  the 
masters  at  Munich,  but  devoted  himself  to  oil-paint- 
ing; nor  did  he  attempt  great  historical  subjects,  but 
the  more  modest  forms  of  art.  In  addition  to  devo- 
tional pictures,  Schadow  and  his  pupils  gave  their  at- 
tention to  portraits,  landscape,  and  genre  pictures. 
His  principles  differed  from  those  of  Cornelius,  with- 
out his  advancing,  howev(>r,  to  those  maintained  to- 
day. In  his  opinion,  the  value  of  a  picture  rested 
upon  form,  colour,  and  poetic  conception.  The  pupil 
must  first  learn  to  draw,  especially  after  plaster  copies 
of  antiques,  and  not  until  after  this  was  he  to  learn 
to  draw  from  nature,  and  to  make  studies  of  drapery 
and  colour  after  old  i)aiiitiiigs.  After  the  ])ui)il  had 
been  thoroughly  grounded  he  was  not  to  neglect  draw- 
ing from  nature  or  the  model,  at  first  under  the  strict 
supervision  of  a  teacher,  and  then  later  to  work 
independently. 

Schadow  held  fast  to  the  principle  of  the  Romantic 
school,  that  more  weight,  should  be  placcKl  upon  the 
conception  than  the  form.  He  had  much  skill  in 
arousing  interest  both  in  his  pupils  and  the  general 
public.  For  his  own  work  he  chose  religious  painting 
and  some  of  his  paintings  of  this  kind  fully  meet  the 
aims  of  art  and  of  (ulification;  among  these  arc  the 
"Ascension  of  the  Virgin",  the  "Wise  and  Foolish 


SCHAEPMAN 


519 


SCHAFTLARN 


Virgins".  Other  good  pictures  are  "Christ  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives",  "Christ  with  the  Disciples  at  Em- 
maus",  the  "Pieta",  the  "Queen  of  Heaven",  the 
"Blessed  Virgin  as  Intercessor".  Among  his  best 
creations  also  are:  the  "  P'our  Evangelists",  and  "  Para- 
dise", "Purgatory",  and  "Hell".  During  his  life- 
time his  portraits,  for  example  those  of  brother  artists, 
were  greatly  admired.  It  should,  however,  be  re- 
marked that  Schadow,  notwithstanding  his  study 
from  nature,  never  fully  overcame  the  weakness  of  the 
Romantic  school,  and  although  he  was  three  times  in 
Italy,  where  he  studied  the  masters,  he  exhibited  less 
original  force  than  a  graceful  talent.  Regularity  and 
logic  are  natural  to  him  rather  than  depth  of  content 
in  the  drawing  and  colour.  Immermann,  at  a  later 
date,  when  he  had  abandoned  Romanticism,  judged 
harshly  the  characteristics  impressed  by  Schadow 
upon  the  Diisseldorf  school.  These  criticisms,  how- 
ever, generally  overlook  the  fact  that  Schadow's  re- 
ligious feeling,  which  remained  as  an  inheritance  to  the 
Diisseldorf  school,  maintained  the  claims  of  art  while 
meeting  the  justified  demands  of  life  and  popular 
taste,  and,  finally,  that  the  self-contained  emphasis 
placed  upon  realism  deserved  the  undoubted  success 
it  obtained.  It  was  natural  that  in  the  course  of  time 
other  elements  also  made  themselves  felt  in  the  school, 
but  these  were  only  in  part  the  signs  of  an  advance. 
Schadow  was  also  an  author,  although  not  one  of  pre- 
eminent importance.  He  laid  down  his  opinions  con- 
cerning training  in  art  in  several  treatises  and  in  a 
novel  called  "Der  moderne  Vasari"  (Berlin,  1854). 
He  resigned  his  position  as  director  of  the  academy 
after  thirty-three  years'  service.  His  pupils  were  dis- 
tinguished by  the  honourable  positions  they  received. 
His  portrait  by  Bendemann  is  in  the  Diisseldorf 
Academy. 

HuBNER,  Schadow  und  seine  Schuler  (Bonn,  1869);  Raczynski, 
Histoire  de  iart  moderne  en  Allemagne  (Paris,  1836),  Ger.  tr. 
Haoer  (Berlin,  1836);  Wiegemann,  Die  kOnigliche  Akademie  in 
Diisseldorf  und  die  Diisseldorfer  Schvle  (DQsseldorf,  1856). 

G.    GlETMANN. 

Schaepman,  Herman,  J.A.M.,  orator,  poet,  and 
statesman,  b.  at  Tubbergen,  Holland,  2  March,  1844; 
d.  at  Rome,  21  Jan.,  1903.  He  made  his  studies 
in  the  college  of  Oldenzaal  and  the  seminaries  of  Kui- 
lenberg  and  Ryzenburg,  was  ordained  priest  at 
Utrecht  in  1867,  and  obtained  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Divinity  in  1869  at  Rome.  In  1870,  he  was  professor 
of  church  history  at  the  seminary  of  Ryzenburg.  At 
the  same  time  he  became  a  collaborator  on  "De 
Tyd",  and  in  1871,  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  W.  J.  F. 
Nuyens,  he  founded  the  periodical  "De  Wachter" 
(from  1874-83,  "Onze  Wachter").  Schaepman  was  a 
great  poet.  The  appearance  of  his  first  poem,  "  De 
Pans"  (pubhshed  in  1866),  was  a  literarj'  event. 
Among  his  later  poems  those  of  especial  note  are :  "  De 
Pers,  De  eeuw  en  haar  koning.  Napoleon"  (1873),  and 
his  master  work  "Aya  Sofia"  (1886).  Schaepman 
ranks  equally  as  prose-writer  and  poet.  By  turns 
lofty,  incisive,  sarcastic,  vigorous,  witty,  his  whole 
soul  finds  expression  in  his  prose,  the  originality  of  its 
style  being  so  striking  that  its  authorship  is  recognized 
at  first  glance.  His  principal  prose  writings  are  col- 
lected in  five  volumes  under  the  title  "Menschen  en 
Boeken"  (Utrecht,  1893-1902). 

Schaepman  was  no  less  distinguished  as  an  orator. 
For  many  years  he  was  considered  the  first  orator  of 
the  nation.  His  con\'incing,  powerful,  and  irresisti- 
ble manner  was  first  displayed  in  his  famous  "Park 
speech",  delivered  in  Amsterdam  (1871),  and  was 
e\^nced  in  his  speech  at  the  Congress  of  Middelburgh 
(1872)  and  in  those  on  Pius  IX,  Vondel,  the  Maid  of 
Orleans,  De  Taal,  Daniel  O'Connell,  Michel  Angelo 
etc.  His  last  oration,  delivered  in  1902,  was  in  hon- 
our of  Monseigneur  Hamer.  Schaepman's  eloquence 
won  him  great  honours  in  the  political  arena;  he 
was  the  first  priest  to  be  elected  to  the  States-Gen- 


eral, and  he  ever  fought  valiantly  for  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  CathoUcs.  In  1883  he  formulated  and  pre- 
sented a  programme  of  action,  his  motto  being 
"Catholics  constitute  a  political  personality  which 
demands  liberty."  Unfortunately  the  majority  of 
Catholic  politicians  had  as  yet  no  notion  of  such  a  per- 
sonality, and  Schaepmann  was  either  ignored  or  op- 
po.sed.  But  even  at  that  time  he  entertained  the  idea 
of  an  eventual  coalition  between  Catholics  and  Prot- 
estants, and  for  that  reason  supported  the  project  for 
the  revision  of  the  Constitution  (1887).  The  revision 
of  the  school-law  is  mainly  due  to  him.  Schaepman 
developed  more  and  more  the  quaUties  of  the  true 
statesman.  The  democratic  movement  was  a  fact, 
the  significance  of  which  he  fully  realized,  and,  instead 
of  vainly  trying  to  stem  it,  he  endeavoured  to  secure  a 
hold  on  it.  For  this  reason  he  acted  independently  in 
regard  to  the  law  concerning  personal  military  service 
(1891-98),  the  Tak  elections  law  (1894),  and  the 
compulsory  education  law  (1900),  his  Catholic  oppo- 
nents had,  no  doubt,  good  intentions,  but  they  forgot 
that  now  they  had  influence  and  were  able  to  obtain 
what  was  formerly  beyond  their  reach.  Unquestion- 
ably Schaepman,  in  the  beginning  of  his  political 
career,  was  adverse  to  paternalism  in  government  and 
wished  to  limit  its  functions  to  what  was  absolutely 
necessary.  Later,  however,  he  followed  more  in  the 
footsteps  of  von  Ketteler.  Instead  of  allowing  inevi- 
table events  to  become  detrimental  to  Catholics,  he 
sought  to  shape  them  as  far  as  possible,  to  Catholic 
advantage.  One  of  Schaepman's  greatest  achieve- 
ments was  the  coalition  which,  in  conjunction  with 
Dr.  Kuyper,  he  brought  about  between  Catholics  and 
anti-revolutionists,  whereby  the  influence  of  the 
Catholics  was  greatly  increased.  Since  that  event, 
Holland  has  had  three  successive  ministries  animated 
by  distinctively  Christian  principles.  Schaepman's 
merits  were  recognized  by  Leo  XIII,  who  bestowed 
upon  him  the  rank  of  domestic  prelate  and  prothono- 
tary  Apostolic. 

Consult  biographies  by  Brom  (Haarlem,  1903),  Hexdrichs 
(Leyden,  1903),  Bixnewiertz  (Leydon,  1904);  .see  necrologies  in 
De  Tyd  (.Jan.  22-23,  1903)  and  Dietsche  Warande  en  Belfort  (1909). 


P.  Albers. 

Schaftlarn,  formerly  a  Preraonstratensian,  now  a 
Benedictine,  abbey,  situated  on  the  Isar  not  far  from 
Munich  in  Upper  Bavaria.  It  was  founded  in  762  by 
the  priest  Waltrich  and  dedicated  to  St.  Dionysius. 
Waltrich  was  the  first  abbot;  later  (774-804)  he  was 
Bishop  of  Passau.  In  955  the  monaster}^  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Hungarians  who  were  then  making 
marauding  incursions  into  Germany.  In  the  eleventh 
century  it  was  a  house  of  secular  canons,  of  whom 
there  were  then  many  in  Bavaria.  In  1140  it  was  re- 
founded  by  Bishop  Otto  of  Frcising  as  a  Premoustra- 
tensian  monastery  under  a  provost.  Little  is  known 
of  the  inner  life  of  the  monastery.  In  1527  it  was 
destroyed  by  fire.  In  1598  the  provostry  was  raised 
to  an  abbey,  which  continued  to  e.xist  until  1803,  when 
it  was  secularized.  The  church  was  made  a  parish 
church,  the  monastic  buildings  were  sold  and  fre- 
quently changed  hands.  In  1845  they  were  brought 
by  the  Congregation  of  the  English  Ladies  who  estab- 
lished here  a  boarding  school  for  girls.  In  1865 
Schaftlarn  was  bought  by  King  Louis  I  of  Bavaria  for 
92,000  guldens  and  in  1866  it  was  given  to  the  Bene- 
dictines. At  first  the  monastery  was  a  priory,  but  it 
was  raised  to  an  abbey,  3  May,  1910.  It  has  now  thir- 
teen fathers  who  conduct  an  educational  institution 
for  bojvs  with  a  pro-gymnasium.  The  interior  of  the 
monaster}'  church  built  173.3-64,  is  one  of  the  best 
productions  of  the  Munich  school  of  architecture  of 
the  eighteenth  century;  the  exterior  is  unimportant. 
The  buildings,  erected  during  the  period  1705-21,  are 
simple. 

Montimenta  Scheftlariensia  in  Momenta  Boiea,  VIII  (Munich, 
1767),  357-76;  Annalea  el  notce  Scheftlariensea,  ed.  Japf*  in  Man. 


SCHALL 


520 


SCHALL 


Grmu  hist.  ScHpl.:  XVII  (Hanover,  ISOl),  334-.50:  Necrologium 
Srh^ftlar.,  loc.  cit.;  Necrologia.  Ill  (Hanover,  1905),  116-33; 
SciiEGLSlAN'X,  GeschirfUe  der  S&kularisntion  in  rechtrheinischen 
Baycrn,  III,  Pt.  II  (R;Uisbon,  190S),  341-50. 

Klemexs  Loffler. 

Schall  von  Bell,  Johann  Adam,  an  especially 
prominent  figure  among  the  missionaries  to  China, 
b.  of  an  important  family  at  Cologne  in  1591;  d.  at 
Poking,  15  Aug.,  1666.  He  studied  at  Rome,  where 
he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  on  20  Oct.,  1611.  After 
liis  novitiate  and  some  years  devoted  to  philo.sophy 
and  theology  he  asked  to  be  sent  on  the  missions  and 
in  April,  161S,  he  set  sail  from  Lisbon  for  China. 
When  he  reached  Macao  (1619)  the  Chinese  Christian 
settlements  were  still  deeply  troubled  by  the  war 
waged  against  them  since  1615  by  the  high  mandarin 
Kio  Shin.  Four  of  the  chief 
mi.ssionaries,  two  of  them  from 
Peking,  had  been  expelled  and 
conducted  to  Macao ;  the  others 
had  only  escaped  the  same  fate 
through  the  devotion  of  some 
Christian  mandarins  who  hid 
them  in  their  houses.  It  was 
only  in  1622,  when  the  per- 
secution began  to  relax,  that 
Schall  could  penetrate  to  the 
interior.  lie  laboured  first  at 
Si-ngan-fu  in  Shen-si.  His 
ministry,  which  for  a  long  time 
was  difficult  and  thwarted, 
had  ju.st  begun  to  afford  him 
great  consolation  when  he  was 
summoned  to  Peking  in  1630. 
He  had  to  replace  Father 
Terrentius  (deceased)  in  the 
work  of  reforming  the  Chi- 
ne.se  calendar.  The  task  was 
far  removed  from  his  ordinary 
duties  of  the  apostolate  but 
it  was  one  on  which  the  future 
of  the  mission  then  flepended. 

In  China  the  establishment 
of  the  annual  calentlar  was 
from  time  immemorial  one  of 
the  mo.st  important  affairs  of 
State.  The  official  astronomers 
who  were  entrusted  therewith  composed  the  "  Board  of 
Mathematics  " ;  there  were  200  members  in  this  board, 
which  was  divided  into  several  sections,  presided  over 
by  exalted  mandarins.  They  had  to  make  known  in 
advance  the  astronomical  situation  for  the  whole  year, 
the  days  of  new  and  full  moons,  movements  of  the 
8un  with  the  dates  of  its  entrance  into  each  of  the 
twenty-eight  constellations  forming  the  Chinese  zo- 
diac, the  times  of  the  solstices  and  equinoxes,  and  the 
beginnings  of  8ea.sons,  the  positions  and  conjunctions 
of  planets,  finally,  and  especially,  eclipses  of  the  moon 
as  well  as  of  the  sun.  For  tlicsc  announcements  the 
Chinese  had  several  emj)iriral  rules,  inherited  from 
their  ancestors,  and  fspcfiHlly  those  which  the  Mo- 
hammedan astronomers  had  brought  to  China  dur- 
ing the  Yuen,  or  Mongol, dynasty.  These  rules  were 
insufficient  to  prevent  errors,  which  were  sometimes 
very  serious,  and,  having  no  scientific  principle,  the 
Chinese  astronomers  were  incapable  of  discovering 
the  defects  of  their  methods  and  calculations,  far  less 
correcting  them.  Here  was  an  opportunity  for  the 
missionaries  to  render  a  service  and  thus  do  much  to 
strengthen  their  position  in  China.  This  hafl  already 
been  well  understood  by  the  founder  of  the  mission. 
Father  Matteo  Ricci;  his  direct  offer  of  assistance 
would  have  been  ill  received,  but  he  had  di.screetly 
inspired  in  the  most  intelligent  of  the  Chinese  literati 
a  desire  for  his  aid.  A  translation  of  the  Catholic 
liturgical  calendar  which  he  had  communicated  in 
MS.  to  his  neophytes  had  very  greatly  excited  this 


.loHANN  Adam  Schall  vc 
From  a  portrait  discovered  in  the  01 


wish.  That  the  mission  might  be  ready  for  the  offi- 
cial appeal  which  would  come  sooner  or  later  he  re- 
peatedly urged  the  general  of  the  Society  to  send  a 
good  astronomer,  and  in  1606  Father  Sabbatino  de 
Ursis,  a  Neapolitan,  arrived. 

Father  Ricci  had  been  dead  but  a  few  months  when 
because  of  the  mistake  of  an  hour  by  the  Board  of 
Mathematics  in  the  announcement  of  an  eclipse,  the 
Government  decided  to  request  the  aid  of  the  mission- 
aries for  its  tangled  astronomy.  At  the  beginning  of 
1611  an  imperial  decree  entrusted  the  missionaries 
with  the  correction  of  the  calendar  and  requested 
them  to  translate  books  containing  the  rules  of  Euro- 
pean astronomy.  Father  de  Ursis  at  once  undertook 
this  task,  assisted  by  two  Christian  doctors,  Paul  Siu 
Koang  and  Leon  Li-ngo-tsen,  but  the  work  was 
scarcely  begun  when  it  was 
halted  by  the  intrigues  of  the 
native  astronomers.  Then  the 
persecution  of  Kio  Shin  forced 
Father  Sabbatino  and  his  com- 
panion. Father  Diego  Tan toya, 
to  withdraw  to  Macao,  where 
both  ended  their  dajvs.  Never- 
theless these  same  illustrious 
neophytes,  who  had  saved  the 
mission  from  total  ruin,  suc- 
ceeded not  only  in  securing 
other  missionaries  from  Peking 
but  in  having  confided  to  them 
anew  the  duties  of  official  cor- 
rectors of  the  calendar.  This 
mandate  was  renewed  by  an 
imi)erial  decree  of  27  Sept., 
1629.  The  great  Christian 
mandarin  Paul  Siu  again  re- 
sumed the  high  offices  of  which 
the  persecution  had  deprived 
him  and  received  by  the  same 
decree  the  direction  of  the  re- 
form with  full  power  for  its  ex- 
ecution. The  fathers  were 
certain  of  obtaining  through 
him  all  the  means  necessary 
for  the  success  of  the  under- 
taking. The  first  missionary 
to  resume  the  work  was  unable 
to  devote  to  it  his  remarkable  abilities  for  any  length 
of  time.  This  was  Father  John  Terrentius,  or  to  call 
him  by  his  true  name,  Schreck.  Born  at  Constance 
on  Lake  Geneva  in  1576,  he  embraced  the  religious 
life  in  Rome  at  the  age  of  thirty-five  being  then 
in  possession  of  an  enviable  renown  as  physician, 
botanist,  and  mathematician.  The  Academia  dei 
Lincei  (founded  at  Rome  by  Prince  Frederico  Cesi) 
had  admitted  him  among  its  earliest  members;  here 
he  had  as  colleague  Galilei,  whose  discoveries  he 
followed  with  sympathy.  In  his  first  letters  from 
China,  which  he  had  entered  secretly  in  1621,  we 
find  Father  Terrentius  endeavouring  "to  obtain  from 
the  Florentine  astronomer  through  the  mediation 
of  mutual  friends,  "a  calculation  of  the  eclipses, 
especially  solar,  according  to  the  new  observa- 
tions", for  he  says,  "this  is  supremely  necessary  to  us 
for  the  correction  of  the  [Chinese]  calendar.  And  if 
there  is  any  means  by  which  we  may  escai)e  expul- 
sion from  the  empire  it  is  this".  This  learned  mis- 
sionary died  prematurely  on  13  May,  1630,  and 
Father  Schall  was  summoned  to  Peking  to  noplace 
him.  Father  James  Rho,  a  native  of  Milan,  who  had 
also  come  from  Europe  to  China  in  1618,  and  who 
since  1624  had  been  working  in  the  Christian  settle- 
ments, was  also  called  to  the  capital  to  assist 
Leather  Schall  in  his  scientific  undertaking. 

Th(!  task  imposed  on  the  two  missionaries  was  very 
difficult;  they  had  not  only  to  convince  the  Chinese  of 
the  errors  of  their  calendar,  but  also  to  make  them 


:    Bkll 

crvatory, 


Prague 


SCHALL 


521 


SCHALL 


understand  the  causes  of  these  errors,  and  to  demon- 
strate to  them  the  rehabiUty  of  the  principles  on  which 
they  themselves  based  their  corrections.  To  do  this 
they  had  to  establish  at  the  Board  of  Mathematics  a 
complete  course  in  astronomy,  and  they  had  to  begin 
by  compihng  in  Chinese  a  whole  series  of  text-books 
comprising  not  only  astronomy  properly  so-called  but 
also  even  the  most  elementary  foundations  of  the 
science,  such  as  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  other  parts 
of  mathematics.  In  1634  they  had  composed  as 
many  as  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  of  these  works, 
of  which  they  printed  a  hundred.  The  foreign  re- 
formers were  not  without  opposition  from  supersti- 
tious behevers  of  the  traditional  methods  and  espe- 
cially from  the  envious.  These  became  particularly 
violent  on  the  death  of  Paul  Siu  (1633,  when  he  was 
Colao  or  prime  minister).  Happily,  Emperor  Ts'ung- 
cheng,  who  judged  very  intelligently  of  the  methods 
in  dispute  by  the  results  of  the  pretliction  of  celestial 
phenomena,  continued  to  support  the  fathers  in  the 
kindest  manner.  In  1638  Father  Schall  lost  his 
deserving  fellow-worker,  Father  Hho,  but  by  that 
time  the  reform  had  already  been  accomplished  in 
principle;  it  had  become  law  and  needed  only  to  be  put 
into  execution. 

All  the  provinces  of  China  were  soon  informed  of 
the  important  commission  of  reforming  the  calendar 
which  had  been  entrusted  to  the  missionaries.  The 
news  created  a  great  sensation  which  benefited  the 
whole  mi.ssion.  The  honour  paid  to  the  missionaries 
of  Peking  redounded  to  the  credit  of  al!  their  brethren; 
miny  mandarins  felt  it  necessary  to  offer  public  con- 
gratulations to  those  working  within  their  territory. 
Everywhere  the  preaching  of  the  Gosjiel  was  allowed 
unprecedented  liberty.  Father  Schall  i)rofit('d  by  this, 
interrupting  from  time  to  time  his  .sci(>iitific  labours  for 
the  apostolate,  not  only  in  Peking  but  also  in  the 
neighbouring  province's.  Thus  he  founded  a  new 
Christian  congregation  at  Ho-Kieii,  capital  of  one  of 
the  prefectures  of  Ciii-li.  However,  his  zeal  was  es- 
pecially exercised  at  the  court  itself.  Christianity, 
which  hitherto  had  won  but  few  souls  in  the  imperial 
palace,  now  took  an  important  i)lace  there  through 
the  conversion  of  ten  eunuchs,  among  whom  were  the 
sovereign's  most  qualified  servants.  This  cluss  had 
always  been  most  opposed  to  the  preaching  of  the 
mi.ssionaries.  This  happy  ])rogress  of  evangelization 
was  disturbed  and  for  a  time  stopped  by  the  invasion 
of  the  Tatars  and  the  revolution  which,  by  o\erthrow- 
ing  the  throne  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  brought  about 
the  accession  of  the  Manchu  dynasty  of  the  T'sings, 
which  still  reigns.  In  the  provinces  laid  waste  by  the 
insurrection  prior  to  the  foreign  conquest  several 
missionaries  were  massacred  liy  the  rebel  leaflers.  At 
Peking  Father  Schall  assisted  th(>  last  of  the  Ming 
in  his  useless  resistance  by  casting  cannon  for  him. 
Nevertheless  the  Tatiirs  regarded  him  favourably. 
Shun-chi,  the  first  of  the  Ts'ings  to  reign  at  Peking, 
was  only  eight  or  eleven  years  old  wli(>n  he  was  pro- 
claimed emi)eror  (1643).  The  regent  who  governed  in 
his  name  for  six  years  confirmed  all  SehalFs  power  re- 
garding the  calendar.  The  yf)ung  emperor  was  still 
kinder  to  the  missionary;  not  only  did  he  summon  him 
to  familiar  interviews  in  his  palace,  but,  in  spite  of  the 
most  sacred  rules  of  Chinese  etiquette,  he  used  unex- 
pectedly to  visit  him  in  his  house,  remaining  in  his 
modest  room  a  long  time  and  questioning  him  on  all 
kinds  of  subjects. 

The  imperial  favour  became  a  source  of  serious 
embarrassment  to  Father  Schall  and  his  fellow- 
workers.  Prior  to  Shun-chi  the  "new  rules"  estab- 
lished by  the  Jesuits  for  the  making  of  the  Chinese 
calendar  became  compulsory  for  the  official  astron- 
omers, but  the  correctors  themselves  had  no  authority 
to  insure  application  of  them.  Shun-chi  wished  to 
alter  this,  impelled  no  doubt  by  his  affection  for 
Father  Schall,  but  also  because  he  had  recognized  the 


inefficiency  of  the  native  direction  of  the  Board  of 
Mathematics.  He  therefore  appointed  Father  Scliall 
president  of  this  Board,  at  the  same  time  conferring 
on  him  high  rank  as  a  mandarin  to  correspond  with 
this  important  office.  The  missionary  thought  he 
might  accept  the  office,  which  was  more  onerous  than 
honourable;  the  success  of  the  reform,  which  was 
theoretically  accomplished,  required  it.  But  the  rank 
of  mandarin  accorded  ill  with  religious  humilitj\ 
Schall  did  all  in  his  power  to  avoid  it;  from  1634,  when 
it  was  conferred  on  him  for  the  first  time,  until  1657, 
he  made  five  appeals  to  the  emperor  or  to  the  Supreme 
Tribunal  of  Rites,  to  be  relieved  of  it.  In  his  ex- 
planations to  his  brethren  in  the  mission  (16  Dec, 
1648)  he  declared  that  he  had  refused  it  eight  times, 
that  he  had  pleaded  on  his  knees  before  the  Tribunal 
of  Rites  to  be  delivered  from  it,  and  that  he  only 
finally  accepted  it  at  the  command  of  his  regular 
superior  and  renouncing  most  of  the  advantages 
whether  honorarj'  or  financial  which  were  connected 
with  the  rank.  Nevertheless  this  acceptance,  not- 
withstanding the  reservations  made,  was  the  occasion 
of  other  conscientious  scruples  concerning  which  the 
sentiments  of  the  Jesuits  in  China  were  divided  for 
several  ycvirs.  h'irst  of  all,  was  not  every  rank  of 
mandarin  as  exercised  by  a  missionary  a  violation  of 
the  canon  law  which  forbade  priests  to  hold  civil  offices? 
A  more  serious  question  arose  regarding  the  con- 
tents of  the  Chinese  calendar.  The  latter,  as  it  was 
drawn  up  by  the  Board  of  Mathematics  and  sub- 
sequently spread  throughout  the  emiMre,  gave  not 
only  astronomical  information  of  a  purely  scientific 
nature,  but  the  Chinese^  likewise  souglit  and  found 
there  indications  conccTning  lucky  and  unlucky  days, 
that  is  tho.se  which  should  be  chosen  or  avoided  for 
certain  actions,  and  muc^h  superstition  was  mixed 
with  this  part.  Wh(>n  the  calendar  was  seen  to  con- 
tain the  same  things  after  Father  Schall  became 
president,  uneasiness  was  f(>lt  among  the  missionaries. 
Everybody  did  not  know  how  the  publication  was 
made.  No  one  supposed  that  Fatlier  Schall  had  the 
slightest  share  in  the  superstitions;  they  were  in  fact 
the  exclusive  work  of  a  section  of  the  Board  of  Mathe- 
matics which  worked  independently  of  Father  Scliall. 
Furthermore,  the  definitive  and  official  publication  of 
the  calendar  was  not  within  the  fath(>r's  province. 
That  was  r(>.served  to  the  Li-pou  (Bureau  of  Kites), 
to  which  Father  Schall  merely  transmitted  his  astro- 
nomical calculations.  Besides,  FathcT  Schall's  data 
were  expressly  ilistinguished  in  the  calendar  itself  by 
the  words,  "according  to  the  new  rule".  Neverthe- 
less, even  when  they  w(>re  aware  of  these  exj)lanations, 
which  Father  Schall  hastened  to  give,  several  learned 
and  zealous  missionaries  considered  that  his  respon- 
sibifity  was  too  greatly  involved  and,  consequently, 
since  his  office  did  not  permit  him  to  suppress  the 
superstitions  of  the  calendar,  he  was  bound  in  con- 
science to  resign.  Five  theologians  of  the  Boman 
College  to  whom  the  question  was  submitted  with  in- 
complete information  decided  in  this  sense  on  3  Aug., 
16oo.  However,  fresh  explanations  given  by  leather 
Schall  and  the  approval  of  other  very  competent  mis- 
sionaries eventually  placed  the  case  in  a  different 
light,  and  a  new  and  better  informed  commission  at 
Rome  concluded  (31  Jan.,  1664)  that  there  was  no 
valid  reason  for  Father  Schall's  resignation  of  the 
presidency  of  the  Board  of  Mathematics.  The 
preamble  of  the  decision  repeated  and  adopted  the 
arguments  of  Father  Verbiest:  "Tht  father  president 
of  the  board",  it  stated,  "does  not  concur  positively 
in  the  insertion  of  the  superstitious  matters  which 
have  been  noted  in  the  calendar;  he  does  not  concur 
therein,  either  himself,  ff)r  he  does  not  sign  these 
jidditions  or  set  his  seal  to  them,  nor  through  his  pupils 
(in  the  Board  of  Mathematics), forthelatteronly  make 
the  insertion,  without  the  father  taking  any  share 
therein.     With   regard    to   the    distribution   of    the 


SCHALL 


522 


SCHALL 


calendar,  which  he  makes  in  virtue  of  his  office,  it 
bears  directly  only  on  the  notification  of  astronomical 
observations.  If  the  calendar  also  contains  things 
which  savour  of  superstition  it  may  be  said  that  they 
are  pubUshed  under  the  head  of  information  and  are 
indifferent  in  themselves,  that  is  the  calendar  simply 
shows  the  days  on  which  such  and  such  things  are 
done  according  to  the  customs  of  the  empire,  or  that 
they  are  the  days  having  the  conditions  which  popular 
superstition  considers  favourable  for  certain  acts;  and 
Father  Schall  is  passive  under  the  abuse  which  is  fol- 
lowing this  distribution,  which  he  was  forced  to  make 
by  serious  reasons  and  e-\-en  necessity. 

To  remove  the  last  scruples  concerning  this  burn- 
ing question.  Father  Oliva,  General  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  appealed  to  the  pope.  Alexander  VI  I,  after  hav- 
ing taken  account  of  the  whole  affair,  declared  vivce 
vocis  oractdo  (3  April,  1664)  that  he  authorized  the 
Jesuits  of  China,  "even  professed,  to  exercise  the  office 
and  dignity  of  mandarin  and  imperial  mathematician  ". 
The  decision  set  at  rest  not  only  Father  Schall's  con- 
science, but  also  those  of  the  missionaries  who  might 
be  called  to  the  same  duties.  In  fact,  except  for  a 
short  interruption  caused  by  the  persecution  of  which 
we  shall  speak  later,  the  presidency  of  the  astronom- 
ical bureau  remained  with  the  mission  till  the  nine- 
teenth century.  It  was  always  the  best  human  pro- 
tection both  for  liberty  of  preaching  and  freedom  to 
practice  Christianity  throughout  the  Chinese  empire. 
Even  in  Father  Schall's  time  this  was  clearly  proved 
bv  the  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  neophytes; 
in  1617  they  were  only  13,000;  in  1650,  150,000,  and 
from  1650  to  the  end  of  1664  they  grew  to  at  least 
254,980.  The  missionaries  who  furnished  these  sta- 
tistics at  the  verj^  period  did  not  hesitate  to  give 
the  correction  of  the  calendar  as  the  indirect  cause  of 
the  progress  of  evangelization,  although  the  ex- 
traordinary tokens  of  kindness  which  leather  Schall 
received  from  the  young  emperor  contributed  a  great 
deal.  One  of  the  most  valuable  of  these  tokens, 
especially  from  the  Chinese  standpoint,  was  the 
diploma,  dated  2  April,  1653,  by  which  Shun-chi 
expressed  his  lively  satisfaction  with  the  services 
rendered  in  the  revision  of  the  calendar  and  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Board  of  Mathematics,  and  conferred  on 
Father  Schall  the  title  of  Tung  hiuen  kino  shi,  "most 
profound  doctor".  This  diploma,  written  in  Tatar 
and  Chinese,  the  text  being  encircled  with  dragons  and 
other  carved  ornaments,  was  delivered  to  the  father 
engraved  on  a  marble  tablet.  The  tablet,  which  was 
recovered  at  Peking  in  1880  by  M.  Deveria,  who  pre- 
sented it  to  the  Jesuit  missionaries  of  southeast  Chih, 
measures  eighty-eight  by  fifty-one  inches.  Father 
Schall  appreciated  still  more  the  gift  of  a  new  house 
and  a  church  for  the  building  of  which  the  emperor 
gave  a  thousand  crowns.  This  was  the  first  pubhc 
church  opened  in  the  capital  since  the  coming  of  the 
missionaries;   it  was  dedicated  in  1650. 

Some  years  later  Shun-chi  gave  Father  Schall  and 
the  mi.ssion  a  still  greater  gift,  an  imperial  declaration 
praising  not  only  European  learning  but  also  the  law 
of  the  Lord  of  Heaven,  that  is  the  Chrisfian  religion, 
and  permitting  it  to  be  preacherl  and  adojited  every- 
where. This  declaration,  made  in  1657,  was  also 
engraved  in  Tatar  and  Chinese  on  a  large  marble 
plate  and  placed  before  the  church.  All  his  goodwill 
towards  Christianity  and  the  welcome  which  the 
young  monarch  acfX)rded  to  the  discreet  preaching  of 
Father  Schall,  had  inspired  the  latter  with  the  hope 
that  one  day  he  would  request  baptism,  but  Shun-chi 
dierl  (1662)  before  giving  him  this  joy,  aged  at  most 
twenty-four  years.  The  child  who  was  proclaimed 
his  successor  became  the  famous  K'ang-hi  and  favoured 
the  Christians  even  more  than  his  father,  but  during 
his  minority  the  government  was  in  the  hands  of  four 
regents  who  were  enemies  of  Christianity.  At  the 
denunciation  of  a  Mohammedan  self-styled  astron- 


omer, Yang-koang-sien,  Father  Schall  and  the  other 
missionaries  residing  at  Peking  were  loaded  with 
chains  and  thrown  into  prison  in  November,  1664. 
The.y  were  accused  of  high  treason  but  chiefly  of  the 
propagation  of  an  evil  rehgion. 

The  principal  charge  against  Father  Schall  was  that 
he  had  shown  to  the  deceased  emperor  images  of  the 
Passion  of  Jesus  Christ.  Brought  before  various 
tribunals  the  aged  missionary,  who  had  just  been 
stricken  with  paralysis,  could  only  reply  to  his  judges 
through  his  companion,  P'ather  Verbiest.  The  first 
complaint  against  him  was  that  he  had  secured  the 
presidency  of  the  Board  of  Mathematics  in  order  that 
he  might  use  the  authority  accruing  from  this  high 
office  for  the  propagation  of  the  Christian  Faith; 
Father  Verbiest  replied  for  him:  "John  Adam  took 
the  presidency  of  the  Board  of  Mathematics  because 
he  was  on  several  occasions  urged  to  do  so  by  the 
emperor.  On  a  stone  tablet,  erected  before  the 
church,  the  emperor  publicly  attested  that  he  raised 
John  Adam,  against  the  latter's  wishes,  to  that  dig- 
nity." Another  complaint  of  the  accuser — that 
Father  Schall  had  badly  determined  the  day  on  which 
a  little  imperial  prince  was  to  be  buried — was  set 
aside  by  the  regents  themselves  for,  on  investigation, 
they  found  that  the  priest  had  never  meddled  with  the 
determination  of  lucky  or  unlucky  days.  Finally,  on 
15  April,  1665,  sentence  of  death  was  passed  against 
Father  Schall;  he  was  condemned  to  be  cut  in  pieces 
and  to  be  beheaded.  Almost  immediately  afterwards 
a  violent  earthquake  was  felt  at  Peking,  a  thick  dark- 
ness covered  the  city,  a  meteor  of  strange  aspect 
appeared  in  the  heavens,  and  fire  reduced  to  ashes  the 
part  of  the  imperial  palace  where  the  sentence  was 
dehvered.  The  missionaries  as  well  as  the  Christians 
could  not  but  see  Divine  intervention  in  these  events, 
while  the  superstitious  Tatars  and  Chinese  were 
terrified.  In  consequence  the  death  sentence  was 
revoked  (2  May)  and  Father  Schall  was  authorized 
to  return  to  his  church  with  his  feUow  missionaries. 
The  venerable  old  man  survived  these  trials  a  year, 
dying  at  the  age  of  seventy-five,  having  consecrated 
forty-five  years  to  the  Chinese  missions.  Peace  was 
not  entirely  restored  to  the  Christian  communities 
until  1669,  when  the  young  emperor  assumed  the 
reigns  of  government.  One  of  K'ang-hi's  first  acts 
was  to  have  the  sentence  against  Father  Schall  de- 
clared void  and  iniquitous  by  the  Tribunal  of  Rites 
and  to  order  solemn  funeral  ceremonies  in  his  honour, 
the  prince  himself  composing  for  his  tomb  an  ex- 
tremely eulogistic  epitaph. 

Father  Schall  worthily  ended  as  a  confessor  for  the 
Faith,  almost  as  a  martyr,  a  long  life  filled  not  only 
with  great  services  to  religion,  but  also  marked  by 
every  virtue.  All  witnesses  testify  to  this,  and  we 
might  treat  with  contempt  an  infamous  accusation 
directed  against  his  memory  nearly  a  century  after 
his  death.  In  1758  was  published  for  the  first  time, 
and  afterwards  reissued  in  several  works  against  the 
Jesuits,  a  story  according  to  which  Father  Schall 
spent  his  last  years  "separated  from  the  other  mis- 
sionaries and  removed  from  obedience  to  his  superiors, 
in  the  house  given  him  by  the  emperor  with  a  woman 
whom  he  treated  as  his  wife  and  who  bore  him  two 
children;  finally,  having  led  a  pleasant  life  with  his 
family  for  .some  time,  he  ended  his  days  in  obscurity." 
This  is  reported  by  Marcel  Angelita,  secretary  to 
Mgr  de  Tournon  during  his  legation  in  China  (1705- 
1710),  who  died  at  Rome  in  1749.  The  narrative 
gives  no  inkling  of  the  source  of  this  strange  story. 
Its  value  may  readily  be  judged  by  the  manner  in 
which  it  contradicts  what  has  been  related  of  the  last 
days  of  Father  S(;hall  according  to  contemporaneous 
wit  nesses  and  even  official  Chinese  documents. 

Prior  U)  Angelita  no  one  ever  formulated  or  insin- 
uatecl  such  an  a(!CUsation  against  the  celebrated 
missionary.     If  what  it  presumes  were  true  it  could 


SCHANNAT 


523 


SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE 


not  have  been  concealed ;  Yang-koang-sien  and  other 
enemies  would  have  exploited  it.  In  particular 
Navarrete,  author  of  the  "Tratados  hist6ricos",  in 
which  are  collected  so  many  more  or  less  false  stories 
concerning  the  Jesuit  missionaries  (including  Father 
Schall),  could  not  have  failed  to  learn  of  this  during 
his  stay  at  Peking  in  1665  and  to  recount  it  at  length. 
At  any  rate  such  complete  disregard  of  the  duties  of 
a  priest  would  not  have  escaped  his  fellow-religious 
(of  whom  there  were  always  some  at  Peking),  and 
they  would  not  have  continued  to  honour  him,  as 
they  did,  to  the  end  as  one  of  their  most  venerable 
brethren.  These  reasons  and  others  which  could  be 
adduced  are  so  clear  that  there  is  not  the  slightest 
doubt  concerning  the  falseness  of  Angelita's  story. 
It  may  be  asked,  however,  how  the  latter,  whose 
calling  should  have  prevented  him  from  being  a 
calumniator  of  the  lowest  class,  could  invent  and  pub- 
lish such  a  villainous  tale.  The  fact  is  that  Schall's 
life  might  have  furnished  a  foundation  on  which 
Angelita's  imagination,  inflamed  against  the  Jesuits, 
worked  and  finally  reared  this  story,  but  it  furnished 
not  a  shadow  of  proof.  Several  contemporaries  of 
Father  Schall,  Jesuits  and  others,  including  Chinese, 
mention  the  name  of  a  Chinese  Christian,  a  servant  of 
Father  Schall's,  who  seems  to  have  made  use  of  the 
priest's  goodness  for  the  benefit  of  his  own  ambition. 
Puontsin-hia  (thus  was  he  called)  obtained  for  himself 
a  mandarinship  of  the  fifth  rank;  for  his  son  John  he 
secured  even  more,  for  Father  Schall  regularly  adopted 
him  as  his  grandson,  and  the  Emperor  Shun-chi  granted 
many  weighty  favours  to  this  "adopted  grandson" 
of  the  missionary  whom  he  loved.  Father  Clabiani 
in  a  relation  (written  between  1666  and  1667,  and 
published  in  1671)  states  that  the  "arrogance"  of 
this  upstart  "slave"  prejudiced  many  pensons  of  rank 
against  his  master.  Father  Schall  liimself,  when  at 
the  point  of  death  (21  July,  166.5),  made  a  public 
confession  to  his  brethren  of  his  "excessive  indul- 
gence towards  this  servant ,  of  the  scandal  he  had  caused 
in  adopting  as  his  grandson  the  son  of  Puon,"  finally 
of  irregular  gifts  made  to  both,  contrary  to  his  vow 
of  poverty.  The  avowal  of  these  human  weaknesses, 
doubtless  exaggerated  by  the  humility  of  the  dying 
missionary,  does  not  lessen  our  esteem  for  him.  Hence 
the  conclusion  may  be  drawn  that  the  source  of 
Angelita's  story  was  probably  this  fact  of  the  adop- 
tion of  the  son  of  Puon  by  Father  Schall.  But  this 
fact,  doubtless  learned  by  Tournon's  secretary  during 
his  stay  in  China,  forty  years  after  the  death  of 
Father  Schall,  luul  {)erhaps  been  distorted  when  it 
reached  him,  or  rather  his  prejudice  against  the  Jesuits 
caused  him  to  regard  it  as  something  (]uite  different 
from  what  it  implied  and  to  add  to  it  false  and  cal- 
umniating circumstances.  Finally  it  .should  be  added 
that  he  wrote  his  relation  many  years  after  his  return 
from  China,  when  his  mind  was  perhaps  enfeebled  by 
age  and  under  the  influence  of  a  more  passionately 
prejudiced  man  than  himself,  the  ex-Capuchin  Norbert. 

Db  Backek-Sommervooel,  Bibl.  des  ecrivains  de  la  C.  de  J., 
VII,  705-09;  Cordier,  BM.  Sinica,  II,  1093;  Hist,  relalio  de 
orlu  et  progressu  fidei  orthodox,  in  regno  Chinensi  per  missionarios 
Societatis  Jesu  ab  anno  1581  usque  ad  annum  1669,  novissime 
collecta  ex  Uteris  eorumdem  Patrum  Soc.  Jesu,  prcBcipue  R.  P. 
Joannis  Adami  Schall  Coloriensis  (Ratisbon,  1672) ;  Gabiani, 
Incrementa  Sinicce  Ecclesice  a  Tartaris  oppugnatce  (Vienna,  1673) ; 
KiRCHER,  China  illustrata  (Amsterdam,  1667),  104-15;  Bartoli, 
DeW  historia  della  C.  di  Giesu.  La  Cina,  III-IV  (Rome,  1603), 
542,  908,  953,  972,  1094;  [Schall],  Reposia  as  duvidas  que  a 
calendarionovo  Sinico  causou  nalgus  Padres,  Christaos  .  .  . 
commua  aos  Padres  da  missao  de  Pequin,  16  decemb.,  1648  (MS. 
of  the  Bibl.  Nationale,  Paris,  Fr.  9773) ;  Schall,  Rationes  quibus 
adductus  mathematici  tribunalis  curam  egit  Jo.  Adamus,  Pechini, 
10  novemb.,  1663  (MS.  Bibl.  Nat.  Paris,  Span.,  409,  f.  60); 
Relatio,  ex  Epistola  .  .  quam  P.  Fr.  Victorius  Ricci,  Vicarius 
Provincialis  Sinarum  [Fr.  Prcedic.],  .  .  .  transmisit;  Binondoc,  15 
Mail,  1666,  ed.  von  Murr  in  Journal  zur  Kunstgeschichte,  VII 
(Nuremberg,  1779),  252;  Monumenta  Sinica  cum  disquisitionibus 
criticis  pro  vera  apologia  Jesuitarum  (s.  1.,  1700),  221;  Duhr, 
Jesuiten-Fabeln  (3rd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1899),  226-30;  Idem  in 
Zeitschr.  fiir  kathol.  Theologie  (Innsbruck,  1901),  332;  Brucker 
in  Etudes  (5  .luly,  Paris,  1901),  88;  Huonder,  Deutsch.  Jesui- 
tenmissionndre   (Freiburg,  1899),   192;  private  documents,  etc. 

Joseph  Brucker. 


Schannat,  Johann  Fkiedkich,  German  historian, 
b.  at  Luxemburg,  23  July,  1683;  d.  at  Heidleberg,  6 
March,  1739.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Lou- 
vain  and  when  twenty-two  years  of  age  was  a  lawyer, 
but  before  long  he  turned  his  attention  exclusively  to 
history  and  became  a  priest.  The  Prince- Abbot  of 
Fulda  commissioned  Schannat  to  write  the  history  of 
the  abbey  and  appointed  him  historiographer  and  li- 
brarian. At  a  later  date  he  received  similar  commis- 
sions from  Franz  Georg  von  Schcmborn,  Archbishop 
of  Trier  and  Bishop  of  Worms.  In  1735  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Prague,  Count  Moriz  von  Manderscheid, 
sent  Schannat  to  Italy  to  collect  material  for  a  his- 
tory of  the  councils.  He  made  researches  with  es- 
pecial success  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan  and 
the  Vatican  Library  at  Rome.  His  chief  works  are: 
"Vmdemiffi  literaris"  (1723-24);  "Corpus  tradi- 
tionum  Fuldensium"  (1724);  "Fuldischer  Lehnhof" 
(1726);  "Dioecesis  Fuldensis"  (1727);  "Historia  Ful- 
densis"  (1729);  "Historia  episcopatus  Wormatien- 
sis"  (1734);  "Histoire  abreg^e  de  la  maison  Palatine" 
(1740).  More  important  than  all  these,  however,  is 
the  "Concilia  Germaniaj",  edited  from  material  left 
by  Schannat  and  continued  bv  the  Jesuit  Joseph 
Hartzheim  (11  fol.  vols.,  1759-90).  At  a  later  date 
the  "Eiflia  illustrata"  (1825-55)  was  also  published. 

La  Barre  de  Beaumarchais,  Eloge  historique  de  Vabbi 
Schannat  in  Schannat,  Histoire  abregee  de  la  maison  Palatine; 
Will  m  Hessenland,  V  (Cassel,  1891),  92-93,  102-105. 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Schaufelin,  Hans  Leonhard  (known  also  as 
Scheuffelin,  Schauffelein,  and  Scheyffelin),  a  German 
wood  engraver,  pujjil  of  DUrer,  b.  at  Nuremburg  in 
1490;  d.  there  in  1540.  His  best  work  was  executed 
as  an  engraver,  but  he  was  b(!sides  an  artist  of  some 
repute,  and  his  pictures,  to  be  studied  in  Nuremberg, 
Munich,  Cas.sel,  and  Ulm,  are  worthy  of  attention  and 
show  clearly  the  Diirer  influence  and  the  Diirer  sense 
of  beauty.  His  drawing  of  drapery  is  particularly 
good.  His  etchings  and  engravings  are  marked  with 
a  curious  rebus  on  his  name,  composed  of  his  initials 
joined  to  a  shovel.  He  was  the  aut  hor  of  the  illustra- 
tions to  the  "Theuerdank"  of  the  Emperor  Maximil- 
ian, and  prepared  two  important  engravings  for  Ul- 
rich  Pindter's  "Speculum  Pa.ssionis."  A  series  of  his 
paintings  in  Mimich  represent  scenes  in  connexion 
with  Christ  and  His  Mother,  and  the  only  fresco  which 
he  is  said  to  have  produced  is  in  Nordlingen,  a  city  of 
which  he  was  made  a  magistrate  in  1515  and  in  which 
he  attained  considerable  prominence. 

G.  C.  Williamson. 

Schaumburg-Lippe,  a  German  principality,  sur- 
rounded by  the  Prussian  province  of  Westphalia, 
Hanover,  and  an  exclave  of  the  Prussian  province 
of  Hesse-Nassau  (the  Pru.ssian  County  of  Schaum- 
burg).  Schaumburg-Lippe  has  an  area  of  about  131 
square  miles  and  (1910)  46,650  inhabitants.  As 
regards  population  it  is  the  smallest  state  of  the 
German  Confederation;  in  area  it  is  larger  than 
Reuss-Greitz,  Lubeck,  and  Bremen.  In  1905,  of 
44,992  inhabitants  43,888  were  Lutherans,  653 
Catholics,  and  246  Jews.  Thus  the  Catholics  are 
1-5  per  cent  of  the  population.  The  principality  of 
Schaumburg-Lippe  has  sprung  from  the  old  County 
of  Schaumburg,  in  early  days  also  called  Schauenburg, 
which  was  situated  on  the  middle  course  of  the  River 
Weser,  and  was  given  as  a  fief  by  the  German  Emperor 
Conrad  (1024-39)  to  Adolph  of  Santersleben.  Adolph 
built  the  castle  of  Schaumburg  on  the  Nettelberg, 
which  is  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Weser  Moun- 
tains, east  of  Rinteln.  The  descendants  of  Adolph 
of  Schaumburg,  among  other  possessions,  acquired 
the  County  of  Holstein  and  the  Duchy  of  Schles- 
wig  also. 

In  the  year  1619  the  Schaumburg  family  were  made 
counts  of  the  empire;  however,  soon  after  this,  in 


SCHAZLER 


524 


SCHAZLER 


1640,  the  male  line  became  extinct  by  the  death  of 
Count  Otto  V.  At  the  di^•ision  of  the  inheritance  the 
County  of  Schaumburg  went  to  the  mother  of  Otto 
V,  Elizabeth,  Countess  of  Lipi^e.  Elizabetli  gave  it 
to  her  brother  Count  Phihi)  of  Lippe,  the  younger 
brother  of  Count  Simon  MI.  ruier  of  the  County  of 
Lippe.  The  Margrave  of  Hesse-Ca^sel  and  the  Duke 
of  Brunsw-ick-Luneburg  also  laid  claim  to  parts  of 
the  old  County  of  Schaumburg.  and  an  adjustment 
was  made  which  was  confirmed  in  the  Treaty  of  West- 
phalia. On  account  of  this  agreement  the  county 
was  divided,  one  part  going  to  Hes.se-Cassel,  another 
to  Brunswick,  while  what  was  left,  including  the 
Barony  of  Biickeburg,  came  to  Count  Phihp  who 
now  called  himself  Count  of  Lippe-Biickeburg.  The 
first  one  of  his  descendants  to  call  himself  Count 
of  Schaumburg-Lippe  was  Count  Philip  Ernest  (d. 
17S7).  Thus  the  territory  of  the  present  principahty 
of  Schaumburg-Lippe  has  never  had  any  constitu- 
tional connexion  with  the  present  principahty  of  Lippe. 
The  two  countries  have  not  arisen  by  partition  of 
another  principahty. 

The  districts  of  the  old  County  of  Schaumburg 
that  fell  to  Hesse-Cassel,  among  which  were  the 
castle  and  the  district  of  Schaumburg,  became  Prus- 
sian territory'  when  the  Electorate  of  Hcsse-Cassel  was 
suppressed  (1866),  and  since  then  these  districts, 
under  the  name  of  the  government  district  of  Rinteln, 
have  formed  an  exclave  of  the  Prussian  pro\nnce  of 
Hesse-Xassau.  Since  1905  Rinteln  has  been  called 
the  Prussian  Countj^  of  Schaumburg.  George  Wil- 
liam of  Schaumburg-Lippe  (d.  1860)  joined  the  Con- 
fecleration  of  the  Rhine  in  1806,  and  received  the 
here(htani'  title  of  prince.  After  the  dissolution  of 
the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  he  joined  the  German 
Confederation  (1815).  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Prus- 
so-Austrian  War  (1866)  Prince  Adolph  George  (d. 
189:i)  at  first  agreed  to  the  demand  of  Austria  for  the 
mobilizing  of  the  forces  of  the  Confederation  against 
Prussia,  but  after  the  Prussian  victories  he  withdrew 
from  the  German  Confederation  and  joined  Prussia 
and  the  North  German  Confederation.  In  1871  the 
little  country  became  a  state  of  the  German  Empire. 
Prince  Adolph  (b.  1883)  succeeded  as  ruler  in  1911, 
in  which  year  he  was  still  unmarried.  At  the  time  of 
the  great  rehgious  revolt  of  the  .sixteenth  century  the 
territory  of  the  old  County  of  Schaumburg  belonged, 
in  ecclesiastical  matters,  to  the  Diocese  of  Minden 
(founded  by  Charlemagne  about  800) .  The  Reforma- 
tion was  introduced  into  the  countn,'  between  1560 
and  1570,  after  the  death  of  Adolph  III,  Archbishop 
of  Cologne  (d.  1556)  and  of  his  brother  Anthony  (d. 
1558j,  both  of  whom  belonged  to  the  Schaumburg 
dynasty.  The  reigning  Count  Otto  IV,  brother  of 
these  two,  was  won  o\er  to  the  new  doctrine  after  his 
marriage  with  Elizabeth  Ursula,  daughter  of  Duke 
Ernst  of  Brunswick-Luneburg  (called  the  ''Confes- 
Bf)r"  on  account  of  his  zealous  adherence  to  and  cham- 
pionship of  Protestantism). 

The  childless  Count  Ernst  (d.  1622)  was  succeeded 
by  a  Catholic  Count,  Jobst  Hermann,  who  also  died 
without  children  (1636).  Jobst,  indeed,  attempted  to 
bring  un  his  probable  successor,  the  later  Count  Otto 
V,  in  the  Catholic  Faith,  but  Otto's  mother,  Elizabeth, 
had  him  educated  in  the  Reformed  doctrines.  Upon 
the  death  of  Otto  V  the  male  heirs  of  the  Scliaumy)urg 
line  were  extinct.  What  remained  of  the  couni  ry  after 
the  partition,  the  present  principiility  of  Schaumburg- 
Lipfx;,  came  under  the.  House  of  Lippe,  wliich  had  also 
a'iopted  the  Reformed  teachings,  so  that  since  this 
era  the  ruler  of  the  country  and  his  family  have  been 
Protestants,  and  the  national  (Church  is  the  Lutheran. 
However,  the  ruler  of  the  country  has  by  law  supreme 
ecclesiastical  power  over  the  State  Church.  Parishes 
of  the  l{eforni<'(l  Church  were  formed  only  in  the  capi- 
tal, Biickeburg,  and  Stadthagen.  Catholic  services 
were  re-establishwi  at  Biickeburg  about  1720  for  a 
Catholic  countess  and  her  servants.     Originally  the 


Catholic  pastoral  care  was  exercised  from  Minden  by 
Franciscans  of  Bielefeld;  between  1840  and  1850  the 
mission  parish  of  Biickeburg  was  created,  to  whicli 
was  added  in  1S83  the  missicjn  parish  of  Stadthagen.  In 
consequence  of  the  country's  entrance  into  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine  the  few  Catholics  received 
equal  civil  rights  with  the  Protestants.  By  a  re- 
script of  3  July,  1809,  the  Sovereign  settled  the  rela- 
tions of  the  principality  to  the  Catholics,  and  granted 
Catholics  permi-ssion  to  hold  public  church  services. 
Since  1846  episcopal  jurisdiction  has  been  exercised 
by  the  Bishop  of  Osnabriick  in  his  capacity  as  Pro- 
vicar  of  the  Northern  Mission. 

The  political  status  of  the  Catholic  Church  was  re- 
vised by  the  State  law  of  18  March,  1911.  The  Catho- 
lic parishes  are  corporations  established  by  law  and 
are  compcsed  of  the  aggregate  of  all  the  Catholics  re- 
siding in  the  district.  Their  boundaries  are  fixed  by 
the  bishop  with  the  approval  of  the  ministiy  after  the 
opinions  of  the  interested  parties  have  been  consulted. 
The  ministry  exercises  the  State's  right  of  supreme 
supervision.  The  pastor  is  named  by  the  bishop, 
who  must,  however,  before  making  the  appointment, 
ascertain  that  the  ministry  has  no  objection  to  this 
cleric.  If  within  thirty  days  no  objection  be  raised 
against  the  candidate  the  acquiescence  of  the  ministry 
is  assumed.  Everj^  parish  is  bound  to  establish  and 
maintain  properly  the  buildings  necessary  for  worship, 
etc.  To  meet  these  obligations  everj^  self-supporting 
member  of  the  parish  who  has  resided  there  at  least 
three  months  is  bound  to  pay  the  church  tax.  The 
State  gives  nothing  for  Catholic  Church  purposes. 
The  necessary  expenses  are  met  bj'  the  bishop.  Orders 
and  congregations  are  not  allowed  in  the  country.  The 
primary  schools  are  all  Lutheran.  Religious  instruc- 
tion is  not  given  to  the  Catholic  minority  in  the 
public  primary  schools,  although  this  is  legally  per- 
missible. There  are  private  Catholic  primary  schools 
at  Biickeburg  and  Stadthagen;  these  do  not,  however, 
receive  any  aid  from  tlie  State  or  commune.  The 
Catholic  school  at  Biickeburg,  founded  1848,  num- 
bers (1911)  20  pupils;  the  one  in  Stadthagen,  founded 
1877,  numbers  (1911)  27  pupils. 

PiDERiT,  Gesch.  der  Grafschaft  Schaumburg  (Rinteln,  1831); 
Heidekamper,  Die  Schaumburg-Lippische  Kirche  (Biickeburg, 
1900),  Protestant;  Idem,  Schaumburg-Lippische  Kirchengesch. 
vom  dreissig-jahrigen  Krieg  bis  zur  Gegenwart  (Biickeburg,  1908), 
Protestant;  Damann,  Gcschichtliche Darstellung  der  Einfiihrung  der 
Reformation  in  Schaumburg-Lippe  (Biickeburg,  18.")2) ;  Freisen, 
Der  kath.  u.  proteslant.  P/arrzwang  (Paderborn,  1906),  174  sqq. 

Hermann  Sacher. 

Schazler,  Constantine,  Baron  von,  theolo- 
gian, b.  at  Ratisbon,  7  May,  1827;  d.  at  Interlaken, 
19  September,  1880.  By  birth  and  training  a  Prot- 
estant, he  was  a  pupil  at  the  Protestant  gymnasium 
St.  Anna  of  Ratis})on;  took  the  philo.sophical  course 
at  the  University  of  Erlangen  in  1844-45;  then 
studied  law  at  Munich,  1845-47,  and  at  Heidelberg, 
1847-48.  After  this  he  decided  to  enter  military  life 
and  became  a  Bavarian  officer;  in  1850,  however,  he 
left  the  army,  received  the;  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws 
at  Erlangen,  and  took  up  the  practice  of  law.  He 
entered  the  Catholic  Church  at  Brussels  on  10  Octo- 
ber, 18.50,  and  began  the  study  of  theology.  At  Lou- 
vain  in  1851  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus;  after 
completing  the  studies  he  was  ordained  priest  at  Liege 
on  1 1  .Sej)tcml)er,  1856;  in  1857  he  left  the  Society  and 
went  on  witli  his  studi(!S  at  Munich  where  in  1859  he 
look  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology.  In  1861  he 
became  a  tutor  in  the  seminary  at  Osnabriick;  in  1862 
prii'fildoznit  in  the  liistory  of  dogma  at  Freiburg;  in 
18()t)  arcliiei)iscoi)al  councillor.  During  the  \'atican 
Council  (1869-70)  he  was  at  Rome  as  theologian  to 
Bishop  Fessler;  in  1873  he  settled  at  Rome;  in  1874 
he  was  made  a  domestic  prelate  and  was  employed 
as  consultor  to  various  congregations.  Shortly  be- 
fore his  death  he  re-entered  the  Society  of  .Jesus. 
Schiizler's  acuteness  and  learning  made  him  one  of 


SCHEDEL 


525 


SCHEFFMACHER 


the  most  prominent  representatives  of  Thomism.  He 
was  the  author  of  the  following  works:  "  Die  Lehre  von 
der  Wirksamkeit  der  Sakramente  ex  opere  operato  in 
ihrer  Entwicklung  innerhalb  der  Scholastik  und  ihrer 
Bedeutung  fiir  die  christliche  Heilslehre  dargestellt" 
(Munich,  1860);  "Natur  und  Uebernatur.  Das 
Dogma  von  der  Gnade  und  die  theologische  Frage  der 
Gegenwart.  Eine  Ivritik  der  Kuhn'schen  Theologie" 
(Mainz,  1865);  "Neue  Untersuchungen  liber  das 
Dogma  von  der  Gnade  und  das  Wesen  des  christ- 
lichen  Glaubens"  (Mainz,  1867)  (these  last  two 
works  belong  to  the  controversy  that  Schazler  carried 
on  with  Johannes  von  Kuhn,  q.  v.);  "Das  Dogma 
von  der  Menschenwerdung  Gottes,  im  Geiste  hes  hi 
Thomas  dargestellt"  (Freiburg,  1870);  "Die  papst- 
liche  Unfehlbarkeit  aus  dem  Wesen  der  Kirche  be- 
wiesen.  Eine  Erklanmg  der  ersten  dogmatischen 
Constitution  des  vaticanischen  Conncils  iiber  die 
Kirche  Christi"  (Freiburg,  1870);  "  Divus  Thomas 
Doctor  angel  icus  contra  Liberalismum  invictus  veri- 
tatis  catholicse  assertor"  (Rome,  1874);  "Introduc- 
tio  in  s.  theologiam  dogmaticam  ad  mentem  D. 
Thomse  Aquinatis",  a  posthumous  work  ed.  by 
Thomas  Esser  (Ratisbon,  1882);  "Die  Bedeutung 
der  Dogmengeschichte  vom  katholischen  Stand- 
punkt  aus  erortert",  ed.  Thomas  Esser  (Ratisbon, 
1884). 

Bruck,  Geschichte  der  kathol.  Kirche  in  Deutschland  im  XIX. 
Jahrhundert,  III  (Mainz,  1896),  329-31;  Hurter,  Nomenclator, 
III  (1895),  1226 sq.;  Allgemeine  deulscheBiographie.  XXX,  649-51. 

Friedrich  Lauchert. 

Schedel,  Hartmann,  German  Humanist  and  his- 
torian, b.  at  Nuremberg,  13  February,  1440;  d.  there 
on  28  November,  1.514.  He  matriculated  at  Leipzig 
in  1456,  received  the  degree  of  baccalaureus  in  1457, 
and  of  magister  in  1460.  He  then  chose  jurisprudence 
as  his  professional  study,  but  at  the  same  time  zeal- 
ously pursued  humanistic  learning  under  Pieter 
Luder,  whom  he  followed  to  Padua  in  1463.  He  there 
took  up  the  study  of  medicine  in  which  he  obtained  a 
doctorate  in  1466.  In  1472  he  became  a  phy.sician  at 
Nordlingen;  in  1477,  at  Amberg;  in  1481,  at  Nurem- 
berg where  he  lived  until  his  death.  He  was  closely 
connected  with  scholars  and  artists  and  his  large  and 
varied  learning  exerted  a  stimulating  influence  upon 
other  students.  His  chief  work  is  a  chronicle  of  the 
world,  "Liber  chronicaruni",  which  contributed  much 
to  the  spread  of  historical  knowledge.  It  was  first 
published  in  1493  at  Nuremberg,  a  German  transla- 
tion by  Georg  Alt  a])i)earing  in  the  same  year.  The 
division  of  the  work  into  six  ages  and  the  point  of 
view  are  entirely  medieval.  The  work  is  a  compila- 
tion following  earlier  clironicles  clo.sely  and  generally, 
even  verbally;  it  depends  particularly  on  the  "Sup- 
plementum  chronicarum"  i.ssucd  at  Venice  in  1483  by 
Brother  .Jacobus  Philippus  Foresta  of  Bergamo.  The 
thoughtful,  conservative,  and  rigidly  orthodox  Sche- 
del does  not  often  express  his  own  opinion.  The  book 
owes  its  popularity  in  part  to  the  great  number  of  fine 
wood-cuts  executed  by  the  two  artists,  Michael  Wolge- 
muth  and  William  Pleydenwurff .  Schedel's  activity 
in  tracing  out,  collecting,  and  copying  MSS.  pro- 
duced results  of  much  value  even  to-day.  Many  an 
important  monument  has  been  preserved  only  in  his 
copy.  Special  mention  should  be  made  of  his  collec- 
tion of  inscriptions,  the  "Liber  antiquitatum",  com- 
pleted in  1504.  His  large  and  valuable  library 
containing  over  three  hundred  MSS.  and  several  hun- 
dred printed  books  came  into  the  possession  of  John 
Jacob  Fugger  in  1552,  and  was  afterwards  obtained  by 
Duke  Albert  V  of  Bavaria  (1550-1579)  for  the  ducal, 
now  royal,  library  at  Munich,  where  it  now  is. 

Will,  Nurnbergisches  Gelehrtenlexikon,  III  (Nuremberg,  1757), 
499-501;  Potthast,  Bihl.  hist.  ined.  wvi,  II  (2nd  ed.,  Berlin,  1896), 
1001;  Haitz,  Schedels  Weltchronik  (dissertation,  Munich,  1899); 
Sprengler,  Schedels  Weltchronik  (dissertation,  Munich,  1905) ; 
Stauber,  Die  Schedelsche  Bibliothek  (Munich,  1908). 

Klemens  Loffler. 


Scheeben,  Matthias  Joseph,  theological  writer  of 
acknowledged  merit,  b.  at  Meckenheim  near  Bonn,  1 
March,  1835;  d.  at  Cologne,  21  July,  1888.  He 
studied  at  the  Gregorian  University  at  Rome  under 
Passaglia  and  Perrone  (1852-59),  was  ordained  on 
18  Dec,  1858,  and  taught  dogmatic  theology  at  the 
episcopal  seminary  of  Cologne  (1860-1875).  Schee- 
ben was  a  mystic.  His  mind  revelled  in  speculating 
on  Divine  grace,  the  hypostatic  union,  the  beatific 
vision,  the  all-prevading  presence  of  God;  he  had  a 
firm  belief  in  visions  granted  to  himself  and  others, 
and  his  piety  was  all-absorbing.  Very  few  minds 
were  attuned  to  his;  his  pupils  were  overawed  by  the 
steady  flow  of  his  long  abstruse  sentences  which 
brought  scanty  light  to  their  intellects;  his  colleagues 
and  his  friends  but  rarely  disturbed  the  peace  of  the 
workroom  where  his  spirit  brooded  over  a  chaos  of 
literary  matters.  The  list  of  Scheeben's  works  opens 
with  three  treatises  dealing  with  grace:  (1)  "Natur 
und  gnade"  (Mainz,  1861);  (2)  a  new  edition  of 
"Quid  est  homo",  a  book  by  Ant.  Casini,  S.J.  (d. 
1755) ;  (3)  " Die  Herrlichkeiten  der  gottlichen  gnade" 
(Freiburg,  1863;  eighth  ed.  by  A.  M.  Weiss,  1908, 
also  translated  into  English) ;  (4)  "Mysterien  des  Chris- 
tenthums"  (Freiburg,  186.5-97);  (5-9)  five  pamphlets 
in  defence  of  the  Vatican  Council,  directed  against 
Dollinger,  Schulte,  and  other  Old  Catholics,  all  of 
sterling  value;  (10)  "Handbuchder  katholischen  Dog- 
matik"  (seven  parts,  Freiburg,  1873-87).  The  author 
did  not  finish  this  classic  work  of  permanent  value; 
he  died  whilst  working  on  "Grace".  The  failing 
treatises  were  supplied  in  German  by  Dr.  Atzberger 
(Freiburg,  1898),  in  English,  by  Wilhelm  and  Scannell, 
who,  whilst  strictly  adhering  to  Scheeben's  thought, 
reduced  the  bulky  work  to  two  h:mdy  volumes  en- 
titled: "A  Manual  of  Catholic  Theology  based  on 
Scheeben's  Dogmatik"  (3rd  ed.,  1906).  He  founded 
and  edited  (1867-88)  the  Cologne  "  Pastoralblatt", 
and  edited  for  thirteen  years  "Das  okumenische  Con- 
oil  vom  Jahre  1869",  later  (after  1872)  entitled, 
"Periodische  Blatter  zur  wissenschaftlichen  Bespre- 
chung  der  grossen  religiosen  Fragen  der  Gegenwart". 

Katholik,  II  (1888),  120-32;  Hertkens,  Prof.  Dr.  M.  J. 
Scheeben,  Leben  u.  Wirken  eines  kath.  Gelehrten  im  Dienste  d. 
Kirche  (Paderborn,  1892);    Hurter,  Nomenclator,  III. 

Joseph  Wilhelm. 

Scheffler,  Johannes.     See  A  ngelus  Silesius. 

SchefiEmacher,  John  James,  Jesuit  theologian, 
b.  at  Kientzheim,  Alsace,  27  April,  1668;  d.  at 
Strasburg,  18  August,  1733.  He  was  one  of  the  great- 
est theologians  of  his  time,  an  orator  of  i)ower  and  in- 
fluence and  the  author  of  valuable  works  on  con- 
troversy. By  his  preaching  and  writing,  he  laboured 
for  many  years  for  the  conversion  of  the  Lutherans 
and  brought  a  great  number  of  them  back  to  the 
Church.  In  1715  while  teaching  theology  in  the 
Catholic  University  of  Strasburg,  he  was  api)ointed 
to  the  chair  of  Apologetics,  founded  in  the  cathedral 
of  that  city  by  Louis  XIV;  he  was  rector  of  the  uni- 
versity (1728-31).  His  best-known  writings  are 
in  the  form  of  letters,  setting  forth  with  clear,  solid 
arguments  those  points  of  Catholic  doctrine  which 
long  experience  had  taught  him  presented  the  great- 
est difficulties  to  Protestants.  These  letters  have 
been  collected  in  two  separate  volumes  and  published 
under  the  titles:  "Lettres  d'un  Docteur  Allemand", 
14th  ed.  (Strasburg,  1789);  "Lettres  d'un  Theolo- 
gien",  13th  ed.  (Strasburg,  1750).  Another  well- 
known  work  of  the  author  is  "Controverskatechis- 
mus"  (Cologne,  1723)  which  was  later  published  under 
the  title,  "Licht  in  den  Finsternissen".  The  oldest 
known  French  edition  of  this  work  entitled  "Cat6- 
chisme  de  Controverse"  is  dated  Strasburg,  1751, 
though  it  is  not  certain  whether  the  book  was  orig- 
inally published  in  French  or  in  German.  There 
is  an  English  translation  entitled,  "A  Controversial 


SCHEINER 


526 


SCHELSTRATE 


Catechism"    (Baltimore).     A   new    German   edition 
was  published  at  Strasbm-g  in  1892. 

HcBTER.  Xomencl.  lit.,  V  (Innsbruck,  1S95),  3;  Sommervogel, 
Bibliotheque  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus,  V,  VII  (Paris,  1S96),  727. 

F.  X.  Delany. 

Scheiner,  Christopher,  German  astronomer,  b. 
at  Wald,  near  Mindelheim,  in  Swabia,  25  July,  1575; 
d.  at  Xiesse,  in  Silesia,  18  Jul}-,  1650.  He  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  1595,  and  after  studying  math- 
ematics at  Ingoldstadt,  became  professor  in  that 
branch  at  Dillingen.  In  1610  he  was  recalled  to 
Ingoldstadt,  where  he  taught  Hebrew  and  math- 
ematics with  great  success  and  became  actively  en- 
gaged in  scientific  research.  He  had  already  invented 
his  well-known  pantograph  or  copj'ing  instrument, 
and  he  now  constructed  a  telescope,  with  which,  aided 
by  one  of  his  students,  he  began  to  observe  the  sun.  He 
made  use  of  a  helioscope  composed  of  coloured  glasses 
in  the  beginning,  but  afterwards  conceived  the  idea 
of  projecting  the  sun's  image  on  a  screen  in  order  to 
study  its  surface.  Kepler  had  independently  sug- 
gested the  method,  but  Scheiner  was  the  first  to  apply 
it  in  practice.  It  was  thus  that  in  March,  1611,  he 
discovered  the  existence  of  sun-spots,  a  phenomenon 
so  contrarj'  to  the  philosophical  notions  of  the  time 
that  his  superiors  did  not  wish  him  to  publish  it  under 
his  own  name  for  fear  of  ridicule.  He  therefore  com- 
municated the  discovery  to  his  friend  Welser  in 
Augsburg,  who,  in  1612,  published  his  letters  under 
an  assumed  name.  In  subsequent  letters  he  described 
the  rotation  of  the  spots  and  the  appearance  of  the 
jacalce.  In  the  meantime  Gahleo  claimed  to  have 
observed  the  spots  before  him.  This  led  to  further 
correspondence  and  a  long  dispute  followed  regarding 
the  priority  of  discovery.  It  appears,  however,  that 
they  were  first  noticed  by  Fabricius  shortly  before 
either,  and  although  Gahleo  may  have  observed  them 
before  Scheiner,  the  latter  made  his  discovery  quite 
independently  and  also  published  it  before  him. 
Schoiner's  special  claim,  that  he  was  the  first  to  make 
continuous  observations  of  scientific  value,  cannot  be 
disputed.  Apart  from  his  letters,  he  continued  his 
systematic  study  of  the  sun  for  nearly  sixteen  years 
before  beginning  the  pubhcation  of  his  great  work, 
the  "Rosa  Ursina"  (Bracciani,  1626-30).  This  is  a 
standard  treatise  on  the  subject  and  besides  his 
numerous  observations,  contains  a  detailed  account 
of  his  methods  and  apparatus.  One  of  his  most 
valuable  results  was  also  his  determination  of  the 
rotational  elements  of  the  sun.  In  1616  the  Arch- 
duke Maximihan  of  Tyrol,  attracted  by  his  growing 
fame,  inxnted  him  to  Innsbruck,  where,  besides  carry- 
ing on  his  astronomical  researches,  he  made  important 
studies  on  the  eye,  showing  that  the  retina  is  the  seat 
of  vi.sion.  He  likewise  devised  the  optical  experiment 
which  bears  his  name.  He  became  rector  of  the  new 
college  of  his  order  at  Neisse  in  1623,  and  later  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Rome.  His  last  years, 
devoted  to  study  and  to  the  ministry,  were  spent  at 
Nei.sse.  Scheiner  was  one  of  the  leading  astronomers 
of  his  time,  and  poss(?s.sed  to  an  uncommon  degree 
the  true  scientific  spirit.  Though  not  endowed  with 
the  deep  insight  into  the  truths  of  nature  of  his  great 
contemporary  Galileo,  he  was  nevertheless  ingenious 
in  devising  methods  and  a  skilled  and  painstaking 
observer.  He  insisU;d  particularly  on  the  netsd  of 
accurate  data  as  a  basis  for  subsequent  theory.  He 
desf^rves  the  title  of  "pioneer  "  in  the  study  of  sun-spots. 
He  wrote  "Tres  epistulic  de  maculis  solaribus" 
(Augsburg,  1612);  "De  maculis  solaribus  et  stellis 
circa  Jovem  errantibus  accuratior  Disouisitio"  (Augs- 
burg, 1612);  "  Refra/;tiones  ca-lestes  (Ingoldstadt, 
1617j,  in  which  he  first  called  attention  to  the  ellip- 
tical form  of  the  sun  when  near  the  horizon  and 
attribut<;d  the  phenomenon  to  refraction;  "Oculus 
h.  e.  Fundamentum  opticum"  (Innsbruck,  1619); 
"Pantograph ice  seu  ars  delineandi"  (Rome,  1631). 


Braunmuhl,  Christoph  Scheiner  ah  Malhemalicer  physiker 
u.  Astronom.  (Bamberg,  1891);  Sommervogel,  Biblioth.  de 
la  C.  de  J..  VII  (Paris,  1896),  734;  Wolf,  Gesch.  d.  VAstTonomie 
(Munich,  1887),  319;  Del.4Mbre,  Hist,  de  I'Astronomie  Moderne, 
I  (Paris,  1821),  081;  Schreiber.  Nalur  u.  Offenbarung,  V, 
XXXXVIII,   1  sqq. 

H.  M.  Brock. 

Schelble,  Johann  Nepomuk,  musician,  b.  16 
May,  1789,  at  Hiiffingen  in  the  Black  Forest;  d.  there 
6  Aug.,  1837.  At  the  age  of  18  he  obtained  a  position 
as  court  and  opera  singer  at  Stuttgart,  and  having 
there  begun  the  study  of  composition,  he  wrote  an 
opera  ("Graf  Adalbert")  and  other  smaller  pieces 
for  voices  or  instruments;  there  too  he  was  appointed 
teacher  at  the  musical  school  of  the  city.  Seven  years 
later  (1814),  in  order  to  perfect  himself  in  his  art,  he 
went  to  Vienna,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Beethoven.  Among  other  of  his  compositions  during 
his  stay  at  the  capital  of  Austria,  a  Missa  Solemnis 
for  four  voices  and  orchestra  deserves  special  mention. 
Upon  his  arrival  in  Berlin  in  1818,  Clemens  Brentano, 
with  whom  he  had  formed  a  friendship,  procured  him 
a  place  as  first  tenor  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  In 
this  city  he  remained  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  and  there 
founded  the  Society  of  St.  Cecilia,  which  during  the 
last  hundred  years  has  done  much  for  the  populariza- 
tion of  classical  music  among  the  citizens  of  this 
town.  He  began  by  giving  a  weekly  musical  enter- 
tainment in  his  own  house;  and  so  great  was  the 
success  of  these  meetings  that  before  long  he  was  able 
to  give  them  a  permanent  form  under  the  title 
Cdcilienverein.  Its  members  steadily  increased  in 
numbers:  in  1818  he  began  with  21  members;  in  a 
few  years  there  were  a  hundred.  The  first  concert 
given  was  the  "Magical  Flute"  of  Mozart;  soon 
followed  the  best  works  of  Handel,  Mozart,  Haydn, 
and  Beethoven,  and  after  1828  those  of  Bach,  not 
neglecting  the  older  masters,  such  as  Palestrina, 
Pergolesi,  etc.  In  1836  his  health  became  impaired, 
and  he  returned  to  his  native  country  to  recruit;  but 
in  vain.  The  following  year  he  died.  During  his 
absence  Felix  Mendelssohn  took  his  place  as  director 
of  the  society.  So  deep  and  sincere  was  Mendels- 
sohn's affection  for  him,  that  at  the  death  of  his 
(Mendelssohn's)  father,  he  wrote  to  Schelble:  "You 
are  the  only  friend  who  after  such  a  loss  can  fill  the 
place  of  my  father".  Nor  were  these  the  sentiments 
of  Mendelssohn  alone,  but  all  those  who  knew  him 
attest  that,  in  loftiness  of  character  and  nobility 
of  temperament,  he  shone  forth  as  an  artist  and  a  man 
in  the  ideal  sense  of  the  word. 

Weismann,  Johann  Nepomuk  Schelble  (Frankfurt,  1838); 
Festfeier  des  C&cillien-Vereina  zu  Frankfurt  hei  Gelegenheit  seines 
SO  Jahrigen  Jubil&ums,  1868;  Frankfurter  Familienblatter,  7 
Feb.,  18()8;   Brie/e  von  Felix  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  II,  121-133. 

A.  Walter. 
Schelfhaut,  Philip.     See  Roseau,  Diocese  of. 

Schelstrate,  Em.manuel,  theologian,  b.  at  Ant- 
werp, 1649;  d.  at  Rome,  6  April,  1692.  While  he 
wiis  a  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Antwerp,  he  was 
called  to  Rome  by  Innocent  IX  and  made  an  assis- 
tant librarian  of  the  Vatican  Library. 

He  was  a  fine  scholar  in  early  ecclesiastical  history 
and  became  the  accredited  defender  of  the  papal 
supremacy.  For  this  reason  his  writings  have  often 
been  very  severely  judged.  His  "Antiquitas  illus- 
trata  circa  concilia  generalia  et  provincialia"  (Ant- 
werp, 1678)  contains  decrees  of  the  pojx's  and  vari- 
ous matters  of  Church  hi.story;  in  it  he  atfuckcd  the 
errors  of  Launoy  in  regard  to  the  primacy  of  Rome. 
Schclstrate  was  only  able  to  issue  two  volumes  of  a 
second  edition  which  he  had  planned  on  a  large  scale 
(1()92  and  1697).  He  carried  on  controversies  with 
Arnauld  and  Louis  Maimbourg  concerning  the  author- 
ity of  the  general  councils  and  of  the  popes;  he  op- 
posed the  declaration  of  the  Gallican  clergy  in  1682, 
and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  origin  of  the  Anglican 
Church  in  a  controversy  with  Edward  Stillingfleet, 


SCHENKL 


527 


SCHERER 


Dean   of   St.    Paul's,    London.     He   also   published 
numerous  other  works. 

HuRTER,  Nomenclalor,  IV  (Innsbruck,  1910),  550. 

R.  Maere. 

Schenkl,  Matjrus  von,  a  Benedictine  theologian 
and  canonist,  b.  at  Auerbach  in  Bavaria,  4  January, 
1749;  d.  at  Amberg,  14  June,  1816.  After  studying 
the  humanities  at  the  Jesuit  college  in  Amberg  (1760- 
1765),  he  entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Priifen- 
ing  (Priefling)  near  Ratisbon,  took  vows  on  2  Oct., 
1768,  and  was  ordained  priest  on  27  Sept.,  1772.  From 
1772-7  he  held  various  offices  at  his  monastery;  in 
1777  he  was  at  first  oeconomus  at  Puch,  then  pastor  at 
Gelgenbach;  from  1778-83  he  taught  dogmatic,  moral 
and  pastoral  theology  and  canon  law  at  the  Benedic- 
tine monastery  of  Weltenburg;  in  1783  he  became 
librarian  at  Prufening  where  he  at  the  same  time 
taught  canon  law  till  1785,  then  moral  theology  till 
1790,  when  with  his  abbot's  consent  he  accepted  a 
position  as  professor  of  canon  law,  moral,  and  pastoral 
theology  at  the  lyceum  of  Amberg.  With  his  pro- 
fessorial duties  was  connected  the  regency  of  the 
seminary  and,  after  declining  an  offer  to  succeed  his 
confrere,  Bede  Aschenbrenner,  as  professor  of  canon 
law  at  the  University  of  Ingolstadt  in  1793;  he  was 
also  appointed  rector  of  the  school  at  Amberg  in  1794. 
Upon  his  urgent  request  he  was  relieved  of  the  rector- 
ship in  1798  and,  after  refusing  another  offer  as  pro- 
fessor of  canon  law  at  Aschaffenburg  in  1804;  he  was 
honoured  with  the  title  of  spiritual  councillor  of  the 
king.  Owing  to  ill-health  he  resigned  the  regency  of 
the  seminary  and  after  1808  he  taught  only  canon  law 
and  pastoral  theologj'.  He  was  highly  esteemed  as  a 
theologian  and  canonist,  and  his  works  were  used  as 
texts  in  many  institutions  of  Germany  and  Austria. 
His  chief  works  are  (1)  "Juris  ecclesiastici  statu 
Germania;  maxime  et  Bavariie  adcommodati  sj^n- 
tagma"  (Ratisbon,  1785).  When  interpolated  edi- 
tions of  this  work  were  published  (Cologne,  1787,  and 
Bonn,  1789),  he  re-edited  it  under  the  title  "Institu- 
tiones  juris  eccl.  etc."  (2  vols.,  Ingolstadt,  1790-1), 
but  it  was  again  reprinted  without  his  consent  (Bonn, 
1793,  and  Cologne,  1794).  The  latest  (Uth)  edition 
was  prepared  by  Engelmann  (Ratisbon,  1853).  (2) 
"Ethica  Christiana  universalis"  (3  vols.,  Ingolstadt, 
1800-1,  5th  ed..  Gran,  1830).  (3)  "Theologiaj  pasto- 
ralis  systema"  (Ingolstadt,  1815-25). 

Lindner,  Die  Schriftsteller  des  Benediktiner-Ordens  in  Bayern, 
1750-1780,  I,  (RatLsbon,  1880).  250-2;  Heldmann,  Memorii 
Mauri  de  Schenkl  (Ratisbon,  1832);    Felder.  Gelehrten-Lexikon 

II.  277-282.  Michael  Ott. 

Schenute  (Schenudi,  Schnudi,  Sinuthius),  a 
Coptic  abbot.  The  years  332-33-34  and  350  are 
mentioned  as  the  date  of  his  birth,  and  the  years  451-52 
and  466  as  the  date  of  his  death,  all  authors  agreeing 
that  he  lived  about  118  years.  He  was  born  at  Schena- 
lolet  in  the  district  of  Akhim,  and  died  in  his  monas- 
tery, which  still  exists  under  the  name  of  Deir-el-Abiad 
(White  Monastery),  near  the  ruins  of  the  village 
of  Atripe.  In  371,  he  became  a  monk  at  this  large 
double  monastery,  which  was  then  ruled  by  his  uncle 
Bgol,  whom  he  succeeded  as  abbot  in  388.  St.  Cyril 
of  Alexandria,  whom  he  accompanied  to  the  Council  of 
Ephesus  in  431,  appointed  him  archimandrite  during 
that  council.  The  Copts  honour  him  as  a  saint  and 
as  the  Father  of  the  Coptic  Church. 

The  monastic  rule  of  Pachomius  underwent  various 
modifications  and  was  made  more  severe  under  the 
abbacy  of  Bgol  and  Schenute.  Perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant modification  was  the  introduction  of  vows  into 
the  monastic  life.  Each  monk  made  a  solemn  profes- 
sion in  the  church,  that  he  would  faithfully  observe 
the  rule  of  the  monastery.  The  formula  of  this  vow, 
as  prescribed  by  Schenute,  was  published  by  Leipoldt 
(loc.  cit.  below,  p.  107),  and  by  Leclercq  in  "Diet. 
d'Archeologie  chr^t."  s.  v.  Cenobitisme.  It  is  as  fol- 
lows: "Ivow  [bixo\o')(etv\  beforeGodin  His  holy  place  as 


the  word  of  my  tongue  is  my  witness:  I  shall  never 
sully  my  body  in  any  way;  I  shall  not  steal;  I  shall  not 
take  false  oaths;  I  shall  not  he;  I  shall  not  do  evil 
secretly.  If  I  transgress  what  I  have  sworn  {bixo\oydv] 
I  shall  not  enter  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  for  I  know 
that  God  before  whom  I  pronounce  the  formula  of  this 
pledge  [^Lad-qK-n]  will  thrust  rae  body  and  soul  into  hell- 
fire,  for  I  shall  have  trangressed  the  formula  of  the 
pledge  [SLad-nKti]  which  I  have  pronounced"  (op.  cit.). 
It  is  the  first  monastic  vow  of  which  we  have  any 
knowledge.  Another  modification  of  the  rule  of  Pa- 
chomius was  a  combination  of  the  cenobitic  with  the 
anchoretic  life.  Schenute  was  the  most  influential 
monastic  head  and  perhaps  the  most  powerful  man  in 
Egypt  during  his  time.  Besa,  his  biographer  and  suc- 
ces.sor  as  Abbot  of  Atripe,  states  that  at  one  time  he 
ruled  over  2200  monks  and  1800  nuns.  But  Schenute 
was  too  self-conscious,  passionate,  and  tyrannical,  his 
rule  too  severe,  and  his  enforcement  of  it  too  violent, 
to  make  his  influence  wholesome  and  lasting.  Out- 
side of  Egypt  he  remained  unknown;  neither  Latin  nor 
Greek  writers  make  any  mention  of  him.  Philosophy 
he  considered  useless,  and  his  whole  knowledge  of 
theology  consisted  in  the  repetition  of  the  current  ec- 
clesiastical formulas.  Extremely  austere  with  him- 
self, he  required  the  same  austerity  of  his  disciples, 
and  rigidly  enforced  an  absolute  submission  to  his  au- 
thority. His  literary  works,  writteij  in  the  Sahidic 
language,  consist  chiefly  of  letters  to  monks  and  nuns, 
spiritual  exhortations,  and  some  very  forcible  ser- 
rnons.  They  are  being  edited  with  a  Latin  transla- 
tion by  Leipoldt,  in  "Corpus  Scriptorum Christiano- 
rum  Orientalium"  (Paris,  1906)  and,  with  a  French 
translation,  by  Am(51ineau  in  the  same  pubHcation 
(Paris,  1907-.) 

His  life,  written  in  Sahidic  by  Beta,  his  disciple  and  successor, 
has  been  transmitted  in  the  Sahidic,  Bohairic,  Arabic,  and 
Syrian  versions,  and  was  edited  by  Leipoldt,  joc.  cit.  above. 
See  also  Leipoldt,  Schenute  von  Atripe  und  die  Enlstehung  des 
nationnl-mqyplischen  Chrislentums  in  Textc  und  Untersuchungen, 
new  series,  X,  I  (Paris,  1903) ;  Am^lineau,  Les  moines  igyptiens: 
Vie  de  Schnoudi  (Paris,  1889);  Ladeuzf.,  Etude  sur  le  cenobitisme 
Pakhomien  (Louvain,  1898),  passim;  Revilloitt,  Les  origines  du 
schisme  igyptien,  Senuli  le  Prophele  in  Revue  de  I'histoire  des  re- 
ligions, VIII  (Paris,  18S3),  401-468;  545-.58] ;  Leclercq  in  Diet. 
d'Archeologie  Chret.  (Paris,  1910),  s.  v.  Cenobitisme;  Bibliotheca 
Ilagiographica  Orientaiis  (Brussels,  1910),  235-7;  Bethone- 
Baker,  The  date  of  the  death  of  Nestorius,  Schenute,  Zacharias, 
Evagrius,  in  Journal  of  Theological  Studies,  IX  (London,  1908), 

601-05.  Michael  Ott. 

Scherer,  Georg,  pulpit  orator  and  controversial- 
ist, b.  at  Schwaz,  in  the  Tyrol,  1540,  according  to 
Duhr;  d.  at  Linz,  30  Nov.,  1605;  entered  the  Society 
of  Jesus  in  1559.  Even  before  his  ordination  he 
was  famed  for  his  preaching  powers.  For  over  forty 
years  he  laboured  in  the  Archduchy  of  Austria.  To 
Scherer,  in  part,  it  owes  the  retention  of  the  Faith. 
In  1577  he  was  Court  preacher  to  the  Archduke 
Matthias;  he  retained  the  post  until  1600.  In  1590 
he  was  appointed  Rector  of  the  Jesuit  College  at 
Vienna;  the  sternness  of  his  character  scarcely  fitted 
him  for  the  office,  and  he  was  transferred  (1694)  to 
Linz.  He  died  of  apoplexy.  The  story  of  his  being 
struck  blind  in  the  pulpit,  after  having  exclaimed: 
"If  the  Catholic  Church  is  not  the  True  Church,  may 
I  become  blind,"  is  a  pure  invention  (cf.  Guilhermy). 

Scherer  was  a  man  of  boundless  energy  and  rugged 
strength  of  character,  a  strenuous  controversialist,  a 
genuinely  popular  orator  and  wTiter.  He  vigorously 
opposed  the  Tubingen  professors  who  meditated  a 
union  with  the  Greek  Schismatics,  refuted  Lutheran 
divines  like  Osiander  and  Heerbrand,  and  roused  his 
countrymen  against  the  Turks.  Believing  like  his 
contemporaries  that  the  State  had  the  right  to  put 
witches  to  death,  he  maintained,  however,  that  since 
they  were  possessed,  the  principal  weapons  used 
against  them  should  be  spiritual  ones,  c.  g.  exorcisms, 
prayer.  Scherer's  severe  attitude  towards  witchcraft 
did  not  meet  the  approval  of  his  general,  Acquaviva. 
His  eloquence  and  zeal  made  many  converts,  amongst 


SCHERER 


528 


SCHINNER 


them  the  future  Cardinal  Khlesl.  His  works  were 
collected  and  published  bj'  the  Premonstratensians  of 
Bruck,  Moravia  (1599-1600),  and  again  issued  at  Mu- 
nich (1613-1614).  Noteworthy  are  his  "29  Predigten 
von  Notis,  Merkund  Kennzeichen  der  wahren  und 
falschen  Kirchen." 

SocHER,  Historia  Protinciae  AustricB  S.J.  (Vienna,  1740); 
ScHMiDL,  Historia  Protincue  Bohemice,  t.  II,  (Prague,  1747); 
Stoger,  Scriptores  Provincics  Austrice  (Vienna,  1856);  Raess, 
Die  Koniertiten,  II  (Freiburg,  1866);  Hurter,  Nomenclator  Lit- 
terarius.  III,  3rd  ed.;  de  Guilhermy,  Menologe  de  la  C.  de  J., 
AssUtance  de  Germanie,  I  ser.,  2nd  pt.  (Paris,  1898);  Janssen, 
Geschichle  des  deutschen  Volkes,  tr.  VII,  160;  IX,  119,  121,  36.3, 
379;  X,  32,  36,  19S,  202,  205,  332,  350;  XII,  261,  336,  384;  XIV, 
334,  452,  455,  463,  483;  XV,  42,  290,  418;  XVI,  281,  463; 
SoMMERVOGEL,  Bibl.  de  la  C.  de  J.,  VII;  Schwickerath,  Severe 
attitude  of  the  Jef:uils  in  the  triah  for  witchcraft  in  -4m.  Calh. 
Quarterly  Review.  XXVII  (Philadelphia,  1902);  Duhr,  Geschichte 
der  Jesuiten  in  dtn  Ldndern  detUscher  Zunge  im  X  VI.  Jahrhundert 
(Freiburg  im  Br.,  1907);  Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach,  XXXI,  p. 
556;  XLVIII,  p.  153;  Duhr  in  Zeitschrift  fur  kath.  TheoL,  XII. 

John  C.  Reville. 

Scherer-Boccard,  Theodore,  Count  von,  a  Swiss 
Catholic  journalist  and  politician;  b.  at  Dornach  in 
the  canton  of  Solothurn,  12  May,  1816;  d.  at  So- 
lothurn,  6  Feb.,  1885.  Theodore  Scherer  belonged 
to  a  distinguished  family  of  the  City  of  Solothurn. 
He  attended  the  gymnasium  of  this  city,  took  the 
philosophical  course  at  the  lyceum  of  the  same  place, 
and  then  studied  law  at  the  Athenaum  conducted  by 
the  Jesuits  at  Fribourg  in  Switzerland.  After  this  he 
returned  to  Solothurn  and  devoted  himself  to  journal- 
ism, founding  the  newspaper  "Die  Schildwache  am 
Jura"  (1836-41),  in  which  he  defended  the  freedom 
of  the  Church  and  the  rights  of  the  people.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  he  established  in  1839  a  bureau  of  corre- 
spondence with  conservative  tendencies.  From  1838 
he  was  also  a  member  of  the  great  council  of  the  can- 
ton. His  political  activity  in  this  body  brought  him 
into  conflict  with  the  Government  and  obliged  him  in 
1841  to  live  abroad  for  some  time  in  Alsace  and  Paris. 
At  the  close  of  1841  he  was  called  to  Lucerne  where  he 
founded  and  edited  the  "Staatszeitung  der  katho- 
lischen  Schweiz",  which  became  the  chief  organ  of  the 
Catholic-Conservative  party.  In  1843  he  returned  to 
Solothurn  and  served  out  a  term  of  imprisonment  to 
which  he  had  been  condemned  on  account  of  the 
events  of  1841.  In  1845  he  was  made  secretary  to 
Magistrate  Siegwart-Miiller  of  Lucerne,  who  was  the 
president  of  the  Sonderbund.  Scherer  himself  had  a 
share  also  in  the  founding  of  the  Sonderbund.  After 
the  unfortunate  ending  of  the  war  of  the  Sonderbund 
he  returned  to  private  life  at  Solothurn,  where  he  de- 
voted him.self  to  labours  on  behalf  of  Catholic  inter- 
ests and  of  social  subjects.  He  did  much  journalistic 
work,  being  a  contributor  to  numerous  Catholic  jour- 
nals of  Switzerland  and  Germany.  During  a  visit 
to  Rome  in  1852  he  was  made  a  Roman  count  by 
Pius  IX.  From  1855  he  lived  in  the  small  castle 
of  Htinenberg  near  Lucerne.  In  1868  he  married 
Marie  Louise  von  Boccard,  and  after  that  used  the 
double  name  Scherer-Boccard.  In  1844  Scherer 
founded  the  Aca/iemy  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  an 
a.s.sociation  of  the  Catholic  scholars  of  Switzerland, 
and  edited  as  the  organ  of  the  association  a  journal 
called  "Katholische  Annalen"  (Lucerne,  1847);  the 
war  of  the  "Sonderbund"  put  an  end  to  this  periodical 
and  to  the  academy  also.  In  1857  he  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Swiss  Pius  Association  (PiiLsverein), 
and  from  the  time  the  society  was  established  until  his 
death  he  was  the  president  of  the  central  organiza- 
tion ;  he  was  also  the  head  of  the  Society  for  Home 
Missions,  founded  in  1863.  He  wa.  in  touch  with  the 
<''af  holies  of  Germany  and  spoke  repeatedly  at  the 
Gf-rman-Catholic  cfjngresses. 

Scherer-Boccard  issued  thirty-five  separate  pub- 
lications, large  and  small,  containing  apologetic, 
biogr;iphical,  or  historical  matter.  The  most  note- 
worthy of  these  are:  "Revolution  und  Restauration 
der    Staatswissenschaft"    (Augsburg    and    Lucerne, 


1842,  2nd  ed.,  1845) ;  "  Die  funfzehnjahrige  Fehde  der 
Revolution  gegen  die  katholische  Schweiz  1830-45" 
(Lucerne,  1846);  "Das  Verhaltniss  zwischen  Kirche 
und  Staat"  (Ratisbon,  1846,  2nd  ed.,  1854);  "Die 
Reformbewegung  unserer  Zeit  und  das  Christen- 
thum"  (Augsburg,  1848);  "Der  heilige  Vater.  Be- 
trachtungen  liber  die  Mission  und  die  Verdienste  des 
Papstthums"  (Munich,  1850),  French  tr.,  "Le  Saint- 
Pere.  Considerations  sur  la  mission  et  les  merit  es  de 
la  Papaut^"  (Paris,  1853);  "Heidenthum  und  Chris- 
tenthum  betrachtet  in  den  Monumenten  des  alten 
und  neuen  Roms"  (Schaffhausen,  1853,  2nd  ed., 
1880)  "  Lebensbilder  aus  der  Gesellschaft  Jesu.  Ein 
Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  der  katholischen  Restaura- 
tion" (Schaffhausen,  1854).  He  was  also  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  "Archiv  fiir  schweizerische  Reforma- 
tionsgeschichte"  (3  vols.,  Fribourg.  1869-75). 

Mayer,  Graf  Theodor  Scherer-Boccard.  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Ge- 
schichte der  katholischen  Bewegung  in  der  Schweiz  (Einsiedeln, 
1900),  with  portrait.  FrIEDRICH    LaUCHERT, 

Schiavone  (Schiaon),  Andrea.  See  Meduli<5, 
Andreas. 

Schinner,  Augustin  Francis.  See  Superior, 
Diocese  of. 

Schinner,  Matth^us,  bishop,  cardinal,  and 
statesman,  b.  at  Miihlbach  in  the  Canton  of  Valais, 
Switzerland,  about  1470;  d.  of  the  plague  at  Rome, 
1  October,  1522.  He  was  the  son  of  the  lord  of  Mar- 
tigny;  his  uncle  Nicholas,  later  Bishop  of  Sion  (Sitten), 
gave  him  his  early  instruction.  He  embraced  the 
ecclesiastical  career,  and  eventually  became  parish 
priest  of  Aernen  (1496),  and  canon  and  dean  of  the 
cathedral  of  Sion.  When  his  uncle  resigned,  he  was 
made  Bishop  of  Sion  (20  September,  1499).  Schin- 
ner's  great  diplomatic  skill  and  his  influence  over  the 
other  Swiss  cantons  allied  with  Valais  made  him  the 
right  hand  of  Popes  Juhus  II  and  Leo  X  in  their 
efforts  to  unite  Italy  and  expel  the  French.  In  1511, 
as  a  result  of  an  alliance  brought  about  by  Schinner, 
the  Swiss  made  two  unsuccessful  campaigns  against 
Milan.  As  a  reward  for  securing  this  alliance,  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  No  vara  and  also  cardinal  in  1511. 
In  1512,  as  papal  legate  for  Italy  and  Germany,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  a  Swiss  and  Venetian 
army,  drove  the  French  from  Milan,  and  established 
Maximilian  Sforza  as  duke.  However,  as  Louis  XII 
again  captured  Milan  after  the  death  of  Julius  II, 
Schinner  once  more  took  the  field  at  the  head  of  the 
Swiss  Confederates,  and  defeated  the  P'rench  in  the 
battle  of  Novara  (1513).  The  Duke  of  Milan  re- 
warded Schinner  with  the  margraviate  of  Vigevano. 

When,  under  Francis  I  the  French  recrossed  the 
Alps,  Schinner  led  the  Swiss  troops,  part  of  which 
had  retired,  at  the  unfortunate  battle  ofMarignano 
(1515).  In  1516  he  raised  another  army  with  the 
aid  of  England,  but  was  unable  to  regain  Milan. 
He  now  sought  to  attain  his  end  by  an  alliance  be- 
tween the  pope,  the  emperor,  England,  and  Spain, 
for  which  purpose  he  went  him.self  in  1516  to  London, 
but  the  reconciliation  of  the  Swiss  Confederation 
and  the  emj)eror  with  France  made  the  alliance 
abortive.  During  his  long  absence  from  home  the 
French  party  there,  under  his  bitter  enemy  George 
Supersax,  raised  a  rebellion  and  drove  him  from 
Sion.  He  lived  for  several  years  at  Zurich  (1517-19), 
and  thenceforth  mostly  at  the  court  of  the  emperor. 
He  supported  the  election  of  Charles  V  as  emperor 
in  1519,  for  which  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Catania 
in  Sicily  (Nov.,  1520).  In  1521  he  led  an  army  of 
Swiss  Confederates  in  the  imperial  campaign  against 
PYancis  I  for  the  possession  of  Milan.  But  for  his 
passionate  hatred  of  France,  he  would  have  been 
elected  the  8UC(!(;ssor  of  Leo  X;  however,  Adrian 
VI  callecl  him  to  Rome  as  administrator  of  the 
States  of  the  Church.  He  died  without  having  seen 
his  diocese  again.  His  large  and  widely  scattered 
correspondence  is  the  only  literary  work  he  left.     The 


SCHISM 


529 


SCHISM 


date  of  his  birth  has  been  disputed,  as  the  statements 
concerning  it  differ  nearly  twenty  years.  The  year 
is  unknown,  and  all  direct  indications  are  lacking. 
We  know,  however,  that  he  attended  the  school 
of  Lupulus  at  Bern,  which  was  not  opened  until 
1493.  As  Schinner  was  a  priest  in  1492,  the  year 
of  his  birth  could  not  be  later  than  1470. 

JoLLER,  Kardinal  Schinner  als  kathol.  Kirchenfurst  in  Blatter 
zur  Walliser  Gesch.,  I  (1895);  Idem,  Kardinal  Schinners  Bezie- 
kungen  zur  Wahl  Kaiser  Karls  V,  1519,  ibid.;  Lauber,  Kardinal 
Schinners  Bann  u.  Interdikt  iiber  seine  Gegner,  ibid.,  IV  (1909); 
BixJscH,  Der  Kardinal  Schinner  in  Sonnlagsblatt  des  Bund  (1890), 
noa.  14,  15;  Wirt,  Akten  iiber  die  diplomatisch.  Beziehungen  der 
rSmisch.  Curie  in  der  Schweiz  1512-1552  in  Quellen  zur  Schweiz. 
gesch.,  XVI  (1895),  xiii-xix. 

Albert  BtJCHi. 

Schism. — I.  General  Ideas,  Moral  Character,  and 
Penal  Sanctions. — Schism  (from  the  Greek  o-x^«^M«, 
rent,  division)  is,  in  the  language  of  theology  and 
canon  law,  the  rupture  of  ecclesiastical  union  and 
unity,  i.  e.  either  the  act  by  which  one  of  the  faithful 
severs  as  far  as  in  him  lies  the  ties  which  bind  him  to 
the  social  organization  of  the  Church  and  make  him  a 
member  of  the  mystical  body  of  Christ,  or  the  state 
of  dissociation  or  separation  which  is  the  result  of  that 
act.  In  this  etymological  and  full  meaning  the  term 
occurs  in  the  books  of  the  New  Testament.  By  this 
name  St.  Paul  characterizes  and  condemns  the  parties 
formed  in  the  community  of  Corinth  (I  Cor.,  i,  12) :  "I 
beseechyou,  brethren",  he  writes,  ".  .  .that  there  be  no 
Bchisms  among  you;  but  that  you  be  perfect  in  the 
same  mind,  and  in  the  same  judgment  "(ibid.,  i,  10). 
The  union  of  the  faithful,  he  says  elsewhere,  should 
manifest  itself  in  mutual  imderstanding  and  conver- 
gent action  similar  to  the  harmonious  co-operation  of 
our  members  which  God  hath  tempered  "that  there 
might  be  no  schism  in  the  body"  (I  Cor.,  xii,  25). 
Thus  understood,  schism  is  a  genus  which  embraces 
two  distinct  species:  heretical  or  mixed  schism  and 
schism  pure  and  simple.  The  first  has  its  source 
in  heresy  or  joined  with  it,  the  second,  which  most 
theologians  designate  absolutely  as  schism,  is  the 
rupture  of  the  bond  of  subordination  without  an  ac- 
companying persistent  error,  directly  opposed  to  a 
definite  dogma.  This  distinction  was  drawn  by  St. 
Jerome  and  St.  Augustine.  "Between  heresy  and 
schism",  explains  St.  Jerome,  "there  is  this  difference, 
that  heresy  perverts  dogma,  while  schism,  by  rebel- 
lion against  the  bishop,  separates  from  the  Church. 
Nevertheless  there  is  no  schism  which  does  not  trump 
up  a  heresy  to  justify  its  departure  from  the  Church" 
(In  Ep.  ad  Tit.,  iii,  10).  And  St.  Augustine:  "By 
false  doctrines  concerning  God  heretics  wound  faith, 
by  iniquitous  dissensions  schismatics  deviate  from  fra- 
ternal charity,  although  they  believe  what  we  be- 
lieve" (De  fide  et  symbolo,  ix).  But  as  St.  Jerome 
remarks,  practically  and  historically,  heresy  and 
schism  nearly  always  go  hand  in  hand;  schism  leads 
almost  invariably  to  denial  of  the  papal  primacy. 

Schism,  therefore,  is  usually  mixed,  in  which  case, 
considered  from  a  moral  standpoint,  its  perversity  is 
chiefly  due  to  the  heresy  which  forms  part  of  it.  In 
its  other  aspect  and  as  being  purely  schism  it  is  con- 
trary to  charity  and  obedience;  to  the  former,  because 
it  severs  the  ties  of  fraternal  charity,  to  the  latter, 
because  the  schismatic  rebels  against  the  Divinely 
constituted  hierarchy.  However,  not  every  dis- 
obedience is  a  schism;  in  order  to  possess  this  char- 
acter it  must  include  besides  the  transgression  of  the 
commands  of  superiors,  denial  of  their  Divine  right  to 
command.  On  the  other  hand,  schism  does  not  neces- 
sarily imply  adhesion,  either  public  or  private,  to  a 
dissenting  group  or  a  distinct  sect,  much  less  the 
creation  of  such  a  group.  Anyone  becomes  a  schis- 
matic who,  though  desiring  to  remain  a  Christian, 
rebels  against  legitimate  authority,  without  going  as 
far  as  the  rejection  of  Christianity  as  a  whole,  which 
constitutes  the  crime  of  apostasy. 
XIII.— 34 


Formerly  a  man  was  rightly  considered  a  schismatic 
when  he  disregarded  the  authority  of  his  own  bishop; 
hence  the  words  of  St.  Jerome  quoted  above.  Before 
him  St.  Cyprian  had  said:  "It  mu.st  be  understood 
that  the  bishop  is  in  the  Church  and  the  Church  in 
the  bishop  and  he  is  not  in  the  Church  who  is  not 
with  the  bishop"  (Epist.,  Ixvi,  8).  Long  before,  St. 
Ignatius  of  Antioch  laid  down  this  principle:  "Where 
the  bishop  is  there  is  the  community,  even  as  where 
Christ  is  there  is  the  Cathohc  Church"  (Smyrn., 
viii,  2).  Now  through  the  centralizing  evolution 
which  emphasizes  the  preponderant  role  of  the  sov- 
ereign pontiff  in  the  constitution  of  ecclesiastical 
unity,  the  mere  fact  of  rebelling  against  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese  is  often  a  step  toward  schism;  it  is  not  a 
schism  in  him  who  remains,  or  claims  to  remain, 
subject  to  the  Holy  See.  In  the  material  sense  of 
the  word  there  is  schism,  that  is  rupture  of  the  social 
body,  if  there  e.xist  two  or  more  claimants  of  the 
papacy,  each  of  whom  has  on  his  side  certain  appear- 
ances of  right  and  consequently  more  or  less  numerous 
partisans.  But  under  these  circumstances  good  faith 
may,  at  least  for  a  time,  prevent  a  formal  schism; 
this  begins  when  the  legitimacy  of  one  of  the  pontiffs 
becomes  so  evident  as  to  render  adhesion  to  a  rival 
inexcusable.  Schism  is  regarded  by  the  Church  as 
a  most  serious  fault,  and  is  punished  with  the  penalties 
inflicted  on  heresy,  because  heresy  usually  accom- 
panies it.  These  are:  excommunication  incurred  ipso 
facto  and  reserved  to  the  sovereign  pontiff  (cf.  "Apos- 
tolicse  Sedis",  I,  3);  this  is  followed  by  the  loss  of  all 
ordinary  jurisdiction  and  incapacity  to  receive  any 
ecclesiastical  benefices  or  dignities  whatsoever.  To 
communicate  i7i  sacris  with  schismatics,  e.  g.,  to  receive 
the  sacraments  at  the  hands  of  their  ministers,  to 
assist  at  Divine  Offices  in  their  temples,  is  strictly 
forbidden  to  the  faithful. 

_  Some  theologians  distinguish  "active"  from  "pas- 
sive" schism.  By  the  former  they  understand  detach- 
ing oneself  dclibcratc'ly  from  the" body  of  the  Church, 
freely  renouncing  tli(>  right  to  form  a  part  of  it.  They 
call  passive  schism  the  condition  of  those  whom  the 
Church  herself  rejects  from  her  bosom  by  excom- 
munication, inasmuch  as  they  undergo  this  separation 
whether  they  will  or  no,  having  deserved  it.  Hence, 
this  article  %vill  deal  directly  only  with  active  schism, 
which  is  schism  properly  so-called.  It  is  nevertheless 
clear  that  so-called  passive  schism  not  only  does  not 
exclude  the  other,  but  often  supposes  it  in  fact  and 
theory.  From  this  point  of  view  it  is  impossible  to 
understand  the  attitude  of  Protestants  who  claim  to 
hold  the  Church  they  abandoned  responsible  for  their 
separation.  It  is  proved  by  all  the  historical  monu- 
ments and  especially  by  the  writings  of  Luther  and 
Calvin  that,  prior  to  the  anathema  pronounced  against 
them  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  the  leaders  of  the 
Reformation  had  proclaimed  and  repeated  that  the 
Roman  Church  was  "the  Babylon  of  the  Apocalypse, 
the  synagogue  of  Satan,  the  society  of  Antichrist"; 
that  they  must  therefore  depart  from  it  and  that  they 
did  so  in  order  to  re-enter  the  way  of  salvation.  And 
in  this  they  suited  the  action  to  the  word.  Thus  the 
schism  was  well  consummated  by  them  before  it  was 
solemnly  established  by  the  authority  which  they 
rejected  and  transformed  by  that  authority  into  a  just 
penal  sanction. 

II.  Schism  in  the  Light  of  Scripture  and  Tradition. — 
As  schism  in  its  definition  and  full  sense  is  the  prac- 
tical denial  of  ecclesiastical  unity,  the  explanation  of 
the  former  requires  a  clear  definition  of  the  latter, 
and  to  prove  the  necessity  of  the  latter  is  to  establish 
the  intrinsic  malice  of  the  former.  Indeed  the  texts 
of  Scripture  and  Tradition  show  these  aspects  of  the 
same  truth  to  be  so  closely  united  that  passage  from 
one  to  the  other  is  constant  and  spontaneous.  When 
Christ  built  on  Peter  as  on  an  unshakable  foundation 
the  indestructible  edifice  of  His  Church  He  thereby 


SCHISM 


530 


SCHISM 


indicated  its  essential  unity  aad  especially  the  hier- 
archical unity  (Matt.,  xvi,  18).  He  expressed  the 
same  thought  when  He  referred  to  the  faithful  as  a 
Kingdom  and  as  a  flock:  "Other  sheep  I  have,  that 
are  not  of  this  fold:  them  also  I  must  bring,  and  they 
shall  hear  mv  voice,  and  there  shall  be  one  fold  and 
one  shepherd"  (John,  x,  16).  Unity  of  faith  and 
worship  is  more  explicitly  indicated  by  the  words  out- 
lining the  solemn  mission  of  the  Apostles:  "Going 
therefore,  teach  ye  all  nations;  baptizing  them  in  the 
name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost"  (Matt.,  xx-^-iii.  19).  These  various  forms  of 
unity  are  the  object  of  the  prayer  after  the  Last  Sup- 
per, "when  Christ  prays  for  His  own  and  asks  "that 
thev  may  be  one"  as  the  Father  and  the  Son  are  one 
(John,  xvii,  21,  22).  Those  who  violate  the  laws  of 
unity  shall  become  strangers  to  Christ  and  his  spirit- 
ual family:  ".\nd  if  he  will  not  hear  the  Church,  let 
him  be  to  thee  as  the  heathen  and  pubUcan"  (Matt., 
XA'iii,  17). 

In  faithful  imitation  of  his  Master's  teaching  St. 
Paul  often  refers  to  the  unity  of  the  Church,  describing 
it  as  one  edifice,  one  body,  a  body  between  whose 
members  exists  the  same  solidarity  as  between  the 
members  of  the  human  body  (I  Cor.,  xii;  Eph.,  iv). 
He  enumerates  its  various  aspects  and  sources:  "For 
in  one  Spirit  were  we  all  baptized  into  one  body,  .  .  . 
and  in  one  Spirit  we  have  all  been  made  to  drink" 
(I  Cor.,  xii,  13);  "For  we,  being  many,  are  one  bread, 
one  body,  all  that  partake  of  one  bread"  (ibid.,  x,  17). 
He  sums  it  up  in  the  follomng  formula:  "One  body 
and  one  Spirit;  .  .  .  one  Lord,  one  faith,  one 
baptism"  (Eph.,  iv,  4-5).  Finally  he  arrives  at  the 
logical  conclusion  when  he  anathematizes  doctrinal 
novelties  and  the  authors  of  them  (Gal.,  i,  9),  Ukewise 
when  he  writes  to  Titus:  "A  man  that  is  a  heretic, 
after  the  first  and  second  admonition,  avoid"  (Tit., 
iii,  10);  and  again  when  he  so  energetically  condemns 
the  dissensions  of  the  community  of  Corinth:  "There 
are  contentions  among  you.  .  .  .  every  one  of 
you  saith :  I  am  indeed  of  Paul ;  and  I  am  of  Apollo ; 
and  I  of  Cephas;  and  I  of  Christ.  Is  Christ  divided? 
^\'as  Paul  then  crucified  for  you?  Or  were  you  bap- 
tized in  the  name  of  Paul?"  (ICor.,i,  11-13).  "Now, 
I  beseech  you,  brethren,  by  the  name  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  that  you  all  speak  the  same  thing,  and 
that  there  be  no  schisms  among  you;  but  that  you  be 
perfect  in  the  same  mind,  and  in  the  same  judgment" 
(I  Cor.,  i,  10).  St.  Luke  speaking  in  praise  of  the 
primitive  church  mentions  its  unanimity  of  belief, 
obedience,  and  worship:  "They  were  persevering  in 
the  doctrine  of  the  apostles,  and  in  the  communication 
of  the  breaking  of  bread,  and  in  prayers"  (Acts,  ii, 
42).  All  the  first  Epi.stle  of  St.  John  is  directed 
against  contemporary  innovators  and  schismatics; 
and  the  author  regards  them  as  .so  foreign  to  the 
Church  that  in  contrast  to  its  members  "the  Children 
of  God",  he  calls  them  "the  children  of  the  devil", 
(I  John,  iii,  10);  the  children  "of  the  world"  (iv,  5), 
even  Antichrist  (ii,  22;  iv,  3). 

The  same  doctrine  is  found  in  all  the  evidences  of 
Tra^iition,  beginning  with  the  olde.st.  Before  the  end 
of  the  first  century  St.  Clement  writing  to  the  Church 
of  Corinth  in  order  to  restore  peace  and  harmony 
strongly  inculcates  the  necessity  of  submission  to 
the  "hegoumenos"  (I  Cor.,  i,  3),  "to  the  guides  of 
our  souls"  (Ixiii,  1),  and  to  the  "presbyters"  (xlvii, 
6;  liv,  2;  Ivii,  1).  It  is,  says  he,  a  "grave  sin"  to  dis- 
regard their  authority  as  the  Corinthians  are  doing 
(xliv,  3,  4,  6;  xlvii,  6);  it  is  a  duty  to  honour  them  (i, 
3;  xxi,  6).  There  must  be  no  division  in  the  body  of 
Christ,  xlvi,  6.  The  fundamental  reasf)n  of  all  this  is 
the  Divinely  instituted  hierarchical  order.  The  work 
of  Chri.st  is  in  fact  continued  by  the  Apo.stles,  who  are 
sent  by  Christ  as  He  was  sent  by  God  (xlii,  1,  2).  It 
was  they  who  established  the  "epiacopi  and  deacons" 
(xlii,  4)  and  decided  that  others  should  succeed  them 


in  their  mmistry  (xliv,  2).  He  thus  explains  the 
gravity  of  the  sin  and  the  severity  of  the  reproaches 
addressed  to  the  fomentors  of  the  troubles:  "Why 
should  there  be  among  you  disputes,  quarrels,  dis- 
sensions, schisms,  and  war?  Have  we  not  one  and 
the  same  God,  one  and  the  same  Christ?  Is  it  not 
the  same  spirit  of  grace  that  has  been  poured  out 
upon  us?  Have  we  not  a  common  vocation  in  Christ? 
Wherefore,  divide  and  separate  the  members  of  Christ, 
be  at  war  with  our  own  body,  be  so  foolish  as  to  for- 
get that  we  are  members  of  one  another?  "  (xlvi,  5-7). 
St.  Ignatius  insists  no  less  forcibly  on  the  necessity 
of  unity  and  the  danger  of  schism.  He  is  the  first 
author  in  whom  we  find  episcopal  unity  clearly  out- 
hned,  and  he  beseeches  the  faithful  to  range  them- 
selves about  the  "presbyters"  and  the  deacons  and 
especially  through  them  and  with  them  about  the 
bishop:  "It  is  fitting  that  you  be  of  one  mind  with  the 
bishop,  as  you  are,  because  your  venerable  presby- 
terium  is  attached  to  the  bishop  as  the  strings  to  the 
lyre"  (Eph.,  vi,  1);  "you  must  not  take  advantage  of 
the  age  of  your  bishop,  but,  being  mindful  of  the  power 
of  God  the  Father,  you  should  show  him  every  man- 
ner of  respect,  as  do  the  holy  priests"  (Magn.,  iii,  1). 
The  bishop  is  the  centre  and  pivot  of  the  Church: 
"Where  he  is  there  should  the  community  be" 
(Smym.,  xi,  1).  The  duties  of  the  faithful  towards 
the  hierarchy  are  summed  up  in  one :  to  be  united  to 
it  in  sentiment,  faith,  and  obedience.  They  must  be 
always  submissive  to  the  bishop,  the  presbytcrium, 
and  the  deacons  ("Eph.",  ii,  2;  v,  3;  xx,  2;  "Magn.", 
ii;  iii,  1;  vi,  1,  2;  xiii,  2;  "Trail.",  ii,  1,  2;  xiii,  2; 
"Philad.",  vii,  1;  "Smyrn.",  viii,  1;  "Polyc",  vi,  1). 
Jesus  Christ  being  the  word  of  the  Father  and  the 
bishop  being  in  the  doctrine  of  Christ  ( fv  I-ij<roO 
Xpi-a-ToO  yvw/xri)  it  is  fitting  to  adhere  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  bishop  (Eph.,  iii,  2;  iv,  1);  "Those  who  belong 
to  God  and  Jesus  Christ  ally  themselves  with  the 
bishop.  Brethren,  be  not  deceived;  whosoever  fol- 
lows a  schismatic  shall  not  inherit  the  Kingdom  of 
Heaven"  (Philad,  iii,  2,  3).  Finally,  as  the  bishop 
is  the  doctrinal  and  disciplinary  centre  so  he  is  the 
liturgical  centre:  "Let  that  Eucharist  be  lawful  which 
is  consecrated  by  the  bishop  or  one  deputed  by  him. 
.  .  .  It  is  forbidden  to  baptize  or  celebrate  the 
agape  without  the  bishop;  what  he  approves  is  what 
is  pleasing  to  God,  in  order  that  all  that  is  done  may 
be  stable  and  valid"  (Smyrn.,  viii,  1,  2). 

Towards  the  end  of  the  second  century  St.  Irenaeus 
lauds  in  glowing  terms  the  unity  of  that  universal 
Church  "which  has  but  one  heart  and  one  soul,  whose 
faith  is  in  keeping"  and  which  seems  "as  the  sole  sun 
illuminating  the  whole  world"  (Adv.  hajres.,  i,  10). 
He  condemns  all  doctrinal  division,  basing  his  argu- 
ments on  the  teaching  authority  of  the  Church  in 
general  and  of  the  Roman  Church  in  particular.  The 
doctrine  of  salvation,  preached  by  the  Apostles,  is 
preserved  in  the  Churches  founded  by  them;  but 
since  it  would  take  too  long  to  question  all  the  Apos- 
tolic Churches  it  is  sufficient  to  turn  to  that  of  Rome: 
"For  the  entire  Church,  that  is  all  the  faithful  in 
the  world,  should  be  in  agn^ement  with  this  Roman 
Church,  because  of  its  superior  pre-eminence;  and  in 
it  all  the  faithful  have  pnwerved  the  Apostolic  tradi- 
tion" (iii,  2,  3).  It  is  therefore  of  the  utmost  neces- 
sity to  adhere  to  this  Church  because  where  the 
Church  is,  there  is  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  where  the 
Spirit  of  God  is  there  is  the  Church,  there  is  all  grace 
and  the  spirit  is  tnith  (iii,  24).  But  to  adhere  to 
this  Church  is  to  submit  to  the  hierarchy,  its  living 
and  infallible  magistracy:  "The  priests  of  the  Church 
are  to  be  obeyed,  those  who  are  the  successors  of  the 
Apo.stles  and  who  with  tlie  episcopal  su(;ce.ssion  have 
received  an  assured  charisma  of  truth.  .  .  .  Those 
who  leave  the  successors  of  the  Apostles  and  assemble 
in  any  separated  place  must  be  regarded  with  sus- 
picion or  as  heretics,  aa  tnen  of  evil  doctrines,  or 


SCHISM 


531 


SCHISM 


as  schismiitics.  Those  who  rend  the  unity  of  the 
Church  receive  the  Divine  chastisement  awarded  to 
Jeroboam;  they  must  all  be  avoided"  (iv,  26). 

At  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  Clement  of 
Alexandria  describes  the  Church  as  the  city  of  the 
Logos  which  must  be  sought  because  it  is  the  assem- 
blage of  all  those  whom  God  desires  to  save  ("Strom." 
iv,  20;  vii,  v;  "Paedag.",  i,  6;  iii,  12).  Origen  is 
more  explicit;  for  him  also  the  Church  is  the  city  of 
God  (Contra  Cels.,  iii,  30),  and  he  adds:  "Let  no 
one  be  deceived;  outside  this  abode,  that  is  outside 
the  Church,  no  one  is  saved.  If  anyone  leaves  it  he 
himself  shall  be  accountable  for  his  death"  (In  lib. 
Jesu  Nave,  Horn.,  iii,  5).  In  Africa  TertuUian  Uke- 
wise  condemns  all  separation  from  the  existing  Church. 
His  "De  prajscriptionibus"  is  famous,  and  the  funda- 
mental thesis  of  the  work,  inferred  by  its  very  title,  is 
summed  up  in  the  priority  of  truth  and  the  relative 
novelty  of  error  (principalitatem  veritatis  et  pos- 
teritatem  mendacii),  thus  implying  the  prohibition 
to  withdraw  from  the  guidance  of  the  living  mag- 
isterium:  "If  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  sent  His  Apostles 
to  preach  we  conclude  that  we  must  not  receive  other 
preachers  than  those  appointed  by  Him.  What  they 
have  preached,  in  other  words,  what  Christ  has  re- 
vealed to  them,  can  only  be  established  by  the 
Churches  founded  by  the  Apostles  themselves,  to 
which  they  preached  the  Gospel  by  word  and  writing  " 
(De  prjEscr.,  xxi). 

But  the  great  African  champion  of  ecclesiastical 
unity  was  St.  Cyprian,  against  the  schismatics  of 
Rome  as  well  as  those  of  Carthage.  He  conceived 
this  unity  as  reposing  on  the  effective  authority  of 
the  bishops,  their  mutual  union,  and  the  pre-eminence 
of  the  Roman  pontiff:  "God  is  one,  Christ  is  one,  one 
is  the  Church,  and  one  the  chair  founded  on  Peter 
by  the  word  of  the  Lord"  (Epist.  Ixx);  "This  unity 
we  bishops  who  govern  in  the  Church  should  firmly 
uphold  and  defend,  in  order  to  show  that  the  epis- 
copate itself  is  one  and  undivided"  (De  ecclesite 
unit.,  v);  "Know  that  the  bishop  is  in  the  Church 
and  the  Church  in  the  bishop,  and  that  if  anyone  is 
not  with  the  bishop  he  is  not  in  the  Church.  .  .  . 
The  Catholic  Church  is  one,  formed  of  the  harmonious 
union  of  pastors  who  mutually  support  one  another" 
(Epist.  Ixxvi,  5).  To  unity  of  faith  must  be  joined 
liturgical  unity:  "A  second  altar  and  a  new  priesthood 
cannot  be  set  up  beside  the  one  altar  and  the  one 
priesthood"  (Epist.  Iii,  24).  Cyprian  saw  no  legiti- 
mate reason  for  schism  for  "what  rascal,  what  traitor, 
what  madman  would  be  so  misled  by  the  spirit  of 
discord  as  to  believe  that  it  is  permitted  to  rend,  or 
who  would  dare  rend  the  Divine  unity,  the  garment 
of  the  Lord,  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ?"  (De  eccl., 
unit.,  viii);  "The  spouse  of  Christ  is  chaste  and  in- 
corruptible. Whoever  leaves  the  Church  to  follow 
an  adulteress  renounces  the  promises  of  the  Church. 
He  that  abandons  the  Church  of  Christ  will  not  receive 
the  nnvards  of  Christ.  He  becomes  a  stranger,  an 
ungodly  man,  an  enemy.  God  cannot  be  a  Father 
to  him  to  whom  the  Church  is  not  a  mother.  As  well 
might  one  be  saved  out  of  the  ark  of  Noah  as  out  of 
the  Church.  ...  He  who  does  not  respect  its 
unity  will  not  respect  the  law  of  God;  he  is  without 
faith  in  the  Father  and  the  Son,  without  life,  without 
salvation"  (op.  cit.,  viii). 

From  the  fourth  century  the  doctrine  of  the  unity 
of  the  Church  was  so  clearly  and  universally  ad- 
mitted that  it  is  almost  superfluous  to  quote  particular 
testimonies.  The  lengthy  polemics  of  Optatus  of 
Milevis  ("De  schism.  Don.",  P.  L.,  XI)  and  of  St. 
Augustine  (especially  in  "De  unit,  eccl.",  P.  L., 
XLIII)  against  the  Donatists  accuse  these  sectaries 
of  being  separated  from  the  ancient  and  primitive 
trunk  of  Christianity.  And  to  those  who  represented 
their  group  as  a  portion  of  the  universal  Church  St. 
Augustine  replied:    "If  you  are  in  communion  with 


the  Christian  world  send  letters  to  the  Apostolic 
Churches  and  show  us  their  replies"  (Ep.,  xliv,  3). 
These  letters  (litterae  formatie)  then  constituted  one 
of  the  authentic  marks  and  elements  of  visible  unity. 
Concerning  this  unity  the  various  forms  of  which  he 
explains,  St.  Augustine  agrees  with  St.  Cyprian  in 
maintaining  that  outside  of  it  there  is  no  salvation: 
"Salus  extra  ecclesiam  non  est"  (De  bapt.,  iv, 
24),  and  he  adds  in  confirmation  of  this  that  out- 
side the  Church  the  means  of  salvation,  baptism, 
and  even  martyi'dom  will  avail  nothing,  the  Holy 
Ghost  not  being  communicated.  During  the  same 
century  Roman  supremacy  began  to  be  emphasized 
as  a  factor  of  unity.  Jesus  Clu-ist,  says  St.  Optatus, 
desired  to  attach  unity  to  a  definite  centre;  to  this 
end  He  made  "Peter  the  head  of  all  the  Apostles; 
to  him  He  first  gave  the  episcopal  see  of  Rome,  in 
which  sole  see  unity  should  be  preserved  for  all; 
he  is  therefore  a  sinner  and  a  schismatic  who  would 
erect  another  see  in  opposition  to  it"  (De  schism. 
Don.,  ii,  2);  "SoHctude  for  assuring  unity  caused 
blessed  Peter  to  be  preferred  before  all  the  Apostles 
and  to  receive  alone  the  keys  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Heaven  that  he  might  admit  others"  (vii,  3).  Pa- 
cianus  of  Barcelona  also  says  that  Christ  gave  to 
Peter  alone  the  power  of  the  keys  "to  make  him  alone 
the  foundation  and  beginning  of  unity"  (ad  unum 
ideo  ut  unitatem  fundaret  ex  uno  Epist.,  iii,  11). 

Most  contemporary  writers  in  the  Latin  Church, 
Hilary,  Victorinus,  St.  Ambrose,  the  Ambrosiaster, 
St.  Jerome,  speak  in  like  manner  and  quite  as  ex- 
plicitly. All  regard  Peter  as  the  foundation  of  the 
Church,  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles  who  was  made  per- 
petual head  in  order  to  cut  short  any  attempt  at 
schism.  "Where  Peter  is,"  concludes  St.  Ambrose, 
"there  is  the  Church;  where  the  Church  is  there  is 
no  death  but  eternal  life"  (In  Ps.,  xl,  30).  And  St. 
Jerome:  "That  man  is  my  choice  who  remains  in 
union  with  the  chair  of  Peter"  (Epist.,  xvi,  2). 
Both  declare,  like  St.  Optatus,  that  to  be  out  of  the 
Roman  communion  is  to  be  out  of  the  Church,  but 
they  lay  especial  emphasis  on  the  jurisdictional  and 
teaching  authority  of  the  centre  of  unity.  Their 
texts  are  classics:  "We  must  have  recourse  to  your 
clemency,  beseeching  you  not  to  let  the  head  of 
all  the  Roman  world,  the  Roman  Church,  and  the 
most  holy  Apostolic  Faith  be  disturbed;  for  thence 
all  derive  the  rights  of  the  Catholic  communion" 
(Ambrose,  "Ep.",  xi,  4).  "I  who  follow  no  guide 
save  Christ  am  in  communion  with  Your  Holin(>ss, 
that  is  with  the  chair  of  Peter.  I  know  that  on  this 
rock  the  Church  is  built.  Whosoever  partakes  of 
the  Lamb  outside  this  hou.se  commits  a  sacrilege. 
Whosoever  does  not  gather  with  you,  scatters:  in 
other  words  whosoever  is  not  with  Christ  is  with 
Antichrist"  (Jerome,  "Epist.",  xv,  2). 

The  East  also  saw  in  Peter  and  the  episcopal  see 
founded  by  him  the  keystone  of  unity.  Didymus 
calls  Peter  "the  corypheus,  the  head,  who  was  first 
among  the  Apostles,  through  whom  the  others 
received  the  keys"(De  Trinit.,  i,  27,  30;  ii,  10, 
18).  Epiphanius  also  regards  him  as  "the  cory- 
pheus of  the  Apostles,  the  firm  stone  on  which  rests 
the  unshakable  faith"  (Anchor.",  ix,  34;  "Ha?r.", 
lix,  7,  8)  and  St.  Chrysostom  speaks  unceasingly 
of  the  privileges  conferred  on  Peter  by  Christ. 
Moreover  the  Greeks  recognized  in  the  Roman 
Church  a  pre-eminence  and  consequently  an  incon- 
testable unifying  role  by  acknowledging  her  right 
to  intervene  in  the  disputes  of  the  particular 
Churches,  as  is  proved  by  the  cases  of  Athanasius, 
Marcellus  of  Ancyra,  and  Chrysostom.  In  this 
sense  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen  calls  ancient  Rome 
"the  president  of  the  universe,  Ti]v  wpbeoSpov  rOiv  8\wv" 
(Carmen  de  vita  sua),  and  it  is  also  the  reason  why 
even  the  Eusebians  were  willing  that  the  case  of 
Athanasius,  after  they  had  passed  on  it,  should  be 


SCHISM 


532 


SCHISM 


submitted  to  the  pope's  judgment  (Athan.,  "Apol. 
contra  Arian",  20). 

III.  Attempts  to  Legitimize  Schism. — The  foregoing 
texts  are  sufficient  to  estabhsh  the  gravity  of  schism 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  economy  of  salvation  and 
morals.  In  this  connexion  it  may  be  of  interest  to 
quote  the  appreciation  of  Bayle,  a  writer  above  sus- 
picion of  partiality  and  a  tolerant  judge:  ''I  know 
not,"  he  wTites,  "a  more  grievous  crime  than  that  of 
tearing  the  mystical  body  of  Jesus  Christ,  His  church 
which  He  purchased  with  His  own  blood,  that  mother 
which  bore  us  to  God,  who  nourishes  us  with  the 
milk  of  understanding,  who  leads  us  to  eternal  life" 
(Supplement  to  Philosophical  Comment,  preface). 

Various  motives  have  been  brought  forward  in 
justification  of  Schism:  (1)  Some  have  claimed  the 
introduction  into  the  Church  of  abuses,  dogniatic  and 
liturgical  novelties,  superstitions,  with  which  they 
are  permitted,  even  bound,  not  to  ally  themselves. 
Without  entering  into  the  foundation  for  these 
charges  it  should  be  noted  that  the  authors  cited 
above  do  not  mention  or  admit  a  single  exception.  If 
we  accept  their  statements  separation  from  the  Church 
is  necessarily  an  evil,  an  injurious  and  blameworthy 
act,  and  abandoning  of  the  true  way  of  salvation, 
and  this  independent  of  all  contingent  circumstances. 
Moreover  the  doctrines  of  the  Fathers  exclude  a 
priori  any  such  attempt  at  justification;  to  use  their 
words,  it  is  forbidden  for  individuals  or  particular 
or  national  Churches  to  constitute  themselves  judges 
of  the  universal  Church;  the  mere  fact  of  having 
it  against  one  carries  its  own  condemnation.  St. 
Augustine  summed  up  all  his  controversy  with  the 
Donatists  in  the  maxim:  "The  whole  world  unhesita- 
tingly declares  them  wTong  who  separate  themselves 
from  the  whole  world  in  whatsoever  portion  of  the 
whole  world"  (quapropter  securus  judicat  orbis 
terrarum  bonos  non  esse  qui  se  dividunt  ab  orbe 
terrarum,  in  quacumque  parte  orbis  terrarum). 
Here  Bayle  may  be  quoted  again:  "Protestants 
bring  forward  only  questionable  reasons;  they  offer 
nothing  convincing,  no  demonstration:  they  prove 
and  object,  but  there  are  replies  to  their  proofs  and 
objections;  they  answer  and  are  answered  endlessly; 
is  it  worth  while  to  make  a  schism?"  (Diet,  crit., 
art.  Xihusius). 

(2)  Other  schismatics  have  pleaded  the  division 
of  the  articles  of  the  Creed  into  fundamental  and  non- 
fundamental.  Under  Fundamental  Articles  (q.  v.) 
it  is  shown  that  this  distinction,  wholly  unknown 
prior  to  the  sixteenth  century,  and  repugnant  to  the 
very  conception  of  Divine  faith,  is  condemned  by 
Scripture,  and,  for  want  of  a  clear  line  of  demarcation, 
authorizes  the  most  monstrous  divergences.  The 
indispen-sable  unity  of  faith  extends  to  all  the  truths 
revealed  by  God  and  transmitted  by  the  Apostles. 
Tra<iition  repeats,  though  in  different  forms,  all  that 
Irena'us  wrote:  "The  Church  spread  everywhere 
throughout  the  world  received  from  the  Apostles 
and  their  disciples  faith  in  one  God"  (here  follow 
the  words  of  the  Creed),  then  the  writer  contin- 
ues: "Depositary  of  this  preaching  and  this  faith, 
the  Church  which  multiplies  throughout  the  world, 
watches  them  as  diligently  as  though  she  dwelt  in 
one  hou.se.  She  believes  unanimously  in  these  things 
as  though  she  ha*i  but  one  heart  and  soul ;  she  preach(!8 
them,  teaches  them,  and  bears  witness  to  them  as 
though  she  had  but  one  mouth.  Though  there  are 
in  the  world  different  languages  there  is  but  one  sin- 
gle and  identical  current  of  tradition.  Neither  the 
Churches  founded  in  Gaul,  nor  those  among  the 
Iberians,  nor  those  in  the  countries  of  the  Celts,  nor 
those  in  the  East,  nor  those  of  Egypt,  nor  those  of 
L^bia,  nor  those  in  the  centre  of  the  world  present  any 
differences  of  faith  or  preaching;  but  as  the  sun 
created  by  f Jod,  is  one  and  the  same  throughout  the 
world,  so  a  single  light,  a  single  preaching  of  the  truth, 


illuminates  every  place  and  enlightens  all  men  who 
wish  to  attain  to  the  knowledge  of  truth"  (Adv. 
Han-.,  i,  10).  It  has  been  shown  above  how  the 
Bishop  of  Lyons  declared  that  the  continuators  of 
the  Apostolic  ministry  were  the  "presbyters  of  the 
Church",  and  that  a  man  was  a  Christian  and  a 
Catholic  only  on  condition  of  obeying  them  without 
reserve. 

(3)  The  theory  of  the  happy  medium  or  via  viedia, 
advocated  bj^  the  Anglicans,  especially  by  the  Oxford 
leaders  of  the  early  nineteenth  century  as  a  means 
of  escape  from  the  difficulties  of  the  system  of  funda- 
mental articles,  is  no  more  acceptable.  Newman 
demonstrated  and  extolled  it  to  the  best  of  his  talent 
in  his  "Via  Media",  but  he  soon  recognized  its  weak- 
ness, and  abandoned  and  rejected  it  even  before  his 
conversion  to  Catholicism.  According  to  this  theory, 
in  order  to  safeguard  unity  and  avoid  schism  it  is 
sufficient  to  abide  by  Scripture  as  interpreted  by  each 
individual  under  the  direction  or  with  the  assistance 
of  tradition.  At  any  rate  the  Church  should  not  be 
regarded  as  infallible,  but  only  as  a  trustworthy 
witness  with  regard  to  the  true  sense  of  the  inspired 
text  when  she  testifies  to  an  interpretation  received 
from  Apostolic  times.  It  seems  unnecessary  to  point 
out  the  illusory  and  almost  contradictory  character 
which  such  a  rule  ascribes  to  the  living  teaching  au- 
thoritj^;  obviously,  it  does  not  meet  the  conditions 
for  unity  of  belief  which  requires  conformity  with 
Scripture  and,  no  less,  with  the  living  authority  of  the 
Church,  or  more  exactly,  implies  absolute  obedience 
to  the  infallible  teaching  authority — both  to  that 
which  interprets  the  Scripture  and  to  that  which 
preserves  and  transmits  under  any  other  form  the 
deposit  of  Revelation. 

St.  Irenaeus  is  most  explicit  on  all  these  points: 
according  to  him  faith  is  proved  and  its  enemies 
confounded  equally  by  Scripture  and  tradition  (Adv. 
Ha^r.,  iii,  2),  but  the  authentic  guardian  of  both 
is  the  Church,  i.  e.  the  bishops  as  successors  of  the 
Apostles:  "Apostolic  tradition  is  manifested  through- 
out the  world,  and  everywhere  in  the  Church  it  is 
within  the  reach  of  those  who  desire  to  know  the  truth, 
for  we  can  enumerate  the  bishops  established  by  the 
Apostles,  as  well  as  their  successors  down  to  our  own 
times"  (op.  cit.,  iii).  To  these  guardians  and  to  them 
alone  we  should  have  recourse  with  confidence:  "The 
truth  which  it  is  easy  to  know  through  the  Church 
must  not  be  sought  elsewhere;  in  the  Church  in 
which  as  in  a  rich  treasury,  the  Apostles  deposited  in 
its  fulness  all  that  concerns  the  truth :  from  her  who- 
soever desires  it  shall  receive  the  draught  of  life. 
She  herself  is  the  gate  of  life;  all  the  others  are  thieves 
and  robbers"  (iii,  4).  Such  is  the  authority  of  the 
living  tradition  that,  in  default  of  Scrijiture,  recourse 
must  be  had  to  tradition  alone.  "What  would  have 
become  of  us  if  the  A]iostles  had  not  left  us  the 
Scriptures?  Would  we  not  have  to  rely  on  that  tradi- 
tion which  they  confided  to  those  to  whom  they  coni- 
mitted  the  government  of  the  Churches?  This  is 
what  is  done  by  many  barbarian  peoples  who  believe 
in  Christ  and  who  bear  the  law  of  salvation  written 
in  their  hearts  by  the  Holy  Spirit  without  ink  or 
l)aper  and  who  faithfully  preserve  the  ancient  tradi- 
tion" (iii,  4).  It  is  |)lain  that  with  the  .assistance  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  the  teaching  authority  of  the  Church 
is  preserved  from  error:  "Where  the  Church  is, 
there  is  the  Spirit  of  God;  and  where  the  Spirit  of 
God  is  there  is  the  Church  with  every  grace,  and  the 
Spirit  is  truth"  (iii,  24).  "That  is  why  obedience 
must  be  r(!ndered  to  the  presbyters  who  are  in  the 
Church,  and  who  having  succeeded  the  Apostles, 
together  with  the  episcopal  succession  have  received 
by  the  will  of  the  Father  a  certain  charisma  of  truth" 
(iv,  20).  This  is  far  removed  from  the  half-way  as- 
sertions and  the  restrictions  of  the  Oxford  School. 
The  same  conclusion  may  be  drawn  from  Tertullian's 


SCHISM 


533 


SCHISM 


declaration  of  the  impossibility  of  solving  a  difficulty 
or  terminating  a  dispute  by  Scripture  alone  (De 
pru'script.,  xix),  and  from  Origen's  words:  "Since 
among  many  who  boast  of  a  doctrine  in  conformity 
with  that  of  Christ  some  do  not  agree  with  their  pred- 
ecessors, let  all  adhere  to  the  ecclesiastical  doctrine 
transmitted  from  the  Apostles  by  way  of  succession 
and  preserved  in  the  Church  till  the  present  time: 
we  have  no  truth  in  which  to  believe  but  that  which 
does  not  deviate  from  the  eccclesiastical  and  Apos- 
tolic tradition"  (De  princip.,  praef.,  2). 

IV.  Principal  Schisms. — In  this  world  the  Church 
is  militant  and  as  such  is  exposed  to  conflict  and 
trial.  Human  conditions  being  what  they  are  partial 
or  local  schisms  are  bound  to  occur:  "I  hear",  says 
St.  Paul,  "that  .  .  .  there  are  schisms  among  you; 
and  in  part  I  believe  it.  For  there  must  be  also 
heresies:  that  they  also,  who  are  approved,  may  be 
made  manifest  among  you"  (I  Cor.,  xi,  18-19).  In  the 
full  and  primitive  sense  of  the  word  every  serious 
rupture  of  unity  and  consequently  every  heresy  is  a 
schism.  This  article,  however,  will  pass  over  the 
long  series  of  heresies  and  treat  only  those  defections 
or  religious  sects  to  which  historians  commonly  give 
the  specific  name  of  schisms,  because  most  frequently, 
and  at  least  in  the  beginning  of  each  such  sectarian 
division,  doctrinal  error  was  only  an  accessory.  They 
are  treated  in  chronological  order  and  the  most  im- 
portant only  briefly,  these  being  the  subjects  of 
special  articles  in  the  Encyclopedia. 

(1)  Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the 
"schisms"  of  the  nascent  Church  of  Corinth,  when  it 
was  said  among  its  members:  "I  indeed  am  of  Paul; 
and  I  am  of  Apollo;  and  I  of  Cephas;  and  I  of 
Christ."  To  them  St.  Paul's  energetic  intervention 
put  an  end.  (2)  AccorcUng  to  Hegesippus,  the  most 
advanced  section  of  the  Judaizc^rs  or  Ebionites  at 
Jerusalem  followed  the  bishop  Thebutis  as  against 
St.  Simeon,  and  after  the  death  of  St.  James,  a.  d. 
63,  separated  from  the  Church.  (3)  There  were 
numerous  local  schisms  in  the  third  and  fourth  cen- 
turies. At  Rome  Pope  Callistus  (217-22)  was  op- 
posed by  a  party  who  took  exception  to  the  mildness 
with  which  he  applied  the  penitential  discipline. 
Hippolytus  placed  himself  as  bishop  at  the  head  of 
these  malcontents  and  the  schism  was  prolonged  under 
the  two  successors  of  Callistus,  Urban  I  (222-30)  and 
Pontianus  (230-35).  There  is  no  doubt  that  Hip- 
polytus himself  returned  to  the  pale  of  the  Church 
(cf.  d'Ales,  "La  th^ol.  de  s.  Hippolyte",  Paris,  1906, 
introduction).  (4)  In  251  when  Cornelius  was  elected 
to  the  See  of  Rome  a  minority  set  up  Novatian 
as  an  antipope,  the  pretext  again  being  the  pardon 
which  Cornelius  promised  to  those  who  after  aposta- 
tizing should  repent.  Through  a  spirit  of  contradic- 
tion Novatian  went  so  far  as  to  refuse  forgiveness 
even  to  the  dying  and  the  severity  was  extended  to 
other  categories  of  grave  sins.  The  Novatians  sought 
to  form  a  Church  of  saints.  In  the  East  they  called 
themselves  Ka6apol,  pure.  Largely  under  the  in- 
fluence of  this  idea  they  administered  a  second  bap- 
tism to  those  who  deserted  Catholicism  to  join  their 
ranks.  The  sect  developed  greatly  in  the  Eastern 
countries,  where  it  subsisted  until  about  the  seventh 
century,  being  recruited  not  only  by  the  defection  of 
Catholics,  but  also  by  the  accession  of  Montanists. 

(5)  During  the  same  period  the  Church  of  Carthage 
was  also  a  prey  to  intestinal  divisions.  St.  Cyprian 
upheld  in  reasonable  measure  the  traditional  prin- 
ciples regarding  penance  and  did  not  accord  to  the 
letters  of  confessors  called  libelli  pads  the  importance 
desired  by  some.  One  of  the  principal  adversaries  was 
the  priest  Donatus  Fortunatus  became  the  bishop  of 
the  party,  but  the  schism,  which  was  of  short  duration, 
took  the  name  of  the  deacon  Felicissimus  who  played 
an  important  part  in  it.  (6)  With  the  dawn  of  the  fourth 
century  Egypt  was  the  scene  of  the  schism  of  Meletius, 


Bishop  of  Lycopolis,  in  the  Thebaid.  Its  causes  are 
not  known  with  certainty;  some  ancient  authors 
ascribe  it  to  rigorist  tendencies  regarding  penance, 
while  others  say  it  was  occasioned  by  usurpation  of 
power  on  the  part  of  Meletius,  notably  the  con- 
ferring of  ordinations  outside  his  diocese.  The 
Council  of  Nicaea  dealt  with  this  schism,  but  did  not 
succeed  in  completely  eradicating  it;  there  were  still 
vestiges  of  it  in  the  fifth  century.  (7)  Somewhat 
later  the  schism  of  Antioch,  originating  in  the  troubles 
due  to  Arianism,  presents  peculiar  complications. 
When  the  bishop,  Eustathius,  was  deposed  in  330  a 
small  section  of  his  flock  remained  faithful  to  him, 
but  the  majority  followed  the  Arians.  The  first 
bishop  created  by  them  was  succeeded  (361)  by 
Meletius  of  Sebaste  in  Armenia,  who  by  force  of  cir- 
cumstances became  the  leader  of  a  second  orthodox 
party.  In  fact  Meletius  did  not  fundamentally  de- 
part from  the  Faith  of  Nicaea,  and  he  was  soon  re- 
jected by  the  Arians:  on  the  other  hand  he  was  not 
recognized  by  the  Eustathians,  who  saw  in  him  the 
choice  of  the  heretics  and  also  took  him  to  task  for 
some  merely  terminological  differences.  The  schism 
lasted  until  about  415.  Paulinus  (d.  388)  and  Eva- 
grius  (d.  392),  Eustathian  bishops,  were  recognized 
in  the  West  as  the  true  pastors,  while  in  the  East  the 
Meletian  bishops  were  regarded  as  legitimate. 

(8)  After  the  banishment  of  Pope  Liberius  in  355, 
the  tleacon  Felix  was  chosen  to  replace  him  and  he 
had  adherents  even  after  the  return  of  the  legitimate 
pope.  The  schism,  quenched  for  a  time  by  the  death 
of  F'elix,  was  revived  at  the  death  of  Liberius  and  the 
rivalry  brought  about  bloody  encounters.  It  was 
several  years  after  the  victory  of  Damasus  before 
peace  was  completely  restored.  (9)  The  same  period 
witnessed  the  schism  of  the  Luciferians.  Lucifer, 
Bishop  of  Calaris,  or  Cagliari,  was  displeased  with 
Athanasius  and  his  friends  who  at  the  Synod  of  Alexan- 
dria (362)  had  pardoned  the  repentant  Semi-Arians. 
He  himself  had  been  blamed  by  Eusebius  of  Vercelli 
because  of  his  haste  in  ordaining  Paulinus,  Bishop 
of  the  Eustathians,  at  Antioch.  For  these  two  rea- 
sons he  separated  from  the  communion  of  the  Cath- 
olic bishops.  For  some  time  the  schism  won  ad- 
herents in  Sardinia,  where  it  had  originated,  and  in 
Spain,  where  Gregory,  Bishop  of  Elvira,  was  its 
chief  abettor.  (10)  But  the  most  important  of  the 
fourth-century  schisms  was  that  of  the  Donatists 
(q.  v.).  These  sectaries  were  as  noted  for  their 
obstinacy  and  fanaticism  as  for  the  efforts  and  the 
writings  rather  uselessly  multiplied  against  them 
by  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Optatus  of  Milevis.  (11) 
The  schism  of  Acacius  belongs  to  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century.  It  is  connected  with  the  promulgation  by 
the  emperor  Zeno  of  the  edict  known  as  the  Henoticon. 
Issued  with  the  intention  of  putting  an  end  to  the 
Christological  disputes,  this  document  did  not  satisfy 
either  Catholics  or  Monophysites.  Pope  FeUx  II 
excommunicated  its  two  real  authors,  Peter  Mongus, 
Bishop  of  Alexandria,  and  Acacius  of  Constantinople. 
A  l)n>ak  between  the  East  and  the  West  followed  which 
lasted  thirty -five  years.  At  the  instance  of  the 
g(>n('ral  Vitalian,  protector  of  the  orthodox,  Zeno's 
successor  Anastasius  promised  satisfaction  to  the 
adherents  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  and  the  con- 
vocation of  a  general  council,  but  he  showed  so  little 
good  will  in  the  matter  that  union  was  only  restored 
by  Justin  I  in  519.  The  reconciliation  received  of- 
ficial sanction  in  a  profession  of  Faith  to  which  the 
Greek  bishops  subscribed,  and  which,  as  it  was  sent 
by  Pope  Hormisdas,  is  known  in  history  as  the 
Formula  of  Hormisdas. 

(12)  In  the  sixth  century  the  schism  of  Aquilea  was 
caused  by  the  consent  of  Pope  Vigilius  to  the  con- 
demnation of  the  Three  Chapters  (553).  The  ec- 
clesiastical provinces  of  Milan  and  Aquilea  refused 
to  accept  this  condemnation  as  valid  and  separated 


SCHISM 


534 


SCHISM 


for  a  time  from  the  Apostolic  See.  The  Lombard 
invasion  of  Italv  (568)  favoured  the  resistance,  but 
from  570  the  Milanese  returned  by  degrees  to  the 
communion  of  Rome;  the  portion  of  Aquilea  subject 
to  the  Byzantines  returned  in  607,  after  which  date 
the  schism  had  but  a  few  churches.  It  died  out  com- 
pletely under  Sergius  I,  about  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century.  (13)  The  ninth  century  brought  the 
schism  of  Photius,  which,  though  it  was  transi- 
tory, prepared  the  way  by  nourishing  a  spirit  of  de- 
fiance towards  Rome  for  the  final  defection  of  Con- 
stantinople. (14)  This  took  place  less  than  two  cen- 
turies later  under  Michael  Cenilarius  (q.  v.)  who  at 
one  stroke  (1053)  closed  all  the  churches  of  the  Latms 
at  Constantinople  and  confiscated  their  convents. 
The  deplorable  Greek  schism  (see  Greek  Church), 
which  still  subsists,  and  is  itself  di%'ided  into  several 
communions,  was  thus  consummated.  The^  two 
agreements  of  reunion  concluded  at  the  Second  Coun- 
cil of  Lvons  in  1274,  and  at  that  of  Florence  in  1439, 
unfortunately  had  no  lasting  results;  they  could  not 
have  had  them,  because  on  the  part  of  the  Greeks  at 
least  they  were  inspired  by  interested  motives. 

(15)  The  schism  of  Anacletus  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tur>%  Uke  that  of  Felix  V  in  the  fifteenth,  was  due 
to  the  existence  of  an  antipope  side  by  side  wath  the 
legitimate  pontiff.  At  the  death  of  Hononus  II 
(1130)  Innocent  II  had  been  regularly  elected,  but  a 
numerous  and  powerful  faction  set  up  in  oppo.sition 
to  him  Cardinal  Peter  of  the  Pierleoni  family.  In- 
nocent was  compelled  to  flee,  lea\ang  Rome  in  the 
hands  of  his  adversaries.  He  found  refuge  in  France. 
St.  Bernard  ardently  defended  his  cause  as  did  also 
St.  Xorbert.  Within  a  year  nearly  all  Europe  had 
declared  in  his  favour,  only  Scotland,  Southern  Italy, 
and  Sicily  constituting  the  other  party.  The  em- 
peror Lothaire  brought  Innocent  II  back  to  Rome, 
but,  supported  by  Roger  of  Sicily,  the  antipope  re- 
tained possession  of  the  Leonine  City,  where  he  died 
in  1138.  His  successor  Victor  IV,  two  months  after 
his  election,  sought  and  obtained  pardon  and  rec- 
onciliation from  the  legitimate  pontiff.  The  case  of 
Felix  V  was  more  simple.  Felix  V  was  the  name 
taken  by  Amadeus  of  Savoy,  elected  by  the  Council 
of  Basle,  when  it  went  into  open  revolt  against 
Eugenius  IV,  refused  to  disband  and  thus  incurred  ex- 
communication (1439).  The  antipope  was  not  ac- 
cepted save  in  Savoy  and  Switzerland.  He  lasted 
for  a  .short  time  with  the  pseudo-council  which  had 
created  him.  Both  submitted  in  1449  to  Nicholas 
V,  who  had  succeeded  Eugenius  IV.  (16)  The 
Great  Schism  of  the  West  is  the  subject  of  a  special 
article  (Schism,  Western);  see  also  Constance, 
Council  of;   Pisa,  Council  of. 

(17)  Everyone  knows  the  shameful  origins  of  the 
schism  of  Henry  VIII,  which  was  the  prelude  to  the 
introduction  of  Protestantism  into  England.  The 
voluptuous  monarch  was  opposed  by  the  pope  in  his 
projects  for  (Mvorce  and  remarriage,  and  he  separated 
from  the  pope.  He  succeeded  so  well  that  in  1531 
the  general  assembly  of  the  clergy  and  the  Parlia- 
ment proclaimed  him  head  of  the  national  Church. 
Warham,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  had  at  first 
causfid  the  axioption  of  a  restrictive  clause:  "as 
far  as  Divine  law  permits".  But  this  important  res- 
ervation was  not  respected,  for  the  nipture  with  the 
Roman  Court  followed  almost  immfdiately.  In 
1534  the  Act  of  Supremacy  was  voted  according  to 
the  tf;rm8  of  which  the  king  became  the  sole  head  of 
the  Church  of  England  and  was  to  enjoy  all  the  pre- 
rogatives which  hafi  hitherto  belonged  to  the  pope. 
Refusal  U)  recognize  the  new  organization  was  pun- 
ished with  death.  Various  changes  followed:  suppres- 
sion of  convents,  destruction  of  relics  and  of  numerous 
pictures  and  statues.  But  dogma  was  not  again  at- 
tacked under  Henry  VIII,  who  pursued  with  eoual 
severity  both  attachment  to  the  pope  and  the  doc- 


trines of  the  Reformers.  (18)  In  the  article  Jan- 
SEXius  AND  Jansenism  are  described  the  formation 
and  vicissitudes  of  the  schism  of  Utrecht,  the  unhappy 
consequence  of  Jansenism,  but  which  never  spread 
beyond  a  handful  of  fanatics.  Subsequent  schisms 
belong  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  and  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

(19)  The  first  was  caused  in  France  by  the  Civil 
Con.stitution  of  the  clergy  of  1790.  By  this  law  the 
national  Constituent  Assembly  aimed  at  imposing  on 
the  Church  a  new  organization  which  essentially 
modified  its  condition  as  regulated  by  pubUc  ecclesi- 
astical law.  The  134  bishops  of  the  kingdom  were 
reduced  to  83,  according  to  the  territorial  division 
into  departments;  the  choice  of  cures  fell  to  electors 
appointed  by  members  of  district  assemblies;  that 
of  bishops  to  electors  named  by  the  assemblies  of 
departments;  and  canonical  institution  devolved 
upon  the  metropolitan  and  the  bishops  of  the  province. 
All  benefices  without  cure  of  souls  were  suppressed. 
A  later  ordinance  made  obedience  to  these  articles 
a  condition  of  admission  to  any  ecclesiastical  office. 
A  large  number  of  bishops  and  priests,  in  all,  accord- 
ing to  some  sources,  about  a  sixth  of  the  clergy,  and 
according  to  other  documents  nearly  a  third,  were 
weak  enough  to  take  the  oath.  Thenceforth  the 
French  clergy  was  divided  into  two  factions,  the  jurors 
and  the  non-jurors,  and  the  schism  was  carried  to  the 
utmost  extreme  when  intruders  under  the  name  of 
bishops  claimed  to  occupy  the  departmental  sees,  dur- 
ing the  Ufetime  and  even  in  defiance  of  the  rights  of 
the  real  titulars.  The  condemnation  of  the  Civil 
Constitution  by  Pius  VI  in  1791  opened  the  eyes  of 
some,  but  others  persisted  until  their  "Constitutional 
Church"  declined  shamefully  and  disappeared  ir- 
revocably in  the  Revolutionary  turmoil. 

(20)  A  schism  of  another  nature  and  of  less  impor- 
tance was  that  of  the  so-called  Pelite  Eglise  or  the 
Incommunicants,  formed  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  by  groups  who  were  dissatisfied  with  the 
Concordat  and  the  concordatory  clergy.  In  the  prov- 
inces of  the  west  of  France  the  party  acquired  a  cer- 
tain stability  from  1801  to  1815;  at  the  latter  date  it 
had  become  a  distinct  sect.  It  languished  on  till 
about  1830,  and  eventually  became  extinct  for  lack 
of  priests  to  perpetuate  it.  In  Belgium  some  of  its 
members  call  them.selves  Stevenists,  thus  abusing  the 
name  of  a  reputable  ecclesiastic,  Corneille  Stevens, 
who  was  cajjitular  vicar-general  of  the  Diocese  of 
Namur  until  1802,  who  afterwards  wrote  against 
the  Organic  Articles,  but  accepted  the  Concordat  and 
died  in  1828,  as  he  had  lived,  in  submission  to  the 
Holy  See. 

(21)  In  1831  the  Abb6  Chatel  founded  the  French 
Catholic  Church,  a  small  group  which  never  acquired 
importance.  The  founder,  who  at  first  claimed  to  re- 
tain all  the  dogmas,  had  himself  consecrated  bishop 
by  P'abre  Palaprat,  another  self-styled  bishop  of  the 
"Con.stitutionar'  type;  he  soon  rejected  the  infalli- 
bility of  the  teaching  Church,  celibacy  of  priests,  and 
abstinence.  He  recognized  no  rule  of  faith  except  in- 
dividual evidence  and  he  officiated  in  French.  The 
sect  was  already  on  the  point  of  being  slain  by  ridicule 
when  its  meeting-places  were  closed  by  the  Govern- 
ment in  1842. 

(22)  About  the  same  time  Germany  was  the  scene 
of  a  somewhat  similar  schism.  When  in  1844  the 
Holy  Coat  was  exi)Oscd  at  Trier  for  the  veneration  of 
the 'faithful,  a  susix'nded  i)riest,  Johannes  Ronge, 
seized  the  oceasion  to  i)ublish  a  violent  pamjjhlet 
against  Arnoldi,  Bishop  of  Trier.  Some  malcontents 
ranged  themselves  on  his  side.  Almost  simultane- 
ously John  Cz(!rski,  a  dismissed  vicar,  founded  in  the 
Province  of  I'osen,  a  "Christian  Catholic  commu- 
nity". He  had  imitators.  In  1845  the  "German 
Catholics",  as  these  schismatics  called  themselves,  held 
a  synod  at  Leipzig  at  which  they  rejected  among  other 


SCHISM 


535 


SCHISM 


things  the  primacy  of  the  pope,  auricular  confession, 
ecclesiastical  celibacy,  the  veneration  of  the  saints, 
and  suppressed  the  Canon  in  their  Eucharistic  Lit- 
urgy which  they  called  the  "German  liturgy".  They 
gained  recruits  in  small  numbers  until  1848,  but  after 
that  date  they  declined,  being  on  bad  terms  with  the 
Governments  which  had  at  first  encouraged  them, 
but  which  bore  them  ill-will  because  of  their  political 
agitations. 

(23)  While  this  sect  was  declining  another  sprang 
up  in  antagonism  to  the  Vatican  Council.  The  oppo- 
nents of  the  recently-defined  doctrine  of  infallibility, 
the  Old  Catholics,  at  first  contented  themselves  with  a 
simple  protest;  at  the  Congress  of  Munich  in  1871 
they  resolved  to  constitute  a  separate  Church.  Two 
years  later  they  chose  as  bishop  the  Professor  Rein- 
kens  of  Breslau,  who  was  recognized  as  bishop  by 
Prussia,  Baden,  and  Hesse.  Thanks  to  official  as- 
sistance the  rebels  succeeded  in  gaining  possession  of  a 
number  of  Catholic  churches  and  soon,  like  the  Ger- 
man Catholics  and  schismatics  in  general,  they  intro- 
duced disciplinary  and  doctrinal  novelties,  they  suc- 
cessively abandoned  the  precept  of  confession  (1874), 
ecclesiastical  celibacy  (1878),  the  Roman  liturgy, 
which  was  replaced  (1880)  by  a  German  liturgy,  etc. 
In  Switzerland  also  the  opposition  to  the  Vatican 
council  resulted  in  the  creation  of  a  separate  commu- 
nity, which  also  enjoyed  governmental  favour.  An 
Old  Catholic  faculty  was  founded  at  Berne  for  the 
teaching  of  theology,  and  E.  Herzog,  a  professor  of 
this  faculty,  was  elected  bishop  of  the  party  in  1876. 
A  congress  assembled  in  1890,  at  which  most  of  the 
dissident  groups,  Jansenists,  Old  Catholics,  etc.,  had 
representatives,  resolved  to  unite  all  the.se  diverse  ele- 
ments in  the  foundation  of  one  Church.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  they  are  all  on  the  road  to  free-thinking  and 
Rationalism.  In  England  a  recent  attcmjjt  at  schism 
under  the  leadership  of  Herbert  Bcale  and  Arthur 
Howarth,  two  Nottingham  priests,  and  Arnold 
Mathew,  has  failed  to  assume  proportions  worthy  of 
serious  notice. 

St.  Thomas,  Summa,  II-II,  (q-xxxix);  Tanquerey,  Synopsis 
th'ologiw,  I  (Rome,  1908);  Funk,  Patres  apostolici,  I  (Tubingen, 
1002);  TixERONT.  HUtoire  des  dogmes  (Paris,  lOCi-Q);  Funk, 
Lehrb.  der  Kirchengesch  (Paderborn,  1902);  Albers,  Enchirid. 
hint,  eccles.  (Nimeguen,  1909-10);  Duchesne,  Hist,  ancienne  de 
Veglise    (Paris,    1907-10);     Guyot,    Did.    unitersel   des    heresies 

(Paris,  1847).  J.  Forget. 

Schism,  Eastern. — From  the  time  of  Diotrephes 
(III  John,  i,  9-10)  there  have  been  continual  schisms, 
of  which  the  greater  number  were  in  the  East.  Ari- 
anism  produced  a  huge  schism;  the  Nestorian  and 
Monophysite  schisms  still  last.  However,  the  East- 
ern Schism  always  means  that  most  deplorable  quar- 
rel of  which  the  final  result  is  the  separation  of  the  vast 
majority  of  Eastern  Christians  from  union  with  the 
Catholic  Church,  the  schism  that  produced  the  sepa- 
rated, so-called  "Orthodox"  Church. 

I.  Remote  Preparation  of  the  Schism. — The  great 
Eastern  Schism  must  not  be  conceived  as  the  result 
of  only  one  definite  quarrel.  It  is  not  true  that  after 
centuries  of  perfect  peace,  suddenly  on  account  of  one 
dispute,  nearly  half  of  Christendom  fell  away.  Such  an 
event  would  be  unparalleled  in  history,  at  any  rate,  un- 
less there  were  some  great  heresy,  and  in  this  quarrel 
there  was  no  heresy  at  first,  nor  has  there  ever  been  a 
hopeless  disagreement  about  the  Faith.  It  is  a  case, 
perhaps  the  only  prominent  ca.se,  of  a  pure  schism,  of 
a  brea(;h  of  intercommunion  caused  by  anger  and  bad 
feeling,  not  by  a  rival  theology.  It  would  be  incon- 
ceivable then  that  hundreds  of  bishops  should  sud- 
denly break  away  from  union  with  their  chief,  if 
all  had  gone  smoothly  before.  The  great  schism  is 
rather  the  result  of  a  very  gradual  process.  Its  re- 
mote causes  must  be  .sought  centuries  before  there  was 
any  suspicion  of  their  final  effect.  There  was  a  series 
of  temporary  schisms  that  loosened  the  bond  and  pre- 
pared the  way.     The  two  great  breaches,  those  of 


Photius  and  Michael  Ca'rularius,  whi(^h  arc  remem- 
bered as  the  origin  of  the  present  state  of  things,  were 
both  healed  up  afterwards.  Strictly  speaking,  the 
present  schism  dates  from  the  Eastern  repudiation  of 
the  Council  of  Florence  (in  1472).  So  although  the 
names  of  Photius  and  CtErularius  are  justly  associa- 
ted with  this  disaster,  inasmuch  as  their  quarrels  are 
the  chief  elements  in  the  story,  it  must  not  be  im- 
agined that  they  were  the  sole,  the  first,  or  the  last 
authors  of  the  schism.  If  we  group  the  story  around 
their  names  we  must  explain  the  earlier  causes  that 
prepared  for  them,  and  note  that  there  were  tempo- 
rary reunions  later. 

the  first  cause  of  all  was  the  gradual  estrangement 
of  East  and  West.  To  a  great  extent  this  estrange- 
ment was  inevitable.  The  East  and  West  grouped 
themselves  around  different  centres — at  any  rate  as 
immediate  centres — used  different  rites  and  spoke 
different  languages.  We  must  distinguish  the  posi- 
tion of  the  pope  as  visible  head  of  all  Christendom 
from  his  place  as  Patriarch  of  the  West.  The  posi- 
tion, sometimes  now  advanced  by  anti-papal  contro- 
versialists, that  all  bishops  are  equal  in  jurisdiction, 
was  utterly  unknown  in  the  early  Church.  From  the 
very  beginning  we  find  a  graduated  hierarchy  of  met- 
ropolitans, exarchs,  and  primates.  We  find,  too, 
from  the  beginning  the  idea  that  a  bishop  inhcTits 
the  dignity  of  the  founder  of  his  see,  that,  therefore, 
the  successor  of  an  Apostle  has  special  rights  and 
privileges.  This  graduated  hierarchy  is  important  as 
explaining  the  pope's  position.  He  was  not  the  one 
immediate  superior  of  each  bishop;  he  was  the  chief 
of  an  elaborate  organization,  as  it  were  the  apex  of  a 
carefully  graduated  pyramid.  The  consciousness  of 
the  early  Christian  probably  would  have  been  that  the 
heads  of  Christendom  were  the  patriarchs;  then  fur- 
ther he  knew  quite  well  that  the  chief  patriarch  sat  at 
Rome.  However,  the  immediate  head  of  each  part  of 
the  Church  was  its  patriarch.  After  Chalcedon  (451) 
we  must  count  five  patriarchates:  Rome,  Constanti- 
nople, Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem. 

The  difference  between  the  East  and  West  then  was 
in  the  first  place  that  the  pope  in  the  West  was  not 
only  supreme  pontiff,  but  also  the  local  patriarch. 
He  represented  to  Eastern  Christians  a  remote  and 
foreign  authority,  the  last  court  of  appeal,  for  very 
serious  questions,  after  their  own  patriarchs  had  been 
found  incapable  of  settling  them;  but  to  his  own 
Latins  in  the  West  he  was  the  immediate  head,  the 
authority  immediately  over  their  metropolitans,  the 
first  court  of  appeal  to  their  bishops.  So  all  loyalty 
in  the  West  went  direct  to  Rome.  Rome  was  the 
Mother  Church  in  many  senses,  it  was  by  missioners 
sent  out  from  Rome  that  the  local  Western  Churches 
had  been  founded.  The  loyalty  of  the  Eastern  Chris- 
tians on  the  other  hand  went  first  to  his  own  patri- 
arch, so  there  was  here  always  a  danger  of  divided 
allegiance — if  the  patriarch  had  a  quarrel  with  the 
pope — such  as  would  have  been  inconceivable  in  the 
West.  Indeed,  the  falling  away  of  so  many  hun- 
dreds of  Eastern  bishops,  of  so  many  millions  of  sim- 
ple Christians,  is  explained  sufficiently  by  the  schism 
of  the  patriarchs.  If  the  four  Eastern  patriarchs 
agreed  upon  any  course  it  was  practically  a  foregone 
conclusion  that  their  metropolitans  and  bishops  would 
follow  them  and  that  the  priests  and  people  would 
follow  the  bishops.  So  the  very  organization  of  the 
Church  in  some  sort  already  prepared  the  ground  for  a 
contrast  (which  might  become  a  rivalry)  between  the 
first  patriarch  in  the  West  with  his  vast  following  of 
Latins  on  the  one  side  and  the  Eastern  patriarchs 
with  their  subjects  on  the  other. 

Further  points  that  should  be  noticed  are  the  differ- 
ences of  rite  and  language.  The  question  of  rite  fol- 
lows that  of  patriarchate;  it  made  the  distinction 
obvious  to  the  simplest  Christian.  A  Syrian,  Greek 
or  Egyptian  layman  would,  perhaps,  not  understand 


SCHISM 


536 


SCHISM 


much  about  canon  law  as  affecting  patriarchs;  he 
could  not  fail  to  notice  that  a  travelling  Latin  bishop 
or  priest  celebrated  the  Holy  Mysteries  in  a  way  that 
was  very  strange,  and  that  stamped  him  as  a  (per- 
haps suspicious)  foreigner.  In  the  West,  the  Roman 
Rite  was  first  affecting,  then  supplanting,  all  others, 
and  in  the  East  the  Byzantine  Rite  was  gradually  ob- 
taining the  same  position.  So  we  have  the  germ  of 
two  unities.  Eastern  and  Western.  Undoubtedly 
both  sides  knew  that  other  rites  were  equally  legiti- 
mate ways  of  celebrating  the  same  mysteries,  but  the 
difference  made  it  difficult  to  say  prayers  together. 
We  see  that  this  point  was  an  important  one  from  the 
number  of  accusations  against  purely  ritual  matters 
isrought  by  Ca>rularius  when  he  looked  for  grounds  of 
quarrel. 

Even  the  detail  of  language  was  an  element  of  sep- 
aration. It  is  true  that  the  East  was  never  entirely 
hollenized  as  the  West  was  latinized.  Nevertheless, 
Greek  did  become  to  a  great  extent  the  international 
language  in  the  East.  In  the  Eastern  councils  all  the 
bishops  talk  Greek.  So  again  we  have  the  same  two 
unities,  this  time  in  language — a  practically  Greek 
East  and  an  entirely  Latin  West.  It  is  difficult  to 
conceive  this  detail  as  a  cause  of  estrangement,  but  it 
is  undoubtedly  true  that  many  misunderstandings 
arose  and  grew,  simply  because  people  could  not 
understand  one  another.  For  during  the  time  when 
these  disputes  arose,  hardly  anyone  knew  a  foreign 
language.  It  was  not  till  the  Renaissance  that  the 
age  of  convenient  grammars  and  dictionaries  arose. 
St.  Gregory  I  (d.  1604)  had  been  apocrisary  at  Con- 
stantinople, but  he  does  not  seem  to  have  learned 
Greek;  Pope  Vigilius  (540-55)  spent  eight  unhappy 
years  there  and  yet  never  knew  the  language.  Pho- 
tius  was  the  profoundest  scholar  of  his  age,  yet  he 
knew  no  Latin.  \^Tien  Leo  IX  (1048-54)  wrote  in 
Latin  to  Peter  III  of  Antioch,  Peter  had  to  send  the 
letter  to  Constantinople  to  find  out  what  it  was  about. 
Such  cases  occur  continually  and  confuse  all  the  rela- 
tions between  East  and  W'est.  At  councils  the  papal 
legates  addre.ssed  the  assembled  fathers  in  Latin  and 
no  one  understood  them;  the  council  deliberated  in 
Greek  and  the  legates  wondered  what  was  going  on.  So 
there  arose  suspicion  on  both  sides.  Interpreters  had 
io  be  called  in ;  could  their  versions  be  trusted?  The 
Latins  especially  were  profoundly  suspicious  of  Greek 
craft  in  this  matter.  Legates  were  asked  to  sign 
documents  they  did  not  understand  on  the  strength 
of  a.ssurances  that  there  was  nothing  really  compro- 
mising in  them.  And  so  little  made  .so  much  differ- 
ence. The  famous  case,  long  afterwards,  of  the 
Decree  of  Florence  and  the  forms  Kad  dv  rpbirov, 
qwenui/lmodum,  shows  how  much  confusion  the  use 
of  two  languages  may  cause. 

These  causes  then  combined  to  produce  two  halves 
of  Christendom,  an  Eastern  and  a  Western  half,  each 
distinguished  in  various  ways  from  the  other.  They 
are  certainly  not  sufficient  to  account  for  a  separation 
of  tho.se  halves;  only  we  notice  that  already  there  was 
a  consciousness  of  two  entities,  the  first  marking  of 
a  line  of  division,  through  which  rivalry,  jealousy, 
hatred  might  easily  cut  a  separation. 

II.  Causes  of  Estrangement. — The  rivalry  and  ha- 
tred arose  from  several  causes.  Undoubtedly  the 
first,  the  root  of  all  the  quarrel,  was  the  a<Ivanceof  the 
See  of  Constantinople.  We  have  seen  that  four 
Eastern  patriarchates  were  to  some  extent  contrasted 
to  the  one  great  Western  unity.  Hafl  there  remained 
four  such  unities  in  the  East,  nothing  further  need 
have  followed.  What  accentuated  the  contrast  and 
ma^le  it  a  rivalry  was  the  gradual  a.ssumption  of  au- 
thority over  the  other  three  by  the  patriarch  at  Con- 
stantinople. It  was  C<jnstantinople  that  bound  to- 
f ether  the  p'.ast  into  one  body,  uniting  it  against  the 
Vent.  It  was  the  persisUint  attempt  of  the  empfv 
ror'a  patriarch  to  become  a  kind  of  Eastern  pope,  as 


nearly  as  possible  equal  to  his  Western  prototype,  that 
was  the  real  source  of  all  the  trouble.  On  the  one 
hand,  union  under  Constantinople  really  made  a  kind 
of  rival  Church  that  could  be  opposed  to  Rome;  on 
the  other  hand,  through  all  the  career  of  advance- 
ment of  the  Byzantine  bishops  they  found  only  one 
real  hindrance,  the  ])ersistcnt  opposition  of  the  popes. 
The  emperor  was  their  friend  and  chief  ally  always. 
It  was,  indeed,  the  emperor's  policy  of  centralization 
that  was  responsible  for  the  scheme  of  making  the  See 
of  Constantinople  a  centre.  The  other  patriarchs 
who  were  displaced  were  not  dangerous  opponents. 
Weakened  by  the  endless  Monophysite  quarrels,  hav- 
ing lost  most  of  their  flocks,  then  reduced  to  an  abject 
state  by  the  Moslem  conquest,  the  bishops  of  Alex- 
andria and  Antioch  could  not  prevent  the  growth  of 
Constantinople.  Indeed,  eventually,  they  accepted 
their  degradation  willingly  and  came  to  be  idle  orna- 
ments of  the  new  patriarch's  Court.  Jerusalem  too 
was  hampered  by  schisms  and  Moslems  and  was  itself 
a  new  patriarchate,  having  only  the  rights  of  the  last 
see  of  the  five. 

On  the  other  hand,  at  every  step  in  the  advance- 
ment of  Constantinople  there  was  always  the  oppo- 
sition of  Rome.  When  the  new  see  got  its  titular 
honour  at  the  First  Council  of  Constantinople  (381, 
can.  3),  Rome  refused  to  accept  the  canon  (she  was  not 
represented  at  the  council);  when  Chalcedon  in  451 
turned  this  into  a  real  patriarchate  (can.  28)  the 
legates  and  then  the  pope  himself  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge what  had  been  done;  when,  intoxicated  by  their 
quick  advancement,  the  successors  of  the  little  suffra- 
gan bishops  who  had  once  obeyed  Heraclea  assumed 
the  insolent  title  "cccumenical  patriarch",  it  was 
again  a  pope  of  Old  Rome  who  sternly  rebuked  their 
arrogance.  We  can  understand  that  jealousy  and 
hatred  of  Rome  rankled  in  the  minds  of  the  new 
patriarchs,  that  they  were  willing  to  throw  off  alto- 
gether an  authority  which  was  in  their  way  at  every 
step.  That  the  rest  of  the  East  joined  them  in  their 
rebellion  was  the  natural  result  of  the  authority  they 
had  succeeded  in  usurping  over  the  other  Eastern 
bishops.  So  we  arrive  at  the  essential  consideration 
in  this  question.  The  Eastern  Schism  was  not  a 
movement  arising  in  all  the  East;  it  was  not  a  quarrel 
between  two  large  bodies;  it  was  essentially  the  re- 
bellion of  one  see,  Constantinople,  which  by  the  em- 
peror's favour  had  already  acquired  such  influence 
that  it  was  able  unhappily  to  drag  the  other  patriarchs 
into  schism  with  it. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  suffragans  of  the 
patriarchs  would  naturally  follow  their  chiefs.  If 
then  Constantinople  had  stood  alone  her  schism 
would  have  mattered  comparatively  little.  What 
made  the  situation  so  serious  was  that  the  rest  of  the 
East  eventually  sidcnl  with  her.  That  followed  from 
her  all  too  .successful  assumption  of  the  place  of  chief 
see  in  the  East.  So  the  advance  of  Constantinople 
was  doubly  the  cause  of  the  great  schism.  It  brought 
her  into  conflict  with  Rome  and  made  the  Byzantine 
patriarch  almost  inevitably  the  enemy  of  the  pope;  at 
the  same  time  it  gave  him  such  a  position  that  his 
enmity  meant  that  of  all  the  East.  This  being  so,  we 
must  rememb(!r  how  entirely  unwarrantable,  novel, 
and  uncanonical  the  advance  of  Constantinoiile  was. 
The  K(«  was  not  Apostolic,  had  no  glorious  traditions, 
no  reason  whatever  for  its  usurpation  of  the  first  place 
in  the  East,  but  lui  accident  of  secular  politics.  The 
first  historical  BLsho])  of  Byzant  ium  was  Metrophanea 
(315-25) ;  he  was  not  even  a  metropolitan,  he  was  the 
lowest  in  rank  a  diocesan  bishop  could  be,  a  suffragan 
of  Heraclea.  That  is  all  his  succes.sors  ever  would 
have  been,  they  wouUl  have  had  no  power  to  influ- 
ence anyone,  had  not  Constantine  chosen  their  city 
for  his  capital.  All  through  thcnr  progress  they  made 
no  pretence  of  foimding  tlieir  claims  on  anything  but 
the  fact  that  they  were  now  bishops  of  the  political 


SCHISM 


537 


SCHISM 


capital.  It  was  as  the  emperor's  bishops,  as  func- 
tionaries of  the  imperial  Court,  that  they  rose  to  the 
second  place  in  Christendom.  The  legend  of  St.  An- 
drew founding  their  see  was  a  late  afterthought ;  it  is 
now  abandoned  by  all  scholars.  The  claim  of  Con- 
stantinople was  always  frankly  the  purely  Erastian 
one  that  as  Cajsar  could  establish  his  capital  w^here  he 
liked,  so  could  he,  the  civil  governor,  give  ecclesiasti- 
cal rank  in  the  hierarchy  to  any  see  he  liked.  The 
28th  canon  of  Chalcedon  says  so  in  so  many  words. 
Constantinople  has  become  the  New  Rome,  therefore 
its  bishop  is  to  have  like  honour  to  that  of  the  patriarch 
of  Old  Rome  and  to  be  second  after  him.  It  only 
needed  a  shade  more  insolence  to  claim  that  the  em- 
peror could  transfer  all  papal  rights  to  the  bishop  of 
the  city  where  he  held  his  court. 

Let  it  be  always  remembered  that  the  rise  of  Con- 
stantinople, its  jealousy  of  Rome,  its  unhappy  influ- 
ence over  all  the  East  is  a  pure  piece  of  Erastianism, 
a  shameless  surrender  of  the  things  of  God  to  Ca>sar. 
And  nothing  can  be  less  stable  than  to  establish  eccle- 
siastical rights  on  the  basis  of  secular  politics.  The 
Turks  in  1453  cut  away  the  foundation  of  Byzantine 
ambition.  There  is  now  no  emperor  and  no  Court  to 
justify  the  oecumenical  patriarch's  position.  If  we 
were  to  apply  logically  the  principle  on  which  he  rests, 
he  would  sink  back  to  the  lowest  place  and  the  patri- 
archs of  Christendom  w<nild  reign  at  Paris,  London, 
New*  York.  Meanwhile  the  old  and  really  canonical 
principle  of  the  superiority  of  Apostolic  sees  remains 
untouched  by  political  changes.  Apart  from  the  Di- 
vine origin  of  the  papacy,  the  advance  of  Constanti- 
nople was  a  gross  violation  of  the  rights  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Sees  of  Alexandria  and  Antioch.  We  need  not 
wonder  that  the  popes,  although  their  first  place  was 
not  questioned,  resented  this  disturbance  of  ancient 
rights  by  the  ambition  of  the  imperial  bishops. 

Long  before  Photius  there  had  been  schisms  be- 
tween Constantinople  and  Rome,  all  of  them  healed 
up  in  time,  but  naturally  all  tending  to  weaken  the 
sense  of  essential  unity.  From  the  beginning  of  the 
See  of  Constantinople  to  the  great  schism  in  S67  the 
list  of  these  temporary  breaciies  of  communion  is  a 
formidable  one.  There  were  fifty-five  years  of  schism 
(343-98)  during  the  Arian  troubles,  eleven  because  of 
St.  John  Chr>'sostom's  deposition  (404-15),  thirty- 
five  years  of  the  Acacian  schism  (484-519),  forty-one 
years  of  Monothelite  schism  (640-81),  sixty-one 
years  because  of  Iconoclasm.  So  of  these  544  years 
(323-867)  no  less  than  203  were  spent  by  Constanti- 
nople in  a  state  of  schism.  We  notice  too  that  in 
every  one  of  these  quarrels  Constantinople  was  on  the 
wrong  side;  by  the  consent  of  the  Orthodox,  too, 
Rome  in  all  stood  out  for  right.  And  already  we  see 
that  the  influence  of  the  emperor  (who  naturally  al- 
ways supported  his  court  patriarch)  in  most  cases 
dragged  a  great  number  of  other  Eastern  bishops  into 
the  same  schism. 

III.  Photius  and  Coerularius. — It  was  natural  that 
the  great  schisms,  which  are  immediately  responsible 
for  the  present  state  of  things,  should  be  local  quarrels 
of  Constantinople.  Neither  was  in  any  sense  a  gen- 
eral grievance  of  the  East.  There  was  neither  time 
any  reason  why  other  bishops  should  join  with  Con- 
stantinople in  the  quarrel  against  Rome,  except  that 
already  they  had  learned  to  look  to  the  imperial  city 
for  orders.  The  quarrel  of  Photius  was  a  gross  defi- 
ance of  lawful  church  order.  Ignatius  was  the  right- 
ful bishop  without  any  question;  he  had  reigned 
peaceably  for  eleven  years.  Then  he  refused  Com- 
munion to  a  man  guilty  of  open  incest  (857).  But 
that  man  was  the  regent  Bardas,  so  the  Government 
professed  to  depose  Ignatius  and  intruded  Photius 
into  his  see.  Pope  Nicholas  I  had  no  quarrel  against 
the  Eastern  Church;  he  had  no  quarrel  against  the 
Byzantine  see.  He  stood  out  for  the  rights  of  the  law- 
ful bishop.     Both  Ignatius  and  Photius  had  formally 


appealed  to  him.  It  was  only  when  Photius  foUllcJ 
that  he  had  lost  his  case  that  he  and  the  Government 
preferred  schism  to  submission  (867).  It  is  even 
doubtful  how  far  this  time  there  was  any  general 
Eastern  schism  at  all.  In  the  council  that  restored 
Ignatius  (869)  the  other  patriarchs  declared  that  they 
had  at  once  accepted  the  pope's  former  verdict. 

But  Photius  had  formed  an  anti-Roman  party 
which  was  never  afterwards  dissolved.  The  effect  of 
his  quarrel,  though  it  was  so  purely  personal,  though 
it  was  patched  up  when  Ignatius  died,  and  again  when 
Photius  fell,  was  to  gather  to  a  head  all  the  old 
jealousy  of  Rome  at  Constantinople.  We  see  this 
throughout  the  Photian  Schism.  The  mere  question 
of  that  usurper's  pretended  rights  does  not  account 
for  the  outburst  of  enmity  against  the  pope,  against 
everything  Western  and  Latin  that  we  notice  in  gov- 
ernment documents,  in  Photius's  letters,  in  the  Acta 
of  his  synod  in  879,  in  all  the  attitude  of  his  party. 
It  is  rather  the  rancour  of  centuries  bursting  out  on  a 
poor  pretext;  this  fierce  resentment  against  Roman 
interference  comes  from  men  who  know  of  old  that 
Rome  is  the  one  hindrance  to  their  plans  and  ambi- 
tions. Moreover,  Photius  gave  the  Byzantines  a  new 
and  powerful  weapon.  The  cry  of  heresy  was  raised 
often  enough  at  all  times;  it  never  failed  to  arouse 
popular  indignation.  But  it  had  not  yet  occurred  to 
any  one  to  accuse  all  the  West  of  being  steeped  in  per- 
nicious heresy.  Hitherto  it  had  been  a  question  of 
resenting  the  use  of  papal  authority  in  isolated  cases. 
This  new  idea  carried  the  war  into  the  enemy's  camp 
with  a  vengeance.  Photius's  six  charges  are  silly 
enough,  so  silly  that  one  wonders  that  so  great  a 
scholar  did  not  think  of  something  cleverer,  at  least 
in  appearance.  But  they  changed  the  situation  to  the 
Eastern  advantage.  When  Photius  calls  the  Latins 
"liars,  fighters  against  God,  forerunners  of  Anti- 
christ", it  is  no  longer  a  question  merely  of  abusing 
one's  ecclesiastical  superiors.  He  now  assumes  a 
more  effective  part ;  he  is  the  champion  of  orthodoxy, 
indignant  against  heretics. 

After  Photius,  John  Bekkos  says  there  was  "perfect 
peace"  between  East  and  West.  But  the  peace  was 
only  on  the  surface.  Photius's  cause  did  not  die.  It 
remained  latent  in  the  party  he  left,  the  party  that 
still  hated  the  West,  that  was  ready  to  break  the 
union  again  at  the  first  pretext,  that  remembered  and 
was  ready  to  revive  this  charge  of  heresy  against 
Latins.  Certainly  from  the  time  of  Photius  hatred 
and  scorn  of  Latins  was  an  inheritance  of  the  mass  of 
the  Byzantine  clergy.  How  deeply  rooted  and  far- 
spread  it  was,  is  shown  by  the  absolutely  gratuitous 
outburst  150  years  later  under  Michael  Cserularius 
(1043-58).  For  this  time  there  was  not  even  the 
shadow  of  a  pretext.  No  one  had  disputed  Caeru- 
larius's  right  as  patriarch;  the  pope  had  not  inter- 
fered with  him  in  any  way  at  all.  And  suddenly  in 
1053  he  sends  of?  a  declaration  of  war,  then  shuts  up 
the  Latin  churches  at  Constantinople,  hurls  a  string  of 
wild  accusations,  and  shows  in  every  possible  way 
that  he  wants  a  schism,  api)arently  for  the  mere  pleas- 
ure of  not  being  in  communion  with  the  West.  He 
got  his  wish.  After  a  series  of  wanton  aggressions, 
unparalleled  in  church  history,  after  he  had  begun  by 
striking  the  pope's  name  from  his  diptychs,  the  Ro- 
man legates  excommunicated  him  (16  July,  1054). 
But  still  there  was  no  idea  of  a  general  excommuni- 
cation of  the  Byzantine  Church,  still  less  of  all  the 
East.  The  legates  carefully  provided  against  that  in 
their  Bull.  They  acknowledged  that  the  emperor 
(Constantine  IX,  who  was  excessively  annoyed  at  the 
whole  quarrel),  the  Senate,  and  the  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  city  were  "most  pious  and  ortho- 
dox". They  excommunicated  Cajrularius,  Leo  of 
Achrida,  and  their  adherents. 

This  quarrel,  too,  need  no  more  have  produced  a  per- 
manent state  of  schism  than  the  excommunication  of 


SCHISM 


538 


SCHISM 


any  other  contumacious  bishop.  The  real  tragedy  is 
that  gradually  all  the  other  Eastern  patriarchs  took 
sides  with  Carularius,  obeyed  him  by  striking  the 
pope's  name  from  their  diptychs,  and  chose  of  their 
own  accord  to  share  his  schism.  At  first  they  do  not 
seem  to  have  wanted  to  do  so.  John  III  of  Antioch 
certainly  refused  to  go  into  schism  at  Caerularius's 
bidding"  But,  eventually,  the  habit  they  had  ac- 
quired of  looking  to  Constantinople  for  orders  proved 
too  strong.  The  emperor  (not  Constantine  IX,  but 
his  successor)  was  on  the  side  of  his  patriarch  and  they 
had  learned  too  well  to  consider  the  emi)eror  as  their 
over-lord  in  spiritual  matters  too.  Again,  it  was  the 
usurped  authority  of  Constantinople,  the  Erastian- 
ism  of  the  East  that  turned  a  personal  quarrel  into  a 
great  schism.  We  see,  too,  how  well  Photius's  idea  of 
calling  Latins  heretics  had  been  learned.  Csrula- 
rius  had  a  list,  a  longer  and  even  more  futile  one,  of 
such  accusations.  His  points  were  different  from  those 
of  Photius;  he  had  forgotten  the  FiUoquc,  and  had  dis- 
covered a  new  heresy  in  our  use  of  azyme  bread.  But 
the  actual  accusations  mattered  little  at  any  time,  the 
idea  that  had  been  found  so  useful  was  that  of  declar- 
ing tliat  we  are  impossible  because  we  are  heretics. 
It  was  offensive  and  it  gave  the  schismatical  leaders 
the  chance  of  assuming  a  most  effective  pose,  as  de- 
fenders of  the  true  Faith. 

IV.  After  Ccerularius. — In  a  sense  the  schism  was 
now  complete.  What  had  been  from  the  beginning 
two  portions  of  the  same  Church,  what  had  become 
two  entities  ready  to  be  divided,  were  now  two  rival 
Churches.  Yet,  "just  as  there  had  been  schisms  before 
Photius,  so  there  have  been  reunions  after  Caerularius. 
The  Second  Council  of  Lyons  in  1274  and  again  the 
Council  of  Florence  in  1439  both  arrived  at  a  reunion 
that  people  hoped  would  close  the  breach  for  ever. 
Unhappily,  neither  reunion  lasted,  neither  had  any 
sohd  basis  on  the  Eastern  side.  The  anti-Latin 
party,  foreshadowed  long  ago,  formed  and  organized 
by  Photius,  had  under  Csrularius  become  the  whole 
""Orthodox"  Church.  This  process  had  been  a  grad- 
ual one,  but  it  was  now  complete.  At  first  the  Slav 
Churches  (Russia,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  etc.)  saw  no  rea- 
son why  they  should  break  communion  with  the  West 
because  a  patriarch  of  Constantinople  was  angry  with 
a  pope.  But  the  habit  of  looking  to  the  capital  of  the 
empire  eventually  affected  them  too.  They  used  the 
Byzantine  Rite,  were  Easterns;  so  they  settled  on  the 
Eastern  side.  Cajrularius  had  managed  cleverly  to 
represent  his  cause  as  that  of  the  East;  it  seemed 
(most  unjustifiably)  that  it  was  a  question  of  Byzan- 
tines versus  Latins. 

At  Lyons,  and  again  at  Florence,  the  reunion  (on 
their  side)  was  only  a  political  expedient  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. The  emperor  wanted  Latins  to  fight  for 
him  against  the  Turks.  So  he  was  prepared  to 
concede  anything — till  the  danger  was  over.  It  is 
clear  that  on  these  occasions  the  religious  motive 
moved  only  the  Western  side.  We  had  nothing  to 
gain;  we  wanted  nothing  from  them.  The  Latins 
had  everything  to  ofTer,  they  were  prepared  to  give 
their  help.  All  they  wanted  in  return  was  that  an 
end  should  be  made  of  the  lamentable  and  scandalous 
spectacle  of  a  divided  Christendom.  For  the  religious 
motive  the  Byzantines  cared  nothing;  or,  rather,  re- 
ligion to  them  meant  the  continuation  of  the  schism. 
They  had  called  us  heretics  so  often  that  they  had 
Ix'gun  to  believe  it.  Reunion  was  an  unpleasant  and 
humiliating  condition  in  order  that  a  Frank  army 
might  come  and  protect  them.  The  common  people 
hafi  been  so  well  drilled  in  their  hatred  of  Azymites 
and  creed-tamperers,  that  their  zeal  for  what  they 
thought  Orthodoxy  prevailed  over  th(;ir  fear  of  the 
Turk.  "Rather  the  turban  of  the  Sultan  than  the 
tiara  of  the  Pope"  expressed  their  mind  exactly. 
When  the  bi.shops  who  ha*l  signed  the  decrees  of  re- 
union came  back,  each  time  they  were  received  with  a 


storm  of  indignation  as  bet  rayors  of  the  Orthodox  faith. 
Each  time  the  reunion  was  broken  almost  as  soon  as  it 
was  made.  The  last  act  of  schism  was  when  Diony- 
sius  I  of  Constantinople  (1467-72)  summoned  a  synod 
and  formally  repudiated  the  union  (1472).  Since 
then  there  has  been  no  intercommunion;  a  vast  "Or- 
thodox" Church  exists,  apparently  satisfied  with  be- 
ing in  schism  with  the  bishop  whom  it  still  recog- 
nizes as  the  first  patriarch  of  Christendom. 

V.  Reasons  of  the  Present  Schism. — In  this  deplor- 
able story  we  notice  the  following  j^oints.  It  is  easier 
to  understand  how  a  schism  cont  inues  than  how  it  be- 
gan. Schisms  are  easily  made;  they  are  enormously 
difficult  to  heal.  The  religious  instinct  is  always  con- 
servative; there  is  always  a  strong  tendency  to  con- 
tinue the  existing  state  of  things.  At  first  the  schis- 
matics were  reckless  innovators;  then  with  the  lapse 
of  centuries  their  cause  seems  to  be  the  old  one;  it  is 
the  Faith  of  the  Fathers.  Eastern  Christians  espe- 
cially have  this  conservative  instinct  strongly.  They 
fear  that  reunion  with  Rome  would  mean  a  betrayal 
of  the  old  Faith,  of  the  Orthodox  Church,  to  which 
they  have  clung  so  heroically  during  all  these  cen- 
turies. One  may  say  that  the  schism  continues 
mainly  through  force  of  inertia. 

In  its  origin  we  must  distinguish  between  the  schis- 
matical tendency  and  the  actual  occasion  of  its  out- 
burst. But  the  reason  of  both  has  gone  now.  The 
tendency  was  mainly  jealousy  caused  by  the  rise  of 
the  See  of  Constantinople.  That  progress  is  over 
long  ago.  The  last  three  centuries  Constantinople 
has  lost  nearly  all  the  broad  lands  she  once  acquired. 
There  is  nothing  the  modern  Orthodox  Christian  re- 
sents more  than  any  assumption  of  authority  by  the 
oecumenical  patriarch  outside  his  diminished  patri- 
archate. The  Byzantine  see  has  long  been  the  play- 
thing of  the  Turk,  wares  that  he  sold  to  the  highest 
bidder.  Certainly  now  this  pitiful  dignity  is  no 
longer  a  reason  for  the  schism  of  nearly  100,000,000 
Christians.  Still  less  are  the  immediate  causes  of  the 
breach  active.  The  question  of  the  respective  rights 
of  Ignatius  and  Photius  leaves  even  the  Orthodox 
cold  after  eleven  centuries;  and  Caerularius's  ambi- 
tions and  insolence  may  well  be  buried  with  him. 
Nothing  then  remains  of  the  original  causes. 

There  is  not  really  any  question  of  doctrine  in- 
volved. It  is  not  a  heresy,  but  a  schism.  The  De- 
cree of  Florence  made  every  possible  concession  to 
their  feelings.  There  is  no  real  reason  why  they 
should  not  sign  that  Decree  now.  They  deny  papal 
infallibility  and  the  Immaculate  Conception,  they 
quarrel  over  purgatory,  consecration  by  the  words  of 
institution,  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  in  each 
case  misrepresenting  the  dogma  to  which  they  object. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  show  that  on  all  these  points  their 
own  Fathers  are  with  those  of  the  Latin  Church, 
which  asks  them  only  to  return  to  the  old  teaching  of 
their  own  Chun^h. 

That  is  the  right  attitude  towards  the  Orthodox 
always.  They  have  a  horror  of  being  latinized,  of 
betraying  the  old  Faith.  One  must  always  insist  that 
there  is  no  idea  of  latini/ing  them,  that  the  old 
Faith  is  not  incompa1il)le  with,  but  rather  demands 
union  with  the  chief  see  which  their  Fathers  obeyed. 
In  canon  law  they  have  nothing  to  change  except  such 
abuses  as  the  sale  of  bishoprics  and  the  Erastianism 
that  their  own  better  theologians  deplore.  Celibacy, 
azyme  bread,  and  so  on  are  Latin  customs  that  no  one 
thinks  of  forcing  on  them.  They  n(>cd  not  add  the 
Filioqne  to  the  Creed;  they  will  always  keep  their 
ven(!rable  rite  untouched.  Not  a  bishop  need  be 
moved,  hardly  a  feast  (except  that  of  St.  Photius  on 
G  Feb.)  altered.  All  that  is  asked  of  them  is  to  come 
back  to  where  their  fathers  stood,  to  treat  Rome  as 
Athanasius,  Basil,  Chrysostoin  trea((!(l  her.  It  is  not 
Latins,  it  is  they  who  have  left  the  Faith  of  their 
Fathers.     There  is  no  humiliation  in  retracing  one's 


SCHISM 


539 


SCHISM 


steps  when  one  has  wandered  down  a  mistaken  road 
because  of  long-forgotten  personal  quarrels.  They 
too  must  see  how  disastrous  to  the  common  cause  is 
the  scandal  of  the  division.  They  too  must  wish  to 
put  an  end  to  so  crying  an  evil.  And  if  they  really 
wish  it  the  way  need  not  be  difficult.  For,  indeed, 
after  nine  centuries  of  schism  we  may  realize  on  both 
sides  that  it  is  not  only  the  greatest  it  is  also  the  most 
superfluous  evil  in  Christendom. 

For  details  of  the  schism  see  Greek  Church;  Photius; 
Michael  Cerularius;  Florence,  Council  of;  also  Fortes- 
cue,  The  Orthodox  Eastern  Church  (London,  1907)  and  the  works 
there  quoted. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Schism,  Western. — This  schism  of  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries  differs  in  all  points  from  the 
Eastern  Schism.  The  latter  was  a  real  revolt  against 
the  supreme  authority  of  the  Church,  fomented  by 
the  ambition  of  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople, 
favoured  by  the  Greek  emperors,  supported  by  the 
Byzantine  clergy  and  people,  and  lasting  nine  cen- 
turies. The  Western  Schism  was  only  a  temporary  mis- 
understanding, even  though  it  compelled  the  Church 
for  forty  years  to  seek  its  true  head;  it  was  fed  by 
politics  and  passions,  and  was  terminated  by  the  as- 
sembling of  the  councils  of  Pisa  and  Constance.  This 
religious  division,  infinitely  less  serious  than  the  other, 
will  be  examined  in  its  origin,  its  developments,  the 
means  employed  to  end  it,  and  its  ending  in  1417  by 
the  election  of  an  undisputed  jiope.  From  a  legal 
and  apologetic  standpoint  what  did  the  earh'  doctors 
think  of  it?  What  is  the  reasoned  opinion  of  modern 
theologians  and  canonists?  Was  the  real  pope  to  be 
found  at  Avignon  or  at  Rome? 

(1)  Pope  Gregory  XI  had  left  Avignon  to  return 
to  Italy  and  had  re-established  the  pontifical  see  in 
the  Eternal  City,  where  he  died  on  27  March,  1378. 
At  once  attention  was  directed  to  the  choice  of  his 
successor.  The  question  was  most  serious.  Cardi- 
nals, priests,  nobles,  and  the  Romans  in  general  were 
interested  in  it,  because  on  the  election  to  be  made  by 
the  Conclave  depended  the  residence  of  the  future 
pope  at  Avignon  or  at  Home.  Since  the  beginning  of 
the  century  the  ]i()ntitTs  had  fixed  their  abode  beyond 
the  Alps;  the  Koniaii.s,  wliose  interests  ami  claims  had 
been  so  long  slighted,  want(>(l  a  Roman  or  at  least  an 
Italian  pope.  The  name  of  Hartoloinmeo  Prignano, 
Archbishop  of  Bari,  was  merit ioni^l  from  the  first. 
This  prelate  had  been  Vic(>-Chancellor  of  the  Roman 
Church,  and  was  regarded  as  the  enemj^  of  vice,  sim- 
ony, and  display.  His  morals  were  exemplary  and  his 
integrity  rigid.  He  was  regardcnl  by  all  as  eligible. 
The  sixteen  cardinals  present  at  Rome  met  in  con- 
clave on  7  April,  and  on  the  following  day  chose  Pri- 
gnano. During  the  election  disturbance  reigned  in 
the  city.  The  people  of  Rome  and  the  vicinity,  tur- 
bulent and  easily  roused,  had,  under  the  sway  of  cir- 
cumstances, loudly  declared  their  preferences  and 
antipathies,  and  endeavoured  to  influence  the  de- 
cision of  the  cardinals.  Were  these  facts,  regrettable 
in  themselves,  sufficient  to  rob  the  members  of  the 
Conclave  of  the  necessary  freedom  of  mind  and  to 
prevent  the  election  from  being  valid?  This  is  the 
question  which  has  been  asked  since  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  On  its  solution  depends  our 
opinion  of  the  legitimacy  of  the  popes  of  Rome  and 
Avignon.  It  seems  certain  that  the  ctirdiiials  then  took 
every  means  to  obviate  all  possil)l(>  doubts.  On  the 
evening  of  the  same  day  thirteen  of  them  proceeded 
to  a  new  election,  and  again  chose  the  Archbishop  of 
Bari  with  the  formally  exjjressed  intention  f)f  selecting 
a  legitimate  pope.  During  the  following  days  all  the 
members  of  the  Sacred  College  offered  their  respectful 
homage  to  the  new  pope,  who  had  taken  the  name  of 
Urban  VI,  and  asked  of  him  countless  favours. 
They  then  enthroned  him,  first  at  the  Vatican  Palace, 
and  later  at  St.  John  Lateran ;  finally  on  18  April  they 


solemnly  crowned  him  at  St.  Peter's.  On  the  very 
next  day  the  Sacred  College  gave  official  notification 
of  Urban's  accession  to  the  six  French  cardinals  in 
Avignon;  the  latter  recognized  and  congratulated  the 
choice  of  their  colleagues.  The  Roman  cardinals 
then  wrote  to  the  head  of  the  empire  and  the  other 
Catholic  sovereigns.  Cardinal  Robert  of  Geneva, 
the  future  Clement  VII  of  Avignon,  wrote  in  the  same 
strain  to  his  relative  the  King  of  France  and  to  the 
Count  of  Flanders.  Pedro  de  Luna  of  Aragon,  the 
future  Benedict  XIII,  likewise  wrote  to  several  bish- 
ops of  Spain. 

Thus  far,  therefore,  there  was  not  a  single  objection 
to  or  dissatisfaction  with  the  selection  of  Bartolom- 
meo  Prignano,  not  a  protest,  no  hesitation,  and  no 
fear  manifested  for  the  future.  Unfortunately  Pope 
Urban  did  not  realize  the  hopes  to  which  his  election 
had  given  rise.  He  showed  himself  whimsical, 
haughty,  suspicious,  and  sometimes  choleric  in  his  re- 
lations with  the  cardinals  who  had  elected  him.  Too 
obvious  roughness  and  blameable  extravagances 
seemed  to  show  that  his  unexpected  election  had  al- 
tered his  character.  St.  Catherine  of  Siena,  with 
supernatural  courage,  did  not  hesitate  to  make  him 
some  very  well-founded  remarks  in  this  respect,  nor 
did  she  hesitate  when  there  was  question  of  blaming 
the  cardinals  in  their  revolt  against  the  pope  whom 
they  had  previously  elected.  Some  historians  state 
that  Urban  openly  attacked  the  failings,  real  or  sup- 
posed, of  members  of  the  Sacred  College,  and  that  he 
energetically  refused  to  restore  the  pontifical  see  to 
Avignon.  Hence,  they  add,  the  growing  opposition. 
However  that  may  be,  none  of  these  unpleasant  dis- 
sensions which  arose  subsequently  to  the  election 
could  logically  weaken  the  validity  of  the  choice  made 
on  8  April.  The  cardinals  elected  Prignano,  not  be- 
cause they  were  swayed  by  fear,  though  naturally 
they  were  somewhat  fearful  of  the  mischances  that 
might  grow  out  of  delay.  Urban  was  pope  before 
his  errors;  he  was  still  pope  after  his  errors.  The  pas- 
sions of  King  Henry  IV  or  the  vices  of  Louis  XV  did 
not  prevent  these  monarchs  from  being  and  remaining 
true  descendants  of  St.  Louis  and  lawful  kings  of 
France.  Unhappily  such  was  not,  in  1378,  the  rea- 
soning of  the  Roman  cardinals.  Their  dissatisfaction 
continued  to  increase.  Under  pretext  of  escaping  the 
unhealthy  heat  of  Rome,  they  withdrew  in  May  to 
Anagni,  and  in  July  to  Fondi,  under  the  protection  of 
Queen  Joanna  of  Naples  and  two  hundred  Gascon 
lances  of  Bernardon  de  la  Salle.  They  then  began  a 
silent  campaign  against  their  choice  of  April,  and  pre- 
pared men's  minds  for  the  news  of  a  second  election. 
On  20  September  thirteen  members  of  the  Sacred 
College  precipitated  matters  by  going  into  conclave 
at  Fondi  and  choosing  as  pope  Robert  of  Geneva,  who 
took  the  name  of  Clement  VII.  Some  months  later 
the  new  pontiff,  driven  from  the  Kingdom  of  Naples, 
took  up  his  residence  at  Avignon;  the  schism  was 
complete. 

Clement  VII  was  related  to  or  allied  with  the  prin- 
cipal royal  families  of  Europe;  he  was  influential,  in- 
tellectual, and  skilful  in  politics.  Christendom  was 
quickly  divided  into  two  almost  equal  parties.  Every- 
where the  faithful  faced  the  anxious  problem:  where 
is  the  true  pope?  The  saints  themselves  were  divided : 
St.  Catherine  of  Siena,  St.  Catherine  of  Sweden,  Rl. 
Peter  of  Aragon,  Bl.  Ursulina  of  Parma,  Philippe 
d'Alengon,  and  Gerard  de  Groote  were  in  the  camp  of 
Urban;  St.  Vincent  Ferrer,  Bl.  Peter  of  Luxemburg, 
and  St.  Colette  belonged  to  the  party  of  Clement. 
The  century's  most  famous  doctors  of  law  were  con- 
sulted and  most  of  them  decided  for  Rome.  Theolo- 
gians were  divided.  Germans  fike  Henry  of  Hesse  or 
Langstein  (Epistola  concilii  pads)  and  Conrad  of 
Gelnhausen  {Ep.  brevin;  Ep.  Concordia')  inclined  to- 
wards Urban;  Pierre  d'Ailly,  his  friend  Philippe  de 
Maizieres,  his  pupils  Jean  Gerson  and  Nicholas  of 


SCHISM 


540 


SCHISM 


Clemanges,  and  with  them  the  whole  School  of  Paris, 
defended  the  interests  of  Clement.  The  conflict  of 
rival  passions  and  the  noveltj-  of  the  situation  rend- 
ered understanding  difficult  and  unanimity  impossible. 
As  a  general  thing  scholars  adopted  the  opinion  of 
their  countrj'.  The  powers  also  took  sides.  The 
greater  number  of  the  Itahan  and  German  states, 
England,  and  Flanders  supported  the  pope  of  Rome. 
On  the  other  hand  France.  Spain,  Scotland,  and  all 
the  nations  in  the  orbit  of  France  were  for  the  pope 
of  A\-ignon.  Nevertheless  Charles  V  had  first  sug- 
gested officially  to  the  cardinals  of  Anagni  the  as- 
sembhng  of  a  general  council,  but  he  was  not  heard. 
Unfortunately  the  rival  popes  launched  excommunica- 
tion against  each  other;  they  created  numerous  cardi- 
nals to  make  up  for  the  defections  and  sent  them 
throughout  Christendom  to  defend  their  cause,  spread 
their  influence,  and  win  adherents.  While  these 
grave  and  burning  discussions  were  being  spread 
abroad,  Boniface  IX  had  succeeded  Urban  VI  at 
Rome  and  Benedict  XIII  had  been  elected  pope  at  the 
death  of  Clement  of  A\ngnon.  "There  are  two  mas- 
ters in  the  vessel  who  are  fencing  wiih.  and  contra- 
dicting each  other",  said  Jean  Petit  at  the  Council  of 
Paris  (1406).  Several  ecclesiastical  assemblies  met 
in  France  and  elsewhere  -nithout  definite  result.  The 
e\-il  continued  without  remedy  or  truce.  The  King 
of  France  and  his  uncles  began  to  weary  of  supporting 
such  a  pope  as  Benedict,  who  acted  onty  according  to 
his  humour  and  who  caused  the  failure  of  every  plan 
for  union.  Moreover,  his  exactions  and  the  fiscal 
severity  of  his  agents  weighed  heavily  on  the  bishops, 
abbots,  and  lesser  clergj^  of  France.  Charles  VI  re- 
leased his  people  from  obedience  to  Benedict  (1398), 
and  forbade  his  subjects,  under  severe  penalties,  to 
submit  to  this  pope.  Every  bull  or  letter  of  the  pope 
was  to  be  sent  to  the  king;  no  account  was  to  be  taken 
of  pri\'ileges  granted  by  the  pope;  in  future  every  dis- 
pensation was  to  be  asked  of  the  ordinaries. 

This  therefore  was  a  schism  within  a  schism,  a  law 
of  separation.  The  Chancellor  of  France,  who  was 
already  viceroy  during  the  illness  of  Charles  VI,  thereby 
became  even  ^^ce-pope.  Not  without  the  conni- 
vance of  the  public  power,  Geoffrey  Boucicaut,  brother 
of  the  illustrious  marshal,  laid  siege  to  Avignon,  and 
a  more  or  less  strict  blockade  deprived  the  pontiff 
of  all  communication  with  those  who  remained  faith- 
ful to  him.  When  restored  to  Uberty  in  140.3  Bene- 
dict had  not  become  more  conciUating,  less  obstinate 
or  stubborn.  Another  private  synod,  which  as- 
sembled in  Paris  in  14(X),  met  with  only  partial  suc- 
ce.ss.  Innocent  VII  had  already  succeeded  Boniface 
of  Rome,  and,  after  a  reign  of  two  years,  was  replaced 
by  Gregory  XII.  The  latter,  although  of  temperate 
character,  seems  not  to  have  realized  the  hopes  which 
Christendom,  immeasurably  wearied  of  these  endless 
divisions;  had  placed  in  him.  The  council  which 
assembled  at  Pisa  added  a  third  claimant  to  the  papal 
throne  instead  of  two  (1409).  After  many  confer- 
ences, projects,  discussions  (oftentimes  violent),  in- 
terventions of  the  civil  powers,  catastrophes  of  all 
kinds,  the  Council  of  Constance  (1414)  deposed  the 
6u.spiciou8  John  XXIII,  received  the  abdication  of  the 
gentle  and  timid  Gregory  XII,  and  finally  dismissed 
the  obstinate  Benedict  XIII.  f>n  11  November, 
1417,  the  assembly  elected  Odo  Colonna,  who  took 
the  name  of  Martin  V.  Thus  ended  the  great  schism 
of  the  West. 

(2)  From  this  brief  summary  it  will  be  readily  con- 
cluded that  this  schism  did  not  at  all  resemble  that  of 
the  East,  that  it  was  something  unique,  and  that  it 
has  remained  m  in  history.  It  was  not  a  schism 
properly  m  called,  being  in  reality  a  deplorable  mis- 
understanding concerning  a  question  of  fact,  an  his- 
t^jrical  cx>mplication  which  lasted  forty  years.  In  the 
West  there  was  no  revolt  against  papal  authority  in 
general,  no  scorn  of  the  sovereign  power  of  which  St. 


Peter  was  the  representative.  Faith  in  the  necessary 
unity  never  wavered  a  particle;  no  one  wished  volun- 
tarily to  separate  from  the  head  of  the  Church.  Now 
this  intention  alone  is  the  characteristic  mark  of  the 
schismatic  spirit  (Summa,  II-II,  Q.  xxxix,  a.  1).  On 
the  contrary  everyone  desired  that  unity,  materially 
overshadowed  and  temporarily  compromised,  should 
speedily  shine  forth  with  new  splendour.  The  the- 
ologians, canonists,  princes,  and  faithful  of  the  four- 
teenth century  felt  so  intensely  and  maintained  so 
vigorously  that  this  character  of  unity  was  essential 
to  the  true  Church  of  Jesus  Christ,  that  at  Constance 
soUcitude  for  unity  took  precedence  of  that  for  reform. 
The  benefit  of  unity  had  never  been  adequately  ap- 
preciated till  it  had  been  lost,  till  the  Church  had  be- 
come bicephalous  or  tricephalous,  and  there  seemed 
to  be  no  head  precisely  because  there  were  too  many. 
Indeed  the  first  mark  of  the  true  Church  consists 
above  all  in  unity  under  one  head,  the  Divinely  ap- 
pointed guardian  of  the  unity  of  faith  and  of  worship. 
Now  in  practice  there  was  then  no  wilful  error  regard- 
ing the  necessity  of  this  character  of  the  true  Church, 
much  less  was  there  any  culpable  revolt  against  the 
known  head.  There  was  simply  ignorance,  and 
among  the  greater  number  invincible  ignorance  re- 
garding the  person  of  the  true  pope,  regarding  him  who 
was  at  that  time  the  visible  depositary  of  the  promises 
of  the  invisible  Head.  How  indeed  was  this  ignorance 
to  be  dispelled?  The  only  witnesses  of  the  facts,  the 
authors  of  the  double  election,  were  the  same  persons. 
The  cardinals  of  1378  held  successive  opinions.  They 
had  in  turn  testified  for  Urban,  the  first  pope  elected, 
on  8  April,  and  for  Clement  of  Avignon  on  20  Septem- 
ber. Who  were  to  be  believed?  The  members  of 
the  Sacred  College,  choosing  and  writing  in  April,  or 
the  same  cardinals  speaking  and  acting  contradictor- 
ily in  September?  Fondi  was  the  starting  point  of  the 
division;  there  Mkewise  must  be  sought  the  serious 
errors  and  formidable  responsibiUties. 

Bishops,  princes,  theologians,  and  canonists  were 
in  a  state  of  perplexity  from  which  they  could  not 
emerge  in  consequence  of  the  conflicting,  not  disin- 
terested, and  perhaps  insincere  testimonj^  of  the  car- 
dinals. Thenceforth  how  were  the  faithful  to  dispel 
uncertainty  and  form  a  morally  sure  opinion?  They 
relied  on  their  natural  leaders,  and  these,  not  knowing 
exactly  what  to  hold,  followed  their  interests  or  pas- 
sions and  attached  themselves  to  probabilities.  It 
was  a  terrible  and  distressing  problem  which  lasted 
forty  years  and  tormented  two  generations  of  Chris- 
tians; a  schism  in  the  course  of  which  there  was  no 
schismatic  intention,  unless  exception  perhaps  be 
made  of  some  exalted  persons  who  should  have  con- 
sidered the  interests  of  the  Church  before  all  else. 
Exception  should  also  be  made  of  some  doctors  of 
the  period  whose  extraordinary  opinions  show  what 
was  the  general  disorder  of  minds  during  the  schism 
(N.  Valois,  I,  351;  IV,  501).  Apart  from  these  ex- 
ceptions no  one  had  the  intention  of  dividing  the 
seamless  robe,  no  one  formally  desired  schism;  those 
concerned  were  ignorant  or  misled,  but  not  culpable. 
In  behalf  of  the  great  majority  of  clergy  and  people 
must  be  ploachid  the  good  faith  which  excludes  all 
errors  and  the  wellnigh  impossibility  for  the  simple 
faithful  to  reach  the  truth.  This  is  tlu;  conclusion 
reached  by  a  study  of  the  facts  and  contemporary 
docMincnls.  This  King  Charles  V,  the  Count  of 
FlaiHJcrs,  the  Duke  of  Brittany,  and  Jean  Gerson,  the 
great  cliiincf'llor  of  the  university,  vie  with  one  an- 
other in  declaring.  D' A  illy,  then  Bi.shop  of  Cam- 
brai,  in  his  diocesan  synods  echoed  the  same  nifxlerate 
and  c(mciliatory  sentiments.  In  1409  he  said  to  the 
Genoese:  "I  know  no  schismatics  save  those  who 
stubbornly  refuse  to  learn  the  truth,  or  who  after  dis- 
covering it  refuse  to  submit  to  it,  or  who  still  formally 
declare  that  they  do  not  want  Ui  follow  the  movement 
for  union".     Schism  and  heresy  as  sins  and  vices,  he 


SCHLEGEL 


541 


SCHLEGEL 


adds  in  1412,  can  only  result  from  stubborn  opposi- 
tion cither  to  the  unity  of  the  Church,  or  to  an  article 
of  faith.  Tliis  is  the  pure  doctrine  of  the  Angelic 
Doctor  (cf.  Tshackert,  "Peter  von  Ailli",  appendix 
32,33). 

(3)  Most  modern  doctors  uphold  the  same  ideas. 
It  suffices  to  quote  Canon  J.  Didiot,  dean  of  the  fac- 
ulty of  Lille:  "If  after  the  election  of  a  pope  and  before 
his  death  or  resignation  a  new  election  takes  place, 
it  is  null  and  schismatic;  the  one  elected  is  not  in  the 
Apostohc  Succession.  This  wa-s  seen  at  the  beginning 
of  what  is  called,  somewhat  incorrectly,  the  Great 
Schism  of  the  West,  which  was  only  an  apparent 
schism  from  a  theological  standpoint.  If  two  elec- 
tions take  place  simultaneously  or  nearly  so,  one  ac- 
cording to  laws  previously  pas.sed  and  the  other  con- 
trary to  them,  the  apostolicity  belongs  to  the  pope 
legally  chosen  and  not  to  the  other,  and  though  there 
be  doubts,  discu-ssions,  and  cruel  divisions  on  this 
point,  as  at  the  time  of  the  so-called  Western  Schism, 
it  is  no  less  true,  no  less  real  that  the  apostolicity 
exists  objectively  in  the  true  pope.  What  does  it 
matter,  in  this  objective  relation,  that  it  is  not  mani- 
fest to  all  and  is  not  recognized  by  all  till  long  after? 
A  treasure  is  bequeathed  to  me,  but  I  do  not  know 
whether  it  is  in  the  chest  A  or  in  the  casket  B. 
Am  I  any  le.ss  the  posse.s.sor  of  this  treasure?"  After 
the  theologian  let  us  hear  the  canonist.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  words  of  Bouix,  so  competent  m  all  these 
questions.  Speaking  of  the  events  of  this  sad  period 
he  says:  "This  dissension  was  called  schism,  but  in- 
correctly. No  one  withdrew  from  the  true  Roman 
pontiff  considered  as  such,  but  each  obeyed  the  one 
he  regardiid  as  the  true  pope.  They  submitted  to 
him,  not  absolutely,  but  on  condition  that  he  was  the 
true  pope.  Although  there  were  several  obediences, 
nevertheless  there  was  no  schism  properly  so-called" 
(De  Papa,  1,461). 

(4)  To  contemporaries  this  problem  was,  as  has 
been  sufficiently  shown,  almost  in.soluble.  Are  our 
lights  fuller  and  more  brilliant  than  theirs?  After 
six  centuries  we  are  able  to  judge  more  disinterestedly 
and  impartially,  and  apparently  the  time  is  at  hand 
for  the  formation  of  a  decision,  if  not  definitive,  at 
least  better  informed  and  more  just.  In  our  opinion 
the  question  made  rapid  strides  towards  the  end  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  Cardinal  Hergenrother,  Blio- 
metzriedcr,  Hefele,  Ilinschius,  Kraus,  Bruck,  Funk, 
and  the  learned  Pastor  in  Germany,  Marion,  Chenon, 
de  Beaucourt,  and  Denifle  in  France,  Kirsch  in  Swit- 
zerland, Palma,  long  after  Rinaldi,  in  Italy,  Albers  in 
Holland  (to  mention  only  the  most  competent  or 
illustrious)  have  openly  declared  in  favour  of  the 
popes  of  Rome.  Noel  Valois,  who  a.s.sumes  authority 
on  the  question,  at  first  considered  the  rival  popes  as 
doubtful,  and  believed  "that  the  solution  of  this  great 
problem  was  beyond  the  judgment  of  history"  (I,  8). 
Six  years  later  he  concluded  his  authoritative  study 
and  reviewed  the  facts  related  in  his  four  large  vol- 
umes. The  following  is  his  last  conclusion,  much 
more  explicit  and  decided  than  his  earlier  judgment: 
"A  tradition  has  been  established  in  favour  of  the 
popes  of  Rome  which  historical  investigation  tends 
to  confirm".  Does  not  this  book  itself  (IV,  503), 
though  the  author  hesitates  to  decide,  bring  to  the 
support  of  the  Roman  thesis  new  arguments,  which  in 
the  opinion  of  some  critics  are  quite  convincing?  A 
final  and  quite  recent  argument  comes  from  Rome. 
In  1904  the  "Gerarchia  Cattolica",  basing  its  argu- 
ments on  the  date  of  the  Liber  Pontificalis,  compiled 
a  new  and  corrected  list  of  sovereign  pontiffs.  Ten 
names  have  disappeared  from  this  hst  of  legitimate 
popes,  neither  the  popes  of  Avignon  nor  those  of  Pisa 
being  ranked  in  the  true  lineage  of  St.  Peter.  If  this 
deliberate  omission  is  not  proof  positive,  it  is  at  least 
a  very  strong  presumption  in  favour  of  the  legiti- 
macy of  the  Roman  popes  Urban  VI,  Boniface  IX, 


Innocent  VII,  and  Gregory  XII.  Moreover,  the 
names  of  the  popes  of  Avignon,  Clement  VII  and  Bene- 
dict XIII,  were  again  taken  by  later  popes  (in  the  six- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries)  who  were  legitimate. 
We  have  already  quoted  much,  having  had  to  rely  on 
ancient  and  contemporary  testimonies,  on  those  of 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  as  on  those  of 
the  nineteenth  and  even  the  twentieth,  but  we  shall 
transcribe  two  texts  borrowed  from  writers  who  with 
regard  to  the  Church  are  at  opposite  poles.  The  first 
is  Gregorovius,  whom  no  one  will  suspect  of  exagger- 
ated respect  for  the  papacy.  Concerning  the  schis- 
inatic  divisions  of  the  period  he  writes:  "A  temporal 
kingdom  would  have  succumbed  thereto;  but  the 
organization  of  the  spiritual  kingdom  was  so  wonder- 
ful, the  ideal  of  the  papacy  so  indestructible,  that  this, 
the  most  serious  of  schisms,  served  only  to  demon- 
strate its  indivisibihty"  (Gesch.  der  Stadt  Rom  im 
Mittelalter,  VI,  620).  From  a  widely  different  stand- 
point de  Maistre  holds  the  same  view:  "This  scourge 
of  contemporaries  is  for  us  an  historical  treasure.  It 
serves  to  prove  how  immovable  is  the  throne  of  St. 
Peter.  What  human  organization  would  have  with- 
stood this  trial?"  (Du  Pape,  IV,  conclusion). 

D'AcH^RY,  Spicilegium  (Paris,  1723) ;  Baluze,  Vita  paparum 
avenionensium  (Paris,  1693) ;  Bliemetzrieder,  Das  Generalkonzil 
im  orossen  abendldndischen  Schisma  (Paderborn,  1904);  Idem, 
Die  Komilsidee  unter  Innocens  VII  u.  Konig  Ruprecht  von  der 
Pfalz  (1906);  Idem,  LiUerarische  Polemik  zu  Beginn  des  Grossen 
Schismas  (Vienna  and  Leipzig,  1909);  Bouix,  Traclatus  de  papa 
(Pans,  1869);  Brax.n,  The  Schism  of  the  West  and  the  Freedom  of 
Papal  Elections  (New  York,  1895) ;  Chronica  Karoli  VI,  by  a  monk 
of  Saint-Denis;  Collection  de  documents  inedits  sur  I'histoire  de 
France,  ed.  Bellagdet  (Paris,  1839-52);  Chroniques  de  France, 
ed.  Paulin  (Paris.  1836-40);  Cleman'gis,  0pp.  omnia  (Leyden, 
1613);  Creighton,  A  History  of  the  Papacy  during  the  Period  of 
the  Reformation.  I.  The  Great  Schism.  The  Council  of  Con- 
stance (London,  1882);  De.vifle,  Die  UniversitSten  des  Mittel- 
alters  (Berlin,  1885) ;  Ide.m,  La  desolation  des  eglises,  des  monastires 
et  des  hdpiiaux  durant  la  guerre  de  Cent  ans  (Paris,  1899) ;  Denifle 
AND  Chateuain,  Chartularium  Universitatis  Parisiensis  (4  vols., 
Paris,  1890 — );  Dcpuy,  Hist,  du  Schisme  d'Occident  1378-1  .',20 
(Paris,  1654);  Ehrle,  Martin  de  Alpartils  Chronica  actitatorum 
temporibus  Domini  Benedicli  XIII  (Paderborn,  1906);  Faces, 
Hist,  de  saint  Vincent  Ferrier  (Paris,  1893;  2nd  ed.,  Louvain, 
1901);  Gatet,  Le  grand  Schisme  d'Occident  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1889); 
Gerson,  Opera,  ed.  Richer  (Paris,  1606),  ed.  Ellies-Dupin 
(.Antwerp,  1706);  von  der  IIardt,  Rerum  Concilii  (Ecumenici 
Conslantiensis,  I,  II  (Frankfort  and  Leipzig,  1697-1700);  In- 
dex by  Bohnstedt  (Berlin,  1742);  von  der  Hardt,  Herman 
ton  der  Hardt  und  sein  Sechs  (Paderborn,  1889) ;  Hefele,  Con- 
ciliengesch.,  French  tr.,  Goschler  and  Delarc,  X-XI  (Paris, 
1869),  ed.  Leclercq  (1911);  Hefele,  Beitrdge  zur  Kirchengesch. 
(1864);  Jahr,  Die  Wahl  Urbans  V/ (Halle,  1892);  Jepp,  Gerson, 
Wicliff  et  Huss  (Gottingen,  1857);  Kaiser,  KSnig  Karl  V.  v. 
Frankreich  u.  die  grosse  Kirchenspaltung  (Munich,  1904) ;  Kneer, 
Die  Entstehung  der  conciliarien  Theorie  zur  Gesch.  des  Schismas  u. 
der  Kirchenpolitiken  (Rome,  1897);  Idem,  Kardinal  Zaharella 
(Munster,  1901);  Locke,  The  Age  of  the  Great  Western  Schism 
(Edinburgh,  1897) ;  Maimbourg,  Hist,  du  grand  Schism,e  d'Occi- 
dent (Paris,  1722);  Mansi,  Sacrorum  conciliorum  nova  et  am- 
plissima  collectio  (Florence,  1759;  Paris,  1910);  Mart^ne  and 
Durand,  Veterum  scriptorum  et  monuTnentorum  historicorum, 
dogm/iticorum,  moralium  amplissima  Collectio  (Paris,  1724-33); 
Mart^ne,  Thesaurus  novus  anecdotorum  (Paris,  1717);  Niem, 
De  schismate  libri  III,  ed.  Erler  (Leipzig,  1890) ;  Niem,  Nemus 
unionis  (Basle,  1566);  Rastoul,  L'unite  religieuse  pendant  le 
grand  Schisme  d'Occident  (Paris,  1904);  Salembier,  Petrus  de 
Alliaco  (Lille,  1886);  Idem,  Le  grand  Schisme  d'Occident  (4th  ed.. 
Pans,  1902);  tr.  The  Great  Western  Schism  (London,  1907);  It. 
tr.  (Siena,  1903);  Span.  tr.  (Madrid,  1902);  Idem,  Deux  conciles 
inconnus  au  temps  du  grand  Schisme  (Lille,  1902);  Scheuffgen, 
Beitrdge  zu  der  Gesch.  des  grossen  Schismas  (Freiburg,  1889); 
Schwab,  Johannes  Gerson,  Professor  der  Theologie  u.  Kanzler  der 
Unitersitat  Paris  (Wurzburg,  1858) ;  Sorbelli,  De  moderno 
ecclesice  schismate.  Trattato  di  Vincenzo  Ferrer  (Rome,  1900); 
SoucHON,  Die  Papstwahlen  in  der  Zeit  des  grossen  Schismas 
(Brunswick,  1899);  Tschackert,  Peter  von  Ailli  (Petrus  de 
Alliaco).  Zur  Gesch.  des  grossen  abendldndischen  SchisTnas  u. 
der  Reformconcilien  von  Pisa  u.  Konstanz  (Gotha,  1877) ;  Valois, 
La  France  et  le  grand  Schisme  d'Occident  (Paris,  1896-1902). 

Louis  Salembier. 

Schlegel,  Friedrich  von,  poet,  writer  on  aesthet- 
ics, anrl  literary  hi.storian,  the  "Messias"  of  the 
Romantic  School,  b.  at  Hanover,  10  March,  1772; 
d.  at  Dresden,  12  January,  1829.  Of  the  two 
brothers  Schlegel,  who  are  regarded  as  the  real  foun- 
ders of  the  Romantic  School,  Friedrich  the  younger 
is  the  more  important.  The  outward  life  of  the 
"Messias"  of  the  Romantic  School,  as  Rahel  named 


SCHLESWIG 


542 


SCHLESWIG 


him.  in  its  variety,  is  typical  of  the  Romanticists. 
Destined  at  first  for  commercial  life,  he  turned  to 
higher  studies  in  his  sixteenth  year,  proceeded  after 
a  rapid  preparation  to  the  University  of  Gottingen, 
and  there  studied  first  jurisprudence  and  then 
philology.  At  Leipzig  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  art  and  the  history  of  ancient  literature. 
After  a  short  residence  in  Dresden,  where  he  visited 
the  art  collections,  he  settled  with  his  brother  in 
Jena,  but  later  moved  to  Berlin,  where  he  formed  a 
friendship  with  his  later  wife,  Dorothea  Veit  {nee 
Mendelssohn),  according  to  the  principles  which  he 
had  laid  down 
in  his  notorious 
"Luzinde"  (Ber- 
lin, 1799).  In 
ISOO  he  returned 
to  Jena  to  qual- 
ify as  tutor,  but 
in  1802  proceeded 
to  Dresden  and 
thence  to  Paris, 
where  he  deliv- 
ered lectures  on 
])hilosoi)hy  and 
edited  the  journal 
"Emopa".  In 
1S04  he  married 
Dorothea,  who 
had  separated 
from  her  husband 
RiEDHKH  vox  .scHLEGEL  aud     euibraccd 

Protestantism;  both  became  Catholics  in  1808  at 
Cologne,  and  henceforth  begins  for  the  restless  and 
poverty- -stricken  Schlegel  a  period  of  peace.  Rec- 
ommended from  Cologne,  he  secured  a  position 
as  secretary  in  the  court  and  state  chancellery  at 
Vienna,  and  in  1809  accompanied  Archduke  Charles 
to  war,  issuing  fiery  proclamations  against  Napoleon 
and  editing  the  army  newspaper.  In  1811  while 
at  Vienna  he  began  his  lectures — on  modern  history. 
He  was  full  of  bitterness  against  Napoleon  and 
enthusiastically  in  favour  of  the  medieval  imperial 
idea.  In  the  following  year  he  delivered  his  famous 
lectures  on  the  history  of  ancient  and  modern  litera- 
ture. 

From  1815  to  1818  Schlegel  resided  at  Frankfort 
as  coun.sellor  of  the  Austrian  legation  to  the  federal 
diet.  He  then  accompanied  Alettcrnich  to  Italy, 
visiting  Rome  at  the  request  of  his  wife.  On  his 
return  to  Vienna,  he  edited  the  journal  "Concordia" 
(1820-3),  wherein  he  championed  the  idea  of  a 
Christian  state.  After  preparing  the  edition  of  all 
his  works  (10  vols.,  1822-5),  he  again  delivered  lec- 
tures on  the  philosophy  of  life  and  the  philo.sophy  of 
history,  continuing  at  Dresden  in  1828  on  the  phil- 
o.sophy of  speech  and  words.  Here  a  stroke  of 
apoplexy  brought  him  to  an  earlj^  death.  Schlegel 
essayed  all  three  branches  of  poetry,  but  without 
much  success.  In  180.5-6  he  published  a  "  Poetisches 
Tagebuch",  which  in  addition  to  small  lyrical  pieces 
contains  the  epic  "Roland".  Three  years  later  ap- 
peared hLs  "Ciedichte"  (Berlin,  1809),  which  are 
models  of  metrical  art  and  noble  language,  but 
sacrifice  freshness  to  artificiality.  The  romance 
"Luzinde"  he  later  condemned.  His  tragedy 
".Markos"  nos.sesse8  no  enduring  worth,  although 
('i()c\\\{'.  haA  it  produced  at  Weimar.  Schlcger.s 
importance  lies  in  his  numerous  literary-critical 
writings,  and  in  his  successful  efTorts  to  unite  simi- 
larly minded  friends  (Tieck,  Novalis,  Schleiermacher) 
into  an  a,s.sociation,  the  "School  of  Romanticism" 
(1798).  To  establish  and  spread  the  principles  of 
the  new  school,  Schlegel  founded  with  his  brother 
August  Wilhc'lm  the  journal  "Atheniuim"  (1798); 
this  w.'iK  given  tip  after  two  years,  but.  not  un- 
til it  had  attained   its  object.     It   proclaimed    the 


programme  for  the  many-sided  strivings  of  Roman- 
ticism. 

Of  the  works  of  Schlegel  two  still  maintain  their 
high  importance:  "Ueber  die  Sprache  imd  Weisheit 
der  Inder"  (Heidelberg,  1808;  tr.  into  French,  Paris, 
1837),  and  "Die  Geschichte  der  alten  und  neuen 
Literatur"  (Vienna,  1815,  tr.  into  French,  Paris, 
1829).  While  these  two  works  may  be  surpassed 
in  many  particulars,  they  yet  contain  in  embryo  the 
modern  achievements  in  both  domains.  P.  Baum- 
gartner,  the  latest  author  of  a  universal  literature, 
thus  regarded  Friedrich  von  Schlegel  as  his  guide  and 
master,  to  whom  he  believed  he  owed  his  chief  in- 
spiration. The  following  works  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English;  "Philosophy  of  History"  (Lon- 
don, 1869);  "  Lectures  on  Modern  History"  (London, 
1849);  "Esthetic  and  Miscellaneous  Works"  (Lon- 
don, 1875). 

Haym,  Die  romantische  Schule  (2nd  ed.,  Berlin,  1906) ;  Godeke, 
Gruiidriss,  VI,  17-27,  contains  the  literature  until  1898;  Minor, 
Prosaische  Jugendschriften  Schlegels  (2nd  ed.,  1906);  Alt, 
Schiller  u.  die  Gebrilder  Schlegel  (1894);  Glawe,  Friedrich  von 
Schlegels  Religion  (1906);  Salzbr,  Illustrierte  Gesch.  der  deutschen 
Lit.,  part  XXXVI.  pp.   1435-40. 

N.    SCHEID. 

Schleswig,  formerly  a  duchy  and  diocese  of  north- 
western Germany,  now  a  part  of  the  Prussian  Prov- 
ince of  Schleswig-Holstein.  In  the  early  Middle  Ages 
the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Jutland  wslb 
a  bone  of  contention  between  the  Germans  and  the 
Danes.  When  in  the  fifth  century  the  greater  part  of 
the  Germanic  population  had  left  the  region  in  order 
to  seek  a  new  home  in  Britain,  the  Danes  or  Jutes 
pushed  their  way  into  the  country  and  the  part  of  the 
Germanic  population  that  had  remained  behind  amal- 
gamated with  the  new  masters.  The  Frisians  were 
the  only  ones  to  retain  their  national  peculiarities  after 
lo.sing  their  national  independence.  About  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  century  Charlemagne  conquered  the 
southernmost  part  of  the  peninsula;  he  formed  the 
territory  on  the  Eider  into  a  Mark  as  a  protection 
against  the  Slavs.  As  early  as  his  reign  Christian 
missions  began  to  gain  a  foothold  in  the  region.  The 
first  preacher  of  the  Christian  faith  was  the  priest 
Atrebanus,  who  was  a  pupil  of  Willehad,  the  first 
Bishop  of  Bremen.  Atrebanus  founded  a  mission  sta- 
tion among  the  heathen  Dithmarschians,  but  suffered 
the  death  of  a  martyr  during  the  Saxon  revolt  in  780. 
During  the  reign  of  Louis  the  Pious,  Archbishop  Ebo 
of  Reims,  the  emperor's  confidential  friend,  re-estab- 
lished the  mission,  but  without  great  success.  About 
850  Ebo's  companion,  Ansgar  the  Apostle  of  the 
North,  erected  the  first  church  in  the  little  town  of 
Schleswig;  this  was  soon  followed  in  860  by  the 
building  of  the  church  at  Ripen.  These  successes  of 
the  mission  of  the  Carlovingian  period  were  destroyed 
during  the  heathen  reaction  that  followed.  Under 
the  vigorous  administration  of  the  German  king, 
Henry  I,  the  Mark  on  the  Eider  was  re-established  in 
934,  and  soon  after  this  Unni,  Archbishop  of  Ham- 
burg, once  more  took  in  hand  the  bringing  of  the  north 
to  Christianity.  Christian  commvmities  intTcased,  es- 
pecially after  the  Danish  King  Harold  Blue  Tooth 
(d.  986)  had  accepted  Christianity,  and  the  three  di- 
oceses of  Schleswig,  Ripen,  and  Aarli.-uis  were  founded 
at  the  request  of  Arclibishop  Adaldag  of  Bremen. 
These  dioces(>s  wen^  made  suffragans  of  Bremen.  The 
first  Bishop  of  Schleswig  was  Ilored,  who  was  present 
in  948  at  tlu;  (liTiiian  synod  of  Ingelheim.  Tli(>  Dio- 
cese of  Schleswig,  though,  did  not  inchule  the  whole  of 
the  later  Duchy  of  Sclil(>swig,  as  the  north-western 

Eart  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Ripen,  and  the  Is- 
mds  of  Alsen,  Aro,  and  Fehmarn  to  the  Diocese  of 
Fiinen. 

During  the  reign  of  King  Harold  Blue  Tooth,  Chris- 
tianity became  the  dominating  religion  of  Denmark 
and  Schleswig.  Pag.'uiism,  however,  regained  the 
Buprcmacy  when  Harold's  son  Sven  with  the  Forked 


SCHLESWIG 


543 


SCHLESWIG 


Beard,  who  had  been  a  viking,  returned  home  in  985 
and  overthrew  his  father.  Christians  were  ill-treated, 
the  Diocese  of  Aarhaus  was  suppressed,  and  the  two 
other  bishops  were  driven  away.  Yet  in  the  last 
years  of  his  life  Svcn  with  the  Forked  Beard  turned  to 
Christianity,  and  his  son  Canute  the  Great,  who  by 
the  conquest  of  England  created  a  great  northern  em- 
pire, established  Christianity  at  last  in  his  territories. 
In  1035  his  son-in-law  the  German  King  Conrad  II 
gave  him  the  Mark  of  Schleswig  as  compensation  for 
the  alliance  he  had  maintained  with  Germany  for 
many  years.  The  Mark  included  the  territory  be- 
tween the  Eider,  Schlei,  and  Treene.  The  political 
separation  from  the  German  Empire  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  ecclesiastical.  Canute  had  reorganized 
the  Danish  Church  and  had  divided  it  into  nine  di- 
oceses. In  1103  or  1104  a  separate  Danish  archdiocese 
was  erected  at  Lund  for  all  these  bishoprics,  and, 
notwithstanding  the  protests  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Bremen,  Schleswig  was  made  a  suffragan  of  Lund.  Be- 
fore long  the  political  union  with  Denmark  was  weak- 
ened again.  From  the  time  that  the  whole  of  Schles- 
wig belonged  to  Denmark  it  was  ruled  by  royal 
governors;  these  governors  were  generally  princes 
of  the  royal  house  who  grew  steadily  more  inde- 
pendent of  the  king.  In  1115  Knut  Laward  was 
able  to  gain  the  viceregency  of  Schleswig  in  fief 
from  the  Danish  King  Niels,  and  was  also  made 
duke  of  this  territory.  Thus  a  basis  was  laid  for 
a  more  independent  position  of  the  province  with- 
in the  Kingdom  of  Denmark.  Under  Knut's  suc- 
cessors Schleswig  was  often  united  with  Denmark, 
as  Waldemar  I  and  II,  dukes  of  Schleswig,  were  also 
kings  of  Denmark.  These  kings,  however,  sought  to 
keep  Schleswig  as  their  personal  domain,  separate 
Ircm  the  adininistraticm  of  Denmark.  In  1231 
Abel,  the  youngest  son  of  Waldemar  II,  was  granted 
the  duchy;  he  founded  an  independent  ducal  line 
that  ruled  the  duchy  for  over  a  hundred  and  fifty 
years. 

Both  politically  and  ecclesiastirally  the  two  cen- 
turies following  the  reign  of  Knut  Laward  form  the 
most  prosperous  period  of  the  province.  Of  the 
bishops,  Alberus  (1096-1134),  in  particular,  was  very 
active  in  his  office,  and  laboured  among  the  Frisians 
who  had  been  conquered  by  Knut.  The  diocese  re- 
ceived large  grants  of  land  from  Waldemar  I,  pos- 
sessions that  were  scattered  through  all  parts  of  the 
duchy;  in  1187  the  diocese  was  released  from  all  pay- 
ment of  imposts  and  taxes  to  the  king.  A  number  of 
monasteries  arose  that  did  much  for  the  intellectual 
and  material  development  of  the  country;  nearly 
thirty  monasteries  can  be  proved  to  have  existed  in 
the  period  before  the  Reformation.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  were  the  Cistercian  abbeys  of  Lii- 
gumkloster,  Guldhom,  and  Schleswig,  the  convent  of 
St.  John  for  Benedictine  nuns  at  Schleswig,  the  Fran- 
ciscan monasteries  at  Hadersleben,  Tondern,  and 
Schleswig,  and  the  Dominican  monastery  at  Schles- 
wig. In  the  course  of  time  many  of  these  monas- 
teries had  obtained  large  landed  possessions.  When 
in  1325  Duke  Eric  II  died  and  left  a  minor  son  Walde- 
mar V,  King  Christopher  II  of  Denmark  wished  to 
become  the  guardian  and  thus  gain  control  of  the 
duchy.  However,  the  powerful  Count  Gerhard  III  of 
Holstein  of  the  Schauenburg  line,  who  was  an  uncle 
of  Waldemar,  and  also  the  latter 's  guardian,  opposed 
the  king.  Gerhard  gained  control  of  the  government, 
and  drove  Christopher  out  of  his  own  kingdom. 
Waldemar  V  was  elected  King  of  Denmark  and  in 
return  gave  the  Duchy  of  Schleswig  to  his  uncle, 
the  Count  of  Holstein.  Thus  the  duchies  Schles- 
wig and  Holstein  became  united  at  the  same  time 
(1326)  Waldemar  made  a  law,  called  the  "Constitu- 
tio  Waldemariana",  by  which  in  future  the  same  per- 
son could  never  be  the  ruler  both  of  Denmark  and 
Schleswig.     During  the  troubles  caused  by  the  re- 


turn of  the  banished  King  Christopher  the  Counts  of 
Holstein  were  not  able  to  maintain  their  controlof  the 
Duchy  of  Schleswig.  It  was  not  until  the  era  of  Ger- 
hard VI,  the  grandson  of  (ierhard  111  (as.sassinated 
1340),  that  the  counts  of  Holstein  regained  possession 
of  Schleswig;  Gerhard  VI  was  granted  the  duchy  in 
fief  by  Queen  Margaret  of  Denmark,  and  in  1403 
gained  possession  of  almost  the  whole  of  the  duchy  of 
Holstein  on  account  of  the  extinction  of  the  line 
of  Kiel.  Since  this  time  Schleswig  has  always  been 
united  with  Holstein  which  was  a  state  of  the  German 
Empire. 

On  the  death  in  1459  of  Adolf  VII,  son  of  Gerhard 
yi,  the  line  of  the  counts  of  Schauenburg  became  ex- 
tinct, and  the  estates  of  Schleswig  and  of  Holstein 
elected  in  1460  as  duke  and  count  the  Danish  King 
Christian  of  the  Oldenburg  dynasty,  who  was  the  son 
of  Adolf's  sister.  The  new  duke  and  count,  though, 
was  obliged  to  swear  that  both  countries  should  be 
"forever  undivided",  and  that  they  should  be  inde- 
pendent of  Denmark  in  their  internal  administration 
and  constitution.  Thus  both  territories  were  united 
by  personal  union  with  Denmark,  the  Duchy  of 
Schleswig  (which  had  been  a  Danish  fief),  and  the 
Countship  of  Holstein,  which  in  1474  was  also  raised 
to  a  duchy  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  III.  In  spite 
of  this  union  with  Denmark  both  territories  remained 
German  in  character;  the  langiuxge  of  the  courts  and 
official  documents  was  German,  the  law  of  the  cities  was 
German,  the  nobility  was  German,  the  bishop  and 
chapter  of  the  Diocese  of  Schleswig  were  chosen  from 
German  families.  The  close  intellectual  union  with 
Germany  was  still  further  promoted  by  the  Reforma- 
tion, which  in  Schleswig  as  in  the  whole  of  Denmark 
was  largely  the  work  of  the  rulers.  The  Bishop  of 
Schleswig  of  that  period,  Gottschalk  of  Ahlefeld 
(1527-41),  fearlessly  opposed,  indeed,  the  intrusion  of 
the  new  doctrine,  but  his  efforts  had  little  success. 
For  in  the  course  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, especially  during  the  rule  of  the  counts  of  Hol- 
stein, the  bi.shops  had  ceased  to  be  indeiK'udent  of  the 
dukes;  from  vassals  of  the  king  they  had  hccinno  vas- 
sals of  the  dukes  and  had  sunk  into  mere  local  bishops. 
In  1536  Lutheranism  was  declared  the  religion  of  the 
state  by  Christian  III,  the  exercise  of  the  Catholic 
faith  was  forbidden,  and  the  property  of  the  diocese 
was  confiscated.  After  Gottschalk's  death  Tileman 
of  Hussen  was  appointed  in  1541  the  first  Lutheran 
Bishop  of  Schleswig.  He  was  followed  by  four  other 
Lutheran  bishops,  after  which  the  diocese  was  sup- 
pressed in  1624.  While  the  Catholic  Church  was  en- 
tirely suppressed  in  Schleswig,  in  Holstein  a  few 
Catholic  communities  were  permitted  to  remain  in  ex- 
istence. In  the  seventeenth  century  Catholic  Church 
services  were  allowed  to  be  held  again  in  a  few  places. 
In  1667  all  these  Catholic  communities  were  placed 
under  the  care  of  the  newly-established  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  the  Northern  Missions,  and  shared  its 
vicissitudes. 

In  1544  the  two  duchies  were  divided  between  the 
three  sons  of  the  king  and  Duke  Frederick  I  (d.  1533). 
The  basis  of  the  division  was  this:  three  equal  por- 
tions were  formed  for  the  three  brothers  out  of  the 
duchies,  which  portions  were  named  after  the  castles 
of  Sonderburg,  Gottorp,  and  Hadersleben,  while  the 
courts,  the  system  of  taxation,  the  army,  and  the 
diets  that  were  held  at  Flensburg  for  Schleswig,  and 
at  Kiel  for  Holstein,  remained  in  common.  When  in 
1580  the  Hadersleben  line  became  extinct,  another 
division  was  made,  the  possessions  of  the  Haders- 
leben line  being  divided  between  King  Frederick  II 
and  Duke  Adolf  of  Holstein-Gottorp  (1581).  After 
this  there  were  two  lines:  the  royal,  which  was 
called  Schleswig-Holstein-Gliickstadt  after  the  seat 
of  administration  for  the  duchies,  and  from  which 
in  the  course  of  time  several  branches  sprang; 
second,  a  ducal  line  called  the  Gottorp  line  which, 


SCHLESWIG 


544 


SCHLESWIG 


besides  sharing  in  the  two  duchies,  also  owned  the 
former  Diocese  of  Liibeck.  Duke  Frederick  III  of 
Gottorp,  who  ruled  from  1616  to  1659,  put  an  end 
to  the  subdivisions  of  the  Gottorp  hue  by  intro- 
ducing primogeniture.  During  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  ty\-o  ruhng  d\-nasties  were  generally  hostile 
to  each  other  because  the  Gottorp  line  sought  alli- 
ance with  Sweden,  the  enemy  of  Denmark.  Thus  the 
duchies  became  involved  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
and  the  two  wars  of  the  North.  In  the  Treaty  of 
Roeskilde  that  closed  the  first  war  of  the  North,  the 
Gottorp  dynasty  received,  through  the  intervention 
of  Sweden,"  full  sovereignt.y  by  the  suppression  of  Den- 
mark's suzerainty  over  its  share  of  the  duchies.  How- 
ever, in  the  Treaty  of  Stockhohn  that  in  1720  closed 
the  second  war  of  the  North,  which  had  not  been  for- 
tunate for  Sweden,  the  Gottorp  line  was  obliged  to 
concede  its  share  of  Schleswig  to  Denmark  and  only 
retained  its  possessions  in  Holstein.  The  whole  of 
Schleswig  was  now  obhged  to  recognize  the  Danish 
kmg  as  its  ruler.  In  the  treaties  of  1767  and  1773  the 
Gottorp  dATiasty,  which  had  gained  the  throne  of 
Russia  in  the  person  of  Peter  III,  was  obliged  to  re- 
nounce its  possessions  in  Holstein  also,  in  return  for 
which  it  received  Oldenburg.  In  this  way  Denmark 
became  the  sole  ruler  of  Schleswig-Holstein. 

The  union  of  the  two  duchies  with  the  German  Em- 
pire grew  continually  weaker,  especially  as  after  the 
dissolution  of  the  German  Empire  in  1806  the  duchies 
had  no  protection  against  the  policy  of  their  ruler; 
this  policy,  which  was  to  stamp  a  Danish  character 
upon  them,  was  not  affected  by  the  fact  that  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  made  Holstein  a  part  of  the  German 
Empire.  The  Danes  showed  plainly  more  and  more 
their  determination  to  separate  the  two  duchies,  which 
by  right  should  never  ha\-e  been  divided,  and  to  gain  at 
least  Schleswig  as  a  part  of  the  Danish  nation,  because 
the  population  of  Schleswig  was  largely  Danish  in 
speech.  The  people,  however,  accepted  all  the  measures 
of  the  Danish  government  very  composedly,  as  the 
male  line  of  the  royal  dynasty  would  soon  be  extinct  and 
the  female  line  was,  by  the  Salic  law  of  succession,  not 
capable  of  succeeding  in  the  duchies,  although  it  could 
in  Denmark.  The  duchies  were  satisfied  even  with 
the  constitution  granted  in  1834,  although  it  was  not 
one  in  common  for  both  duchies  and  did  not  preserve 
anj'  essential  right  of  the  people.  King  Christian, 
however,  in  1846  pubhshed  a  letter  in  which  he 
declared  the  Danish  right  of  succession  to  be  also 
valid  in  the  duchies,  and  his  successor  Frederick  VIII 
(1848-63)  was  forced  by  popular  assembUes  at  Copen- 
hagen, soon  after  he  came  to  the  throne,  to  promise 
the  incorporation  of  Schleswig  into  the  Danish  king- 
dom. These  two  events  were  followed  by  a  revolt  of 
thf  [)eoi)le  r)f  the  duchies.  On  24  March,  1848,  a  tem- 
porary i)rovincial  government  was  estal)lisli('(l  ;it  Kiel, 
which  declared  that  it  assumed  for  the  lime  Ix'ing  in 
the  name  of  the  ruler,  tlie  Danish  king,  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  rights  of  both  duchies,  as  the  ruler  had 
been  forcer!  by  mob-rule  to  take  a  hostile  position  to 
the  duchies.  When,  upon  this,  Denmark  sent  troops 
into  Scldcswig-HoLstein,  not  only  did  the  population 
of  the  duchies  take  up  arms,  but  there  was  also  a  great 
national  movement  in  Germany  in  favour  of  their  en- 
dangered countrymen  in  the  North.  Volunteers  from 
all  parts  of  Germany  went  to  the  aid  of  the  people  of 
Schleswig-Holstein.  King  Frederick  William  IV  of 
Pru.ssia  sent  an  army  into  the  duchies  and  even  the 
Diet  of  the  German  Conf(;deration  was  carried  away 
by  the  national  enthusiasm.  It  proclaimed  that 
Schleswig  was  made  a  member  of  the  German  Con- 
ffflf-ration  and  gave  to  Prussia  the  direction  of  the  war 
against  Denmark.  The  Prussian  trof)ps  and  those  of 
the  confederation  won,  it  is  true,  several  brilliant  vic- 
t^>ries,  r-sfK-cially  tin;  carrying  of  the  fortifications  of 
Duppel.  However,  the  lack  of  a  (ierman  fleet,  and 
the   threatened    interference   of    Russia   and    Great 


Britain  led  Prussia  to  consent  to  a  truce,  which  was 
followed  by  a  treaty  in  1850  that  was  also  accepted  by 
the  German  Confederation.  Contrary  to  the  general 
promise  that  the  rights  of  the  duchies  should  be  re- 
spected, they  were  again  given  to  Denmark.  After 
this  the  five  Great  Powers  declared  at  a  conference 
held  at  London  in  1852,  that  the  Danish  Kingdom  was 
indiAisiblc  in  all  its  parts,  that  the  separate  position  of 
the  duchies  should  be  maintained  within  this  king- 
dom, and  that  should  the  male  line  of  the  Danish 
dynasty  become  extinct  the  succession  was  to  fall  to 
the  House  of  Gliicksburg.  In  this  way  the  right  of 
succession  previously  valid  in  the  duchies  of  the  Elbe 
was  thrown  aside,  and  the  Augustenburg  line,  that  had 
branched  oflf  from  the  Danish  roj-al  house  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  was  excluded  from  the  succession  to 
Schleswig  Holstein.  Consequently  the  German  Con- 
federation and  Frederick,  Crown  prince  of  Augusten- 
burg, protested  against  the  London  protocol,  while 
Prussia  and  Austria  recognized  it. 

After  the  duchies  were  handed  over  to  Denmark 
there  was  an  energetic  attempt,  especially  in  Schles- 
wig, to  make  these  provinces  entirely  Danish  in  char- 
acter. All  connexion  with  Holstein  was  set  aside, 
a  custom-house  was  erected  on  the  Eider,  Danish 
preachers,  teachers,  and  troops  were  sent  into  Schles- 
wig, while  the  German  soldiers  and  officers  were 
brought  into  Danish  garrisons,  and  lastly  Danish  was 
made  the  language  of  the  Church  and  schools.  When 
the  male  line  of  the  Danish  royal  family  became  ex- 
tinct at  the  death  of  Frederick  VII  (15  November, 
1863),  according  to  the  regulations  of  the  London 
protocol  Christian  of  Gliicksburg  succeeded  as  Chris- 
tian IX.  Immediately  after  his  accession  Christian 
announced  a  constitution  which  included  the  uncon- 
ditional incorporation  of  Scldeswig  into  Denmark.  The 
proclamation  of  this  Constitution  of  November  was  fol- 
lowed in  Germany  by  unprecendented  excitement  and 
manifestations  of  disapproval,  and  the  demand  was 
made  for  the  complete  separation  of  the  duchies  from 
Denmark.  Holstein  was  occupied  by  the  troops  of  the 
German  Confederation ;  even  Prussia  and  Austria  now 
took  the  part  of  the  duchies.  These  powers  called 
upon  Denmark  to  withdraw  the  Constitution  of  No- 
vember, and  when  these  demands  were  rejected  they 
sent  Prussian  and  Austrian  troops  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  Prussian  Field  Marshal  Wrangel  into 
Schleswig  in  Feb.,  1864.  After  the  fortifications  of 
Duppel,  the  Island  of  Alsen,  and  the  entire  peninsula 
of  Jutland  had  been  gained  by  the  Germans  the 
Danes  saw  themselves  compelled  to  yield.  In  the 
Peace  of  Vienna  (October,  1864)  King  Christian  re- 
nounced all  rights  over  Schleswig  and  Holstein  in 
favour  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria  and  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  recognized  in  advance  whatever  dispo- 
sition the  two  monarchs  should  make  of  these  prov- 
inces. The  po,ssession  in  common  of  the  duchies  only 
increased  the  strain  of  the  relations  existing  between 
Prussia  and  Austria.  Austria  desinMl  to  form  a  new 
state  of  the  German  Confederation  under  tlie  govern- 
ment of  the  Duke  of  Augustenburg,  while  Prussia,  on 
the  contrary,  preferred  to  keep  the  region  for  itself 
and  only  permit  the  country  to  have  a  ruler  of  its  own 
if  all  traffic,  all  customs,  and  the  army  of  the  new  state 
were  under  the  control  of  Prussia.  The  Prince  of 
Augustenburg  would  not  consent  to  such  an  arrange- 
ment. In  the  Treaty  of  Gastein  of  14  Aug.,  1865,  the 
duchies  were  divided  between  the  two  powers.  Austria 
took  in  charge  the  administration  of  Holstein,  Prussia 
that  of  Scldeswig.  It  was  seen  from  the  start  that  this 
solution  of  the  question  could  not  l)e  of  long  duration. 
The  tension  between  the  two  powers  for  pre-eminence 
in  Germany  led  in  the  next  year  to  a  war  between 
them.  Austria  was  (lef(>ated,  was  obliged  to  with- 
draw from  the  German  (confederation  and  to  renounce 
all  rights  tf)  Schleswig  and  Holstein  in  favour  of 
Prussia.     From  1867  the  two  duchies  have  formed  the 


SCHLOR 


545 


SCHMID 


Prussian  province  of  Schlosvvig-Holstein  (see  Ger- 
many, ViCAUiATE  Apostolic  of  Northern). 

.Sec  bibliography  in  Kischer-Benzon,  Kuliilou  dtr  Landexbihlio- 
Ihek  fur  ScUleswiy-fluLstein  (Schleswig,  1S9()-9S);  Quellensamin- 
luny    der    Geseltschaft    filr     schleswig-holstein-lauenburgiache     Ge- 

schichte  (5  vols.,  Kiel,  1862 );  Schleswig-Holstein-Lauenburgische 

Regesten  und  Urkunden  (3  vols.,  Hamburg  and  Leipzig,  1886-96) ; 
Zeitschrift  des    Vereins   fiir    schleswig-holstein-lauenburgische    Ge- 

schiche  (Kiel,  1870 ) ;   Archiv  fiir  Stoats-  und  Kirchengeschichte 

der  Herzogtilmer  Schleswig,  Holstein  und  Lauenburg  (5  vols.,  Al- 
tona,  1833-43);  Christian:,  Geschichte  der  Herzoglumer  Schles- 
wig und  Holstein  (4  vols.,  Flenaburg  and  Leipzig,  1776-79),  con- 
tinued by  Hegewisch  and  Kobbe  (3  parts,  1784-1834) ;  Waitz, 
Schleswig-Ilolsteins  Geschichte  (2  vols.,  Gottingen,  1851-52); 
Idem,  Kurze  Schleswig -Holsteinische  Landesgeschichte  (2nd  ed., 
Kiel,  1898);  Sach,  Das  Herzogtum  Schleswig  in  seiner  ethno- 
graphischen  und  yiationalen  Entwicklung  (3  parts,  Halle,  1896, 
1907) ;  Jensen  and  Micheijsen,  Schleswig-Holsteinische  Kirchen- 
geschichte (4  parts,  Kiel,  1873-79);  Die  Bau-  und  Kunstdenkmdler 
der  Provinz  Schleswig-Holstein,  ed.  Haupt  (3  vols.,  Kiel,  1887-89) ; 
von  Schubert,  Kirchengeschichte  Schlestvig-Holsteins  (Kiel,  1907) ; 
Schriften  des  Vereins  fiir  schleswig-holsteinische  Kirchengeschichte 
(Kiel,  1906). 

Joseph  Lins. 

Schlor,  Aloysius,  ascetical  writer,  b.  at  Vienna, 
17  June,  1805;  d.  at  Graz,  2  Nov.,  1852.  After  com- 
pleting his  studies  at  Vienna  he  was  ordained  priest 
on  22  Aug.,  1828,  and  placed  as  chaplain  at  Altler- 
chenfeld.  In  1831  he  was  prefect  of  studies  at  the 
seminary  of  Vienna  and  at  the  same  time  took  ad- 
vanced studies  in  theology,  earning  the  degree  of 
Do(!tor  in  1832.  Two  years  later  he  was  appointed 
si)iritual  director  of  the  Frintaneum  and  chaplain 
at  the  Court  and  confessor  to  Emperor  Ferdinand. 
He  resigned  his  position  in  1837,  laboured  as  chaplain 
for  the  Germans  at  Verona,  was  then  adopted  into 
the  Diocese  of  Seckau  and  made  spiritual  director 
at  the  priests'  seminary  in  Graz.  Here  he  spent  the 
rest  of  his  days,  doing  much  for  the  reformation 
of  the  clergy  in  Austria,  especially  by  the  reintro- 
duction  of  s{)iritual  retreats  and  by  his  writings.  The 
principal  of  these  are:  "Warum  bin  ich  Katholik?", 
published  between  1834  and  1837;  "Jesu  mein 
Verhmgen",  a  much-valued  prayerbook  (1835,  7th 
ed.,  1902);  "Philanthropic  des  Glaubens,  oder  das 
kirchliche  Leben  in  Verona  in  der  neuesten  Zeit", 
1839;  " Geistesubungen  des  hi.  Ignatius"  (1840); 
"Clericus  orans  et  meditans"  (1841,  1883)-  "Der 
geistliche  Wegwci.sor "  (1842),  to  which  is  added  an 
instruction  showing  how  a  priest  can  obtain  a  good 
library;  "Der  Kleriker  in  der  Eiasamkeit"  (1844, 
1902);  " Betrachtungen  fiir  Priester  und  Kleriker"  (3 
vols.,  1847;  1900).  His  sermons  were  published  in 
1851,  and  a  .special  edition  of  his  Lenten  Sermons  was 
issued  in  1905. 

Hist.-poHt.  Blatter,  V,  590;  Linzer  Quarlahchr.  (1883),  886; 
(1884).  188;  (1890),  431;  Allgem.  deutsche  Biogr.,  s.  v.;  WuRZ- 
BACH,  Biogr.  Lex.  des  Kaisertums  Oesterreich,  XXX,  132;  Hur- 
TER,  Nomencl.,  II,  1163. 

Francis  Mershman. 

Schlosser,  John  Frederick  Henry,  jurist,  b.  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  30  December,  1780;  d.  there, 
22  January,  1851.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  vari- 
ous universities,  among  others  at  Jena,  where  he  en- 
tered into  familiar  relations  with  Schiller  and  Goethe. 
After  receiving  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Jurisprudence 
(1803),  he  settled  at  Frankfort  as  an  advocate,  later 
being  api)ointed,  by  Primate  Prince  Dalborg,  counsel 
of  the  municipal  court  (1806),  counsellor  for  the  high 
stihools  and  studies,  and  director  of  the  grand-ducal 
lyceum  (1812).  On  the  dissolution  of  the  Grand 
duchy  of  J^rankfort,  Schlosser  resigned  his  office,  and 
in  1814  entered  the  Catholic  Church  with  his  wife 
Sophie  (nee  Du  Fay).  He  was  one  of  the  represent- 
atives of  his  native  city  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 
He  was  later  one  of  the  most  determined  champions 
of  the  rights  of  the  Catholic  community  in  Frankfort, 
and  successfully  advocated  the  civil  equality  of  every 
Christian  denomination.  Soon,  however,  he  with- 
drew from  public  life,  and  after  1825  usually  spent  the 
winter  in  Frankfort,  passing  the  summer  at  his  coun- 
try seat,  Neuburg  near  Heidelberg.  As  he  was  chari- 
XIIL— 35 


table,  hospitable,  and  free  from  all  denominational 
na.rrowness,  and  devoted  himself  whole-heartedly  to 
scientific  undertakings  (e.g.  the  Monumenta  Ger- 
maniie)  besides  possessing  a  fine  artistic  sense,  his 
home  soon  became  a  centre  for  the  leading  spirits  in 
literature,  art,  and  science.  With  Goethe  he  re- 
mained ever  on  terms  of  familiarity,  and  was  his 
zealous  collaborator  in  the  romance  "Aus  meinem 
Leben".  On  the  death  of  the  great  writer,  Schlosser 
began  a  "Goethe  Collection",  which  later  passed  to 
the  ecclesiastical  seminary  at  Mainz.  He  wrote: 
"Die  morgenlandische  orthodoxe  Kirche  Russlands" 
(Heidelberg,  1845);  "Die  Kirche  in  ihren  Liedern 
durch  alle  Jahrhunderte "  (2  vols.,  Freiburg,  1851; 
2nd  ed.,  1863).  After  his  death  his  wife  published 
from  his  papers  four  booklets  (1856-9),  and  Frese 
published  "  Goethe-Briefe  aus  Schlossers  Nachlass" 
(Stuttgart,  1877). 

Allgem.  detUsche  Biogr.,  xxxi  (Leipzig,  1890),  541  sq. 

Patricius  Schlager. 
Schmalzgrueber,  Francis  Xavier,  canonist,  b. 
at  Griesbach,  Bavaria,  9  Oct.,  1663;  d.  at  Dillingen, 
7  Nov.,  1735.  Entering  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1679 
he  made  his  studies  at  Ingolstadt,  obtaining  the 
doctorate  both  in  theology  and  canon  law.  He 
taught  humanities  at  Munich,  Dillingen,  and  Neu- 
burg; philosophy  at  Mindelheim,  Augsburg,  and 
Ingolstadt;  dogmatic  theology  at  Innsbruck  and 
Lucerne.  From  1703  to  1716  (with  an  interruption 
of  two  years  when  he  occupied  the  chair  of  moral 
theology)  he  was  professor  of  canon  law,  alternating 
between  Dillingen  and  Ingolstadt.  He  was  twice 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Dillingen;  for  two 
years  cen.sor  of  books  for  the  Jesuits  at  Rome,  and  for 
a  like  period  prefect  of  studies  at  Munich.  His 
judgment  and  clearness  in  expounding  questions  in 
ecclesiastical  jurisprudence  cause  him  to  be  held  in 
great  esteem  even  to-day.  His  chief  work,  "Jus 
Ecclesiasticum  Universum",  first  published  at  Ingol- 
stadt in  1817,  underwent  various  editions,  the  last 
appearing  at  Rome  (1843-5)  in  twelve  quarto  volumes. 
A  compendium  of  this  work  was  styled  "Succincta 
sacrorum canonum doctrina " ; another,  "Compendium 
juris  ecclesiastici " ;  both  were  published  at  Augs- 
burg in  1747.  Grandclaude's  work  (Paris,  1882-3) 
is  practically  a  compendium  of  Schmalzgrueber. 
Other  writings  are:  "Judicium  ecclesiasticum", 
"Clerus  saecularis  et  regularis",  "Sponsalia  et  matri- 
monia",  "Crimen  fori  ecclesiastici",  "Consilia  seu 
responsa  juris";  all  appeared  at  Augsburg  between 
1712  and  1722. 

Mederer,  Annates  Ingolstadiensis  Academics,  III  (Ingolstadt, 
1782),  142;  de  Backer,  Bibliothique,  ed.  Sommervoqel,  VII 
(1896),  795  sq.;   Allg.  Realencyk.  (Ratisbon,  1886). 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 
Schmid,  Christoph  von,  writer  of  children's  stories 
and  educator,  b.  at  Dinkelsbuehl,  in  Bavaria,  15  Aug., 
1768;  d.  at  Augsburg  in  1854.  He  studied  theology 
at  Dillingen,  and,  having  been  ordained  priest  in  1791, 
served  as  assistant  in  several  parishes  till  1796,  when 
he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  large  school  in  Thann- 
hausen  on  the  Mindel,  where  he  taught  for  many 
years.  He  soon  began  writing  books  for  children,  of 
which  the  earliest  was  "First  Le.s.sons  about  God  for 
the  Little  Ones",  written  in  words  of  one  syllable; 
next,  a  "Bible  History  for  Children",  a  work  which 
became  very  popular  far  beyond  the  confines  of 
Bavaria;  and,  lastly,  his  famous  stories  for  children. 
From  1816  to  1826  he  was  parish  priest  at  Oberstadion 
in  Wiirtemberg.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed 
canon  of  the  Cathedral  of  Augsburg,  where  he  died  of 
cholera  in  his  eighty-seventh  year.  In  1841  he  began 
the  publication  of  a  complete  edition  in  twenty-four 
volumes  of  his  scattered  writings.  In  the  introduction 
he  tells  his  readers  how  his  stories  were  written.  They 
were  not  composed  for  an  unknown  public,  and  in  a 
mercenary  spirit,  but  for  children,  among  whom  the 


SCHMIDT 


546 


SCHOENBERG 


Christoph  von   Schmid 


author  dailj'  moved,  and  were  not  at  fiist  meant  for 
publication.  To  enforce  his  lessons  in  religious  in- 
struction, he  sought  to  illustrate  them  by  examples 
taken  from  Christian  antiquity,  from  legends,  and 
other  sources. 
Usually  a  story  or 
a  chapter  was  read 
to  the  children 
after  school  hours 
as  a  reward,  on 
condition  that 
they  should  write 
it  down  at  home. 
He  thus  became 
familiar  with  the 
range  of  thought 
and  the  speech  of 
children,  and  was 
careful  to  speak 
t  heir  language 
rather  than  that 
of  books.  He  was 
able  to  observe 
with  his  own  eyes 
what  it  was  that 
impressed  the 
minds  and  hearts 
of  children  both  of  tender  and  of  riper  years.  Their 
manner  of  repeating  the  stories  also  helped  him. 

He  was  the  pioneer  writer  of  books  for  children,  and 
his  great  merits  are  fully  acknowledged  by  both  Cath- 
olic and  Protestant  writers  on  pedagogics.  His  stories 
have  been  translated  into  twenty-four  languages,  and 
to  this  day  he  is  regarded  in  Germany  as  the  prince  of 
story-writers  for  the  young.  He  is  the  greatest  edu- 
cator Bavaria  produced  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
ranks,  both  as  to  theorj'  and  practice,  with  the  most 
celebrated  of  modem  educators.  Canon  Schmid  was 
the  ideal  of  a  mild,  charitable,  unselfish  man,  of  child- 
like simplicity  of  character,  a  devout  Catholic  priest, 
whose  virtues  are  mirrored  in  his  writings.  On  3  Sep- 
tember, 1901,  Thannhausen  unveiled  the  bronze  statue 
of  the  celebrated  story-writer  and  educator. 

Erinnerungen  (Memoirs),  published  by  Werfer  (Augsburg, 
1853-7);  Letters  and  Diaries  of  Chr.  von  Schmid,  ed.  Werfer 
(Munich,  1868);  Monataschrift  fiir  kaiholische  Lehrerinnen  (1905, 
nn.  1  and  2). 

B.    GULDNER. 

Schmidt,  Friedrich  von,  b.  at  Frickenhofen, 
1825;  d.  at  Vienna,  1891.  After  studying  at  the 
technical  high  school  at  Stuttgart,  he  became,  in  1845, 
one  of  the  guild  of  workmen  employed  in  building 
the  Cologne  cathedral,  on  which  he  worked  for  fif- 
teen years.  Most  of  the  working  drawings  for  the 
towers  were  mafle  by  Schmidt  and  Statz.  In  1848 
he  attained  to  the  rank  of  master-workman  and  in 
1856  passed  the  state  examination  as  architect. 
After  becoming  a  Catholic  in  185S,  he  went  to  Milan 
as  professor  of  architecture  and  began  the  restora- 
tion of  the  cathedral  of  San  Ambrogio.  On  account 
of  the  confusion  caused  by  the  war  of  1859  he  went 
to  Vienna,  where  he  was  a  professor  at  the  academy 
and  cathedral  architect  from  1862;  in  1865  he  received 
the  title  of  chief  architect,  and  in  1888  was  ennobled 
by  the  emperor.  Next  to  Ferstel  he  is  the  most 
important  modem  Gothic  architect.  In  this  style 
he  built  at  Vienna  the  Church  of  St.  Lazams,  the 
church  of  the  White  Tanners,  that  of  the  Brigittines. 
He  alsfj  built  the  Classical  gymnafiium  with  a  Gothic 
i^'Mht  and  the  memorial  building  (^n-cted  on  the  site 
of  the  amphitlif-atre  that  had  be(;n  d<slroyed  by  fire. 
The  last  mentioned  building  was  in  Venetian  Gothic. 
A  large  number  of  small  ecclesiastical  and  secular 
buildings  in  Austria  and  Germany  were  designed  by 
him.  His  last  work  was  the  restoration  of  the  ca- 
therlral  at  Fiinfkirchen  in  Hungary.  His  chief  fame 
however  he  gained  by  his  restoration  of  the  Cathedral 


of  St.  Stephen  at  Vienna.  He  took  down  the  spire 
and  worked  on  its  rebuilding  up  to  1872.  His  design 
for  the  town-hall  of  Vienna  was  also  a  very  success- 
ful one.  The  projecting  middle  section  has  a  fine 
central  tower  that  rises  free  to  a  height  of  328 
ft.  and  is  flanked  by  four  smaller  towers.  This 
section  harmoniously  combines  height  ^dth  broad 
horizontal  members.  A  large  court  and  six  smaller 
ones  are  enclosed  by  the  extensive  building,  the 
wings  of  which  end  in  pavilions.  Nothing  in  the 
building  shows  the  regularity  of  a  set  pattern;  the 
architect,  rather,  made  skilful  use  of  individual 
Renaissance  motifs.  \Mien  he  began  in  Vienna  his 
manner  was  rather  stiflf,  but  he  worked  his  way  up 
to  artistic  freedom.  In  building  the  parish  church 
at  Fiinfhaus  he  even  ventured  to  set  a  fagade  vsath 
two  towers  in  front  of  an  octagonal  central  structure 
\\\ih  a  high  cupola  and  a  corona  of  chapels.  His 
motto  was  to  unite  German  force  with  Italian  free- 
dom. He  modified  the  tendency  to  height  in  the 
German  Gothic  by  horizontal  members  and  intro- 
duced many  modifications  into  the  old  standard  of 
the  style  in  order  to  attain  a  more  agreeable  general 
effect.  In  this  way  he  always  remained  unfettered 
and  original  in  his  style  and  replaced  in  part  what 
was  lacking  in  decorative  details  or  in  the  means  of 
producing  the  same.  He  was  teacher  and  model  to 
many  younger  architects.  A  bronze  statue  of  him 
has  been  placed  before  the  to^\'n-hall  of  Vienna. 
His  son  Heinrich  was  overseer  at  the  building  of  the 
cathedral  of  Frankfort  and  afterwards  professor  of 
medieval  architecture  at  Munich. 

Reichensperger,  Zur  Charakteristik  des  Baumeister  Fr.  ton 
Schmidt  (Dusseldorf,  1891);  Kuhn,  Kunstgeschichle,  II  (New 
York,  1909). 

G.    GlETMANN. 

Schneemann,  Gerard,  b.  at  Wesel,  Lower  Rhine, 
12  Feb.,  1829;  d.  at  Kerkrade,  Holland,  20  Nov., 
1885.  After  studying  law  for  three  years,  he  entered 
the  seminary  at  Miinster  where  he  was  ordained  sub- 
deacon  in  1850.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus,  24  Nov.,  1851,  and  was  ordained  priest  on 
22  Dec,  1856.  For  some  years  he  taught  philoso- 
phy at  Bonn  and  Aachen,  and  subsequently  lec- 
tured on  church  history  and  canon  law  in  the  Jes- 
uit scholasticate  at  Maria  Laach.  His  first  notable 
publication  was  "Studien  tiber  die  Honoriusfrage " 
(Freiburg,  1864)  in  which  he  refuted  the  opinion  of 
DoUinger.  Between  the  years  1865  and  1870,  he 
contributed  a  number  of  timely  and  important  dis- 
sertations to  "Die  Encyclica  Papst  Pius  IX"  and 
"Das  ocumenische  Concil",  two  series  of  papers  that 
were  published  at  Freiburg  under  the  general  title 
of  "Stimmcn  aus  Maria-Laach".  In  1871  the  "Stim- 
men"  became  a  regular  monthly  review  and  for  six 
years  was  edited  by  Father  Schneemann.  He  wjia 
moreover  the  chief  promoter  in  the  collaboration 
and  publication  of  the  "Acta  et  decrcta  sacrorum 
conciliorum  recentiorum",  commonly  called  "Col- 
lectio  Lacensis",  and  died  while  preparing  the  docu- 
ments of  the  Vatican  Council  for  the  seventh  and 
last  volume.  His  work  "  Controversianmi  de  divinaj 
gratia;  liberique  arbitrii  concordia  initia  et  progres- 
sus"  (Freiburg,  1881),  was  the  occasion  of  a  renewed 
controversy  on  the  nature  of  grace  and  free  will. 

Slimmen  aus  Maria-Ijaach,  XXX  (ISHG),  167  sq.;  Collectio 
Lacensis,  VII  (Freiburg,  1885),  ix;  Sommeuvooel,  liihl.  de  la 
Compfigniede  Jesus,  VII  (Paris,  1896),  c.  822;  Fkins,  .S.  Thomce 
doctrina  de  coOperatione  Dei  (Pari.s,  1892);  Dummermuth,  De- 
fensio  doctriruc  S.  Thomcc  de  prmmotione  physica  (Paris,  1896). 

F.  X.  Delany. 

Schoenberg,  Matthias  von,  author,  b.  at 
Ehingen,  in  the  Diocese  of  Constance,  9  Nov.,  1732; 
d.  at  Munich,  20  Apr.,  1792.  Of  his  early  life  little 
is  known;  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  on  15  Sept., 
1750.  From  1766  to  1772  he  was  in  charge  of 
Eleemosyna  Aurea,  an  institution  founded  for  the 


SCHOFFER 


547 


SCHOLA 


purpose  of  spreading  among  the  faithful  instructive 
books  written  in  a  style  that  should  prove  attrac- 
tive and  intelligible  even  to  the  unlettered.  Shortly 
after  the  suppression  of  the  Society  he  was  chosen 
by  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  as  his  ecclesiastical  coun- 
cillor. An  untiring  champion  of  Christian  morals 
and  the  Catholic  religion,  Schoenberg,  besides  com- 
piling prayer-books  and  editing  educational  works, 
wrote  several  treatises  on  the  fundamental  truths  of 
religion,  and  many  devotional  and  meditative  books 
and  brochures  designed  to  quicken  the  devotion  of 
the  people  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  the  Sacred 
Heart.  So  successful  was  he  in  his  apostleship  of 
the  press  that  many  of  his  writings — Sommervogel 
mentions  nearly  forty  in  all — ran  through  five  and 
six  editions.  The  following  are  perhaps  his  best 
known  works:  "Die  Zierde  der  Jugend";  "Der 
hofliche  Schiiler";  "Die  Roligionsgriinde  in  ihren 
ordentlichen  Zusammenhange " ;  "Der  Santfmtithige 
Christ";  "  Wahrheitsgriindo  des  katholischen  Haupt- 
grundsatzes  fiir  die  Unfehlbarkeit  der  Kirche". 

Sommervogel,  Bihl.  de  la  C.  de  J.,  VII,  841;   Hurter,  Nomen- 
clalor.  III,  243.  JaMES   A,   CaHILL. 

Schoffer,  Peter,  publisher  and  printer,  b.  at 
Gemsheim  on  the  Rhine  about  1425;  d.  at  Mainz 
in  1503.  As  a  cleric  in  minor  orders,  he  was  in  Paris 
in  1451  working  as  a  manuscript  copyist.  In  1455 
he  appeared  as  a  witness  at  Mainz  for  Johannes  Fust 
against  G  u  t  e  n  - 
berg.  Later  he 
married  Fust's 
daughter,  Chris- 
tine, and  he  was 
a  partner  of  Fust 
in  the  pubUshing 
business  until 
1456,  from  that 
<latc  up  to  1503 
iriiiting  indepen- 
dently. Schoffer 
may  have  be- 
come an  experi- 
enced printer  as 
an  assistant  of 
Fust  and  perhaps 
of  Gutenberg,  but 
he  had  no  share 
whatever  either 
in  the  invention 
or  in  the  improve- 
ment of  typog- 
raphy, as  has  been  claimed  for  him  and  his  descend- 
ants; this  is  certain,  notwithstanding  the  splendid 
impressions  of  the  Psalters  bearing  his  name  and 
published  in  1457  and  1459,  the  technical  prep- 
aration of  which  has  been  ascribed  to  Gutenberg. 
The  evident  deterioration  of  books  issued  at  the 
end  of  the  century  proves  that  Schoffer  made  no 
technical  improvement  in  the  art  of  printing.  The 
work  of  Schoffer's  press  shows  all  the  technical  ex- 
cellence of  his  predecessors,  but  no  advance.  He  did 
much  for  the  development  of  the  art  of  printing  by 
estabUshing  commercial  relations  beyond  the  bor- 
ders of  Germany.  But  the  management  of  his  press 
was  always  conservative,  and  he  pubhshed  almcst 
exclusivel}^  works  on  civil  law,  canon  law,  and  the- 
ology. He  neither  made  improvements  nor  did  he 
adopt  the  improvements  of  his  contemporaries,  such 
as  reducing  the  size  of  his  books,  issuing  popular 
books,  etc.  At  the  time  of  Schoffer's  death  many 
printers  of  Germany  and  Italy  had  long  surpassed 
both  his  publications  and  his  press.  Schoffer's 
son  John  carried  on  the  business,  1503-31.  The 
son  was  a  capable  printer  and  exerted  himself  to 
improve  the  work  produced  by  his  press,  but  was 
unable  to  place  himself  in.  the  front  rank  of  printers 


of  the  time.  A  second  son  of  Schoffer's,  Peter  the 
younger,  was  a  capable  die-cutter  and  printer,  and 
engaged  in  his  trade  at  Mainz,  1509-23;  at  Worms, 
1512-29;  at  Strasburg,  1530-39;  at  Venice,  1541-42. 
His  son  Ivo  took  up  his  quarters  at  Mainz,  1531-55, 
and  there  carried  on  the  printing  business  of  his 
grandfather. 

Van  der  Linde,  Gesrft.  der  Erfind.  der  Buchdruckkunst  (Ber- 
lin, 1886) ;  Hartwig,  Festschrift  zum  600  jahr.  Geburtstage  von  J. 
Gutenberg  (Mainz,  1900). 

Heinrich  Wilhelm  Wallau. 

Schola  Cantorum,  a  place  for  the  teaching  and 
practice  of  ecclesiastical  chant,  or  a  body  of  singers 
banded  together  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the 
music  in  church.  In  the  primitive  Church  the  singing 
was  done  by  the  clergy,  but,  in  order  to  set  them 
free  from  this  and  enable  them  to  give  their  attention 
more  to  what  strictly  pertained  to  their  office,  trained 
singers  for  the  musical  part  of  the  liturgy  were  in- 
troduced. Pope  Hilary  (d.  468)  is  sometimes  credited 
with  having  inaugurated  the  first  schola  cantorum, 
but  it  was  Gregory  the  Great,  as  we  are  told  in  his 
life  by  John  the  Deacon,  who  established  the  school 
on  a  firm  basis  and  endowed  it.  The  house  in  which 
the  schola  was  lodged  was  rebuilt  in  844  by  Pope 
Sergius  II,  who  had  himself  been  trained  in  it,  as  were 
also  the  popes  Sergius  I,  Gregory  II,  Stephen  III, 
and  Paul  I.  This  Roman  school  furnished  the  choir 
at  most  of  the  papal  functions  and  was  governed  by 
an  official  called  prior  scholce  cantorum  or  simply 
cantor.  From  Cardinal  Thomasi's  preface  to  the 
twelfth-century  Vatican  antiphonary,  we  learn  that, 
amongst  his  other  duties,  he  had  "to  point  out  to 
each  individual,  the  day  before,  what  rcsponsory 
he  was  to  sing  in  the  night  office".  From  Rome  the 
institution  spread  to  other  parts  of  the  Church. 
Pepin,  the  father  of  Charlemagne,  first  introduced 
Roman  chanters  into  France,  placing  them  at  Lyons. 
Charlemagne  encouraged  the  work,  and  through  his 
influence  several  other  schools  were  established  in 
his  empire.  That  of  Mctz  became  one  of  the  most 
famous;  other  well-known  ones  wore  at  Hirschau 
Corbie,  and  St.  Gall.  In  England  the  diffusion  of  the 
Roman  chant  was  due  chiefly  to  St.  Benet  Biscop  and 
St.  Wilfrid.  Several  of  the  cathedrals  (e.  g.  York, 
Sarum,  Hereford,  and  Worcester)  and  many  of  the 
abbeys  (e.  g.  Glastonbury  and  Malmesbury)  had 
important  schola;  cantorum  attached  to  them.  The 
Protestant  Reformation  put  an  end  to  the  English 
schools,  while  abroad  they  seem  to  have  died  out 
when  paid  singers  began  to  be  employed  in  the 
churches,  though  perhaps  the  mattrise  or  cathedral 
choir-school  of  to-day  may  be  regarded  as  their 
legitimate  successor.  In  monasteries  at  the  present 
day  the  name  schola  cantorum  is  often  applied  to  cer- 
tain selected  monks  whose  duty  it  is  to  chant  the  more 
elaborate  portions  of  the  liturgical  music,  such  as  the 
graduals  and  alleluias  at  Mass,  the  rest  of  the  com- 
munity joining  only  in  the  simpler  parts.  The  offi- 
cial in  charge  of  such  a  schola  is  usually  called  the 
"precentor".  In  recent  times  the  chief  schools  of 
ecclesiastical  chant  have  been  at  Ratisbon,  Mechlin, 
Einsiedeln,  Beuron,  and,  greatest  of  all,  Solesmes.  In 
these  the  study  of  the  IVISS.  and  the  work  of  restoring 
the  traditional  chant  of  the  Church  have  been  pursued 
with  much  success.  The  schola  of  Solesmes  was  com- 
menced by  Dom  Gueranger  and  has  been  ably  carried 
on  by  his  successors,  DD.  Pothier  and  Mocquereau, 
The  latter  is  precentor  at  Solesmes  (now  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight,  England),  while  the  papal  commission  en- 
trusted with  the  work  of  preparing  the  official  Vatican 
edition  of  the  Chant  is  presided  over  by  Abbot 
Pothier.  (See  GuiiRANGER,  Prosper  Louis  Pas- 
chal;  Solesmes.) 

Armfield  in  Diet.  Christ.  Antiq.  (London,  1880),  a.  v.; 
Ziegei^bad^b,  Hist.  lit.  0.  S.  B.  (Augsburg,  1754). 

G.  Cyprian  Alston. 


SCHOLASTICA 


548 


SCHOLASTICISM 


Scholastica,  Saint.  See  Benedict  op  Nursia, 
Saint. 

Scholasticism  is  a  term  used  to  designate  both  a 
method  and  a  system.  It  is  apphed  to  theology  as  well 
as  to  philosophy.  Scholastic  theology  is  distinguished 
from  Patristic  theolog>'  on  the  one  hand,  and  from  posi- 
tive theology  on  the  other  (see  Theology)  .  The  school- 
men themselves  distinguished  between  iheologia  spccu- 
lativa  sive  scholastica  and  theohgia  positiva.  Applied 
to  philosophy,  the  word  "Scholastic"  is  often  used, 
also,  to  designate  a  chronological  division  intervening 
between  the  end  of  the  Patristic  era  in  the  fifth  century 
and  the  beginning  of  the  modern  era,  about  1450.  It 
will,  therefore,  make  for  clearness  and  order  if  we  con- 
eider:!.  Theoriginof  the  word  "Scholastic";  II.  The 
history  of  the  period  called  Scholastic  in  the  history  of 
philosophy;  III.  The  Scholastic  method  in  philos- 
ophy, with  incidental  reference  to  the  Scholastic 
method  in  theology;  and  IV.  The  contents  of  the 
Scholastic  system.  The  revival  of  Scholasticism  in 
recent  times  has  been  already  treated  under  the  head 
Neo-Scholasticism. 

I.  Origin  of  the  Name  "Scholastic". — There 
are  in  Greek  literature  a  few  instances  of  the  use 
of  the  word  (rxoXa(rTi»r6s  to  designate  a  professional 
philosopher.  Historically,  however,  the  word,  as  now 
used,  is  to  be  traced,  not  to  Greek  usage,  but 
to  early  Christian  institutions.  In  the  Christian 
schools,  especially  after  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
century,  it  was  customary  to  call  the  head  of  the 
school  magister  scholar,  capiscola,  or  scholasiicus.  As 
time  went  on,  the  last  of  these  appellations  was  used 
exclusively.  The  curriculum  of  those  schools  in- 
cluded among  the  seven  liberal  arts,  dialectic,  which 
was  at  that  time  the  only  branch  of  philosophy  stud- 
ied systematically.  The  head  of  the  school  generally 
taught  dialectic,  and  out  of  his  teaching  grew  both  the 
manner  of  pliilosophizing  and  the  system  of  philoso- 
phy that  prevailed  during  all  the  Middle  Ages. 
Consequently,  the  name  "Scholastic"  was  used  and 
is  still  u.sed  to  designate  the  method  and  system  that 
grew  out  of  the  academic  curriculum  of  the  schools  or, 
more  definitely,  out  of  the  dialectical  teaching  of  the 
masters  of  the  schools  {scholnstici) .  It  does  not  mat- 
ter that,  historically,  the  Golden  Age  of  Scholas- 
tic philosophy,  namely,  the  thirteenth  century,  falls 
within  a  period  when  the  schools,  the  curriculum  of 
which  was  the  seven  liberal  arts,  including  dialectic, 
had  given  way  to  another  organization  of  studies,  the 
sludui  generalia,  or  universities.  The  name,  once 
given,  continued,  as  it  almost  always  does,  to  desig- 
nate the  method  and  system  which  had  by  this  time 
passed  into  a  new  phase  of  development.  Academi- 
cally, the  philo.sophers  of  the  thirteenth  century  are 
known  as  iruigislTi,  or  masters;  historically,  however, 
they  are  Scholastics,  and  continue  to  be  so  designated 
until  the  end  of  the  medieval  period.  And,  even  after 
the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  a  philosopher  or  theolo- 
gian who  adopts  the  method  or  the  system  of  the  me- 
dieval Scholastics  Ls  said  to  be  a  Scholastic. 

II.  The  Scholastic  Period. — The  period  ex- 
tending from  the  beginning  of  Christian  speculation 
to  the  time  of  St.  Augustine,  inclusive,  is  known  as 
the  Patristic  era  in  philo.sophy  and  theology.  In 
general,  that  era  inclined  U)  Platonism  and  under- 
estimated the  importance  of  Aristotle.  The  Fathers 
strove  to  construct  on  Platonic  principles  a  system 
of  Christian  philo.sophy.  They  brought  reason  to 
the  aid  of  Revelation.  They  leaned,  however,  tow- 
ards the  doctrine  of  the  mystics,  and,  in  ultimate 
resort,  rehed  more  on  spiritual  intuition  than  on 
dialectical  proof  for  the  establishment  and  explana- 
tion of  the  highest  truths  of  philoHf)phy.  Botwerm 
the  end  of  the  Patristic  era  in  the  fifth  century  and  the 
beginning  of  the  Scholastic  era  in  the  ninth  there  in- 
tervene a  number  of  intercalary  thinkers,  as  they  may 


be  called,  like  Claudianus  Mamertus,  Boethius, 
Cassiodorus,  St.  Isidore  of  Seville,  Venerable  13ede, 
etc.,  who  helped  to  hand  down  to  the  new  generation 
the  traditions  of  the  Patristic  age  and  to  continue 
into  the  Scholastic  era  the  current  of  Platonism.  With 
the  Carlovingian  revival  of  learning  in  the  ninth 
century  began  a  period  of  educational  activity  which 
resulted  in  a  new  phase  of  Christian  thought  known 
as  Scholasticism.  The  first  masters  of  the  schools 
in  the  ninth  century,  Alcuin,  Rabanus,  etc.,  were  not, 
indeed,  more  original  than  Boethius  or  Cassiodorus, — 
the  first  original  thinker  in  the  Scholastic  era  was 
John  the  Scot  (see  Eriugena,  John  Scotus)  .  Never- 
theless they  inaugurated  the  Scholastic  movement, 
because  they  endeavoured  to  bring  the  Patristic 
(principally  the  Augustinian)  tradition  into  touch 
with  the  new  life  of  European  Christianity.  They  did 
not  abandon  Platonism.  They  knew  little  of  Aristotle 
except  as  a  logician.  But  by  the  emphasis  they  laid 
on  dialectical  reasoning,  they  gave  a  new  direc- 
tion to  Christian  tradition  in  philosophy.  In  the 
curriculum  of  the  schools  in  which  they  taught,  phi- 
losophy was  represented  by  dialectic.  On  the  text- 
books of  dialectic  which  they  used  they  wrote  com- 
mentaries and  glosses,  into  which,  little  by  little,  they 
admitted  problems  of  psychology,  metaphysics,  cos- 
mology, and  ethics.  So  that  the  Scholastic  move- 
ment as  a  whole  may  be  said  to  have  sprung  from  the 
discussions  of  the  dialecticians. 

Method,  contents,  and  conclusions  were  influenced 
by  this  origin.  There  resulted  a  species  of  Christian 
Rationalism  which  more  than  any  other  trait  char- 
acterizes Scholastic  philosophy  in  every  successive 
stage  of  its  development  and  marks  it  off  very  defi- 
nitely from  the  Patristic  philosophy,  which,  as  has 
been  said,  was  ultimately  intuitional  and  mystic. 
With  Roscelin,  who  appeared  about  the  middle  of 
the  eleventh  century,  the  note  of  Rationalism  is 
very  distinctly  sounded,  and  the  first  rumbling  is 
heard  of  the  inevitable  reaction,  the  voice  of  Chris- 
tian mysticism  uttering  its  note  of  warning,  and 
condemning  the  excess  into  which  Rationalism  had 
fallen.  In  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  there- 
fore. Scholasticism  passed  through  its  period  of  storm 
and  stress.  On  the  one  side  were  the  advocates  of 
reason,  Roscelin,  Abelard,  Peter  Lombard;  on  the 
other  were  the  champions  of  mysticism,  St.  Anselm, 
St.  Peter  Dainian,  St.  Bernard,  and  the  Victorines. 
Like  all  ardent  advocates,  the  Rationalists  went  too 
far  at  first,  and  only  gradually  brought  their  method 
within  the  lines  of  orthodoxy  and  harmonized  it  with 
Christian  reverence  for  the  mysteri(^s  of  Faith.  Like 
all  conservative  nnictionists,  the  mystics  at  first  con- 
demned the  use  as  well  as  the  abuse  of  reason;  they 
did  not  reach  an  intelligent  compromise  with  the  dia- 
lecticians until  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  In 
the  final  outcome  of  the  struggle,  it  was  Rational- 
ism that,  having  modified  its  unreasonable  claims, 
triumphed  in  the  Christian  schools,  without,  however, 
driving  the  mystics  from  the  field. 

Meantime,  Eclectics,  like  John  of  Salisbury,  and 
Platonists,  like  the  members  of  the  School  of  Chartres, 
gave  to  the  Scholastic  movement  a  broader  spirit 
of  toleration,  imparted,  so  to  speak,  a  sort  of  Human- 
ism to  philosophy,  so  that,  when  we  come  to  the  eve 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  Scholasticism  has  made 
two  very  decided  steps  in  advance.  First,  the  use 
of  reason  in  the  discussion  of  spiritual  tmth  and  the 
appli(;ation  of  dialectic  to  theology  are  accepted  with- 
out protest,  sf)  long  as  they  are  kept  within  the  bounds 
of  moderation.  Second,  there  is  a  willingness  on  the; 
part  of  the  Schoolmen  to  go  outside  the  lines  of  strict 
ecclesiastical  tradition  and  learn,  not  only  from  Aris- 
totle, who  was  nf)w  beginning  to  be  known  as  a 
metaphysician  and  a  psychologist,  but  also  from  the 
Arabians  and  the  Jews,  whose  works  had  begun  to 
penetrate  in  Latin  translations  into  the  schools  of 


SCHOLASTICISM 


549 


SCHOLASTICISM 


Christian  Europe.  The  taking  of  Constantinople 
in  1204,  the  introduction  of  Arabian,  Jewish,  and 
Greek  works  into  the  Christian  schools,  the  rise  of 
the  universities,  and  the  foundation  of  the  mendicant 
orders — these  are  the  events  which  led  to  the  ex- 
traordinary intellectual  activity  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  which  centered  in  the  University  of  Paris. 
At  first  there  was  considerable  confusion,  and  it 
seemed  as  if  the  battles  won  in  the  twelfth  century 
by  the  dialecticians  should  be  fought  over  again. 
The  translations  of  Aristotle  made  from  the  Arabian 
and  accompanied  by  Arabian  commentaries  were 
tinged  with  Pantheism,  Fatalism,  and  other  Neo- 
platonic  errors.  Even  in  the  Christian  schools  there 
were  declared  Pantheists,  like  David  of  Dinant, 
and  outspoken  Averroists,  like  Siger  of  Brabant, 
who  bade  fair  to  prejudice  the  cause  of  Aristote- 
Icanism. 

These  developments  were  suppressed  by  the  most 
stringent  disciplinary  measures  during  the  first  few 
decades  of  the  thirteenth  century.  While  they  were 
still  a  source  of  danger,  men  like  William  of  Auvergne 
and  Alexander  of  Hales  hesitated  between  the  tradi- 
tional Augustinianism  of  the  Christian  schools  and  the 
new  Aristoteleanism,  which  came  from  a  suspected 
source.  Besides,  Augustinianism  and  Platonism  ac- 
corded with  piety,  while  Aristoteleanism  was  found 
to  lack  the  element  of  mysticism.  In  time,  however, 
the  translations  made  from  tlu?  Creek  revealed  an 
Aristotle  free  from  the  errors  attributed  to  him  by  the 
Arabians,  and,  above  all,  the  connnanding  genius  of 
Albertus  Magnus  and  his  still  more  illustrious  dis- 
ci|)le,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  who  appeared  at  the 
critical  moment,  calmly  surveyed  the  difficulties  of 
the  situation,  and  met  them  fearlessly,  won  the  vic- 
tory for  the  new  philosophy,  and  continued  suc- 
cessfully the  traditions  established  in  the  preced- 
ing century.  Their  contemporary,  St.  Bonaventurc, 
showed  that  the  new  learning  wiis  not  incompat- 
ible with  mysticism  drawn  from  Christian  sources, 
and  Roger  Bacon  demonstrated  by  his  unsucce.s,s- 
ful  attempts  to  develop  the  natural  sciences  the 
possibilities  of  another  kind  which  were  latent  in 
Aristoteleanism. 

With  Duns  Scotus,  a  genius  of  the  first  order,  but 
not  of  the  constructive  type,  begins  the  critical  pliiuse 
of  Scholasticism.  Even  before  his  time,  the  I<>an- 
ci.scan  and  the  Dominican  currents  had  set  out  in 
divergent  directions.  It  w:is  his  keen  and  unre- 
lenting search  for  the  weak  points  in  Thomistic 
philosophy  that  irritated  and  wounded  susceptibili- 
ties among  the  followers  of  St.  Thomas,  and  brought 
about  the  spirit  of  partisanship  which  did  so  much 
to  dissipate  the  energy  of  Scholasticism  in  the  four- 
teenth century.  The  recrudescence  of  Averroism 
in  the  schools,  the  excessive  cultivation  of  formalism 
and  subtlety,  the  growth  of  artificial  and  even  bar- 
barous terminology,  and  the  neglect  of  the  study 
of  nature  and  of  history  contributed  to  the  same 
result.  Ockham's  Nominalism  and  Durandus's  at- 
tempt to  "simplify"  Scholastic  philosophy  did  not 
have  the  effect  which  their  authors  iiit(>nded.  "The 
glory  and  power  of  scholasticism  faded  into  the 
warmth  and  brightness  of  mysticism,"  and  Gerson, 
Thomas  a  Kempis,  and  Eckhart  are  more  repre- 
sentative of  what  the  Christian  Church  was  actually 
thinking  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries 
than  are  the  Thomists,  Scotists,  and  Ockhamists  of 
that  period,  who  frittered  away  much  valuable 
time  in  the  discussion  of  highly  technical  questions 
which  arose  within  the  schools  and  po.ssess  little 
interest  except  for  adepts  in  Scholastic  subtlety. 
After  the  rise  of  Humanism,  when  the  Renaissance, 
which  ushered  in  the  modern  era,  was  in  full  progress, 
the  great  Italian,  Spani.sh,  and  Portuguese  commen- 
tators inauguratefl  an  age  of  more  healthy  Scholas- 
ticism, and  the  great  Jesuit  teachers,  Toletus,  Vas- 


quez,  and  Suarez,  seemed  to  recall  the  best  days 
of  thirteenth  century  speculation.  The  triumph  of 
scientific  discovery,  with  which,  as  a  rule,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  Scholasticism  in  the  seats  of  academic 
authority  had,  unfortunately,  too  little  sympathy, 
led  to  new  ways  of  philosophizing,  and  when,  finally, 
Descartes  in  practice,  if  not  in  theory,  eflfected  a 
comj)lete  separation  of  philosophy  from  theology, 
the  modern  era  had  begun  and  the  age  known  as 
that  of  Scholasticism  had  come  to  an  end. 

III.  The  Scholastic  Method. — No  method  in 
philosophy  has  been  more  unjustly  condemned  than 
that  of  the  Scholastics.  No  philosophy  has  been 
more  grossly  misrepresented.  And  this  is  true  not 
only  of  the  details,  but  also  of  the  most  essential 
elements  of  Scholasticism.  Two  charges,  especially, 
are  made  against  the  Schoolmen:  First,  that  they 
confounded  philosophy  with  theology;  and  second, 
that  they  made  reason  subservient  to  authority. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  very  es.sence  of  Scholasticism 
is,  first,  its  clear  delimitation  of  the  respective  domains 
of  philosophy  and  theology,  and,  second,  its  advocacy 
of  the  use  of  reason. 

A.  Theology  and  Philosophy. — Christian  thinkers, 
from  the  beginning,  were  confronted  with  the  ques- 
tion: How  are  we  to  reconcile  reason  with  revelation, 
science  with  faith,  philosophy  with  theology?  The 
first  ajiologists  possessed  no  philosophy  of  their  own. 
Tlu>\'  had  to  deal  with  a  pagan  world  proud  of  its 
literature  and  its  philosophy,  ready  at  any  moment 
to  flaunt  its  inheritance  of  wisdom  in  the  face  of 
ignorant  Christians.  The  apologists  met  the  situa- 
tion by  a  theory  that  was  as  audacious  as  it  must 
have  been  disconcerting  to  the  pagans.  They  ad- 
vanced the  explanation  that  all  the  wisdom  of  Plato 
antl  the  other  Greeks  was  due  to  the  inspiration  of 
the  Logos;  that  it  was  God's  truth,  and,  therefore, 
could  not  be  in  contradiction  with  the  supernatu- 
ral revelation  contained  in  the  Gospels.  It  was  a 
hypothesis  calculated  not  only  to  silence  a  pagan  op- 
ponent, but  also  to  work  constructively.  We  find  it  in 
St.  Basil,  in  Origen,  and  even  in  St.  Augustine.  The 
belief  that  the  two  orders  of  truth,  the  natural  and 
the  supernatural,  must  harmonize,  is  the  inspiration 
of  intellectual  activity  in  the  Patristic  era.  But  that 
era  did  little  to  define  the  limits  of  the  two  realms  of 
truth.  St.  Augustine  believes  that  faith  aicls  rea- 
son (credo  ut  intclligam)  and  that  reason  aids  faith 
{intelligo  ut  crcdam);  he  is,  however,  inclined  to 
emphasize  the  first  principle  and  not  the  second. 
He  does  not  develo[)  a  definite  methodology  in  dealing 
with  them.  The  Scholastics,  almost  from  the  first, 
attempted  to  do  so. 

John  Scotus  Eriugena,  in  the  ninth  century,  by 
his  doctrine  tliat  all  truth  is  a  theophany,  or  showing 
forth  of  God,  tried  to  elevate  philosophy  to  the  rank 
of  theology,  and  identify  the  two  in  a  si)ecies  of 
theosophy.  Abelard,  in  the  twelfth  century,  tried 
to  bring  theology  down  to  the  level  of  philosophy, 
and  identify  both  in  a  Rationalistic  system.  The 
greatest  of  the  Scholastics  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
especially  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  solved  the  problem 
for  all  time,  so  far  as  Christian  speculation  is  con- 
cerned, by  showing  that  the  two  are  distinct  sci- 
ences, and  yet  that  they  agree.  They  are  distinct,  he 
teaches,  because,  while  philosophy  relies  on  reason 
alone,  theology  uses  the  truths  derived  from  revela- 
tion, and  also  because  there  are  some  truths,  the  my.s- 
teries  of  P'aith,  which  lie  completely  outside  the  domain 
of  philosophy  and  belong  to  theology.  They  agree, 
and  must  agree,  because  God  is  the  author  of  ail 
truth,  and  it  is  impossible  to  think  that  He  would 
teach  in  the  natural  order  anything  that  contradicts 
what  He  teaches  in  the  supernatural  order.  The 
recognition  of  these  principles  is  one  of  the  crownirig 
achievements  of  Scholasticism.  It  is  one  of  the 
characteristics  that  mark  it  oflf  from  the  Patristic 


SCHOLASTICISM 


550 


SCHOLASTICISM 


era,  in  which  the  same  principles  were,  so  to  speak,  in 
solution,  and  not  crystallized  in  definite  expression. 
It  is  the  trait  which  differentiates  Scholasticism  from 
Averroism.  It  is  the  inspiration  of  all  Scholastic 
effort.  As  long  as  it  lasted  Scholasticism  lasted, 
and  as  soon  as  the  opposite  conviction  became  es- 
tablished, the  conviction,  namely,  that  what  is  true 
in  theology  may  be  false  in  philosophy,  Scholasticism 
ceased  to  exist.'  It  is,  therefore,  a  matter  of  constant 
surprise  to  those  who  know  Scholasticism  to  find 
it  misrepresented  on  tliis  vital  point. 

B.  Scholastic  Rationalisyn. — Scholasticism  sprang 
from  the  study  of  dialectic  in  the  schools.  The 
most  decisive  battle  of  Scholasticism  was  that 
which  it  waged  in  the  twelfth  century  against  the 
mystics,  who  condemned  the  use  of  dialectic.  The 
distinguishing  mark  of  Scholasticism  in  the  age  of  its 
highest  development  is  its  use  of  the  dialectical  me- 
thod. It  is,  therefore,  a  matter,  once  more,  for 
surprise,  to  find  Scholasticism  accused  of  undue  sub- 
servience to  authority  and  of  the  neglect  of  reason. 
Rationalism  is  a  word  which  has  various  meanings. 
It  is  sometimes  used  to  designate  a  system  which, 
refusing  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of  revela- 
tion, tests  all  truth  by  the  standard  of  reason.  In 
this  sense,  the  Scholastics  were  not  Rationalists. 
The  Rationalism  of  Scholasticism  consists  in  the  con- 
viction that  reason  is  to  be  used  in  the  elucidation  of 
spiritual  truth  and  in  defence  of  the  dogmas  of  Faith. 
It  is  opposed  to  mysticism,  which  distrusted  reason 
and  placed  emphasis  on  intuition  and  contemplation. 
In  this  milder  meaning  of  the  term,  all  the  Scholastics 
were  convinced  Rationalists,  the  only  difference  being 
that  some,  like  Abelard  and  Roscelin,  were  too  ardent 
in  their  advocacy  of  the  use  of  reason,  and  went  so 
far  as  to  maintain  that  reason  can  prove  even  the 
supernatural  mysteries  of  Faith,  while  others,  like 
St.  Thomas,  rnoderated  the  claims  of  reason,  set 
limits  to  its  power  of  proving  spiritual  truth,  and 
maintained  that  the  mysteries  of  faith  could  not 
be  discovered  and  cannot  be  proved  by  unaided 
reason. 

The  whole  Scholastic  movement,  therefore,  is  a 
Rationalistic  movement  in  the  second  sense  of  the 
term  Rationalism.  The  Scholastics  used  their  rea- 
son; they  applied  dialectic  to  the  study  of  nature, 
of  human  nature  and  of  supernatural  truth.  Far 
from  depreciating  reason,  they  went  as  far  as  man  can 
go — some  modern  critics  think  they  went  too  far — 
in  the  application  of  reason  to  the  discussion  of 
the  dogmas  of  Faith.  They  acknowledged  the  au- 
thority of  revelation,  aa  all  Christian  philosophers 
are  obliged  to  do.  They  admitted  the  force  of 
human  authority  when  the  conditions  of  its  valid 
application  were  verified.  But  in  theology,  the  au- 
thority of  revelation  did  not  coerce  their  reason, 
and  in  philosophy  and  in  natural  science  they  taught 
very  emphatically  that  the  argument  from  authority 
is  the  weakest  of  all  arguments.  They  did  not 
subordinate  reason  to  authority  in  any  unworthy 
sense  of  that  phrase.  It  wa.s  an  opponent  of  the 
Scholastic  movement  who  styled  philosophy  "  the  hand- 
maid of  theology  ",  a  designation  which,  however,  some 
of  the  Schoolmen  accepted  to  mean  that  to  philosophy 
belongs  the  honourable  task  of  carrying  the  light 
which  is  to  guide  the  footsteps  of  theology.  One 
need  not  go  so  far  as  to  say,  with  Barth<51emy  Saint- 
Hilaire,  that  "Scholasticism,  in  its  general  result, 
is  the  first  revolt  of  the  modern  spirit  against  au- 
thority." Nevertheless,  one  Ls  compelled  by  the 
facts  of  history  to  admit  that  there  is  more  truth  in 
that  description  than  in  the  superficial  judgment  of 
the  historians  who  describe  Scholasticism  as  the 
subordination  of  reason  to  authority. 

C.  DeUiibs  of  Scholastic  Method.— The  Scholastic 
manner  of  treating  the  problems  of  philosophy  and 
theology  is  apparent  from  a  glance  at  the  body  of 


literature  which  the  Schoolmen  produced.  The  im- 
mense amount  of  commentary  on  Aristotle,  on  Peter 
Lombard,  on  Boethius,  on  Pseudo-Dionysius,  and  on 
the  Scriptures  indicates  the  form  of  academic  ac- 
tivity which  characterizes  the  Scholastic  period.  The 
use  of  texts  dates  from  the  very  beginning  of  the 
Scholastic  era  in  philosophy  and  theology,  and  was 
continued  down  into  modern  times.  The  mature 
teacher,  however,  very  often  embodied  the  results 
of  his  own  speculation  in  a  Sutnma,  which,  in  time, 
became  a  text  in  the  hands  of  his  successors.  The 
Quccstiones  disputatce  were  special  treatises  on  the 
more  difficult  or  the  more  important  topics,  and, 
as  the  name  implied,  followed  the  method  of  debate 
prevalent  in  the  schools,  generally  called  disputation 
or  determination.  The  Quodlibeta  were  miscellanies, 
generally  in  the  form  of  answers  to  questions  which, 
as  soon  as  a  teacher  had  attained  a  widespread  re- 
nown, began  to  come  to  him,  not  only  from  the  aca- 
demic world  in  which  he  lived,  but  from  all  classes 
of  persons  and  from  every  part  of  Christendom.  The 
division  of  topics  in  theology  was  determined  by  the 
arrangement  followed  in  Peter  Lombard's  "Books 
of  Sentences"  (see  Sum.m.e,  Summul.e),  and  in  phi- 
losophy it  adhered  closely  to  the  order  of  treatises 
in  Aristotle's  works.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  diver- 
gence among  the  principal  Scholastics  in  the  details 
of  arrangement,  as  well  as  in  the  relative  values  of  the 
sub-titles,  "part",  "question",  "disputation",  "ar- 
ticle", etc.  All,  however,  adopt  the  manner  of  treat- 
ment by  which  thesis,  objections,  and  solutions  of 
objections  stand  out  distinctly  in  the  discussion  of 
each  problem.  We  find  traces  of  this  in  Gerbert'a 
Httle  treatise  "De  rationali  et  ratione  uti"  in  the 
tenth  century,  and  it  is  still  more  definitely  adopted 
in  Abelard's  "Sic  et  non".  It  had  its  root  in  Aris- 
totelean  method,  but  was  determined  more  imme- 
diately by  the  dialectical  activity  of  the  early 
schools,  from  which,  as  was  said,  Scholasticism 
sprang. 

Much  has  been  said  both  in  praise  and  in  blame 
of  Scholastic  terminology  in  philosophy  and  theology. 
It  is  rather  generally  acknowledged  that  whatever 
precision  there  is  in  the  modern  languages  of  Western 
Europe  is  due  largely  to  the  dialectic  disquisitions  of 
the  Scholastics.  On  the  other  hand,  ridicule  has  been 
poured  on  the  stiffness,  the  awkwardness,  and  the 
barbarity  of  the  Scholastic  style.  In  an  impartial 
study  of  the  question,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  Scholastics  of  the  thirteenth  century — and  it  was 
not  they  but  their  successors  who  were  guilty  of  the 
grossest  sins  of  style — were  confronted  with  a  ter- 
minological problem  unique  in  the  history  of  thought. 
They  came  suddenly  into  possession  of  an  entirely 
new  literature,  the  works  of  Aristotle.  They  spoke  a 
language,  Latin,  on  which  the  terminology  of  Aris- 
totle in  metaphysics,  psychology  etc.,  had  made  no  im- 
pression. Consequently,  they  were  obliged  to  create 
all  at  once  Latin  words  and  phrases  to  express  the 
terminology  of  Aristotle,  a  terminology  remarkable 
for  its  extent,  its  variety,  and  its  technical  com- 
plexity. They  did  it  honestly  and  humbly,  by 
translating  Aristotle's  phrases  literally;  so  that  many 
a  strange-sounding  Latin  phrase  in  the  writings  of  the 
Schoolmen  would  be  very  good  Aristotelcan  Greek, 
if  rendered  word  for  word  into  that  language.  The 
Latin  of  the  best  of  the  Scholastics  may  be  lacking 
in  elegance  and  distinction;  but  no  one  will  deny  the 
merits  of  its  rigorous  severity  of  phrase  and  its  logi- 
cal soundness  of  construction.  Though  wanting  the 
graces  of  what  is  callerl  the  fine  style,  graces  which 
have  the  power  of  pleasing  but  do  not  facilitate  the 
task  of  the  learner  in  philosophy,  the  style  of  the 
thirteenth-century  masters  possesses  the  fundamen- 
tal qualities,  clearness,  conciseness,  and  richness  of 
technical  phrase. 

IV.  The  Contents  of  the  Scholastic  System. — 


SCHOLASTICISM 


551 


SCHOLASTICISM 


In  logic  the  Scholastics  adopted  all  the  details  of  the 
Aristotelean  system,  which  was  known  to  the  Latin 
world  from  the  time  of  Boethius.  Their  individual 
contributions  consisted  of  some  minor  improv-ements 
in  the  matter  of  teaching  and  in  the  technic  of  the 
science.  Their  underlying  theory  of  knowledge  is 
also  Aristotelean.  It  may  be  described  by  saying 
that  it  is  a  system  of  Moderate  Realism  and  Moderate 
Intellectualism.  The  Realism  consists  in  teaching 
that  outside  the  mind  there  e.xist  things  fundamen- 
tally universal  which  correspond  to  our  universal 
ideas.  The  Moderate  Intellectualism  is  summed 
up  in  the  two  principles:  (1)  all  our  knowledge  is 
derived  from  sen.se-knowledge;  and  (2)  intellectual 
knowledge  differs  from  sense-knowledge,  not  only  in 
degree  but  also  in  kind.  In  this  way,  Scholasticism 
avoids  Innatism,  according  to  which  all  our  ideas,  or 
some  of  our  ideas,  are  born  with  the  soul  and  have  no 
origin  in  the  world  outside  us.  At  the  same  time,  it 
avoids  Sensism,  according  to  which  our  so-called  in- 
tellectual knowledge  is  only  sense-knowledge  of  a 
higher  or  finer  sort.  The  Scholastics,  moreover,  took 
a  firm  stand  against  the  doctrine  of  Subjectivism. 
In  their  discussion  of  the  value  of  knowledge  they 
held  that  there  is  an  external  world  which  is  real  and 
independent  of  our  thoughts.  In  that  world  are  the 
forms  which  make  things  to  be  what  they  are.  The 
same  forms  received  into  the  mind  in  the  process  of 
knowing  cause  us  not  to  be  the  object  but  to  know 
the  object.  This  presence  of  things  in  the  mind  by 
means  of  forms  is  true  representation,  or  rather  pres- 
entation. For  it  is  the  objective  thing  that  we  are 
first  aware  of,  not  its  representation  in  us. 

The  Scholastic  outlook  on  the  world  of  nature  is 
Aristotelean.  The  Schoolmen  adopt  the  doctrine  of 
matter  and  form,  which  they  apply  not  only  to  hving 
things  but  also  to  inorganic  nature.  Since  the  form, 
or  entelechy,  is  always  striving  for  its  own  realization 
or  actualization,  the  vnew  of  nature  which  this  doc- 
trine leads  to  is  teleological.  Instead,  however,  of 
ascribing  pur])ose  in  a  vague,  unsatisfactory  manner 
to  nature  itself,  the  Scholastics  attributed  design  to 
the  intelligent,  provident  author  of  nature.  The 
principle  of  finality  thus  acquired  a  more  precise 
meaning,  and  at  the  same  time  the  danger  of  a  Pan- 
theistic interpretation  was  avoided.  On  the  question 
of  the  universality  of  matter  the  Schoolmen  were  di- 
vided among  themselves,  some,  like  the  Franciscan 
teachers,  maintaining  that  all  created  beings  are  mate- 
rial, others,  like  St.  Thomas,  holding  the  existence  of 
"separate  forms",  such  as  the  angels,  in  whom  there 
is  potency  but  no  matter.  Again,  on  the  question  of 
the  oneness  of  substantial  forms,  there  was  a  lack  of 
agreement.  St.  Thomas  held  that  in  each  individ- 
ual material  substance,  organic  or  inorganic,  there 
is  but  one  substantial  form,  which  confers  being, 
substantiality  and,  in  the  case  of  man,  life,  sen- 
sation, and  reason.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  believed 
that  in  one  substance,  man,  for  instance,  there  are 
simultaneously  several  forms,  one  of  which  confers  ex- 
istence, another  substantiality,  another  life,  and  an- 
other, reason.  Finally,  there  was  a  divergence  of  views 
as  to  what  is  the  princijjlc  of  indi\-itluati()n,  by  which 
several  individuals  of  the  same  species  are  differ- 
entiated from  one  another.  St.  Thomas  taught  that 
the  principle  of  individuation  is  matter  with  its  de- 
termined dimensions,  materia  signata. 

In  regard  to  the  nature  of  man,  the  first  Scholastics 
were  Augustinians.  Their  definition  of  the  soul  is 
what  may  be  called  the  spiritual,  as  opposed  to  the 
biological,  definition.  They  held  that  the  soul  is  the 
principle  of  thought-activity,  and  that  the  exercise  of 
the  senses  is  a  process  from  the  soul  through  the  body, 
not  a  process  of  the  whole  organism,  that  is,  of  the  body 
animated  by  the  soul.  The  Scholastics  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  frankly  adopted  the  Aristotelean  defi- 
nition of  the  soul  as  the  principle  of  Ufe,  not  of  thought 


merely.  Therefore,  they  maintained,  man  is  a  com- 
pound of  body  and  soul,  each  of  which  is  an  incom- 
plete substantial  principle,  the  union  being,  conse- 
quently, immediate,  vital,  and  substantial.  For 
them  there  is  no  need  of  an  intermediary  "body  of 
light"  such  as  St.  Augustine  imagined  to  exist.  All 
the  vital  activities  of  the  individual  human  being  are 
ascribed  ultimately  to  the  soul,  as  to  their  active 
principle,  although  they  may  have  more  immediate 
principles,  namely  the  faculties,  such  as  intellect,  the 
senses,  the  vegetative  and  muscular  powers.  But 
while  the  soul  is  in  this  way  concerned  with  all  the 
vital  functions,  being,  in  fact,  the  source  of  them,  and 
the  body  enters  as  a  passive  principle  into  all  the  ac- 
tivities of  the  soul,  exception  must  be  made  in  the  case 
of  immaterial  thought-activities.  They  are,  like  all 
the  other  activities,  activities  of  the  individual.  The 
soul  is  the  active  principle  of  them.  But  the  body 
contributes  to  them,  not  in  the  same  intrinsic  manner 
in  which  it  contributes  to  seeing,  hearing,  digesting, 
etc.,  but  only  in  an  extrinsic  manner,  by  supplying  the 
materials  out  of  which  the  intellect  manufactures 
ideas.  This  extrinsic  dependence  explains  the  phe- 
nomena of  fatigue,  etc.  At  the  same  time  it  leaves 
the  soul  so  independent  intrinsically  that  the  latter 
is  truly  said  to  be  immaterial. 

From  the  immateriality  of  the  soul  follows  its  im- 
mortality. Setting  aside  the  possibility  of  annihila- 
tion, a  possibility  to  which  all  creatures,  even  the 
angels,  are  subject,  the  human  soul  is  naturally  im- 
mortal, and  its  immortality,  St.  Thomas  believes,  can 
be  proved  from  its  immateriality.  Duns  Scotus, 
however,  whose  notion  of  the  strict  requirements  of  a 
demonstration  was  influenced  by  his  training  in  math- 
ematics, denies  the  conclusive  force  of  the  argument 
from  immateriality,  and  calls  attention  to  Aristotle's 
hesitation  or  obscurity  on  this  point.  Aristotle,  as  in- 
terpreted by  the  Arabians,  was,  undoubtedly,  op- 
posed to  immortality.  It  was,  however,  one  of  St. 
Thomas's  greatest  achievements  in  philosophy  that, 
especially  in  his  opusculum  "De  unitate  intellectus", 
he  refuted  the  Arabian  interpretation  of  Aristotle, 
showed  that  the  active  intellect  is  part  of  the  indi- 
\'idual  soul,  and  thus  removed  the  uncertainty  which, 
for  the  Aristoteleans,  hung  around  the  notions  of  im- 
materiaUty  and  immortality.  From  the  immaterial- 
ity of  the  soul  follows  not  only  that  it  is  immortal,  but 
also  that  it  originated  by  an  act  of  creation.  It  was 
created  at  the  moment  in  which  it  was  united  with  the 
body:  creando  infunditur,  et  infundendo  creatur  is  the 
Scholastic  phrase. 

Scholastic  metaphysics  added  to  the  Aristotelean 
system  a  full  discussion  of  the  nature  of  personality, 
restated  in  more  definite  terms  the  traditional  argu- 
ments for  the  existence  of  God,  and  developed  the  doc- 
trine of  the  providential  government  of  the  universe. 
The  exigencies  of  theological  discussion  occasioned 
also  a  minute  analysis  of  the  nature  of  accident  in  gen- 
eral and  of  quantity  in  particular.  The  apphcation 
of  the  resulting  i)rinciples  to  the  explanation  of  the 
mystery  of  the  Eucharist,  as  contained  in  St.  Thomas's 
works  on  the  subject,  is  one  of  the  most  successful  of 
all  the  Scholastic  attempts  to  render  faith  reasonable 
by  means  of  dialectical  discussion.  Indeed,  it  may 
be  said,  in  general,  that  the  peculiar  excellence  of  the 
Scholastics  as  systematic  thinkers  consisted  in  their 
ability  to  take  hold  of  the  profoundest  metaphysical 
distinctions,  such  as  matter  and  form,  potency  and 
actuality,  substance  and  accident,  and  apply  them  to 
every  department  of  thought.  They  were  no  mere 
apriorists;  they  recognized  in  principle  and  in  prac- 
tice that  scientific  method  begins  with  the  observa- 
tion of  facts.  Nevertheless,  they  excelled  most  of  all 
in  the  talent  which  is  peculiarly  metaphysical,  the 
power  to  grasp  abstract  general  principles  and  apply 
them  consistently  and  systematically. 

So  far  as  the  ethics  of  Scholasticism  is  not  distinctly 


SCHOLLINER 


552 


SCHOLS 


Christian,  seeking  to  expound  anil  justify  Divine  law 
and  the  Christian  standard  of  morals,  it  is  Aristote- 
lean.  This  is  clear  from  the  adoption  and  apphcation 
of  the  Aristotelean  definition  of  virtue  as  the  golden 
mean  between  two  extremes.  Fundamentally,  the 
definition  is  eudemonistic.  It  rests  on  the  conviction 
that  the  suiireme  good  of  man  is  haii]Mness,  that  hap- 
piness is  the  realization,  or  comi)li"te  actualization,  of 
one's  nature,  and  that  virtue  is  an  essential  means  to 
that  end.  But  what  is  vague  anil  unsatisfactory  in 
Aristotelean  Eudemonism  is  made  definite  and  safe  in 
the  Scholastic  system,  which  determines  the  meaning 
of  happiness  and  realization  according  to  the  Divine 
purpose  in  creation  and  the  dignity  to  which  man  is 
destined  as  a  child  of  God. 

In  their  discussion  of  the  problems  of  political  phi- 
losophy the  philosophers  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
while  not  discarding  the  theological  views  of  St.  Au- 
gustine contained  in  "The  City  of  God",  laid  a  new 
foundation  for  the  study  of  political  organizations 
by  introducing  Aristotle's  scientific  definition  of  the 
origin  and  purpose  of  civil  society.  IVIan,  says  St. 
Thomas,  is  naturally  a  social  and  political  animal. 
By  gi^•ing  to  human  beings  a  nature  which  requires 
the  co-operation  of  other  human  beings  for  its  wel- 
fare, God  ordained  man  for  society,  and  thus  it  is  His 
will  that  princes  should  go\'ernwith  a  view  to  the  pub- 
lic welfare.  The  end  for  which  the  state  exists  is, 
then,  not  merely  vivere  but  bene  vivere.  All  that  goes 
to  make  life  better  and  happier  is  included  in  the  Di- 
vine charter  from  which  kings  and  rulers  derive  their 
authority.  The  Scholastic  treatises  on  this  subject 
and  the  commentaries  on  the  "Politics"  of  Aristotle 
prepared  the  way  for  the  medieval  and  modern  dis- 
cu-ssions  of  political  problems.  In  this  department  of 
thought,  as  in  many  others,  the  Schoolmen  did  at 
lea.st  one  service  which  posterity  should  appreciate: 
they  strove  to  express  in  clear  systematic  form  what 
was  present  in  the  consciousness  of  Christendom  in 
their  day. 

HLstorj'  of  the  word  "Scholastic":  Adlhoch,  Prcvfaliones  ad 
artU  scholaMicm  inter  occidenlales  fata  (Brunn,  1896),  33  sqq.; 
Ueberweo,  Grundriss  der  Gesch.  der  Phil.,  II  (9  ed..  Berlin.  190.J), 
158,  159. 

History  of  Scholastic  Philo.sophy:  Turner,  Htst.  of  Philos- 
ophy (Boston,  1903),  237-420;  Townsevd,  The  Great  Schoolmen 
of  the  Middle  Ages  (London,  1881);  Hampden,  The  Scholastic 
Philosophy  in  Relation  to  Christian  Theology  (Oxford,  1833); 
Ueberweg,  Op.  cil.,  tr.  Morris  (New  York,  1892);  De  Wulf, 
Hist,  of  Medieval  Philosophy,  tr.  Coffey  (London,  1909); 
Haur£ac,  Hist,  de  la  Phil.  scol.  (3  vols..  Paris.  1872-1880); 
Taylor.  The  Medieval  Mirul,  2  vols.  (London.  1911). 

Scholastic  Method:  Grabmann,  Die  Gesch.der  schol.  Melhode, 
I  (Freiburg,  1W9);  Picavet,  Abelard  et  Alexandre  d' Hales, 
creiUeurs  de  la  melliode  scoUistique  (Paris,  1896).  For  fuller 
bibliography  see  Grabmann,  Op.  cil.,  50  sqq. 

The  contents  of  Scholastic  philosophy  are  best  learned  from 
the  original  sources.  Many  of  the  works  of  the  early  .Schoolmen 
are  U>  he  found  in  P.  L.  The  works  of  the  later  Scholastics  are 
accessible  in  standard  editions  of  their  opera  omnia.  Of  Baum- 
ker  and  von  Hertling'b  series  of  texts,  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte 
der  Phil,  des  M.-A.  (Munster.  1891  sqq.),  seven  volumes  have  ap- 
peared, and  the  eighth  Ls  in  course  of  publication  (1911).  The 
principal  tenets  of  .Scholasticism  are  explained  in  Rickabv, 
Scholasticism  (Lfjndon,  1908);  Perrier,  The  Revival  of  SchoUis- 
tic  PhiU.sophy  in  the  XlXth  Century  (New  York.  1909);  Db 
Wllf,  Scholasticism  Old  and  New,  tr.  Coffey  (Dublin,  1907). 
The  Stonyhurst  Series  (Ixjndon,  1888  sqq.),  comprising  BoEDDf;R, 
Natural  Theology;  Clarke,  Logic;  Maker,  Psychology;  John 
RicKABY.  First  Principles;  Idem.  General  Metaphysics;  Joheph 
Rk.kaby.  Mfjral  Philosophy;  Walker.  Theories  of  Knowledge, 
and  the  Catholic  University  Series  of  textbooks  (vol.  I.  Washing- 


in  its  relation  to  modem  thougl 


epop 


William  Turner. 


SchoUiner,  Herman,  theologian  and  historian, 
b.  at  Freising  in  Bavaria,  1.5  .January,  1722;  d.  at 
Welchf-nberg,  16  .July,  179.5.  He  entered  the  Bene- 
dictine abbey  of  Oberaltaich  in  17:i8;  sttidied  phil- 
osophy and  theology  at  Erfurt  and  Salzburg;  wa.4 
director  of  the  house  of  studies  of  the  Bavarian 
Beneflictines  from  1752  to  17.57;  professor  of  dog- 
matic thfology  at  Salzburg  from  17.50  to  1706. 
He  travelled  to  Vienna  in  tlie  interejjts  of  his  monas- 


ter>'  in  1770;  became  i)rior  of  his  monaster^'  in  1772; 
taught  dogmatic  theology  at  Ingolstadt  from  1776 
to  17S0;  and  became  provost  at  Welchenborg  in 
1780.  From  1759  he  was  a  member  of  the  Bavarian 
Academj'^  of  Sciences.  He  is  the  author  of  about 
fifty  theological  and  historical  treatises.  As  member 
of  the  Bavarian  Academy  he  wrote  "Monumenta 
Niederalt:i('('iisia"  and  "  Monumcnta  (^beraltacensia, 
Elisabethcellensia  (»t  Ostcrhofcnsia",  which  form 
volumes  XI  (1-.340)  and  XII  of  "JMonumenta 
Boica".  Other  important  works  of  his  are:  "De 
magi.stratuum  ecclesiasticorun  origine  et  creatione" 
(Stadtamhof,  17.57);  "De  disciplime  arcani  anti- 
quitate  et  usu"  (Tegernsee,  17.55);  "Ecclesia;  orien- 
talis  et  occidentalis  concordia  in  transsubstantiatione  " 
(Ratisbon,  1756) ;  "  De  hierarchia  ecclesijE  catholicaj" 
(Ratisbon,  1757);  "Historia  theologise  christianae 
saecuh  primi"  (Salzburg,  1761);  " Praelectiones  the- 
ologiciE  ad  usum  studii  communis  congregationis 
Benedictino-Bavaricae  in  XII  tomos  divisse"  (Augs- 
burg, 1769),  and  numerous  contributions  to  the 
"  Abhandlungen  der  bayr.  Akad.  der  Wissenschaften". 

Lindner.  SrhriftsteUer  des  Benediktiner  Ordens  in  Bayern 
17.W-1SS0,  I  (Ratisbon.  1880).  117-22;  Westenrieder.  Bei- 
trd'je  zur  valerldndischen  HiMorie,  VII.  393-0;  Sattler.  Col- 
lectaneen-Bldller  zur  Gesch.  der  ehemal.  Benedikt.  Universitdt 
Salzburg   (Kempten,   1890).  407-73. 

Michael  Ott. 

Schols,  Charles  Mathieu,  b.  of  Catholic  parents 
at  Maastricht,  Holland,  28  March,  1S49;  d.  at  Delft, 
17  March,  1897.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  was 
sent  to  the  polytechnical  school  at  Delft,  where  he 
obtained  the  degree  of  civil  engineer  after  a  brilliant 
examination.  A  few  months  later  he  was  appointed  a 
teacher  at  the  Royal  Military  Academy  of  Breda, 
where  he  published  a  highly-apj)reciated  textbook  on 
surveying — "Leerboek  over  landnieten  en  water- 
pas.sen"  (Brerla,  1879).  In  187-4  he  submitted  to  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Amsterdam  a  treatise  on  the 
errors  in  a  plane  and  in  space,  and  shortly  afterwards 
another  on  the  interpolation  formula  of  Tchebychef, 
both  treatises  testifying  to  an  uncommon  degree  of 
mathematical  intuition.  As  early  as  1878  he  was  of- 
fered the  professorhip  of  geodesy  and  surveying  at 
the  polytechnical  school  at  Delft.  In  1880  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences, 
in  the  transactions  of  which  he  published  a  series 
of  important  investigations,  mostly  connected  with 
geodesy:  on  the  calculation  of  distance  and  azimuth 
from  longitude  and  latitude — "Berekening  van  afs- 
tand  en  azimuth  uit  lengte  en  breedte";  concerning 
the  connexion  of  triangular  nets  of  higher  and  lower 
order — "Over  de  aan.sluiting  van  een  driehoekennet 
van  lagere  orde  aan  3  punten  van  een  net  van  hoogere 
orde";  on  cartograjjliical  j)rojections — "Studien  van 
kaart-projectieen";  on  the  use  of  Mercator's  projec- 
tion in  equatorial  triangulation,  etc. 

Schols  however  did  nf)t  confine  his  interests  to  ge- 
ode.sy.  In  connexion  with  the  theory  of  j)robability 
we  possess  from  his  hand  three  communications  on  the 
Law  of  Errors,  while  of  his  works  on  pure  mathematics 
his  researches  on  a  semi-convergent  seri(>s  and  on 
errors  in  log.arithmic  tables  may  be  mentioned.  His 
activity  in  civil  engineering  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
prominent  part  he  took  in  the  publication  of  the 
text-book  on  hydraulic  architecture — "Waterbouw- 
kunde",  and  a  detailed  investigation  into  bending 
moments  anrl  shearing  stresses  in  railway  bridges. 
Important  national  services  were  rendered  by  Schols 
by  a  conscientious  preparation  and  supervision  of  the 
new  gcoKraphir-al  .survey  of  Holland,  which  had  been 
undertaken  in  1S86  by  order  of  the  Government. 
Schols,  whf)  had  been  secretary  of  the  Royal  Survey- 
ing and  Levelling  Committee  since  1881,  threw  him- 
self into  the  work  with  characteristic  jirdour.  He  de- 
vised an  el.'ihonite  pl.m  of  proceeding  and  conducted 
the  operations  without  allowing  the  smallest  detail  to 


SCHOLZ 


553 


SCHONGAUER 


escape  him.  At  the  time  of  his  premature  death 
(1897)  the  greater  part  of  the  primary  triangulation 
had  been  finished. 

Unequalled  as  a  teacher  he  commanded  the  highest 
admiration  by  the  masterly  way  in  which  he  exposed  and 
discussed  the  most  intricate  problems,  and  many  sci- 
entists of  recognized  authority  were  known  to  take  their 
places  on  the  benches  among  his  pupils.  His  treatises 
and  calculations  recommended  themselves  by  an  ex- 
treme .simplicity,  at  the  same  time  being  classic  for 
their  completeness  and  elegance.  In  his  social  inter- 
course he  was  amiable  and  engaging,  and  in  return  was 
universally  esteemed  and  honoured.  His  energy  was 
remarkable,  and  the  unflinching  resolution  with  which 
he  executed  a  task,  which  failing  health  continually 
menaced  with  frustration,  cannot  be  contemplated 
without  admiration.  Naturally  of  a  reserved  disposi- 
tion, his  habits  were  simple  and  his  manners  unas- 
suming, nor  was  he  ever  known  to  show  the  slightest 
vanity  or  self-esteem  on  account  of  the  numerous  dis- 
tinctions which  were  showered  upon  him;  love  of 
truth  was  his  only  passion.  Three  things  he  always 
cherished  and  treasured  in  the  midst  of  his  restless  ac- 
tivity: the  love  of  his  country,  his  family,  and  his  re- 
ligion.    He  died  of  consumption  at  the  age  of  48. 

The  article  has  been  composed  by  the  writer  from  personal 
reminiscences  and  from  the  following  articles:  van  de  Sande 
BaKHUYZEN,  In  Memorinm,  Charles  Mathieu  Schols.  Verslagen 
Kon.  Akad.  (27  March,  1897);  Wildeboer,  Ter  nagedachtenis  van 
Dr.  Ch.   M.  Schols  in   Tijdschrift  voor  Kad.  en  Landmeetkunde, 

XIII,  ii.  J.  Stein. 

Scholz,  John  Martin  Augustine,  an  erudite 
German  Orientalist  and  exegete,  b.  at  Kapsdorf, 
near  Breslau,  8  Feb.,  1794;  d.  at  Bonn,  20  Oct., 
1852.  He  studied  in  the  Catholic  gyinnn.sium  and 
the  University  of  Breslau.  In  1817  he  took  the  de- 
gree of  Doctor  of  Theology  at  the  University  of 
Freiburg,  and  then  went  to  Paris,  where  he  studied 
Persian  and  Arabic  under  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  and 
collated  numerous  codices  (Greek,  Latin,  Arabic, 
and  Syriac)  of  the  New  Testament.  From  Paris 
he  went  to  London,  and  thence  passing  through 
France  and  Switzerland  reached  Italy,  the  principal 
libraries  of  which  he  visited  in  quest  of  Biblical  in- 
formation. In  the  autumn  of  1821,  upon  his  return 
from  a  journey  through  Egypt,  Palestine,  and  Syria, 
and  having  been  ordained  at  Breslau  (Oct.,  1821), 
Scholz  became  professor  of  exegesis  at  the  University 
of  Bonn,  a  chair  to  which  he  had  been  appointed  in 
1820,  and  which  he  filled  until  his  death,  despite  the 
fact  that  he  was  not  an  interesting  lecturer.  As  he 
did  not  share  much  in  the  discussions  connected  with 
Hermes's  theories,  he  found  time  to  publish  several 
important  works.  The  principal  among  these  are: 
"Novum  TestamentumGrsce"  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1830, 
1836),  a  critical  edition  of  the  original  text,  full  of 
erudition  but  marred  bj^  a  defective  classification 
of  authorities  and  by  numerous  critical  inaccuracies; 
"De  virtutibus  et  vitiis  utriusque  Codd.  N. T.  familia;" 
(Leipzig,  1845),  a  sort  of  supplement  to  the  pre- 
ceding work;  "Einleitung  in  die  Schriften  des  A.  u. 
N.  T."  (Cologne  and  Leipzig,  1845-1848,  3  vols., 
treating  only  of  the  Old  Test.) ;  "  Handbuch  des  bibl. 
Archaologie"  (Bonn,  1834).  To  these  works  may  be 
added  Scholz's  own  account  of  his  travels:  "Reise  in 
die  Gegend.  etc."  (Leipzig,  1822);  "Biblisch-kritische 
Rei.se,  etc.  (Leipzig,  1823);  his  essays  on  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  (Bonn,  1825);  on  Jerusalem  (Bonn,  1835); 
"Curae  criticse",  containing  a  valuable  description  of 
Cod.  K  "Cyprius"  (Heidelberg,  1820);  "De  fontibus 
historic  V.  Test."  (Bonn,  1830);  and  his  discourse  on 
the  harmony  of  Divine  revelation  with  science  (Bonn, 
1845).  Scholz  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  learned 
periodicals  published  at  Bonn. 

ScRtVENER-MiLLER,  A  Plain  Introduction  to  the  Criticism  of 
the  N.  T.  (London,  1894);  Hurter,  Nomenclator  Literarius, 
III  (Innsbruck,  1895). 

Francis  E.  Gigot. 


Schonborn,  the  name  of  a  German  noble  family, 
many  members  of  which  were  prelatc^s  of  the  Church. 

(1)  JoHANN  Philipp  VON  ScHONHORN,  Archbi.shop 
of  Mainz  and  Bishop  of  Wiirzburg  and  Worms,  b.  at 
Eschbach  in  the  Westerwald,  6  August,  1605;  d.  at 
Wiirzburg,  12  February,  1673.  When  sixteen  years 
old  he  became  a  cleric  (an  expectant  for  a  canoni- 
cate)  at  the  cathedral  of  Wiirzburg,  and  in  1625  at 
that  of  Mainz.  He  became  cathedral  canon  at 
Wiirzburg  in  1629,  and  at  Worms  in  1630.  In 
1635  he  was  made  provost  of  Kronbcrg  and  of  St. 
Burkard  at  Wiirzburg.  On  16  August,  1642,  he  be- 
came Bishop  of  Wiirzburg  (deacon,  1642;  priest, 
1645);  on  18  November,  1647,  he  was  made  Arch- 
bishop of  Mainz,  and  in  1663  Bishop  of  Worms. 
His  foreign  policy  was  mainly  directed  towards  the 
maintenance  of  peace,  but  this  policy  did  not  always 
meet  with  approval  and  often  failed  in  its  object. 
On  the  other  hand  his  administration  of  all  domestic 
affairs  was  excellent,  and  as  a  ruler  he  was  not  below 
the  best  of  his  era.  His  contemporaries  gave  him  the 
honourable  titles  of  "The  Wise",  " The  German  Solo- 
mon", and  "The  Cato  of  Germany".  He  succeeded 
in  repairing  the  injuries  inflicted  upon  his  domains 
by  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  settled  the  disputes  as  to 
territory  with  the  neighbouring  rulers,  reorganized  the 
higher  civil  service,  and  improved  the  administration 
of  justice.  To  compensate  for  the  scarcity  of  priests 
and  to  raise  the  standard  of  the  secular  clergy,  he 
called  to  Mainz  and  Wiirzburg  the  Bartholomites, 
an  institute  founded  by  Bartlioloinew  Holzhau.ser 
{Iiislitutum  clericorum  sftculariiiin  in  communi  vwen- 
tium);  in  1654  he  transferred  to  them  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  at  Wiirzburg, 
and  in  1660  also  that  of  the  gymnasium  founded  by 
him  at  Miinnerstadt.  In  1662  he  established  a  sem- 
inary for  priests  at  Mainz.  Urged  by  the  Jesuit 
Spec,  he  suppressed  the  trial  of  witches  in  his  domains, 
and  thus  contributed,  as  far  as  was  in  his  power,  to 
the  abolition  of  this  miserable  delusion.  He  was  sur- 
rounded at  his  court  by  a  large  number  of  distin- 
guished men,  statesmen,  diplomats,  scholars,  and  pious 
ecclesiastics.  (2)  Lothar  Franz  von  Schonborn, 
nephew  of  the  above,  was  Archbishop  of  Mainz  (1695- 
1729)  and  Bishop  of  Bamberg  (169.3—);  (3)  Damian 
Hugo  Philipp  von  Schonborn  was  Prince  Bishop 
of  Speyer  (1719-43)  and  of  Constance  (1740),  and  was 
also  a  cardinal.  He  did  much  for  the  Diocese  of 
Speyer,  and  was  conspicuous  for  his  culture,  learning, 
and  piety;  (4)  Franz  Georg  von  Schonborn  was 
Archbishop  of  Trier  (1729-56)  and  Bishof)  of  Worms 
( 1 732 — ) .  Both  Frederick  the  Great  and  Maria  Ther- 
esa praised  him  as  an  excellent  ruler.  (5)  Johann 
Philipp  Franz  von  Schonborn  was  Bishop  of  Wiirz- 
burg (1719-24).  (6)  Friedrich  Karl  von  Schon- 
born was  Bishopof  Bamberg  and  Wiirzburg  (1729-46). 
The  last  three  ])relates  were  brothers,  and  nephews  of 
Lothar  Franz.  (7)  Franz  von  Schonborn,  b.  at  Prague, 
24  Jan.,  1844;  d.  25  June,  1899.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Prague  in  1885,  and  was  created  cardinal  in  1889. 

Wild,  Johann  Philipp  von  Schonborn  (Heidelberg,  1896); 
Mentz,  Johann  Philipp  von  Schonborn,  I-II  (Jena,  1896-99) ; 
HoPF,  Histor.-geneal.  Atlas,  I  (Gotha,  1858),  133. 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Schongauer,  Martin  (also  known  as  Schon), 
German  painter  and  engraver,  b.  at  Colmar  between 
1445  and  14.50;  d.  probably  in  1491,  it  is  believed  at 
Breisach.  He  was  the  son  of  Caspar  Schongauer,  a 
goldsmith,  who  had  come  from  Bavaria,  and  settled 
in  Colmar  about  1445,  and  who  is  known  to  have 
lived  until  about  1481.  He  had  four  brothers,  Lud- 
wig,  a  painter,  Caspar,  Georg,  and  Paul,  goldsmiths. 
By  some  authors,  Martin  is  said  to  have  been  the 
youngest  son,  by  others,  the  eldest  of  the  family. 
He  matriculated  at  the  University  of  Leipzig  in  1465, 
purchased  a  house  in  1477,  and  founded  a  Mass  for 
his  parents  and  himself  in  1488.     These  are  almost 


sch6ningh 


554 


SCHOOLS 


the  only  facts  we  know  concerning  him,  and  all 
other  information  about  him  is  derived  from  dates  on 
his  drawings  or  engravings.  His  masterpiece  is 
known  as  the  "Virgin  in  the  Garden  of  Roses",  and 
is  in  the  Church  of  St.  Martin  at  Colmar.  He  has 
been  described  as 
a  pupil  of  Rogier 
van  der  Weyden, 
on  the  authority 
of  a  letter  ^^Titten 
to  Vasari,  but  al- 
though Rogier  van 
der  Wej'den's  in- 
fluence is  to  be  rec- 
ognized in  Schon- 
gauer's  work,  it 
seems  very  doubt- 
ful whether  he  ever 
entered  that  paint- 
er's studio.  Seve- 
ral of  his  paintings 
are  dated,  but  with 
the  exception  of 
the  one  in  Colmar, 
we  have  no  abso- 
lute evidence  that 
any  one  of  them 
Martin  Schongauer  is    his    work,    and 

Hans  Burgkmair,  The  Pinakothek,  no    documents 

Munich  have  yet  been  dis- 

covered enabling  us  to  verify  his  paintings.  We  are 
very  much  in  the  same  position  with  regard  to  his 
engravings.  They  bear  the  signature  of  his  initials,  but 
there  is  nothing  in  the  statements  of  his  contemporaries 
to  say  with  absolute  certainty  that  the  engravings 
signed  M.  S.  are  his  work.  There  is,  however,  very 
little  doubt  in  the  matter,  and  they  are  always  ac- 
cepted as  being  his  work.  He  is  not  to  be  regarded  as 
a  great  artist  or  a  perfect  draughtsman,  but  in  the 
actual  technic  of  line  engraving  he  is  unsurpassed  in 
his  period,  and  is  practically  the  equal  of  Diirer. 
About  a  hundred  plates  attributed  to  him  are  in 
existence,  and  there  is  an  almost  perfect  collection  of 
his  prints  in  Berlin,  a  collection  almost  equal  to  it 
existing  in  London. 

The  standard  work  upon  him  is  Waltz,  Bibliographie  des 
Ouvrages  et  Articles  concernant  Martin  Schdngauer  (Colmar, 
1903);    Hensler  in  Neumann's  Archives  (1867),  129. 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Schoningh. — The  publishing  house  of  Ferdinand 
Schoningh  at  Paderborn  was  founded  by  Ferdinand 
Friedrich  Joseph  Schoningh,  who  was  born  at  Meppen 
in  Hanover  16  March,  181.5,  and  died  at  Paderborn, 
18  Aug.,  1883.  He  was  the  son  of  Dr.  Schoningh,  an 
official  of  the  law  courts.  Educated  at  the  gymnasium 
of  his  native  town,  he  was  active  in  the  book  trade 
since  1831.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  in  Miinster 
and  Svest,  and  on  12  May,  1847,  he  opened  under 
great  difficulties  a  book  and  art  store  at  Paderborn 
that  soon  developed  into  a  prosperous  business. 
Schoningh  never  lost  sight  of  a  higher  aim,  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  publishing  house;  selling  his  store  in 
187.5  and  perceiving  the  need  of  Catholic  new.spapers 
and  periodical  literature,  he  founded  in  1848  the 
weekly  "  Westfalisches  Kirchenblatt",  and  in  1849 
the  "Westfalische  Volksblatt",  which  was  intended 
to  instruct  the  people  in  the  political  and  social  ques- 
tions of  the  day  and  to  give  them  the  Christian  view 
on  these  subjects.  On  1  April,  1910,  a  publishing 
house  was  formed,  the  initial  publication  of  which  was 
the  first  year-bwjk  of  the  Diocf^se  of  Paderborn 
(1849).  Schoningh's  ability  and  power  for  hard  work 
gradually  built  up  his  busmejis,  especially  as  regards 
the  pubhcation  of  scientific  works.  The  reputation  of 
the  publishing  house  was  established  and  main- 
tained in  the  literary  and  learned  world  by  the  publica- 
tion of  such  works  as  the  textbooks  and  exerciBe-books 


of  Ferdinand  Schultz,  which  passed  through  many 
editions  and  were  translated  into  numerous  languages; 
the  "Bibliothek  der  iiltesten  deutschen  Literatur- 
Denkmaler"  (Heliand,  Beowulf,  etc.),  edited  by  Mo- 
ritz  Heyne,  a  university  professor;  and  excellent 
theological  works,  as  that  on  dogmatics  by  Oswald, 
the  explanation  of  the  Catechism  by  Deharbe,  etc. 
The  house  remained  loyal  to  these  three  branches  of 
learning  and  constantly  increased  its  publications  in 
these  directions.  Among  the  periodicals  published 
under  its  supervision  are:  "  Chrysologus  "  (from  1860); 
"Blatter  fiir  kirchliche  Wissenschaft  und  Praxis" 
(from  1867);  "Gymnasium"  (from  1883).  Schoningh 
also  did  much  to  encourage  Catholic  poetry;  among 
the  poets  whose  works  he  issued  were  those  of  Brill, 
Luise  Hensel,  and  especially  of  F.  W.  Weber.  Weber's 
poems  published  by  Schoningh  include:  "Dreizehn- 
linden",  "Goliath",  "Gedichte".  Schoningh  died 
suddenly  from  apoplexy.  His  stanch  Catholic  opin- 
ions, sincere  and  honest  character,  and  joy  in  what 
he  produced  cannot  be  forgotten  in  the  Catholic  intel- 
lectual life  of  Germany. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  death  of  the  founder,  the 
house  had  published  673  works  in  935  volumes,  em- 
bracing the  most  varied  branches  of  knowledge  and 
literature.  The  business  has  been  carried  on  in  the 
same  spirit  by  Schoningh's  sons,  Ferdinand  (b.  7 
March,  1856),  who  since  1885  has  had  charge  of 
the  publishing  department,  and  Joseph  (b.  12  June, 
1860),  who  since  1891  has  been  the  business  manager. 
In  the  course  of  time  four  branches  were  established, 
namely:  in  1885  the  Nas.se  publishing  house  at 
Miinster;  in  1887  one  at  Osnabriick,  combined  with 
a  store  for  learned  antiquarian  works;  in  1891  one 
at  Mainz;  and  in  1902  one  at  Wiirzburg.  The  house 
has  ever  since  its  establishment  given  special  atten- 
tion to  works  in  the  three  main  divisions  of  learning. 
In  the  departments  of  scientific  and  practical  theology 
and  philosophy  the  house  publishes  the  following 
periodicals:  "Theologie  und  Glaube";  "Jahrbuch 
fur  Philosophic  und  spekulative  Theologie";  "For- 
schungen  zur  christ lichen  Literatur  und  Dogmen- 
geschichte";  "Chrysologus".  For  the  entire  field 
of  scientific  and  practical  pedagogics  the  house  issued 
the  following  periodicals:  "  Monatschrift  fur  katho- 
lische  Lehrerinnen"  and  "Zeitschrift  fiir  christliche 
Erziehungswissenschaft";  it  also  gives  attention  to 
linguistics  and  to  Hterature,  and  issued  numerous 
works  in  all  the  other  departments  of  learning. 
Among  the  more  extensive  compilations  published 
by  the  firm  should  be  mentioned  the  "  Wissenschaft- 
Hche  Handbibliothek";  41  volumes  of  this  work 
have  already  been  issued,  and  of  these  34  are  theolog- 
ical and  philosophical  works  written  by  distinguished 
German  scholars,  as  B.  Funk  (Church  historjO. 
Gopfert  (moral  theology),  Heiner  (canon  law),  Pohle 
(dogmatics),  Pruner  (pastoral  theology),  etc.  Other 
publications  are  those  of  the  Gorres  Society:  "Stu- 
dien  zur  Geschichte  und  Kultur  des  Altertums", 
"Quellen  und  For-schungen  zur  Geschichte  der  papst- 
lichen  Hnf-  und  Finanzverwaltung",  "Publikationen 
der  Sektion  fiir  Rechts-  und  Soziahvisseiiscliaft". 
Still  other  works  are:  "Sammlung  der  hcdeutendsten 
padagogischen  Schriften  aus  alter  und  neuer  Zeit", 
"Sammlung  der  kommentierten  und  der  Textaus- 
gaben  deutscher  und  ausliindischer  Klassiker  fiir  den 
Schulgebrauch".  Hermann  MOller. 

Schools,  I. — The  Christian  Church,  by  virtue  of 
her  Divine  charter,  "Going,  teach  ye  all  nations", 
is  essentially  a  teaching  Organization.  Teaching 
is  included  in  her  task  of  saving  souls.  Primarily 
she  was  instituted  to  dispense  the  means  of  salvation, 
and  to  teach  the  truths  which  are  necessary  to  salva- 
tion. These  truths  are  spiritual  and  moral,  and  her 
catechumenal  schools  (see  Catechumen)  were  insti- 
tuted for  the  purpose  e>f  teaching  them.    Truths  which 


SCHOOLS 


555 


SCHOOLS 


are  not  of  their  nature  spiritual,  truths  of  science,  of 
history,  matters  of  culture,  in  a  word,  profane  learn- 
ing— these  do  not  belong  intrinsically  to  the  pro- 
gramme of  the  Church's  teaching.  Nevertheless,  they 
enter  into  her  work  by  force  of  circumstance,  when, 
namely,  the  Christian  youth  cannot  attain  a  knowl- 
edge of  them  without  incurring  grave  danger  to  faith 
or  morals.  They  enter  also  into  the  Church's  task  by 
reason  of  a  pedagogical  principle  which  she  has  al- 
ways recognized  in  practice.  Religion  being  the  su- 
preme co-ordinating  principle  in  education,  as  it  is  in 
life,  if  the  so-called  secular  branches  of  knowledge  are 
taught  without  reference  to  religion,  the  Church  feels 
that  an  educational  mistake  is  being  made,  that  the 
"one  thing  necessary"  is  being  excluded,  to  the  detri- 
ment of  education  itself.  Therefore  she  assumes  the 
task  of  teaching  the  secular  branches  in  such  a  way 
that  rehgion  is  the  centralizing,  unifying,  and  vitahz- 
ing  force  in  the  educational  process.  Whenever  there 
is  positive  and  immediate  danger  of  loss  of  faith,  the 
Church  cannot  allow  her  children  to  run  the  risk  of 
perversion;  whenever  religion  is  left  out  of  the  curric- 
ulum, she  tries  to  supply  the  defect.  In  both  cases 
she  establishes  under  her  own  control  schools  which 
are  called  Cathohc  and  which,  in  the  vicissitudes  of 
historical  development  or  from  the  particular  circum- 
stances of  their  foundation,  scope,  or  maintenance,  are 
specifically  known  as  catechetical  schools,  monastic 
schools,  cathedral  schools,  chantry  schools,  guild 
schools,  parochial  schools,  etc. 

II.  Catechetical  Schools. — These  flourished  about 
the  middle  of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
They  were  brought  into  existence  by  the  conflict  of 
Christianity  with  pagan  pliilo.sophy.  They  were,  con- 
sequently, academics  of  liigher  learning.  Out  of  them 
grew  the  first  great  schools  of  theological  controversy 
and  also  the  schools  for  the  special  training  of  the 
clergy,  although  there  were,  almost  from  the  begin- 
ning, schools  attached  to  the  household  of  the  bishops 
(episcopal  schools)  where  clerics  were  trained.  We 
have  reason  to  believe  that  in  some  instances,  as  in  the 
catechetical  school  of  Protogenes  at  Edcssa  (about 
180),  not  only  the  higher  branches  but  also  the  ele- 
mentary branches  were  taught  in  the  catechetical 
schools.  Schools  of  this  type  became  more  numerous 
as  time  went  on.  In  the  Council  of  Vaison  (529)  the 
priests  of  Gaul  are  commanded  to  take  boys  into  their 
household  and  teach  them  to  read  "the  Psalms,  and 
the  Holy  Scriptures  and  to  instruct  them  in  the  Law  of 
God".  From  these  sprang  the  parochial  schools  of 
medieval  and  modern  times. 

As  the  conflict  between  Christianity  and  pagan 
philosophy  gave  rise  to  the  catechetical  schools,  so  the 
more  general  struggle  between  Christian  and  pagan 
standards  of  life  gave  rise  to  other  provisions  on  the 
part  of  the  Church  for  safeguarding  the  faith  of  Chris- 
tian children.  In  the  first  centuries  great  stress  was 
laid  on  the  importance  of  home  education,  and  this 
task  was  committed  in  a  special  manner  to  Christian 
mothers.  It  is  sufficient  to  mention  the  Christian 
matrons  Macrina,  Emmelia,  Nonna,  Anthusa,  Monica, 
and  Paula,  mothers  of  saints  and  scholars,  to  show 
how  successfully  the  home  under  the  direction  of  the 
Christian  mother  was  made  to  counteract  the  influ- 
ence of  pagan  schools.  There  were  also  private 
schools  for  Christian  youth,  taught  by  Christians,  for 
instance  the  school  at  Imola,  taught  by  Cassian. 

III.  Monastic  Schools. — Monasticism  as  an  insti- 
tution was  a  protest  against  the  corrupt  pagan  stand- 
ards of  hving  which  had  begun  to  influence  not  only 
the  public  life  of  Christians  but  also  their  private  and 
domestic  life.  Even  in  the  fourth  century,  St.  John 
Chrysostom  testifies  to  the  decline  of  fervour  in  the 
Christian  family,  and  contends  that  it  is  no  longer  pos- 
sible for  children  to  obtain  proper  religious  and  moral 
training  in  their  own  homes.  It  was  part  of  the  pur- 
pose of  monasticism  to  meet  this  need  and  to  supply 


not  only  to  the  members  of  the  religious  orders  but 
also  to  children  committed  to  the  care  of  the  cloister 
the  moral,  religious,  and  intellectual  culture  which 
could  not  be  obtained  elsewhere  without  lowering  the 
Christian  standard  of  life.     At  the  same  time  epis- 
copal schools,  though  instituted  primarily  for  the  edu- 
cation of  clerical  candidates,  did  not  decline  to  admit 
secular  scholars,  especially  after  the  State  schools  of 
the  empire  had  fallen  into  decay.     There  were  paro- 
chial schools  also,  which,  while  they  aimed  at  foster- 
ing vocations  to  the  priesthood,  were  expressly  com- 
manded not  to  deny  their  pupils  the  right  to  enter  the 
married  state  as  soon  as  they  reached  the    age    of 
maturity  (cum  ad  cetatem  perfectam  pervenerint) .     The 
explicit  enactment  of  the  Council  of  Vaison  (529)  in 
this  matter  is  important  because  it  refers  to  a  similar 
custom  already  prevaihng  in  Italy.     It  remains  true, 
however,  that  although  the  episcopal  and  presbyteral 
(parochial)  schools  thus  contributed  to  the  education 
of  the  laity,  the  chief  portion  of  the  burden  of  lay  ed- 
ucation in  the  early  Middle  Ages  was  borne  by  the 
monasteries.     The  earliest  monastic  legislation  does 
not  clearly  define  the  organization  of  the  "internal" 
and  "external"  schools.     Nevertheless,  it  recognizes 
the  existence  in  the  monastery  of  children  who  were 
to  be  educated,  not  for  the  cloister,  but  for  the  world. 
In  Ireland,  as  Archbishop  Healy  says,  the  monks, 
"taught  the  children  of  the  rich  and  poor  alike"  ("Ire- 
land's Ancient  Schools  and  Scholars",  102),  and  to  Ire- 
land went  not  only  clerics  but  laymen  from  England 
and  the  Continent,  to  receive  an  education.     On  the 
Continent  also  the  education  of  the  laity,  "gentle  and 
simple",  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  monks.     It  is  difficult  to 
saj'  when  the  distinction  between  the     "internal" 
school   (schola  clauslri)   and  the   "external"    {schola 
canonica,  s.  externa)  was  first  introduced.     We  find  it 
in  St.  Gall,  Fulda,  and  Heichenau  in  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centuries.     In  the  internal  school  the  pupils 
were  novices,  future  members  of  the  order,  some  of 
whom  were  offered  up  (oblati)  by  their-  parents  at  a 
tender  age.     In  the  external  school  were  the  children 
of  the  neighbouring  villagers  and  the  sons  of  the  no- 
bility; many  of  the  references  to  this  class  of  pupils 
in  the  monastic  code  lay  stress  on  the  obligation  to 
treat  aU  with  equal  ju.stice,  not  taking  account  of  their 
rank  in  life.     There  was  a  similar  custom  in  regard  to 
the  reception  of  young  girls  in  the  convents,  as  ap- 
pears from  several  enactments  of  Bishop  St.  Ca^sarius 
of  Aries  and  his  successors.     At  Aries,  moreover,  ac- 
cording to  Muteau  (see  bibliography)  open  schools 
(ecoles  ouvertes)  were  held  by  the  nuns  for  the  benefit  of 
the  entire  neighbourhood.     The  curriculum  of  studies 
in  the  monastic  schools  comprised  the  trivium  and 
qiiadrivium,  that  is  to  say,  grammar,  rhetoric,  dialec- 
tic, arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy,  and  the  theory 
of  music.     Besides,  the  monks  cultivated  the  science 
and  art  of  healing;  they  devoted  attention  to   agri- 
culture, building,  and  the  decorative  arts.     They  took 
pains  to  transcribe  the  Classics  as  well  as  the  distinctly 
ecclesiastical  works  that  had  come  down  to  them;  and 
in  doing  this  they  developed  the  art  of  penmanship  and 
that  of  illumination  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection. 
They  were  annalists  also,  noting  dowm  year  by  year 
the  important  events  not  only  in  the  life  of  their  own 
community  but  also  in  the  Church  at  large  and  in  the 
political  world.    Finally,  by  example  and  precept  they 
dignified  manual  labour,  which  in  pagan  Rome  was 
despised  as  fit  only  for  slaves. 

The  head  of  the  mona.stic  school  was  called  magister 
scholce,  capiscola,  proscholus,  etc.  By  the  end  of  the 
ninth  century,  however,  the  usual  name  for  the  head 
of  the  school  was  scholasticus.  His  assistants  were 
called  seniores.  The  method  of  teaching  was  influ- 
enced largely  by  the  scarcity  of  books  and  the  need  of 
handing  down  without  diminution  the  heritage  of  the 
past.  The  master  dictated  (legsre  was  the  word  used 
to  signify  the  act  of  teaching),  and  the  pupils  wrote 


SCHOOLS 


556 


SCHOOLS 


not  only  the  text  but  also  the  master's  explanation  or 
commentary.  Of  the  many  textbooks  in  use  the  most 
popular  was  tlie  work  by  Marcianus  Capella  (about 
420)  entitled  ".Satyricon,  seu  dc  Nuptiis  Mercurii  et 
Philologise".  That  the  instruction  given  to  the  laitv 
in  the  monastic  schools  was  entirely  gratuitous  is  evi- 
dent from  the  decree  of  Bishop  Theodulf  of  Orleans  in 
the  eighth  century,  and  from  other  documents.  When, 
at  Tours,  the  external  school  was  frequented  by  a 
number  of  wealthy  pupils,  whose  voluntary  gifts  to  t  lie 
monastery  put  the  poorer  students  in  a  position  of  ap- 
parent inferiority,  tiie  bishop  of  that  see,  Amalric, 
gave  a  generous  donation  to  the  monks  to  be  used  in 
the  maintenance  of  poor  students.  The  Carlovingian 
revival  of  education  affected  not  only  the  internal 
schools  of  the  monasteries  but  also  the  external 
schools,  and,  during  the  reign  of  Charles's  successors, 
bishops  and  popes  by  a  number  of  decrees  showed 
their  interest  in  the  maintenance  not  only  of  schools  of 
sacred  science,  but  also  in  schools  "for  the  studj'  of 
letters".  The  external  school  had  by  this  time  be- 
come a  recognized  institution,  which  the  sons  of  the 
farmers  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  monasteries  fre- 
quented not  by  privilege  but  by  a  right  freely  ac- 
knowledged. We  know  that  before  the  end  of  the 
ninth  century  both  boys  and  girls  attended  the  schools 
attached  to  the  parish  churches  in  the  Diocese  of 
Soissons.  As  time  went  on  the  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  schools  by  the  Church  was  made  a 
matter  of  express  canonical  enactment.  No  docu- 
ment could  be  more  exphcit  than  the  Decree  of  the 
Third  Council  of  Lateran  (1179):  "  That  every  cathe- 
dral church  have  a  teacher  {magisirum)  who  is  to 
teach  poor  scholars  and  others,  and  that  no  one  re- 
ceive a  fee  for  permission  to  teach ' '  (Mansi,  XXII,  234) . 

IV.  Cathedral  Schools. — The  cathedral  schools 
sprang  from  the  episcopal  schools  which,  as  has  been 
said,  existed  from  a  very  early  time  for  the  traiiiing  of 
clerics.  Chrodegang,  Bishop  of  Metz,  742-66,  is  said 
to  be  the  founder  of  medieval  cathedral  schools,  but 
only  in  the  sense  that  he  organized  the  clergy  of  his 
cathedral  church  into  a  community,  and  ordained  that 
they  undertake  the  conduct  and  management  of  the 
school  attached  to  their  church.  The  bishop  himself 
was  to  have  control  of  the  school  and  under  him  was 
to  be  the  immediate  superior  of  the  school  {magisler 
scholce) .  In  the  cities  and  towns  where  there  was  no 
cathedral,  the  canoas  of  the  local  church  were  organ- 
ized after  the  manner  o£  the  cathedral  clergy,  and  con- 
ducted a  "canonicate"  school.  In  both  institutions 
there  came  to  be  distinguished  (1)  the  elementary 
school  {schola  minor)  where  reading,  writing,  psal- 
mody, etc.  were  taught;  and  (2)  the  higher  school 
(schola  major)  in  which  the  curriculum  consisted  either 
of  the  trivium  alone  (grammar,  rhetoric,  and  dialec- 
tic j,  or  of  the  full  programme,  namely  the  seven  lib- 
eral arts,  Scripture,  and  what  we  now  call  pastoral 
tlieology.  The  method  employed  in  the  cathedral 
schools  was  identical  with  that  of  the  monastic  schools. 

V.  Chantry  Schools. — The  chantry  schools  were 
similar  in  character  to  the  cathedral  and  canonicate 
schools.  IndcfHl,  they  may  be  said  to  be  a  specific 
kind  of  canonicate  schools.  The  chantry  was  a 
foundation  with  endowment,  the  proceeds  of  which 
went  to  one  or  more  priests  carrying  the  obligation 
of  singing  or  saying  IVIass  at  stated  times,  or  daily, 
ff>r  thc!  ivm]  of  the  endower,  or  for  the  souls  of  per- 
sons named  by  him.  It  was  part  of  the  duty  of  the 
incumbents  of  a  chantry  foundation  to  "teach  gratis 
the  [K>or  who  asked  it  liurriljly  for  the  love  of  Clod". 
(H(',i'  "Catholic  Universily  Biiilctiii,"  IX,  '.'>  sc].). 

VI.  (iuiOl Schools,  Ilosfntdl  Schools,  (in/l  City  Srhooh, 
the  last  beginning  with  the  thirteenth  century,  sliared 
the  work  of  education  with  the  cloister,  cathedral,  and 
chantry  schools.  The  guilds  and  hospitals  were  ec- 
clesiastical founrlations,  were  guided  by  clerics,  and 
engaged  in  the  work  of  education  under  the  direction 


of  the  Church.  The  city  schools  at  first  met  with  op- 
position from  the  teachers  in  the  monastic  and  cathe- 
dral foundations,  although  they  also  were  under  the 
control  of  ecclesiastics.  Kehrein  in  his  "Historj'  of 
Education"  (see  bibhography)  mentions  a  Decree  of 
Alexander  III  which  prohibits  any  abbot  from  pre- 
venting any  magister  or  scholasticus  from  taking  charge 
of  a  school  in  tlie  city  or  suburb  "since  knowledge  is  a 
gift  of  CJod  and  talent  is  free".  Towards  the  end  of 
the  Middle  Ages  the  task  of  the  ecclesiastical  teacher 
became  so  important  that  communities  of  clerics  were 
founded  for  the  exjiress  purpose  of  devoting  their  lives 
to  the  duties  of  elementary  education.  The  best 
known  of  these  communities  is  that  of  "The  Brothers 
of  the  Common  Life"  founded  by  Gerard  Groot 
(1340-84)  at  Deventer.  It  soon  extended  to  Winded- 
heim,  Agnetenberg,  and  other  towns  in  Holland 
and  North  Germany.  To  this  community  belonged 
Thomas  a  Kempis,  the  author  of  "The  Imitation  of 
Clirist ".  That  these  various  provisions  for  the  educa- 
tion not  only  of  the  clergy  but  also  of  the  laity — mo- 
nastic schools,  cathedral  schools,  canonicate  schools, 
chantry  schools,  guild  schools,  hospital  schools,  city 
schools,  and  special  educational  institutions — met  the 
educational  needs  of  the  times,  and  were  adequate  as 
far  as  the  circumstances  of  the  times  would  allow,  is 
the  verdict  of  all  historians  who  view  without  preju- 
dice the  educational  career  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
Allain  (see  bibliography)  has  told  the  story  of  primary 
education  in  France;  Ravelet  (see  bibliography)  has 
gone  over  the  whole  question  of  primary  education  in 
medieval  times;  Leach  has  told  part  of  the  story  (see 
bibliography)  as  far  as  pre-Reformation  England  is 
concerned.  It  is  impossible  to  give  more  than  a  sum- 
mary statement  of  the  facts  which  these  writers  have 
accumulated.  Those  facts,  however,  justify  the  as- 
sertion that,  far  from  opposing  or  neglecting  the  edu- 
cation of  the  masses,  the  Catholic  Church  in  medieval 
times  provided  generously  for  their  instruction  in  the 
elementary  branches,  as  well  as  in  the  department  of 
higher  studies,  whenever  and  wherever  the  political, 
social,  and  economic  conditions  were  not  so  adverse 
as  to  thwart  her  educational  efforts. 

Both  the  particular  and  the  general  councils  of  the 
Church,  imperial  capitularies,  and  episcopal  and  papal 
decrees  show  that  bishops  and  popes,  while  concerned 
primarily  for  the  education  of  future  members  of  the 
clerical  body  in  the  sacred  sciences,  were  also  at  pains 
to  encourage  and  promote  the  education  of  the  laity. 
For  instance,  the  Council  of  Cloveshoe,  held  by  Cuth- 
bert,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  749,  prescribes  that 
abbesses  as  well  as  abbots  provide  for  the  education  of 
all  their  households  (Jamiliw).  A  Carlovingian  capit- 
ulary of  802  enjoins  "that  everyone  should  send  his 
son  to  study  letters,  and  that  the  child  should  re- 
main at  school  with  all  diligence  until  he  became  well 
instructed  in  learning".  Theodulf  of  Orleans  in  797 
de(Te(>s  that  gratuitous  instruction  be  given  by  the 
priests  in  every  town  and  village  of  iiis  diocu-se,  and 
there  cannot  be  the  least  doubt  that  educalion  of  the 
laity  is  meant.  The  Council  of  Chalon-sur-S;ione  in 
813  legislates  in  a  similar  spirit  that  not  only  "schools 
of  Sacred  Scripture"  but  also  "schools  of  letters"  be 
establisluul.  The  Council  of  Rome,  held  in  853,  di- 
rects the  bishops  of  the  Universal  Church  to  establish 
"  in  every  episcopal  residence  [in  universis  episcopiis] 
among  the  populations  subject  to  them,  and  in  all 
places  when'  tliere  is  such  need"  masters  and  teachers 
to  teach  "literary  studies  and  the  seven  liberal  arts". 
These  and  similar  documents  lay  stress  on  the  obliga 
ti<m  which  rests  cm  the  jjiircnts  and  godparents  to  see 
to  the  education  of  children  corninitlcd  to  their  care. 
By  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century  the  distinction  be- 
tween external  and  internal  monastic  wchools  being 
ckiarly  recognized,  and  parish  schools  having  become  a 
regular  diocesan  institution,  the  testimonies  in  favour 
of  popular  education  under  the  auspices  of  the  Church 


SCHOOLS 


557 


SCHOOLS 


become  clearer.  In  the  tenth  century,  in  spite  of  the 
disturbed  conditions  in  the  political  world,  learning 
flourished  in  the  great  monasteries,  such  as  that  of  St. 
(lall  (Switzerland).  St.  Maximin  (Trier),  and  in  the 
cathedral  schools,  such  as  those  of  Reims  and  Lyons. 
The  greatest  teachers  of  that  time,  Bruno  of  Cologne 
and  Gerbert  of  Aurillac  (Pope  Sylvester  II),  taught 
not  only  the  sacred  but  also  the  profane  sciences.  In 
the  eleventh  century  the  school  of  Chartres,  that  of 
Ste-Genevieve  at  Paris,  and  the  numerous  schools  of 
rhetoric  and  dialectic  show  that  even  in  the  higher 
branches  of  learning,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
teachers  were  invariably  clerics,  the  laymen  were  wel- 
comed and  were  not  denied  education  of  the  second- 
ary kind.  That,  as  historians  have  pointed  out,  the 
references  to  popular  and  elementary  education  in  the 
local  councils  of  the  Church  have  not  always  been 
preserved,  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  elementary 
Church  schools  were  now  an  established  fact.  Eccle- 
siastical authority  intervened  onlj^  whenever  some 
abu.se  called  for  remedial  legislation.  Thus,  the  de- 
cree of  the  Third  Council  of  Lateran  already  referred 
to  (n.  Ill)  aimed  at  abohshing  the  custom  of  exacting 
fees  for  instruction  in  the  cathedral  schools.  There 
were,  naturally,  details  of  arrangement  to  be  deter- 
mined, such  as  salary  of  teachers  and  supervision  or 
personal  instruction  on  the  part  of  the  pastor.  These 
were  provided  in  decrees,  such  as  that  of  the  Diocesan 
Synod  of  St.  Omer  in  11S3  and  that  of  Engelbert  II, 
Archbi.shop  of  Cologne,  in  1270. 

The  history  of  education  in  England  before  the 
Reformation  is  tht^  stor}-  of  the  efforts  made  in  monas- 
tic, cath(Hlral,  chantry,  and  parish  scliools  for  the 
education  of  the  laity  as  well  as  of  the  clergy.  In  the 
narrative  of  the  sui)i)ression  and  confiscation  of  these 
foundations  Leach  (see  bibliography)  gives  abundant 
documentary  evidence  to  justify  his  as.sertion  that 
"Grammar  schools,  instead  of  being  comparatively 
modern,  post-Reformation  inventions,  are  among  our 
most  ancient  institutions,  some  of  them  fur  older 
than  the  Lord  Mayor  of  London  or  the  House  of 
Commons"  (p.  5).  He  estimates  the  number  of 
grammar  schools  before  the  reign  of  Edward  VI  to 
have  been  "clo.se  on  two  hundred",  and  these  he  con- 
siders to  be  merely  "the  survivors  of  a  much  larger 
host  which  have  been  lost  in  the  storms  of  the  past, 
and  drowned  in  the  seas  of  destruction"  (ibid.). 
There  were,  he  maintains,  not  only  schools  con- 
nected with  the  cathedral  churches,  monasteries, 
collegiate  cliurchcs,  hospitals,  guilds,  and  chantries, 
but  also  indcpciidciit  schools,  in  one  of  which  "an 
old  man  was  puid  tliirtccn  shillings  and  fourpencc  by 
the  Mayor,  to  teach  j'oung  cliildren  their  A  B  C" 
(p.  7).  Lincoln,  Chichester,  and  Wells  were  the  prin- 
cipal cathedral  schools.  Beverley,  Chester,  Credi- 
ton,  Ripon,  Wiinborne,  Warwick,  Stafford,  and 
Tamworth  had  important  collegiate  schools.  At 
Evesham,  Cirencester,  and  Lewes  were  the  principal 
monastery  schools  at  the  eve  of  the  Reformation, 
while  at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Eton,  and  elsewhere 
were  thirty-one  college  schools  of  grammar  before  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.  The  number  of  schools  in  pro- 
portion to  the  population  of  the  country  was  rela- 
tively very  great,  and  as  far  as  it  is  possible  for  us 
now  to  judge  the  attendance,  that,  too,  must  have  been 
relatively  large.  The  history  of  education  in  Scot- 
land before  the  reformation  is  told  in  the  first  part 
of  Grant's  "History  of  the  Burgh  Schools  of  Scot- 
land". "Our  earliest  records",  says  that  writer, 
"prove  not  only  that  schools  existed,  but  that  they 
were  then  invariably  found  in  connection  with  the 
Church"  (p.  2).  He  quotes  documents  for  the  foun- 
dation of  schools  in  1100,  1120,  1180,  1195,  and  cites 
in  many  instances  i)aj)al  approval  and  confirmation 
of  educational  establishments  in  the  twelfth  century. 
He  is  convinced  that  these  institutions  were  intended 
not  merely  for  clerics  but  also  for  young  laymen 


(ibid.,  p.  12),  and  he  concludes  his  summary  by  ad- 
mitting that  "The  scattered  jottings  collected  in  this 
chapter  show  our  obligation  to  the  ancient  Church 
for  having  so  diligently  promoted  our  national  educa- 
tion— an  education  placed  within  the  reach  of  all 
cla.sses"  (ibid.,  p.  72). 

The  educational  institutions  founded  and  supported 
by  the  Church  in  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and 
other  parts  of  Europe  before  the  Reformation  have, 
in  part,  been  mentioned  in  the  general  account  of 
monastic  and  cathedral  schools.  Specht  (see  bibliog- 
raphy) has  produced  documentary  evidence  to  show 
the  e.xtent  to  which  laywomen  were  educated  in  the 
convent  schools  of  the  ninth  and  the  following  cen- 
turies; he  has  also  shown  that  daughters  of  noble 
families  were,  as  a  rule,  educated  by  private  teachers 
who,  for  the  most  part,  were  clergymen.  The  asser- 
tion so  frequently  made  that,  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  learning  was  considered  out  of  place  in  a  lay- 
man, that  even  elementary  knowledge  of  letters  was  a 
prerogative  of  the  clergy,  is  not  sustained  by  a  care- 
ful examination  of  historical  records.  It  is  true  that 
there  are  passages  in  the  popular  literature  of  the 
Middle  Ages  in  which  the  ignorant  layman,  who  is 
well  versed  in  the  art  of  warfare  and  in  the  usages  of 
polite  society,  affects  to  despise  learning  and  to  re- 
gard it  as  a  monkish  or  ecclesiastical  accomplishment. 
But,  as  Leon  Maitre  (see  bibliography)  asserts,  "such 
ignorance  was  by  no  means  systematic;  it  arose  from 
the  conditions  of  the  times".  "Knowledge",  says  a 
twelfth-century  WTiter,  "is  not  an  exclusive  privilege 
of  the  clergy,  for  many  laymen  are  instructed  in 
literature.  A  prince,  whenever  he  can  succeed  in 
escaj)ing  from  the  tumult  of  public  affairs  and  from 
[the  confusion  of]  constant  warfare,  ought  to  devote 
himself  to  the  study  of  books"  (P.  L.,  CCIII, 
col.  149).  The  number  of  distinguished  laymen 
and  laywomen,  emperors,  kings,  nobles,  queens 
and  princesses  who,  during  the  medieval  era,  at- 
tained prominence  as  scholars  shows  that  the  advice 
was  not  disregarded.  The  calumny  recently  re- 
affirmed that  "the  Church  was  not  the  mother,  but 
rather  the  stepmother,  of  learning"  is  easily  asserted, 
but  is  not  so  easily  proved 

The  destruction  of  this  vast  and  varied  system  of 
ecclesiastical  legislation  is  a  fact  of  general  history. 
The  schools,  as  a  rule,  disappeared  with  the  institu- 
tions to  which  they  were  attached.  The  confiscation 
of  the  monasteries,  the  suppression  of  the  benefices  on 
which  the  chantries  were  founded,  the  removal  of  the 
guilds  from  the  control  of  ecclesiastical  authority,  the 
supi)ression  of  cathedral  and  canonical  chapters  and 
the  scfiucstration  of  their  possessions  by  the  State, 
were  tlic  iiniiicdiate  cause  of  the  cessation  of  this  kind 
of  educational  activity  on  the  part  of  the  Church  at 
the  time  of  the  Reformation  and  afterwards.  In 
Protestant  countries  these  events  took  place  in  the 
course  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  In 
Germany,  a  compromise  was  reached  in  some  States 
by  the  recognition  of  both  Protestant  and  Catholic 
"confessional"  schools  and  the  division  of  school 
funds,  an  arrangement  which  lasted  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  nineteenth  century ;  in  France  the  work  of 
confiscation  began  with  the  French  Revolution;  in 
Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal  the  suppression  and  spoha- 
tion  have  taken  place  within  the  last  half-century  and 
are  still  going  on.  Apart  from  the  question  of  ele- 
mentary justice — the  question  of  violation  of  a  strict 
right  to  their  own  lands  and  funds,  which  the  ecclesias- 
tical corporations  possessed  at  the  time  their  property 
was  seized  and  their  schools  suppressed — there  arises 
now  the  question  of  the  right  to  teach,  the  right  of 
the  Church  to  found  and  maintain  private  schools, 
and  the  alleged  exclusive  right  of  the  State  to  educate. 

VII.  The  fundamental  principles  of  canon  law 
•bearing  on  these  questions  may  be  stated  as  follows: 
(1)  the  Church,  being  a  perfect  society,  has  the  right 


SCHOOLS 


558 


SCHOOLS 


to  establish  schools,  which,  although  they  may  be 
permitted  by  the  civil  law  merely  as  private  institu- 
tions, are,  of  their  nature,  pubhc;  (2)  by  natural  law, 
the  obligation  Ues  primarily  with  the  parents  of  a 
child  to  provide  for  his  education,  as  well  as  for  his 
physical  support.  This  is  part  of  the  purpose  and 
aim  of  the  family  as  an  institution.  If  no  provision 
is  made  by  any  other  institution,  the  parents  must 
provide  education  either  by  their  ovra  effort  or  that 
of  others  whom  they  employ;  (3)  when  the  parents 
neglect  their  duty  in  the  matter  of  education,  the 
State,  in  the  interests  of  pubUc  welfare,  takes  up 
the  obhgation  of  teaching.  It  has,  therefore,  the 
right  to  estabhsh  schools,  and,  consequently,  the 
right  to  compel  attendance,  in  so  far  as  the  principle 
holds  good  that  public  welfare  demands  a  knowledge, 
at  least,  of  the  elementary  branches  of  education. 

From  the  interaction  and  conflict  of  these  funda- 
mental rights  arise  the  following  more  particular 
principles:  (1)  the  Church  has  the  exclusive  right 
to  teach  religion  to  Cathohc  children.  Neither  the 
parents  nor  the  State  can  exercise  this  right  except 
they  do  so  with  the  consent  (as  parents  do)  and  under 
the  supervision  and  control  of  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thorities. (2)  The  Church  cannot  approve  schools 
which  exclude  rehgion  from  the  curriculum,  both 
because  religion  is  the  most  important  subject  in 
education,  and  because  she  contends  that  even  secular 
education  is  not  possible  in  its  best  form  unless  re- 
ligion be  made  the  central,  vitahzing,  and  co-or- 
dinating factor  in  the  life  of  the  child.  The  Church, 
sometimes,  tolerates  schools  in  which  religion  is  not 
taught,  and  permits  Catholic  children  to  attend  them, 
when  the  circumstances  are  such  as  to  leave  no  alter- 
native, and  when  due  precautions  are  taken  to  supply 
by  other  means  the  rehgious  training  which  such 
schools  do  not  give.  She  reserves  the  right  to  judge 
whether  this  be  the  case,  and,  if  her  judgment  is  un- 
favourable, claims  the  right  to  forbid  attendance 
(see  Letter  of  Gregory  XVI  to  Irish  Bishops,  16  Jan., 
1831).  (3)  In  all  schools,  whether  established  by  the 
Church  or  the  State,  or  even  by  a  group  of  families 
(so  long  as  there  are  pupils  received  from  different 
famiUes)  the  State  has  the  right  to  see  that  the  laws 
of  pubhc  health,  pubhc  order,  and  public  morahty 
are  observed,  and  if  in  any  school  doctrines  were 
taught  .subversive  of  pubhc  peace  or  otherwise  op- 
posed to  the  interests  of  the  general  public,  the 
State  would  have  the  right  to  intervene  "in  the  name 
of  the  good  of  the  general  public".  (4)  State  monop- 
oly of  education  has  been  con.sidered  by  the  Church 
to  be  nothing  short  of  a  tyrannical  usurpation.  In 
principle  it  overrides  the  fundamental  right  of  the 
parents,  denies  the  right  of  the  Church  even  to  open 
and  maintain  schools  for  the  teaching  of  religion 
alone,  and  in  its  natural  effect  on  public  opinion 
tends  to  place  religion  below  considerations  of  mere 
worldly  welfare.  (5j  The  Church  does  not  deny  the 
right  of  the  State  to  levy  taxes  for  the  support  of  the 
State  schools,  although,  as  we  shall  see,  this  leads  to 
injustice  in  the  manner  of  its  application  in  some 
countries.  The  principle  is  distinct  always  from  the 
abuse  of  the  principle.  Similarly,  the  Church  does 
not  deny  the  right  of  the  State  to  decree  compulsory 
education  fv>  long  as  such  decrees  do  not  abrogate 
other  and  more  fundamental  rights.  It  should  al- 
ways be  remembered,  however,  that  compulsion  on 
the  part  of  the  State  is  not  the  exercise  of  a  primary 
and  predominant  right,  but  must  be  justified  by  con- 
siderations of  public  good.  (6)  Finally,  the  rights 
of  the  Church  in  the  matter  of  religious  teaching  ex- 
tend not  only  to  the  subject  of  religion  itself  but  to 
Buch  matters  as  the  character  of  the  teacher,  the 
Bpirit  and  tone  of  the  teaching  in  such  subjects  as  his- 
tory and  science,  and  the  contents  of  the  textbooks 
used.  She  recx)gnizes  that  de-Christianized  teaching 
and  de-Christianized  textbooks  have  inevitably  the 


effect  of  lessening  in  the  minds  of  pupils  the  esteem 
which  she  teaches  them  to  have  for  religion.  In  a 
word  her  rights  are  bounded,  not  by  the  subject  of 
rehgion,  but  by  the  spiritual  interests  of  the  children 
committed  to  her  care. 

VIII.  The  present  status  of  the  Church  and  State 
in  regard  to  education: 

A.  In  Germany. — After  the  Reformation  in  Ger- 
many the  primary  schools  in  Protestant  provinces 
passed  over  to  the  control  of  the  local  civil  authorities. 
In  Catholic  communities  the  ecclesiastical  authorities 
did  not  yield  so  readily  to  the  aggression  of  the  State. 
Ail  through  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
councils  (Cologne,  1536  and  1560;  Salzburg,  1569; 
Breslau,  1592;  Augsburg,  1610)  withstood  the  en- 
croachments of  civil  authority  on  the  parochial 
schools  and,  as  a  rule,  a  modus  vivendi  was  reached 
satisfactory  to  the  bishops.  By  the  end  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  however,  the  notion  of  State  jurisdic- 
tion in  educational  matters  was  firmly  established. 
For  the  most  part  the  foundation  of  private  schools 
was  the  solution.  These  were  recognized  by  German 
law  as  belonging  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church. 
Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  so-called  "simul- 
taneous schools"  began  to  be  the  ordinary  solution 
of  the  problem.  In  these  there  were  children  of  va- 
rious denominations,  each  denomination  having,  in 
theory,  the  right  to  care  for  the  religious  instruction 
of  its  members.  On  several  occasions  the  bishops  of 
Germany  or  of  some  German  state  protested  (e.  g. 
at  Wiirzburg,  1848;  the  Bavarian  bishops,  1850) 
against  the  restrictions  of  the  rights  of  the  Church. 
At  the  present  time  the  simultaneous  schools  are 
obligatory  in  a  few  provinces  and  optional  (Jacultativ) 
in  others,  while  in  Bavaria,  the  Rhine  Provinces 
and  elsewhere,  "confessional",  i.  e.  denominational, 
schools  are  the  rule,  and  simultaneous,  or  mixed, 
schools,  the  exception.  Throughout  the  empire  the 
supreme  control  of  all  elementary  schools  is  vested 
in  the  government,  the  local  ecclesiastical  authorities 
being  granted  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  supervision 
and  control  according  to  the  different  circumstances 
in  different  localities.  The  teacher  of  religion  for 
Catholics  is  of  course  always  a  Catholic,  almost 
always  a  priest,  and  is  a  regularly  qualified  and 
salaried  teacher,  like  the  instructor  in  other  branches. 
The  attitude  of  the  bishops  towards  the  contemporary 
educational  system  in  Germany  is  set  forth  in  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Cologne  (1860). 

B.  In  Austria. — Until  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  conditions  were  similar  to  those 
existing  in  Germany.  The  legislation  of  Joseph  II 
had  been  distinctly  hostile  to  religious  influence  in 
the  schools.  However,  the  enactments  of  1808,  1868, 
1885,  etc.  give  a  measure  of  authority  and  control 
to  the  local  clergy  which  make  the  conditions  in 
Austria  to  be  as  a  rule  more  favourable  than  in  the 
German  Empire.  The  question  of  language  has  of 
course  complicated  matters  in  many  provinces  of 
Austria,  and  local  conditions,  the  personality  of  the 
government  official,  etc.  have  much  to  do  with  the 
actual  status  of  religious  teaching  in  the  public  schools. 
The  decree's  of  the  Council  of  Vienna  (1858)  contain 
the  views  of  the  hierarcliy  of  Austria  in  regard  to  the 
present  condition  of  religious  education  in  that  coun- 
try. The  Letter  of  the  Archbishop  of  Vienna  to  the 
Papal  Nuncio  (22  Oct.,  1868)  is  also  an  important 
flccJHration.     See  also  articles  5-8  of  the  Con(H)rdat  of 

1855  (AUSTKO-IIUNGAUIAN  MoNAHCHY,  p.    130). 

C.  In  France. — The  Napoleonic  decree  of  1808 
established  in  principle  and  m  fact  the  most  rigorous 
State  monopoly  in  education.  It  met  at  once  with  a 
vigorous  protest  on  the  part  of  the  Catholic  bishops, 
who  demanded  freedom  of  instruction  in  the  name 
of  the  parents  in  whom,  they  contended,  the  right 
to  educate  is  primarily  vested.  In  1833  and  1850 
{La  loi  Falloux)  "free  schools"  were  recognized.     No 


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SCHOOLS 


special  concession  was  made  to  the  Church,  but  per- 
mission was  granted  to  individuals  to  open  schools. 
From  1833  to  1S50  members  of  rehgious  orders  or 
priests  could  teach  only  in  the  State  schools.  After 
1850  they  were  free,  as  citizens,  to  open  schools  of 
their  own,  both  primary  and  secondary.  In  1886  a 
blow  was  struck  at  free  primary  education  by  au- 
thorization given  to  mayors  and  school  inspectors 
to  oppose  the  opening  of  any  private  school  on  hy- 
gienic or  moral  grounds.  In  1888  came  another  at- 
tack in  the  form  of  an  order  of  the  Council  of  State, 
depriving  communes  and  departments  of  the  right  to 
grant  appropriations  for  private  schools.  Finally  in 
1904  it  was  declared  that  "teaching  of  every  grade 
and  every  kind"  is  forbidden  in  France  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  congregations.  This  resulted  in  the  clos- 
ing of  14,404  out  of  16,904  "Congregational"  schools. 
Since  that  time  the  bishops  have  tried  to  reorganize 
Catholic  education  by  establishing  private  schools  in 
which  the  teachers  are  either  laymen  and  laywomen 
or  secularized  members  of  the  congregations.  In- 
struction in  religion  in  the  State  schools  was  optional 
with  the  parents  of  the  children  by  a  decree  of  1881. 
In  1882  religious  instruction  in  the  primary  schools  of 
the  State  was  absolutely  forbidden,  and  in  1886  re- 
ligious and  clerics  were  forbidden  to  teach  in  those 
schools.  In  place  of  denominational  religion  there 
was  introduced  first  a  species  of  "denominational 
neutrality"  and  later,  a  "scientific  religion"  {en- 
seignement  critique).  Within  the  present  decade  the 
tendency  of  this  teaching  has  been  plainly  seen  in 
the  introduction  of  textbooks  which  are  both  anti- 
clerical and  anti-religious,  with  the  result  that  bishops 
are  at  present  under  indictment  in  France  for  daring 
to  warn  the  people  of  their  dioceses  against  the  use 
of  such  books  in  the  schools  supported  by  the  people. 

D.  In  Belgium. — See  Belgium;  also  pamphlet  by 
Cardinal  Dechamps,  "Le  Nouvcau  projet  de  loi  sur 
I'enseignement  primaire"  (Mechlin,  1879). 

E.  In  England. — Until  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  there  was  no  government  system  of 
primary  schools  in  England,  nor  were  any  primary 
schools  in  receii)t  of  State  aid.  It  was  not  until  1833 
that  government  grants  were  made,  and  then  the 
schools  that  benefited  by  the  grants  were  either 
schools  of  the  National  and  British  Foreign  Society, 
or,  in  any  case,  schools  in  which  the  Bible  was  to  be 
read  as  part  of  the  regular  instruction.  The  civil 
disabilities  under  which  Catholics  suffered,  and  the 
restriction  of  grants  in  practice  to  Bible-reading 
schools  excluded  Catholic  private  schools  from  State 
aid  until  1848.  In  1856  and  1858  the  conditions  un- 
der which  grants  were  given  were  made  more  favour- 
able to  Catholics.  From  1871  to  1903  the  basic  law 
of  primary  education  in  England  was  Forster's  Ele- 
mentary Education  Act  of  1870.  This  Act,  while  it 
did  not  abolish  the  voluntary  or  denominational 
schools,  established  the  Board-schools.  These  were 
to  be  supported  from  the  rates  or  taxes,  and  governed 
by  school  boards  elected  by  the  people.  The  Govern- 
ment helped  to  build  the  school  and,  in  places  where 
the  boards  were  judged  culpably  negligent,  compelled 
them  to  build.  In  1876  and  1880  supplementary  en- 
actments were  passed,  called  School  Attendance  Acts, 
which  compel  the  attendance  at  either  voluntary  or 
Board-schools  of  all  children  under  ten.  The  reli- 
gious difficulty  was  met  at  first  by  leaving  the  matter 
of  religious  instruction  to  the  discretion  of  the  local 
board.  Later  the  "Conscience"  clause  and  the 
"  Cowper-Temple "  clause  were  added,  in  order  to 
satisfy  the  Anglicans  and  the  Nonconformists.  These 
clauses  set  aside  a  special  hour  for  religious  instruc- 
tion, attendance  at  which  was  to  be  entirely  vol- 
untary, and  forbade  the  use  of  "any  catechism  or 
rehgious  formulary  distinctive  of  any  particular  de- 
nomination". Catholics  were  able  to  accept  these 
conditions  in  some  localities.     Meantime  various  en- 


actments, for  example  in  1891  and  1897,  were  passed, 
which  lessened  the  burden  of  the  voluntary  schools. 
The  Bill  of  1902,  which  became  law  in  1903,  took  the 
power  out  of  the  hands  of  the  school  boards,  vested  it 
in  the  town  and  county  councils,  and  compelled  these 
to  take  over  and  maintain  the  voluntary  schools. 
This  brought  England  in  line  with  Scotland,  where 
a  similar  law  was  in  force  since  1872.  The  Non- 
conformists, however,  objected  because  in  localities 
where  they  were  in  the  minority  the  rehgious  instruc- 
tion given  in  the  schools  would  be  denominational, 
that  is  Anglican.  To  meet  this  objection  Mr.  Bir- 
rell's  Bill  of  1906  was  framed.  But,  after  various 
vicissitudes,  the  Bill  was  finally  defeated,  and  never 
became  law.  It  would  have  had  the  effect  of  wiping 
the  voluntary  schools  out  of  existence  and  abolishing 
all  denominational  instruction,  a  result  which,  appar- 
ently, would  be  acceptable  to  the  Nonconformists, 
but  is  bitterly  opposed  by  both  Catholics  and  Angli- 
cans. In  1870  the  number  of  Catholic  schools  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales  was  354,  providing  for  the  education 
of  101,933  children;  while  in  1906  the  number  of 
schools  had  increased  to  1062  and  the  attendance  had 
reached  284,746.  This  increase  is  largely  due  to  the 
zeal  of  tlie  Catholic  School  Committee,  now  known 
as  the  Catholic  Education  Council. 

F.  In  Ireland. — The  primary  education  of  Catho- 
lics in  Ireland  is  provided  for  by  (1)  schools  under  the 
management  of  the  Irish  Christian  Brothers  and  other 
religious  communities,  which  receive  no  part  of  the 
annual  grant  for  primary  education,  and  are  free 
from  government  .supervision  and  inspection.  In  1901 
there  were  97  of  tlicse  schools.  (2)  Private  schools, 
which  are  also  free,  and  do  not  share  the  annual  grant. 
In  1901  there  were  85  of  these,  but  the  report  does  not 
state  how  many  of  the.se  are  Catholic.  (3)  National 
Schools,  endowed  by  the  State,  of  which  in  1901 
there  were  8569,  with  an  attendance  of  602,209. 
These  were  established  by  the  Act  of  1831  and  are 
governed  by  that  Act  and  subsequent  statutes,  au- 
thority being  vested  in  the  National  Commi.ssioners 
of  Education.  The  majority  of  the  National  Schools 
are  taught  by  lay  teachers.  Many  of  the  girls' 
schools  are,  however,  taught  by  nuns,  and  boys' 
schools  by  Christian  Brothers  (of  the  Congregation  of 
St.  John  Baptist  de  La  Salle),  Presentation,  Ma- 
rist.  Patrician,  and  Franciscan  Brothers.  The  Act  of 
1831  aimed  at  separate  instruction  in  religion.  In 
places  where  it  is  at  all  practicable  there  is  a  National 
School  for  Catholics  and  one  for  Protestants  in  the 
same  locality.  Where  the  attendance  is  "mixed" 
there  is  a  separate  hour  for  religious  instruction,  at- 
tendance at  which  is  voluntary.  In  Catholic  sec- 
tions, or  when  the  majority  of  children  are  Catholic, 
the  manager  is  almost  invariably  the  parish  priest. 
The  manager  is  the  local  school  authority:  he  ap- 
points the  teachers  (subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
commissioners),  removes  them,  and  conducts  all  the 
necessary  correspondence  with  the  commissioners. 
His  powers  and  his  duties  are  those  of  a  school  board. 
He  is,  if  a  priest,  responsible  to  his  bishop.  By  en- 
actment of  the  Maynooth  Synod  of  1900  he  may  not 
dismiss  a  teacher  without  submitting  the  case  to  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese  in  which  the  school  is  situated. 
Of  the  seven  training  colleges  for  primary  teachers, 
five  are  under  the  management  of  the  Catholic  bish- 
ops. The  number  of  teachers  trained  in  these  col- 
leges is  now  more  than  double  the  number  of  untrained 
teachers.  Religious  instruction  in  the  primary  schools 
is  given  at  a  stated  hour  by  the  regular  teachers 
of  the  school:  this  is  supplemented  by  the  local 
clergy,  who  have  access,  within  reasonable  limits, 
to  the  classroom  for  the  purpose  of  religious  instruc- 
tion. That  these  conditions  are,  on  the  whole,  accept- 
able to  the  bishops  is  clear  from  the  pastoral  address 
issued  in  1900  from  the  National  Synod  of  May- 
nooth.    It  should  be  added,  however,  that  it  is  due  to 


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SCHOOLS 


the  vigilance  and  devotedness  of  the  Irish  clergy  that 
they  have  gradually  evolved  from  the  original  Na- 
tional system  which  was  "thoroughly  dangerous",  a 
system  "which  at  the  present  time  is  "a  help  rather 
than  a  hindrance  to  the  Church". 

G.  In  the  United  States. — "The  greatest  religious 
fact  in  the  United  States  to-day",  writes  Archbishop 
Spalding,  "is  the  Catholic  School  sj'stem,  maintained 
without  any  aid  by  the  people  who  love  it".  The 
vastness  of  the  system  may  be  gauged  by  the  fact  that 
it  comprises  over  20, OCX)  teachers,  over  1,000,000  pu- 
pils, represents  S100,000,000  worth  of  property;  and 
costs  over  §15,000,000  annually.  This  system  grew 
up  from  humble  beginnings.  Its  growth  has  kept 
pace  with  the  growth  of  the  Church.  The  oldest 
schools  in  the  present  territory  of  the  United  States 
are  the  Catholic  schools  founded  about  1600  in  the 
Spanish  colonies.  The  French  colonies,  too,  had 
their  schools  as  a  regular  part  of  the  civil  and  re- 
hgious  scheme  of  colonization  and  civilization.  Cath- 
olic educational  work  in  the  Thirteen  Colonies  dates 
from  the  arrival  of  the  Catholic  colony  in  Maryland. 
The  first  regularly  established  school  in  Maryland 
dates  from  1640.  As  the  condition  changed  from 
that  of  a  missionary  country  to  that  of  a  country 
regularly  provided  with  a  fixed  ecclesiastical  organiza- 
tion, the  schools  came  to  be  recognized  as  a  function 
of  organized  parish  work.  In  the  Spanish  and  P'rench 
colonies  the  school,  like  the  Church,  looked  to  the 
State  for  support.  In  the  English  colonies  there  was 
also  State  support  of  denominational  education,  but 
whether  the  Catholics  could  or  could  not  secure  a 
share  of  the  pubhc  funds  depended  on  local  conditions. 
When  the  States  adopted  their  constitutions,  they  did 
not  introduce  any  change  in  this  respect.  It  was  "the 
gradual  rise  of  dissentient  rehgious  bodies  in  the  col- 
onies and  States  due  to  the  influx  of  emigrants  and 
other  cau.ses,  that  brought  about  important  changes 
which  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  'non-sectarian' 
system  of  schools"  (Burns,  "The  Catholic  School  Sys- 
tem in  the  United  States",  p.  3.59).  We  know  that 
in  man}-  instances  Cathohcs  in  the  West  and  even  in 
Massachusetts  and  New  York  obtained  funds  from 
the  State  for  the  support  of  their  schools,  as  the  Epis- 
copalians and  Presbyterians  did  for  theirs. 

The  unsucce.ssful  attempt  of  Father  Richard  of  De- 
troit in  1808  to  obtain  for  the  Cathohc  schools  of  that 
city  a  share  of  the  public  funds,  was  followed  in  1830 
by  a  more  successful  plan  at  Lowell,  Mass.  At  that 
time  the  population  of  Lowell  included  many  Irish 
Cathohc  immigrants.  In  1830  at  the  annual  town 
meeting  a  committee  was  appointed  to  consider  the 
expediency  of  "estabhshing  a  separate  school  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Irish  population",  and  the  following 
year  the  sum  of  fifty  dollars  annually  was  appropri- 
ated for  that  purpo.se.  In  1855  there  were  two  Cath- 
ohc schools  at  Lfjwcll;  both  were  recognized  as  part  of 
the  school  system  of  the  town,  and  both  were  sup- 
ported out  of  the  public  funds.  After  sixteen  years  of 
successful  trial  the  arrangement  was  discontinued  in 
1852,  owing  to  the  wave  of  bigotry  known  as  the 
Knownothing  Movement  that  swept  over  New  Eng- 
land. In  New  York,  as  early  as  1806,  St.  Peter's 
School  applied  for  and  received  State  aid.  A  similar 
arrangement  was  made  for  St.  Patrick's  School  in 
1816.  In  1824  this  support  was  withdrawn  by  the 
State,  owing  to  the  activity  of  the  Public  School  So- 
ciety. To  this  society  was  committed  the  entire 
school  fund  for  distribution,  and,  as  we  learn  from 
the  protcHts  of  New  York  Catholics,  the  activity  of 
the  Bfjciety  was  directed  towards  making  the  public 
schools  not  strictly  non-sectarian  but  offensively  Prot- 
estant. In  1840  the  School  O-mtroversy  in  New 
York  was  precipitated  by  the  petition  of  the  Catholics 
to  be  allowed  a  share  of  the  public  funds  for  their 
schools.  The  petition  was  rejf  cted  by  the  Common 
Council;  but  the  fight  was  not,  on  that  account,  dis- 


continued. With  remarkable  zeal,  eloquence,  and  eru- 
dition. Bishop  Hughes,  supported  not  only  by  all  his 
Catholic  people,  but  also  by  some  of  the  non-Catholic 
congregations  of  the  city,  urged  the  claims  of  religious 
education.  He  laid  stress  on  the  contention  that 
Catholics  have  a  right  to  "a  fair  and  just  proportion 
of  the  funds  appropriated  for  the  common  schools, 
provided  the  Catholics  will  do  with  it  the  same  thing 
that  is  done  in  the  common  schools".  He  claimed  no 
special  privilege,  but  contended  for  the  "constitu- 
tional rights"  of  his  people.  He  was  opposed,  not 
only  by  the  Public  School  Society,  but  also  by  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Methodist,  Episcopal,  and  Presbj^- 
terian  Churches.  The  claims  of  the  Cathohcs  went 
before  the  legislature;  but  there  also  sectarian  hatred 
was  injected  into  the  discussion  and  bigotry  gained  the 
day.  The  controver.sj',  however,  had  one  good  re- 
sult. It  showed  the  imminent  danger  to  faith  and 
morals  existing  in  the  public  school  system  as  influ- 
enced by  the  so-called  non-sectarians  of  that  day,  and 
as  a  consequence  Catholics  set  to  work  to  build  up,  at 
a  tremendous  cost,  a  sj^stem  of  parochial  schools  un- 
supported by  the  State. 

In  theory  it  is  still  maintained  that  injustice  is  be- 
ing done  to  Catholics.  If  the  "secular  branches"  are 
taught  in  the  parochial  schools  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  State  authorities,  the  schools  should  be  compen- 
sated for  doing  that  portion  of  the  task  which  the 
State  has  assumed.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
many  Catholics  who  are  convinced  that  if  State  aid 
were  accepted  it  could  be  done  only  at  the  cost  of  in- 
dependence, that  State  aid  would  be  the  price  of 
admitting  State  supervision  to  the  extent  of  partial 
de-Catholicization.  There  have,  nevertheless,  been 
individual  instances  in  which  a  compromise  has  been 
reached,  e.  g.  Savannah,  Georgia;  St.  Augustine,  Flor- 
ida; Poughkeepsie,  New  York;  and  Faribault  and  Still- 
water, Minnesota.  The  last-mentioned  instance  gave 
ri.se  to  the  celebrated  School  Controversy  of  1891-92. 
The  P'aribault  plan  consisted  in  setting  aside  a  cer- 
tain time  for  religious  instruction,  to  be  given  gratis 
by  the  Catholic  teachers,  and  a  time  for  secular  in- 
struction, to  be  given  also  by  Catholic  teachers.  The 
secular  instruction  was  to  be  paid  for  by  the  State, 
and  in  respect  to  that  portion  of  its  work  the  school 
was  to  be  under  State  supervision;  it  was,  in  fact,  to  be 
recognized  as  a  "pubhc  school".  The  question  was 
finally  carried  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Propa- 
ganda, which  rendered  its  deci.sion  on  21  April,  1892, 
to  the  effect  that  "considering  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances and*  character  of  the  arrangement,  and  the 
agreement  by  which  the  plan  was  inaugurated,  it  may 
be  tolerated  ".  In  the  discussion  of  the  Faribault  plan 
certain  fundamental  questions  were  touched,  as  for  in- 
stance in  Dr.  Bouquillon's  "Education,  to  whom  does  it 
belong?"  (Baltimore,  1891),  "A  Rejoinder  to  the  Civilta 
Cattolica"  (Baltimore,  1892), "AKcjoinderto Critics" 
(Baltimore,  1892),  Hollaind,S.J.,"l"lu>  Parents  First" 
(New  York,  1891),  Conway,  S.J. ,  " The  State  Last " 
(New  York,  1892),  Brandi,  S.J. ,  in  "Civilta  Cattolica", 
2  Jan.,  1892,  tr.  as  a  pamphlet  (New  York,  1892). 
It  should  be  added  that,  owing  to  some  local  diflS- 
culty  the  agreement  at  Faribault  and  Stillwater  was 
later  discontinued,  but  a  similar  agreement  is  in 
force  to-day  in  not  a  few  places  in  Minnesota. 

The  attitude  of  the  hierarchy  of  the  United  States 
towards  the  problem  of  elementary  education  has  been 
consistent  from  the  beginning.  At  first  Bishop  Car- 
roll, in  the  days  immediately  following  the  Revolu- 
tion, entertained  the  hope  that  Catholics  miglil  unite 
with  their  non-Catholic  fcillow-citizeiiK  in  building  up  a 
system  of  erlucation  that  would  he  mutually  satisfac- 
tory from  the  rehgious  point  of  view.  Soon,  how- 
ever, he  realized  that  that  hope  was  futile.  After  the 
First  Catholic  Svnod  he  addressed  (1792)  a  pastoral 
letter  to  the  Catholics  of  the  country,  in  which  he  em- 
phasized the  necessity  of  a  "pious  and  Catholic  edu- 


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cation  of  the  young  to  insure  their  growing  up  in  the 
faith",  and  expressed  the  hope  that  the  graduates  of 
the  newly-founded  College  of  Georgetown  would,  on 
returning  to  their  homes,  be  able  "to  instruct  and 
guide  others  in  local  schools".  Thus  the  plan  of  or- 
ganizing separate  Cathohc  schools  was  inaugurated. 
The  First  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  (1829)  de- 
clares: "We  judge  it  absolutely  necessary  that  schools 
should  be  established,  in  which  the  young  may  be 
taught  the  principles  of  faith  and  morality,  while  be- 
ing instructed  in  letters"  ("Decreta",  n.  33).  The 
Second  Council  (1832)  renewed  this  enactment  and 
entered  into  the  details  of  organization  (see  "De- 
creta", n.  38).  The  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Balti- 
more (1884)  devoted  very  careful  consideration  to  the 
subject  of  elementary  schools  and  decreed  in  explicit 
terms  the  obhgation  of  establishing  a  parochial  school 
in  every  parish  within  two  years  of  the  promulgation 
of  the  decree,  except  where  the  bishop,  on  account  of 
serious  difficulties  in  the  way  {ob  grnviores  dijficul- 
tates)  judges  that  a  delay  may  be  granted  ("Acta  et 
Decreta",  199,  no.  1). 

IX.  Parochial  Schools  and  Public  Schools. — The 
establishment  and  maintenance  of  parochial  schools 
does  not  imply  the  condemnation  of  public  scihools,  or 
opposition  of  any  kind  to  the  i)urpose  for  which  these 
are  established.  At  a  meeting  of  tlie  National  Educa- 
tional A.ssociation  at  Nashville,  Tennessee  in  July, 
1889,  both  Cardinal  Gibbons,  Archbishop  of  Balti- 
more, and  Archbishop  Keane,  then  rector  of  tlie  Cath- 
ohc University  of  America,  stated  the  case  in  favour  of 
denominational  schools,  and  made  it  (^lear  that,  .so  far 
as  citizensliip  and  i)atriotisiii  are  con(-erned,  the  Cath- 
olic schools  are  aiming  su(;eessfully  at  the  same  ideals 
as  the  public  schools.  Since  that  time  the  calumny 
has  been  repeated  that  parochial  schools  lead  to  sec- 
tionalism, and  are  opposed  to  national  patriotism. 
Catholics  can  only  answer  that  this  is  not  true,  and 
point  to  facts  to  justify  their  reply.  Our  schools  teach 
everything  that  is  taught  in  the  public  schools,  and,  in 
addition,  teach  reUgion  and  religious  morality.  The 
exclusion  of  religion  from  the  public  schools  is,  we 
think,  historically,  the  result  of  sectarian  division  and 
sectarian  prejudice.  In  recent  times  theorists  have 
sought  to  justify  the  omission  on  pedagogical  grounds, 
and  have  suggested  various  .substitutes  for  religion  as 
a  basis  of  morality.  We  criticize  the  theories,  and 
point  to  the  educational  results  in  justification  of  our 
contention.  If  the  exclusion  of  religion  and  the  sub- 
stitution for  it  of  inadequate  and  futile  moral  educa- 
tion lead  to  disastrous  results,  the  Catholics  who  call 
attention  to  those  conditions,  far  from  opposing  the 
public  school  system,  are  really  doing  it  a  service. 
Meantime  they  feel  that  the  tendency  in  the  educa- 
tional policy  of  the  public  school  .system  is  more  and 
more  towards  secularization.  In  the  matter  of  morality 
they  feel  that  experiments  more  and  more  dangerous 
are  being  tried  in  the  public  schools,  and  if  they  pro- 
test, they  are  doing  what,  after  all,  they  have  a  right, 
as  taxpayers,  to  do.  Meantime  also  they  are  develop- 
ing their  own  system  of  education  without  giving  up 
the  contention  that,  in  justice,  they  have  a  right  to 
compensation  for  the  secular  education  and  the  edu- 
cation in  citizenship  which  they  give  in  their  schools. 

Conflicts  between  the  educational  authority  of  the 
State  and  the  Catholic  clergy  have  arisen  in  a  few 
instances.  The  clergy  have  always  recognized  the 
right  of  officials  of  the  Department  of  Health,  etc.,  to 
interfere  in  the  matters  in  which  they  have  compe- 
tence. Where  they  have  retained  full  autonomy,  and 
have  not  yielded  for  the  sake  of  affiiliation  or  some 
other  form  of  recognition,  they  have  naturally  avoided 
all  friction  with  State  educational  authority.  By 
way  of  exception,  we  have  the  celebrated  Ohio  Com- 
pulsory Education  case,  in  which  Father  Patrick  F. 
Quigley,  of  Toledo,  Ohio,  resisted  unsuccessfully  the 
enactment  of  the  State  of  Ohio  (1890)  compelling  all 
XIII.— 36 


principals  and  teachers  in  all  schools  to  make  quar- 
terly reports  to  State  officers.  The  still  more  famous 
Wisconsin  Bible  Case  involved  the  question  of  the 
right  of  the  District  Board  of  Edgerton,  Wisconsin,  to 
have  the  King  James  Version  of  the  Bible  read  in 
the  public  schools  which  were  attended  by  Catholic 
pupils.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Wisconsin  decided  in 
favour  of  the  Catholics. 

X.  Principles  embodied  in  the  Parochial  Schools. — 
The  sacrifice  which  Catholics  are  making  in  maintain- 
ing their  system  of  primary  schools  is  justified,  in  their 
estimation,  by  the  following  principles:  (1)  The  spirit- 
ual interests  of  the  child,  while  not  exclusive  of  others, 
such  as  learning,  health,  skill,  ability  to  make  a  living, 
etc.,  are  supreme.  Where  there  is  danger  of  wrecking 
the  soul  of  a  Catholic  child  no  consideration  of  econ- 
omy has  weight.  (2)  Next  to  religion,  morahty  is  the 
most  important  matter  in  the  hfe  of  a  child.  Catho- 
lics maintain  that  morality  is  best  taught  when  based 
on  religion.  Catholic  educational  theorists,  especially, 
are  convinced  that  the  immature  mind  of  the  child 
cannot  grasp  principles  of  morality  except  they 
be  presented  by  way  of  religious  authority  and  re- 
hgious  feefing.  (3)  Considering  the  nature  of  the 
child-mind,  the  whole  curriculum  of  the  school  is  best 
presented  when  it  is  organized  and  unified,  not  frag- 
mented and  disconnected.  Religion,  appealing  as  it 
does  to  the  heart  as  well  as  to  the  head,  offers  the  best 
principle  of  mental  and  spiritual  unification  and  or- 
ganization. The  exclusion  of  religion  from  the  schools 
is  a  pedagogical  mistake.  (4)  Although  condemned 
by  .secularizing  educationalists  and  sectarian  enthu- 
siasts as  un-American  and  opposed  to  our  national  in- 
stitutions, our  schools  seem  to  us  to  be  second  to  none 
in  national  usefulness  and  effectiveness.  They  teach 
patriotism,  and  the  results  show  that  they  teach  it 
successfully.  They  teach  morality,  and  the  lives  of 
the  Catholic  people  of  the  country  show  the  result. 
They  teach  religion,  thus  constituting,  in  an  age  that 
questions  everything,  a  great  institutional  force  on 
the  side  of  belief  in  God,  in  religious  obligation,  and 
in  definite  moral  responsibility.  Besides,  they  strive, 
with  great  personal  sacrifice  on  the  part  of  people, 
teachers,  and  pupils,  to  keep  up  with  the  public 
school  system  in  teaching  the  secular  branches.  They 
are  as  a  rule  the  equals,  and  often  the  superiors,  of  the 
public  schools  in  the  quahty  of  the  secular  instruction 
which  they  give.  Thej'  have  the  advantage  of  disci- 
pline, uniformity  of  ideals,  harmony  of  methods,  and, 
above  all,  of  disinterested  devotedness  on  the  part  of 
their  teachers.  Finally,  the  fact  should  not  be  over- 
looked that  the  parochial  schools  save  many  millions 
of  dollars  annually  to  the  non-Catholic  public,  who,  if 
the  Catholic  children  were  not  provided  for  in  paro- 
chial schools,  would  be  obliged  to  increase  very  con- 
siderably the  annual  cost  of  education. 

XI.  Organization  and  Statistics. — The  parochial 
school  system  is  diocesan  in  its  organization.  The  su- 
preme educational  authority  is  the  bishop,  who  gov- 
erns and  administers  the  schools  of  his  diocese  through 
the  assistance  of  a  school  board  and,  very  often,  a  dio- 
cesan (clerical)  inspector  of  schools.  The  immediate 
authority  is  vested  in  the  pastor,  whose  task  it  is  to 
provide  building,  salaries,  etc.  The  teachers  are 
almost  universally  religious.  The  principal  of  the 
school  is  appointed  usually  by  the  religious  comniu- 
nity  to  which  he  or  she  belongs.  The  great  majority 
of  the  schools  are  mixed,  that  is,  schools  for  boys  and 
girls.  The  only  exceptions,  apparently,  are  those  in 
which  the  boys  are  taught  by  brothers  and  the  girls  by 
sisters.  There  is  no  recognized  national  central  au- 
thority in  Catholic  educational  matters.  However, 
the  parochial  school  section  of  the  Catholic  Educa- 
tional Association  has  already  done  much  towards  uni- 
fying and  systematizing  our  parochial  schools.  The 
training  of  teachers  is,  as  a  rule,  provided  for  by  the 
different  religious  communities  engaged  in  the  work  of 


SCHOOLS 


562 


SCHOOLS 


teaching.  There  are  no  diocesan  institutions  for  the 
training  of  the  teachers  for  the  whole  diocese.  During 
the  summer  of  1911  a  reguhxr  session  of  the  Cathohc 
University  of  America  was  held  for  the  benefit  of  the 
teaching  sisterhoods.  Of  the  three  hundred  who  at- 
tended, a  large  percentage  took  up  professional  peda- 
gogical subjects.  Similar  institutes  were  held  at 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  elsewhere.  In  the  autumn 
of  the  same  year  the  Sisters'  College  was  formally 
opened  at  Brookland,  D.  C,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Catholic  University  of  America,  and  of  the  twenty- 
nine  students  who  attended  the  first  session  all  took 
professional  courses  in  education.  The  number  of 
parochial  schools  in  the  United  Stat&s  in  1911  was,  ac- 
cording to  the  "Cathohc  Directory",  4972,  and  the 
number  of  pupils  1,270,131.  These  figures  do  not  in- 
clude orphan  asylums,  which  numbered  2S.^  and  took 
care  of  51,938  orphans.  Neither  do  they  include  the 
non-parochial  academies,  convent  boarding  schools, 
and  day  schools,  nor  the  colleges  for  boys,  many  of 
which  have  a  number  of  primary  pupils  in  attendance. 

I.  For  history  of  schools  (catechetical,  monastic,  etc.):  Drane, 
Christum  Schools  and  Scholars  (2  vols.,  London,  1867) ;  Brother 
.\z».RlAS,  Essays  Educational  (Chicago,  1896);  Willmann,  Di- 
dai-Hk,  I  (Brunswick,  1894),  211  sq.;  Krieg,  Lehrbtich  der  P&da- 
gogik  (Paderborn,  1900),  73  sq.;  Denk,  Gesch.  des  Gallo-frankis- 
chen  Unterrichts-  und  BiUungsxoesen  (Mainz,  1892) ;  Kehrein, 
Ueberblick  der  Erziehung  und  des  Unterrichtx  (Paderborn,  1899); 
MAfTRE,  Les  ecoles  episcopales  et  monast.  deVOccident  (Paris,  1866). 

if.  For  primary  ediication  under  ecclesiastical  auspices  in  me- 
dieval times:  Leach,  English  SchooU  at  the  Reformation  (West- 
minster, 1896) ;  Specht,  Gesch.  des  Unterrichtswesens  in  Deutschland 
(Stuttgart,  1885);  Rave  let,  Blessed  J.  B.  de  La  Salle  (Paris, 
1888),  chap,  ii,  Primary  Schools  of  the  Middle  Ages;  Allain,  L'in- 
struction  primaire  en  France  avant  la  revolution  (Paris,  1881); 
Magevney,  Christian  Education  in  the  Dark  Ages  (New  York, 
1892);  ^IcCoRMlCK,  series  of  articles  in  Catholic  Educational  Re- 
view, beginning  Nov.,  1911;  Muteau,  Les  ecoles  et  colleges  en  Pro- 
vince (Dijon,  1882). 

III.  For  principles  of  canon  law  regarding  education:  Wernz, 
Jus  decretalium  (Rome,  1901),  III,  57  sq.;  Vering,  Kirchenrecht 
(Freiburg.  189.3). 

IV.  For  present  condition  of  Catholic  schools  in  England  and 
Ireland,  see  Catholic  University  Bulletin,  XIV  (1908),  12  sq.  and 
121  sq.,  also  Irish  Educ.  Review,  vol.  I,  sq.,  first  no.,  Oct.,  1907; 
'B.M.x.is.K-ii,  Management  of  Primary  Sch.  in  Irel.   (Dublin,  1911). 

V.  For  history  of  parochial  schools  in  the  United  States: 
Burns,  Catholic  School  System  in  the  United  States  (New  York, 
1908);  Acta  et  decrela  concilii  Baltim.  Ill  (Baltimore,  1886); 
Desmond,  The  Bible  in  the  Public  School  (Boston,  1890) ;  Quiglet, 
Compulsory  Education  (the  Ohio  case)  (New  York,  1894). 

William  Turner. 

In  Australia. — In  Australia  as  in  the  other  parts 
of  the  British  Empire,  the  struggle  in  defence  of 
Catholic  education  has  been  a  hard,  uphill  fight. 
Even  in  the  present  age  the  Catholics  of  Australia, 
who  have  by  the  most  generous  and  devoted  sacri- 
fices created  a  fine  system  of  education,  both  primary 
and  secondary,  have  not  the  right,  which  the  Catholics 
of  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland  enjoy,  to  have  any 
share  whatever  in  the  large  sums  of  public  money  ex- 
pended on  the  schools,  whilst  they  are  compelled  to 
contribute  this  money  in  the  form  of  taxes  and  rates. 

History. — From  1788,  when  Governor  Philip  first 
established  a  colonial  Sf^ttlement  at  Port  Jackson, 
until  1826,  the  only  schools  available  for  Catholic 
children  in  the  colony  woie  the  officially  controlled 
Anglican  schools,  on  which  large  grants  of  money 
and  land  were  lavished.  The  devoted  Catholic 
chaplain  Father  Therry  started  a  small  school  in 
1826,  for  which  he  managed  to  obtain  a  little  Govern- 
ment aid.  I3y  1836  there  were  thirteen  Catholic 
schools.  Through  the  influence  of  Governor  Bourke, 
a  liberal  Irish  Protestant,  a  system  of  State  aid  rec- 
ognizing the  various  denominations  was  developed, 
a  Denominational  Board  for  distributing  the  funds 
was  set  up,  and  a  modest  allowance  was  secured  by 
Catholics.  But  in  1848  a  National  Secular  System 
was  introduced  with  a  Central  Board  of  lulucation 
wjmewhat  similar  to  that  existing  in  Ireland,  yet 
running  cfjncomitantly  with  the  existing  Denominar 
tional  Board.  Hostility  between  the  two  was  in- 
evitable, and  there  were  many  inconveniences.  By 
the  Public  School  Act  of  1866  a  Central  Council  of 


Education  was  established  and  sundry  changes  were 
introduced,  some  being  to  the  detriment  of  the  de- 
nominational schools;  for  the  defence  of  Cathohc 
rights  a  Cathohc  Association  w^as  formed.  But  the 
secular  movement  supported  by  anti-Catholic  pre- 
judice grew  in  strength  and,  by  the  Public  Instruction 
Act  of  1880,  a  centralized  secular  system,  withdraw- 
ing all  State  aid  from  the  denominational  schools,  was 
completely  established  in  New  South  Wales;  this  had 
been  done  already  in  some  of  the  other  States,  and  as 
time  went  on  was  done  also  in  the  remaining.  The 
effect  of  the  measure  was  the  speedy  extinction  of 
the  great  majority  of  the  other  denominational 
schools,  w'hilst  the  Catholics,  thrown  again  entirely 
on  their  own  resources,  started  to  build  and  support 
their  schools  (both  primary  and  secondary),  the 
numbers  of  which  they  have  since  then  largely  in- 
creased. The  secular  system  has  thus  been  in  force 
in  the  State  schools  for  thirty  years,  but  the  situation 
is  not  acquiesced  in  by  the  Catholics;  they  continue 
to  demand  the  right  as  free  citizens  to  have  the 
money  which  they  pay  in  taxes  for  the  support  of 
education,  ex-pended  on  the  only  education  which  they 
can  conscientiously  accept. 

Present  Status  of  Catholic  Education. — The  Catho- 
lic primary  schools  are  under  the  authority  of  the 
bishop. of  the  diocese.  There  are  no  school  boards; 
inspectore  appointed  by  diocesan  authority''  examine 
and  report  on  the  schools.  Competitive  yearly  inter- 
primary  school  examinations  for  Cathohc  secondary 
school  scholarships  give  an  extra  stimulus  to  individ- 
ual work.  In  some  states  Government  inspectors  are 
invited  to  visit  the  schools,  but  only  in  three  states 
does  the  law  enforce  Government  inspection.  These 
schools  are  taxed  like  ordinary  institutions;  where  they 
come  into  competition  with  the  State  schools,  e.  g.  for 
civil  service  appointments,  they  win  more  than  their 
share  of  successes.  The  Catholic  secondary  schools 
and  high  schools  for  boys  and  girls  are  numerous,  and 
are  in  charge  of  the  religious  congregations.  The  Jesuit 
Fathers  have  four  colleges,  and  the  Vincentian  and 
Marist  Fathers  (N.  Z.)  one  each.  The  remainder  are 
divided  among  the  Christian,  Marist,  Patrician,  and 
De  La  Salle  Brothers.  Secondary  education  is  largely 
guided  by  the  university  examinations,  and  here 
again  the  Catholic  schools  amply  prove  their  efficiency. 
Victoria  (Tasmania  lately  passed  a  similar  law)  by 
Act  of  Parhament  (1906)  exacts  the  registration  of 
all  private  schools,  both  primary  and  secondary,  a,nd 
of  all  teachers.  An  Educational  Council,  on  which 
Catholics  are  represented,  has  charge  of  the  register, 
determines  the  conditions  of  registration,  and  ad- 
judicates on  individual  claims.  Vested  interests  are 
respected,  but  evidence  of  competency  is  to  be  re- 
quired of  all  future  teachers.  Catholics  are  en- 
deavouring to  meet  the  new  conditions  by  the  es- 
tablishment of  training  colleges,  especially  for  women. 
In  New  South  Wales,  where  similar  legislation  is 
probable.  Cardinal  Moran  (d.  6  Aug.,  1911)  in  1911 
established  a  Catholic  Council  of  Education  to  safe- 
guard Catholic  interests. 

In  Australasia,  including  New  Guinea,  there  are: 
Catholic  primary  schools,  1004;  superior  day  schools, 
196;  boarding  schools  for  girls,  194;  colleges  for  boys, 
27;  ecclesiastical  seminaries,  5;  and  one  college  for 
foreign  missions.  The  estimated  total  Catholic 
population  is  982, .578;  scholars,  123,905.  The  great 
majority  of  the  Catholic  teachers  are  from  among 
the  6000  nuns  and  549  brothers  who  devote  their 
lives  to  the  service  of  the  Church  in  the  country. 
Lay  teachers  are  chiefly  employed  in  the  country  dis- 
tricts. The  per  capita  cost  of  education  in  the  Catho- 
lic primary  schools  averages  between  £3  and  £4;  in 
the  State  schools,  between  £5  and  £6.  The  amount 
saved  to  the  State  by  the  self-sacrifice  of  the  Catholic 
bf)dy  totals  annually  about  three-quarters  of  a  rail- 
lion  pounds.     The  Catholic  schools  are  maintained 


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563 


SCHOOLS 


by  the  voluntary  contributions  of  the  faithful — 
church  collections,  concerts,  bazaars  etc. — and  the 
gratuitous  labours  of  the  religious.  The  classes  in 
the  Catholic  primary  schools  are  graded  in  a  system 
somewhat  similar  to  that  in  the  Government  schools. 
In  some  of  the  states,  notably  in  New  South  Wales, 
the  Catholic  school  authorities  have  been  able  to  issue 
special  Cathohc  school  readers  and  periodical  school 
papers.  As  an  offset  to  the  Government  scholarships, 
which  unhke  those  in  England  are  tenable  only  at  the 
Government  high  schools,  the  Catholics  have  founded 
scholarships  in  Cathohc  secondary  schools  for  their 
primary  school  children.  Technical  instruction  is 
usually  included  in  the  curriculum  of  the  larger  schools, 
but  is  more  systematically  organized  in  Catholic 
institutions  for  orphans  and  industrial  work. 

MoBAN,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Australasia  (Sydney, 
8.  d.);  Australian  Year  Book  of  the  Commonwealth  (1911);  the 
Year  Books  of  the  various  states  (1911);  Australasian  Catholic 
Directory  (1911);  Birt,  Benedictine  Pioneers  in  Australia  (Lon- 
don, 1911);  CoGHLAN,  Wealth  and  Progress  of  New  South  Wales 
(Sydney.  1898). 

Wilfrid  Ryan. 

In  Canada. — Canada  is  a  self-governing  dominion 
of  the  British  Empire  consisting  of  nine  provinces  and 
some  territories  not  yet  erected  in  provinces.  Its  pop- 
ulation is  partly  French  in  origin  and  language,  partly 
British.  It  will  be  necessary,  in  order  to  be  accurate, 
to  speak  of  each  province  separately. 

A.  Province  of  Ontario. — The  beginnings  of  Catho- 
lic education  in  Ontario  may  be  said  to  date  back  to 
the  year  1615,  in  which  the  Recollect  Joseph  Le  Caron, 
making  a  journey  of  exploration  in  the  countries  of  the 
Algonquin  and  Huron  tribes,  decided  on  the  founda- 
tion of  missions  in  their  midst.  Writing  to  the  Court 
of  France,  he  said:  "  We  must  first  make  men  of  these 
Indians,  then  Christians."  During  the  years  1622- 
26,  his  first  efforts  were  assisted  by  the  arrival  of 
Fathers  Guillaume  Pouhn,  Nicholas  Viel,  and  de  La 
Roche  d'Aillon,  of  his  order,  and  the  Jesuit  Fathers 
Br^beuf  and  de  La  None.  Their  work  was  facihtated 
by  the  aid  of  interpreters  who  were  good  Christians 
and  valiant  auxiliaries.  By  1638  the  Jesuit  Fathers, 
now  ten  in  number,  had  established  two  residences  on 
the  banks  of  Georgian  Bay.  These  outposts  speedily 
became  centres  of  Christian  and  Catholic  civihzation. 
Until  16.50  the  missionaries,  with  their  devoted  lay 
brothers  and  coadjutors  from  France,  were  the  only 
Catholic  teachers  of  Ontario.  Their  first  lessons  of 
catechism,  of  book-knowledge,  and  of  agriculture, 
given  amidst  the  greatest  privations,  and  often  at  the 
peril  of  their  lives,  owed  much  more  to  their  unhmited 
zeal  than  to  any  generosity  on  the  part  of  their  pupils. 
In  1649  the  Huron  and  Algonquin  neophytes  were  ex- 
terminated by  the  ferocious  Iroquois,  who  burnt  or 
destroyed  seven  flourishing  missions,  which  had  been 
directed  by  no  fewer  than  sixty  missionaries  and  help- 
ers, many  of  whom  perished  with  their  flocks.  The 
surviving  heroes  of  the  Gospel  found  a  new  field  of 
action  among  the  Outaouais,  who  inhabited  the  pres- 
ent County  of  Bruce,  the  islands  of  Georgian  Bay,  and 
Great  Manitoulin  Island.  The  work  that  had  been 
done  for  the  Hurons  and  Algonquins  of  Eastern  On- 
tario was  now  renewed  on  behalf  of  the  Western 
tribes.  Nothing  that  human  zeal  could  accomplish 
was  spared  to  make  of  them  civilized  people  and  fer- 
vent Catholics.  When  Antoine  de  La  Mothe  CadiUac 
founded  the  important  post  of  Detroit  (1701),  he  was 
accompanied  by  missionaries,  among  whom  was  the 
Rev.  Father  Lhalle,  who  became  rector  of  the  pion- 
eers of  Essex.  The  Iroquet  tribe,  belonging  to  the 
large  family  of  the  Algonquins,  settled  in  the  farthest 
eastern  end  of  the  province  in  the  present  Counties  of 
Stormont,  Glengarry,  and  Prescott,  received  at  an 
early  date  the  joyful  tidings  of  Cathohc  doctrine  and 
the  benefit  of  Cathohc  education. 

After  the  War  of  American  Independence,  a  great 
number  of  settlers,  faithful  to  the  British  flag,  took 


refuge  in  the  Province  of  Ontario.  The  first  immi- 
grants estabhshed  themselves  at  Indian  Point,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Kingston,  in  1784.  Later  on,  other  loyal- 
ists took  up  homesteads  at  Toronto  and  Niagara. 
The  few  French  f amihes  who  had  followed  de  La  Mothe 
Cadillac  to  Detroit  survived  to  constitute  the  colony 
of  Essex,  and  their  descendants  rapidly  invaded  both 
the  Counties  of  Essex  and  Kent,  where  the  French  pop- 
ulation now  almost  forms  a  majority.  In  1786  and 
1802  Scotch  emigrants  settled  in  large  numbers  in  the 
Counties  of  Glengarry  and  Prescott.  From  1816  to 
1825  British  officers  and  furloughed  soldiers,  mostly 
Irish,  colonized  the  districts  of  Carleton,  Lanark,  and 
Peterborough.  The  construction  of  the  Rideau  Canal 
caused  a  large  number  of  workmen  to  take  up  their 
residence  in  Ontario.  An  enthe  colony  of  Scotch 
Catholics,  expelled  from  the  United  States  after  the 
War  of  Independence  on  account  of  their  attachment 
to  the  British  Crown,  settled  in  Canada  near  Niagara, 
in  the  Counties  of  Lincoln  and  Welland.  A  vigorous 
stream  of  immigration  from  Germany  in  1835  over-' 
flowed  the  western  end  of  the  province,  in  the  present 
Counties  of  Bruce,  Huron,  and  Perth.  Meanwhile 
French  Canadians  poured  into  the  Counties  of  Russell, 
Prescott,  and  Glengarry.  Raftsmen  and  French  Ca- 
nadians of  various  occupations  ascended  the  Ottawa 
River,  exploring  the  regions  now  known  as  New  On- 
tario, Algoma,  Nipissing,  and  Thunder  Bay.  They 
are  now  in  a  majority  in  these  three  counties,  and  have 
churches,  priests,  and  schools  of  their  own. 

This  Catholic  immigration,  .so  abundant  and  sud- 
den, incited  the  ardent  zeal  of  Mgr  Plessis,  Bishop  of 
Quebec,  to  send  missionaries  to  Upper  Canada. 
Priests  from  the  seminary  of  Quebec,  others  from  the 
foreign  missionary  organization  of  Paris,  and  a  small 
number  of  priests  who  had  immigrated  with  their 
Scotch  or  Irish  countrymen  ministered  to  the  spiritual 
wants  of  these  courageous  colonists.  They  joj'fully 
accepted  their  share  of  the  great  poverty  of  these 
pioneers.  They  thought  more  of  preserving  the  Faith, 
of  administering  the  sacraments,  and  of  reforming 
abuses  than  of  founding  schools.  Not  that  they  con- 
sidered schools  as  of  little  importance,  but  because, 
from  lack  of  resources  and  teachers,  tlie  establishment 
of  schools  was  an  impossibility.  From  is;5(),  however, 
Toronto  had  its  Catholic  school;  then  Kingston,  in 
1837,  and  Picton,  in  1840,  were  likewise  provided  for. 
The  hierarchy  of  the  Cathohc  Church,  ever  anxious  to 
foster  the  education  of  the  people  confided  to  its  care, 
was  soon  established  in  the  province.  This  was  the 
signal  for  the  opening  of  educational  establishments  at 
divers  points.  Ottawa  had  its  Catholic  schools  in 
1844;  Brantford  in  1850;  Goderich  and  Peterborough 
in  1852;  Hamilton,  Oshawa,  and  Barrie  in  1855;  Perth 
and  Alexandria  in  1856;Orillia  in  1857;  Berhn,  Dun- 
das,  and  St.  Thomas  in  1858;  Belleville  in  1860,  and 
so  on.  The  venerable  Bishops  A.  McDonell,  R.  Gau- 
lin.  Power,  Guiges,  O.M.I.,  de  Charbonel,  Pinson- 
nault,  Jamot,  Farrell,  and  Phelan;  Fathers  J.  Ryan, 
Proulx,  Grand,  Maloney,  Carayon,  Grattan,  Bissey, 
Jeffrey,  Bilroy,  Lawler,  Faure,  the  Jesuit  Fathers  du 
Ranquet,  Hanipaux,  Ch6n(5,  Fr^miol,  the  Oblate 
Fathers  Tilmon,  Dandurand,  Tabaret,  Soulerin,  Man- 
roit,  and  the  Basilian  Fathers — these  were  the  pio- 
neers and  defenders  of  Catholic  education  in  Ontario. 
They  found  very  able  helpers  in  the  various  relig- 
ious communities  of  women,  and  in  the  Institute  of 
the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools.  Many  sin- 
cerely Christian  persons  among  the  laity  also  devoted 
themselves  to  the  cause  of  Catholic  education  in  the 
province.  Among  the  earliest  and  most  remarkable 
may  be  mentioned,  at  Toronto,  J.  Harvey  and  J.  Sey- 
ers;  at  Ottawa,  Dr.  Riel,  Friolle,  and  Goode;  at  Dun- 
das,  Miss  Sweeney;  at  Brantford,  J.  d'Astroph;  at 
Oakland,  Capt.  Fitzgerald. 

The  Catholic  schools  have  become  numerous  and 
powerful.     Their  organization,  from  the  points  of  view 


SCHOOLS 


564 


SCHOOLS 


of  studies,  discipline,  and  regular  attendance  of  pupils, 
is  better  than  that  of  aU  other  institutions  of  the  same 
class  in  the  province.  Many  years  have  already 
elapsed  since  in  the  cities,  villages,  and  other  parts  of 
the  country,  long  opened  up  to  colonization,  the  old 
squiire-timber  school-houses  were  replaced  b}'  splen- 
did buildings  of  brick  or  stone.  The  architecture  of 
these  schools  is  simple  and  beautiful;  the  systems  of 
ventilation,  hghting,  and  heating  are  excellent;  the 
installation  of  suitable  school  furniture  and  accessories 
is  almost  complete.  This  progress  is  very  evident, 
even  in  centres  of  colonization.  The  school  trustees 
make  it  a  point  of  honour  to  put  up  school  buildings 
which  are  beautiful  and  spacious,  and  which  leave  noth- 
ing to  be  desired  in  ventilation,  lighting,  and  heating. 
The  Catholic  schools  of  Ontario  are  called  separate 
schools.  They  do  separate,  in  fact,  for  school  pur- 
poses, the  Catholic  minority  from  the  Protestant  ma- 
jority. They  make  it  possible  for  Cathohcs  to  with- 
draw their  "children  from  the  public  or  common 
schools,  which  are  by  law  Protestant.  Nevertheless, 
there  are  some  pubhc  schools  which  are  reall)^  Catho- 
lic; these  exist  in  localities  exclusively  or  almost  exclu- 
sively Catholic.  Such  schools  are  found  especially  in 
the  Counties  of  Russell,  Prescott,  Algoma,  Nipissing, 
Kent,  and  Essex.  Separate  schools  were  granted  in 
1841,  when  the  Provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada 
were  united.  Wishing  to  secure  for  their  co-religion- 
ists in  Lower  Canada  exemption  from  the  obHgation 
of  .sending  their  children  to  the  CathoUc  schools  (com- 
mon schools  in  that  province),  and  of  paying  taxes  for 
the  support  of  said  schools,  the  Protestants  of  On- 
tario and  Quebec  proposed  to  establish  a  system  of 
dissident  or  separate  schools.  What  they  claimed  for 
the  Protestants  of  Lower  Canada  they  had  to  bind 
them.selves  in  strict  justice  to  grant  to  the  Cathohcs  of 
Upper  Canada. 

The  principle  of  separate  schools,  Catholic  in  On- 
tario and  Protestant  in  Quebec,  received  the  royal 
sanction  on  18  September,  1841.  This  fundamental 
law  had  been  discussed  by  a  committee  of  the  Legisla- 
tive A.ssembly  in  which  Lower  Canada  was  represented 
by  fifteen  members  and  Upper  Canada  by  eight.  This 
law  authorized  dissidents  from  the  common  schools,  on 
giving  notice  to  the  clerk  of  the  district  council,  to  pay 
their  school  taxes  for  the  support  of  separate  schools, 
and  to  receive  a  share  of  the  government  grants  for 
education  in  proportion  to  their  number.  The  same 
law  authorized  the  election  by  the  people  of  trustees 
for  the  administration  of  separate  schools.  The  gov- 
ernor was  authorized  to  nominate  in  each  city  a  board 
of  examiners  cf>mposed  of  an  equal  number  of  Catho- 
lics and  Protestants.  The  Catholics  of  Ontario  ob- 
tained the  privilege  of  establishing  a  separate  board  for 
the  examination  of  candidates  wishing  to  teach  in 
their  schooLs;  a  clause  in  this  fundamental  law  ex- 
empted the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  from 
submitting  to  examination  by  this  board.  From 
1841  to  1863,  at  almo.st  every  .session  of  the  Legisla- 
ture, the  Ontario  Protestants  proposed  amendments 
tfj  the  act  establishing  separate  schools.  These  amend- 
ments tended,  for  the  most  part,  to  render  the  exist- 
ence of  separate  schools  in  Ontario  so  precarious  that 
they  would  die  out  of  themselves.  The  desired  privi- 
legeH  for  the  Prote.stants  of  J>ower  Canada  had  been 
obtained;  it  was  WfW  known  that  these  privileges 
would  always  be  resi)ected  by  the  Catholie  majority 
of  Quebec;  now,  they  thought,  it  would  be  safe  1o  de- 
liver the  attacks  of  unenlightened  fanaticism  against 
the  separate  schooLs  of  Upper  Canada  Cost  what  it 
might,  the  cry  was  raised  for  a  single  school  system  for 
the  whole  of  Upper  Canada — a  common,  public,  or 
national  school  system.  While  constantly  professing 
motives  of  the  purest  justice  and  common  interest,  the 
Protestant  Province  of  Upper  Canada  has  continuailj 
sullied  its  reputation  for  fairness  by  setting  an  ex- 
ample of  fanaticism,  narrow-mindedness,  and  intol- 


erance towards  CathoUc  schools,  whilst  Lower  Can- 
ada, a  Catholic  province,  has  been  a  model  of  perfect 
justice  and  toleration. 

On  27  February,  1863,  a  Catholic  deputy,  R.  W. 
Scott,  presented  for  the  fourth  time  a  new  law  to  gov- 
ern the  separate  schools.  This  law  was  adopted, 
thanks  to  the  generous  aid  given  by  the  French  Ca- 
nadian deputies,  mostly  from  Lower  Canada.  The 
Upper  Canadian  majority  voted  against  the  bill,  but 
all  the  members  from  Quebec  and  twenty-one  members 
from  Upper  Canada,  among  them  several  Protes- 
tants, were  in  its  favour  and  carried  the  measure. 

If  Ontario  now  possesses  a  system  of  Catholic 
separate  schools,  it  is  largely  due  to  the  French 
Canadians  of  Lower  Canada,  whose  wishes  in  the 
matter  were  enforced  by  their  representatives, 
Catholic  and  Protestant.  This  law,  enacted  in  1863, 
was  maintained  at  the  time  of  the  confederation  of 
the  provinces  in  1867;  it  still  governs  to-day  the 
Catholic  separate  schools  of  Ontario.  Yet  it  is  far 
from  giving  to  the  Catholics  of  that  province  liberties 
equal  to  those  enjoyed  by  the  Protestant  minority 
of  Quebec.  It  recognizes  the  Catholic  separate 
schools  for  primary  education  only.  Secondary  or 
superior  education  in  Ontario  is  Protestant.  The 
Catholics  have  their  academies,  convents,  colleges, 
and  universities,  but  these  are  independent  schools, 
supported  by  the  voluntary  contributions  of  Catholics 
who  have  also  to  contribute,  on  the  same  footing  as 
Protestants,  to  the  support  of  the  government  high 
schools,  collegiate  institutes,  and  universities.  It 
refuses  to  separate  schools  the  right  to  a  share  of  the 
taxes  paid  by  public-utility  companies,  such  as  rail- 
way, tramway  and  telephone  companies,  banks,  etc. 
It  withholds  from  the  trustees  of  separate  schools 
the  right  of  expropriation  in  order  to  secure  more 
fitting  localities  for  their  schools.  It  refuses  to  the 
Protestant  father  of  a  Catholic  family  the  right  to  pay 
his  taxes  towards  the  support  of  Catholic  schools. 
It  allows  Catholics  the  option  of  paying  their  taxes 
to  support  the  public  schools.  As  the  rate  of  taxation 
for  separate  schools  is  generally  higher  than  that  for 
public  schools,  owing  to  the  large  number  of  children 
in  families  of  the  Catholic  minority,  and  to  the  absten- 
tion of  large  business  concerns  from  contributing  the 
least  support  to  the  separate  schools,  it  follows  that 
many  Catholics,  more  or  less  sincere,  avoid  the 
higher  rate  and  pay  their  taxes  towards  the  support 
of  the  public,  or  Protestant,  schools.  The  separate 
schools  are  administered,  as  by  a  court  of  final  juris- 
diction, by  the  Education  Department  at  Toronto, 
in  which  Catholics  are  not  represented. 

The  law  governing  the  separate  schools  neverthe- 
less gives  to  Catholics  the  following  riglits:  (1)  to 
pay  their  taxes  for  primary  schools  in  which  religious 
instruction  is  given,  and  of  which  the  teachers,  in- 
spectors and  textbooks  are  Catholic;  (2)  to  adminis- 
ter these  schools  by  a  board  of  trustees  elected  by  the 
Catholic  proprietors  and  residents  of  the  different 
school  sections;  (3)  to  fix  the  rate  of  school-tax- 
ation; (4)  to  have  these  school-taxes  collected  by 
the  tax-collector  of  the  city  or  township;  (5)  to 
negotiate  loans  for  the  election  of  school  build- 
ings; (6)  to  (iugage  teachers.  Th(^  board  of  trus- 
tees has  likewis(!  the  right  to  impose  the  teaching 
in  French  or  (Jerman  of  reading,  six'lling  and  litera- 
ture, as  ])rovi(le(l  for  by  the  regulations  of  the  Educa- 
tion l)ci)artiiiciit,  ])age  <),  article  IT,,  year  1907.  The 
French  Canadians,  availing  themselves  of  this  right, 
have  the  French  language  taught  in  2.')0  schools, 
frequented  almost  entirely  by  their  children.  The 
Government  has  named  three  I''ren(;h  ('anadian  in- 
spectors for  thc^se  schools,  called  bilingual.  The 
teachers  of  these  schools  are  trained  in  two  public 
buingual  train ing-.schools,  one  at  Sturg(!on  Falls  and 
the  other  at  Ottawa,  founded  and  supiiorted  by  the 
Government,    and   directed   by  Catholic   principals. 


SCHOOLS 


565 


SCHOOLS 


The  certificates  issued  by  these  schools  give  the  right 
to  teach  in  the  bihngual  schools  for  five  years  only. 
The  Government  makes  a  yearly  grant  to  both 
Catholic  and  public  schools,  the  amount  being 
calculated  upon  the  value  of  the  schoolhouse,  the 
excellence  of  its  furnishings,  the  certificates  and 
salaries  of  the  teachers,  and  the  attendance  of  the 
children.     The   statistics   for   1909,   taken  from  the 


Re{)ort    of    the 
follows: 


Minister    of     Education,     are    as 


467 
55,034 
34,553 
62.78 

59.81 
1, 


Number  of  Catholic  separate  schools. 

Number  of  pupils  in  attendance 

Average  daily  attendance 

Percentage  of  attendance 

Percentage  of  attendance  in  the  public 
schools 

Number  of  teachers 

Amount  spent  for  schoolhouses $161^317 

Amount  spent  for  teachers'  salaries ....        404,890 

Average  cost  per  pupil 14.90 

Total  expenditures  for  1909  for  ele- 
mentary public  and  separate 
schools 8,141,423 

The  Catholic  colleges  for  boys  are:  in  the  Diocese 
of  Toronto,  that  of  the  Basilian  Fathers,  founded  in 
1852,  15  professors,  280  students;  in  the  Diocese  of 
London,  Basilian  Fathers,  founded  1857,  37  pro- 
fessors, 149  students;  Diocese  of  Hamilton,  Fathers 
of  the  Resurrection,  founded  1S57,  11  professors, 
100  students;  Diocese  of  Kingston,  secular  clergy, 
founded  1837,  4  professors,  85 
students.  The  Brothers  of  the 
Christian  Schools  conduct  an 
academy  with  14  teachers  and 
297  pupils.  The  Ursuline  Sis- 
ters, 1  college  for  girls,  202  pu- 
pils; Sisters  of  Marj',  1  acad- 
emy fjr  girls;  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph,  1,  140  pupils;  Sisters 
of  Loretto,  4,  78  teachers,  490 
pupils;  Grey  Nuns  of  the 
Cross,  2,  35  teachers,  555  pu- 
pils; Christian  Brothers,  1,  14 
teachers,  297  pupils.  Other 
convent  schools  are  those  of 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  (seven 
schools,  74  teachers,  975  pu- 
pils); Sisters  of  Loretto  (two 
schools,  30  teachers,  2S0  pu- 
pils) ;  Grey  Nuns  of  the  Cross 
(one  school,  6  teachers,  239 
pupils);  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary  (one 
school,  founded  in  1S64);  Sis- 
ters of  the  Congregation  of 
Notre  Dame  (one  school,  29 
teachers,  380  pupils).  There 
are  three  industrial  schools  un- 
der the  care  of  religious  in- 
stitutes: the  Brothers  of  the 
Christian  Schools  (8  teachers, 
95  pupils);  Daughters  of  the 
Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  (10 
teachers,  110  pupils);  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  {l6  teachers,  65 
pupils).  The  nine  orphanages 
under  the  care  of  religious  are : 
2  under  the  (jrey  Nuns  of  the 
Cross,  with  385  orphans;  5 
under  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
with  582  orphans;  1  under  the 
School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  with  54  orphans;  1  un- 
der the  Sisters  of  Providence,  with  85  orphans. 

The  appended  table  of  religious  institutes  engaged 
in  teaching  in  Ontario  at  the  present  time  (1911)  is 
necessarily  incomplete,  reliable  figures  being  unob- 


tainable in  many  cases.  In  such  cases  the  figures 
have  been  omitted  altogether,  as  approximate  figures 
are  liable  to  be  misleading. 

B.  Province  of  Quebec. — (1)  French  Rule  (1635- 
1763). — (a)  Primary  Schools. — With  the  introduction 
of  Christianity,  schools  sprang  up  in  the  P>ench 
colony  even  among  the  remotest  tribes.  The  Re- 
collects were  the  first  schoolmasters  of  Canada. 
In  1616,  one  of  them,  Brother  Pacifique  Duplessis, 
opened,  at  Three  Rivers,  the  first  school  of  New 
France.  Shortly  afterwards  the  Jesuit  Fathers  fol- 
lowed them,  teaching  the  children  reading,  writ- 
ing, arithmetic,  and  catechism.  In  1634,  a  year  after 
the  arrival  of  the  pioneer  families  in  Canada,  an 
elementary  school  was  founded  in  Quebec.  As  col- 
onists increased,  primary  schools  sprang  up.  The 
boys'  schools  were  at  St.  Foy,  the  Island  of  Orleans, 
Point  Levis,  Chateau-Richer,  Quebec,  Montreal, 
Three  Rivers.  Proofs  exist  that  there  were  in  the 
city  and  district  of  Quebec  15primary  schools  for  boys; 
in  the  city  and  district  of  Montreal,  10;  in  the  city 
and  district  of  Three  Rivers,  7.  Among  the  organ- 
izers were  Mgr  Laval  and  his  seminary.  Mgr  de 
St-Vallier,  his  successor,  encouraged  elementary, 
secondary,  and  technical  schools  by  every  means  in 
his  power.  In  the  district  of  Montreal  the  Sulpician 
Fathers  founded  several  schools.  M.  Souart,  supe- 
rior of  Montreal  from  1661  to  1668,  took  pride  in 
styling  himself  the  first  schoolmaster  of  New  France; 
all  his  brethren  shared  his  zeal.  In  1715  Brother 
Charon   opened    a   school   for   boys   at    Pointe-aux 


Religious  Institutes  Engaged  in 

Teaching  in  Ontario  (1911) 

Mother-house 

Diocese 

1 

1 

H 

31 
28 
4 

1.5 

21 

8 

24 
(i 
124 
12 
12 

1.5 

9 
3() 

.50 

44 

32 
65 
16 

21 
10 

38 
44 

1 
»«. 

1001 
139 

511 

1266 

280 

987 
150 
6410 
522 
550 

490 

260 
1649 
450 

3374 
1380 
2391 
2035 

725 
1160 
1.506 

675 

000 
505 

1686 

1455 

10 

Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools 

Sacred  Heart.  .  . 
Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of 

Paris 

Ottawa 

Toronto 

Ottawa 

Kingston 

Alexandria 

Ottawa 

Tomiskaming.  . 

London 

St.  Boniface.... 

Ottawa 

Pembroke 

Sault  Ste.  Marie 

Alexandria 

Pembroke 

Toronto 

Hamilton 

London 

Toronto  (City)  . 

Toronto 

Hamilton 

London 

Peterboro 

Sault  Ste.  Marie 

Hamilton 

Alexandria 

Sault  Ste  Marie 

1864 
18.51 
1911 

1841 

1883 

1868 
1910 

1864 
1903 
1845 
1863 
1896 

1862 

18r,6 

1886 
18.57 

18.51 

1874 
1871 

1904 
1891 
1887 
1800 
1800 
1910 

3 
6 

1 

4 
3 

2 

4 

1 
27 
2 
2 

1 

1 
6 
3 

11 
10 
12 
12 
3 
3 
8 
3 

2 
3 

2 
6 
8 

1 

Montreal 

Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of 

Nicolet..!!!!!; 

Montreal 

St.  Hyacinthe .  . 
Ottawa 

Buffalo 

St.Laurent.P.Q. 

Toronto 

Hamilton.  ■.■.:.■; 

London 

Peterboro 

Milwaukee .... 

Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of 

Sisters  of  the  Assumption 

"      Holy     Names    of 
Jesus  and  Mary. 

"         "      Presentation 

Grey  Nuns  of  the  Cross 

Daughters  of  the  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Marv                

Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  and 

Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  and 
Seven  Dolours            

Sisters  of  St  Joseph      

•>                •< 

School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dan.e.  .  . 

S6vre 

Lockport.N.Y. . 

Chatham 

Kingston 

Ottawa 

Ottawa 

London 

Kingston 

Ottawa 

Ursuline  Sisters             

the  Sacred  Heart 

Trembles,  near  Montreal,  and  took  upon  himself  the 
charge  of  recruiting  teachers  for  the  country  districts. 
In  investigating  the  history  of  the  schools  in  pioneer 
days  we  invariably  find  as  their  founder  or  bene- 
factor a  bishop,  a  priest,  a  religious  congregation. 


SCHOOLS 


566 


SCHOOLS 


or  a  layman,  himself  a  school-teacher  or  assisted  by  a 
teacher  who  travelled  from  one  district  to  another. 
The  education  of  the  girls  was  as  carefully  attended 
to  as  that  of  the  boys.  The  Ursulincs  built  schools 
at  Quebec  and  Three  Rivers.  The  religious  of  the 
Hopital  General  de  Quebec  erected  a  boarding  school, 
while  the  Sisters  of  the  Congregation  de  Notre  Dame, 
founded  by  the  \'enerable  Marguerite  Bourgeoys, 
mult ipUed  convents  at  Montreal,  Quebec,  Three 
Rivers,  and  in  the  countrj'  districts,  where  the  chil- 
dren of  the  colonists  came  to  be  trained  in  all  things 
essential  to  the  development  of  a  strong  Christian 
character.  Charlevoix  says:  ''If  to  this  day,  there 
prevail  in  Canada  so  great  a  gentleness  in  the  man- 
ners of  all  classes  of  society  and  so  much  charm  in  the 
intercourse  of  life,  it  is  owing  in  great  measure  to  the 
zeal  of  Marguerite  Bourgeoys".  Twelve  houses  were 
opened  by  the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame  during 
the  period  of  French  rule. 

(b)  Special  Schools. — Speciahzing  in  teaching  was 
not  unknown  at  this  epoch  when  existence  itself  was 
a  struggle.  There  were  schools  of  mathematics  and 
hydrography  at  Montreal  at  the  Jesuits  and  the  Charon 
Brothers',  art  and  trade  schools  at  the  seminary  at 
Quebec,  art  and  trade  schools  at  St.  Joachim,  art  and 
trade  schools  at  the  Charon  Brothers. 

(c)  Secondary'  Schools. — While  defending  the  col- 
ony from  the  incursions  of  the  Indians  and  fight- 
ing to  retain  their  prior  right  of  possession,  the 
French  not  only  estabhshed  primary  and  special 
schools  but  founded  and  endowed  secondary  schools. 
The  classical  college  of  the  Jesuits  was  established  at  a 
time  when  the  population  of  the  entire  country  was 
but  a  few  hundred  souls,  and  the  Petit  Seminaire  of 
Quebec  opened  its  doors  on  October,  16S8. 

(2)  British  Rule  (1763-1910).— In  1763  60,000 
French  Cathohc  colonists  passed  by  right  of  conquest 
under  British  Protestant  rule.  The  progress  of  the 
Cathohc  schools  was  greatly  impeded.  The  Church, 
through  her  teaching  communities  and  secular  clergy, 
organized  schools  in  the  most  important  villages;  but, 
unfortunately,  a  great  number  of  parishes  were  with- 
out pa-stors. '  In  1801  the  Legislature  passed  a  law 
entitled  "An  Act  to  estabhsh  Free  Schools",  which 
provided  for  the  estabhshment  of  a  permanent  cor- 
poration known  as  the  Roj'al  Institute.  Thus  the 
monopoly  was  given  to  the  Church  of  p]ngland  to  es- 
tabU.sh  and  support  English  Protestant  schools  for 
a  population  almost  entirely  made  up  of  French 
Catholics.  Scattered  over  the  country  districts,  in 
the  midst  of  a  mistrustful  people,  the  schools  of 
the  Royal  Institute  were  patronized  by  the  English 
colonists  only.  Twenty-four  years  after  its  founda- 
tion the  Royal  In.stitute  had  only  37  schools  with 
1048  pupils.  On  the  other  hand,  parochial  schools 
increased.  At  Montreal,  the  Sulpicians  and  the 
Ladies  of  the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame  opened 
free  schools.  A  Catholic  educational  society  was 
founded  at  Quebec  to  teach  poor  children  and  train 
teachers  for  country  districts.  Many  other  societies 
were  formed  in  different  parts  of  Canada  for  a  similar 
purpose.  The  parishes  were  few  that  could  not 
boast  of  fairly  good  schools.  Private  or  independ- 
ent schofjLs  increased  more  rapidly  than  the  parish 
schools.  In  1824  the  Legislature  passed  the  Paro- 
chial School  Act  authorizing  th(!  pastors  and  church- 
wardens to  appropriate  a  fourth  part  of  the  revenue 
of  the  parochial  corporation  for  the  support  of  the 
schools  under  their  exclusive  control.  In  1829  there 
were  no  less  than  14,700  children  in  these  schools 
which  were  supported  at  the  cost  of  much  sacrifice 
by  a  poor  and  scattered  population.  Many  other 
attempts  were  made  to  organize  Catholic  schools 
until,  finally,  in  1841,  a  law  was  passed  wherein  were 
contained  the  principal  provisions  of  the  Educational 
Act  as  it  exists  in  the  Province  of  (Quebec  to-day. 
This  law,  considerably  augmented  by  that  of  1846, 


gave  a  great  impetus  to  pubhc  instruction.  In  1849 
there  were  1817  schools  and  68,904  pupils.  Owing 
to  the  influence  of  Dr.  Meilleur,  Superintendent  of 
Catholic  Schools  of  Quebec,  education  made  rapid 
progress.  Chaveau,  his  successor,  continued  to  work 
with  the  same  zeal.  He  established  three  primary 
denominational  normal  schools  in  Lower  Canada, 
two  for  Catholics,  who  were  in  a  great  majority,  the 
third  for  Protestants.  In  Ontario,  there  was  but  one 
normal  school,  for  the  Protestant  majority,  who  neg- 
lected to  do  justice  to  the  Cathohc  minority,  while 
Quebec  gave  to  Protestants,  who  were  in  the  minority, 
a  separate  normal  school. 

The  school  organization  of  the  Province  of  Quebec 
is  now  under  the  control  of  the  Department  of  Public 
Instruction.  The  president,  who  is  elected  for  hfe, 
is  non-partisan  in  politics  and  bears  the  title  of 
Superintendent  of  Education.  He  is  assisted  by  a 
French  and  an  English  secretary,  who  are  charged 
with  the  administration  of  the  affairs  of  their  respec- 
tive nationalities  and  co-rehgionists.  The  Council 
of  Public  Instruction  is  composed  of  highly  esteemed 
members,  chosen  from  the  two  rehgious  denomina- 
tions; thej^  frame  laws  and  rules  relating  to  public 
instruction  which  are  afterwards  submitted  to  the 
sanction  of  the  government.  The  Council  of  Public 
Instruction  is  divided  into  Catholic  and  Protestant 
sections.  The  Catholic  committee  includes  as  ex- 
ofRcio  members  the  archbishops,  bishops  or  adminis- 
trators of  dioceses  and  Apostolic  vicariates  of  the 
Province  of  Quebec,  and  a  number  of  Catholic  laymen. 
The  Protestant  committee  is  composed  of  Protestant 
membere  equal  in  number  to  the  laymen  of  the 
Cathohc  committee.  Apart  from  these  two  com- 
mittees, there  are  other  members  who  do  not  form 
part  of  the  Council  of  Public  Instruction,  but  who 
have,  in  their  respective  committees,  the  same  power 
as  the  members  of  the  committees.  These  two  com- 
mittees, which  sit  independently,  unite,  under  the 
presidency  of  the  superintendent  of  education,  when 
there  are  matters  to  discuss  that  interest  both  re- 
hgious denominations.  All  questions  relating  ex- 
clusively to  Catholics  or  to  Protestants  are  decided 
by  their  respective  religious  committees. 

The  Province  of  Quebec  is  divided  into  school 
municipalities  for  the  support  of  one  or  more  schools. 
These  municipalities  are  subdivided  into  school  dis- 
tricts, and  are  entrusted  to  the  commissioners  or 
trustees  elected  by  the  taxpayers.  In  large  cities, 
hke  Quebec  and  Montreal,  the  commissioners  are 
named  by  the  Government  on  the  suggestion  of  the 
superintendent  of  education,  the  bishop  of  the  diocese, 
and  the  city  itself.  The  commissioners  are  the  local 
directors  and  real  supervisors  of  the  school ;  they  have 
charge  of  the  administration;  they  name  the  teachers; 
dispose  of  school  property,  purchase  ground  and  build 
schoolhouses,  impose  and  collect  the  school  taxes  and 
fees.  Taxpayers  who  do  not  profess  the  same  re- 
ligious belief  as  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  in  the 
municipality  where  they  reside,  have  a  right  to  a  school 
commission  of  their  own,  compo.sed  of  three  mem- 
bers chosen  from  among  their  co-religionists.  These 
members,  called  school  trustees,  represent  the  dis- 
senting minority;  they  have  the  same  privileges  as 
the  commissioners. 

The  administration  of  public  schools  is  controlled 
by  Catholic;  school  inspectors  for  Catholic  schools, 
and  Protestant  for  non-Catholic  schools.  These 
functionaries  are  subject  to  the  superintendent  of 
education.  There  are  also  two  general  inspectors 
charged  respectively  with  Catholic  and  Protestant 
normal  schools.  The  first  inspectors  were  named  in 
1852.  At  present  (1911)  thirty-nine  Catholic  in- 
spectors, under  tlie  supervision  of  a  general  inspector, 
visit  the  6000  Catholic  schools  of  the  province.  The 
school  revenues  are  obtained  from  government  grants 
and  local  taxation.     The  operation  of  this  law  ex- 


SCHOOLS 


567 


SCHOOLS 


hibits  striking  proof  of  tlie  good  faith  and  fairness 
of  the  Catholics,  who  constitute  the  great  majority: 
they  organize  their  schools,  but  never  take  advantage 
of  their  numbers  to  force  Protestants  to  send  their 
children  to  CathoUc  schools.  All  persons  wishing 
to  teach  in  public  schools  under  the  administration 
of  school  commissioners  and  trustees  must  obtain 
diplomas  from  a  normal  school  or  from  the  Central 
Board  of  Examiners.  Nevertheless,  ministers  of  re- 
ligion and  members  of  religious  communities  of  both 
sexes  are  exempt  from  these  examinations.  Members 
of  teaching  orders,  after  completing  their  course  of 
studies,  make  a  novitiate  of  two,  three,  or  four  j'ears 
before  receiving  their  "obedience".  This  period  of 
normal  training  exempts  them  from  the  e.xamina- 
tions  imposed  on  lay  teachers  by  the  Central  Board 
of  Examiners.  Primary  teaching  comprises  three 
degrees:  the  elementary  course  (4  years),  the  inter- 
mediate course  (2  years),  and  the  superior  course 
(2  years).  Schools  of  the  first  degree  are  called  pri- 
mary elementary;  those  of  the  second,  model,  or 
primary  intermediate;  those  of  the  third,  academic, 
or  primary  superior.  In  the  following  table  of  statis- 
tics of  elementary  education  in  the  Province  of  Quebec 
for  the  year  1909-10,  those  schools  which  are  subject 
to  the  provincial  or  the  municipal  Government  are 
classed  as  "State";  the  others,  as  "Independent". 


Schools 

Te.vchers 

Course 

State 

Inde- 
pendent 

Lay 

Reli- 
gious 

Pupils 

Elementary 

Primary    Interme- 
diate   

Primary  Superior 

4825 

462 

74 

57 

149 
128 

5054 

326 
157 

631 

2178 
1440 

187,120 

95,259 
47,259 

Totals 

5361 

334 

5537 

4249 

329,638 

The  teaching  congregations  direct  a  large  number 
of  schools,  independent  or  under  the  control  of  dif- 
ferent school  commissions.  The  Christian  Brothers 
have  63  houses  in  Canada,  51  in  the  Province  of 
Quebec,  750  brothers  and  about  23,000  pupils.  The 
following  are  the  other  teaching  congregations  of 
men:  Clerks  of  St.  Viateur,  Brothers  of  Charity, 
Marist  Brothers,  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction,,  Brothers  of  St. 
Gabriel,  Brothers  of  the  Cross  of  Jesus  (Diocese  of 
Rimouski).  Among  the  teaching  congregations  of 
women  are:  theUrsulines,  with  houses  in  the  Dioceses 
of  Quebec,  Chicoutimi,  Sherbrooke,  and  Rimouski. 
There  are  also  Ursulines  in  the  Diocese  of  Three 
Rivers;  this  house  was  founded  by  Mgr  J.-C.  de  St- 
Vallier,  second  Bishop  of  Quebec.  The  Congrega- 
tion of  Notre  Dame,  founded  at  Montreal,  30  April, 
1657,  by  Venerable  Marguerite  Bourgeoys  (1620- 
1700),  possesses  131  houses  in  Canada  and  the  United 
States.  It  numbers  1510  professed  sisters,  240 
novices,  45  postulants.  The  Sisters  teach  34,000 
pupils  in  21  dioceses.  The  Grey  Nuns  of  Montreal, 
Ottawa,  Quebec,  and  St.  Hyacinthe  teach  a  great  num- 
ber of  children.  The  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names  of 
Jesus  and  Mary  have  their  mother-house  at  Montreal 
and  houses  both  in  Canada  and  in  the  United  States; 
professed  religious,  1257;  novices,  110;  postulants, 
81;  estabhshments,  74;  parochial  schools,  32;  pupils, 
24,208.  Other  congregations  are:  the  Ladies  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  the  Sisters  of  Providence,  Sisters  of  the 
Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  and  Seven  Dolors 
(544  religious,  14,577  pupils  in  Canada  and  the  United 
States),  Sisters  of  St.  Anne  (63  establishments  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  19,190  pupils),  Sisters  of 
the  Assurnption  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  Nicolet  (414 


religious,  49  establishments),  Sisters  of  the  Presenta- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  Rehgious  of  Jesus  and  Mary, 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  (St.  Hyacinthe),  Daughters  of 
Wisdom,  Sisters  of  St.  Mary,  Franciscans  of  Mary 
(Quebec),  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Perpetual  Help, 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Heart  of  Mary,  Sisters  of  Our  Lady 
of  Good  Counsel  (Chicoutimi),  Daughters  of  Jesus, 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Louis,  Rehgious  of  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi.  Many  of  these  congregations  have 
mother-houses  in  the  Province  of  Quebec;  they  direct 
a  great  number  of  establishments  and  send  mission- 
aries to  the  other  provinces  of  the  Dominion  and  to 
the  United  States. 

There  are  thirteen  art  and  trade  schools  in  the  prin- 
cipal centres  of  the  Province  of  Quebec.  During  the 
school  year  1909-10  there  were  56  professors,  2632 
boys.  Besides  the  Agricultural  Institute  at  Oka,  affil- 
iated to  Laval  University,  and  which  is  included  in  the 
scheme  of  superior  education,  there  is  an  agricultural 
school  in  connexion  with  the  College  of  St.  Anne  de  La 
Pocatiere,  in  the  district  of  Quebec.  There  is  a  man- 
ual training  and  agricultural  school  for  girls,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Ursulines,  at  Roberval,  Lake  St.  John 
district;  another  at  St.  Pascal,  under  the  direction  of 
the  Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame.  Nor- 
mal schools  were  founded  in  1856.  There  are  now 
ten;  two  for  boys  and  eight  for  girls.  Three  normal 
schools  for  girls  are  soon  to  be  opened,  so  that  each 
diocese  of  the  Province  of  Quebec;  will  have  its  own  nor- 
mal school.  The  pupils  imiiiher  tUiO;  the  professors, 
110.  There  is  one  Catholic  school  for  the  blind  (boys 
and  girls),  the  Nazareth  Institute,  tlirecfed  by  the 
Grey  Nuns;  fifty-five  pupils  follow  the  regular  course, 
under  the  direction  of  five  professors;  many  excel  in 
music  and  in  other  subjects.  The  Catholic  Deaf  and 
Dumb  Institute,  for  boys,  is  directed  by  the  Clerks  of 
St.  Viateur.  The  total  number  of  pupils  is  135,  of 
whom  89  are  instructed  by  the  oral  method,  46  by 
the  written  and  manual  alphabet.  The  work  of  teach- 
ing is  carried  on  by  31  professors.  The  Catholic  Deaf 
and  Dumb  Institute  for  girls  is  directed  by  the  Sisters 
of  Providence;  71  sisters  teach  142  pupils.  The  two 
methods  are  in  use,  but  the  oral  method  is  employed 
in  instructing  almost  all  the  pupils.  Former  pupils, 
numbering  115,  are  engaged  in  manual  labour  in  these 
asylums,  receiving  physical, intellectual, and  moral  care. 

The  night-schools,  numbering  129,  have  taught  2546 
Catholic  pupils.  There  arc  a  certain  number  of 
industrial  schools.  The  Brothers  of  Charity  direct  a 
reform  school  (30  religious,  118  boarders).  The  Sis- 
ters of  the  Good  Shepherd  also  have  two  houses,  one  at 
Montreal,  the  other  at  Park  Laval.  A  great  number 
of  congregations  are  charged  with  the  instruction  of 
orphans;  among  the  institutions  may  be  mentioned  the 
Orphan  Asylum  of  Montfort,  305  children;  Huber- 
deau,  220.  The  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Mary  and 
the  Daughters  of  Wisdom  have  charge  of  these  or- 
phans. All  the  principal  cities  have  their  kinder- 
garten schools,  which  are  not  mentioned  in  the  official 
reports.  They  are  due  to  private  initiative  and  are 
organized  by  religious  communities.  There  are  21 
classical  colleges  at  Quebec,  18  of  which  are  affiliated 
with  Laval  University.  They  were  founded  by  bish- 
ops, priests,  or  zealous  laymen  who  understood  the 
needs  of  the  different  phases  of  the  national  and  re- 
ligious existence.  Therein  were  fostered  vocations 
to  the  priesthood  and  the  liberal  professions.  These 
classical  colleges  have  given  Canada  eminent  men, 
both  in  Church  and  State,  who,  in  the  dark  hours  of 
its  history,  have  preserved  its  faith  and  nationality; 
they  have  flourished  and  are  still  flourishing,  thanks  "to 
the  generosity  of  their  founders  and  former  pupils. 
They  receive  but  $12,643  from  the  Provincial  Legis- 
lature. The  accompanying  table  of  the  Catholic  col- 
leges of  the  Province  of  Quebec  exhibits  the  dates  of 
their  respective  foundations  as  well  as  the  number  of 
pupils  and  professors  in  each.    . 


SCHOOLS 


568 


SCHOOLS 


English  is  the  mother  tongue  of  only  a  little  more 
than  9  percent  of  all  the  pupils  attending  t  hese  twenty- 
one  institutions,  the  language  of  the  remainder  being 
French.  The  Classical  course,  including  two  years  of 
philosophy,  covers  a  period  of  eight  years.     It    in- 


Date 

of 
Foun- 
dation 

PUPILS 

Prokessors 

IXSTITL-TIOX 

Clas- 
sical 

Com- 
mer- 
cial 

Priests 

Laymen 

Petit    S^minaire   de 
Quebec          

1665 
1767 
1803 
1809 
1825 

1829 
1832 
1846 
1847 
1848 
1850 
1853 

1853 
1860 
1867 
1873 
1875 
1893 
1897 
1910 
1911 

629 
465 
316 
353 
250 

128 
227 
209 
195 
375 
108 
115 

39 
144 
101 

70 
125 

96 
190 

60 

40 

■56 

247 
55 
113 
180 

182 
490 

98 
161 
106 
1.59 
274 
161 

68 

■76 

47 
32 
23 
32 
38 

39 
30 
37 
42 
25 
32 
40 

18 
32 
27 
41 
34 
31 
11 

4 

Montreal 

Nicolet 

St.  Hyacinthe 

1 
2 

Ste.  Anne  de  La  Poca- 

ti^re 

L'Assomption 

Joliette                

Stc.  Marie,  Montreal. 

Kicaud 

L^N'i" 

2 

Stc.  Marie  de  Mon- 

noir 

Three  Rivers 

Rimouski 

Vallevfield           .... 

Loyola 

Nominigue 

St.  Jean 

Totals  for  twenty- 

one  in- 

4235 

2420 

622 

32 

eludes  the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin,  to  which  educa- 
tors, in  certain  countries,  are  coming  back  after 
having  tried  to  abolish  it.  The  study  of  the  dead  lan- 
guages does  not  diminish  the  student's  ardour  for  the 
two  official  languages  of  the  country,  French  and 
English.  Mount  St.  Louis,  directed  by  the  Christian 
Brothers,  has  a  modern  secondary  course  without 
Greek  or  Latin.  They  prepare  young  men  princi- 
pally for  the  polytechnical  schools.  The  classical  col- 
leges affiliated  with  Laval  University  have  the  univer- 
sity course  of  studies  and  examinations.  In  1910  a 
new  school  was  opened  for  the  hautes  etudes  cotmner- 
ciaies,  and  about  twenty-six  pupils  have  followed  the 
courses.  In  1911  the  Legislature  organized  two  tech- 
nical schools:  one  at  Montreal,  the  other  at  Quebec. 

In  190S  the  Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of  Notre 
Dame  opened  a  college  for  young  women.  It  is  affili- 
ated with  Laval  University,  and  embraces  English, 
French,  and  commercial  sections.  The  regular  course, 
leading  to  the  degrees  of  B.  L.,  B.  8.,  B..\.,  includes 
two,  three,  or  four  years'  study  according  to  the  an- 
terior preparation  of  the  student.  About  seventy- 
five  follow  the  regular  course.  A  large  number  at- 
tend the  public  lectures.  The  final  examinations  of 
the  year  are  submitted  to  university  professors.  The 
staff  of  sixteen  religious  is  assisted  by  professors. 

C.  Province  of  Nova  Scotia. — Catholicism  was  in- 
troduced in  the  Province  of  Nova  Scotia  by  the  French 
with  the  first  settlement  of  the  country;  but  the  first 
mention  which  we  have  of  Catholic  school  education 
dates  only  from  thirty  years  later,  when  the  Recollects 
opened  at  Port-Royal  a  seminar\-  for  the  instruct  ion  of 
French  and  Indian  children.  This  Catholic  teaching 
wii.s  evidently  continued,  since  we  find  a  Capuchin 
Father  writing,  in  lfK)2:  "Emmanuel  Le  Borgne,  gov- 
ernor of  Acadia,  has  expelled  fromPort-Royal^Iadame 
fie  Brice  d'Auxerre,  superiore-ss  of  the  School  for  the 
Abenaquis".  About  1680  the  vicar-general,  Petit ,  says 
in  a  letter  to  his  superior,  Mgr  Vallier,  that  he  has 
with  him  a  man  who  teaches  the  boys  of  Port-Royal. 
Mgr  Vallier  himself  first  sends  a  Sister  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  Notre  Dame  to  teach  the  Indian  aod  I  rencb 


girls  of  Port-Royal,  and  a  few  years  after,  in  1686,  he 
sends  for  Geoffroy,  a  Sulpician,  "to  continue  the  in- 
st  ruction  of  yout  h  which  so  far  has  been  so  well  looked 
after".  In  fact  Geoffroy  improved  the  school  teach- 
ing and  supervising.  He  also  laid  the  foundation  for 
the  future  coming  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Cross,  who 
came  in  1701,  after  the  capture  of  Port -Royal  by 
Phipps  and  the  cession  of  Acadia  to  France  in  1697. 
After  the  final  taking  of  Acadia  by  the  English  it  seems 
that  Catholic  schools  were  abolished,  as  we  find  Father 
Burke  wTiting:  "There  is  a  great  desire  to  establish  a 
Catholic  School  [in  Halifax].  The  need  is  pressing. 
We  would  succeed  if  we  could  have  repealed  an  in- 
famous law  forbidding  Catholic  Schools".  Through 
the  zeal  of  the  Catholic  missionaries,  however,  Catho- 
lic education  was  not  altogther  neglected.  In  the 
western  part  of  Nova  Scotia,  for  example,  we  find  a 
French  priest,  the  Abbe  Sigogne,  urging  his  flock  to 
send  their  children  to  school,  organizing  Sunday 
schools;  thanks  to  his  labours  for  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion, there  were  in  1851,  in  the  district  of  Clare  alone, 
17  schools  attended  by  422  pupils. 

In  1864  the  Law  of  Common  Schools  was  passed  in 
the  Provincial  Legislature  of  Nova  Scotia.  Since  then 
there  have  been  very  few  separate  schools  properly  so 
called.  Under  this  law  the  province  is  divided  into 
distiicts  called  schools  sections,  which  are  adminis- 
tered by  a  board  of  three  trustees  elected  by  the  rate- 
payers of  the  section.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  trustees  to 
engage  teachers  and  to  pay  them  out  of  the  funds  de- 
rived partly  from  taxes  directly  imposed  upon  the  in- 
habitants of  the  section  and  partly  from  government 
grants.  According  to  law,  the  teaching  of  the  Cate- 
chism is  prohibited  during  regular  school  hours;  but 
the  trustees  may  instruct  teachers  to  give  lessons  in 
Catholic  doctrine  during  one  half-hour  after  class 
every  day.  Inspectors  are  appointed  by  the  Council 
of  Public  Instruction  to  visit  the  schools  and  report 
upon  t  hem  to  the  superintendent  of  educat  ion.  Some 
of  these  schools  are  under  the  direction  of  religious 
teaching  communities  as  follows:  In  the  Diocese  of 
Halifax  the  Sisters  of  Charity  have  charge  of  nine  such 
schools,  four  in  the  city  of  Halifax  and  five  in  the 
Acadian  parishes  of  Meteghan,  Church  Point,  Eal 
Brook,  and  West  Pubnico,  and  the  English-speaking 
parish  of  Prospect.  In  the  Diocese  of  Antigonish  the 
Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame  conduct 
seven  of  these  schools,  with  37  religious  and  2281  pu- 
pils; the  Sisters  of  Charity,  5  schools;  the  Daughters 
of  Jesus,  2. 

Besides  these  schools  organized  under  the  law,  the 
Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  have  a  convent 
school  at  Halifax  with  48  religious  and  500  pupils;  the 
Sisters  of  Charity,  a  separate  school  at  Amherst  and 
convents  at  Rockingliam,  Meteghan,  and  Church 
Point;  the  Sisters  of  the  Congregation,  at  New  Glas- 
gow and  Pictou;  and  the  Filles  de  Jesus  at  Arichat  and 
Cheticamp.  These  separate  schools  are  supported  by 
the  Catholics  of  their  respective  towns.  There  are 
also  three  Catholic  colleges  for  boys  in  the  Province: 
St.  Francis  Xavier  (English),  at  Antigonish,  with  15 
professors  and  200  pupils;  St.  Anne,  at  Church  Point, 
with  18  professors  and  180  pupils  (P>ench  and  Eng- 
lish), and  St.  Mary,  at  Halifax,  with  7  professors  and 
80  pupils. 

I).  Province  of  New  Brunswick. — As  had  been  the 
ciiKC  in  Nova  Scotia,  the  first  Catholic  schools  in 
New  Brunswick  were  opened  by  Catholic  missiona- 
ries; and  when  the  regrettable  deportation  took  place, 
it  could  be  said  that  a  great  number  of  Aca^lians  wen- 
able  at  least  to  read  their  prayers  and  also  the  exer- 
cises relating  to  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 
One  can  easily  understand  how  these  poor  exiles  re- 
turned to  their  country  and  more  p.irticularly  to 
New  Brunswick.  Their  first  care  was  undoubtedly 
to  assure  their  very  existence,  as  a  great  number  of 
those  who  escaped  deportation  died  of  himger  and 


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SCHOOLS 


cold  in  the  forest  and  on  the  desert  banks  of  the  gulf. 
Next,  they  asked  for  missionaries  and  for  persons 
capable  of  teaching  reading  and  writing  to  their  chil- 
dren. For  lack  of  priests  they  had  to  be  content  on 
Sunday  with  reading  the  prayers  for  Mass,  and  it 
was  imperative  to  teach  their  children  the  truths  of 
religion  as  contained  in  the  short  catechism.  Fifty 
years  and  more  passed  before  it  became  possible  for 
them — ^such  was  their  extreme  poverty,  and  so  pre- 
carious the  conditions  of  their  existence — to  procure 
the  service  of  any  school-teacher.  However,  at  the 
close  of  the  Napoleonic  Wars,  adventurers,  sailors, 
deserters,  or  tourists  came  from  France,  who  knew 
how  to  read  and  write,  and  their  services  were  eagerly 
accepted.  The  old  residents  still  remember  M. 
Grenet,  who  taught  at  Barachois,  M.  Gabriel  Albert, 
who  taught  at  Grande  Digue,  M.  Jean  Lemenager, 
who  taught  at  Memramcook,  M.  Alexandre  Theo- 
dore, who  taught  at  Petit-Codiac  (Ruisseau  du  Renard) 
and  in  neighbouring  parishes. 

Then  came  the  Abbe  Antoine  Gagnon,  parish 
priest  of  Barachois,  of  Grande  Digue,  of  Shediac 
(Gedaique),  etc.,  who  founded  a  college  at  Grande 
Digue.  This  school  remained  open  for  two  years 
(1833  to  1835),  with  three  teachers,  Messrs.  Des 
Varennes,  Braidly,  and  Gosselin.  When  the  lands 
and  properties  of  this  institution  were  afterwards 
sold,  the  proceeds  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  Mgr 
Sweeney,  in  trust  for  the  education  of  young  Acadians, 
in  the  event  of  another  college  being  built  in  the  dio- 
cese for  any  other  similar  purpose.  During  the  first 
years  that  followed  the  return  of  the  Acadians,  after 
their  dispersion,  teachers  boarded  with  the  scholars' 
parents  in  turn,  and  received  from  $3  to  $5  per 
scholar,  which  means  that  only  the  prosperous  cen- 
tres could  procure  their  services.  In  those  days  the 
Acadians  received  from  the  British  Protestant  au- 
thorities the  fulness  of  their  political  and  civil  rights 
without  molestation  or  annoyance  in  things  religious 
or  relating  to  the  French  language.  The  thinly 
populated  country  did  not  as  yet  complain  of  the 
burden  of  its  school  laws. 

The  first  act  to  be  found  in  the  Statutes  of  New 
Brunswick  concerning  education  is  dated  1805  and 
relates  to  the  founding  of  a  public  grammar  school  for 
the  City  of  Saint  John.  It  is  therein  enacted  that 
the  rector  of  Trinity  Church  shall  be  one  of  the  direc- 
tors of  this  school,  and  at  the  same  time  president  of 
the  Board  of  Administration.  A  somewhat  paltry 
grant  was  awarded  to  this  establishment.  In  the 
same  manner,  other  grammar  schools  were  authorized 
for  different  localities  in  New  Brunswick.  The  first 
law  establishing  public  parish  schools  dates  from 
1833.  These  schools  are  placed  under  the  control 
of  three  school  trustees  for  each  parish.  These 
trustees  possess  great  executive  authority.  They 
subdivide  the  parishes  into  school  districts,  engage  and 
dismiss  teachers,  and  give  them  such  certificates  as 
entitle  them  to  their  grants  from  the  Government, 
the  maximum  of  which  is  $160  for  each  parish.  The 
justices  of  the  peace  are  entrusted  with  the  duty  of 
making  school  reports  to  the  Government.  No  cer- 
tificate of  competence  was  exacted  beyond  the  appro- 
bation of  the  parochial  syndics,  and  no  examination 
as  to  aptitude  was  held.  It  was  not  until  many  years 
afterwards  (towards  1853)  that  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, with  its  hierarchy  and  inspectors,  was  definitely 
organized.  These  latter,  until  the  events  of  1871, 
always  showed  kindness  and  liberality  towards 
Cathohc  teaching  and  the  French  tongue.  The 
Catholic  teachers  received  from  the  board  their 
grant,  as  did  also  the  Protestant  teachers,  French  and 
English  alike.  In  1871  a  law  was  passed  by  the 
Provincial  Legislature  establishing  "Neutral  Schools", 
in  which  the  French  language  was  ignored;  but  it  was 
taught  in  the  French  schools  and  was  afterwards 
recognized  officially.     The  French  and  the  English 


Catholics  protested  energetically  against  this  unjust 
measure.  Petitions  were  signed  and  sent  to  Ottawa 
requesting  the  repeal  of  this  law,  which  was  injuri- 
ous to  the  Catholics  who  constituted  one-third  of 
the  population  of  the  Province.  Some  turbulent  and 
stormy  years  passed  over;  certain  defenders  of  the 
minority  were  imprisoned,  and  finally  a  modus  vi- 
veruli  was  adopted  to  the  effect  that  the  school  re- 
main neutral  from  9  a.  m.  till  3.30  p.  m.  The  books 
shall  be  approved  by  the  Government.  The  use  of 
the  French  language  was  recognized,  and  a  set  of 
books  was  chosen  to  that  end. 

After  the  regular  school  hours  the  Catechism  was 
perrnitted  to  be  taught.  Nowadays  all  the  schools 
of  New  Brunswick  are  under  the  control  of  the  law, 
even  those  exclusively  attended  by  Catholic  children. 
The  number  of  Catholic  children  frequenting  the 
schools  is  about  23,000;  the  teachers,  male  and  female, 
number  about  600.  About  eighteen  convents  under 
the  direction  of  various  religious  congregations  are 
scattered  through  the  principal  centres  of  the  province. 
There  are  three  colleges:  one  at  Chatham  (English) 
founded  in  1910,  directed  by  the  Basilian  Fathers, 
and  containing  90  pupils ;  one  at  Caraquet,  French  and 
English,  founded  in  1899  by  the  Eudist  Fathers,  and 
containing  150  pupils;  one  at  Memramcook  (I'Uni- 
versite  du  College  Saint-Joseph),  French  and  Eng- 
lish, founded  in  1864,  directed  by  the  Fathers  of  the 
Holy  Cross,  and  containing  250  pupils.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  convents  these  institutions  are 
not  under  state  control. 

E.  Prince  Edward  Island. — The  system  of  public 
schools  in  this  province  is  not  denominational.  There 
are  therefore  no  primary  Catholic  schools,  except 
seven  convents  under  the  direction  of  the  Sisters  of 
the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame.  All  the  schools 
have  been  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  State 
since  1877  and  are  strictly  neutral,  or  non-sectarian. 
Besides  the  convents,  which  teach  about  one  thousand 
girls,  there  is  a  Catholic  college  for  boys,  which  ac- 
commodates about  one  hundred  and  fifty.  Nearly 
all  the  pupils  of  this  college  are  boarders,  and  their 
education  costs  them  about  .$150  each,  while,  of  the 
thousand  girls  in  the  convents,  there  are  barely  one 
hundred  boarders,  whose  education  costs  each  about 
$60.  The  Government  pays  $720  to  the  Sisters  who 
teach  the  provincial  normal  school  conformably  to 
the  programme  of  studies  prescribed  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education.  The  other  900  girls  who  attend 
the  convent  schools  receive  their  education  for  a 
nominal  payment.  The  majority  pay  nothing.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  expense  of  heating  the  schools 
is  borne  by  the  respective  parishes  in  which  the  con- 
vents are  situated,  and,  in  return  the  day-scholars 
living  in  the  vicinity  of  the  convent  are  educated 
gratuitously.  Until  1850  there  were  very  few  schools 
among  the  Acadians.  In  each  parish  there  were  two 
men  who  taught  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic. 

F.  Manitoba. — The  first  French  schools  in  this 
province  were  established  in  1818  on  the  arrival  of 
the  Rev.  Norbert  Provencher,  afterwards  Bishop  Pro- 
vencher,  and  the  Rev.  Nicholas  Dumoulin.  Bishop 
Provencher  opened  his  first  school  at  St.  Boniface, 
and  Father  Dumoulin  opened  his  at  Pembina.  As 
the  population  increased,  the  schools  multiplied. 
In  1835,  notwithstanding  that  the  population  was 
very  limited,  there  were  already  five  schools.  After 
many  efforts  Bishop  Provencher  succeeded  in  found- 
ing a  school  at  Red  River  for  young  girls,  and  the 
first  teacher  was  Angelique  Nolin  (Metis).  In  1844 
the  Gray  Nuns  of  Montreal,  at  the  earnest  request 
of  Bishop  Provencher,  came  to  the  West.  Those  who 
arrived  first  were  Sisters  Lagrave,  Lafrance,  Valade, 
Coutlee.  The  first  convent  founded  by  them  was 
at  St.  Boniface,  and  the  second  at  St.  Fran^ois- 
Xavier.  In  1835  Bishop  Provencher  got  an  English 
teacher  for  his  boys'  school.     This  school  in  time  be- 


SCHOOLS 


570 


SCHOOLS 


came  St.  Boniface's  College.  At  Pembina  Father 
Dumoulin  was  occupied  in  preparing  young  men  for 
the  priesthood,  and  in  1821  he  had  six  students 
in  Latin.  The  primary  schools  increased  rapidly. 
Even.'  place  where  a  spire  indicated  a  house  of  wor- 
ship a  school  sprang  up.  Soon,  unfortunately,  a  crisis 
came,  and  the  Catholics  were  severely  tried. 

At  the  present  time  (1912),  in  virtue  of  the  British 
North  American  Act,  each  province  has  the  right  to 
adopt  the  system  of  education  that  best  suits  its 
particular  needs.  It  must,  however,  respect  the 
privileges  or  rights  ah-eady  guaranteed  to  the  divers 
groups  or  sections  having  separate  schools.  Ac- 
cordingly, when  Manitoba  asked,  in  1870,  to  become 
a  unit  of  the  confederation,  the  Catholic  deputies, 
under  the  clear-sighted  direction  of  Bishop  Tache, 
demanded  a  formal  law  covering  the  rights  already 
acquired.  In  1890,  the  Cathohcs  were,  unfor- 
tunately, the  victims  of  a  legal  persecution  which 
embittered  the  last  years  of  Bishop  Tache.  The 
Protestant  majority  of  that  province  should  have 
treated  the  CathoUc  minority  with  as  much  generosity 
as  the  Catholic  majority,  in  the  Province  of  Que- 
bec, treated  the  Protestant  minority.  Such,  however, 
was  not  the  case.  The  schools  were  secularized,  and 
the  teaching  of  French  was  discontinued.  Protesta- 
tions were  made,  and  the  grievances  were  laid  before 
the  British  Throne,  which  recognized  the  rights  of 
the  Catholics.  Archbishop  Langevin,  of  St.  Boniface, 
vigorously  defended  the  rights  of  the  Cathohcs,  but 
no  justice  was  done  him.  The  compromise  of  1896 
was  voted:  this  pact  embodied  the  principle  of  the 
"neutral  schools"  system,  and,  although  diminish- 
ing the  bad  effects  of  the  law,  it  deserved  to  be 
styled,  by  Leo  XIII,  a  law  "defective,  imperfect,  in- 
sufficient" (manca  est,  non  idonea,  non  apta).  It 
is  thus  that  the  Catholics  of  Winnipeg  and  of  Brandon 
are  obUged  to  pay  double  school  tax.  The  pubhc 
school  is  a  school  to  which  Cathohc  parents  cannot 
send  their  children.  They  are  obliged  to  open  Catho- 
lic schools  at  their  own  expense,  while  paying  their 
share  of  taxes  to  the  Protestant  schools.  Neverthe- 
less, in  those  places  where  Cathohcs  are  grouped  in 
parishes,  in  the  country  or  at  St.  Boniface,  in  the 
municipaUties  having  a  CathoUc  majority,  they  can 
elect  Catholic  trustees  who  protect  their  co-religion- 
ists. In  this  way  they  can  secure  the  government 
grant  for  the  schools  attended  by  Catholic  children. 
Thanks  to  the  vigilance  of  the  valiant  Archbishop 
Langevin  of  St.  Boniface,  two  Catholic  inspectors 
have  been  appointed  for  the  Cathohc  schools. 
These  .schofAs  are  190  in  number,  with  an  attendance 
of  over  7000  pupils.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  however, 
that  it  is  with  much  difficulty  that  rehgious  teaching 
is  tolerated  during  cla.ss  hours.  Besides,  the  school- 
books  are  not  CathoUc,  and  CathoUc  interests  are 
not  sufficiently  safeguarded.  There  is  one  CathoUc 
normal  (French  and  EngU.sh)  school  at  St.  Boniface, 
and  another  (English  and  PoU.sh)  at  Winnipeg. 

The  teaching  congregations  are  numerous.  The 
Institute  of  Mary,  from  Paris,  has  schools  at  Winni- 
pg  and  St.  Boniface.  The  Clerics  of  St.  Viateur 
have  an  orphanage  for  boys  at  Makinac.  The 
Brothers  of  tne  Cross  of  Jesus,  from  France,  have  two 
schools  in  the  French  parishes  at  St.  John  Baptist  and 
at  St.  Pierre  Jolys.  The  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names  of 
Jesus  and  Mary,  of  Montreal,  have  six  convents  or 
schools  in  the  French  parishes,  St.  John  Baptist,  St. 
Agathe,  St.  Pierre,  St.  Boniface.  St.  Mary's  Acad- 
emy, Winnipeg,  is  for  English-speaking  girls.  The 
Sisters  of  the  Five  Wounds  have  four  convents  in  the 
French  parishes  of  Notre  Dame  de  I^)urde8,  St. 
Claude,  St.  Leo,  and  St.  Alphonse.  The  Benedictine 
Sisters,  from  Duluth,  Minnesota,  have  two  schools 
at  Winnipeg,  one  EngUsh  and  German,  the  other 
EngUsh  and  PoUsh.  The  Franciscan  Missionary  Sis- 
ters of  Mary  from  Rome  have  two  schools  among 


French  and  EngUsh-speaking  whites  at  St.  Lawrence 
and  a  school  for  the  Indians  at  Pine  Creek.  We 
must  not  forget  to  mention  the  Little  Servants  of 
Mary  Immaculate  of  the  Ruthenian  Rite,  the  Daugh- 
ters of  the  Cross,  and  the  Oblate  Missionaries  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Mary  Immaculate  who  are  entirely 
consecrated  to  the  education  of  youth.  The  Cla.ssical 
College  of  St.  Boniface,  founded  b}'  Bishop  Provencher, 
was  at  first  directed  by  secular  priests,  then  by  the 
Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  afterwards  by  the 
Oblate  Fathers.  In  1885  it  was  confided  to  the  Jes- 
uit Fathers,  who  have  organized  a  course  of  studies 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  two  principal  nationalities 
whose  children,  to  the  number  of  300,  attend  the  col- 
lege. There  are  a  French  section  and  an  English  section, 
with  a  regular  Cla.ssical  course  having  Latin  and  Greek 
for  its  basis.  Each  j'ear  its  students  succeed  admir- 
ably in  competition  with  those  of  other  colleges  in  the 
university  examinations.  The  non-Catholic  colleges 
are  St.  John's  (AngUcan),  Manitoba  College  (Presby- 
terian), and  the  Wesley  College  (Methodist).  There 
are  300  pupils  attending  St.  Boniface  College. 

In  1909  Archbishop  Langevin  founded  a  -petit  se- 
minaire  which  he  confided  to  secular  priests.  The 
Rev.  Father  Joubert  was  the  first  director.  There 
are  at  present  54  candidates  preparing  for  the  priest- 
hood. A  glance  at  the  numerous  nationaUties  rep- 
resented at  the  preparatory  seminary  suggests  some 
idea  of  the  cosmopolitan  character  of  the  vast  regions 
of  the  great  West.  At  the  same  time  it  gives  a  faint 
idea  of  the  episcopal  solicitude  in  providing  for  each 
nationaUty  missionaries  of  their  own  blood  and  lan- 
guage. In  this  seminary  there  are  30  French-speak- 
ing, 10  Ruthenians,  6  Irish,  and  8  Germans.  In  1905 
the  Holy  Family  Juniorate  was  founded  by  the  Oblate 
Fathers  at  St.  Boniface. 

G.  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta. — The  work  begun  by 
Bishop  Provencher  has  kept  pace  with  the  increase  of 
the  population.  The  Gray  Nuns  became  missiona- 
ries among  the  Indians.  They  founded  a  convent  at 
Alberta  and  a  school  at  Cro.sse  Island.  Their  first 
attempt  in  establishing  a  school  was  at  St.  Ann,  but 
in  this  they  were  unsuccessful. 

In  1870  the  Federal  Parliament  voted  a  law  of 
administration  for  the  Territories.  However,  it  was 
only  in  1875  that  they  received  a  rudimentary  form 
of  government  under  the  North-west  Territories  Act. 
According  to  that  Act  the  people  could  establish 
"such  schools  as  they  think  fit".  The  principle  of 
separate  schools  was  therein  recognized.  It  would  be 
too  long  to  give  the  history  of  the  school  legislation 
of  these  territories  up  to  the  constitution  of  the  two 
new  provinces  of  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta  in  1905. 
At  all  events  the  new  constitution  should  have  safe- 
guarded one  essential,  giving  to  Catholics  the  right 
to  organize  everywhere  .separate  schools  truly  Catho- 
lic and  the  right  to  their  share  of  the  government 
grant.  Unfortunately  such  was  not  the  case.  Not- 
withstanding the  agreement  of  1870,  and  not- 
withstanding even  the  British  North  America  Act, 
which  the  Parliament  of  Canada  cannot  modify,  the 
system  of  neutral  schools  was  imposed  on  the  Catho- 
lics. It  is  not  the  half-hour  of  religious  teaching 
that  makes  a  school  really  CathoUc:  it  is  essential 
that  there  should  be  Catholic  books,  explained  by 
Catholic  teachers,  in  a  Catholic  atmosphere.  But 
nothing  of  all  this  was  granted.  However,  the  govern- 
ment is  equitably  administered  in  those  districts 
where  the  Catholics  are  in  a  majority.  Thirty-one 
such  districts  aj)i)car  in  the  la.st  Report  of  the  Minis- 
ter of  Education  for  the  Province  of  Sa.skatcliewan 
(page  14).  These  schools  are  public  scliools  in  which 
religion  may  be  t.aught  at  .stated  hours.  The  right, 
therefore,  to  organize  sei)arate  schools  for  Catholics 
is  limited  to  the  districts  where  they  are  in  the  minor- 
ity (there  are  twelve  CathoUc  separate-school  dis- 
tricts in  the  same  Province  of  Saskatchewan). 


SCHOOLS 


571 


SCHOOLS 


It  would  be  somewhat  difficult  to  determine  the 
number  of  pupils  attending  the  schools  in  the  Catholic 
pubUc-school  districts  or  in  the  Catholic  separate- 
school  districts.  The  Diocese  of  Prince  Albert, 
which  comprises  all  that  part  of  the  Province  of 
Saskatchewan,  has  54  academies  and  schools  attended 
by  Catholic  children.  (These  schools  are  not  really 
Catholic.  They  are  neutral  schools  attended  by 
Catholic  children  and  endowed  with  a  government 
grant.)  These  children  number  in  all  about  3000. 
The  southern  part  of  the  province  is  in  the  new  Dio- 
cese of  Regina.  The  first  Bishop  of  Regina  was  con- 
secrated on  5  November,  1911.  There  are  a  great  num- 
ber of  Catholic  schools  in  that  flourishing  part  which 
is  found  in  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Boniface.  The 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  of  the  Cross  of  Maurianais, 
France,  have  here  two  schools,  one  at  Forget,  and  the 
other  at  St.  Hubert.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of 
St.  Hyacinthe  have  a  school  for  Indians  at  Lake 
Croche.  The  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  of  the  Missions, 
from  Lyons,  direct  three  convents:  a  boarding-school 
for  English-speaking  girls,  at  Regina,  and  two  others 
in  the  French-speaking  centres  at  Lebret  and  at 
Wolseley.  The  Oblate  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  and  of  Mary  Immaculate  direct  a  school  for 
Indians  at  Fort  Pelley.  The  industrial  school  at  Qu' 
Appelle  has  242  Indians,  under  the  Sisters  of  Charity. 

The  Diocese  of  St.  Albert  comprises  all  the  southern 
part  of  the  Province  of  Alberta  and  a  part  of  the 
Province  of  Saskatchewan.  It  has  an  industrial 
school,  14  convents,  8  boarding-schools  for  Indians. 
The  pupils  in  the  schools  of  the  Catholic  school 
districts  number  about  3700.  ^\e  find  here  again 
the  Sisters  whose  mother-house  is  in  Quebec:  Sis- 
ters of  the  Assumption,  Gray  Nuns  of  Montreal, 
Sisters  of  Nicolet,  Gray  Sisters  of  Nicolet,  etc.  There 
are  also  the  Polish  Sisters  of  the  Ruthenian  Rite. 
The  petit  seminaire  of  St.  Albert  was  founded  by 
Bishop  Grandin  in  1900.  Father  Cullerier  O.M.I., 
was  its  first  director,  but  the  Oblate  Fathers  have  now 
given  up  the  institution  and  the  Missionaries  of 
Chavagnes,  or  Sons  of  Mary  Immaculate,  direct  it  at 
present  (1911).  There  are  33  pupils  in  attendance. 
The  Oblate  Fathers  have  opened  a  juniorate  at 
Strathcona,  where  they  have  14  pupils. 

H.  British  Columbia. — This  province  entered  the 
Confederation  in  1871.  In  it  there  is  not  one  Catholic 
school  in  receipt  of  a  government  grant.  The  dif- 
ferent dioceses  bear  the  expense  of  Catholic  education. 
The  Archdiocese  of  Vancouver  has  eight  industrial 
schools  for  Indians,  with  an  attendance  of  513  pupils; 
four  academies  for  young  girls;  seven  parochial 
schools,  with  a  total  attendance  of  729  girls.  New 
Westminster  possesses  an  excellent  institution  of 
learning.  Saint  Louis  College,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Oblate  Fathers.  In  the  Diocese  of  Victoria, 
which  comprises  Vancouver  and  the  adjacent  island, 
there  are  two  academies  for  young  girls,  with  an  at- 
tendance of  342;  nine  parochial  schools,  with  450 
pupils;  two  industrial  schools,  110  pupils  (boarders). 
The  secular  priests  direct  a  college  of  50  pupils. 
Among  the  Catholic  educational  institutions  there 
are  nine  directed  by  the  Si.sters  of  St.  Anne,  whose 
mother-house  is  at  Lachine,  near  Montreal,  viz.: 

1.  New  Westminster 6  religious,  162  pupila 

2.  Ste-Marie  Matsqui 7  "  76  " 

3.  Kamloops 4  "  85  " 

4.  Industrial  School 3  "  63  " 

5.  Victoria 27  "  323  " 

6.  Cowichan 5  "  43  " 

7.  Vancouver  City 14  "  390  " 

8.  Kuper  Island  (                              7  "  inn  " 

9.  Lady  Smith     S 

I.  Territories. — In  the  vast  regions  of  the  West 
outside  of  the  provinces  regularly  constituted,  there 
are  large  territories  where  missionaries  are  engaged  in 
God's  work,  under  the  guidance  of  vicars-Apostolic; 
and  wherever  a  church  is  built,  a  school  adjoins  it. 
There  are  six  convents  in  the  Vicariate  of  Athabaska. 


The  Gray  Nuns  have  a  boarding-school  for  Indians 
at  Lake  Laplonge  in  the  Vicariate  of  Keewatin.  At 
Cross  Lake,  4  Oblate  Sisters  of  Mary  Immaculate 
carry  on  a  boarding-school  for  Indians,  in  which  there 
are  20  pupils.  In  the  Vicariate  of  Mackenzie  there 
are,  at  Great  Slave  Lake,  7  Gray  Nuns  at  the  head  of  a 
school  of  45  pupils.  At  Providence  13  sisters  give 
instruction  to  75  pupils.  At  Yukon  there  are  9 
schools,  and  at  Dawson  3  Sisters  of  St.  Anne  from 
Lachine,  near  Montreal,  teaching  65  pupils. 

J.  Newfoundland. — Although  the  Province  of  New- 
foundland does  not  form  a  part  of  the  Canadian  Con- 
federation, it  should  be  mentioned  here.  In  each 
parish  there  is  a  school  under  the  care  of  the  parochial 
clergy  and  supported  by  a  government  grant.  The 
principal  teaching  congregations  are  Irish  Christian 
Brothers,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  and  Presentation  Nuns. 

Meilledr,  Memorial  de  I'Education  au  Bas-Canada  (Quebec, 
1876) ;  Chauveau,  Instruction  publique  au  Canada  (Quebec, 
1876) ;  Desrosiers,  Ecoles  Normales  primaires  de  la  Province 
de  Quebec  et  leurs  aeuvres  compUmentaires  (Montreal,  1909); 
GossELiN,  L' Instruction  au  Canada  sous  le  Regime  Frangais 
(Quebec,  1911);  de  Cazes,  Instruction  Publique  dans  la  Province 
de  Quebec  (Quebec,  1905) ;  Boucher  de  la  BruIire,  Education  et 
Constitution  (Montreal,  1904);  Paquet,  L'Eglise  et  I'Education 
au  Canada  (Quebec,  1909) ;  Desrosiers  and  Fournet,  La  race 
franfnise  en  Amerique  (Montreal,  1911);  Bourassa,  Les  Ecoles 
du  Nord-Ouest  (Montreal,  1905);  Derome,  Le  Canada  Eccles- 
iastique  (1911);  Chapais,  Congregations  enseignantes  el  Brevet 
de  Capacity  (Quebec,  1893) ;  Congris  d'Education  des  Canadiens- 
Franfais  (Ottawa,  1910);  Pierlot,  Legislation  scolaire  de  la 
Province  de  Quibec  (Brussels,  1911);  Rapports  annuels  des 
Surintendants  ou  des  Ministres  de  I'Education  (1909-10) ;  Dionne, 
Vie  de  C.  F.  Painchaud,  fondateur  du  College  de  Sainte-Anne  de  la 
Pocatiire  (Quebec,  1894);  Choquette,  Histoire  du  Siminaire 
de  Saint-Hyacinthe  (1911);  Douville,  Histoire  du  Seminaire  de 
Nicolet  (1903);  Richard,  Histoire  du  Siminaire  des  Trois- 
Riviires  (Three  Rivers,  1885);  Dugas,  Noces  de  diamant  du 
Seminaire  de  Joliette  (1911);  Souvenir  des  fUes  jubilaires  du 
College  Sainte-Marie  (Montreal,  1898);  Roy,  L'Universite  Laval 
et  les  files  du  Cinquantenaire  (Quebec,  1903) ;  Les  Ursulines  des 
Trois-Riviires  (Three  Rivers,  1888);  Les  Ursulines  de  Quibec 
(Quebec,  1863) ;  Faillon,  Vie  de  la  Mire  Bourgeois  (Paris,  1853) ; 
Alexis,  La  ProtJUice  ecclesiastique  d'Oltawa  (1897);  Sisters ofthb 
Congregation  op  Notre  Dame,  Histoire  de  I'Eglise  du  Canada 
(1908);  Documentary  History  of  Education  in  Upper  Canada 
(Toronto);  Schools  and  Colleges  of  Ontario  {1792-1910)  (Toronto, 
1910);  HoDOiNS,  The  Legislation  and  History  of  Separate  Schools 
in  Upper  Canada  (Toronto,  1897) ;  Idem,  Historical  Educational 
Papers  and  Documents  of  Ontario  (1793-1S.53)  (Toronto,  1911); 
BuRWASH,  Egerton  Ryerson  (Toronto,  1906) ;  Lex  in  La  Nouvelle- 
France,  (Quebec,  Jan.,  March,  April,  1910) ;  Lindsay,  La  Nouvelle- 
France  (1903);  L'Enseignement  Primaire  (Quebec);  Le  Collegien 
de  Saint-Hyacinthe.  PHILIPPE   PeRRIER. 

In  England. — It  was  the  common  belief  until  quite 
recently  that  the  grammar  schools  of  Imiij;1;uii1,  that  is 
the  main  part  of  the  machinery  of  Englisli  middle-class 
education,  were  the  offspring  of  the  Reformation,  and 
owed  tlieir  origin  to  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  This 
legend  is  now  exploded.  A.  F.  Leach  begins  his  mas- 
terly work,  "English  Schools  at  the  Reformation" 
(London,  1896),  with  the  sentence:  "  Never  was  a  great 
reputation  more  easily  gained  and  less  deserved  than 
that  of  King  Edward  VI  as  a  Founder  of  Schools". 
The  truth  is  that  the  few  educational  foundations  made 
by  the  Government  either  of  Henry  VIII  or  Edward 
VI  were  but  re-foundations  forming  a  small  salvage 
from  the  wreck  of  educational  endowments  confiscated 
with  the  monasteries  and  chantries.  In  fact  England 
was  singularly  well  provided  with  schools  previous 
to  Henry  VIII.  Among  them  were  the  cathedral 
schools,  collegiate  grammar  schools,  monastery  schools, 
guild  schools,  and  perhaps  most  numerous  of  all, 
chantry  schools.  For  the  duty  of  teaching  a  school 
was  frequently  combined  with  the  obligation  of 
singing  Mass  for  the  soul  of  the  pious  founder.  The 
great  majority  of  these  were  termed  "grammar 
schools".  They  usually  taught  reading,  writing,  and 
Latin.  Many  reached  a  good  standard  and  included 
rhetoric  and  dialectic  in  their  curriculum.  There 
were  also  song  schools  of  more  elementary  character. 
As  most  of  the  grammar  schools  taught  gratuitously, 
a  very  liberal  provision  of  education  was  open  even  to 
the  poorer  classes.  Indeed  education  as  a  whole  was 
on  a  more  democratic  basis,  and  good  secondary  in- 


SCHOOLS 


572 


SCHOOLS 


struction  more  widely  diffused  in  England  in  Catholic 
times  than  in  the  first  haK  the  nineteenth  centurj'. 
"The  proportion  of  the  population  which  had  access 
to  Grammar  Schools,  and  used  them  was  much  larger 
than  now"  (Leach,  p.  97).  Rashdall  similarlj^  con- 
cludes that  "at  least  in  the  later  Middle  Age  the 
smallest  towns  and  even  the  larger  villages  possessed 
Schools  where  a  boy  might  learn  to  read  and  acquire 
the  first  rudiments  of  ecclesiastical  Latin:  while,  ex- 
cept in  very  remote  and  thinh'  populated  regions,  he 
would  never  have  had  to  go  very  far  from  home  to  find 
a  regular  Grammar  School  ("The  Universities  of 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages",  II,  602).  The  Refor- 
mation, with  the  confiscation  and  plunder  of  the 
monasteries  and  chantries,  involved  the  destruction 
of  much  of  the  educational  machinery  of  the  nation. 
The  evil  consequences  are  testified  by  Ascham,  Lati- 
mer, Cranmer,  and  Harrison  Watson. 

However,  the  old  appreciation  of  the  value  of  educa- 
tion in  a  short  time  reasserted  itself.  The  ecclesi- 
astical control  of  all  schools,  now  in  the  hands  of 
the  Reformers,  was  strengthened  by  new  legislation. 
The  religious  instruction  given  in  the  schools  was  that 
of  the  Established  Church,  and  the  scholars  were  re- 
quired to  participate  in  the  prayers  and  church  ser- 
vices. The  steady  pressure  of  this  machinery  on  the 
minds  of  the  young  was  bound  to  be  fatal  to  the  old 
religion.  During  EUzabeth's  long  reign  the  great 
majority  of  Catholics  were  practically  compelled  to 
send  their  children  to  the  nearest  grammar  school,  if 
the  children  were  to  receive  any  education  at  all.  For 
the  better-off  families  the  chaplain  or  priest  main- 
tained in  hiding  commonly  also  acted  as  tutor.  But 
as  time  went  on  the  situation  grew  worse.  Then,  in 
order  in  some  degree  to  provide  priests  and  also  to  fur- 
nish some  means  of  Catholic  education  for  at  least  the 
children  of  the  nobihty  and  gentry  who  clung  to  the 
old  Faith,  there  were  founded  the  English  seminaries 
and  colleges  on  the  Continent.  First  among  these  was 
the  English  College  at  Douai,  started  in  1568  by  Al- 
len, afterwards  cardinal.  Its  primary  object  was  the 
training  of  priests  for  the  English  mission,  but  it  also 
accepted  lay  students.  Within  a  few  years  it  con- 
tained over  150  pupils.  Before  the  year  1700  it  had 
sent  back  to  England  over  300  priests,  more  than  a 
third  of  whom  suffered  death  for  the  Catholic  Faith 
(see  Douai).  It  endured  till  the  French  Revolution, 
when,  as  we  shall  see,  it  gave  birth  to  the  two  Colleges 
of  Ushaw  and  Old  Hall.  Irish  and  Scotch  colleges 
were  also  established  at  Douai  for  a  similar  purjrose. 
In  1578  was  founded  the  English  College  at  Rome.  It 
was  designed  to  provide  places  for  sixty  ecclesiastical 
st  udents.  After  a  very  short  time  it  wiis  entrusted  to 
the  Jesuits,  who  managed  it  till  the  suppression  of  the 
Society  in  1773.  There  were  also  founded  English 
colleges  at  Valladolid  in  1589,  and  at  Seville  in  1592, 
by  Father  Parsons,  and  at  Madrid  in  1612  by  FathcT 
Creswcll.  The  English  College  at  Lisbon  was  started 
in  1622  by  William  Newman,  a  secular  priest.  All 
these  latter  colleges  sent  many  priests  to  England 
especially  during  their  first  decades,  but  as  time  went 
on,  perhaps  through  their  remoteness  and  the  Anglo- 
Spanish  Wars,  they  failed  to  keep  up  the  intimate  con- 
nexion with  P^ngland  which  was  always  retained  be- 
tween the  rnother-roimtr>'  and  Douai  and  St.  Orner. 
The  three  Spanish  colleges  were  merged  into  the  sin- 
gle foundation  at  Valladolid  in  1767. 

The  most  important  college  founded  b(!yond  the  sea 
of  which  the  primary  object  was  the  education  of  lay 
students,  was  the  Jesuit  school  begun  at  St.  Omer  by 
Father  Parsons  in  1592.  It  had  an  eventful  career  of 
200  years  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  then  coming 
back  to  England  settled  at  Stonyhurst,  whence  it  be- 
came the  progenitor  of  the  great  majority  of  the  Jesuit 
schools  scattered  throughout  the  British  Empire  to- 
day. Starting  with  twenty-three  boys,  it  h:ul  hy 
1603,  according  to  the  spies  of  the  English  Govern- 


ment, "a  hundred  and  forty  gentlemen's  sons  of  great 
worship".  In  1632  there  were  over  200  pupils,  the 
sons  of  the  chief  noblemen  and  gentry  who  remained 
loyal  to  the  old  Faith.  Boys  going  to  and  returning 
from  the  college  were  more  than  once  captured  and 
imprisoned,  and  bills  of  high  treason  were  returned 
against  the  parents  of  pupils  there.  It  turned  out 
many  martyrs  and  confessors  of  the  Faith,  and  indeed, 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  past  St.  Omer's  boys  scattered  up  and  down 
the  countrj'^  formed  the  main  part  of  the  "old  guard" 
of  the  dwindling  body  of  the  lay  Catholics  in  England. 

Meantime  the  cruellest  part  of  the  penal  code 
was  the  statutes  directed  against  Catholic  education. 
Thus  in  the  twenty-third  year  of  Elizabeth's  reign  an 
Act  was  passed  forbidding  the  keeping  or  maintaining 
of  any  schoolmaster  who  had  not  a  licence  from  the 
Protestant  bishop.  The  penalty  was  £10  per  month, 
with  a  year's  imprisonment  for  the  schoolmaster. 
This  statute  was  strengthened  by  another  in  the  first 
year  of  James  I,  imposing  a  fine  of  forty  shillings  a 
day.  Later  this  was  made  even  more  stringent  by  the 
Act  of  Uniformity  in  13  Charles  II,  requiring  all  tutors 
and  schoolmasters,  besides  obtaining  the  bishop's  li- 
cence, to  conform  to  the  Established  Church,  under 
penalty  of  three  months'  imprisonment  for  each 
offence.  Concomitantly  it  was  forbidden  to  educate 
Catholic  children  abroad.  Thus  in  27  Elizabeth  it 
was  made  punishable  as  a  praemunire  to  send  aid  to 
any  foreign  seminar^'  or  Jesuit  college,  or  to  any  person 
in  the  same.  Further  in  1  James  I  it  was  enacted 
that  the  sending  of  a  child  or  other  person  to  a  foreign 
college  should  entail  a  fine  of  £100  and  render  the 
child  incapable  of  inheriting  real  or  personal  property. 
The  severity  of  this  law  was  again  increased  in  3 
Charles  I.  Finally,  in  1699  a  clause  of  a  cruel  Act 
under  William  and  Marj^  offered  £100  reward  to  every 
informer  who  would  effect  the  conviction  of  any  Pop- 
ish priest  for  keeping  a  school  or  educating  or  boarding 
a  Catholic  youth  for  that  purpose,  the  penalty  being 
made  imprisonment  for  life.  Relentless  persecution 
of  this  kind,  carried  out  with  such  rigour  that  the  col- 
leges of  Douai,  St.  Omer,  sCnd  Valladolid,  between 
them,  within  a  century  and  a  half  had  mustered  a 
grand  roll  of  250  martyrs,  besides  numberless  con- 
fessors, triumphed;  and  by  1770  the  Catholic  Church 
in  England  w;is  reduced  to  a  scattered  remnant  of 
some  6(),00()  souls  (Amherst). 

Occasionally,  during  these  dark  days,  in  lulls  of  the 
storm,  or  in  quiet  places,  a  small  Catholic  school  wiis 
started  and  struggled  on  with  varying  fortunes  for  a 
shorter  or  longer  time.  Thus,  vmder  James  II  (1685- 
8)  two  schools  were  started  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
I^ndon,  but  perished  soon  afterwards.  Another,  be- 
gun at  Twyford,  near  Winchester,  about  the  same 
time,  had  a  somewhat  better  fate  and  survived  till  the 
Stuart  rising  in  1745.  The  poet,  Alexander  Pope,  wjus 
a  pupil  at  this  school,  and  the  distinguished  biologist, 
Father  Turberville  Needham,  was  an  assistant  master 
here.  It  had  less  than  thirty  pupils  when  Bishop 
Challoner  visited  it  in  1741.  There  was  also  for  a  time 
about  this  period  a  small  school  managed  by  the 
Franciscan  Fathers  at  Edgbaston,  near  Birmingham. 
Another,  known  iis  Dame  Alice  School,  existed  for  a 
number  of  years  in  Lanciushire.  But  the  history  of 
each  was  usually  much  the  same— a  short,  timid,  and 
precarious  life,  some  untoward  accident,  and  the  feeble 
institution  came  to  an  untimely  end. 

Just,  however,  when  the  complete  extinction  of 
Catholicism  seemed  at  hand,  t,he  revival  began.  By 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  persecution 
commenced  to  abate.  The  old  fear  of  the  Church  had 
waned.  Toleration  for  other  forms  of  dissent  had 
been  growing.  About  1750  CathoIi(;s  began  to  breat  li<; 
a  little  more  freely.  One  evidence  of  this  was  the 
stiirting  of  a  school  at  Sedgley  Park,  near  Wolver- 
hampton, by  Bishop  Challoner  in  1762.     Yet  so  great 


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573 


SCHOOLS 


was  the  timidity  of  the  CathoHc  gentry  at  the  time 
that  a  deputation  of  them  waited  on  the  bishop  to  dis- 
suade him  from  so  daring  a  measure — fortunately  in 
vain.  Within  six  years  the  numbers  of  the  school  rose 
to  a  hundred  boarders,  and  for  a  century  it  was  the 
chief  centre  where  the  Midland  clergy  received  their 
early  education.  Previously  to  this,  another  school 
for  small  boys  had  been  begun  at  Standon  Lordship. 
The  real  revival  of  Catholic  education  in  England, 
however,  only  commenced  when  the  Catholic  colleges 
beyond  the  seas,  broken  up  by  the  French  Revolution, 
ventured  to  return.  In  1777  the  British  Government 
sorely  needed  Irish  soldiers  for  the  American  war,  and 
in  1778  the  first  English  Catholic  Relief  Bill  repealing 
the  most  galling  of  the  penal  laws  was  passed.  In 
1793  the  College  of  Douai  was  seized  by  the  agents 
of  the  French  Republic.  After  temporary  imprison- 
ment the  professors  and  students  came  to  England  and 
were  allocated  at  first  to  Old  Hall,  Ware,  and  then  in 
part  to  Crook  Hall,  the  future  Ushaw,  near  Durham. 
There  were  differences  of  opinion  among  the  English 
ecclesiastical  authorities,  some  urging  the  continu- 
ance of  the  Douai  community  as  a  single  college  in  the 
South  of  England,  others  advocating  the  claims  of  the 
North.  However  unpleasant  at  the  time  was  the  dis- 
agreement, it  proved  a  solid  gain  to  the  Catholic 
Church  in  England.  For  the  outcome  was  the  start- 
ing of  the  two  large  colleges,  St.  Cuthbcrt's  at  Ushaw 
and  St.  Edmund's  at  Ware,  both  destined  to  have  hon- 
ourable and  fruitful  careers  and  to  be  sources  of  much 
strength  to  the  Faith.  Each  of  them  provides  to-day 
for  a  community  of  over  300  students  complete  courses 
of  humanities,  philosophy,  and  theology,  and  educates 
lay  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  pupils.  About  the  same 
date  FInglish  Benedictine  communities,  compelled  to 
return  from  Lorraine  and  from  Douai,  for  a  time  re- 
sided at  Acton  Burncll,  but  separated  later  to  found 
Amj)leforth  College  in  Yorkshire  in  1S03,  and  Down- 
side in  1S15,  two  schools  which  contine  to  do  increas- 
ingly valuable  work  for  English  Catholic  education. 
At  the  same  time  was  begun,  largely  through  the  in- 
fluence of  certain  laymen  of  the  Cisalpine  Club,  but 
acting  in  co-operation  with  Bishop  Talbot,  Oscott 
College,  in  the  Midlands.  After  a  successful  history 
of  three-quarters  of  a  centur>'  as  a  mixed  school,  it  was 
converted  into  a  purely  ecclesiastical  college,  with 
courses  of  philosophy  and  theology.  It  trains  the 
Midland  clerg>'  as  well  as  a  considerable  number  from 
other  dioceses  to-day. 

In  1794  the  Jesuit  College,  formerly  at  St.  Omer, 
but  subsequently  transferred  to  Bruges  in  1762,  and 
thence  to  Liege  in  1773,  migrated  to  Stonyhurst,  in 
Lancashire.  In  addition  to  the  large  educational  in- 
stitution into  which  it  developed  at  Stonyhurst  this 
college  became  the  parent  stock  of  a  prolific  family. 
Starting  with  twelve  boys,  its  numbers  by  1S13  had 
risen  to  over  two  hundred  and  twenty.  The  first  off- 
shoot was  Clongowes  Wood  College,  Ireland,  in  1814, 
which  speedily  rivall(»(l  the  parent  school  in  point  of 
numbers,  and  was  itself  the  mother-house  from  which 
successful  colleges  were  started  at  Dublin,  Limerick, 
Galway,  and  TuUabeg.  Later  on  from  this  Irish  cen- 
tre were  founded  several  flourishing  Jesuit  schools  in 
Australia.  In  Great  Britain  itself  from  the  Stony- 
hurst root  there  originated  during  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, eight  other  secondary  schools,  all  designed  for 
the  education  of  Catholic  laymen:  in  1841  Mount 
St.  Marj^'s  College,  a  boarding-school  in  Dcrbj'shire, 
now  numbering  over  200  pupils;  in  the  same  year  St. 
Francis  Xavier's  College,  a  day-school  at  Liverpool, 
which  has  reached  a  roll  of  400;  in  1862,  Beaumont 
College,  near  Windsor,  also  exceeding  230  pupils; 
subsequently  large  day-colleges,  at  Preston,  1864,  at 
Wimbledonand  at  Stamford  Hill,  North  London,  in 
the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century.  St.  .Moy- 
sius's  day-college,  Glasgow,  which  hits  exceeded  300 
pupils,  was  founded  in  1859;  and  a  Jesuit  day-college 


has  been  opened  at  Leeds  early  in  the  present  century. 
Meantime  at  Stonyhurst  itself  in  addition  to  the 
school,  which  now  numbers  some  350  lay  students, 
there  has  been  erected  St.  Mary's  Hall,  which  is  a 
house  of  philosophical  studies  and  training  college  for 
the  members  of  the  society.  It  has  been  approved 
by  the  government  as  a  recognized  training  college 
for  secondary  school  teachers,  and  has  some  60  Jes- 
uit students.  The  Jesuit  theological  College  of  St. 
Beuno  in  North  Wales  was  founded  from  Stonyhurst 
in  1848. 

Other  secondary  schools  of  note  are  St.  Bede's, 
Manchester  and  St.  Cuthbert's,  Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
managed  by  the  secular  clergy;  the  Oratory  School, 
started  by  Cardinal  Newman  at  Edgbaston ;  Ratcliffe 
College,  conducted  by  the  Rosminian  Fathers;  a 
Benedictine  College  at  Ramsgate,  and  St.  George's 
College,  Weybridge,  besides  general  successful  schools 
managed  by  the  brothers.  Exact  statistics  in  regard 
to  secondary  schools  are  impossible,  owing  to  the  in- 
definiteness  of  this  term,  which  in  England  includes  a 
wide  variety  of  types  and  grades,  from  something 
just  above  the  elementary  school  to  Eton  or  Harrow. 
However,  if  we  take  the  "Report  of  the  1910  Annual 
Conference  of  English  Colleges"  for  our  guide,  we  find 
t'lis  li^t  includes  thirty-three  colleges  or  secondary 
sc'nols  for  boys.  All  these  are  under  the  manage- 
ment of  priests  or  religious.  There  are  also  in  the 
country  some  Catholic  preparatory  schools  for  small 
boys  and  some  small  private  institutions  conducted 
by  laymen,  but  these  above  indicated  form  substan- 
tially the  present  machinery  of  Catholic  secondary 
education  of  boys. 

Catholic  girls'  secondary  education  is  similarly  in 
the  hands  of  religious.  Old  English  foundations  re- 
turning from  abroad  after  the  French  Revolution,  like 
the  Catholic  colleges,  or  new  teaching  congregations, 
opened  convent  schools  for  primary  as  well  as  for 
secondary  education  and  have  multijilied  rapidly. 
The  total  number  of  Catholic  girls'  schools  which  may 
be  fairly  classed  as  secondary  is,  for  the  same  reason, 
very  difficult  to  determine.  Over  one  hundred  and 
forty  are  advertised  in  the  "Catholic  Directory",  but 
many  of  them  are  very  small  institutions. 

Relations  of  Catholic  Secondary  Education  with  the 
Government. — All  Catholic  secondary  schools  in  Eng- 
land are  voluntary  institutions.  They  were  founded 
independently  of  the  Government.  Until  recent  years 
none  of  them  received  any  state  support,  and  they 
were  subject  to  no  form  of  state  inspection.  In- 
deed secondary  education,  as  such,  did  not  receive  any 
systematic  support  from  the  state  in  England  prior  to 
1902;  but  a  large  number  of  non-Catholic  schools 
possessed  considerable  endowments,  many  going  back 
to  Catholic  times.  During  part  of  the  past  cen- 
tury, secondary  schools,  by  fulfilling  certain  condi- 
tions, could  earn  grants  from  the  Government  Depart- 
ment of  Art  and  Science;  and  a  few  Catholic  schools 
derived  some  small  funds  from  this  source.  But  in 
the  Act  of  1902,  the  gf)vernment  adopted  a  completely 
new  attitude  towards  secondary  education.  It  em- 
powered local  authorities,  i.  e.,  county  councils  and 
urban  councils,  to  build  new  secondary  schools  and  to 
take  over  by  voluntary  agreement  existing  secondary 
schools,  and  to  maintain  them  out  of  local  rates  as- 
sisted by  imperial  grants.  On  the  other  hand,  vol- 
untary schools  which  fulfil  certain  regulations  are  en- 
abled to  share  in  this  state  aid.  This  Act  is  fraught 
with  important  consequences,  as  it  is  clear  from  the 
history  of  primary  education  that  the  state  contribu- 
tion will  largely  increase,  and  unless  Catholic  day- 
schools  can  secure  their  fair  share  of  it  they  will  be 
unable  to  sustain  the  competition.  Practically  the 
grants  are  obtainable  only  by  day-schools.  The  con- 
ditions in  regard  to  efficiency,  staff  qualifications,  and 
equipment,  with  liability  to  inspection,  are  stringent, 
but  a  well-managed  school  can  already  secure  a  good 


SCHOOLS 


574 


SCHOOLS 


Bubsidv.  One  of  our  most  successful  Catholic  schools 
in  1910  thus  earned  between  £2000  and  £3000.  But 
the  upkeep  required  is  correspondingly  costly.  Eleven 
Catholic  schools  for  boj'S,  including  four  Jesuit  day- 
schools,  are  at  present  approved  by  the  Board  of  Ed- 
ucation and  recognized  as  grant-earning.  Another 
important  point  is  that  intending  elementary  teach- 
ers must  in  the  future  spend  at  least  three  years  in  a 
"recognized"  secondary  school.  The  necessity  of  a 
sufficiencv  of  such  "recognized"  Catholic  schools  is 
therefore'obvious.  Unfortunately  the  government  reg- 
ulations at  present  seriously  hamper  the  increase  of 
such  secondary  denominational  schools. 

Of  Cathohc'girls'  secondary  schools,  thirty-four  are 
already  "recognized",  of  which  eleven  belong  to  the 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame.  In  1911  there  were  two 
Catholic  training  colleges  for  female  secondary  teach- 
ers, recognized  and  approved  by  Government.  One  is 
in  Liverpool,  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame; 
another  in  London,  under  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child 
Jesus.  There  is  so  far  one  Catholic  training  college 
for  male  secondary  teachers — that  at  Stonyhurst. 

Catholic  Primary  Education. — 'Whilst  a  tolerable 
supply  of  secondary  schools  existed  in  England  dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  century,  the  primary  education  of 
the  nation  was  in  a  most  wTetched  condition.  Pre- 
vious to  1S30  Government  took  no  interest  in  the  ed- 
ucation of  the  poor.  In  addition  to  the  efforts  of 
some  of  the  clergy  and  a  few  philanthropic  laymen,  the 
chief  agencies  working  for  the  building  and  mainte- 
nance of  schools  for  the  poor  in  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century  were  two  voluntary  societies,  one 
an  Anglican,  the  other  a  Dissenting  organization. 
The  first  government  help  to  primary  education  was 
given  in  1833,  a  grant  of  £20,000.  To-day  it  exceeds 
£16,000,000.  As  the  best  available  method  of  dis- 
tribution, the  grant  was  handed  over  to  the  two  so- 
cieties to  be  spent  in  building  schools  and  for  other 
educational  purposes.  It  was  then  made  annual  and 
increased  from  time  to  time.  In  1839  a  further  allow- 
ance was  given  towards  the  estabh-shment  of  training 
colleges  for  the  preparation  of  teachers.  These  col- 
leges soon  multiplied.  Government  inspectors  were 
appointed,  but  the  power  of  accepting  or  approving 
them  was  conceded  to  the  two  voluntary  societies. 
The  system  was  in  fact  frankly  denominational.  But 
down  to  1850,  although  over  £600,000  had  been  dis- 
tributed, Cathohcs  had  not  received  a  penny  of  this 
pubUc  money. 

However,  during  the  previous  sixty  years,  in  spite 
of  their  general  poverty  and  of  the  penal  laws  before 
1829,  the  handful  of  Catholics  in  the  country  had 
striven  zealously  for  the  education  of  their  children. 
As  early  as  1764  the  Catholics  of  London  formed  a 
small  "Society  for  the  Instruction  of  the  Children  of 
Catholic  indigent  Parents",  though  how  much  this 
was  able  to  accomplish  we  cannot  tell.  At  least  ten 
Catholic  primary  schools  existed  in  England  prior  to 
1800;  and  probably  not  many  more.  But  with  the 
cessation  of  the  persocution  and  the  beginning  of  the 
immigration  from  Ireland,  Catholic  elementary  schools 
began  to  multiply.  By  1S29  those  had  risen  probably 
t<)  about  60  or  70.  Thenceforth  progress  was  more 
rapid.  In  18.51,  though  excluded  from  thegovernmcnt 
grant  given  since  1833,  there  were  in  England  311 
Catholic  schools  built  for  the  poor  and  mainly  by  the 
pennies  of  the  poor.  From  18-01  the  Catholic  schools 
received  some  small  share  of  the  public  grants,  and  by 
1870  the  number  had  risen  to  383. 

In  that  year  Forster's  Act,  the  first  great  English 
education  measure,  was  passed.  It  was  enacted  that 
henceforth  schools  should  be  established  in  every 
school  district  throughout  the  country.  These  might 
be  either  voluntary  schools,  or  Board-schools.  The 
latter  were  to  be  provided  and  managed  by  local 
school  boards  elected  for  this  object.  They  were 
to  be  built  out  of  the  local  rates,  and  maintained 


out  of  the  rates  and  grants  from  the  imperial  ex- 
chequer. They  were  to  be  undenominational  or  secu- 
lar in  character  and  exempt  from  all  religious  instruc- 
tion of  any  definitely  denominational  kind.  But  they 
might  retain  Bible  lessons  and  give  some  Christian 
rehgious  instruction  of  an  undogmatic  or  colourless 
quality  (Cowper  Temple  Clause).  Along  with  these 
Board-schools,  or  in  place  of  them,  were  sanctioned  the 
voluntary  schools.  These  could  be  built  by  private 
bodies  at  their  own  expense.  Ordinarily  such  bodies 
were  rehgious  organizations.  For  the  maintenance 
of  these  schools  the  proprietors  could  obtain  in  aid  of 
their  own  contributions  the  imperial  grants,  provided 
they  fulfilled  certain  conditions  of  educational  effi- 
ciency and  admitted  government  inspection.  Each 
voluntary  school  was  controlled  by  a  small  committee 
of  managers  representing  the  trust  or  body  who  owned 
the  school.  The  school  was  allowed  to  retain  the  re- 
ligious character  of  the  denomination  to  which  it  be- 
longed, to  appoint  teachers  of  their  creed,  and  to  give 
religious  instruction  according  to  their  tenets  subject 
to  a  "time-table  conscience  clause"  facilitating  the 
absence  from  the  religious  lesson  of  any  children 
whose  parents  objected  to  their  attending  it. 

As  all  previous  work  in  elementary  education  was 
due  to  the  voluntary  or  denominational  bodies, 
nearly  all  existing  primary  schools  were  voluntary 
schools.  But  in  response  to  the  now  much  increased 
demand  the  Catholics,  like  the  Anglicans,  disapprov- 
ing of  the  secular  Board-schools  for  their  children,  set 
themselves  to  the  building  and  maintenance  of  addi- 
tional voluntary  schools.  By  the  year  1901  the  total 
number  of  primary  schools  had  risen  to  a  little  over 
20,000.  Of  these,  5878  were  Board-schools,  and 
14,275  were  voluntary  schools,  but  as  the  Board- 
schools  were  stronger  in  the  towns  and  larger  in  size, 
of  the  total  attendance  of  5,000,000  children  nearly 
half  went  to  the  Board-schools.  Of  the  voluntary 
schools  the  Catholics  now  owned  1056,  with  an  attend- 
ance of  nearly  400,000  children, — a  magnificent  in- 
crease from  the  383  schools  of  1870.  The  state  con- 
tribution to  education,  which  had  been  £20,000  in 
1833,  and  £914,721  in  1870,  had  reached  £16,000,000 
in  1901.  But  though  the  supporters  of  the  voluntary 
schools  made  heroic  efforts,  the  burden  of  the  strug- 
gle was  becoming  intolerable,  especially  for  a  poorer 
section  of  the  community  like  the  Catholic  body.  The 
cost  both  of  building  and  upkeep  kept  constantly  ris- 
ing, owing  to  tlie  liigher  standard  forced  by  the  com- 
petition of  the  Board-schools,  which  drew  unlimitedly 
from  the  public  rates  which  the  supporters  of  the  vol- 
untary schools  were  compelled  to  pay  in  addition  to 
their  voluntary  contributions  to  their  own  schools. 
Moreover,  by  legislation  of  1876  and  1880  attendance 
of  children  at  school  was  made  compulsory.  The  im- 
portant statute  was  enacted:  "It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  parent  of  every  child  to  cause  such  child  to 
receive  efficient  elementary  instruction".  This  in- 
creased the  number  of  school  children  and  entailed  the 
furtlicr  statute-  that  eUimentary  education  should  be 
provided  gratuitously  for  the  indigent,  and  ultimately 
resulted  in  legislation  by  which  primary  education 
was  made  free;  or  gratuitous  for  all.  The  annual  cost 
of  efhication  per  child  in  England  was:  in  1860, 
21s.  7d.;  in  1870,  25s.  4d.;  in  1880,  for  voluntary 
schools,  34s.  7^d.,  for  board  schools,  42s.;  in  1902, 
for  voluntary  schools,  468.  4d.,  for  board  schools, 
608.  9d. 

Such  was  the  state  of  things  which  necessitated  the 
Education  Act  of  1902.  This  Act  abolished  the 
school  boards,  transferring  their  functions  to  the  gen- 
eral local  authority — the  County  Council  or  Urban 
Council.  It  equalized  the  condition  of  Board-schools 
and  voluntary  Bchools — henceforward  termed  pro- 
vided and  non-provided  schools — in  regard  to  mainte- 
nance by  public  funds,  whether  from  local  rates  or 
imperial  grants,  both  schools  being  of  equally  public 


SCHOOLS 


575 


SCHOOLS 


character  in  regard  to  secular  instruction.  It  enacted 
that  the  local  authority  must  maintain  and  control  all 
secular  instruction  in  the  pubhc  elementary  schools  of 
its  district;  but  whereas  the  local  authority  must 
provide  the  cost  of  both  building  and  upkeep  of  the 
provided  schools,  in  the  case  of  the  non-provided  (i.e. 
voluntary)  schools  the  building  and  equipment  is  to 
be  at  the  expense  of  the  denominational  body  which 
volunteers  to  set  up  the  school.  The  school  thus  is, 
and  remains,  their  property.  Each  school  is  man- 
aged by  a  committee  of  six  managers  who  have  the 
appointment  and  dismissal  of  the  teachers.  The  lo- 
cal authority  has  the  nomination  of  all  the  six  man- 
agers of  the  provided  schools,  but  of  only  two  in  the 
case  of  non-provided  schools.  The  trust  body  which 
owns  the  school  has  the  right  of  nominating  four  of  the 
six.  It  is  on  this  slender  clause  the  main  value  of  the 
Act  from  the  CathoUc  standpoint  hinges,  for  it  is  this 
clause  which  retains  the  efficient  control  of  the  school 
for  religious  purposes  in  the  hands  of  the  denomination 
which  built  it.  In  the  provided  school  religious  in- 
struction is  on  much  the  same  footing  as  in  the  former 
Board-schools;  that  is,  some  Bible  lessons  and  reli- 
gious instruction  of  a  non-denominational  character 
may  be  given  if  the  local  authority  chooses.  In  the 
non-provided  school  religious  instruction  may  be  given 
in  accordance  with  the  trust-deeds,  that  is  with  the 
tenets  of  the  proprietors  of  the  school.  This  is  to  be 
under  the  control  of  the  managers  and  subject  to  a 
time-table  conscience  clause,  and  not  at  the  charge 
of  public  moneys. 

For  the  sake  of  clearness,  then,  the  present  position 
of  the  Cathohc  elementary  school  in  England  in  1912 
is  this:  The  cost  of  the  school  building  and  its  equip- 
ment must  be  found  by  the  Cathohc  congregation, 
whilst  the  State  through  the  local  authority  provides 
all  working  expenses  for  all  secular  instruction.  Each 
Catholic  school  when  first  built  is  vested  in  the  hands 
of  Catholic  ecclesiastical  authorities  by  carefully 
drawn-up  trust-deeds.  The  committee  of  managers 
usually  includes  the  prie.st  in  charge  of  the  mission 
with  three  of  the  chief  Catholic  laymen  of  the  parish. 
To  these  are  added  the  two  members  appointed  by  the 
local  authority.  The  right  of  opening  new  schools 
where  needed  is  also  secured  by  the  Act  ot  1902.  On 
the  whole,  therefore,  the  condition  of  Catholic  schools 
under  this  Act  is  fairly  satisfactory.  The  Board  of 
Education  may,  however,  exert  unpleasant  pressure  by 
exacting  regulations  under  the  title  of  efficiency. 
Still,  though  burdensome,  if  tolerable,  the  sacrifice 
in  the  long  run  ought  to  make  for  the  good  of  the 
children.  More  objectionable  have  been  attempts 
of  certain  bigoted  local  authorities  to  discriminate 
against  the  non-provided  schools  in  the  scale  of  sala- 
ries and  some  other  matters.  However,  judicial  de- 
cisions tend  to  prevent  this  injustice.  The  chief 
anxiety  at  present  is  the  precariousness  of  the  situa- 
tion. Three  Education  Bills  in  succession  have  been 
before  Parliament  which  sought  to  transfer  the  entire 
control  of  the  school  from  the  managers  appointed 
by  the  owners  of  the  non-provided  schools  to  the  local 
authority,  and  under  the  plea  of  abolishing  religious 
tests  for  teachers  aimed  at  rendering  all  schools  liable 
to  accept  teachers  of  any  religion  or  of  none.  Up  to 
the  present,  each  of  these  measures  has  been  defeated, 
and  largely  by  the  resoluteness  of  the  Catholic 
minority. 

Provision  of  Catholic  Teachers. — The  method  of 
training  teachers  in  England  for  primary  schools  dur- 
ing the  last  century  has  usually  included  some  years 
of  apprenticeship  as  monitors  or  pupil-teachers  in  the 
primary  school  during  which  the  candidate  for  the 
teaching  profession  continued  his  or  her  studies,  re- 
ceiving at  the  same  time  a  small  stipend  from  the 
State.  At  the  end  of  this  apprenticeship  the  young 
man  or  woman  either  began  with  the  lowest  grade  of 
assistant-teacher  and  worked  up  by  concomitant  pri- 


vate study  to  pass  examinations  leading  up  to  a  first- 
class  certificate;  or  the  more  fortunate  candidates 
obtained  scholarships,  which  secured  them  two  years 
in  a  training  college  approved  and  assisted  by  the 
Government.  In  recent  years,  however,  the  aim  of 
the  Board  of  Education  has  been  to  secure  that  all 
future  teachers  of  primary  schools  shall  have  gone 
through  the  last  three  or  four  years  of  their  school 
course  in  a  secondary  school,  and  shaU  subsequently 
have  the  advantage  of  a  two  or  three  years'  course 
at  a  training  college.  The  preparation  of  Cathohc 
teachers  has  followed  the  same  fines  as  that  of  other 
teachers  belonging  to  the  voluntary  division  of  the 
system.  At  present  there  are  in  England  five  recog- 
nized Catholic  residential  training  colleges  for  female 
primary  teachers.  All  are  managed  by  religious. 
The  largest,  that  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Notre 
Dame  at  Liverpool,  was  opened  in  1856.  In  1909 
there  were  in  residence  at  all  the  five  training  colleges 
507  women  students.  There  is  one  residential  Catho- 
hc primary  training  college  for  men  under  diocesan 
authorities  in  London.  There  were  1 14  students  there 
in  1909.  The  State  contributes  scholarships  or  burses 
of  £.38  per  annum  for  each  female  student  and 
£5.3  for  each  male  student  at  these  colleges.  Though 
the  ordinary  course  is  two  years,  it  may  be  prolonged 
to  three  or  even  four  years  in  the  case  of  very  prom- 
ising students.  As  at  present  the  total  number  of 
Catholic  elementary  teachers  is  about  8000,  to  staff 
near  1100  schools  and  teach  about  400,000  children, 
and  as  the  insistence  on  training  constantly  increases, 
there  is  need  of  increased  provision  in  this  respect. 
One  source  of  anxiety  lies  in  the  efforts  of  the  Board  of 
Education  in  recent  years  to  compel  the  voluntary 
training-colleges,  if  in  receipt  of  any  grant,  to  admit 
students  of  all  denominations.  In  the  case  of  resi- 
dential training  colleges,  this  would  obviously  be 
fatal  to  their  Catholic  character.  The  attempt  has 
been  therefore  vigorously  resisted  and,  so  far,  success- 
fully. A  more  serious  difficulty  in  regard  to  the  for- 
mation of  Catholic  elementary  teachers  for  the  fu- 
ture, as  before  hinted,  seems  to  lie  in  the  paucity  of 
recognized  Catholic  secondary  schools  which  Catholic 
boys  and  girls  looking  forward  to  a  teaching  career 
can  attend,  as  such  attendance  for  three  or  four  years 
is  now  to  become  a  permanent  regulation  of  the 
Board  of  Education.  Moreover  the  many  valuable 
scholarships  open  to  these  and  other  pupils  from  pri- 
mary schools  can  now  be  held  in  Catholic  secondary 
schools,  provided  these  be  recognized. 

Special  Classes  of  Schools. — The  Catholic  educa- 
tion of  certain  other  classes  of  children  is  also  provided 
for  by  charitable  institutions,  which  are  primarily  due 
to  voluntary  effort,  and  conducted  by  religious  con- 
gregations or  other  charitable  organizations,  but  fre- 
quently receive  considerable  state  aid,  subject  to  cer- 
tain conditions.  Thus  there  are  in  Great  Britain: 
Catholic  certified  poor-law  schools,  for  boys,  13;  for 
girls,  28;  reformatory  schools,  for  boys,  5;  for  girls,  2; 
industrial  schools,  for  boys,  14;  for  girls,  12. 

The  chief  organizations  for  the  safeguarding  of 
Catholic  educational  interests  are  the  diocesan  school 
associations  and  the  central  Catholic  Education 
Council  of  Great  Britain.  There  are  sixteen  of  the 
former.  The  bishop  or  some  Catholic  layman  of 
position  is  usually  the  chairman,  and  the  committee 
includes  some  of  the  most  influential  Catholic  laymen 
of  the  diocese.  The  Catholic  Education  Council  was 
founded  by  the  bishops  of  Great  Britain  in  1905.  It 
took  over  the  functions  of  the  old  Catholic  School 
Committee,  which  originated  in  1847,  and  also  those 
of  the  Catholic  Secondary  Education  Council,  begun 
in  1904.  The  Council  consists  of  ninety-five  mem- 
bers nominated  in  certain  proportions  by  the  bishops, 
diocesan  school  associations,  and  the  Conference  of 
Catholic  colleges.  The  object  of  this  Council  is  to 
look  after  and  defend  the  general  interests  of  Catholic 


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education  both  primary  and  secondary,  and  the 
Council  is  recognized  by  the  Government  as  repre- 
senting the  Cathohcs  of  Enghmd  in  matters  of  Catho- 
lic education.  In  fine,  the  conclusion  presented  by 
the  history  of  Catholic  education  in  Great  Britain  is 
that,  in  a  "country  where  the  conception  of  true  free- 
dom and  the  sense  of  equity  prevails  throughout  the 
mass  of  the  nation,  even  a  small  minority  with  a 
clearly  just  claim,  however  unpopular  at  the  start, 
will  triumph  in  the  long  run,  if  it  insists  with  resolu- 
tion and  perseverance  in  its  just  demands. 

Levch,  EnglUh  Schools  at  the  Reformation  (London,  1896); 
BcRTOK,  Life  and  Times  of  Bishop  Challoner  (London,  1909); 
Ward,  Daxcn  of  Catholic  Revival  (London,  1909);  Amherst,  His- 
tory of  Catholic  Emancipation  and  Progress,  1771-1820  (London, 
18S6);  Lilly  axd  Wallis,  Manual  of  the  Law  Specially  Affect- 
ing Catholics  (London,  1893);  WAXaON,  The  English  Grammar 
Schooh  to  1660  (Cambridge,  1908);  De  Montmorency,  State  In- 
tervention in  English  Education  (Cambridge,  1902). 

Gr\hvm  Balfour,  Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  (Oxford,  1903);  Walton,  A  Retrospect  in  The  Month 
(March,  1906) ;  London  Board  of  Education  Reports;  Lists  of  Pub- 
lie  Elementary  Schools  (1910);  Regulations  for  Training  Elemen- 
tary Teachers  (1909);  List  of  Recognized  Secondary  Schools  (1910); 
Report  of  Board  of  Education  (1909-1910). 

Reports  of  the  Annual  Conferences  of  Catholic  Colleges  (Birmmg- 
ham.  1907-10);  Reports  of  Conferences  of  Catholic  Young  Men's 
Society  (Liverpool,  in  recent  years);  articles  in  The  Month  and 
The  Dublin  Review  (1905-1910). 

Michael  Maher. 

In  Ireland. — The  history  of  Catholic  education 
in  Ireland  in  the  period  from  the  Reformation  to 
Catholic  Emancipation  is  to  be  considered  rather  the 
story  of  an  heroic  struggle  than  a  record  of  a  school 
system  in  any  true  sense,  and  it  must  be  gleaned  from 
all  sorts  of  out-of-the-way  sources,  for  the  historian  of 
the  Catholic  schools  of  that  period  has  not  yet  arisen. 
From  the  Reformation  to  the  Treaty  of  Limerick 
(1534-1691)  records  are  very  scanty,  and  though,  in 
spite  of  the  troubled  state  of  the  times,  many  Catholic 
schools  managed  to  survive  and  to  do  good  work, 
there  was  no  such  thing  as  an  organized  system  of 
schools,  nor  would  anything  of  the  kind  have  been 
possible.  Throughout  the  eighteenth  century  Catho- 
lic schools  were  repressed  by  the  penal  laws,  one  ob- 
ject of  which  was,  according  to  Lecky,  "to  reduce  the 
Catholics  to  a  condition  of  the  most  extreme  and 
brutal  ignorance".  The  same  author  says:  "The 
legi-slation  on  the  subject  of  Cathohc  education  may 
be  briefly  described,  for  it  amounted  simply  to  uni- 
versal, unquaUfied  and  unlimited  proscription". 
Keeping  a  school,  or  teaching  in  any  capacity,  even 
as  usher  or  private  tutor,  was  a  penal  offence,  and  a 
reward  of  £10  was  offered  for  the  discovery  of  a 
Popish  schoolmaster.  Notwithstanding  the  severity 
of  these  laws,  the  managers  of  the  Charter  Schools, 
when  seeking  aid  from  Parliament  in  1709,  found  it 
necessary  to  c<jmplain  of  the  great  number  of  schools 
"under  the  tuition  of  Pcjpish  masters"  that  were  to  be 
found  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 

Fro.seiytizing  Scheities. — The  Government  and  the 
ascendancy  party,  while  prohibiting  CathoUc  educa- 
tion, made  several  very  ambitious  though  futile  at- 
tempts to  give  a  Protestant  education  to  the  children 
of  the  poor  Irish  Catholics  through  the  agency  of 
proselytizing  schools.  These  schemes  may  be  men- 
tioned here  since  they  were  meant  for  Catholics, 
though  fortunately  little  used  by  them.  An  Act  of 
Parliament  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  (1537)  pre- 
scribed the  erection  of  schools  in  every  parish,  but  the 
Act  remained  almost  a  deaxl  letter.  In  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  an  Act  was  passed  (1570)  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  diocesan  free  schools.  Some  schools 
were  founded,  and  in  the  course  of  time  the  number 
was  increa.sed,  but  they  never  realized  the  function 
indicated  by  their  name  of  free  schools;  they  became 
in  the  main  ordinary  grammar  schools  for  the  chil- 
dren of  well-to-do  Protestants.  A  scheme  of  Royal 
free  schools  was  initiated  by  James  I  (1608)  in  con- 
nexion with  the  plantation  of  Ulster.  Their  story 
differs  little  from  that  of  the  other  proselytizing 


schools,  but  their  endowments  have  not  altogether 
disappeared,  and  they  were  divided  between  Cath- 
olics and  Protestants  under  a  scheme  made  by 
the  Educational  Endowments  Commission  of  1887. 
Passing  over  other  more  or  less  partial  schemes,  the 
Charter  schools,  founded  in  response  to  an  appeal 
made  by  Boulter,  the  Protestant  primate  (1730),  de- 
mand a  brief  notice.  Under  the  charter  granted  in 
1733,  a  system  of  schools  was  begun  which,  by  means 
of  agreements  secured  by  a  combination  of  fraud  and 
terror,  took  Catholic  children  from  their  parents  and 
homes  and  deported  them  to  most  distant  parts  of  the 
country.  These  schools  became  hotbeds  of  shameful 
cruelty  without  a  parallel  in  the  history  of  public,  or 
probably  even  in  that  of  private,  education  in  any 
land.  Yet  they  were  powerfully  supported  and  re- 
ceived large  grants  from  the  Irish  Parliament,  but 
their  downfall  was  brought  about  by  the  indignant 
exposure  of  their  callous  inhumanity  by  John  How- 
ard, the  philanthropist,  who  took  occasion  to  investi- 
gate their  condition  while  he  was  engaged  in  an  in- 
quiry into  the  state  of  the  prisons. 

Ail  these  classes  of  schools  were  avowedly  prosely- 
tizing, and  as  they  were  the  only  schools  which  could 
be  openly  established  in  the  country  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  at  any  rate  till  towards  its  close,  the  educa- 
tion of  Irish  Catholics  was  confined  to  what  could  be 
done  by  the  efforts  of  priests  in  their  own  districts, 
and  by  those  of  the  "hedge"  school-master,  who  with 
great  devotion  sought  to  keep  alive  the  lamp  of  knowl- 
edge, though  he  knew  that  a  price  was  on  his  head  as 
on  that  of  the  priest.  That  these  efforts  were  numer- 
ous and  active  is  clear  from  the  complaint  of  the 
trustees  of  the  Charter  schools  in  1769,  to  which  refer- 
ence has  already  been  made.  Moreover,  in  spite  of 
the  severe  penalties  prescribed  by  law,  the  practice  of 
sending  Irish  youths  to  Continental  countries  to  be 
educated  was  very  common,  and  it  appears  from  a  re- 
turn made  to  Parliament  that,  at  the  time  of  the  out- 
break of  the  French  Revolution,  there  were  no  fewer 
than  478  Irish  ecclesiastical  students  making  their 
studies  on  the  Continent.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  rigour  with  which  the  penal 
laws  had  hitherto  been  enforced  was  considerably 
relaxed,  and  the  immediate  result  was  an  extraordi- 
nary growth  of  Catholic  schools  all  over  the  country, 
but  without  any  organic  unity  or  definite  system. 
By  far  the  most  important  educational  work  of  that 
period  was  the  foundation  of  Maynooth  College. 

Christian  Brothers. — In  1802  Edmund  Ignatius 
Rice,  of  Waterford,  began  a  work  for  Catholic  educa- 
tion which  has  been  the  source  of  incalculable  good. 
In  that  year  the  Irish  Christian  Brothers  were 
founded,  and  in  1820  the  Holy  See  extended  to  them 
the  Brief  of  Benedict  XIII  by  which  the  French 
Brothers  were  (established  in  1725.  The  Christian 
Schools  soon  found  their  way  into  the  chief  centres  of 
population  in  the  southern  half  of  the  country,  and  at 
the  present  day  they  number  100  and  have  29,840 
pupils.  All  th(!  Royal  Commissions  which  have  in- 
quired into  the  condition  of  education  in  Ireland  have 
reported  in  terms  of  enthusiastic  })raise  on  the  sjjlen- 
did  educational  work  done  in  the  schools  of  the  Chris- 
tian Brothers,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  they 
hav(!  been  a  tower  of  strength  to  the  cause  of  religion. 

National  Schools. — The  National  schools,  as 
they  are  callerl,  were  introduced  in  1831,  by  a  mo- 
tion of  Mr.  Stanley,  chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  to 
place  at  the  disposal  of  the  Irish  Government  a  grant 
for  the  purpose  of  providing  combined  literary  and 
moral  and  sopar.Htc  religious  instruction  for  Irish  chil- 
dren of  all  (Iciioiiiiiiations.  The  new  system  was  at 
once  attacked  by  the  Presbyterians  and  very  soon  by 
the  lOijiscopalian  Protestants,  but  at  first  it  was  in  the 
main  sui)i)orte(l  by  t  he  (Catholics,  though  Dr.  McIIale, 
Archbi.shop  of  Tuam,  was  a  notable  exception.  The 
concessions  made  by  the  Commissioners  of  National 


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Education  for  the  purpose  of  placating  the  various 
Protestant  sects  had  the  effect  at  last  of  uniting 
CathoUcs  in  opposition  to  the  system.  Apparently 
it  was  not  enough  that  in  a  Board  of  seven  commis- 
sioners only  two  were  Catholics;  one  rule  after  another 
was  made  of  such  a  character  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of 
the  very  serious  danger  that  these  new  government 
schools  would  prove  to  be  simply  another  proselytiz- 
ing agency,  as  was,  indeed,  the  avowed  policy  of  the 
Protestant  archbishop,  Whately.  As  the  outcome  of 
prolonged  and  bitter  Catholic  opposition  the  schools 
were  at  length  made  tolerable,  though  they  retain  their 
fundamental  undenominationalism  to  the  present  day. 
Outline  of  System. — The  National  Education  sys- 
tem is  now  governed  by  a  body  of  twenty  commis- 
sioners appointed  by  the  Crown,  of  whom  ten,  in- 
cluding the  resident  commissioner,  are  Catholics.  All 
the  other  higher  offices,  even  inspectorships,  are  di- 
vided equally  between  Catholics  and  Protestants, 
offices  being  in  some  instances  duplicated  in  order  to 
preserve  the  balance.  The  form  of  local  control  of 
the  schools  that  has  been  adopted  gives  to  CathoUcs 
such  measure  of  security  as  they  possess.  The  imme- 
diate management  is  committed  to  individuals  ap- 
pointed by  the  Board,  and  in  the  large  majority  of 
cases  the.se  are  the  local  clergy,  amongst  Catholics  usu- 
ally the  parish  priests.  Of  a  total  of  8401  National 
Schools,  5819  are  under  Catholic  management,  and 
of  these,  5050  are  under  clerical  and  1G9  under  lay 
managers.  These  managers  have  the  sole  right  of  ap- 
pointing and  dismissing  the  teachers,  but  an  arrange- 
ment made  for  Catholic  schools,  and  sanctioned  by 
the  Synod  of  Maynooth,  provides  that  in  the  exercise 
of  this  right  the  approval  of  the  bishop  shall  be  sought. 
This  arrangement  has  been  accepted  by  the  teachers 
as  an  ample  protection  against  the  danger  of  arbitrary 
dismissal.  The  managers  have,  moreover,  general  au- 
thority over  the  schools  and  the  teachers,  but  the 
commissioners  themselves,  through  their  inspectors, 
control  the  standard  and  the  efficiency  of  the  teach- 
ing, and  enforce  the  regulations  of  their  code.  The 
undenominationalism  of  the  system  makes  itself  felt 
chiefly  in  two  ways:  first,  in  the  prohibition  of  re- 
ligious emblems  even  in  purely  Catholic  schools,  and, 
secondly,  in  the  refusal  of  the  commissioners  to  sanc- 
tion the  use  even  in  Catholic  schools  of  readers  or 
other  books  containing  any  matter  wliicli  might  be 
considered  open  to  objection  if  the  schools  had  mixed 
attendance  of  Catholics  and  Protestants. 

Provision  of  Schools. — School  buildings  may  be 
vested  in  the  commissioners,  or  in  trustees,  or  they 
may  be  held  by  the  managers  as  owners.  If  a  school 
is  vested  in  the  commissioners,  a  course  considered  ob- 
jectionable by  Cathohcs,  that  body  provide  the  entire 
cost  of  erection,  equipment,  and  maintenance.  If  the 
school  is  vested  in  trustees,  the  commissioners  make  a 
grant  of  two-thirds  of  the  cost  of  building  and  equip- 
ment, leaving  the  remaining  third,  and  the  entire  cost 
of  subsequent  maintenance,  to  be  met  by  local  con- 
tributions, for  the  raising  of  which  the  manager  is 
responsible.  If  the  unrestricted  ownership  of  the 
school  is  retained  by  the  manager,  no  contribution  is 
made,  but  loans  may  be  obtained  in  certain  circum- 
stances. 

Catholic  Schools. — The  schools  of  the  Irish  Christian 
Brothers  have  refused  to  enter  the  National  system, 
but  it  has  been  accepted  by  those  of  other  brother- 
hoods, and  by  convent  schools  generally.  The  num- 
ber of  convent  and  monastery  National  schools  is 
396,  and  the  average  number  of  children  on  the  rolls, 
111,508.  Of  the  8401  National  schools  4391  are  ex- 
clusively Catholic  as  regards  teachers  and  pupils, 
1542  are  similarly  Protestant,  and  the  attendance  is 
mixed  in  24G1  schools,  in  which  the  Catholic  pupils 
are  69-7  per  cent  of  the  whole.  The  number  of  pupils 
in  exclusively  Catholic  schools  is  373,613,  and  the 
Catholics  in  the  schools  in  which  the  attendance  is 
XIII.— 37 


mixed,  number  131,657.  There  are,  therefore,  alto- 
gether 505,270  Catholic  pupils  in  the  National  schools 
out  of  a  total  roll  of  704,528. 

Finance. — The  whole  scheme  of  National  educa- 
tion, with  the  exceptions  stated  above  in  regard  to 
building,  equipment  and  maintenance,  is  financed  by 
the  Government,  chiefly  by  an  annual  parhamentary 
vote,  which  in  1909-10  amounted  to  £1,621,921. 
The  ascertained  expenditure  from  local  sources  in 
1909  was  £141,096. 

Training  of  Teachers. — The  supply  of  trained 
teachers  is  maintained  by  seven  training  colleges,  of 
which  one,  for  men  and  women,  directly  managed 
by  the  commissioners,  is  forbidden  to  Catholics,  an- 
other, also  for  men  and  women,  is  Episcopahan  Prot- 
estant, and  two  for  men  and  three  for  women  are 
Catholic.  The  Catholic  training  colleges  are  under 
the  immediate  management  of  the  bishops  of  the  dio- 
ceses in  which  they  are  situated,  two  under  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin,  and  one  each  under  the  Bishops  of 
Down  and  Connor,  Limerick,  and  Waterford.  The 
students  in  these  colleges,  all  of  which  are  residential, 
are  known  as  King's  scholars,  and  the  colleges  are 
supported  by  capitation  maintenance  grants  paid  by 
the  commissioners. 

Technical  Instruction. — Technical  instruction  is  car- 
ried on  by  local  committees  under  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland. 
The  Department  was  established  by  Act  of  Parha- 
ment  in  1899,  and  has,  in  addition  to  the  sums  voted 
for  special  institutions  such  as  the  Royal  College 
of  Science,  an  annual  income  of  £197,000,  of  which 
£62,000  must  be  devoted  to  technical  instruction, 
£10,000  to  the  development  of  fisheries,  and  the  bal- 
ance to  agricultural  instruction  and  development. 
The  technical  schools  established  under  this  system 
are  undenominational,  but  as  they  are  almost  exclu- 
sively evening  schools  and  are  confined  to  technical 
subjects  of  instruction,  or  preparatory  work  connected 
therewith,  they  are  freely  attended  by  Catholics. 

Second.\ry  Schools  and  Colleges. — Speaking 
generally,  all  schools  of  secondary  standard,  and  col- 
leges under  university  rank  in  Ireland,  are  purely 
denominational.  In  the  department  of  secondary 
education  Catholics  received  no  assistance  from  the 
State  until  1878,  when  an  Act  of  Parliament  estab- 
lished the  Commissioners  of  Intermediate  Education 
to  encourage  and  promote  secondary  education  by 
distributing  grants  to  schools  of  all  denominations  on 
the  basis  of  an  annual  general  examination  in  the 
subjects  of  secular  instruction,  and  giving  exliibitions 
and  prizes  to  the  most  successful  candidates.  A  fur- 
ther Act  of  Parliament,  in  1900,  widened  the  powers 
of  the  commissioners  and  enabled  them  to  add  inspec- 
tion to  the  examination,  which,  however,  must  be  re- 
tained. The  system  of  inspection  established  under 
this  Act  has  not  yet  got  beyond  the  tentative  stage, 
and  cannot  be  really  effective  as  long  as  the  annual 
examination  continues  to  be  the  basis  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  grants. 

Outline  of  System. — The  commissioners  are  twelve 
in  number,  six  Catholics  and  six  Protestants,  and  as 
their  powers  are  strictly  limited  to  subjects  of  secular 
education,  the  denominationalism  of  the  schools  is  in 
no  way  impaired.  The  diocesan  colleges,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, accept  the  system  and  compete  for  their 
share  of  the  grants.  The  great  colleges  and  the 
smaller  schools  of  the  religious  orders  are  all  within 
the  system,  as  are  also  nearly  all  the  convent  second- 
ary schools.  The  Christian  Brothers,  though  refus- 
ing to  enter  the  National  -system  of  primary  schools, 
have  freely  entered  the  Intermediate  system,  and 
have  added  secondary  departments  to  their  schools, 
in  which  they  accept  the  programme  of  the  Interme- 
diate Board,  and  submit  to  the  examinations  and  in- 
spection. The  official  statistics  published  by  the 
Board  take  no  account  of  the  religious  denomination 


SCHOOLS 


578 


SCHOOLS 


of  schools  or  pupils,  but  they  give  sufficiently  de- 
tailed information  about  each  school  to  make  it  pos- 
sible to  arrive  at  fairly  exact  figures.  Of  344  schools, 
21S  are  Catholics:  128  for  boys,  84  for  girls,  and  6 
mixed.  The  school  rolls  show  that  Cathohcs  num- 
ber approximately  8,780  boys  out  of  a  total  of  12,067 
and  4.000  girls  out  of  6,428.  These  rolls  contain  the 
names  only  of  those  pupils  who  are  within  the  Umits 
of  secondary  school  age,  and  the  total  number  of  pu- 
pils in  the  schools  is  probably  25  per  cent  greater. 

Finance. — The  Intermediate  Education  Act  (1878) 
gave  the  commissioners,  from  the  funds  realized 
bv  the  disestablishment  of  the  Protestant  Church, 
£1,000.000,  the  interest  of  which  was  at  first  their 
sole  income.  The  Local  Taxation  Act  (1890)  in- 
creased the  income  of  the  Board  by  the  addition  of  the 
residue  of  specified  excise  and  customs  duties  after  cer- 
tain fixed  charges  had  been  met.  The  amount  re- 
ceived from  this  source  was  subject  to  fluctuation,  but 
for  several  years  it  showed  a  downward  tendency,  and 
in  1911  the'Government  substituted  for  it  a  fixed  an- 
nual sum  of  £46,000,  which  brings  the  income  of  the 
Commissioners  up  to  £80,000  a  year.  The  Govern- 
ment further  admitted,  in  1911,  the  claim  of  Irish  In- 
termediate education  to  an  annual  parhamentary  vote, 
and  if  this  is  made  proportional  to  the  corresponding 
vote  in  England  it  should  more  than  double  the  in- 
come of  the  Board. 

Prominent  Schools. — The  following  list  gives  the 
names  of  the  larger  and  more  important  CathoDc  schools 
in  Ireland  and  of  the  authorities  conducting  them. 

Boys. — Diocesan  Colleges  conducted  by  the  secular 
clergy,  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  bishops: 
St.  Finian's  College,  MuUingar;  St.  Mel's  College, 
Longford;  St.  Macarten's  College,  Monaghan;  St. 
Columb's  College,  Derry;  St.  IVIalachy's  College,  Bel- 
fast; St.  Colman's  College,  NewTy;  St.  Patrick's  Col- 
lege, Cavan;  St.  Eunan's  College,  Letterkenny;  Holy 
Cross  College,  Clonliffe,  Dubhn;  St.  Peter's  College, 
Wexford;  St.  Patrick's  College,  and  St.  Mary's  Lay 
College,  Carlow;  St.  Kieran's  College,  Kilkenny;  St. 
Colman's  College,  Fermoy;  St.  Finbarr's  Seminary, 
Cork;  St.  Patrick's  College,  Thurles;  St.  Brendan's 
College,  KiUarney;  St.  Flannan's  College,  Ennis;  St. 
Munchin's  College,  Limerick;  St.  John's  College, 
Waterford;  St.  Jarlath's  College,  Tuam;  Diocesan  Col- 
lege, Ballaghadereen;  St.  Joseph's  College,  Ballina- 
8loe;  Summerhill  College,  Shgo ;  St.  Muredach's  Col- 
lege, Ballina. 

Conducted  by  Rehgious  Orders  : — Cistercians, 
Mount  Melleray  Seminary,  attached  to  the  Abbey, 
Cappoquin;  St.  Joseph's  College,  attached  to  the  Ab- 
bey, Roscrea.  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost:  Black- 
rock  College,  Dubhn;  Rockwell  College,  Cashel;  St. 
Mar>''s  College,  Rathmines,  Dublin.  Congregation 
of  the  Mission  {Vincentians}:  St.  Vincent's  College, 
Castleknock,  Dublin;  St.  Patrick's  Training  College, 
for  National  Teachers  (men),  Drumcondra,  Dubhn; 
Dominicans,  College  of  St.  Thoma,s,  Newbridge;  So- 
ciety of  Jesus,  Clongowes  Wood  College,  Sallins;  Bel- 
vedere College,  Dublin;  Sacred  Heart  College,  and 
Mungret  College,  Limerick;  College  of  St.  Ignatius, 
Galway.  Society  of  Mary  (Marists),  St.  Mary's  Col- 
lege, Dundalk;  Catholic  University  School,  Dublin; 
Christian  Brothers,  O'Connell  Schools,  North  Rich- 
mond Street,  and  several  other  large  schools  in  Dub- 
hn; Christian  Brothers'  College,  and  Our  Lady's 
Mount,  Cork;  Chri.stian  Schools  in  Belfa.st,  Limerick, 
and  many  other  centres.  Presentation  Brothers,  Pres- 
entation Monastery,  and  Mardyke  College,  Cork, 
and  several  other  schools;  De  La  Salle  Brothers,  Train- 
ing Ojllege  for  National  Teachers  (men),  Waterford. 

Girls. — The  Dominican  College,  Eccles  Street,  and 
the  Loreto  0)llege,  St.  Stephen's  Green,  Dubhn,  be- 
sides remarkable  success  in  the  examinations  of  the 
Intermediate  Board,  won  for  themselves  acknowl- 
edged eminence,  even  in  competition  with  men's  col- 


leges in  the  late  Royal  University,  and  have  opened 
halls  in  connexion  with  the  National  University,  St. 
Mary's,  Muckross  Park;  Sion  Hill,  Blackrock,  Dub- 
hn; Training  College  for  National  Teachers  (women), 
Belfast;  Training  College  for  Secondary  Teachers, 
Dubhn,  and  many  other  schools.  Loreto  Nuns,  Lo- 
reto Abbey,  Rathfiirnham;  schools  in  Balbriggan, 
Bray,  Dalkey,  Gorey,  Clonmel,  Navan,  Mullingar, 
Letterkenny,  Kilkenny,  Fermoy.  Faithful  Compan- 
ions of  Jesus:  Laurel  Hill  Convent,  Limerick;  St. 
Mary's  Convent,  Newtownbarry;  Sisters  of  St.  Louis, 
Monaghan,  Carrickmacross,  and  Kiltimagh.  Ursu- 
lines:  Convents  of  Blackrock,  and  St.  Angela's,  Cork; 
Shgo,  Thurles,  and  Waterford,  where,  in  addition  to 
the  school,  the  Sisters  conduct  a  training  college  for 
secondary  school  teachers.  Brigidities:  Convents  of 
TuUow,  Mountrath,  Abbeyleix,  and  Goresbridge. 
Sisters  of  Mercy:  in  addition  to  a  large  number  of  ele- 
mentary schools  in  various  parts  of  Ireland,  higher 
schools  in  Dundalk,  Queenstown,  Macroom,  and  St. 
Marie's  of  the  Isle,  Cork,  and  in  Limerick  a  Training 
College  for  National  Teachers  (women).  Sisters  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary:  Lisburn;  Sisters  of  the  Sacred 
Heart:  Mount  Anville,  Dubhn. 

Schools  of  handicrafts  have  been  established  in  con- 
nexion with  many  of  the  convents.  Among  the  more 
important  of  these  are,  for  lace  and  crochet:  Mercy 
Convcjits,  Dundalk,  Ardee,  Kilbeggan,  Longford,  En- 
niskillen,  Queenstown,  St.  Leha's  School,  Limerick, 
Newcastle  West,  Roscarbery,  Dungarvan,  Strad- 
ball3%  Claremorris,  Westport,  Castlebar,  Sligo,  Ros- 
common, and  Boyle;  Poor  Clares,  Bally jamesduff  and 
Kenmare.  Presentation,  Thurles,  Carrick-on-Suir 
and  Youghal;  Sisters  of  Charily  of  St.  Paul,  Kilfinane; 
Sisters  of  Charity,  Benada  Abbey,  Co.  Mayo,  and  Fox- 
ford.  Many  of  these  schools,  and  some  others  have 
also  hosiery,  shirt  making,  and  similar  industries,  and 
some,  as  Foxford,  Loughglynn,  St.  Lelia's,  Limerick, 
Dundrum,  and  Roscarbery,  are  centres  of  much  needed 
industrial  life  in  their  several  localities. 

Seminaries. — The  education  of  students  for  the 
secular  priesthood  is  carried  on  chiefly  in  Maynooth, 
which  is  a  national  seminary,  though  many  students 
are  sent  to  the  Irish  Colleges  in  Rome  and  Paris,  and  a 
large  proportion  of  the  students  of  Dublin,  Cashel, 
Kildare,  Os.sor>',  and  Waterford  receive  their  whole 
education  in  the  local  seminaries.  With  these  excep- 
tions, however,  the  local  seminaries  confine  themselves 
to  the  secondary  school  programme,  and  send  their 
students  to  Maynooth  or  the  Continent  for  their 
studies  in  philosophy  and  theology.  Each  religious 
order  makes  its  own  provision  for  the  training  of  its 
subjects,  and  candidates  for  the  foreign  missions  are 
educated  in  All  Hallows  College,  and  in  the  seminaries 
situated  in  Carlow,  Kilkenny,  Thurles,  and  Waterford. 
(See  also  Ireland;  Christl\n  Brothers  of  Ireland; 
All  Hallows  College;  Maynooth  College.) 

Reports  on  Education  (Ireland)  Commissions  (17!tl,  1810,  1825, 
1854,  1879,  1887);  Manwil  Instruction  (Ireland),  Report  of  Com- 
mission (1897);  Intermediate  Education  (Ireland),  Report  of  Com- 
mission (1899);  Dale,  Report  on  Primary  Education  (1904);  Dalb 
AND  Stephens,  Report  on  Intermediate  Education  (190,5);  Dotle, 
Essay  on  Education  and  the  Stale  of  IreUind  (Dublin,  1880);  Inter- 
mediate and  Unirersity  Education  in  Ireland,  by  a  Corarnittee  of 
Iri.sh  Catholics  (Dublin,  1877);  Cullen,  Pastoral  Letters  and 
other  Writings  (Dublin,  1882);  Wyse,  Notes  on  Education  Reform 
in  Ireland,  compiled  by  his  niece,  Winifrede  M.  Wtse  (Water- 
ford, 1901);  Graham  Balfour,  Educational  Systems,  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  (Oxford,  1903);  Brereton,  Reports  of  U.  S. 
Commis.'iioner  of  Education,  vol.  I  for  1910;  Barry  O'Brien, 
Fifty  Years  of  Concessions  to  Ireland,  I  (Ix)ndon,  1885);  Green, 
The  Making  of  Ireland  and  its  Undoing  (lyondon,  1909);  O'Rior- 
DAN,  Reply  to  Dr.  Starkie  on  School  Managers  (Dublin,  190.3); 
Cubby,  Reply  to  Dr.  Starkie  on  School  Managers  (Dublin,  1903). 

Andrew  Murphy. 

In  Scotland. — Catholic  education  in  Scotland  dur- 
ing penal  times  fared  much  a.s  in  England.  By 
1()70  the  Catholic  population  had  dwindled  to  some 
14,000  communicants,  of  whom  about  2000  survived 
in  the  Lowlands     (Leslie's  report  to  Propaganda). 


SCHOOLS 


579 


SCHOOLS 


Scotch  colleges  which  sent  many  missionaries  back 
to  suffer  for  their  faith  had  been  founded  at 
Rome,  Douai,  Paris,  and  Valladolid.  However, 
in  the  crushed  condition  of  the  country  candidates 
for  the  priesthood  became  scarce.  Small  Catholic 
schools  were  occasionally  started  in  remote  districts 
during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  and 
struggled  on  for  a  while.  Thus  in  1675  two  small 
schools  existed  at  Glengarry  and  in  the  Island  of 
Barra.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  a  small 
seminary  was  begun  at  Scalan  in  Glenhvat  to  be 
subsequently  transferred  after  sundry  vicissitudes  to 
Aquhorties.  Others  were  started  at  Samalaman  and 
Lismore.  The  first  really  important  Catholic  col- 
legiate foundation  in  Scotland  since  the  Reformation 
was  that  at  Blairs,  in  1829,  when  the  two  surviving 
"little  seminaries"  at  Aquhorties  and  Lismore  were 
united  to  form  the  new  college,  destined  to  have  an 
honourable  and  fruitful  career  as  the  future  Alma 
Mater  of  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  Scottish 
priesthood.  Since  Catholic  Emancipation  there  has 
been  a  large  immigration  from  Ireland  and  a  rapid 
growth  within  the  Scottish  community,  so  that  the 
remnant  of  ISOO  has  risen  to  an  estimated  Catholic 
population  of  518,000  in  Scotland  in  1910,  with  554 
priests  and  238  missions.  The  story  of  the  progress 
of  Catholic  education  during  the  past  century  has 
been  much  the  same  in  Scotland  as  in  England.  As 
each  little  Catholic  congregation  formed,  it  started 
a  school.  In  spite  of  the  stronger  religious  bigotry 
in  the  beginning,  the  increasing  demand  for  liberty 
and  equality  for  dissenters  after  the  separation  of  the 
Free  Church  in  1843  helped  Catholic  educational 
claims. 

However,  it  was  the  Education  Act  of  Scotland 
of  1872  that  has  determined  the  Scotch  system  down 
to  the  present  time.  That  Act,  following  on  the  line 
of  the  English  Act  of  1870,  established,  or  rather  in 
Scotland  reformed  and  re-established  a  dual  system 
of  public  schools,  i.  e.  Board-schools,  and  voluntary'  or 
denominational  schools.  Both  receive  considerable 
grants  from  the  imperial  exchequer,  whilst  the  former 
enjoy  rate  aid.  The  voluntary  schools,  built  and 
partially  maintained  by  private  funds,  retain  the  re- 
ligious character  of  the  body  which  owns  them. 
Fortunately  in  Scotland  the  voluntary  schools  did  not 
meet  with  the  same  ho.stility  from  the  supporters 
of  the  public  or  Board-schools  as  they  did  in  England. 
The  religious  differences  which  have  set  the  English 
Nonconformists  against  the  Anglican  proprietors  of 
the  great  mass  of  the  voluntary  schools  did  not  exist 
there.  As  a  consequence,  the  voluntary  schools 
generally,  and  the  Catholic  schools  in  particular, 
received  more  liberal  treatment  and  less  pressure, 
and  the  intolerable  burden  and  acute  need  for  reform 
which  brought  about  the  Enghsh  Education  Act 
of  1902  did  not  arise.  The  present  situation  of 
Catholic  Education  in  Scotland,  as  gathered  from  the 
Scotch  Education  Department  Blue  Book  for  1910-11, 
may  be  thus  summarized: 

Catholic  Voluntary  Day  Schools:  primary,  207; 
higher  grade,  12.  These  provide  places  for  107,740 
scholars.  The  average  number  on  the  registers  dur- 
ing the  past  year  was  92,594.  The  average  in  actual 
attendance,  81,980  (41,363  boys,  40,617  girls).  Teach- 
ing staff:  certificated  teachers,  male  167,  female  1306; 
assistant  (provisonally  certificated)  teachers,  475. 
Average  annual  salary  of  Catholic  teachers:  principal 
masters,  £148;  principal  mistresses,  £94;  assistant 
masters,  £94;  assistant  mistresses,  £73.  The  average 
salaries  for  the  public  schools  at  the  same  time  were: 
principal  masters,  £189;  mistresses,  £95;  assistant 
masters,  £136;  mistresses,  £81.  Catholic  teachers 
thus  work  at  a  sacrifice.  Total  annual  income  of 
Catholic  primary  schools: — voluntary  contributions 
in  various  forms,  £39,100;  state  contribution  under 
various  heads:    annual  grant,  fee  grant,   grant  in 


aid,  grants  for  drawing,  etc.,  about  £170,000.  The 
inclusion  of  rent  (on  the  basis  of  assessment)  in  the 
approved  expenditure  is  permitted  in  Scottish  volun- 
tary schools.  This  amounted  in  1909  to  £36,000,  or 
an  average  of  £164  per  school.  The  total  expenditure 
on  Catholic  primary  schools  in  1910  was  £208,624, 
which  worked  out  at  a  cost  per  child  of  £2.  13s.  5d.; 
while  the  cost  to  the  State  of  each  child  in  the  public 
schools  amounted  to  £3.  14s.  13^d.  Moreover  the 
public  schools  drew  about  twenty-three  shilUngs  per 
child  from  rates  not  available  to  the  voluntary  schools. 
Still  on  the  whole,  though  the  CathoUc  Church  is  sub- 
ject to  certain  financial  disadvantages,  it  has  secured 
freedom,  and  when  worked  in  a  liberal  spirit  the  Scot- 
tish system  has  proved  tolerable,  indeed  with  certain 
further  amendments  helping  to  raise  CathoUc  teach- 
ers' salaries  to  those  of  the  pubUc  schools  it  would  be 
even  fair. 

The  working  conditions  of  the  Catholic  primary 
schools  in  Scotland  are  much  the  same  as  in  England. 
The  chief  manager  and  correspondent  of  each  CathoUc 
school  is  usually  the  priest  in  charge  of  the  mission, 
but  the  managers  of  groups  of  voluntary  schools  are 
united  into  small  Councils  or  Committees  in  which 
they  share  common  control  and  responsibility  for 
certain  purposes — an  arrangement  possessing  some 
distinct  advantages.  In  regard  to  secondary  edu- 
cation, the  better  higher  grade  schools  help  towards 
this  in  Scotland;  and  there  are  twelve  such  CathoUc 
higher  grade  schools  recognized  and  receiving  grants. 
Owing  to  the  difficulty  already  alluded  to  of  defining 
secondary  schools,  it  is  not  easy  to  give  accurate 
statistics.  One  Catholic  school  for  boys,  the  Jesuit 
College  in  Glasgow,  is  on  the  list  of  secondary  schools 
recognized  by  the  Government.  The  Marist  Broth- 
ers also  conduct  a  boarding  college  at  Dumfries, 
St.  Mungo's  Academy,  in  Glasgow,  and  a  ho.stel  for 
the  training  of  male  teachers.  There  are  two  ec- 
clesiastical colleges,  Blairs  and  St.  Peter's,  New  Kil- 
patrick;  and  in  addition  to  those  recognized  as  higher 
grade  schools,  there  are  probably  about  half  a 
dozen  academies  and  convent  boarding  schools  giving 
secondary  education.  There  is  one  large  training 
college  for  female  teachers,  managed  by  the  Notre 
Dame  Sisters,  in  Glasgow. 

Gordon,  The  Catholic  Church  in  Scotland  from  the  Suppression 
of  the  Hierarchy  to  the  Present  Time  (Aberdeen,  1875) ;  Belles- 
HEiM,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Scotland  (Edintjurgh  and 
London,  1890) ;  Scotch  Education  Department  Reports  (Edin- 
burgh and  London,  1910-11). 

Michael  Maher. 

In  the  United  States. — Out  of  a  Catholic  popula- 
tion of  approximately  14,347,027,  nearly  one-half  of 
the  Catholic  children  attending  elementary  schools  in 
the  United  States  were  being  educated  under  the 
parish  school  system  in  the  year  1910.  Catholic 
schools  are  practically  impossible  in  most  country  dis- 
tricts, and  it  has  been  estimated  that  from  one-fourth 
to  one-third  of  the  number  of  Catholic  children  of 
school  age  live  in  country  districts.  In  towns  and 
cities,  therefore,  where  alone  it  is  possible,  generally 
speaking,  to  build  and  maintain  Catholic  schools,  it 
may  be  said  that  all  but  about  one-fourth  to  one-sixth 
of  the  Catholic  population  attending  school  is  being 
educated  in  the  parish  schools.  The  number  of  pu- 
pils in  the  parish  schools  is  also  steadily  increasing. 

This  result  has  been  achieved  by  a  process  of  grad- 
ual growth,  the  root  of  it  all  being  the  firm  determina- 
tion of  the  Catholic  mind  to  make  religion  a  vital  ele- 
ment in  the  education  of  the  Catholic  child.  This 
determination  has  characterized  the  attitude  of 
American  Catholics  in  respect  to  education  from  the 
very  beginning,  and  it  has  been  shared  alike  by  the 
clergy  and  the  laity.  The  earliest  Catholic  colonists 
implanted  the  principle  of  religious  training  in  the 
virgin  Catholic  soil,  and  every  decade  that  has  passed 
since  then  has  added  but  a  new  growth  or  a  fresh 


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580 


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vigour  to  the  educational  mustard  seed.  A  school 
appears  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Jesuits  in  Mary- 
land not  \ery  long  after  the  arrival  of  the  first  colo- 
nists, though  there  is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  exact 
date  and  its  first  location.  But  even  before  the  com- 
ing of  the  Calverts,  Cathohc  schools  existed  in  New 
Mexico  and  Florida.  B.v  the  year  1C29,  many  schools 
for  the  natives  of  New  Mexico  nad  been  estabhshed 
by  the  Franciscans,  and  this  was  eight  years  before  the 
first  school  in  the  thirteen  eastern  colonies.  The  first 
schools  within  the  present  limits  of  the  United  States 
were  thus  founded  by  Catholic  missionaries.  It  is 
probable  that  the  eaj-liest  of  these  mission  schools  in 
New  Mexico  were  inaugurated  soon  after  the  effective 
occupation  of  the  region  by  Don  Juan  de  Onate  in 
1598.  In  Florida,  school  work  among  the  natives 
appears  to  have  been  begun  about  the  same  time.  A 
classical  school  existed  at  St.  Augustine  as  early  as 
1606.  The  Jesuits  estabhshed  a  series  of  flourishing 
schools  for  the  natives  of  Lower  Cahfornia,  early  in 
the  eighteenth  century;  and  the  Franciscans,  during 
its  last  quarter,  developed  the  singularly  successful 
mission  schools  in  Upper  California.  AH  of  these 
schools  for  the  natives  had  an  industrial  character. 
In  New  Orleans,  a  parish  school  was  opened  in  1722, 
four  years  after  the  founding  of  the  city;  and  five 
years  later  a  band  of  Ursuhne  Sisters  established  a 
convent  and  school  there  for  the  education  of  girls. 
There  is  evidence  also  of  the  existence  of  Catholic 
schools  at  a  very  early  period  at  St.  Louis,  Kaskaskia, 
Mackinaw,  Detroit,  and  Vincennes.  A  college  was 
opened  b\'  the  Jesuits  in  Maryland  in  1677,  and  an- 
other in  the  city  of  New  York,  about  1684,  under  the 
administration  of  Governor  Dongan;  and,  when  they 
founded  Catholic  missions  in  Pennsylvania,  schools 
were  opened  in  connexion  with  the  more  important 
parishes  as  a  matter  of  course. 

The  era  of  religious  freedom  ushered  in  by  the 
Revolution  resulted  in  the  multiplication  of  Catholic 
educational  institutions  of  every  kind.  Colleges  were 
founded  at  Georgetown  and  Mount  St.  Mary's,  and 
plans  were  framed  for  the  development  of  Catholic 
education  on  a  larger  and  more  systematic  scale. 
Fathers  Badin  and  Nerinckx  in  Kentucky,  and  Father 
Richard  at  Detroit,  were  energetic  and  farseeing  edu- 
cational pioneers.  Religious  teachers  for  the  schools 
also  began  to  appear.  Ahce  Lalor  opened  a  school  at 
Georgetown  in  1799,  which  became  the  mother-house 
of  the  Visitation  Si.sters  in  the  United  States.  Mother 
Seton  established  her  community  at  Emmitsburg  in 
1809;  Father  Nerinckx  founded  the  Sisterhood  of 
Loretto  in  Kentucky  two  years  later,  and  about  the 
same  time  Father  David  organized  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  Kentucky.  From  this  time  until  about 
the  year  1840  there  was  a  slow  but  solid  Catholic  edu- 
cational growth  throughout  the  eastern  half  of  the 
country,  with  the  steafly  increase  of  the  Catholic 
population.  Bishop  Kenrick  at  Philadelphia,  Bishop 
Dubois  at  New  York,  Bishop  Bfnedict  Fenwick  at 
Boston,  Bishop  Englanrl  at  Charleston,  Bishop  Du- 
bourg  in  Ixjuisiana,  and  Bishops  Flaget,  Rosetti,  Ed- 
ward Fenwick,  Res<';,  and  Brut^i  in  the  west,  were 
unremitting  in  their  labours  in  behalf  of  Cathohc 
education  in  their  respective  dioceses. 

About  the  year  1840  a  new  period  of  school  growth 
began,  with  the  inpouring  of  the  great  streams  of 
emigration  from  Germany  and  Ireland.  During  the 
years  1840-f)0  twice  as  many  dioceses  were  organized 
as  the  number  existing  at  the  br-ginning  of  this  period, 
and  the  heads  appointed  for  these  new  sees  were  as 
profoundly  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  Catholic 
schools  a«  had  been  the  great  bishops  of  the  earlier 
periods.  "The  school  alongside-  the  church"  was 
ever>'where  the  accept r-d  ((liKaiional  maxim.  The 
laity  were  of  one  mind  with  the  clergy  in  the  matter, 
and  the  building  of  schorjls  went  everywhere  hand  in 
hand   with   the  building  of  churches.     The   immi- 


grants were  poor,  but  they  gave  unstintedly  of  their 
hmited  means  for  the  erection  and  equipment  of  both. 
The  first  school  buildings  were  often  of  the  most 
makeshift  character,  but  they  were  gradually  replaced 
by  larger  and  more  commodious  structures.  The  re- 
sult was  that  the  two  hundred  parish  schools  existing 
in  the  country  in  the  year  1840  were  nmltiplied  sev- 
eral times  over  before  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War. 
The  problem  of  providing  teachers  for  the  new  schools 
was  generally  solved  b}'  an  apj^eal  to  the  existing  re- 
ligious communities  of  Europe.  Many  of  these  sent 
colonies  to  America,  and  so  rapid  was  the  growth  of 
these  colonies  that  their  members,  within  a  few  years, 
outnumbered  those  of  the  teaching  communities  pre- 
viously established  in  the  country.  Most  of  these 
new  boches,  too,  became  independent  of  the  parent 
organizations.  The  greater  number  of  the  teaching 
communities  now  in  the  United  States  trace  their 
American  origin  to  the  little  pioneer  bands  that 
crossed  the  ocean  to  take  charge  of  schools  for  the 
children  of  the  Irish  and  German  immigrants. 

Towards  the  year  1860  the  period  of  greatest 
growth  in  the  historj^  of  the  schools  may  be  said  to 
have  ended,  and  the  period  of  development  begun. 
All  through  the  eastern  half  of  the  country,  the  Catho- 
lic school  system  was  bj'  this  time  solidlj'  established. 
In  the  Far  Western  and  South-western  States,  the 
work  of  educational  growth  and  expansion  still  went 
on,  with  the  opening  of  the  country  there  to  settle- 
ment; and  great  bishops,  like  a  Blanchet  in  Oregon, 
an  Alemany  in  California,  a  Lamy  in  New  Mexico, 
and  a  Macheboeuf  in  Colorado,  were  called  upon  to 
do  heroic  pioneer  labour  in  the  founding  of  schools, 
like  that  which  had  been  done  farther  East  by  the 
bishops  of  an  earher  period.  But,  by  the  close  of  the 
immigration  period,  the  main  lines  of  the  vast  net- 
work of  schools  were  clearly  laid  down.  It  remained 
to  provide  for  the  internal  development  and  progress 
of  the  SA'stem,  and  to  adjust  more  perfectly  the  rela^ 
tions  of  its  component  elements.  This  has  been  the 
chief  aim  since  the  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Balti- 
more in  1866.  The  specific  purpose  and  results  of  the 
work  that  has  been  accomplished  in  this  direction  will 
be  dealt  with  more  in  detail  in  the  sections  that  follow. 
Legislation. — At  the  First  Provincial  Council  of 
Baltimore  in  1829,  it  was  declared  by  the  assembled 
Fathers  to  be  "absolutely  necessary  that  schools 
should  be  established,  in  which  the  young  may  be 
taught  the  principles  of  faith  and  morality,  while  be- 
ing instructed  in  letters".  This  was  the  first  author- 
itative declaration  of  the  Church  in  the  United  States 
on  the  subject  of  Cathohc  schools,  and  the  decrees  of 
subsequent  councils  have  but  reiterated,  amplified,  or 
given  more  precise  practical  effect  to,  the  general  law 
thus  laid  down.  The  First  Plenary  Council  of  Balti- 
more, held  in  1852,  exhorted  the  bishops  "to  see  that 
schools  be  established  in  connexion  with  all  the 
churches  of  their  dioceses",  and,  if  necessary,  to  pro- 
vide for  the  support  of  the  school  from  the  revenues 
of  the  church  to  which  the  school  was  attached.  Sev- 
eral of  the  bishops  of  the  W(!st  urged  even  stricter  leg- 
islation, and  at  the  Second  Provincial  Council  of  Cin- 
cinnati, six  years  later,  these  views  were  embodied  in  a 
formal  decree. 

The  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  did  little 
more  than  ratify  the  decrees  of  previous  coimcils.  In 
1875,  however,  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda  is- 
sued an  "Instruction  to  the  Bishops  of  the  United 
Statc!8  concerning  the  Public  Schools",  in  which  it 
was  pointed  out  that  the  public  schools  as  conducted 
involved  grave  danger  to  the  faith  and  morals  of 
Catholic  children,  and  that  consequently  both  the 
naturnl  and  tlie  Divine  law  forl)ade  tlie  attendance  of 
Catliolic  cliildren  at  sudi  scliools,  unless  tlie  proximate 
dang<'r  could  he  removed.  At  the  same  time,  tlu;  Sa- 
cred Congregation  admitted  the  possible  existence  of 
causes  which  would  excuse  Cathohc  parents  in  the 


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SCHOOLS 


matter,  and  it  was  left  to  the  conscience  and  judg- 
ment of  the  bishop  to  decide  in  each  case.  This  "In- 
struction" led  up  to  the  educational  legislation  of  the 
Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  in  1884.  The 
need  was  generally  felt  by  Catholics  for  more  precise 
and  specific  legislation  in  reference  to  the  schools,  both 
parochial  and  pubhc.  In  some  dioceses,  it  meant  ex- 
clusion from  the  sacraments  for  parents  to  send  their 
children  to  the  public  schools;  in  others,  it  appeared 
to  be  made  a  matter  of  little  or  no  account.  The  leg- 
islation enacted  by  the  Council  fully  answered  the 
general  expectation.  It  defined  the  obligations  im- 
posed by  the  moral  law  upon  parents  in  the  matter  of 
the  rehgious  education  of  their  children.  It  pro- 
vided for  the  case  in  which  children  were  practically 
compelled  by  circumstances  to  attend  the  public 
schools.  At  the  same  time,  it  sought  to  give  more 
specific  application  to  its  own  legislation  as  well  as 
that  of  previous  Councils  by  the  following  decree: — 
"  (1)  Near  each  church,  a  parochial  school  if  it  does 
not  yet  exist,  is  to  be  erected  within  two  years  from 
the  promulgation  of  this  Council,  and  is  to  be  main- 
tained in  ■perpctuum,  unless  the  bishop,  on  account  of 
grave  difficulties,  judge  that  a  postponement  be  al- 
lowed. 

(2)  A  priest  who,  by  his  grave  negligence,  prevents 
the  erection  of  a  school  within  this  time  or  its  main- 
tenance, or  who,  after  repeated  admonitions  of  the 
bishop,  does  not  attend  to  the  matter,  deserves  re- 
moval from  that  church. 

(3)  A  mission  or  a  parish  which  so  neglects  to  assist 
a  priest  in  erecting  or  maintaining  a  school,  that  by 
reason  of  this  supine  negligence  the  school  is  rendered 
impossible,  should  be  reprehended  by  the  bishop  and, 
by  the  most  efficacious  and  prudent  means  possible, 
induced  to  contribute  the  necessary  support. 

(4)  All  Cathohc  parents  are  bound  to  send  their 
children  to  the  parochial  schools,  unless  either  at 
home  or  in  other  Catholic  schools  they  may  sufficiently 
and  evidently  provide  for  the  Christian  education  of 
their  children,  or  unless  it  be  lawful  to  send  them  to 
other  schools  on  account  of  a  sufficient  cause,  ap- 
proved by  the  bishop,  and  with  opportune  cautions 
and  remedies.  As  to  what  is  a  Catholic  school,  it  is 
left  to  the  judgment  of  the  Ordinarj'  to  define". 

Other  decrees  of  the  Council  dealt  with  the  ques- 
tion of  the  improvement  of  the  schools.  The  more 
important  of  these  will  be  referred  to  in  the  course  of 
this  article. 

Attendance. — The  total  number  of  parish  schools 
in  the  United  States,  according  to  the  "Catholic  Di- 
rectory" of  1910,  was  4845,  with  an  attendance  of 
1,237,251.  The  total  number  of  pupils  in  Cathohc 
educational  institutions  of  all  kinds  the  same  year,  in- 
cluding colleges,  academies,  industrial,  reformatory, 
and  eleemosynary  schools,  was  1,450,488. 

Teachers. — On  the  basis  of  an  average  of  forty  pu- 
pils to  a  teacher,  the  above  figures  imply  that  there 
are  about  31,000  teachers  engaged  in  the  parish 
schools  of  the  United  States.  Fully  nine-tenths  of 
these  belong  to  religious  institutes.  The  proportion 
of  lay  teachers  to  rehgious  varies  greatly  with  locality. 
In  certain  districts  the  lay  teachers  are  very  numer- 
ous; in  most  of  the  dioceses,  however,  they  constitute 
but  a  small  fraction  of  the  whole  number.  The  num- 
ber of  male  teachers  is  also  relatively  small,  amounting 
to  not  more  than  one-fifteenth  of  the  total.  The  re- 
ligious teachers  are  divided  among  two  hundred  and 
seventy-five  distinct  teaching  bodies,  including  inde- 
pendent convents  as  well  as  congregations  or  orders. 
There  are  eleven  teaching  brotherhoods.  Many  of 
the  religious  organizations  have  less  than  one  hundred 
members,  others  have  several  thousand.  The  largest, 
the  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  has  nearly  four 
thousand  religious.  The  work  of  some  is  limited  to  a 
single  diocese,  while  others  have  schools  and  branch 
egtablishments  scattered  through  a  large  number  of 


states.  As  a  rule,  the  teaching  orders  have  extended 
their  work  wherever  opportunity  offered,  regardless  of 
state  or  diocesan  boundaries.  The  result  of  this  has 
been  to  make  parish  school  education  remarkably 
homogeneous,  as  compared  with  the  pubhc  school 
system. 

Many  of  these  teaching  bodies,  although  at  present 
entirely  independent  of  each  other,  have  sprung  from  a 
common  parent  organization.  Thus,  there  are 
twenty-four  independent  establishments  of  the  Bene- 
dictine Sisters,  twenty  of  the  Dominicans,  twenty-two 
of  the  Franciscans,  twenty-two  of  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph,  forty-six  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  eighteen  of 
the  Ursulines,  and  twenty  of  the  Visitation  Sisters. 
The  mother-houses  or  central  establishments  of  these 
communities  are  generally  located  in  the  United 
States.  Religious  communities  in  Canada  have  re- 
sponded generously  to  the  demand  for  teachers  in  the 
States,  especially  in  New  England,  where  the  French- 
Canadian  imniigration  has  been  so  large,  and  eighteen 
of  the  Canadian  teaching  congregations  now  have 
branch  establishments  in  this  country.  Eleven  com- 
munities look  to  mother-houses  in  France.  Besides 
these,  seven  communities  have  their  mother-houses  in 
Belgium,  six  in  Germany,  four  in  Italy,  and  one  each 
in  Holland,  Switzerland,  and  England. 

Candidates  for  admission  to  the  religious  life  are  re- 
quired to  spend  at  least  one  year  in  the  novitiate.  In 
the  case  of  the  teaching  orders,  the  novitiate  may  be 
regarded  as  a  normal  school  in  which  pedagogical 
training  goes  hand  in  hand  with  instruction  in  the 
principles  of  the  religious  life.  Before  entrance  into 
the  novitiate,  the  candidate  has  to  pass  through  a  pre- 
liminary course  of  instruction  in  the  secular  branches, 
and  this  course  covers  not  less  than  two  years.  The 
rules  of  all  the  teaching  orders  thus  provide  for  a  nor- 
mal training  lasting  for  at  least  three  years.  Previous 
to  the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  however, 
owing  to  the  demand  for  teachers,  the  pre-novitiate 
course  was  frequently  abbreviated,  and  sometimes 
even  omitted  altogether.  The  consequence  was  that 
teachers  were  often  insufficiently  trained  for  their 
work,  and  the  instruction  in  the  schools  suffered  ac- 
cordingly. The  legislation  of  the  Third  Plenary 
Council  went  far  towards  remedying  this  evil,  by  pro- 
viding that  regular  normal  schools  should  be  estab- 
lished by  the  communities  where  they  did  not  already 
exist,  and  that  candidates  should  be  allowed  to  re- 
main in  these  schools  until  they  had  satisfactorily 
completed  the  prescribed  work : — 

"  In  order  that  there  may  be  always  ready  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  Cathohc  teachers,  each  thoroughly 
equipped  for  the  holy  and  subUme  work  of  educa- 
tion of  youth,  we  would  have  the  bishops  concerned 
confer  with  the  superiors  of  congregations  dedicated 
to  the  work  of  teaching  in  the  schools,  either  directly 
on  their  own  authority  or,  if  need  be,  invoking  the 
a,uthority  of  the  Sacred  Congregation,  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  normal  schools  where  they  do  not  yet  ex- 
ist and  there  is  need  for  them.  These  are  to  be  in 
suitable  estabhshments,  in  which  the  young  may  be 
trained  by  skilful  and  capable  teachers,  during  a 
sufficient  period  of  time  and  with  a  truly  religious 
diligence,  in  the  various  studies  and  sciences,  in 
method  and  pedagogy,  and  other  branches  pertaining 
to  a  sound  training  for  teaching". 

In  order  to  give  effect  to  this  legislation,  the  Council 
decreed  the  establishment  of  school  boards  in  each 
diocese  for  the  examination  of  teachers,  and  made  it 
unlawful  to  engage  a  teacher  for  a  school  who  had  not 
obtained  a  diploma  from  the  diocesan  examiners: — 

' '  Within  a  year  from  the  promulgation  of  the  Council, 
the  bishops  shall  name  one  or  more  priests  who  are 
most  conversant  with  school  affairs,  to  constitute  a 
diocesan  board  of  examination.  It  shall  be  the  office 
of  this  board  to  examine  all  teachers,  whether  they  are 
religious  belonging  to  a  diocesan  congregation  or  secu- 


SCHOOLS 


582 


SCHOOLS 


lars,  who  wish  to  employ  themselves  in  teaching  in  the 
parochial  schools  in  the  future,  and,  if  they  find  them 
worthy,  to  grant  a  testimonial  or  diploma  of  merit. 
Without  this  no  priest  may  la%\-fully  engage  any 
teacher  for  his  school,  unless  they  have  taught  before 
the  celebration  of  the  Council.  The  diploma  will  be 
valid  for  five  years.  After  this  period,  another  and 
final  examination  will  be  required  of  the  teachers. 

"  Besides  this  board  for  the  examination  of  teachers 
for  the  whole  diocese,  the  bishops,  in  accordance  with 
the  diversity  of  place  or  language,  shall  appoint  sev- 
eral school  ijoards,  composed  of  one  or  several  priests, 
to  examine  the  schools  in  cities  or  rural  districts.  The 
duty  of  these  boards  shall  be  to  visit  and  examine 
each  school  in  their  district  once  or  even  twice  a  year, 
and  to  transmit  to  the  president  of  the  diocesan  board, 
for  the  information  and  guidance  of  the  bishop,  an 
accurate  account  of  the  state  of  the  schools". 

Only  lay  teachers  and  religious  belonging  to  a  dio- 
cesan commvmity  were  named  as  being  bound  by  this 
legislation,  but  indirectly  it  affected  all  Catholic 
teachers.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  teachers,  it  was  fre- 
quently found  difficult  to  enforce  the  requirement  of  a 
diocesan  diploma,  to  be  gained  by  a  formal  examina- 
tion. It  may  be  said,  however,  that  the  legislation  of 
the  Council  had  the  desired  effect.  All  the  rehgious 
communities  now  have  well-equipped  normal  schools, 
and  candidates,  unless  they  come  with  superior  quali- 
fications, are  usually  required  to  complete  the  full 
curriculum.  Summer  normal  schools  are  also  con- 
ducted at  the  leading  mother-houses,  the  courses  last- 
ing for  a  month  or  six  weeks.  In  many  dioceses,  too, 
summer  institutes  are  held,  the  religious  and  lay 
teachers  of  the  diocese  being  assembled  for  the  purpose 
during  a  week  or  two  at  some  convenient  place. 

Curriculum. — The  curriculum  of  the  parish  school 
comprises  eight  elementary  grades.  There  is  a  class 
in  catechism  daily,  and  Bible  history  is  also  taught 
several  times  a  week.  In  the  singing-class,  devo- 
tional hymns  are  used,  and  the  school-sessions  are 
opened  and  closed  by  prayers  or  brief  devotional  ex- 
ercises. Outside  of  these  religious  instructions  and 
practices,  it  may  be  said  that  the  curriculum  of  the 
Catholic  parish  school  does  not  differ  much  from  the 
curriculum  of  the  corresponding  public  school,  except 
that  there  is  a  stronger  tendency  in  the  former  to  em- 
phasize the  importance  of  those  branches  that  are 
commonly  designated  as  "the  Three  R's".  Dis- 
tinctively Catholic  textbooks  are  employed  quite  gen- 
erally, especially  in  the  lower  grades.  Textbooks  in 
common  use  in  the  public  schools  are,  however,  fre- 
quently used  in  the  teaching  of  the  purely  secular  sub- 
jects. In  the  matter  of  uniformity,  some  dioceses 
have  gone  much  farl  her  than  others.  In  some,  a  com- 
mon curriculum,  with  fixed  recitation-periods,  is  pre- 
scribed for  the  schools,  together  with  an  authoriziul 
scries  of  textbooks;  in  others,  a  common  curriculum 
is  prescribed,  but  the  selection  of  textbooks  and  the 
fixing  of  recitation-periods  is  left  to  the  pastors  and 
principals;  in  many  others,  again,  the  diocesan  au- 
thorities have  not  imposed  any  official  standards  of 
uniformity  in  these  respects,  except  in  the  matter  of  re- 
ligious instruction. 

Organization  ami  Administralion. — Three  elements 
of  authority  are  concerned  in  the  conduct  of  the 
parish  schwjl,  the  p;i.st or,  the  superiors  of  the  teachers, 
and  the  bishop.  'I'he  pjuitor  has,  besides  the  finantrial 
responsibility,  immediate  supervision  over  the  school 
with  respect  to  the  faithful  and  (ifficient  fulfilment  of 
its  work,  and  occupies  by  right  the  position  of  the 
schfKjl  principal.  Practically,  however,  he  shares  the 
responsibility  of  this  position  with  the  religious  su- 
perior in  charge  of  the  school.  The  supervision  of 
the  work  of  the  school,  in  most  instances,  is  really  left 
largely  t-f)  the  imm«'diate  religious  superior.  The 
higher  religious  superiors,  having  control  of  the  sup- 
ply of  teachers  and  of  the  teachers'  training  as  well  as  a 


supervision  of  the  teaching  in  a  large  number  of 
schools,  enjoy  a  practical  power  over  their  schools  that 
is  comparable  in  some  respects  with  that  of  the  bishop. 
The  bishop,  nevertheless,  possesses  the  supreme  con- 
trol over  all  the  school?  of  his  diocese,  subject  only 
to  the  regulations  of  the  Councils  and  of  higher  au- 
thority. It  is  chiefly  from  the  bishops  that  move- 
ments looking  towards  the  betterment  of  the  schools 
have  come.  And  the  trend  of  Catholic  school  devel- 
opment is  strongly  towards  an  increase  of  the  exer- 
cise of  the  episcopal  authority  over  the  schools. 

Bishop  Neumann  of  Philadelphia  in  1852  at- 
tempted a  diocesan  organization  of  Catholic  schools, 
by  instituting  a  "Central  Board  of  Education",  to  be 
composed  of  the  pastor  and  two  lay  delegates  from 
each  of  the  parishes  in  Philadelphia,  and  to  be  pre- 
sided over  by  the  bishop.  But  the  project  appears  to 
have  been  in  advance  of  the  times.  In  1879  Bishop 
Joseph  Dwenger  of  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana,  organized  a 
school  board,  consisting  of  eleven  members  and  a  sec- 
retary', all  being  priests.  The  board  was  to  have  con- 
trol of  studies  and  textbooks  in  the  schools  of  the  dio- 
cese, to  examine  teachers,  and  to  gather  statistical 
information  about  the  schools.  The  effect  was  seen 
to  be  so  wholesome  that  the  Fort  Wayne  plan  was 
adopted  by  the  Fourth  Provincial  Council  of  Cin- 
cinnati in  1882,  with  an  additional  provision  for  de- 
pendent local  school  boards  in  the  larger  places. 
When  the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  met, 
two  years  later,  it  practically  adopted  the  Cincinnati 
plan  for  all  the  dioceses.  Although  the  Council 
speaks  only  of  a  central  "board  of  examination",  and 
would  appear,  therefore,  to  limit  the  functions  of  this 
board  to  the  examination  and  approval  of  teachers,  it 
was  expected,  nevertheless,  that  more  ample  powers 
would  be  conferred  on  these  boards  by  the  bishops, 
and  this  in  fact  was  done.  Bishop  Gilmour's  "Con- 
stitution and  By-Laws  for  the  Government  of  the 
Parochial  Schools"  of  Cleveland,  issued  in  1887,  may 
be  taken  as  typical  of  diocesan  legislation  generally  in 
this  regard.  According  to  this  "Constitution"  the 
central  board  was  to  be  made  up  of  seven  members, 
who  were  to  be  examiners  of  teachers  as  well  as  in- 
spectors of  schools  in  their  respective  districts.  The 
board  was  vested  with  full  control  over  the  parish 
schools,  under  the  bishop.  Local  boards  were  also 
instituted,  to  consist  of  three,  five,  or  seven  members, 
who  were  to  visit  and  examine  each  school  within 
their  respective  localities  at  least  once  a  year. 

The  board  system  represented  an  important  ad- 
vance in  the  work  of  Catholic  school  organization,  and 
had  everywhere  a  quickening  effect .  It  soon  became 
evident,  however,  that  th(>  system  was  still  far  from 
perfect.  The  men  select (>d  to  serve  on  the  boards,  while 
devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  schools,  were  too  busily 
engaged  with  other  duties  to  give  more  than  a  small 
share  of  their  time  to  the  work.  Besides  this,  few  if 
any  of  them  had  had  any  formal  pedagogical  training. 
There  was  need,  it  was  seen,  of  an  executive  officer  of 
the  central  Board  who  should  be  specially  qualified 
for  the  work  of  inspection  and  supervision,  and  who 
should  devote  his  entire  time  to  this  ta.sk.  The  New 
York  school  board  took  the  lead  in  the  matter,  and  in 
the  year  1888  apjwinted  the  Rev.  William  J.  Degnan 
as  inspcfitor  of  schools.  He  was  succeeded  in  the 
office  the  following  year  by  the  Kev.  Mi<!hael  J.  Con- 
sidine,  who  served  in  this  (^apjicity  until  tlie  year  1!K)0. 
The  title  of  inspee-tor  was  eluuiged  to  that  of  sujjerin- 
tendent.  The  Diocese  of  Omaha  adopted  the  i)|;in 
in  W.n.  The  Rev.  John  W.  Shanahan,  later  Bishop 
of  Harrisburg,  was  ajjpointed  superintendent  of 
schools  for  th(!  Archdiocese  of  Philadelphia  in  1894. 
Soon  he  added  a  new  and  important  feature  to  the 
system;  this  was  the  appointment,  for  each  teaching 
order  in  the  diocese,  of  a  community  inspector  of 
schools,  the  idea  beinj?  that  the  recommendations  of 
the  superintendent  in  regard  to  the  teachers  and 


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teaching  would  be  more  easily  made  as  well  as  more 
effectively  carried  out  through  the  co-operation  of 
competent  authorized  representatives  of  the  respec- 
tive teaching  bodies.  The  system  of  diocesan  organ- 
ization, as  thus  developed,  consisted  of  a  central 
board,  with  a  superintendent  of  schools,  and  a  board 
of  community  inspectors  acting  in  conjunction  with 
the  superintendent  in  the  inspection  of  schools  and  in 
the  carrying  out  of  the  regulations  of  the  board.  In 
this  form,  the  system  has  been  adopted  by  other  dio- 
ceses, and  is  gradually  replacing  the  older  or  simple 
"board"  system.  Sixteen  dioceses  have  at  present 
introduced  the  "superintendent"  system,  while 
thirty-seven  still  adhere  to  the  original  "board" 
plan. 

Financial  Support. — Catholic  parish  schools  are 
either  "free"  or  "pay"  schools.  The  latter  are  sup- 
ported by  the  tuition  fees  of  the  pupils,  paid  to  the 
head  of  the  school.  Free  schools  are  usually  sup- 
ported by  the  parish  treasury,  although  here  and 
there  schools  are  found  whose  expenses  have  been 
provided  for,  in  whole  or  in  part,  by  the  endowment 
of  some  generous  individual.  The  general  tendency 
is  towards  free  schools,  and  even  where  tuition  fees 
are  relied  on,  it  is  usually  necessary  for  the  parish  to 
provide  for  part  of  tlie  school's  expense.  Teachers 
generally  receive  from  .S200  to  .S300  per  year  if  mem- 
bers of  a  sisterhood,  and  from  S300  to  $400  per  year 
if  members  of  a  brotherhood.  In  several  dioceses  the 
salaries  are  higher  than  this,  and  within  recent  years  a 
movement  for  the  increase  of  teachers'  salaries  has 
been  gaining  ground.  Lay  teachers  employed  in  the 
pari.sh  schools  receive  but  little  more  than  religious. 
Generally  speaking.  Catholic  teachers'  salaries  are 
less  than  one-half  as  much  as  the  salaries  of  corre- 
sponding teachers  in  the  public  schools,  and  the  actual 
cost  of  schooling  under  the  Catholic  system  is  only 
about  one-third  of  what  it  is  under  the  public  school 
system.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  average  an- 
nual per  capita  cost  of  parish  school  education  in  the 
United  States  is  $8.  This  would  mean  that  the  edu- 
cation of  the  1,237,251  pupils  in  the  parish  schools 
during  the  year  1909-10  cost  approximately,  for  that 
year,  .$9,898,008.  The  education  of  the  same  pupils 
in  the  public  schools  the  same  year  would,  according 
to  the  estimate  referred  to,  cost  approximately 
$30, .511,010;  and  if  the  annual  interest  on  the  neces- 
sary property  investment  were  added,  the  total  would 
be  upwards  of  .$34,000,000  (American  p]ccles.  Review, 
XLIV,  530).  This  is,  therefore,  about  the  amount  of 
money  that  the  Catholic  school  system  saves  annu- 
ally to  the  States. 

Catholic  Schools  and  the  State. — Catholic  schools 
are  thus,  in  general,  entirely  supported  by  the  volun- 
tary contributions  of  Catholics.  For  a  considerable 
period  after  the  Revolution,  however,  Catholic  schools 
in  many  places  were,  along  with  the  schools  of  other 
denominations,  supported  from  the  public  funds. 
This  was  the  case  in  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  from 
1835  to  1852.  In  the  City  of  New  York,  it  was  also 
the  case  until  the  year  1824.  The  efforts  of  Bishop 
Hughes,  in  1840  and  subsequently,  to  restore  this 
condition,  were  without  the  hoped-for  success. 
Gradually,  State  after  State  framed  laws  forbidding 
the  payment  of  public  funds  to  denominational 
schools  and  many  States  even  embodied  such  pro- 
visions in  their  con.stitutions.  Several  plans  for 
avoiding  the  legal  barriers  that  were  thus  raised 
against  the  attainment  of  their  rights  in  the  matter 
of  the  education  of  their  children  have  been  proposed 
and  put  to  trial  by  Catholics,  with  the  co-operation 
of  their  fair-minded  non-Catholic  fellow-citizens. 
One  of  the  most  celebrated  of  these  was  the  "Pough- 
keepsie  Plan",  which  was  accepted  by  the  public 
school  board  of  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  in  1873. 
Under  this  plan,  the  school  board  rented  the  Catholic 
school  buildings  for  a  nominal  sum,  and  accepted  the 


two  Catholic  schools  of  the  place  as  public  schools 
under  the  common  regulations  framed  for  the  public 
schools,  the  Catholic  teachers,  who  were  nuns,  con- 
tinuing as  before  and  receiving  their  salaries  from  the 
board.  The  board  agreed  likewi.se  to  keep  the  school 
buildings  in  repair.  The  plan  proved  to  be  mutually 
satisfactory,  and  was  continued  for  many  years.  Sub- 
stantially the  same  arrangement  was  made  in  several 
other  places  in  the  State  of  New  York.  The  arrange- 
ment was  discontinued  at  Poughkeepsie  in  1899, 
only  when  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
intervened,  and  rendered  a  decision  adverse  to  its 
constitutionality.  At  Lima,  in  the  same  state,  a 
similar  decision  was  rendered  by  the  superintendent 
in  1902,  and  the  appeal  against  this  to  the  courts 
resulted  finally  in  a  judgment  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  State,  which  sustained  the  action  of  the  superin- 
tendent. 

The  famous  "Faribault  Plan"  was  an  arrangement 
substantially  the  same  as  that  at  Poughkeepsie  which 
Archbishop  Ireland  effected  with  the  school  boards 
of  Faribault  and  Stillwater,  in  Minnesota,  in  1891. 
There  was  considerable  opposition  on  the  part  of 
Catholics,  however,  to  such  arrangements,  one  of  the 
chief  reasons  being  that  religious  instructions,  under 
the  agreement,  had  to  be  given  outside  of  the  regular 
school  hours.  An  appeal  to  Rome  in  the  Faribault 
case  resulted  in  the  decision  "Tolerari  potest",  21 
April,  1892,  which  authorized  the  continuance  of  the 
arrangement  under  the  specific  circumstances.  The 
controversy  among  Catholics  had  the  effect  of  con- 
centrating public  attention  upon  the  matter,  and  of 
arousing  slumbering  anti-Catholic  prejudice.  The 
Faribault  Plan  is  still  in  operation  in  some  places; 
and  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  especially  in  the 
west,  where  Catholic  settlements  are  numerous,  there 
are  Catholic  schools  which  derive  their  support  from 
the  public  school  boards.  But  such  arrangements 
are  purely  local.  In  certain  states,  recent  legal  de- 
cisions authorize  the  attendance  of  pupils  from  the 
parish  schools  at  the  manual  training  classes  in  the 
public  schools. 

In  connexion  with  these  practical  plans  for  the 
settlement  of  the  "school  question"  there  has  been 
frequent  discussion  among  Catholic  educators  and 
apologists  as  to  the  rights  of  the  State  in  respect  to 
education.  Dr.  Brown.son  would  deny  to  the  State 
the  right  to  educate,  in  the  strict  and  proper  sense 
of  the  term,  although  he  conceded  to  it  the  right  to 
establish  and  maintain  pubhc  schools.  This  was  the 
view  more  generally  held  by  American  Cathohc 
educators.  In  the  year  1891  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Bouquillon,  D.D.,  professor  of  moral  theology  at  the 
Cathohc  University,  Washington,  issued  a  pamphlet 
in  which  he  maintained  that  the  State  has  the  right 
to  educate,  in  the  sense  that  it  has  the  right  of  "es- 
tablishing schools,  appointing  teachers,  prescribing 
methods  and  programmes  of  study  " ;  and  that  "edu- 
cation belongs  to  men  taken  individually  and  collect- 
ively in  legitimate  association,  to  the  family,  to  the 
state,  to  the  church,  to  all  four  together,  and  not  to 
any  one  of  these  four  factors  separately".  These 
views  aroused  a  storm  of  controversy  which  lasted  for 
several  years,  and  engaged  the  attention  not  only  of 
Catholics  in  the  United  States  but  of  the  whole 
Catholic  world.  The  efforts  of  Cardinal  Satolli  to 
settle  the  question  by  means  of  a  series  of  fourteen 
propositions  which  he  submitted  to  the  board  of 
archbishops  at  their  meeting  in  New  York,  in  the 
autumn  of  1892,  were  futile;  and  the  agitation  sub- 
sided only  when  Pope  Leo  XIII  addressed  a  letter  to 
the  American  hierarchy  through  Cardinal  Gibbons  in 
May,  1893,  in  which,  while  appealing  for  the  cessation 
of  the  controversy,  he  declared  that  the  decrees  of  the 
Baltimore  Councils  were  to  be  steadfastly  observed 
in  determining  the  attitude  to  be  maint  ained  by  Cath- 
ohcs  in  respect  both  to  parish  and  to  public  schools. 


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SCHOOLS 


Schools  of  Foreign  Natiotialities. — One  of  the 
most  difficult  problems  that  has  confronted  the 
Church  in  the  United  States  has  been  the  education 
of  the  children  of  the  immigrants  arriving  from  foreign 
ehores  and  speaking  a  foreign  language.  These  im- 
migrants were  poor,  and  yet,  if  their  descendants  were 
to  be  saved  to  the  Faith,  it  was  imperative  that  Catho- 
lic schools  and  teachers  should  be  provided  for  them, 
as  well  as  churches.  The  missionan,'  priests  who  came 
to  minister  to  the  immigrants  were,  as  a  rule,  keenly 
ahve  to  the  importance  of  the  Catholic  school,  and, 
acting  in  conjunction  with  the  American  bishops, 
they  have,  to  a  great  extent,  overcome  the  difficulties 
that  stood  in  the  way  and  built  up  flourishing  systems 
of  schools.  The  chief  difficulty,  besides  poverty  of 
material  resources,  was  that  of  the  securing  of  compe- 
tent teachers.  Lay  teachers  were  commonly  em- 
ployed at  first.  Little  by  Uttle,  however,  religious 
were  introduced,  colonies  of  religious  teachers  being 
brought  from  abroad  for  this  purpose,  and  even  new 
rehgious  communities  founded  here.  Some  of  these 
communities  grew  rapidly,  and  they  have  furnished 
a  constantly  increasing  supply  of  teacherg  for  these 
schools. 

The  Polish  schools  have  the  largest  aggregate 
attendance.  They  are  scattered  all  over  the  coun- 
tr>-.  but  are  especially  numerous  in  the  large  in- 
dustrial centres.  There  were,  in  1910,  293  Polish 
parishes  with  schools,  having  an  attendance  of  98,126 
and  with  1767  teachers,  the  great  majority  of  these 
being  rehgious.  Next,  in  number  come  the  French 
schools,  most  of  which  belong  to  the  French-Cana- 
dians, and  are  located  in  New  England.  These  schools 
in  1910  numbered  161,  with  1480  teachers,  and  a 
total  attendance  of  63,048.  The  Italians,  aUhough 
they  compare  in  numerical  strength  with  the  Poles 
and  French,  are  far  behind  them  in  the  matter  of 
provision  for  Cathohc  education.  There  were  but 
48  Itahan  schools  in  1910,  with  271  teachers,  and  an 
attendance  of  13,838.  Bohemian  schools,  the  same 
year,  had  an  attendance  of  8978;  Slovak  schools, 
7419;  and  Lithuanian  schools,  2104,  with  a  corre- 
sponding number  of  teachers  of  these  nationalities. 
There  were  formerly  many  German  schools  in  the 
United  States,  but  schools  in  German  parishes  now 
generally  employ  English  as  the  medium  of  instruc- 
tion, although  German  is  taught  also  as  one  of  the 
regular  classes.  In  the  case  of  the  nationalities  men- 
tioned above,  Enghsh  is  always  a  part  of  the  curric- 
ulum of  the  schools,  and  often  it  is  the  chief  medium 
of  instruction.  In  Italian  schools,  very  little  time 
is  given  to  the  study  of  Italian,  and  the  same  is  true 
in  many  of  the  French-Canadian  schools.  In  schools 
of  the  Slavic  peoples,  more  time  is  given,  as  a  rule, 
to  the  parental  mother-tongue,  and  it  is  used  con- 
jointly with  English  as  a  medium  of  instruction. 
In  Polish  schools,  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the 
time  is  most  commonly  devoted  to  the  study  or  the 
use  of  the  PolLsh  language.  Many  of  the  States 
have  attached  to  their  child-labour  laws  the  condi- 
tion that  a  child,  even  though  of  employment-age, 
shall  have  acquired  the  abihty  to  read  and  write 
English.  Legislation  has  had  an  influence  in  the 
steadily  growing  predominance  of  the  EnglLsh  lan- 
guage in  the  schools  of  the  foreign  nationalities,  but 
the  effect  is  due  in  the  main  to  the  American  hfe 
and  atmosphere. 

Irulustrifil  Schools. — Catholic  industrial  schools 
in  the  United  States  number  117,  with  an  attendance 
of  probably  1.5,(XK).  Many  of  these  schools  are  re- 
forrnatorj'  in  character,  but  a  large  number  are  high- 
gra<ie  industrial  schfXjLs  in  charge  of  the  teaching 
orders.  There  are  also  manual  training  classes  in 
many  schools,  especially  in  schools  for  girls. 

Schooln  far  Negroan  ami  Jn/liariH. — There  are 
probably  near  1.50,CXX)  Catholic  negroes  in  the  United 
States,  and  for  these  there  exist  119  Catholic  schools, 


with  an  attendance  of  about  8000.  Various  religious 
communities  are  in  charge,  conspicuous  among  which 
are  two  congregations  of  coloured  Sisters,  the  Oblate 
Sisters  of  Providence,  founded  at  Baltimore  in  1829, 
and  which  now  has  a  membership  of  146,  and  the 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  of  New  Orleans,  which 
was  founded  in  1842,  and  has  a  membership  of  112. 
A  collection  is  taken  up  annually  in  all  the  churches 
of  the  United  States  for  the  mission  work  among  tke 
Negroes  and  Indians,  and  many  of  the  schools  derive 
their  support  from  this  source. 

The  number  of  Catholic  Indians  is  approximately 
100,000.  There  are  63  Cathohc  Indian  schools, 
with  nearly  5000  pupils.  About  6000  Catholic 
Indian  pupils  are  being  educated  in  the  government 
schools.  55  of  the  Catholic  schools  are  boarding 
institutions.  Many  of  these  are  of  an  industrial 
character,  the  policy  of  Catholics  in  respect  to  the 
education  of  the  Indians  having  always  been  to  give 
prominence  to  training  in  the  manual  and  industrial 
arts.  The  success  of  this  policy  has  been  often  testi- 
fied to  by  government  inspectors  of  Indian  schools 
as  well  as  by  distinguished  American  statesmen. 
A  limited  support  is  accorded  to  these  schools  by  the 
Federal  Government.  Under  the  so-called  "Peace 
Pohcy"  inaugurated  by  President  Grant  in  1870, 
about  80,000  Catholic  Indians  passed  from  Catholic 
to  Protestant  control.  Through  the  efforts  of  the 
Bureau  of  Catholic  Indian  Missions,  established  some 
.  years  later,  together  with  the  active  efforts  of  mem- 
bers of  the  hierarchy,  a  new  policy  was  inaugurated 
by  the  Government,  under  which  it  entered  into  con- 
tracts with  the  Catholic  authorities  concerned  to 
provide  for  the  support  of  Catholic  Indian  schools. 
Catholic  schools  multiplied  rapidly  in  consequerice 
until,  in  1896,  a  policy  was  entered  upon  which  in- 
volved the  entire  discontinuance  of  appropriations . 
for  denominational  schools.  In  the  year  1900  ap- 
propriations ceased.  To  keep  up  the  schools,  an 
organization  known  as  the  Society  for  the  Preser- 
vation of  the  Faith  among  Indian  Children  was 
founded,  and  with  the  contributions  from  this  society, 
together  with  the  annual  collection  taken  up  for  the 
purpose,  and  the  donations  of  generous  benefactors, 
many  of  the  Catholic  schools  were  kept  alive.  In 
1904,  under  the  administration  of  President  Roose- 
velt, through  the  work  of  the  Catholic  Indian  Bureau, 
a  considerable  allowance  was  made  to  certain  Catho- 
lic schools  by  the  Government  from  the  Indian 
tribal  funds,  in  answer  to  the  petitions  made  by 
Catholic  Indians.  This  policy  has  been  continued 
up  to  the  present,  and  in  1908  the  appropriations 
made  to  Catholic  schools  in  this  way  reached  the  sum 
of  .?111,586.90.  Prominent  among  the  agencies 
which  have  succes.sfully  laboured  in  behalf  of  Catholic 
Indian  education  has  been  the  community  of  Sisters 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  for  Indians  and  Coloured 
People,  which  was  founded  by  Mother  Katherine 
Drexel  in  1889.     These  nuns  now  number  143. 

Orphanages. — The  number  of  Catholic  orphanages 
in  the  United  States  in  1910  was  258:  45,343  children 
are  cared  for  and  educated  in  these  institutions, 
which  are  found  in  every  diocese,  and  which  are  in 
charge  of  religious  communities,  generally  of  Sisters. 
They  are  usually  supported  by  the  parishes  or  by  the 
voluntary  contributions  of  the  faithful.  A  hmited 
number  are  endowed.  (See  also  Education  of  thej 
Deaf  and  Dumb;  Education  of  the  Blind.) 

SecoTulary  Schools. — There  are  two  classes  of 
Catholic  secondary  schools  in  the  United  States, 
those  which  arc  intended  to  prepare  pupils  for  a 
higher  education,  and  those  wliich  are  closely  con- 
nected with  the  parish  scliools  and  aim  to  fit  at  least 
the  greater  number  of  their  pujMls  for  active  life. 
Th(!  former  an;  found  both  in  colleges  for  boys  and 
in  academics  for  girls.  The  latter  are  sometimes  an 
integral  part  of  the  parish  school  system,  or,  again, 


SCHOOLS 


585 


SCHOOLS 


they  may  be  without  direct  connexion  with  the  parish 
schools,  although  intended  to  complete  and  round 
out  their  work.  A  report  made  to  the  Cathohc 
Educational  Association  in  1908  showed  the  existence 
of  85  CathoUc  colleges  for  boys,  having  pupils  in 
collegiate  as  well  as  secondary  courses.  The  number 
of  students  pursuing  collegiate  courses  was  4232,  the 
number  in  the  secondary  or  high  school  departments 
was  10,137.  There  is  a  growing  sentiment  among 
Catholic  college  men  in  favour  of  at  least  a  wider 
separation  of  the  high  school  department  from  the 
college  proper. 

In  the  "CathoHc  Directory"  for  1910,  709  institu- 
tions are  classed  as  academies  for  girls,  with  an  at- 
tendance approximating  90,000.  The  larger  number 
of  these  institutions  have  no  collegiate  departments, 
and  are  to  be  regarded  as  secondary  schools.  All  the 
academies  have,  in  fact,  high  school  departments 
which  are  generally  denominated  the  'academic 
course",  with  the  exception  of  Trinity  College,  Wash- 
ington; and  nearly  all  have  also  elementary  schools, 
divided  into  the  "primary"  and  "preparatory" 
departments.  Probably  over  one-half  of  the  above 
total  attendance  is  in  these  elementary  departments. 
The  greater  part  of  the  remaining  half  is  in  the 
academic  or  high  school  departments.  Many  of  the 
larger  institutions  have  developed  collegiate  depart- 
ments that  compare  favourably  with  those  of  the 
best-equipped  colleges  for  boys.  The  number  of 
these  colleges  for  girls  as  well  as  the  number  of  their 
collegiate  students  is  at  present  growing  rapidly. 
The  curriculum  in  the  larger  institutions  thus  con- 
sists of  three  main  divisions,  the  elementary  depart- 
ment, the  academic  or  high  school  department,  and 
the  collegiate  department,  the  latter  two  covering 
each  four  years.  The  smaller  institutions  have,  as  a 
rule,  only  the  elementary  and  high  school  courses, 
although  their  high  school  or  "academic"  department 
is  sometimes  made  to  include  a  year  or  two  of  col- 
legiate work.  Besides  these  departments,  the  acad- 
emies generally  have  well-graded  and  thorough 
courses  in  art  and  music,  both  vocal  and  instrumental, 
leading  to  corresponding  honours  or  diplomas.  The 
ideals  of  culture  represented  by  these  latter  features 
are,  in  fact,  a  distinguishing  feature  of  the  work  of 
the  Catholic  academy,  and  constitute  one  of  its 
strongest  appeals  for  popular  favour  and  support. 

Within  the  past  quarter  of  a  century,  many 
Catholic  secondary  schools  or  high  schools  have  been 
developed  in  close  connexion  with  the  parish  schools. 
Most  often  these  high  schools  are  directly  attached 
to  single  parish  schools.  In  some  cases,  however, 
they  are  "central"  high  schools,  affiliated  with  a  num- 
ber of  inferior  schools.  Sometimes,  too,  they  stand 
alone,  although  receiving  their  pupils  from  the  upper 
grades  of  the  parish  schools.  Some  of  those  which  are 
attached  to  single  parish  schools  have  only  one  high 
school  grade,  but  most  of  them  have  from  two  to  four 
grades.  The  number  of  schools  with  four  full  grades 
is  rapidly  increasing,  and  there  is  also  a  notable  ten- 
dency towards  the  establishment  of  central  high 
schools.  A  committee  of  the  Catholic  Educational 
Association  reported,  in  the  year  1911,  the  existence 
of  304  Catholic  high  schools  for  boys  only  or  for  both 
boys  and  girls,  apart  from  the  academies  for  girls 
and  the  preparatory  departments  of  colleges  for  boys, 
with  a  total  attendance  of  7902  boys  of  high  school 
standing  and  6160  girls.  About  one-half  of  these 
schools  have  four  full  high  school  grades,  and  215 
of  them  have  courses  in  Latin.  The  total  number  of 
high  school  teachers  was  1006:  157  of  the  schools 
derive  their  support  from  tuition-fees,  164  from 
parish  revenues,  and  5  are  endowed.  The  investiga^ 
tions  of  the  committee  revealed  the  existence  of  a 
wide-spread  movement  for  the  development  of  facili- 
ties for  secondary  education  in  connexion  with  the 
parish  school  system.    The  movement  springs. from 


a  popular  demand,  and  is  based  on  the  fundamental 
idea  of  CathoUc  education.  It  is  evident  that  the 
further  progress  of  this  movement  is  destined  to 
have  a  highly  important  influence  upon  the  parish 
schools  as  well  as  the  academies  and  colleges.  (See 
also  Educational  Association,   Catholic.) 

Burns,  The  Cath.  School  System  in  the  United  States  (New 
York,  1908) ;  Catholic  Directory  (annual  issues) ;  Reports  of  the 
Cath.  Educational  Association  (annual) ;  Reports  of  the  Superin- 
tendents of  Schools,  especially  of  the  Dioceses  of  Philadelphia,  New 
York,  Cincinnati,  and  Pittsburg;  Amer.  Eccl.  Review,  III,  and 
passim;  Cath.  World  (New  York),  passim;  Amer.  Cath.  Quart. 
Rev.,  passim;  Educational  Briefs,  published  by  the  Rev.  Supt.  of 
Schools,  Philadelphia;  Amer.  Cath.  Quarterly  Researches,  passim; 
Shea,  Hist,  of  the  Cath.  Church  in  the  United  States  (Akron,  Ohio, 
1886-9.3);  Benavidbs,  Memorial  to  the  King  of  Spain  {1630); 
The  Cath.  Church  in  the  United  States  of  America:  I,  The  Religious 
Communities  (New  York,  1908) ;  Brownson,  Literary,  Scientific 
and  Political  Views  (New  York,  1893) ;  Concilii  plenarii  Bnlti- 
morensis  tertii,  acta  et  decreta  (Baltimore,  1886) ;  Cone,  provin.  et 
plen.  Baltimorensis  decreta  (Baltimore,  1853) ;  Bouquillon,  Edu- 
cation: To  WhomDoes  it  Belong?  (Baltimore,  1891);  Holaind,  The 
Parent  First  (New  York,  1891);  Conway,  The  State  Last  (New 
York,  1892) ;  Maes,  The  Life  of  Rev.  Charles  Nerinckx  (Cincin- 
nati, 1880);  Sadlier,  Elizabeth  Seton  (New  York,  1905);  The 
Story  of  Father  Samuel  ( Mazxuchelli)  and  Saint  Clara  (Chicago, 
1904);  Mannix,  Memoirs  of  Sister  Louise  (Boston,  1907);  Sisters 
OP  Mercy,  Rev.  Mother  M.  Xavier  Warde,  The  Story  of  Her  Life 
(Boston,  1902) ;  Abbelen,  Mother  Caroline  Friess  (St.  Louis, 
1893) ;  Life  and  Life-work  of  Mother  Theodore  Guerin,  by  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Congregation  of  the  Sisters  of  Providence  (New  York, 
1904) ;  A  Story  of  Fifty  Years,  from  the  Annals  of  the  Cong,  of  the 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  (Notre  Dame,  Indiana,  1905) ;  Gleanings 
of  Fifty  Years — The  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Nam.es  in  the  Northwest 
(1909);  Kruszka,  Historya  Polska  w  Ameryce  (Milwaukee,  1905). 

J.  A.  Burns. 

Schools,  Apostolic. — Where  the  Church  is  nor- 
mally organized  the  recruitment  of  the  secular 
clergy  is  provided  for  by  means  of  ecclesiastical 
seminaries.  The  Uttle,  or  junior,  seminaries  com- 
mence the  work,  the  theological  seminaries  complete 
it.  Missionary  countries  are  dependent  for  a  supply 
of  clergy  on  foreign  missionary  colleges  and  on 
apostolic  schools.  The  object  of  apostolic  schools 
is  to  cultivate  vocations  for  the  foreign  missions. 
Apostolic  schools,  as  distinct  from  junior  ecclesiastical 
seminaries,  owe  their  origin  to  Father  Alberic  de 
Foresta,  S.J.  (b.  1818;  d.  1876).  That  zealous  priest 
found  in  existence  many  works  of  zeal  for  the  spread 
of  the  Gospel — "The  Apostleship  of  Prayer", 
"The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith", 
"The  Holy  Childhood" — but,  excellent  as  these 
associations  are,  Father  de  Foresta  felt  that  they  were 
doomed  to  be  inefficient  unless  there  could  be  found  a 
supply  of  apostolic  men  to  preach  the  Gospel  and  to 
administer  the  sacraments.  Taught  by  experience 
in  the  guidance  of  souls,  he  felt  convinced  that  many 
pious  youths,  prevented  by  want  of  means  or  other 
circumstances  from  entering  the  ranks  of  the  secular 
clergy,  possessed  a  true  vocation  to  the  ecclesiastical 
state.  He  felt  a  desire  to  cultivate  such  vocations, 
and  to  utilize  them  for  the  advantage  of  the  foreign 
missions.  He  knew  that  the  Church  in  her  legisla- 
tion (Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXIII,  cap.  xviii, 
de  Ref.)  had  expressed  a  wish  that  the  children  of 
the  poor  should  be  admitted  to  the  sacred  ministry, 
and  should  receive  a  gratuitous  and  exclusively  ec- 
clesiastical education  to  prepare  them  for  it.  He 
therefore  formed  the  design  of  opening  a  school 
where  youths  who  gave  promise  of  an  ecclesiastical 
vocation,  and  who  were  disposed  to  go  and  labour 
on  foreign  missions,  might  be  properly  trained. 

With  the  approval  of  his  superiors,  Father  de 
Foresta  opened  the  first  apostolic  school  at  Avignon 
in  1865.  The  conditions  of  admission  were  of  two 
kinds:  those  which  regarded  the  pupils  and  those 
which  regarded  their  parents.  As  regards  the  former 
the  conditions  were:  (a)  that  the  pupil  should  be  at 
least  twelve  years  of  age;  (b)  possess  a  sufficient  ele- 
mentary education;  (c)  have  good  health;  (d)  present 
a  certificate  of  good  conduct  and  piety  from  his 
parish  priest;  (e)  have  a  sincere  desire  to  serve  God 
either,  as  a  priest  in  a  missionary  country,  or  as  a 


SCHOOLS 


586 


SCHOOLS 


religious  in  an  order  devoted  to  the  foreign  missions. 
As  regards  parents  the  conditions  were:  (a)  that  they 
should  give  their  consent  to  their  son's  entering  the 
school  and  a  written  agreement  not  to  oppose  his 
vocation  nor  require  his  return  home  during  the 
school  vacations;  (b)  that  they  should  engage  to 
receive  the  pupil  back  if  the  superiors  of  the  school 
judged  it  advisable  for  him  to  devote  himself  to  a 
secular  calling.  The  course  of  studies  in  the  apostolic 
school  comprised  a  thorough  training  in  the  Latin 
and  Greek  classics,  in  modern  languages,  and  in 
mathematics,  so  as  to  prepare  the  pupil  to  take  up 
philosophy  in  an  ecclesiastical  seminarj'  or  to  enter 
the  novitiate  of  a  religious  order.  The  residence  of 
the  scholars  was  near  one  of  the  colleges  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus.  The  pupils  attended  classes  along  with  the 
students  of  the  college,  and  thus  had  the  advantage 
of  emulation  and  competition  with  others  while 
living  under  ecclesiastical  discipline  in  their  own 
house.  For  the  material  support  of  the  school 
Father  Foresta  depended  partly  on  the  voluntarj-- 
fees  paid  by  the  parents  of  the  pupils,  according  to 
their  means,  and  partly,  or  rather  chiefly,  on  the 
charitable  contributions  of  the  faithful,  who  had 
come  to  understand  that  it  is  a  greater  work  of  piety 
to  educate  a  priest  than  to  build  a  church. 

The  good  work  commenced  by  Alberic  de  Foresta 
in  1865  prospered.  In  1868  similar  apostolic  schools 
were  established  at  Amiens  and  Turin;  in  1869  one 
was  opened  at  Poitiers,  in  1871  at  Turnhout  in  Bel- 
gium and  at  New  Orleans,  in  1873  at  Bordeaux,  in 
1874  at  Tananarive,  in  1877  at  Dole  and  at  Monaco, 
and  in  1879  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer.  Pius  IX,  in  a 
Brief  dated  12  April,  1867,  blessed  the  work  of  the 
apostolic  schools,  and  in  Briefs  dated  30  June,  1870, 
and  15  May,  1877,  repeated  his  approval  and  be- 
stowed indulgences  on  them  and  on  those  who  pro- 
moted them.  Anticlerical  legislation  in  France 
since  1880  has  been  an  obstacle  to  the  work.  But 
like  the  Apostles,  who  when  persecuted  in  one  city 
fled  to  another,  the  superiors  of  these  schools  have  not 
abandoned  their  pious  enterprise.  The  apostohc 
school  of  Avignon  has  been  several  times  transferred 
from  one  place  to  another,  and  is  now  located  at 
Eremo  Lanzo,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Turin,  where 
it  has  about  72  pupils.  The  school  at  Bordeaux 
has  been  transferred  to  Vitoria  in  Spain,  where  it 
carries  on  its  work  with  fifty  pupils.  The  Amiens 
apostolic  school  has  been  transferred  to  Littlehamp- 
ton,  in  England,  and  thence  to  Thicu,  in  the  Diocese 
of  Tournai,  Belgium.  The  school  at  Poitiers  still 
exi.sts.  In  1881  the  number  of  students  in  the  schools 
founded  by  Father  de  Foresta  amounted  to  between 
four  hundred  and  five  hundred,  and  they  had  already 
given  about  five  hundred  missioners  to  the  Church. 
When  the  schools  of  Avignon,  Amiens,  Tumhoui, 
Poitiers,  and  Bordeaux  heS  been  only  about  thirty 
years  in  existence  they  had  already  educated  about 
one  thousand  missionaries.  The  Bordeaux  school 
alone  has  up  to  1911  produced  two  hundred  and 
fifty  priests,  secular  and  regular. 

Besides  the  apostolic  schools  on  the  Continent,  the 
Jesuit  Fathers  possess  a  flourishing  apostolic  school 
at  Mungret,  near  Limerick,  in  Ireland.  The  Mungret 
apostolic  school  owes  its  origin  to  the  Rev.  William 
Ilonan,  S.J.  In  the  wjursc  of  his  missionary'  work 
throughout  Ireland  Father  Ronan  had  met  many 
boys  who  gave  signs  of  an  ecclesiastical  vocation, 
but  who,  from  lack  of  means  or  other  causes,  were 
unable  to  attain  the  object  of  their  aspirations. 
Father  Ronan  was  eventually  appointed  rector  of 
the  Jesuit  college  at  Limerick,  anrl  he  then  conceived 
the  idea  of  opening  an  apost/olic  school  in  cx)nnexion 
with  that  establishment.  On  24  September,  1880, 
a  commenwment  was  ma/le  with  eight  pupils.  Two 
years  later  the  Jc-suit  Fathers  acquired  possession  of 
the  government  agricultural  college,   built  on   the 


site  of  the  famous  monastic  school  of  Mungret,  which 
dated  from  the  days  of  St.  Patrick  and  had  been 
confiscated  at  the  Reformation.  There,  under  the 
title  of  Mungret  College,  the  apostolic  school  was 
established,  and  a  new  department  opened  for  lay 
students.  Father  Ronan,  its  first  rector,  visited 
the  United  States  in  1884  and  had  an  opportunity  of 
explaining  to  several  members  of  the  American  hier- 
archy the  object  of  his  apostolic  school.  He  obtained 
permission  to  appeal  to  the  faithful  for  means  to 
enlarge  the  school  buildings  and  to  found  burses.  His 
appeals  met  with  a  liberal  response.  On  his  return 
to  Ireland  he  enlarged  the  buildings  of  Mungret 
College  and  founded  several  burses  for  the  edu(uition 
of  students.  In  191 1  the  number  of  apostoUc  scholars 
in  the  college  was  seventy-three. 

The  course  of  studies  extends  over  a  period  of 
about  seven  years,  and  on  leaving  the  school  the 
scholars  are  qualified  to  enter  a  theological  seminary, 
or  the  novitiate  of  a  religious  order.  The  scholars 
attend  the  classes  of  the  Jesuit  college  at  Mungret. 
The  efficiency  of  the  teaching  is  attested  by  the 
success  which  the  pupils  have  obtained  in  the  Inter- 
mediate examinations,  and  in  those  of  the  (late) 
Royal  University  of  Ireland.  In  a  list  of  one  hundred 
and  sixty-three  former  pupils  given  in  the  "Mun- 
gret Apostolic  Record",  1910,  there  arc  to  be  found 
one  M.A.,  sLxty  B.A.'s,  and  nine  who  in  their  higher 
theological  studies  obtained  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Theology.  In  1910  the  number  of  pupils  who  left 
the  school  to  go  on  to  higher  ecclesiastical  studies 
was  twelve.  The  average  yearly  number  since  1886 
has  been  eight.  The  Mungret  students  are  permitted 
vacations  at  their  homes  and  are  at  full  liberty  to 
study  for  the  secular  mission  in  a  foreign  missionary 
countr}%  or  to  enter  a  religious  order  having  charge, 
of  foreign  missions.  The  list  of  past  pupils  above 
referred  to  shows  how  this  liberty  is  exercised:  out 
of  one  hundred  and  sixty  three  pupils,  forty-nine 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  seven  became  Redemp- 
torists,  4  Vinccntians,  2  Passionists,  2  Dominicans, 
1  a  Discalced  Carmelite;  all  the  others,  98  in  number, 
entered  the  ranks  of  the  secular  clergy.  The  Mun- 
gret apostolic  scholars  are  to  be  found  in  China, 
India,  the  Philippine  Islands,  Africa,  Australia,  and 
America.  In  the  United  States  a  Union  of  Mungret 
Apostolic  Alumni  was  formed  in  1910.  Means  for 
the  support  of  the  school  are  derived  partly  from  pay- 
ments made  by  the  parents  of  the  pupils,  and  partly 
from  endowments  and  subscriptions  made  by  pious 
benefactors.  Benefactors  who  make  a  donation 
of  £700  ($3500),  a  sum  sufficient  to  found  a  burse  in 
perpetuity,  are  styled  founders.  Those  who  give 
£180  (.$900),  a  sum  sufficient  for  the  support  of  a 
student  for  six  years,  are  called  protectors,  while 
those  who  give  £1  (.$5)  annually  are  called  subscribers. 
All  share  in  the  indulgences  granted  by  the  Holy  See 
to  those  who  promote  apostolic  schools;  and  in  the 
weekly  Masses  and  ]:)rayers  offered  for  benefactors, 
as  well  as  in  the  monthly  Mass  which  all  graduates 
of  the  school  who  become  priests  are  pledged  to 
celebrate  during  life  for  their  benefactors. 

The  example  set  by  Father  do  F'oresta  has  found 
many  imitators.  Most  religious  orders  and  congre- 
gations have  established  apostolic  schools  for  the 
recruitment  of  their  own  ranks  or  for  the  foreign 
missions.  Amongst  them  may  be  mentioned  the 
Vincentians,  the  Salesians,  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  the  Missionaries  of  St.  .Joseph's,  Mill  Hill,  the 
White  Fathers,  the  African  Missionaries  of  Lyons, 
the  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  the  Mission- 
aries of  Mont-St-Michcl,  the  Dominicans,  Francis- 
cans, and  Redemptorists.  The  Feathers  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Mission  have  several  flourishing 
apostolic  schools:  at  Dax  in  France,  with  112  pupils; 
Wernhoutsburg  in  Holland,  150;  Ingelmunster  in 
Belgium,  transferred  in  1904  from  Loos  near  Lille,- 


SCHOOLS 


58' 


SCHOOLS 


with  60  pupils;  Vienna,  50  pupils;  Perry ville,  Missouri, 
48  pupils;  Germantown,  Pennsylvania,  with  70 
pupils.  Of  these  the  schools  at  Dax  and  at  Wern- 
houtsburg  may  be  taken  as  tjTJes.  In  1864  there  was 
founded  at  the  birthplace  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  an 
establishment  representing  the  various  charitable 
works  instituted  by  the  saint.  Out  of  that  establish- 
ment there  sprang  a  technical  and  a  secondary'  school. 
Some  of  the  boys  manifested  a  desire  to  enter  the 
ecclesiastical  state,  and  in  1871  an  apostolic  school 
was  commenced  with  nine  pupils.  In  a  few  years 
the  number  increased  to  40,  and  in  1911  it  amounted 
to  112,  consisting  of  boys  from  various  departments  of 
France,  together  with  two  Spaniards,  nine  Portuguese, 
two  Greeks,  and  two  Algerians.  The  pupils  present 
themselves  of  their  own  accord  with  the  consent  of 
their  parents.  An  essential  condition  of  admission 
is  the  desire  to  prepare  for  the  ecclesiastical  state. 
The  pupils  are  free  to  choose  to  study  for  the  foreign 
missions,  or  to  return  to  their  own  dioceses.  At  the 
close  of  each  year  those  who  give  no  solid  promise  of 
an  ecclesiastical  vocation  are  dismis.sed.  In  the 
higher  classes  only  those  are  retained  who  manifest 
a  vocation  for  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission. 
About  one  in  three  of  the  pupils  enters  the  congre- 
gation. The  others  become  priests  in  their  native 
dioceses,  or  enter  religious  communities,  or  return  to 
secular  life.  The  course  of  studies,  comprising  the 
classics,  modern  languages,  and  mathematics,  is 
similar  to  that  followed  in  the  Catholic  secondary 
schools  of  France,  and  ends  with  rhetoric,  after 
which  the  puj)ils  who  have  remained  up  to  the  highest 
class  enter  the  novitiate  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Mission.  The  resources  of  the  school  are  derived 
to  some  extent  from  payments  made  by  the  parents 
of  the  pupils,  but  chiefly  from  allocations  granted  by 
the  superior  general  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Mission.  The  past  pupils  of  the  school  are  to  be 
found  at  present  in  the  vicariates  entrusted  to  the 
Congregation  in  China,  Persia,  Abyssinia,  and  Mada- 
gascar. The  school  at  Wernhoutsburg  was  founded 
in  1882,  and  in  object  and  organization  resembles  that 
at  the  Berceau  de  St- Vincent  near  Dax.  The  number 
of  students  in  1911  w'as  150.  Besides  instruction 
in  the  Classics  and  mathematics  there  are  classes 
in  French,  Dutch,  German,  and  English.  From 
twelve  to  fifteen  students  annually  enter  the  novi- 
tiates of  the  Congregation.  The  pension  payable 
by  the  students  is  300  francs  (about  $60)  a  year. 
Those  who  have  no  vocation  for  the  Congregation 
of  the  Mission,  but  desire  to  complete  their  studies 
in  the  school,  pay  a  pension  of  500  francs  ($100). 

The  Salesian  Fathers,  founded  by  Ven.  Giovanni 
Melchior  Bosco,  possess  several  flourishing  apostolic 
schools,  such  as  those  at  Toumai  in  Belgium,  at 
Nyon  in  Switzerland,  at  Le  Catel  in  Guernsey.  The 
object  of  the  Salesian  apostolic  schools  is  to  foster  the 
ecclesiastical  vocations  of  boys  who  on  account  of 
poverty  are  unable  to  enter  the  diocesan  seminaries. 
The  conditions  of  admission  are  good  conduct  and  a 
desire  and  aptitude  for  the  priesthood.  The  course 
of  studies  prepares  them  to  enter  a  diocesan  seminary, 
a  foreign  missionary  college,  or  a  religious  order,  in 
the  choice  of  which  they  are  left  full  liberty.  The 
most  important  of  the  Salesian  schools  is  that  at  63 
Boulevard  Leopold,  Toumai,  Belgium,  founded  in 
1895.  The  number  of  pupils  in  1911  is  170,  of  whom 
60  entered  in  1910.  The  establishment  has  received 
encouragment  from  the  cardinals  of  Mechlin,  Co- 
logne, Ravenna,  from  the  cardinals  in  France,  and 
from  more  than  fifty  archbishops  and  bishops.  The 
Salesian  school  in  Guernsey  has  seventy  pupils. 
There  is  also  a  preparatory  Salesian  school  at  Surrey 
House,  Surrey  Lane,  Battersea,  London. 

The  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  have  an  apostolic 
school  at  Grange-over-San ds  in  the  Diocese  of  Liver- 
pool and  an  apostolic  college  with  60  students  at 


Cornwells,  Archdiocese  of  Philadelphia,  United 
States.  The  Fathers  of  St.  Joseph's  Missionary 
College,  Mill  Hill,  London,  have  an  apostolic  school 
(St.  Peter's)  at  Freshfield,  Liverpool,  founded  in 
1884,  where  youths  between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and 
twenty  are  admitted  to  study  the  humanities  in  prep- 
aration for  entrance  at  St.  .Josei)h's  College.  The 
present  number  of  students  is  forty-seven.  The 
chief  conditions  of  admission  are,  a  sound  English 
education,  recommendation  from  a  priest,  and  a 
small  nominal  pension.  The  work  of  the  Mill  Hill 
Missionary  Fathers  in  Uganda,  Madras,  Punjab, 
and  the  Philippine  Islands  is  the  fruit  of  the  educa- 
tion begun  at  the  Freshfield  school.  Other  congre- 
gations have  similar  apostolic  schools.  The  Petits 
Clercs  de  Saint  Joseph  have  one  at  Suse  in  the  North 
of  Italy.  The  number  of  pupils  in  1910  was  eighty, 
and  the  establishment  has  already  given  more  than 
three  hundred  missionaries,  including  priests  and 
brothers,  to  the  Church.  The  Missionaries  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  have  established,  for  the  recruitment  of 
their  own  order,  an  organization  called  "La  petite 
ceuvre  du  Sacre  Coeur  pour  I'encouragement  des 
vocations  sacerdotales  et  apostoliques".  The  num- 
ber of  pupils  in  its  various  establishments,  one  of 
which  is  at  Fribourg  in  Switzerland,  is  about  six 
hundred.  This  institute  has  already  produced  more 
than  three  hundred  priests  and  two  bishops.  The 
congregation  of  the  White  Fathers  (Peres  Blancs) 
have  one  hundred  and  sixty  students  in  their  various 
apostolic  schools  preparing  for  missionary  work  in 
North  Africa.  The  Lyons  Society  of  African  Mis- 
sions have  a  preparatory  school  at  Cork  in  Ireland, 
and  in  their  various  schools  they  have  a  total  of  three 
hundred  students.  The  Company  of  Mary  have  an 
apostolic  school  at  Romsey,  Hants,  whither  it  was 
recently  transferred  from  Belgium,  while  the  Fathers 
of  St-Edme-de-Pontigny  have  an  apostolic  school 
at  Hit  chin,  recently  transferred  from  Mont-Saint- 
Michel  in  Normandy.  The  Franciscans,  the  Domini- 
cans, the  Passionists,  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immacu- 
late, and  the  Redemptorists  also  have  apostolic  schools 
for  the  recruitment  of  their  own  orders. 

It  has  been  impossible  to  obtain  complete  statis- 
tics of  all  existing  apostohc  schools.  The  following 
figures  give  the  status  of  the  chief  apostolic  schools  in 
1911:  Jesuit,  Eremo  di  Lanzo  (transferred  from 
Avignon),  72  pupils;  Vitoria  (transferred  from  Bor- 
deaux), 50  pupils;  Turnhout,  Belgium;  Poitiers;  Thieu, 
82  pupils;  Mungret,  Ireland,  73  pupils;  Vincentian, 
Dax,  112  pupils;  Wernhoutsburg,  150  pupils;  Ingel- 
munster,  60  pupils;  Vienna,  50  pupils;  Perryville,  Mis- 
souri, 48 pupils;  Germantown,  Pennsylvania,  70pupils; 
Salesian,  Tournai,  170 pupils;  Guernsey,  70  pupils;  St. 
Joseph's,  Mill  Hill,  St.  Peter's,  Freshfield,  47  pupils; 
Petits  Clercs  de  Saint-Joseph,  Suse,  Italy,  80  pupils; 
Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Cornwells,  Pennsylvania, 
60  pupils;  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  in  various 
schools  and  colleges,  600  pupils;  White  Fathers,  in 
various  schools  and  colleges,  160  pupils;  Society  of 
the  African  Missions,  in  various  schools  and  colleges, 
300  pupils.  This  account  of  the  apostolic  schools 
shows  how  the  Holy  Spirit  is  at  work  in  the  church, 
calling  and  preparing  vessels  of  election  to  preach  the 
name  of  God  to  Gentiles.  The  work  of  apostolic 
schools  is,  according  to  the  words  of  Pius  IX,  "salu- 
tary and  useful"  (salutare  et  utile).  "It  is",  wTote 
Monseigneur  de  Segur,  "one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful flowers  which  the  garden  of  the  Church  presents 
at  the  present  day  to  the  eyes  of  God  and  men". 
The  graduates  of  those  schools  are  apostles,  and 
those  who  contribute  to  their  education  have  a 
share  in  the  work  and  are  partakers  in  the  reward 
of  apostles. 

De  Chazourne,  Alberic  de  Foreata.  S.J.,  fondateur  des  Ecoles 
ApostoliqueK,  sa  vie,  et  son  wuvre  (Paris,  1881);  Delbrkl,  Pour 
repeupler  nos  siminaires    (Paris,    1907) ;   L'Ecole  apoatoUque  de 


SCHOOLS 


588 


SCHORLEMER-ALST 


Bordeaux,  transf^f  A  Vitoria,  Espagne,  Compte  rendu  annuel 
1909-1910  (Bordeaux);  L'Ecole  apostolique  d'Arignon  el  de  D6le 
transfire  a  N.  D.  des  Anges,  Eremo  di  Lanzo  H"  Italie.  Annees  1909- 
1910  (Turin,  1911);  Le  recrutement  sacerdotal  in  Revue  Trimes- 
trielle.  no.  3S  (Paris,  June,  1910);  Manuel  des  (Euvres.  Institu- 
tions Religieuses  el  charitables  de  Paris  (Paris,  1911);  Annates  de 
la  Congregation  dela  Mission  (July,  1911);  The  Apostolic  Record: 
Mungret  College,  I  (Limerick,  September,  1910);  St.  Joseph's 
Foreign  Missionary  Adtocate.  A  quarterly  illustrated  record,  VI 
(Mill  Hill,  London,  Spring  quarter,  1909),  no.  11;;  C.*.hill,  Mun- 
gret, A  Brochure;   The  Mungret  Annual,  (1898-11). 

Besides  the  books  and  pamphlets  above  mentioned  the  writer 
of  this  article  has  derived  much  information  from  letters  received 
from  the  superiors  of  the  apostolic  schools  at  Eremo  di  Lanzo, 
Vitoria,  Dax,  Wernhoutsburg,  Tournai,  Thieu  and  St.  Joseph's 
Alissionary  College,  Mill  Hill. 

Patrick  Boyle. 

Schools,  Clerks  Regul.\r  of  the  Pious,  called 
also  Piarists,  Scolopii,  Escolapios,  Poor  Clerks  of  the 
Mother  of  God,  and  the  Pauline  Congregation,  a  re- 
Hgious  order  founded  in  Rome  in  1597  by  St.  Joseph 
Calasanctius  (q.  v.).  As  a  member  of  the  Confrater- 
nity of  Christian  Doctrine  he  went  about  the  country 
instructing  the  people,  and  his  experience  convinced 
him  of  the  necessity  of  providing  the  children  of  the 
poor  with  rehgious  instruction  at  an  early  age.  Anto- 
nio Brendoni,  pastor  of  Santa  Dorotea  in  Trastevere, 
placed  two  rooms  at  his  disposal  and  assisted  him  in 
the  work,  in  which  they  were  afterwards  joined  by  two 
other  priests.  It  was  not  long  before  the  reputation 
of  the  school  increased  the  attendance  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  Calasanctius  removed  it  to  a  building  within 
the  city,  where  he  took  up  his  residence  with  his  com- 
panions. When  two  years  later  the  school  was  again 
removed,  this  time  to  the  Vestri  Palace  in  the  vicinity 
of  Sant'  Andrea  della  Valle,  community  life  was  inau- 
gurated among  the  associates,  and  Clement  VIII 
showed  his  approval  of  the  work  by  ordering  the  pay- 
ment of  a  yearly  allowance  of  200  scudi  for  rent  of  the 
house.  Criticism  ensued  which  led  to  an  inspection 
of  the  schools  by  Cardinals  Antoniani  and  Baronius, 
which  resulted  satisfactorily,  the  approval  of  Paul 
V  was  even  more  pronounced  than  that  of  his  prede- 
cessor. In  1612  the  growth  of  the  schools  necessi- 
tated the  purchase  of  the  Torres  Palace,  and  on  25 
March,  1617  Calasanctius  and  his  companions  re- 
ceived the  religious  habit,  the  saint  changing  his  name 
to  Joseph  of  the  Mother  of  God,  thus  inaugurating  the 
practice  of  dropping  the  family  name  on  entering  the 
religious  life.  The  most  noted  of  his  early  compan- 
ions were  Gaspare  Dragonette,  who  joined  the  saint 
at  the  age  of  95  and  died  a  saintly  death  in  1628  at  the 
age  of  120;  Bernardino  Pannicola,  later  Bishop  of  Ra- 
velin; Juan  Garcia,  afterwards  general  of  the  order; 
the  learned  Gellio  Ghellini;  Tomas.so  Vittoria;  Vivi- 
andi  de  Colle;  Melchiore  Albacchi,  etc. 

The  congregation  was  made  a  religious  order  18 
Nov.,  1621  by  a  Brief  of  Gregory  XV,  under  the  name 
of  "Congregatio  Paulina  Clericorum  regularium  pau- 
perum  Matris  Dei  scholarum  piarum".  The  Consti- 
tutions were  approved  31  Jan.,  1622,  when  the  new  or- 
der was  given  the  privileges  of  the  mendicant  orders 
and  Calasanctius  was  named  general,  his  four  assist- 
ants being  Pictro  Casani,  Viviano  Vivani,  Francesco 
Castelli,  and  Paolo  Ottonelli.  On  7  May  of  the  same 
year  the  novitiate  of  St.  Onofrio  was  opened.  In  1656 
Alexander  VII  rescinded  the  privilege  of  solemn  vows 
granted  by  Gregory  XV,  and  added  tf)  the  simple  vows 
an  oath  of  perseverance  in  the  congregation.  This 
was  again  altered  by  Clement  IX  in  1669,  who  re- 
stored the  Piarists  to  the  condition  of  regulars.  But 
petitions  from  members  who  hesitated  to  bind  them- 
selves by  solemn  vows  led  Clement  X  in  1670  to  issue  a 
Brief  which  empowered  the  general  of  the  Piarists  to 
dispense  from  solemn  vows  laymen  or  clerics  in  minor 
orders,  while  ordained  clerics  in  possession  of  a  suffi- 
cient patrimony  or  a  benefice  were  restored  to  the  ju- 
ri.sdiction  of  their  bishops.  The  Piarists  are  exempt 
from  episcopal  jurisdiction  and  subject  only  to  the 
general,  who  is  elected  every  six  years  and  has  four 


assistants.  In  virtue  of  a  Brief  of  Alexander  VIII 
(1690)  they  ceased  to  be  discalced.  Their  habit  is 
closed  in  front  with  three  leathern  buttons,  and  they 
wear  a  short  mantle.  The  order  spread  rapidly  even 
during  the  founder's  lifetime  and  at  present  it  has  nine 
provinces  (Italy,  Austria,  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Hun- 
gary, Poland,  Spain,  Chile,  and  Central  America),  121 
houses  with  2100  members  and  about  40,000  pupils. 
The  Piarists  have  won  distinction  in  the  sphere  of 
education.  Their  first  care  is  to  provide  free  educa- 
tion for  poor  children,  but  they  also  receive  pupils 
from  the  middle  classes  and  the  nobility,  and  since 
1700  they  have  taught  besides  the  elementary 
branches  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences.  At  the  time  of 
their  foundation  in  Poland  and  Lithuania,  Clement 
XII  formally  commissioned  them  to  teach  the  higher 
studies.  The  course  consists  of  nine  classes,  the  plan 
of  studies  is  uniform,  as  are  also  the  textbooks,  which 
to  a  great  extent  are  compiled  by  members  of  the  or- 
der. Like  the  Jesuits  they  devote  special  attention  to 
the  acting  of  Latin  dramas  by  the  students.  A  mem- 
ber of  the  order,  Francis  Hermann  Czech  (d.  1847), 
was  very  successful  in  his  work  of  teaching  the  deaf 
and  dumb.  Among  the  writers  and  learned  men  of 
the  order  are  the  general  Pietro  Francesco  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception,  author  of  the  "Polygraphia 
sacra  seu  Eleucidarium  biblicumhist.-myst".  (Augs- 
burg, 1724);  Philip  of  St.  James,  who  edited  the  chief 
Sentences  of  the  "  Maxima  Sanctorum  Patrum  BibHo- 
theca"  (Lj^ons,  1719);  Arn.  Zeglicki,  whose  "Biblio- 
theca  gnomico  hist.-symb.-politica"  was  published  at 
Warsaw  in  1742;  Alexis  a  S.  Andrea  Ale.xi  (d.  1761), 
moral  theologian;  Antonius  a  Santo  Justo,  author 
of  "Schola  pia  Aristotelico-Thomistica"  (Saragossa, 
1745);  Gottfrid  a  S.  Elisabetha  Uhhch  (d.  1794),  pro- 
fessor of  heraldry  and  numismatics;  Augustine  Odo- 
brina,  who  was  actively  associated  with  Leibniz; 
Adrian  Ranch,  historian;  Josef  Fengler  (d.  1802), 
Bishop  of  Raab ;  Remigius  Dottier,  professor  of  physics 
at  the  University  of  Vienna;  Franz  Lang,  rector  of  the 
same  university;  the  general  Giovanni  Inghirami  (d. 
1851),  astronomer;  Johann  N.  Ehrlich  (d.  1864),  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  the  University  of  Prague;  A. 
Leonetti,  author  of  a  biography  of  Alexander  VI  (Bo- 
logna, 1880);  Filippo  Cecchi;  Karl  Feyerfcil,  mathe- 
matician; and  Franz  Kraus,philologian.  Many  mem- 
bers of  the  order  led  lives  of  eminent  sanctity.  In  his 
Life  of  St.  Joseph  Calasanctius,  Tosetti  gives  a  list  of 
54  who  between  1615  anil  1756  died  edifying  deaths, 
among  them  Petrus  Casani  (d.  1647),  the  first  novice 
master  of  the  order;  the  fourth  superior  general,  Co- 
simo  Chiara  (d.  1688);  Petrus  Andreas  Taccioni  (d. 
1672);  the  lay-brother  Philip  Bosio  (d.  1662);  Anto- 
nio Muscia  (d.  1665);  and  Eusebius  Amoretti  (d. 
1685). 

Ca88anova8  y  Sanz,  Jose  de  Calasam  y  su  Instituto  (Saragossa, 
1904);  Helyot,  Hi.-it.  des  ordres  religieux  (Paris,  1792),  IV,  281 
sqq.;  Brendler,  Das  wirken  der  PP.  Piaristen,  etc.  (Vienna, 
1896) ;  Seyfert.  Ordens-Regeln  der  Piaristen  (Halle,  1783) ;  Schai^ 
LER,  Kurze  Lebensbeschreibungen  gelehrler  Mdnner  aus  dem  Orden 
der  jfrommen  Schulen  (Prague,  1799);  F.  los  Horanyi,  Scriptorea 
piarum  scholarum  (Buda.  1809);  Schaller,  Gedanken  uber  die 
Ordensverfassung  der  Piaristen  u.  ihr  Lehrart  (Prague,  1805); 
Heimbucher,  Orden  u.  Kongregationen,  III  (Padrrborn,  1908). 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 

Schorlemer-Alst,  Burghard  Freiherr  von,  so- 
cial reformer,  b.  at  Heringhausen,  Westphalia,  21  Oct., 
1825;  d.  at  Alst,  17  March,  1895.  lie  received  his 
early  education  at  home  from  the  domestic  chajjlain 
and  then  studied  as  a  cadet  at  the  Royal  Saxon  Mili- 
tary College  at  Dresden.  After  this  he  was  a  Pru.s- 
sian  officer  in  an  Uhlan  regiment,  and  in  1849  took 
part  in  the  campaign  in  Baden.  In  1852  he  left  the 
army,  married  the  Countess  Droste  zu  Vischering. 
whose  maiden  name  was  Baroness  von  Imbsen,  and 
obtained  possession  of  the  manorial  estate  of  Alst  in 
the  circle  of  liurgsteinfurt.  In  1862  he  published  his 
celebrated  parapldet  "Die  Lage  des  Bauernstandes  in 


SCHOTT 


589 


SCHOTTENKLOSTER 


Westfalen  und  was  ilim  not  thut"  (The  condition  of 
the  peasant  class  in  WestphaHa  and  what  it  needs). 
In  this  pamphlet  he  proposed  the  founding  of  an  inde- 
pendent peasant  union.  In  the  same  year  the  first 
two  societies  were  formed,  and,  following  the  example 
of  these,  peasant  unions  were  formed  in  nearly  all  the 
districts  of  Westphalia,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  six- 
ties there  were  nearly  10,000  members.  Schorlemer 
worked  both  by  speech  and  in  writing  for  the  develop- 
ment of  this  great  undertaking.  In  1863  he  was  made 
a  member  of  the  Prussian  agricultural  board;  in  1865 
he  was  the  temporary  president  of  the  central  agri- 
cultural union,  and  in  1867  he  was  made  the  manager 
of  the  same.  As  such  he  founded  the  agricultural 
schools  at  Liidinghausen  and  Herford.  In  1870  he 
was  also  the  manager  of  the  provincial  agricultural 
union  of  Westphalia. 

His  parliamentary  career  began  in  1870.  In  the 
years  1870-89  Schorlemer  was  a  member  of  the  lower 
house  of  the  Prussian  Diet;  in  1870-89  and  1890  a 
member  of  the  imperial  Reichstag.  He  belonged  to 
the  Centre  party,  and  during  the  Kulturkampf  -was  an 
indefatigable  champion  of  the  Church.  He  was  con- 
sidered one  of  the  best  speakers  and  debaters  in  each 
of  these  parliaments;  possessing  both  acuteness  and 
racy  humour,  "ruthless  but  honourable",  as  Bis- 
marck said;  he  fought  unweariedly  the  opponents  of 
the  Church  in  the  Kulturkampf.  In  1893  he  came 
into  conflict  with  the  Centre  because  he  demanded  a 
better  presentation  of  agricultural  interests. 

His  permanent  reputation,  however,  rests  upon  his 
organization  of  the  peasants.  In  1871  the  various 
peasant  unions  were  dissolved,  and  on  30  Nov.,  1871 
one  peasant  union,  the  Westphalian  Peasant  Union, 
as  it  exists  at  present,  was  founded.  Its  purpose  is 
the  moral,  intellectual,  and  economic  improvement  of 
the  peasant  class,  on  a  foundation  of  Christian  prin- 
ciples. In  1890  the  union  had  20,500  members,  in 
1895  25,000,  and  now  has  over  30,000.  The  activi- 
ties of  the  association  extend  in  all  directions;  among 
its  branches  are:  loan  and  savings  banks,  testing  sta- 
tions for  agricultural  machinery  and  implements,  de- 
partment of  building,  department  of  forestry,  insur- 
ance against  liability,  association  for  the  purchase  and 
sale  of  articles  necessary  in  agriculture,  boards  of 
arbitration  and  amicable  adjustment  of  difficulties, 
legal  bureau,  etc.  The  association  is  not  only  a  bless- 
ing to  Westphalia,  but  also  for  the  whole  of  Germany, 
for  it  has  been  the  model  for  the  formation  of  a  number 
of  other  peasant  associations. 

Many  honours  were  conferred  upon  the  founder  of 
this  organization.  Among  other  marks  of  distinction 
he  was  made  in  1884  a  mtnnber  of  the  council  of  state, 
and  in  1891  a  member  for  life  of  t  he  upper  house  of  the 
Prussian  Diet.  The  Emperor  William  II  had  a  very 
high  regard  for  him.  The  pope  appointed  him  privy 
chamberlain  and  commander  of  the  orders  of  Gregory 
and  Sylvester.  In  1902  the  peasant  imion  of  West- 
phalia erected  a  monument  to  him  in  front  of  the  par- 
liament building  of  the  provincial  diet  at  Munster. 

Schorlemer,  as  even  non-Cathohc  newspapers  ad- 
mitted, was  a  nobleman  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word, 
a  harmonious  and  thorough  man;  one  who  success- 
fully combined  an  ideal  conception  of  Ufe  with  practi- 
cal aims;  his  motto  was  "Love  and  justice". 

Schorlemer-Alst,  Reden  gehalten  1S72-79  (Osnabriick,  1880); 
BuER,  Dr.  Burghard  Freiherr  von  Schorlemer-Alst  (Miinater, 
1902). 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Schott,  Gaspar,  German  physicist,  b.  5  Feb., 
1608,  at  Konigshofen;  d.  12  or  22  May,  1666,  at 
Augsburg.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  20 
Oct.,  1627,  and  on  account  of  the  disturbed  political 
condition  of  Germany  was  sent  to  Sicily  to  complete 
his  studies.  While  there  he  taught  moral  theology 
and  mathematics  in  the  college  of  his  order  at  Palermo. 
He  also  studied  for  a  time  at  Rome  under  the  well- 


known  P.  Kircher.  He  finally  returned  to  his  na- 
tive land  after  an  absence  of  some  thirty  years,  and 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  at  Augsburg  engaged 
in  the  teaching  of  science  and  in  literary  work. 
Both  as  professor  and  as  author  he  did  much  to 
awaken  an  interest  in  scientific  studies  in  Germany. 
He  was  a  laborious  student  and  was  considered  one 
of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time,  while  his  simple 
life  and  deep  piety  made  him  an  object  of  veneration 
to  the  Protestants  as  well  as  to  the  Catholics  of  Augs- 
burg. Schott  also  carried  on  an  extensive  corre- 
spondence with  the  leading  scientific  men  of  his  time, 
notably  with  Otto  von  Guericke,  the  inventor  of  the 
air-pump,  of  whom  he  was  an  ardent  admirer.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of  works  on  mathemat- 
ics, physics,  and  magic.  They  are  a  mine  of  curious 
facts  and  observations  and  were  formerly  much  read. 
His  most  interesting  work  is  the  "Magia  universa- 
lis naturae  et  artis",  4  vols.,  Wiirzburg,  1657-1659, 
which  contains  a  collection  of  mathematical  problems 
and  a  large  number  of  physical  experiments,  nota- 
bly in  optics  and  acoustics.  His  "  Mechanicahy- 
draulica-pneumatica"  (Wiirzburg,  1657)  contains  the 
first  description  of  von  Guericke's  air-pump.  He 
also  published  "  Pantometricum  Kircherianum " 
(Wiirzburg,  1660);  "Physica  curiosa"  (Wiirzburg, 
1662),  a  supplement  to  the  "Magia  universalis"; 
"Anatomia  physico-hydrostatica  fontium  et  flu- 
minum"  (Wiirzburg,  1663),  and  a  "Cursus  mathe- 
maticus"  which  passed  through  several  editions. 
He  also  edited  the  "Itinerarium  extacticum"  of 
Kircher  and  the  "Amussis  Ferdinandea"  of  Curtz. 

Heller,  Geschichte  der  Physik,  II  (Stuttgart,  1882),  144; 
So\iMERVoaEh,  Biblioth.  delaComp.de  JesuK,  VII  (Paris,  1896), 
903;   St.  L^qer,  Notice  des  ouvrages  de  Q.  Schott  (Paris,  1765). 

H.  M.  Brock. 

Schottenkloster  (Scotch  Monasteries),  a  name 
applied  to  the  monastic  foundations  of  Irish  and 
Scotch  missionaries  on  the  European  continent, 
particularly  to  the  Scotch  Benedictine  monasteries  in 
Germany,  which  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century  were  combined  into  one  congregation  whose 
abbot-general  was  the  Abbot  of  the  monastery  of  St. 
James  at  Ratisbon.  The  first  Schottenkloster  of  which 
we  have  any  knowledge  was  Sackingen  in  Baden, 
founded  by  the  Irish  missionary,  St.  Fridolin,  towards 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  The  same  missionary 
is  said  to  have  founded  a  Schottenkloster  at  Constance. 
A  century  later  St.  Columbanus  arrived  on  the  con- 
tinent with  twelve  companions  and  founded  Anne- 
gray,  Luxeuil,  and  Fontaines  in  France,  Bobbio  in 
Italy.  During  the  seventh  century  the  disciples  of 
Columbanus  and  other  Irish  and  Scotch  missionaries 
founded  a  long  list  of  monast(!ries  in  what  is  now 
France,  Germany,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland.  The 
best  known  are:  St.  Gall  in  Switzerland,  Disiboden- 
berg  in  the  Rhine  Palatinate,  St.  Paul's  at  Besangon, 
Lure  and  Cusance  in  the  Diocese  of  Besan^on,  Beze 
in  the  Diocese  of  Langres,  Remiremont  and  Moyen- 
moutier  in  the  Diocese  of  Toul,  Fosses  in  the  Diocese 
of  Liege,  Mont-St-Michel  at  Peronne,  Ebersmiinster 
in  Lower  Alsace,  St.  Martin  at  Cologne.  The  rule 
of  St.  Columbanus,  which  was  originally  followed 
in  most  of  these  monasteries,  was  soon  superseded 
by  that  of  St.  Benedict.  Later  Irish  missionaries 
founded  Honau  in  Baden  (about  721),  Murbach  in 
Upper  Alsace  (about  727),  Altomunster  in  Upper 
Bavaria  (about  749),  while  other  Irish  and  Scotch 
monks  restored  St-Michel  in  Thierache  (940),  Wal- 
Bort  near  Namur  (945),  and,  at  Cologne,  the  Mon- 
asteries of  St.  Clement  (about  953),  St.  Martin 
(about  980),  St.  Symphorian  (about  990),  and  St. 
Pantaloon  (1042).  Towards  the  end  of  the  eleventh 
and  in  the  twelfth  century,  a  number  of  Schotten- 
kloster, intended  for  Scotch  and  Irish  monks  exclu- 
sively, sprang  up  in  Germany.  About  1072,  three 
Scotch  monks,   Marian,  John,  and  Candidus,   took 


SCHRADER 


590 


SCHRANE 


up  their  abode  at  the  little  Church  of  Weih-St- 
Peter  at  Ratisbon.  Their  number  soon  increased 
and  a  larger  monastery  was  built  for  them  (about 
1090)  by  Burgrave  Otto  of  Ratisbon  and  his  brother 
Henn,'.  This  became  the  famous  Scotch  Monas- 
ten,'  of  St.  Jacob  at  Ratisbon,  the  mother-house  of 
a  series  of  other  Schottenkloster.  It  founded  the 
Abbeys  of  St.  Jacob  at  Wiirzburg  (about  1134), 
St.  .Egidius  at  Nuremberg  (1140),  St.  Jacob  at  Con- 
stance (1142),  Our  Blessed  Lady  at  Vienna  (1158), 
St.  Nicolas  at  Memmingen  (1168),  Holy  Cross  at 
Eichstiitt  (1194),  and  the  Priory  of  Kelheim  (1231). 
These,  together  with  the  Abbey  of  St.  Jacob  at  Erfurt 
(1036),  and  the  Priory  of  Weih-St-Peter  at  Ratisbon, 
formed  the  famous  congregation  of  the  German 
Schottenkloster  which  was  erected  by  Innocent  III 
in  1215,  with  the  Abbot  of  St.  Jacob  at  Ratisbon 
as  abbot -general.  In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  most  of  these  monasteries  were  on  the 
decline,  partly  for  want  of  Scotch  or  Irish  monks, 
partly  on  account  of  great  laxity  of  discipline  and 
financial  difficulties.  In  consequence,  the  abbeys 
of  Nuremberg  and  Vienna  were  withdrawn  from 
the  Scotch  congregation  and  repeopled  by  German 
monks  in  1418.  The  Abbey  of  St.  Jacob  Wiirzburg 
was  left  without  any  monks  after  the  death  of  Abbot 
Philip  in  1497.  It  was  then  repeopled  by  German 
monks  and  in  l.')06  joined  the  congregation  of  Burs- 
feld.  In  1595,  however,  it  was  restored  to  the  Scotch 
congregation  and  continued  to  be  occupied  by  Scotch 
monks  until  its  suppression  in  1803.  The  abbey  of 
Constance  began  to  decline  in  the  first  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century  and  was  suppressed  in  1530.  That 
of  ]\Iemmingen  also  disappeared  during  the  early 
period  of  the  Protestant  Reformation.  The  Abbey 
of  Holy  Cross  at  Eichstiitt  seems  to  have  ceased 
earlv  in  the  fourteenth  century.  In  consequence 
of  the  Protestant  Reformation  in  Scotland  many 
Scotch  Benedictines  left  their  country  and  took 
refuge  in  the  Schottenkloster  of  Germany  during 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  Scotch  monasteries  in 
Ratisbon,  Erfurt,  and  Wiirzburg  again  began  to 
flourish  temporarily,  but  all  endeavours  to  regain 
the  monasteries  of  Nuremberg,  Vienna,  and  Con- 
stance for  monks  of  Scotch  nationality  were  useless. 
In  1692  Abbot  Placidus  Flemming  of  Ratisbon  reor- 
ganized the  Scotch  congregation  which  now  com- 
prised the  monasteries  of  Ratisbon,  Erfurt,  and 
Wiirzburg,  the  only  remaining  Schottenkloster  in 
Germany.  He  also  erected  a  seminary  in  connexion 
with  the  mona-stery  at  Ratisbon.  But  the  forced 
secularization  of  monasteries  in  1803  put  an  end  to 
the  Scotch  abbeys  of  Erfurt  and  Wiirzburg,  leaving 
St.  Jacob's  at  Ratisbon  as  the  only  surviving  Schot- 
tenkloster in  Germany.  Though  since  1827  this 
monastery  was  again  permitted  to  accept  novices, 
the  number  of  its  monks  dwindled  down  to  two  capit- 
ulars in  1862.  There  being  no  hope  of  any  increase, 
Pius  IX  suppressed  this  last  Schottenkloster  in  his 
brief  of  2  September,  1862.  Its  revenues  were  dis- 
tributed between  the  diocesan  seminary  of  Ratisbon 
and  the  Scotch  Cfjllege  at  Rome. 

I{F,N7..  HeUrOne  nur  Or^rh.  der  SrhoUenahtei  SI.  Jacob  u.  deg  Pri- 
oratn  Weih  St.  Peler  in  Regenshurfj  in  Stwlien  und  Miileilungen  aus 
dem  B<'n.  un4  CUt.  Orden,  XVI-XVIII  rBrttnn,  189.5-7);  JaN- 
NER,  Die  Srhollen  in  Ref/ennhura  und  ihre  Kirche  zu  St.  Jacob  (Rat- 
iflbon.  \HH'>);  Waldf.rdorf,  .S.  Mercherdnch,  S.  Marian  und  die 
Anfange  der  SchoUfnkldiler  in  Rcnennburt]  in  Verhandlungen  des 
hi>,t.  Vereino  ton  Oborpfah.  XXXIV  (Ratisbon,  1879).  187-2.32; 
Wattf.nbach  in  Zeilirhrift  fUr  chrinlliche  Archaologie  und  Kunul 
(IH.V.).  21-:J0.  49-.5H;  Hooan,  Iri^h  Monasteries  in  Germanu  in 
Irish  Ecrl.  Record.  XVI  (Dublin.  ISO.")).  80.5-874;  Dunn.  Irish 
Monks  on  the  Continent  in  Cnth.  UniversUi/  Bulletin,  X  (1904), 
307-.328;  Lindvf.r,  Monnsticon  Metropolis  Sahburgensis  antiqut 
(.^alzburK,  190S),  417-422;  Gouoaud.  CEuvre  deji  Srolti  dans 
VEnrope  Continental  in  Rev.  d'llist.  EccL.  IX  (Lourain,  1908). 
21-37.257-277.  MiCHAEL     OtT. 

Schrader,  Clement,  Jesuit  theologian,  b.  at  It- 
ztim,  in  Hanover,  Nov.,  1820;  d.  at  Poitiers  23  Feb., 
1875.     He  studied  at  the  German  College  at  Rome 


(1840-48)  and  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  on  17  May, 
1848.  For  a  time  he  filled  the  post  of  prefect  of 
studies  in  the  German  College;  subsequently  he  lec- 
tured in  the  Roman  College  on  dogmatic  theology, 
and  later  on  joined  the  theological  faculty  of  Vienna. 
In  1867  he  became  a  member  of  the  theological  com- 
mission appointed  to  prepare  the  preliminaries  for  the 
Vatican  Council.  On  his  refusal  to  take  the  oath  of 
fidelity  to  the  Constitution  of  1867  he  was,  not  long 
after  the  council  had  been  prorogued,  deprived  of 
his  professorship  by  the  Austrian  Government.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  the  teaching 
of  theology  in  the  Catholic  University  of  Poitiers 
where  he  succumbed  to  an  attack  of  pneumonia. 
Schrader's  thorough  grasp  of  scholastic  theology  is 
evidenced  by  the  many  works  that  bear  his  name. 
Chief  among  these  are:  "De  Deo  Creante";  "De 
triplici  Ordine";  eight  series  of  these,  dealing  with 
various  theological  questions,  e.  g.  predestination, 
actual  grace,  faith,  human  society;  "De  unitate  Ro- 
mana"  (according  to  Hurter,  by  far  his  ablest  work). 
He  assisted  Passaglia  in  several  of  his  works,  notably 
in  the  latter's  monumental  treatise  on  the  Immacu- 
late Conception.  He  was  also  actively  engaged  in  the 
conduct  of  a  periodical  published  at  Vienna  (1864- 
67),  and  entitled  "Der  Papst  und  die  modernen 
Ideen".  The  Syllabus  of  Pius  IX  is  given  in  a  Ger- 
man translation  and  a  number  of  counter  proiwsitions 
added  with  a  view  to  bringing  out  in  clearer  light  the 
exact  significance  of  the  errors  condemned  in  the 
Syllabus. 

Hurter,  Nomenclator,  III,  1245;  Sommervoqel,  Bibl.  de  la  C. 
de  J.,  VII,  912. 

J.  A.  Cahill. 

Schram  (Schramm),  Dominic,  a  Benedictine  theo- 
logian and  canonist,  b.  at  Bamberg,  24  October,  1722; 
d.  in  the  monastery  of  Banz  near  Bamberg,  21  Sep- 
tember, 1797.  He  took  vows  at  Banz,  13  November, 
1743,  and,  after  being  ordained  priest,  18  August, 
1748,  taught  at  his  monastery:  at  first,  mathematics 
(1757),  then  canon  law  (1760),  then  philosophy  (1762) 
and,  soon  after,  theology.  In  1782  he  reluctantly  ac- 
cepted the  position  of  prior  in  the  monastery  of 
Michelsberg  at  Bamberg,  whence  he  returned  to 
Banz  in  1787.  His  chief  works  are:  "Compendium 
theologise  dogmaticic,  scholasticae,  et  moralis,  me- 
thodo  scientifica  propositum",  3  vols.  (Augsburg, 
1768;  3d  edition,  Turin,  1837-9);  "  Institutiones 
theologise  mysticaj",  2  vols.  (Ausburg,  1774;  3d  edi- 
tion, Paris,  1868),  his  best  work;  Analysis  operum 
SS.  Patrum  et  scriptorum  ecclesiasticorum",  18  vols., 
reaching  as  far  as  St.  Damasus  (Augsburg  1780-96); 
"Institutiones  juris  ecclesiastici  publici  et  privati", 
3  vols.  (Augsburg,  1774-5;  2d ed.,  1782);  "Epitome 
canonum  ecclesiasticorum  ex  conciliis  Germaniaj  col- 
lecta"  (Augsburg,  1774);  and  a  newly-arranged  edi- 
tion of  the  "Summa  Conciliorum"  of  Carranza  con- 
tinued up  to  Pius  VI,  4  vols.  (Augsburg,  1778). 

LiNDNF.R,  Die  Schriftstfller  des  Benediktiner-Ordens  in  Bayern 
1750-1880  (Rati.sbon,  1880)  II,  213-4;  Hurter,  Nomenclator 
Literarius,  III.  340-1. 

Michael  Ott. 

Schrank,  Franz  Paula  von,  naturali.st,  b.  at  Varn- 
bach  near  Schiirding  on  the  Inn,  21  August,  1747;  d.  at 
Munich,  22  Dcicember,  1835.  At  the  age  of  nine  he 
commenced  his  studies  at  the  Jesuit  College  at  Paa- 
sau,  and  at  fifteen  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus.  The 
first  year  of  his  novitiate  was  spent  at  Vienna,  and  the 
second  at  the  college  in  Oedenburg,  Hungary,  where 
Father  Sluha,  a  former  missionary  in  Brazil,  interested 
him  in  the  study  of  nature.  His  higher  studies  were 
made  sliccessively  at  Raab,  Tyrnau,  and  Vienna.  His 
strength  having  been  impaired  by  excessive  (exertion 
during  his  botanical  expedition,  he  was,  in  1769,  ap- 
pointed instructor  at  the  college  at  Linz.  After  the 
suppression  of  his  order,  he  moved  to  Vienna  where  he 


SCHRAUDOLPH 


591 


SCHUBERT 


was  ordained  priest  in  December,  1774,  and  gained  his 
doctorate  of  theology  in  1776.  Having  returned  to 
his  native  place,  he  published  his  first  studies  in  natu- 
ral history;  "Beitrage  zur  Naturgeschichte "  (1776). 
In  the  same  year  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  mathe- 
matics and  physics  at  the  lyceum  at  Amberg  and 
afterwards  to  that  of  rhetoric  at  Burghausen.  Here 
he  found  an  opportunity  of  studying  agriculture.  In 
1784,  he  became  professor  of  agriculture,  mining,  for- 
estry, botany,  and  zoology  at  the  University  of  Ingol- 
stadt  (later  re- 
moved to  Land- 
shut).  In  1809 
the  Munich  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences 
elected  him  a 
member  on  the 
condition  of  his 
undertaking  the 
direction  of  the 
newly-established 
botanical  garden. 
To  this  task  he 
devoted  the  rest 
of  his  life.  Pos- 
sessed of  compre- 
hensive knowl- 
edge and  keen 
judgment,  he  was 
highly  esteemed 
and  received 
many  public 
marks  of  honour 
and     distinction. 


Franz  de  Paula  Schrank 

From  a  portrait  in  the  Bibliothfique  Na- 

tionale,  Pari.s,  engraved  by  F.  John 


Acting  several  times  as  rector  during  the  years  of  his 
professorship  at  Ingolstadt  and  Landshut,  he  had  on 
many  occasions  to  defend  the  interests  of  the  univer- 
sity during  the  P'rench  and  Austrian  occupations. 

Schrank's  activity  as  a  writer  is  really  astonishing. 
We  know  of  more  than  forty  original  works  and  about 
two  hundred  dissertations  and  shorter  studies  from  his 
pen.  His  excellent  descriptions  of  flora  are  distin- 
guished by  originality,  clear  presentation,  and  logical 
classification.  The  following  works  are  especially 
worthy  of  note:  "Bayerische  Flora"  (Munich,  1789); 
"Primitiae  florae  salisburgensis "  (Frankfurt,  1792); 
and  above  all,  "Flora  monacensis"  (Munich,  1811- 
1820),  with  four  hundred  coloured  plates  by  Joh.  Nepo- 
mucene  Mayrhofer.  Not  less  valuable  are  the  fruits 
of  his  scientific  travels  partly  undertaken  under  the 
auspices  and  at  the  expense  of  the  Munich  Academy 
of  Sciences.  Among  these  are  to  be  mentioned:  Fr. 
von  Paula  Schrank  and  R.  C.  Moll,  "  Naturhistorische 
Briefe  liber  Oesterreich,  Salsburg,  Passau,  und  Berg- 
tesgaden"  (Salzburg,  1785),  and  "Reise  nach  den 
siidlichen  Gebirgen  von  Bayern,  etc.,  im  Jahr  1788" 
(Munich,  1793).  In  these  expeditions  Schrank  took 
Linnajus's  travels  for  the  study  of  natural  history  as 
his  model.  Among  his  physiological  works  must  be 
mentioned  his  study:  "Von  den  Nebengefassen  der 
Pflanzen  und  ihrem  Nutzen"  (Halle,  1794),  in  which 
he  attributes  to  the  hairs  of  plants  the  function  of  ab- 
sorbing moisture;  and  some  essays  in  the  "Miin- 
chener  Denkschriften "  for  1809-1810  on  the  move- 
ment of  infusoria,  and  on  "Priestley's  green  matter", 
etc.  His  extensive  correspondence,  as  director  of  the 
botanical  garden,  with  all  countries  of  Europe  and  the 
East  and  West  Indies  redounded  to  the  benefit  of  this 
institution,  which  under  his  administration  became 
one  of  the  richest  in  Germany.  To  this  botanical 
garden  he  dedicated  a  work  in  two  folio  volumes  with 
100  coloured  plates:  "Plantae  rariores  horti  acade- 
mici  Monacensis  descriptse  et  iconibus  illustratae" 
(1819).  His  numerous  detached  studies  on  questions 
of  natural  history  may  be  found  in  "Miinchener 
Denkschriften",  "Zeitschrift  der  Regensburger  bo- 
tanischen  Gesellschaft",  "Hoppe's  botaniscbes  Ta- 


schenbuch",  etc.  In  the  last  days  of  his  life  the  in- 
defatigable veteran  wrote  two  Scriptural  works: 
'E^rifiepov,  a  physico-theological  explanation  of  the  six 
days  of  creation  (Augsburg,  1829,  16  pp.,  8°)  and  a 
voluminous  "  Commentarius  literalis  in  Genesim" 
(Salzbach,  1835,  796  pp.  8°).  The  list  of  von 
Schrank's  works  fiUs  nine  columns  in  the  "Biblio- 
theque  des  ecrivains  de  la  compagnie  de  Jesus" 
(1859). 

Martins,  Akad.  Denkreden  (1866);  de  Backer,  Bibl.  des 
ecrivains  de  la  compagnie  de  Jesus,  V'  serie  (Lidge,  1859),  a.  v. 

J.  Stein. 

Schraudolph,  Johann,  historical  painter,  b.  at 
Oberstdorf  in  the  Allgau,  1808;  d.  31  May,  1879.  As 
pupil  and  assistant  of  Heinrich  Hess  he  painted  five 
scenes  from  the  Ufe  of  St.  Boniface  in  the  basilica 
at  Munich:  St.  Boniface  preaching;  his  consecration 
as  bishop;  the  cutting  down  of  Thor's  oak;  the 
anointing  of  Pepin;  and  the  burial  of  St.  Boniface. 
In  these  frescoes  Schraudolph  justified  the  confidence 
placed  in  him  by  his  master  who  had  already  tested 
his  work  in  the  Church  of  All  Saints  where  Schrau- 
dolph had  painted  scenes  from  the  history  of  Moses, 
figures  of  David,  Saul,  etc.  Some  of  his  devotional 
pictures  became  very  popular:  the  Virgin  with  the 
Child  Jesus;  St.  Agnes;  Christ  as  the  Friend  of  chil- 
dren; a  eucharistic  service,  etc.  His  carefully- 
executed  sketches  for  the  life  of  St.  Boniface  were 
greatly  admired  by  fellow  artists.  On  the  recommen- 
dation of  Hess  he  received  an  important  commission 
from  Louis  I,  namely  the  painting  of  the  frescoes  for 
the  cathedral  of  Speyer.  Although  he  had  already 
travelled  once  through  Italy  under  the  guidance 
of  J.  Ant.  Forster  and  had  made  numerous  copies 
of  the  old  masters,  yet  he  considered  it  necessary 
to  make  a  new  journey  to  Rome  and  Over  beck  for 
the  sake  of  this,  the  great  work  of  his  life.  Unfor- 
tunately in  his  studies  he  laid  more  stress  on  grace 
and  tenderness  than  upon  force  and  depth.  Con- 
sequently the  lack  of  the  two  last  mentioned  quali- 
ties is  perceptible  in  his  frescoes  for  the  austere  and 
stately  imperial  cathedral,  while  correctness,  harmony, 
and  a  devout  spirit  are  unmistakably  present  in  the 
large  compositions.  He  made  sure  of  the  unity 
of  the  series  by  keeping  his  assistants  (his  brother 
Claudius,  Hellweger,  Andr.  Mayer,  etc.)  in  strict 
subordination  to  himself,  by  retaining  for  himself 
the  designing  of  all  the  compositions  for  the  cupola, 
the  three  choirs,  and  most  of  those  for  the  nave,  by 
drawing  the  most  important  cartoons  and  painting 
the  most  difficult  pictures  himself.  The  unifying  con- 
ception of  all  the  frescoes  is:  the  Divine  plan  of  salva- 
tion with  special  reference  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  and 
the  other  patron  saints  of  the  cathedral,  the  deacon 
Stephen,  Pope  St.  Stephen,  and  St.  Bernard.  After 
the  completion  of  this  undertaking  Schraudolph 
enjoyed  the  unchanging  favour  of  the  king,  who 
frequently  inspected  the  numerous  oil-paintings  pro- 
duced in  Schraudolph's  studio,  and  at  times  bought 
them  for  himself  or  the  Pinakothek. 

Forster,  Gesch,  der  deutschen  Kunst,  V  (Leipzig,  1860) ;  Idem, 
on  the  frescoes  in  the  cathedral  of  Speyer  in  the  Deutsches  Kunst- 
blatt,  no.  15  (Leipzig,  1883) ;  Stubenvoll,  Beschreibung  der 
Miinchener  Basilika  (Munich,  1875);  Pecht,  Gesch.  der  Miin- 
chener Kunst  (Munich,  1888). 

G.    GlETMANN. 

Schubert,  Franz,  composer,  b.  at  Vienna,  31  Janu- 
ary, 1797;  d.  there  19  November,  1829.  He  studied 
under  his  father,  and  subsequently  under  Holzer  and 
Salieri,  and  in  1807,  was  first  boy  soprano  in  the 
Lichtenthal  choir.  In  October,  1808,  he  entered  the 
Imperial  Choristers  School,  and  soon  gave  evidence 
of  extraordinary  musical  genius  as  a  composer,  his 
first  effort  being  a  pianoforte  duet,  early  in  1810. 
During  1811  and  1812  he  produced  many  instrumental 

f)ieces,  also  a  "Salve  Regina"  and  a  "Kyrie".  He 
eft  the  Choir  School  in  November,  1812,  and  took  up 


SCHWANE 


592 


SCHWANN 


work  as  a  schoolmaster  in  order  to  avoid  conscription. 
His  "  First  Mass  in  F"  was  finished  on  22  July,  1814, 
and  performed  by  the  Lichtenthal  choir  under  the 
direction  of  Holzer.  Competent  critics  have  pro- 
nounced this  mass  as  perhaps  the  niost  wonderful 
first  work  by  any  composer,  save  in  the  case  of 
Beethoven's  ''Mass  in  C".  Schubert  conducted  the 
second  performance  at  the  August inian  church  on 
26  October,  his  brother,  Ferdinand,  iiresiding  at  the 
organ.  During  the  same  year  he  produced  a  sjtu- 
phony  and  a  "Salve  Regina",  as  well  as  some  songs 
and  instrumental  pieces.  His  famous  "Erl  King", 
dates  from  November,  1815,  as  does  his  "  Mass  in  G" 
— wonderful  for  a  boy  of  eighteen.  His  compositions 
for  1816  include  a  "Salve  Regina",  a  "Stabat  Mater", 
a  "Tantum  Ergo",  and  a  "Magnificat",  as  also  two 
symphonies,  and  some  delightful  songs,  including  the 

J "Wanderer".    He 

conducted  the  mu- 
sic at  high  Mass 
at  the  Altlerchen- 
felder  church  on 
Easter  Sunday, 
1820,  and  in  the 
same  year  pro- 
duced an  Easter 
cantata  and  an 
opera.  His  produc- 
tivity from  1821 
to  1824  was  enor- 
mous, "Rosa- 
munde"  and  his 
"Mass  in  A  flat" 
being  of  per- 
manent value.  His 
glorious  "Ave 
I\I  aria  "  dates  from 
1825,  apropos  of 
Fkanz  Schubert  ^.j^j^j^     ^le     writes 

that  at  the  time  he  was  filled  with  overpowering  de- 
votion to  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  three  Shakespcrian 
songs  of  1826  are  still  of  interest.  In  1827  he  was 
gratified  with  a  eulogy  from  the  dying  Beethoven, 
whom  he  visited  in  his  last  illness,  and  whose  remains 
he  followed  to  the  grave.  He  subsequently  wrote  an 
opera,  a  number  of  songs,  and  the  second  part  of  the 
"Winterreise".  Early  in  June,  1827,  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  musical  society  of  Vienna,  and  in 
1828,  produced  his  marvellous  "Symphony  in  C", 
his  "Mass  in  E  flat",  an  oratorio,  a  hymn  to  the 
Holy  Ghost,  a  string  quartet,  a  "Tantum  Ergo"  in 
E  flat,  and  a  lovely  "Benedictus".  His  last  appear- 
ance in  pubhc  was  on  3  November,  1828,  when  he 
went  to  hear  his  brother's  new  "Requiem":  he  died 
a  fortnight  later,  and  his  ob.sequies  were  celebrated 
in  the  little  Chapel  of  St.  Joseph  m  Margarethen.  On 
21  November,  the  body  was  interred  at  Wiihring, 
close  to  the  grave  of  Beethoven,  and  on  23  Decem- 
ber his  solemn  month's  mind  was  celebrated  in  the 
Augustinian  Church,  when  a  "Requiem"  by  Hiitten- 
brenner  was  performed.  The  corpse  was  re-interred 
in  the  central  cemetery,  Vienna,  on  23  September, 
1888.  Schubert  produced  a  phenomenal  amount 
of  music,  his  songs  alone  numbering  about  six  hundred 
and  three.  His  compositions  came  into  prominence 
owing  to  their  advocacy  by  Liszt,  Schumann,  and 
Mendels.sohn,  but  he  was  in  advance  of  his  time  and 
it  was  not  until  thirty  years  after  his  death  that  his 
wonderful  genius  was  fully  appreciated.  Essaying  all 
forms  of  composition,  he  was  successful  in  all,  and  he 
may  bo  regarded  as  second  only  to  Beethoven.  In 
particular,  his  unfinished  symphony,  his  "Rosamunde" 
Entr'acte,  his  "Mass  in  E  flat",  and  about  a  dozen 
of  his  songs  are  immortal  masterpieces. 

Von    Hellbobs,    Pram    Schuherl    (Vienna,    186.5);     Frobt. 
Behvheri  (London.  1881);   Gbove,  Did.  of  Muiic  and  Muncuins, 

IV  (London.  1909).  w.  H.  Grattan-Elood. 


Schwane,  Joseph,  a  theological  writer,  b.  at  DorS' 
ten  in  Westphalia,  2  April,  1824;  d.  at  Miinster,  6 
June,  1892.  After  receiving  his  early  education  at 
Dorsten  and  Recklinghausen,  he  studied  philosophy 
and  theology  at  Miinster  (1843-7),  and  upon  his 
ordination  to  the  priesthood,  29  May,  1847,  continued 
his  studies  for  two  years  at  the  universities  of  Bonn 
and  Tubingen.  Hereupon  he  became  director  of 
Count  von  Galen's  institute  at  Miinster,  was  privat- 
doccnt  in  church  history,  moral  theology,  and  history 
of  dogmatics  at  the  University  of  Miinster  (1853-9), 
and  assistant  professor  (1859-67).  In  1867  he  was 
appointed  professor-in-ordinary  of  moral  theology, 
history  of  dogmatics,  and  symbolism,  at  the  same 
time  lecturing  on  dogmatic  theology  along  with  the 
aged  Berlage,  whom  he  succeeded  as  professor  of 
dogmatic  theology  in  1881.  Leo  XIII  honoured 
him  with  the  title  of  domestic  prelate  in  1890.  His 
chief  work  is  "Dogmengeschichte",  the  pioneer 
Catholic  work  of  its  kind,  covering  the  entire  history 
of  dogmatics  (4  vols.,  I,  Miinster,  1862;  2nd  ed., 
Freiburg,  1892;  II,  Miinster,  1869;  2nd  ed.,  Freiburg, 
1895;  III,  Freiburg,  1882;  IV,  Freiburg,  1890).  His 
larger  works  in  the  field  of  moral  theology  are:  "Die 
theologische  Lehre  uber  die  Vertrage  mit  Beriick- 
sichtigung  der  Civilgesetze,  besonders  der  preus- 
sischen,  allgemein  deutschen  und  franzosischcn " 
(Miinster,  1871;  2nd  ed.,  1872);  "Die  Gerechtigkcit 
und  die  damit  verwandten  sittlichen  Tugenden  und 
Pflichten  des  gesellschaftlichen  Lebens"  (Freiburg, 
1873);  "Spezielle  Moraltheologie"  (Freiburg,  1878- 
1885).  Smaller  works  are:  "DasgottlicheVorherwissen 
und  seine  neuesten  Gegner"  (Miinster,  1855);  "De 
controversia,  qua;  de  valore  baptismi  hsereticorum 
inter  S.  Stephanum  Papam  et  S.  Cyprianum  agitata 
sit,  commentatio  historico-dogmatica"  (Miinster, 
1860);  "De  operibus  supererogatoriis  et  consiliis 
evangelicis  in  genere"  (Miinster,  1868);  "Die  eucha- 
ristische  Opferhandlung"  (Freiburg,  1889);  "Ueber 
die  scientia  media  und  ihre  Verwendung  fiir  die  Lehre 
von  der  Gnade  und  Freiheit"  in  "Tiibinger  theol. 
Quartalschrift",  XXXII  (18.50),  394-459,  and  numer- 
ous other  contributions  to  theological  magazines. 

Chronik  der  Akademie  zu  Miinster,  VII  (1S92-3),  4  sq.:  Lau- 
CHERT  in  Allgem.  deutsche  Biogr.,  LIV  (Leipzig,  1908),  268-9. 

Michael  Ott. 

Schwann,  Theodor,  German  physiologist  and 
founder  of  the  theory  of  the  cellular  structure  of 
animal  organisms;  b.  at  Neuss,  7  December,  1810; 
d.  at  Cologne,  11  January,  1882.  He  studied  med- 
icine at  Bonn,  where  one  of  his  teachers  was  the 
celebrated  physiologist  John  M  tiller,  and  also  at 
Wiirzburg,  and  at  Berlin  where  he  obtained  his 
degree  in  1834.  His  dissertation  for  the  doctorate 
on  the  breathing  of  the  embryo  of  the  hen  in  the  egg, 
"De  necessitate  icris  atmospha^rici  ad  evolutionem 
pulli  in  ovo  incubato"  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  medical  world.  After  graduation  he  acted  as 
assistant  in  the  anatomical  museum  at  Berlin;  in 
1839  he  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  the  Catholic 
University  of  Louvain;  in  1848  professor  of  physi- 
ology and  comparative  anatomy  at  Liege  and  in 
1880  retired  from  teaching.  Schwann  proved  that 
animal  cells  are  in  morphological  and  physiological 
accordance  with  those  of  plants,  and  that  all  animal 
tissues  proceed  partly  from  cells  and  are  partly  com- 
posed of  them.  He  established  this  theory  in  his 
chief  work:  "Mikroskopisehe  Untersuchungen  iiber 
die  tTbereinstimmung  in  der  Struktur  und  dem 
Wachstum  der  Tiere  und  Pflanzen"  (Berlin,  1839). 
Before  this  John  Purkinje  (1787-1869)  had  pointed 
out  the  analogy  between  the  nuclei  of  the  animal  cell 
and  of  the  plant  cell,  still  Schwann  deserves  the  credit 
of  having  developed  and  established  this  theory. 
Kolliker's  cellular  physiology  and  Virchow's  cellular 
pathology  aje  based  pn  Schwann's  theory.     Schwann 


SCHWANTHALER 


593 


SCHWARZ 


also  discovered  the  cells  of  the  nails  and  feathers, 
what  are  called  the  Tomes  fibres  of  the  teeth,  the 
nuclei  of  the  smooth  and  striped  muscle-fibres,  and 
the  envelope  of  the  nerve-fibres  (Schwaim's  envelope). 
Moreover,  in  1836  he  discovered  that  pepsin  was  the 
substance  that  produced  albuminous  digestion  in 
the  stomach;  in  1844  he  produced  the  first  artificial 
gastric  fistula,  and  called  attention  to  the  importance 
of  the  gall  in  digestion.  He  discovered  the  organic 
nature  of  yeast  at  the  same  time  as  Cagniard  Latour, 
although  independently  of  the  latter,  and  proved 
that  the  yeast-cells  take  the  material  necessary  for 
reproduction  and  development  from  the  substance 
capable  of  fermentation.  In  a  separate  treatise 
he  proved  the  weakness  of  the  theory  of  spontaneous 
generation.  Besides  the  works  already  mentioned 
Schwann  WTote  a  number  of  papers  for  medical 
journals  and  for  the  reports  of  the  Belgian  Academy. 

Biographisches    Lexikon    der    hervorragenden    Aerzte,    V,    315; 
Berliner  klinische    Wochenschrift   (1882),   63,   necrology. 

Leopold  Senfelder. 

Schwanthaler,  Lxtdwig  von,  founder  of  the  mod- 
em Romantic  school  of  sculpture,  b.  at  Munich  in 
1802;  d.  there,  1848.  He  received  a  thorough  classi- 
cal education  but  even  as  a  boy  was  fond  of  modelling 
in  wax;  then,  led  by  patriotism,  he  took  to  the  paint- 
ing of  battle 
scenes  and  with 
Pocci  he  drew  up 
the  scheme  of  a 
procession  of  ro- 
mantic knights 
proceeding  to  a 
tournament.  King 
Maximilian  I 
commissionedhim 
to  ik'sign  mytho- 
logical reliefs  for 
an  epergne,  which 
was  never  wholly 
carried  out  and 
was  later  melted 
down.  A  few  wax 
models  that  have 
been  preserved 
are  very  fine. 
Schwanthaler 
Ltdwig  Schwanthalek  ^ade     a    great 

many  reliefs,  taken  from  the  stories  of  the  Greek  gods 
and  heroes,  for  the  salons  of  the  Glyptothek  at  Mu- 
nich. Before  they  were  actually  executed  he  visited 
Thorwaldsen  at  Rome.  At  a  later  date  he  spent  a 
considerable  length  of  time  at  Rome,  where  he  was 
honoured  by  a  large  number  of  commissions  from 
King  Louis  I  of  Bavaria.  He  prepared  the  models  of 
the  twenty-five  statues  of  artists  of  the  Pinakothek 
and  made  the  drawings  for  the  Greek  poets  intended 
for  the  new  palace.  He  modelled  a  "Triumphal  Pro- 
cession of  Bacchus"  on  a  frieze  143  feet  long  for  the 
palace  of  Duke  Maximilian.  This  was  followed  by 
the  large  reliefs  at  Ratisbon  for  the  princes  of  Thurn 
and  Taxis.  He  carried  out  in  a  free  manner  one  of 
Ranch's  designs,  the  victorious  "Germania",  on  one 
of  the  pediments  of  the  Walhalla  near  Ratisbon.  A 
design  of  his  own,  the  "Battle  of  Arminius,"  is  exe- 
cuted on  the  other  pediment. 

Entirely  his  own  composition  also  is  the  "Bavaria" 
as  protectress  of  the  arts  on  the  pediment  of  the  ex- 
hibition hall.  The  colossal  statue  of  Bavaria,  62  feet 
high,  above  the  Hall  of  Fame  at  Munich  greatly  added 
to  his  reputation.  He  constantly  received  commis- 
sions both  from  near  and  far  for  monuments  in  hon- 
our of  nilers,  generals,  and  artists.  The  impatience 
of  those  who  gave  him  commissions,  especially  the  in- 
sistence on  haste  of  King  Louis  and  of  the  architect 
Klenze,  led  Schwanthaler  into  the  error  of  overpro- 
duction and  perfunctoriness.  On  the  other  hand  he 
XIIL— 38 


exhibited  an  astonishing  inventive  faculty  which 
seemed  never  to  repeat  itself,  which  showed  freshness 
and  animation  in  the  presentation,  and  a  grasp  of 
monumental  size  and  classic  beauty  in  the  general  con- 
ception of  works  that  usually  were  arranged  in  cycles. 
It  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  execution  of  the  de- 
tails was  frequently  faulty.  He  exhibited  great  skill 
in  the  treatment  of  medieval  and  modem  dress.  Con- 
trary to  his  natural  inclination  he  was  constantly 
obUged  to  treat  antique  subjects,  but  he  brought  to  his 
task  a  classically-trained  mind  and  taste. 

LuBKE,  Gesch.  der  Plastik  (Leipzig,  1871),  II,  a  carefully-con- 
sidered judgment;  Pecht,  GescA.  der  Miinchener  Kunst  (Munich, 
1888);  VON  Reber,  Gesch.  der  neueren  Kunst,  II  (1864). 

G.    GlETMANN. 

Schwartz,  Peter  George.  See  Niger,  Peter 
George. 

Schwarz  (Schwartz),  Berthold,  a  German  friar, 
reputed  the  inventor  of  gunpowder  and  firearms. 
There  has  been  much  difference  of  opinion  regarding 
the  bearer  of  this 
name  and  his  shan; 
in  the  discovery 
attributed  to  him. 
He  was  a  Francis- 
can, and  is  said  to 
have  been  born  in 
Freiburg  in  the 
first  half  of  the 
thirteenth  c  e  n  - 
tury.  He  took 
the  name  of  Ber- 
thold in  religion, 
to  which  was  ap- 
pended the  ad- 
jective Schwarz 
(black),  either  on 
account  of  the 
colour  of  his  habit 
or  because  he  was 
looked  on  as  being     ,,  Bkrtholu  Scuwauz 

^AAi^t^ri  +«  tu^  I'rom  a  woodcut  in  Thevet  8  Livre  des 
addicted     to      the  y.^j,  Pourtraits,  Paris,  1584 

black  art.    It  was 

in  the  course  of  his  studies  in  alchemy  that  he  discovered 
the  explosive  properties  of  gunpowder  which  he  ap- 
plied to  firearms.  A  monument  was  erected  to  him  in 
his  birthplace  in  1853.  The  history  of  the  invention 
of  gunpowder  is  WTapped  in  obscurity.  The  Chinese 
and  Arabs  are  said  to  have  been  familiar  with  burn- 
ing mixtures,  and  as  early  as  a.  d.  660  Greek  fire  was 
brought  to  Constantinople.  Roger  Bacon  (1246-94) 
mentions  the  explosive  properties  of  saltpetre  mix- 
tures in  his  "De  secretis  operibus  artis  et  naturae", 
c.  6,  though  he  does  not  lay  claim  to  the  discovery. 
The  first  to  attribute  it  and  its  subsequent  applica- 
tion to  the  friar  of  Freiburg  seems  to  have  been  Felix 
Hemmelin  (1389-1464)  of  Zurich  in  his  "  De  nobilitate 
et  rusticitate  dialogus"  (c.  1450).  He  states  some- 
what vaguely  that  the  discovery  was  made  within 
200  years  of  the  time  of  his  WTiting.  This  would 
apparently  make  Berthold  a  contemporary  of  Bacon. 
Many  later  wTiters,  however,  place  him  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  while  some  give  1354,  the  date 
inscribed  upon  his  monument,  as  the  time  of  his 
discovery,  others  simply  give  him  credit  for  the  in- 
vention of  firearms  and  notably  of  brass  cannon. 
For  a  critical  study  of  the  question  cf.  Hansjacob, 
who  concludes  that  Berthold  lived  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  suggests  the  possibility  of  Bacon  having 
learned  the  discovery  from  him.  While  it  is  perhaps 
impossible  to  determine  with  certainty  whether  he 
was  the  first  to  make  the  discovery  of  gunpowder, 
it  is  commonly  admitted  that  the  invention  of  fire- 
arms is  due  to  him. 

Hansjacob,  Der  Schwarze  Berthold,  Der  Erfinder  des  Schies- 
pulvers  u.  der  Feuerwaffen  (Freiburg,  1891). 

Henry  M.  Brock. 


SCHWARZBURG 


594 


SCHWARZBURG 


Schwarzburg,  two  small  principalities  of  Central 
Germany,  Schwarzburji-Rudolstadt  and  Schwarz- 
burg-Sondershausen,  %\hich,  however,  have  been  con- 
nected by  personal  union  under  one  sovereign  since 
1909.  The  principality  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 
has  an  area  of  363  square  miles,  and  in  1910  had 
100.712  inhabitants.  The  territory  of  the  state  con- 
sists of  two  non-contiguous  districts,  the  Upper  Barony 
in  Thuringia  and  the  Lower  Barony  south  of  the 
Harz  Mountains.  The  Upper  Barony  (capital, 
Rudolstadt)  has  an  area  of  280  square  miles;  the 
Lower  Barony  (capital,  Frankenhausen)  an  area  of 
83  square  miles.  The  Upper  Barony  includes  the 
exclave  of  Leutenberg  lying  to  the  east.  As  regards 
religion,  in  1905,  of  9ti.835  inhabitants  95,641  were 
Lutherans.  99-4  Catholics,  and  82  Jews.  Consequently 
the  Catholics  number  only  one  per  cent  of  the 
population:  in  1871  they  numbered  only  one-tenth 
per  cent.  The  principality  of  Schwarzburg-Sonders- 
hausen  has  an  area  of  about  333  square  miles,  and 
in  1910  had  S9,9S4  inhabitants.  The  territory  of 
this  state  also  consists  of  two  main  districts  called 
the  Lower  Barony  situated  south  of  the  Harz,  and 
the  Upper  Barony  in  Thuringia  south  of  the  Prussian 
city  of  Erfurt.  The  Lower  Barony  (capital,  Sonders- 
haiisen)  is  in  area  about  200  square  miles,  while  the 
Upper  Baronv  (capital,  Arnstadt)  has  an  area  of 
about  132  square  miles.  In  1905  of  the  85.152  in- 
habitants of  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen  83,389  were 
Lutherans,  1521  Catholics,  and  195  Jews.  The 
Catholics,  therefore,  number  nearly  two  per  cent 
of  the  population;  in  1871  they  were  only  three-tenths 
per  cent. 

The  Schwarzburg  principalities  are  a  part  of  the 
region  occupied  by  the  old  tribe  of  the  Thuringians, 
who  in  the  sixth  centur\'  succumbed  to  the  united 
attack  of  the  German  tribes  of  the  Franks  and  Saxons. 
In  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  several  counts 
became  independent  rulers  in  different  parts  of  the 
Thuringian  territory.  Among  these  were  the  counts 
of  Keverenburg  (Kafernburg),  from  whom  sprang 
the  princely  house  of  Schwarzburg,  which  takes  its 
name  from  a  castle  on  the  small  Thuringian  river 
called  Schwarza.  Gundar  (Giinther),  a  son  of  the 
Franki-sh  king  I^othair  IV,  is  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  the  familv.  The  first  count  mentioned  in  a  docu- 
ment is  Sizzo  III  (1009-60).  In  the  course  of  time 
appeared  the  ruling  lines  of  Kafernburg,  Schwarz- 
burg, and  the  senior  and  cadet  lines  of  Blankenburg. 
In  1548  Giinther  XL,  who  was  also  called  Giinther 
with  the  Heavy  Jaw,  again  united  all  the  lands  of 
Schwarzburg  under  his  rule.  The  territories  were 
again  divided  by  various  partitions  and  treaties,  and 
finally,  by  the  Hauptrezess  of  Ilm  in  1599,  into  the 
two  domains  and  lines  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 
and  Schwarzburg-Amstadt  (or  Schwarzburg-Son- 
dershaasen).  In  1710  Emperor  Jo.seph  I  raised 
Louis  Frederick  I  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  to 
the  rank  of  a  hereditary  prince  of  the  empire.  In 
1713  primogeniture  was  introduced,  and  a  treaty  of 
succession  was  made  with  Schwarzburg-Sonders- 
hausen. In  1807  Louis  Frederick  II  joined  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine;  in  1815  Prince  Frederick 
Giinther  joined  the  German  Confederation.  In  the 
war  of  1866  between  Pru.ssia  and  Austria  the  govern- 
ment voted  again-st  the  Austrian  proposal  for  the 
mobilization  of  the  forces  of  the  confederation  against 
Pnissia.  Ruler  and  people  joined  the  North  German 
Ojnfe^leration.  Since  1871  the  principality  has  been 
one  of  the  confederated  states  of  the  German  Empire. 
Prince  Giinther  Victor  (b.  1852)  has  been  the  ruler 
since  1890. 

In  Schwarzburg-Amstadt  the  sons  of  Christian 
Giinther  I  foirndfi^l,  without  prejudice  to  the  unity 
of  the  original  territon,',  three  lines,  those  of  Sonders- 
hausen,  Amstaflt,  and  Ebeleben.  However,  the 
two  latter  lines  became  extinct  (Arnstadt  iu  1639, 


and  Ebeleben  in  1681).  After  the  death  of  Anthony 
Giinther  I  of  the  Sondcrshausen  line  his  two  sons 
divided  the  government  between  them  and  founded 
the  lines  of  Sondershau.sen  and  Arnstadt.  In  1697 
the  Prince  of  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen  was  made 
a  prince  of  the  empire,  and  his  territory  declared  an 
independent  princii)ality  of  the  empire;  the  same 
rank  and  independence  of  territory  was  conferred 
upon  the  ruler  of  Schwarzburg- Arnstadt  in  1709. 
Before  this  they  had  been  under  the  suzerainty  of 
various  German  states.  The  house  of  Schwarzburg- 
Arn.Uadt  became  extinct  in  1716.  The  Prince  of 
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen  became  the  sole  ruler 
of  the  territory,  which  took  the  name  of  Schwarzburg- 
Sondershausen.  The  law  of  primogeniture  had  been 
introduced  in  Sondcrshausen  in  1713,  and  a  treaty 
of  succession  had  been  made  with  Rudolstadt.  In 
1806  Prince  Giinther  Frederick  Charles  secretly 
supported  Prussia  in  the  war  between  Prussia  and 
France.  Napoleon,  on  this  account,  sent  a  French 
army  into  the  territory  of  Schwarzburg,  which  plun- 
dered and  devastated  the  country.  In  1807  the 
prince  joined  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and 
in  1815  entered  the  German  Confederation.  In 
1866,  in  the  war  between  Prussia  and  Austria,  both 
prince  and  people  were  opposed  to  the  mobilization 
of  the  forces  of  the  confederation  against  Prussia. 
They  declared  themselves  on  the  side  of  Prussia, 
and  the  country  joined  the  North  German  Confeder- 
ation. In  1871  the  principaUty  became  one  of  the 
confederated  states  of  the  German  Empire.  With 
the  death  of  Prince  Charles  Giinther  in  1909  the 
Sondcrshausen  Une  became  extinct.  In  virtue  of 
the  treaty  of  succession  of  1713  the  sovereignty 
went  to  Prince  Giinther  Victor  of  Schwarzburg- 
Rudolstadt,  who  since  then  has  called  himself  Prince 
of  Schwarzburg.  The  two  principalities  have  not 
at  the  present  time  lost  their  constitutional  inde- 
pendence by  this  personal  union;  however,  a  closer 
union  of  the  two  states  is  frequently  urged.  The 
marriage  of  Prince  Giinther  Victor  of  Schwarzburg 
being  without  issue,  Prince  Sizzo  of  Leutenberg  has 
been  recognized  as  a  member  of  the  ruling  house  of 
equal  rank,  and  was  made  Prince  of  Schwarzburg  in 
1896.  Prince  Sizzo  is  the  son  of  Prince  Frederick 
Giinther,  who  died  in  1867,  by  his  morganatic  mar- 
riage with  the  Countess  von  Reina,  and  the  sover- 
eignty of  both  states  will  devolve  upon  him  when 
Prince  Giinther  Victor  dies. 

Before  the  great  religious  schism  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  Schwarzburg  domains  belonged,  in 
ecclesiastical  matters,  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Mainz. 
The  permanent  representative  of  the  archbishop  in 
Thuringia  was  an  auxiliary  bishop  who  resided  at 
Erfurt.  The  Reformation  found  early  entrance  into 
Schwarzburg.  In  the  Upper  Barony  it  was  definitively 
introduced  by  Count  Henry  XXXII  (1531-38), 
who  was  called  the  "Reformer".  At  his  death  the 
Upper  Barony  fell  to  Count  Giinther  XL  (1526-52). 
At  first  under  the  pressure  exerted  by  his  feudal 
suzerain,  the  strictly  Catholic  Duke  George  of  Saxe- 
Meis.sen,  Giinther  remained  a  Catholic;  still  he  en- 
couraged the  new  doctrine  and,  at  the  Diet  of  Ratis- 
bon  in  1541,  went  over  publicly  to  the  Protestant 
side.  All  Catholic  life  vanished  completely  from  hia 
territories.  In  the  Catholic  era  the  Schwarzburg 
territories  had  belonged  to  the  Archdeanery  of  Jech- 
aburg,  where  in  1004  a  monastery  of  Augustinian 
Canons  Regular  had  been  established;  in  1552  the 
monastery  received  a  Lutheran  dean,  and  in  1572 
was  secularized.  Venerable  architectural  monu- 
ments still  give  proof  of  the  flourishing  conditions 
of  Catholic  life  in  the  era  before  the  Reformation, 
although  a  large  number  of  Catholic  edifices  were 
destroyed  during  the  Peasants'  War  in  1525.  Cele- 
brated memorials  of  this  period  are  the  ruins  of  the 
Bcocdictine  Abbey  of  Paulinzella  (intended  both  for 


SCHWARZENBERG 


595 


SCHWARZENBERG 


monks  and  nuns),  which  was  established  in  HOG  by 
St.  Paulina,  daughter  of  the  Thuringian  Count 
Moricho,  jointly  with  her  son  Werner,  and  was  sup- 
pressed in  1534;  further,  the  Church  of  Our  Lady  at 
Arnstadt,  the  church  at  Stadtilm,  and  many  village 
churches,  which  have  excellent  carvings  from  the 
celebrated  school  of  carving  in  the  Benedictine  Mon- 
astery of  Saalfeld. 

In  1771  Catholic  services  were  held  again  in  the 
principality  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  for  the 
miners  who  had  come  from  Austria,  and  had  been 
granted  the  right  to  exercise  their  religion,  but  not 
in  public.  Catholics  received  the  right  of  publicly 
exercising  their  religion  when  the  principality  joined 
the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  and  later  joined  the 
German  Confederation.  In  both  principalities  the 
periodical  church  services  were  under  the  care  of 
prie.sts  from  Erfurt.  Much  of  the  credit  for  the 
further  development  of  CathoUc  affairs  in  Schwarz- 
burg-Rudolstadt is  due  to  James  Hermann  von  Ber- 
trab,  who,  although  a  Catholic,  was  the  head  of  the 
Rudolstadt  ministry  until  his  death  in  1887.  In 
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen  the  first  Catholic  parish 
was  formed  at  Arnstadt.  From  1817  the  Govern- 
ment permitted  the  holding  of  Catholic  services. 
By  an  edict  of  the  sovereign  of  15  April,  1837,  the 
Catholic  parish  was  granted  corporate  rights.  By  a 
decree  of  the  Propaganda  of  27  June,  1869,  the  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction  over  the  Catholics  of  the  two 
principalities  was  transferred  to  the  Bishop  of  Pa- 
derborn.  Before  this  the  bishop  had  exert  eel  himself 
on  behalf  of  the  Catholics  of  Schwarzburg,  but 
lacking  a  canonically  legal  title  had  hesitated  to 
introduce  any  regular  parish  work.  By  an  edict  of 
the  ruler  of  10  November,  1871,  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Bishop  of  Paderborn  was  recognized  by  the 
government  in  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  and  per- 
mission was  given  for  the  appointment  of  a  perma- 
nent priest  at  Rudolstadt  for  the  entire  Upper  Barony 
of  Rudolstadt  under  the  title  of  mission  priest.  By- 
decree  of  the  ruler  of  10  July,  1874,  the  parish  re- 
ceived the  legal  rights  of  a  private  juridical  person. 
In  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen  the  transfer  of  the 
jurisdiction  to  the  Bishop  of  Paderborn  was  looked 
upon  as  a  concession  of  the  Government  made  to 
the  bishop  of  the  time,  because  the  transfer  was  a 
one-sided  one,  made  without  agreement  with  the 
Government.  Each  new  bishop,  therefore,  must 
notify  the  Government  of  Schwarzburg-Sonders- 
hausen of  his  appointment,  whereupon  he  receives 
a  new  confirmation  of  his  right  to  exercise  jurisdic- 
tion. 

A  permanent  mission  priest  was  appointed  at  Arn- 
stadt for  the  entire  Upper  Barony  of  Sondershausen 
by  an  edict  of  the  ruler  of  26  January,  1871.  At  a 
later  date  another  Catholic  parish  was  formed  at 
Sondershausen,  where  in  1896  a  permanent  parish 
priest  was  appointed  for  the  Lower  Barony  of  Son- 
dershausen. Since  1900  the  spiritual  care  of  the 
Lower  Barony  of  Rudolstadt  has  also  been  trans- 
ferred to  this  priest  by  the  bishop.  These  parishes 
received  legal  competence  by  an  edict  of  the  ruler 
of  9  July,  1902.  The  legal  competence  of  the  parish 
at  Arnstadt  was  again  confirmed  by  an  edict  of 
of  9  February,  1905.  By  a  law  of  21  July,  1905, 
both  parishes  were  raised  to  corporations  of  public 
right.  While  the  State  gives  the  Catholic  communi- 
ties no  financial  aid  of  any  kind.  Prince  Charles 
Giinther  won  the  gratitude  of  the  Catholics  by  his 
contributions  to  the  building  of  churches  and  by 
promoting  the  interests  of  his  Catholic  subjects. 
Notwithstanding  the  permanent  transfer  to  the 
Bishop  of  Paderborn  the  Schwarzburg  territory  has 
remained  canonically  a  mission  country.  The 
parishes  of  both  divisions  belong  to  the  deanery  of 
Erfurt.  In  many  cases,  instead  of  the  bishop,  the 
"ecclesiastical  court"   of   Erfurt  exercises  jurisdic- 


tion, as  it  also  does  in  the  government  district  of 
Erfurt-Merseburg.  Since  1881  there  has  been,  with 
the  tacit  permission  of  the  Government,  a  house  of 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth  (Grey  Sisters)  from  Bres- 
lau  at  Rudolstadt,  who  work  as  visiting  nurses. 
The  Government  does  not  claim  the  right  of  super- 
vising the  administration  of  the  property  of  the 
Church.  No  tithes  may  be  collected.  In  both  prin- 
cipalities all  the  primary  schools  are  Lutheran. 
There  are  private  Catholic  primary  schools  since 
1882  at  Rudolstadt  (62  children  in  1910),  since 
1898  at  Sondershausen  (28  children  in  1910),  and 
since  1872  at  Arnstadt  (72  children  in  1910). 
Neither  the  State  nor  the  community  gives  any 
financial  aid.  In  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  children 
who  have  received  Protestant  baptism  cannot  be 
taken  as  pupils  in  the  Catholic  private  schools, 
even  if  they  spring  from  mixed  marriages  or  from 
purely  Catholic  manages. 

Apfei.stedt,  Gesch.  des  Schwarzburgischen  Hauses  (Sonders- 
hausen, 1856);  EiNicKE,  Zwanzig  Jahre  Schwarzburg.  Reforma- 
tionsgesch.  (2  vols.,  Nordhausen,  1904-09),  Protestant;  Frei- 
SEX,  Staat  und  kathol.  Kirche  in  den  deutschen  Bundesstaaten,  II 
(Stuttgart,  1906),  145  sqq.;  Idem,  Der  kathol.  u.  protestant. 
Pfarrzwang  (Paderborn,  190G),  47  sqq. 

Herman  Sacher. 

Schwarzenberg,  Friedrich,  Prince  of,  cardinal 
and  I'riiicc-Arclihishoi)  of  Prague,  b.  at  Vienna, 
6  April,  1809;  d.  there,  27  March,  1885.  Son  of 
Prince  Joseph  John  Schwarzenberg  and  his  spouse 
Pauline  (nee  Princess  Arenberg),  he  was  baptized 
in  his  father's  palace  in  Vienna.  When  Napoleon 
advanced  upon  Vienna,  the  mother  fled  with  her  one- 
month-old  child  to  Krummau  in  Bohemia.  In  the 
summer  of  the  following  year  she  accompanied  her 
husband  and  eldest  daughter  to  Paris  to  be  present 
at  the  marriage  festivities  of  Napoleon  and  Arch- 
duchess Marie-Louise.  During  the  celebration  she 
and  her  daughter  were  burned  to  death;  a  golden 
necklace,  on  which  were  engraved  the  names  of  her 
ten  children  (including  that  of  Friedrich),  alone  made 
it  possible  to  identify  the  charred  mass  as  her  re- 
mains. Her  sister-in-law  Eleanora  henceforth  acted  as 
mother  to  the  children  and  was  always  called  by 
Fritz  his  "Eiigclstantc".  When  he  was  five  years 
old,  Fritz  was  placed  under  the  care  of  the  learned 
and  able  Father  Lorenz  Greif.  Having  completed 
the  secondary  school  course  in  the  Schotten  gymna- 
sium, he  applied  himself  to  juridical  studies  with 
great  success.  Reluctantly  he  now  revealed  to  his 
father  his  desire  to  consecrate  his  life  to  the  service 
of  God  in  the  priesthood,  as  this  was  for  him  the  surest 
way  to  heaven.  The  father  gave  his  consent  with 
some  hesitation. 

Fritz  began  his  theological  studies  at  Salzburg,  as 
his  numerous  relatives  in  Vienna  would  prove  too 
great  a  distraction.  Archbishop  Gruber  was  his  spir- 
itual father,  and  one  cannot  peruse  their  correspond- 
ence without  emotion.  Able  professors,  among  whom 
Josejih  Othmar  von  Rauscher  was  conspicuous,  fanned 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  young  student.  Fritz  was  to 
make  his  last  year's  theology  at  Vienna,  where  he 
was  to  reside  in  the  clerical  seminary.  The  rector, 
Franz  Zenner,  a  strict  disciplinarian,  acted  almost 
harshly  towards  Schwarzenberg.  Besides  the  univer- 
sity lectures  he  received  private  instruction  in  phi- 
losophy from  Giinther,  who  later  exercised  a  constant 
guiding  influence  over  his  pupil.  On  entering  the 
clerical  state,  Friedrich  had  promised  his  father  to 
accept  none  of  the  higher  orders  before  his  twenty- 
fourth  year.  On  the  completion  of  his  theological 
studies,  the  question  arose  of  how  the  remaining  two 
years  were  to  be  passed.  Friedrich  was  seized  with 
a  desire  to  travel,  which  his  father  was  anxious  to 
gratify.  However,  Bishop  Gruber  insisted  that  he 
must  study  for  the  doctorate,  while  Zenner  demanded 
that  the  candidate  for  the  doctorship  must  continue 


SCHWARZENBERG 


596 


SCHWARZENBERG 


to  reside  in  the  seminary.  Schwarzenberg's  refusal  to 
comply  was  followed  bV  a  breach  which  the  young 
man,  however,  endeavoured  to  remedy.  He  suc- 
cessfully passed  the  examinations  for  the  doctorate. 
Finally,  in  1S33,  he  was  ordained  by  Gruber.  The 
young  priest  was  appointed  curate  in  the  cathedral 
parish;  he  derived  great  satisfaction  from  the  per- 
formance of  his  pastoral  duties.  But  clouds  now 
threatened  him;  he  had  to  hurry  to  his  dj'ing  father, 
to  whom  he  administered  the  last  sacraments.  In 
June,  1835,  the  fatherly  archbishop  died  in  Fried- 
rich's  arms,  after  receiving  extreme  unction  from  him. 
On  23  September,  1835,  the  metropolitan  chapter 
requested  that  Schwarzenberg  be  made  archbishop, 
though  he  was  not  yet  thirty  years  old,  and  thus 
needed  a  papal  dispensation.  Anxious  and  sad  of 
heart,  he  accepted  the  staff  of  St.  Rupert  with  courage 
and  determination.  In  the  archdiocese  the  Protestant 
people  of  the  Zillertal  were  the  chief  cause  of  trouble; 
they  remained  there,  notwithstanding  every  effort  to 
induce  them  to  withdraw  and  in  spite  of  the  patent  of 
emigration  of  .\rchbis:hop  Firmian  (1731).  An  im- 
perial resolution 
of  1837  ordered 
their  return  to  the 
national  Church 
or  their  emigra- 
tion. Archbishop 
Schwarzenberg 
was  greatly  pained 
t  o  see  hundreds  of 
tliose  Zillertaler 
leave  their  native 
land,  and  left 
nothing  untried 
t  o  induce  them 
by  affectionate 
})ersuasion  at  least 
to  leave  their 
children  behind, 
promising  to  edu- 
cate and  support 
them;  but  in  vain. 
Among  the  in- 
stitutions founded 
or  favoured  by 
Schwarzenberg  may  be  mentioned:  the  Mozarteum, 
the  Cathedral  Musical  Society,  the  Art  Society,  the 
boys'  seminary  (Borromaum),  the  convent  of  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  at  Schwarzach 
for  the  nursing  of  the  sick  and  the  education  of  the 
young.  The  foundation  at  Schwarza(;h  bore  magnifi- 
cent fruit,  but  impoverished  him.  It  was  only  fitting 
that  a  marble  memorial  of  him  was  erected  there  in 
1910. 

On  29  March,  1848,  he  issued  an  exhortation  to  the 
clerg}',  urging  them  to  correct  the  mistaken  views 
and  unfounded  anxieties  of  their  flock,  to  keep  the 
pulpit  free  from  political  declamations  and  allusions, 
and  to  cultivate  good  feelings  with  the  secular  au- 
thorities. Schwarzenberg  was  no  friend  of  politics, 
even  church  politics.  However,  for  more  than  forty 
years  he  was  the  leading  churchman  in  Austria,  and 
during  those  years  arose  a  host  of  new  institutions, 
tendencies,  and  conditions,  profoundly  affecting 
Church  and  State  in  the  Hapsburg  empire.  These 
conditions  entailed  a  huge  amount  of  work  for  him. 
Although  thf  Council  of  Trent  had  commanded  pro- 
vincial t'ouiuils  to  be  held  every  three  years,  the 
custom  ha<i  fallen  into  disu.se.  In  Salzburg  the  last 
provincial  synod  hiul  been  held  in  1573.  Schwarzen- 
oerg,  after  so  long  an  intermission,  convened  a  synod 
which  sat  from  31  August  to  12  Sei)t(!mber,  1H48. 
In  the  address  to  the  imperial  j)arliainent,  the  synod 
laid  down  what  the  Catholic  Church  must  needs  de- 
mand from  the  civil  power  in  order  to  secun;  the 
liberty  and  independence  which  rightfully  belonged  to 


her,  and  which  could  not  be  denied  her  without  incon- 
sistency and  injustice  in  view  of  the  free  development 
of  civil  rights.  The  bishops  at  this  s_>Tiod  also  issued 
a  pastoral,  subjecting  Sommaruga's  fundamental 
principles  of  state  education  to  severe  criticism. 

Of  fundamental  importance  for  the  Church  in 
Austria  was  the  meeting  of  bishops  at  Vienna  in  1849. 
The  Reichstag  which  sat  at  Kremsier  in  February 
debated  the  relations  of  Church  and  State  in  a  very 
unfriendly  spirit.  However,  the  cardinal's  brother, 
Felix,  was  already  prime  minister,  and  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  Rauscher,  the  archbishop's  teacher,  as 
Bishop  of  Sekkau,  Schwarzenberg  greatly  strength- 
ened the  influence  of  the  bishops.  The  cardinal  suc- 
ceeded without  much  difficulty  in  convening  the 
bishops  of  Austria;  the  bishops  of  Hungary  and  the 
Lombardo-Venetian  territory,  in  which  peace  had 
not  yet  been  restored,  were  not  invited.  On  29  April 
twenty-nine  bishoi^s  and  four  episcopal  proxies  met 
in  the  palace  of  the  prince-archbishop,  and  between 
this  date  and  20  .Tune  held  sixty  sessions.  The 
cardinal  conducted  the  sessions  with  the  greatest  tact. 
Among  the  theologians  were  Kutschker  and  Fessler. 
The  assembly  laid  the  results  of  their  deliberations 
before  the  Government  in  seven  memorials:  on 
marriage;  on  the  religious,  school,  and  educational 
funds;  on  benefices  and  church  property-  on  educa- 
tion; on  ecclesiastical  administration  and  offices  and 
religious  services;  on  monasticism;  on  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction.  In  the  decrees,  which  include  207  para- 
graphs, the  bishops  lay  down  "a  common  line  of 
action  for  their  future  aims  and  action".  This  first 
assembly  of  the  bishops  of  Austria  laid  the  foundation 
for  the  revival  of  the  Church  in  Austria;  it  marks 
the  beginning  of  an  Austrian  episcopate,  whereas 
before  there  had  been  only  individual  bishops.  To 
urge  the  carrying  out  of  the  memorials,  and  to  repre- 
sent the  bishops  permanently,  a  standing  committee 
of  five  was  appointed  under  the  presidency  of  the 
cardinal.    It  existed  until  the  sixties. 

About  this  time  also  the  cardinal  was  named  Arch- 
bishop of  Prague.  In  spite  of  his  earnest  protests 
both  at  Rome  and  at  Vienna,  the  appointment  was 
confirmed,  and  the  cardinal  made  his  solemn  entry 
into  Prague  on  15  August,  1850.  He  had  not  yet 
familiarized  him.self  with  his  new  duties  when  Pius  IX 
ordered  him  and  the  Primate  of  Gran  to  undertake 
the  visitation  of  all  monasteries  in  Austria  which 
were  not  subject  to  the  superior-general  of  an  order; 
these  monasteries  were  380  in  number.  He  had  no  share 
in  the  settling  of  the  concordat,  but  did  his  utmost 
to  carry  it  out.  For  this  object  a  meeting  of  the  bish- 
ops was  held  at  Vienna  under  his  presidency  from  6 
April  to  17  June,  185G.  Sixty-six  prelates — German, 
Hungarian,  Italian,  and  Slav — were  present,  repre- 
senting the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Armenian  Rites. 
Memorials  were  again  addressed  to  the  Government 
concerning  the  schools,  marriage,  ecclesiastical  prop- 
erty, the  filling  of  vacant  benefices,  monasteries,  and 
the  right  of  patronage.  The  Primate  of  Prague  there- 
upon organized  an  ecclesiastical  matrimonial  court, 
held  a  provincial  and  two  diocesan  councils,  and 
promoted  the  sciences,  the  growth  of  the  orders,  the 
societies,  and  the  arts.  That  the  concordat  was  care- 
lessly executed  is  false.  As  his  adviser  in  questions  of 
canon  law  the  cardinal  chose  Professor  Friedrich  von 
Schulte,  likewise  app(jinting  him,  although  he  was  a 
layman,  counsel  of  the  spiritual  matrimonial  court 
in  all  three  instanc(!s  and  titular  consistorial  counsel. 
Schwarzenberg  showed  himself  a  zealous  friend  of  his 
tesuihcr,  Gunther,  and  sought  by  repeated  inter- 
cession at  Rome  t(j  prevent  the  condemnation  of  his 
writings.  The  finst  serious  de^lay  in  the  execution  of 
the  provisions  of  the  concordat  occurred  when  the 
administration  of  dnirch  proi)erty,  benefices,  and 
foundations  were;  to  Ix;  turned  ovi^r  to  church  officials. 
The  cardinal  thought  that  the  question  of  the  manner 


SCHWEBACH 


597 


SCHWENCKFELDIANS 


of  transfer  had  been  agreed  upon,  and  furnished  printed 
instructions  on  the  administration  of  property 
to  the  church  officials  and  to  the  patrons.  The 
minister  of  state,  Schmerling,  stopped  the  transfer 
of  the  ecclesiastical  property  in  Prague.  In  union 
with  his  three  suffragans,  Schwarzenberg  protested 
to  the  emperor,  the  minister  of  state,  and  the  governor 
(19  March,  1862).  However,  the  only  effect  of  this 
protest  was  the  assertion  of  principle. 

The  year  1866,  so  unfortunate  in  the  history  of 
Austria,  was  especially  unfortunate  for  Schwarzen- 
berg. On  25  May,  while  on  his  tour  of  visitation,  he 
fell  ill  of  smallpox.  The  German  war  seemed  already 
unavoidable,  and,  when  the  manifesto  of  15  June 
announced  its  outbreak,  the  cardinal,  who  regarded 
it  as  his  duty  to  remain  at  Prague,  ordered  pubhc 
prayers  and  intercessory  proce.ssions.  One  of  the 
consequences  of  the  misfortune  on  the  Bohemian 
fields  of  battle  was  the  change  in  the  relations  be- 
tween Church  and  State.  On  25  May,  1858,  the 
decrees  of  the  Reichstag  concerning  marriage, 
schools,  and  interconfessional  relations  were  con- 
firmed by  the  emperor.  On  22  June  Pius  IX  con- 
demned the  decrees;  the  bishops  had  on  3  June  issued 
a  common  instruction  to  the  clergy,  and  on  24  June 
issued  a  collective  pastoral.  Both  these  last-men- 
tioned decrees  were  condemned  by  the  imperial 
courts  as  breaches  of  the  public  peace  and  confiscated. 
It  was  to  be  expected  that  the  legal  proceedings 
pending  against  Bishop  Rudigior  of  Linz  would  be 
extended  to  the  bi.shops  of  Bohemia.  In  February, 
1869,  Schwarzenberg  received  the  following  in.struc- 
tion  from  the  Holy  See:  "If  the  bishops  or  eccle- 
siastics are  summoned  before  lay  judges,  let  them 
in  every  possible  case  plead  their  causes  through  an 
attorney,  and  never  appear  personally  and  of  their 
own  accord  before  such  judges".  The  cardinal  re- 
gretted this,  since  he  hoped  that  his  ill-treatment 
might  awaken  many  slumbering  Catholics.  The 
conflict  about  the  concordat  was  not  yet  over,  and 
a  new  conflict  was  threatening  which  in  the  name  of 
freedom  endangered  the  liberties  of  the  Church,  when 
Pius  IX  convened  the  Council  of  the  Vatican  (8 
December,  1869-18  July,  1870).  On  the  question  of 
the  infallibility  of  the  pope,  Schwarzenberg  supported 
the  minority. 

The  void  left  by  the  annulment  of  the  concordat, 
Stremayr  in  1874  sought  to  fill  up  by  four  new  inter- 
confessional laws,  dealing  with  the  regulation  of  the 
external  legal  relations  of  the  Catholic  Church,  the 
taxes  providing  for  the  so-called  Religionsfond,  the 
legal  relations  of  the  monasteries,  and  the  recognition 
of  new  religious  corporations.  During  the  delibera- 
tions of  the  House  of  Peers  Schwarzenberg  vigor- 
ously opposed  the  proposed  laws  and  condemned 
them  in  a  carefully  ])repared  speech.  However,  it 
was  impossible  to  defeat  them  entirely.  Of  Stre- 
mayr's  four  laws,  that  on  the  legal  status  of  religious 
communities,  authorizing  the  minister  of  public 
worship  to  suppress  any  monastery  and  to  confiscate 
its  property,  had  not  yet  passed.  As  soon  as  Schwarz- 
enberg heard  that  the  monastery  law  was  to  be  dis- 
cus.sed  in  the  House  of  Peers  in  the  middle  of  January, 
1876,  he  convened  a  meeting  of  the  bishops  of  the 
House  of  Peers;  the  eight  bishops  assembled  in  the 
Schwarzenberg  palace.  To  the  dehberations  were 
also  admitted  Abbot  Helferstorfer,  Leo  Thun,  and 
His  Excellency  Falkenhayn.  The  result  of  the  meet- 
ing was  the  "Declaration"  signed  by  all  the  Austrian 
bishops  that  entertain  the  certain  hope  that  a  law 
of  such  content  and  so  harmful  in  its  effects  shall 
never  be  enacted.  Should,  however,  they  find  them- 
selves disappointed  in  this  confident  expectation, 
they  must  declare  that  so  harmful  a  law  should  not 
be  enacted  and  protest  against  the  imputation  that 
the  Church  could  ever  tolerate  and  ratify  a  religious 
order  whose  vocation  and  activity  would  merit  the 


mistrustful  and  suspicious  regulations  expressed  in 
the  draft  of  the  law.  The  bill  was  passed,  but  did 
not  receive  the  sanction  of  the  emperor. 

In  1882  the  division  of  the  University  of  Karl 
Ferdinand  into  a  German  and  a  Czechish  was  effected, 
but  Cardinal  Schwarzenberg  would  not  agree  to  the 
division  of  the  theological  faculty,  holding  that  it  was 
the  vocation  of  the  priest  to  work  for  the  reconcilia- 
tion and  union  of  the  various  races  in  Bohemia. 
After  his  death  this  separation  could  not  be  pre- 
vented. 

Among  the  many  institutions,  etc.,  introduced  by 
Schwarzenberg  we  may  mention:  the  priestly  exer- 
cises, pastoral  conferences,  provincial  synods  (two), 
diocesan  synods,  the  heritage  of  St.  Adalbert  for  the 
support  of  poor  priests,  diocesan  relief  funds;  estab- 
lishments of  the  Jesuits,  Redemptorists,  Notre-Dame, 
Grey  Sisters,  Sisters  of  St.  Borroma^us,  and  Sisters 
of  St.  Vincent;  popular  missions;  the  Forty  Hours' 
Adoration;  the  canonization  of  St.  Agnes  of  Bohemia; 
the  jubilee  of  Methodius;  the  jubilee  of  the  Diocese  of 
Prague;  the  papal  jubilees;  the  Katholikenverein ;  the 
Bonifaciusverein ;  the  Confraternity  of  St.  Michael ;  the 
Prokopius  fund  for  the  publication  of  good  books; 
perpetual  adoration;  vestment  societies;  the  cathe- 
dral building  society.  At  the  first  episcopal  meeting 
in  Austria  and  at  all  the  succeeding  conferences, 
Schwarzenberg  had  always  presided.  At  the  meeting 
of  1885  he  accepted  his  election  as  president,  but 
reserved  the  right  of  joining  in  the  debate.  At  the 
eighth  session  the  cardinal  was  unable  to  appear  on 
account  of  ill-health ;  on  the  next  day  Schwarzenberg 
again  presided,  although  very  feverish,  but  hurried 
from  this  session  to  what  was  destined  to  be  his  death- 
bed.   His  remains  lie  in  the  cathedral  at  Prague. 

NosTlTZ-RiENECK,  Kardiiial  Schwarzenberg:  Ein  Gedenkbild  in 
Ungelriibler  Glam  (Vienna,  1888),  1— i4;  Wolfsgruber,  Friedrich 
Kardinal  Schwarzenberg,  I,  Jugendu.  Salzburgerzeit  (Vienna,  1906). 

C.  Wolfsgruber. 
Schwebach,   James.    See  La  Crosse,  Diocese 

OF. 

Schwenckfeldians,  the  name  of  a  Protestant  sect 
founded  by  the  nobleman  Caspar  von  Schwenckfeld 
(b.  at  Ossig  in  Silesia  in  1489  or  1490;  d.  at  Ulm 
10  December,  1561).  After  studying  at  Cologne  and 
P'rankfort-on-the-Oder  Schwenckfeld  served  at  the 
courts  of  several  Silesian  dukes.  In  1521  he  became  a 
public  adherent  of  the  new  doctrine  preached  by  the 
so-called  reformers,  and  was  subsequently  instru- 
mental in  spreading  it  throughout  Silesia.  Irrecon- 
cilable differences  having  revealed  themselves  be- 
tween his  views  and  the  opinions  of  Luther,  he  re- 
moved in  1529  from  Silesia  to  Stra.sburg.  With  his 
banishment  from  this  city  in  1533  opens  that  period 
of  forced  changes  of  residence  which  marked  the  later 
part  of  his  life.  His  wanderings  were  due  to  persecu- 
tion exercised  against  him,  mainly  by  Lutheran 
preachers  who  condemned  his  writings  in  a  meeting 
held  at  Schmalkalden  in  1540.  The  followers  of 
Schwenckfeld  never  became  very  numerous  and  were 
organized  into  congregations  only  after  his  death. 
But  they  had  even  then  to  maintain  a  secret  existence 
owing  to  persecution.  Toleration  was  extended  to 
them  in  Silesia  in  1742  by  Frederick  II.  Some  mem- 
bers of  the  sect  emigrated  in  1734  to  America  and 
settled  in  Pennsylvania.  While  they  have  disappeared 
elsewhere  the  Schwenckfeldians  number  at  present  in 
the  State  just  mentioned,  8.50  communicants  with  8 
churches  and  6  ministers  (Statistics  of  Dr.  H.  K. 
Carroll  in  the  "Christian  Advocate",  New  York, 
26  January,  1911).  Their  church  government  is  con- 
gregational and  the  ministers  are  chosen  by  lot.  In 
the  Schwenckfeldian  teaching  such  stress  is  laid  on 
the  inner,  spiritual,  element  in  religion  that  it  results 
in  an  utter  depreciation  of  external  worship.  The 
sacraments  are  retained  merely  in  a  symboUcal  sense. 
The  administration  of  baptism  to  infants  is  discarded 


SCHWIND 


598 


SCIENCE 


as  useless;  it  is  considered  legitimate  for  adults,  but 
unnecessary.  The  presence  of  Jesus  Christ  in  the 
Eucharist  is  denied.  The  sacramental  words  "This 
is  Mv  Bodv;  this  is  ]\Iy  Blood"  mean  "My  Body  is 
this  (bread);  My  Blood  is  this  (wine)  ",  i.  e.,  as  bread 
and  wine  nourisli  and  strengthen  the  body,  so  the 
Body  and  Blood  of  Christ  are  spiritual  food  and  drink 
for  the  soul.  Two  distinct  natures  are  indeed  ad- 
mitted in  the  incarnate  Christ;  but  the  human  ele- 
ment in  Him  is  said  to  be  essentially  different  from 
the  nature  of  an  ordinary  man.  It  was  derived  from 
tlie  very  beginning  from  the  Divine  substance  and 
was  deified  by  the  sufferings,  death,  and  Resurrec- 
tion of  the  Saviour. 

The  numerous  works  of  Schwenckfeld  have  only  incompletely 
been  published.  A  critical  edition  is  in  course  of  publication 
under  the  direction  of  H.vrtr.^nft,  Schlutter,  and  Johnson; 
Corpus  Schwenckfeldianorum,  I  (Leipzig,  1907);  Kadelbach, 
Ausfuhrliche  Gesch.  Schwenckfelds  u.  der  Schwenckfelder  (Lauban, 
1S61);  Kriebel,  The  Schwenckfelders  in  Pennsylvania  (Lancaster, 
1904) ;  LoETSCHER,  Schwenckfeld' s  Participation  in  the  Eucharistic 
Controrersy  of  the  16th  Century  (Philadelphia,  1906). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Schwind,  Moritz  von,  b.  at  Vienna,  1804;  d. 
at  Munich,  1871.  A  painter  possessing  an  inexhaus- 
tible wealth  of  ideas,  specially  gifted  for  incisive 
individualization,  and  perfectly  familiar  with  the 
entire  range  of  tones  and  the  i)owerof  expression  by 
mien,  movement, 
pose, and  costume, 
he  was  one  of  the 
ornaments  of  the 
Munich  school  of 
art.  He  was 
above  all  a 
draughtsman  and 
painter  of  small 
details,  under- 
standing how  to 
make  small  pic- 
tures harmonious 
both  in  colour 
and  composition. 
He  was  by  nature 
inclined  to  the 
Romantic  school 
of  thought  and 
feeling  and  this 
tendency,  much 
developed  in  the 
studio  of  Ludwig  Schnorr  von  Caroldfeld,  was 
Btill  more  so  by  his  Catholic  education.  After 
a  journey  to  Rome,  the  painting  of  frescoes  at  Carls- 
ruhe,  and  a  short  stay  at  Frankfort,  he  came  in 
1847  to  Munich  where  Cornehus  gained  great  influence 
over  him.  The  spirit  of  his  art  is  that  of  the  minne- 
singers, of  Eichendorff,  and  of  Bretano.  The  mate- 
rial upon  which  he  worked  was  nature  and  life, 
especially  child-life,  lyrically  and  poetically  con- 
ceived, drawing  and  painting  in  water-colours  being 
the  mediums  in  which  he  best  expressed  his  thoughts. 
Among  his  fellow  artists  Richter  and  Steinle  stand 
probably  in  the  closest  relation  to  him.  He  set  a 
high  value  on  religious  painting,  and  though  he 
thought  it  less  suited  to  his  talents,  he  did  not  neglect 
it   altogether.      In  the  castle  on   the  Wartburg  he 

F)ainted  fine  frescoes  of  the  works  of  mercy  and  the 
ife  of  St.  Elizabeth,  which  recall  the  early  Renais- 
sance; he  al.sf;  jiainted  there  the  history  of  the  Thurin- 
gian  rulfrs  and  the  Sdngerkrieg.  The  work  for  the  altar 
of  the  Church  of  Our  Lady  at  Munich  is  splendid  in 
tone  and  the  coloured  cartoons  for  painted  windows 
which  were  executed  at  Oxford  and  London  are 
a\m  greatly  esteemed.  At  Carlsruhe  he  adorned  the 
academy  of  art  with  entertaining  frescoes  character- 
izing art.  The  easel-picture  "Ritter  Kurts's  Search 
for  a  Wife"  had  gained  the  commission  for  him,  for 
the   delightful   humour  of   his   popular  creations   is 


MORITZ    VON    SCHWI> 
.^KLF-PORTRAIT 


not  spoiled  by  flippancy.  Other  excellent  easel- 
pictures  are  in  the  Schack  gallery  at  Munich.  In  his 
oil-paintings,  however,  the  harmonious  Combination 
of  the  parts  with  the  whole  and  of  the  colour  with 
the  drawing  are  often  lacking.  In  the  frescoes  the 
professional  water-colour  painter  is  evident.  As  a 
water-colour  painter  he  attained  his  greatest  triumphs 
in  the  cyclus  of  the  Seven  Ravens,  and  in  that  of 
the  legend  of  Melusine. 

Weigmann,  Ktnssiker  der  Kunst  (1906);  Schwindalhum  (Mu- 
nich,  1880);  Schwindmappe  zum  Kunstwarl  {I902-0i);  Schwind, 
Lukas  von  Fiihrich  (Leipzig,  1871) ;  Haack,  Moritz  von  Schivind 
(Leipzig,  1898) ;  Muther,  Geschichte  der  Malerei  im  XIX.  Jahrh., 
I  (Munich,  1893). 

G.   GlETMANN. 

Science  and  the  Church. — The  words  "science" 
and  "Church"  are  here  understood  in  the  following 
sense:  Science  is  not  taken  in  the  restricted  meaning 
of  natural  sciences,  but  in  the  general  one  given 
to  the  word  by  Aristotle  and  St.  Thomas  Aquinas. 
Aristotle  defines  science  as  a  sure  and  evident  knowl- 
edge obtained  from  demonstrations.  This  is  iden- 
tical with  St.  Thomas's  definition  of  science  as  the 
knowledge  of  things  from  their  causes.  In  this  sense 
science  comprises  the  entire  curriculum  of  university 
studies.  Church,  in  connexion  with  science,  theo- 
retically means  any  Church  that  claims  authority 
in  matters  of  doctrine  and  teaching;  practically,  how- 
ever, only  the  Catholic  Church  is  in  question,  on  ac- 
count of  her  universality  and  her  claim  of  power  to 
exercise  this  authority.  The  relation  between  the 
two  is  here  treated  under  the  two  heads  Science  and 
Church. 

Synopsis: — A.  Science.  I.  Points  of  Contact  Be- 
tween Science  and  Faith:  (1)  Philosophy;  (2)  History; 
(3)  Law;  (4)  Medicine;  (5)  Sciences.  II.  Legitimate 
Freedom:  (1)  Research  and  teaching;  (2)  Limitations 
(logical,  physical,  ethical).  III.  Unlimited  Freedom: 
(1)  Does  not  exist;  (2)  Licence;  (3)  Consequences 
(Atheism,  Subjectivism,  Anarchism). 

B.  Church.  I.  Opposite  Views:  (1)  Leo  XIII;  (2) 
Virchow;  (3)  History.  II.  The  teaching  body  and  the 
ecclesia  discens:  (1)  Distinction;  (2)  Premises  of  faith; 

(3)  Contents  of  faith;  (4)  Dangers  against  faith.  III. 
The  holders  of  the  teaching  office:  (1)  Infallible  magis- 
terium;  (2)  Other  tribunals;  (3)  Galilei.  IV.  Science 
of  Faith:  (1)  Parallel  case;  (2)  Theology;  (3)  Progress; 

(4)  Objections  (mysteries,  methodical  doubt).  V. 
Conflicts:  (1)  Faith  no  obstacle;  (2)  Dignity  of  science; 
(3)  Historical  testimony;  (4)  Vatican  Council. 

A.  Science.  Science  is  considered  from  three 
points  of  view :  contact  with  faith,  legitimate  freedom, 
unlimited  freedom. 

I.  Pointi<  of  Contact  between  Science  and  Faith. — 
These  are  mainly  confined  to  philosophical  and  his- 
torical sciences.  They  do  not  occur  in  theology,  as 
it  is  the  very  science  of  faith  itself.  The  points  of 
contact  of  the  various  sciences  with  faith  may  be 
grouped  as  follows: — (1)  In  the  philosophical  sciences: 
— the  existence  of  God  and  His  qualities: — unity,  per- 
sonality, eternity,  infinity;  God,  the  final  end  of  man 
and  of  all  created  things;  freedom  of  the  human  will, 
the  natural  law.  (2)  In  the  historical  and  linguistic 
sciences:  the  hisforical  unity  of  the  human  race  and 
of  the  original  limgUHgc;  the  history  of  the  Patriarchs, 
of  the  Israelites,  and  of  their  Messianic  belief;  the 
hi.story  of  ('lirist  and  His  Church;  the  authenticity 
of  the  Sacreti  Bo^ks;  the  history  of  dogmas,  of  schisms, 
of  heresies;  luigiograpliy.  (3)  In  the  science  of  ethics 
and  law :— the;  origin  of  right  and  duty  (the  realistic 
Positivism  of  Comte  and  the  subjective  Positivism  of 
John  Stuart  Mill);  the  authority  of  civil  governments 
(Rousseau's  "Contrat  social"  and  Kant's  "Critique 
of  Pure  Reason");  the  matrimonial  contract,  its  unity 
anrl  permanency;  the  natural  rights  and  duties  of 
parents  and  chiUlren;  personal  property;  freedom  of 
religion  (separation  of  religion  and  state,  toleration). 


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(4)  The  medi(!;il  and  biological  sciences  have  oc- 
casioned serious  discussion  concerning  the  existence 
of  the  human  soul,  its  spirituahty  and  immortality, 
its  difference  from  the  vital  principle  in  animals;  the 
phj'siological  unity  of  mankind;  the  justification  of 
prevention  and  extinction  of  human  life.  In  reality, 
however,  all  these  questions  lie  outside  the  domain 
of  medicine.  (5)  In  natural  sciences,  especially  nat- 
ural philosophy,  the  points  of  contact  are: — the  cre- 
ation of  the  world  and  of  man  (materialistic  doc- 
trines, eternity  of  matter,  absolute  necessity  of  natural 
laws,  impossibility  of  miracles.  Darwinian  origin  of 
man);  the  Deluge,  its  existence  and  ethnographical 
universality.  The  mathematical  and  experimental  sci- 
ences, also  known  as  exact  sciences,  have  no  con- 
tact whatever  with  faith,  although  at  one  time,  it 
was  erroneously  believed  that  the  geocentric  system 
was  contained  in  the  Bible.  The  celestial  phenomena 
mentioned  in  the  Scripture,  like  the  star  of  the  magi, 
the  solar  eclipse  during  the  Paschal  full  moon,  the 
stars  falling  from  heaven  as  forerunners  of  the  Last 
Judgment,  are  aU  of  the  miraculous  kind  and  beyond 
the  laws  of  nature. 

II.  Legitimate  Freedom. — Legitimate  freedom  is 
needed  for  science  as  well  as  for  any  human  develop- 
ment. The  only  questions  are  these:  what  is  legiti- 
mate freedom,  and  what  are  its  limitations?  (1) 
Science  comprises  two  functions:  researcli  and  teach- 
ing, (a)  The  object  of  scientific  researc^h  is  practically 
indefinite  in  extent  and  can  never  be  exhausted  by  the 
human  mind.  In  this  field  there  is  more  freedom  than 
has  ever  been  claimed.  Compared  to  its  field,  the 
progress  of  science  appears  small,  so  much  so,  that  the 
greatest  progress  seems  to  consist  in  the  knowledge 
of  how  little  we  know.  This  was  the  conclusion  ar- 
rived at  by  Socrates,  Newton,  Humboldt,  and  so  many 
others.  The  very  instruments  teach  this  lesson:  the 
deeper  the  microscope  descends  into  the  secrets  of 
nature  and  the  higher  the  telescopic  power  reaches 
into  the  heavens,  the  vaster  appears  the  ocean  of  un- 
discovered truths.  This  ought  to  be  kept  in  mind, 
when  the  progress  of  science  is  loudly  proclaimed. 
There  has  never  been  a  general  progress  of  all  sciences; 
it  was  always  progress  in  some  branches,  often  at  the 
cost  of  others.  In  our  own  days  natural,  medical,  and 
historical  sciences  advance  rapidly  in  comparison  with 
past  ages;  at  tlio  s;im(>  time  the  philosophical  sciences 
fall  just  as  rai)idly  behind  the  early  ages.  The  science 
of  law  owes  its  foundat  ion  to  the  ancient  world.  Some 
of  the  theological  sciences  reached  their  height  in  the 
early  part  of  tho  Middle  Ages,  others  towards  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century,  (b)  By  teaching 
is  here  understood  every  diffusion  of  knowledge,  by 
word  or  print,  in  school  or  museum,  in  pubhc  or 
private.  Progress  and  the  freedom  necessary  for  it 
are  as  much  to  be  desired  in  teaching  as  in  research. 
There  is  a  doctrinal  freedom,  a  pedagogical  freedom, 
and  a  professional  freedom.  Doctrinal  freedom  regards 
the  doctrine  itself  which  is  taught;  pedagogical  free- 
dom, the  manner  in  which  science  is  diffused  among 
scholars  or  the  general  public;  professional  freedom, 
the  persons  who  do  the  teaching.  Science  claims 
freedom  of  teaching  in  all  these  respects. 

(2)  It  has  to  be  seen  whether  there  are  limitations 
to  research  and  teaching  and  what  these  limitations 
are.  All  things  in  this  world  may  be  considered  from 
a  triple  point  of  view:  from  the  logical,  the  physical, 
and  the  ethical.  Applied  to  science  we  discover  limi- 
tations in  all  three,  (a)  Logically  science  is  limited 
by  truth,  which  belongs  to  its  very  essence.  Knowl- 
edge of  things  cannot  be  had  from  their  causes,  unless 
the  knowledge  be  true.  False  knowledge  cannot  be 
derived  from  the  causes  of  things;  it  has  its  origin  in 
some  spurious  source.  Should  science  ever  have  to 
choose  between  truth  and  freedom  (a  choice  not  at 
all  imaginary),  it  must  under  all  circumstances  decide 
for  truth,  under  penalty  of  self-annihilation.     As  long 


as  the  case  is  thus  put  theoretically,  there  is  no  differ- 
ence of  opinion.  Yet  in  practice,  it  is  almost  hopeless 
to  reconcile  conflicting  sentiments.  When,  in  1901, 
a  vacant  chair  at  the  University  of  Strasburg  was  to 
be  filled  by  a  Catholic  historian,  Mommsen  pub- 
lished a  protest,  in  which  he  exclaimed:  "A  sense  of 
degradation  is  pervading  German  university  circles". 
On  that  occasion  he  coined  the  shibboleth  "vorausset- 
zungslos",  and  claimed  that  scientific  research  must 
be  "without  presuppositions".  The  same  cry  was 
raised  by  Harnack  (1908)  when  he  demanded  "un- 
bounded freedom  for  research  and  knowledge".  The 
demand  was  formulated  a  little  more  precisely  by  the 
congress  of  academicians  in  Jena  (1908).  Their  claim 
for  science  was  "freedom  from  every  view  foreign  to 
scientific  methods". 

In  the  latter  formula  the  claim  has  a  legitimate 
meaning,  viz.,  that  unscientific  views  should  not  in- 
fluence the  results  of  science.  In  the  meaning  of 
Mommsen  and  Harnack,  however,  the  claim  is  illog- 
ical in  a  double  sense.  First,  there  can  be  no  "science 
without  presuppositions".  Every  scientist  must  ac- 
cept certain  truths  dictated  by  sound  reason,  among 
others,  the  truth  of  his  own  existence  and  of  a  world 
outside  of  himself;  next,  that  he  can  recognize  the 
external  world  through  the  senses,  that  a  reasoning 
power  is  given  to  him  for  understanding  the  impres- 
sions received,  and  a  will  power  free  from  physical 
constraint.  As  a  philosopher,  he  reflects  upon  these 
truths  and  explains  them  on  scientific  methods,  but 
will  never  prove  all  of  them  without  involving  himself 
in  vi(!ious  circles.  Whatever  science  he  chooses  he 
has  to  build  it  upon  the  natural  or  philosophical  pre- 
suppositions on  which  his  life  as  man  rests.  The  fact 
is  that  every  positive  science  borrows  from  philosophy 
a  number  of  established  principles. 

So  much  for  the  general  premises.  They  alone 
would  show  how  illogical  is  the  claim  for  "science 
without  presuppositions".  But  this  is  not  all.  Each 
science  has  its  own  particular  presuppositions  or  ax- 
ioms, distinct  from  its  own  conclusions,  just  as  every 
building  has  its  foundation,  distinct  from  its  walls  and 
roof.  Nay,  the  various  branches  of  any  special  sci- 
ence have  all  their  own  proper  presuppositions.  Eu- 
clid's geometry  is  built  upon  three  kinds  of  presup- 
positions. He  calls  them  definitions,  postulates,  and 
common  notions.  The  latter  were  called  axioms  by 
Pro(!lus.  To  show  the  difTerence  between  hypothesis 
and  result  no  better  example  could  be  chosen  than  Eu- 
clid's fifth  postulate  of  the  first  book.  The  postu- 
late says:  '  When  two  straight  fines  are  intersected 
by  a  third  so  as  to  make  the  inner  adjacent  angles  on 
one  side  less  than  two  right  angles,  the  two  lines,  in- 
definitely prolonged,  will  intersect  on  the  side  of 
those  lesser  angles."  By  a  mistake  of  Proclus 
(fifth  century)  the  postulate  was  changed  into 
a  proposition.  Innumerable  attempts  at  proving 
the  supposed  proposition  were  made,  until  the  error 
was  recognized,  only  a  century  ago.  The  fifth 
postulate,  or  axiom  of  parallels  as  it  is  often  called, 
proved  to  be  a  real  hypothesis,  distinct  from  all 
the  other  presuppositions.  Non-euclidian  geometries 
have  been  constructed  by  a  simple  change  of  the  fifth 
postulate.  All  this  shows  that  there  is  no  geometry 
without  presuppositions.  And  similarly,  there  is  no 
algebra  without  presuppositions.  Law  starts  from 
the  existence  of  families  and  from  their  natural 
tendency  towards  association  for  common  welfare. 
Medicine  takes  the  human  body  as  a  living  organism, 
subject  to  derangement,  and  the  existence  of  reme- 
dies, before  it  constructs  its  science.  History  sup- 
poses human  testimony  to  be,  under  certain  condi- 
tions, a  reliable  source  of  knowledge,  before  it  begins 
its  researches.  Linguistic  sciences,  likewise,  take  it 
for  granted  that  human  languages  are  not  constructed 
arbitrarily  but  evolved  logically  from  a  variety  of  cir- 
cumstances.    Theology  takes  from  philosophy  a  num- 


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600 


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ber  of  truths,  such  as  the  existence  of  God,  the  possi- 
bihty  of  miracles,  and  others.  In  fact,  one  science 
borrows  its  presuppositions  from  the  results  of  other 
sciences,  a  division  of  labour  which  is  necessitated  by 
the  limitations  of  everj-thing  human.  Hence,  the 
cry  for  "science  without  presuppositions"  is  doubly 
illogical,  unless  by  presupposition  is  meant  an  hypoth- 
esis that  can  be  proved  to  be  false  or  foreign  to  the 
particular  science  in  question.  The  freedom  of  sci- 
ence therefore  has  its  hmitations  from  the  point  of 
view  of  logic 

(b)  From  the  physical  point  of  view  science  re- 
quires material  means.  Buildings,  endowments,  and 
libraries  are  necessary  to  all  branches  of  science,  in  re- 
search as  well  as  in  "teaching.  Medical  and  natural 
sciences  require  e.vtraordinary  means,  such  as  labora- 
tories, museums,  and  instruments.  jNIaterial  require- 
ments have  always  imposed  hmitations  upon  scien- 
tific research  and  teaching.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
appeals  of  science  for  freedom  from  the  burden  have 
been  generously  answered.  Between  the  twelfth  and 
the  fourteenth  "centuries  about  forty  universities  were 
founded  in  Europe,  partly  by  private  initiative, 
partlv  bv  princes  or  popes,  in  most  cases  by  the  com- 
bined efforts  of  both  together  with  the  members  of 
the  university.  Among  the  self-originating  universi- 
ties may  be  mentioned  Bologna,  Paris,  O.xford,  and 
Cambridge.  With  the  help  of  princes,  universities 
were  erected  at  Palencia,  Naples,  Salamanca,  Seville, 
and  Siena.  Of  the  universities  founded  by  popes  we 
mention  only  Rome,  Pisa,  Ferrara,  Toulouse,  Valla- 
dohd,  Heidelberg,  Cologne,  and  Erfurt.  Most  of  the 
old  universities,  hke  Coimbra,  Florence,  Prague,  Vi- 
enna, Cracow,  Alcala,  Upsala,  Louvain,  Leipzig,  Ros- 
tock, Tubingen,  and  many  others,  owe  then-  origin 
to  the  combined  efforts  of  princes  and  popes.  The 
foundations  consisted  mainly  of  charters  giving  civil 
rights  and  authorizing  scientific  degrees,  in  most  cases 
also  of  material  contributions  and  endowments.  To 
many  of  the  professors'  chairs,  ecclesiastical  benefices 
were"  apphed  by  the  popes  without  other  obligation 
than  that  of  teaching  science.  Naturally  the  found- 
ers retained  a  certain  authority  and  influence  over  the 
schools.  On  the  whole,  the  old  universities  enjoyed 
everywhere  the  same  freedom  which  they  have  in 
England  up  to  this  day.  After  the  Reformation  the 
governments  of  continental  Europe  made  the  univer- 
sities of  their  owti  territories  State  institutions,  pay- 
ing the  profes.sors  as  Government  employees,  some- 
times prescribing  textbooks,  methods  of  teaching, 
and  even  doctrines.  Although  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, governments  were  obliged  to  relax  their  super- 
vision, they  still  keep  the  monopoly  of  establishing 
universities  and  of  appointing  the  professors.  Their 
influence  on  the  progress  of  science  is  unmistakable; 
how  far  this  may  benefit  science,  need  not  be  decided 
in  this  place.  With  the  growing  influence  of  the 
State  that  of  the  Church  has  been  diminished,  in  most 
universities  to  total  extinction.  In  the  few  European 
universities  in  which  the  faculty  of  Catholic  theology 
is  still  allowed  to  exist,  the  supervision  of  the  Church 
over  her  own  science  is  almost  reduced  to  a  mere  veto. 
The  necessity  of  exempting  the  profes.sors  from  the 
oath  against  the  Modernistic  heresy  is  an  illustration 
of  the  case.  Owing  to  the  freedom  of  teaching  in  the 
United  States  of  America  there  are,  besides  the  public 
universities  of  the  different  states,  a  number  of  insti- 
tutions founded  by  private  endowment.  In  the  face 
of  the  strong  aid  which  anti-Christian  and  atheistic 
tendencies  receive  through  the  influence  of  universi- 
ties, private  endowments  of  schools  that  maintain 
the  truth  of  Revelation  cannot  be  too  much  recom- 
mended. 

(c)  The  limitations  of  science  from  the  ethical 
point  of  view  are  twofold.  The  direct  action  of  sci- 
ence on  ethics  is  readily  understood;  the  reaction  of 
ethics  upon  science  is  just-as  certain.     And  both^ftc- 


tion  and  reaction  create  limitations  for  science.  The 
activity  of  man  is  guided  by  two  spiritual  faculties, 
understanding  and  will.  From  the  understanding  it 
derives  light,  from  the  will  firmness.  Naturally  the 
understanding  precedes  the  will,  and  hence  the  influ- 
ence of  science  upon  ethics.  This  influence  becomes 
an  important  factor  in  the  welfare  of  the  human  race 
for  the  reason  that  it  is  not  confined  to  the  scientist 
in  his  own  researches,  but  reaches  the  masses  through 
the  various  forms  of  teaching  by  word  and  wTiting. 
If  one  is  to  judge  aright  in  this  matter,  two  general 
principles  must  be  kept  in  view.  First,  ethics  is  more 
important  for  mankind  than  science.  Those  who  be- 
Ueve  in  revelation,  know  that  the  Commandments 
are  the  criteria  by  which  men  will  be  judged  (Matt., 
XXV,  35-46) ;  and  those  who  see  only  as  far  as  the  light 
of  natural  reason  enables  them  to  see  know  from  his- 
tory that  the  happiness  of  peoples  and  nations  con- 
sists rather  in  moral  rectitude  than  in  scientific  pro- 
gress. The  conclusion  is  that  if  there  should  ever  be  a 
conflict  between  science  and  ethics,  ethics  should  pre- 
vail. Now,  there  can  be  no  such  conflict  except  in 
two  cases:  when  scientific  research  leads  into  error, 
and  when  the  teaching  of  science,  even  if  true,  is 
applied  against  sound  educational  maxims.  To  see 
that  these  exceptions  are  not  imaginary,  one  need 
only  glance  at  the  points  of  contact  between  science 
and  faith,  under  A.  All  of  them  indicate  actual  con- 
flicts. Unpedagogical  teaching  is  sadly  illustrated 
by  the  recent  movement  in  Germany  towards  prema- 
ture and  even  pubhc  instruction  on  sexual  relations, 
which  provoked  a  reaction  on  the  part  of  the  civil 
authorities. 

So  much  about  the  direct  action  of  science  on 
ethics.  The  case  ought  not  to  be  reversible,  in  other 
words,  ethics  should  not  influence  science,  except  in 
the  way  of  stimulating  research  and  teaching.  How- 
ever, not  only  individuals  but  whole  schools  of  sci- 
entists have  been  subject  to  that  human  frailty  ex- 
pressed in  the  adage:  Stat  pro  ratione  voluntas.  As 
Cicero  expresses  it:  "Man  judges  much  more  fre- 
quently influenced  by  hatred  or  love  or  cupidity  .  . 
or  some  mental  agitation,  than  by  the  truth,  or  a 
command,  or  the  law"  (De  oratore,  II,  xhi).  If  Cicero 
is  correct,  then  the  freedom  of  knowledge,  so  highly 
praised  and  so  loudly  demanded,  is  perverted  by  men 
in  a  double  sense.  First,  they  carry  the  freedom  of 
the  will  into  the  judgment.  Love,  hatred,  desires, 
are  passions  or  acts  of  the  will,  while  judgments  are 
formed  by  the  understanding,  a  faculty  entirely  de- 
void of  free  choice.  Secondly,  they  deprive  the  un- 
derstanding of  the  necessary  indifference  and  equilib- 
rium, and  force  it  to  one  side,  whether  the  side  of 
truth  or  that  of  falsehood.  If  the  men  of  science, 
who  clamour  for  freedom,  belong  to  the  class  de- 
scribed by  Cicero,  then  their  idea  of  freedom  is  en- 
tirely confused  and  perverted.  It  may  be  answered 
that  Cicero's  statement  applied  to  daily  affairs  rather 
than  to  the  pursuits  of  science.  This  is  perfectly 
true  as  far  as  exact  sciences  are  concerned,  and  it  is 
probably  true  also  in  regard  to  the  formal  object  of 
every  science.  Yet  when  we  consider  the  very  first 
postulates  that  the  sciences  take  from  philosophy, 
we  come  very  near  to  daily  life.  Men  of  science  hear 
of  Christ  and  know  of  the  magna  carta  of  His  king- 
dom, proclaimed  on  the  mountain  (Luke,  vi).  It 
cuts  very  sharply  into  daily  life.  It  could  be  dis- 
carded, if  that  same  Christ  had  not  claimed  all  po\yer 
in  heaven  and  on  earth,  and  if  He  had  not  prophesied 
His  second  coming,  to  judge  the  living  and  the  dead. 

Here  it  is  that  Cicero's  love  and  hatred  come  in. 
It  is  quite  safe  to  say:  there  is  no  place  in  the  civil- 
ized world  where  Christ  is  not  loved  and  hated. 
Those  who  are  willing  to  take  the  steep  and  narrow 

Eath  towards  His  kingdom  accept  the  testimonies  to 
[is  Divine  mission  with  impartiality;  others  who  pre- 
fer an  easier  ^nd  broader  way  of  hfe  try  to  persuade 


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themselves  that  the  claims  of  Christ  are  unfounded. 
For,  besides  those  who  either  reject  His  claims 
through  inherited  or  acquired  prejudices,  or  treat 
them  with  indifference,  a  large  number  of  men  try  to 
strengthen  their  anti-Christian  position  by  scienti- 
fic forms.  Knowing  that  Christ's  Divinity  can  be 
proved  from  the  miracles  to  which  He  appealed  as 
testimonies  of  His  Father,  they  formulate  the  axiom : 
"Miracles  are  impossible".  Seeing,  however,  the  in- 
consistency of  the  formula  as  long  as  there  is  a  Ma- 
ker of  the  world,  they  are  driven  to  the  next  postu- 
late: "There  is  no  Creator".  Seeing  again,  that  the 
existence  of  the  Creator  can  be  proved  from  the  ex- 
istence of  the  world,  and  convincingly  so  by  a  num- 
ber of  arguments,  they  require  new  axioms.  First 
they  treat  the  origin  of  matter  as  too  remote  for  its 
cause  to  be  ascertained,  and  plead  that:  "Matter  is 
eternal".  For  a  similar  reason  the  origin  of  life  is  ex- 
plained by  the  arbitrary  postulate  of  "spontaneous 
generation".  Then  the  wisdom  and  order  displayed 
in  the  starry  heavens  and  in  the  flora  and  fauna  of  the 
earth  must  be  disposed  of.  To  say  in  plain  words 
"All  order  in  the  world  is  casual"  would  be  offensive 
to  common  sense.  The  axiom  is  then  vested  in  more 
scientific  language,  thus:  "From  eternity  the  world 
has  passed  through  an  infinite  number  of  forms,  and 
only  the  fittest  was  able  to  survive". 

The  substructure  of  anti-Christian  science  has  still 
one  weak  point:  the  human  soul  is  not  from  eternity 
and  its  spiritual  faculties  point  to  a  spiritual  maker. 
The  fabrication  of  axioms,  once  begun,  has  to  be 
concluded:  "The  human  soul  is  not  essentially  differ- 
ent from  the  vital  principle  of  the  animal".  This  con- 
clusion recoininciuls  itself  as  especially  strong  against 
what  the  will  dreads:  the  animal  is  not  immortal,  and 
hence  neither  is  the  human  soul;  consequently  what- 
ever judgment  may  follow,  it  will  have  no  effect.  The 
end  of  the  fabrication  is  bitter.  Man  is  a  highly  devel- 
oped orang-outang.  There  is  still  one  stumbling-block 
in  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  old  and  new.  The  Old  Testa- 
ment narrates  the  creation  of  man,  his  fall,  the  promise 
of  a  Redeemer ;  it  contains  prophecicr  of  a  Messias  which 
seem  to  be  fulfilled  in  Christ  and  His  Church.  The 
New  Testament  proves  the  fulfilment  of  the  promises, 
and  presents  a  superhuman  Being,  who  offered  His  life 
for  the  expiation  of  sin  and  attested  His  Divinity  by 
His  own  Resurrection ;  it  gives  the  constitution  and 
early  history  of  His  Church,  and  promises  her  existence 
to  the  consummation  of  the  world.  This  could  not  be 
allowed  to  stand  in  the  fac(>  of  anti-Christian  science. 
A  few  postulates  more  or  less  will  do  no  harm  to  science 
as  it  stiinds.  The  Hebrew  literature  is  put  on  a  par 
with  that  of  Persia  or  China,  the  history  of  Paradise 
is  relegated  to  the  realm  of  legends,  the  authenticity 
of  the  books  is  denied,  contradictions  in  the  contents 
are  pointed  out,  and  the  obvious  sense  is  distorted. 
The  axioms  used  for  the  annihilation  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  have  the  advantage  of  plausibility  over 
those  used  against  the  Creator.  They  are  draped  in 
a  mass  of  erudition  taken  from  the  linguistic  and  the 
historical  sciences. 

But  we  have  not  seen  all  of  them  yet.  The  greatest 
obstacle  to  anti-Christian  science  is  the  Church,  which 
claims  Divine  origin,  authority  to  teach  infallible 
truth,  maintains  the  inspiration  of  Scripture,  and  is 
confident  of  her  own  existence  to  the  end  of  the  world. 
With  her,  science  cannot  play  as  with  philosophy  or 
literature.  She  is  a  living  institution  wielding  her 
sceptre  over  all  the  peoples  of  the  world.  She  has  all 
the  weapons  of  science  at  her  disposal,  and  members 
devoted  to  her,  heart  and  soul.  To  grant  to  her  equal 
rights  on  scientific  grounds  would  be  disastrous  to  the 
"science  without  presuppositions".  The  mere  creat- 
ing of  new  axioms  woukl  not  seem  to  be  efficient 
against  a  living  organization.  The  axioms  have  to 
be  proclaimed  loudly,  and  kept  alive,  and  finally  en- 
forced by  organized  opposition,  even  in  some  cases  by 


government  power.  Books  and  journals  and  lecture 
halls  announce  the  one  text,  sung  in  every  key,  the 
great  axiom:  that  the  Church  is  essentially  unscien- 
tific as  resting  on  unwarranted  presuppositions,  and 
that  her  scientists  can  never  be  true  men  of  science. 
Mommsen's  cry  of  degradation  on  the  appointment  of  a 
Catholic  historian  in  Strasburg  (1901)  re-echoed  loudly 
from  most  German  universities.  And  yet,  there  was 
question  of  only  a  fifth  Catholic  among  seventy-two 
professors;  and  this  at  a  university  in  Alsace-Lorraine, 
a  territory  almost  entirely  Cathohc.  Similar  propor- 
tions prevail  in  most  universities.  All  the  axioms  of 
anti-Christian  science  mentioned  above  are  entirely 
arbitrary  and  false.  Not  one  of  them  can  be  sup- 
ported by  solid  reasons;  on  the  contrary,  every  one 
of  them  has  been  proved  to  be  false.  Thus  anti- 
Christian  science  has  surrounded  itself  by  a  number  of 
boundary  stakes  driven  into  scientific  ground,  and 
has  thus  limited  its  own  freedom  of  progress;  the 
"science  without  presuppositions"  is  entangled  in  its 
own  axioms,  for  no  other  reason  than  its  aversion  to 
Christ.  On  the  other  hand,  the  scientist  who  ac- 
cepts the  teaching  of  Christ  need  not  fall  back  on  a 
single  arbitrary  postulate.  If  he  is  a  philosopher,  he 
starts  from  the  premises  dictated  by  reason.  In  the 
world  around  him  he  recognizes  the  natural  revelation 
of  a  Creator,  and  by  logical  deductions  concludes  from 
the  contingency  of  things  created  to  the  Being  Un- 
created. The  same  reasoning  makes  him  understand 
the  spirituality  and  immortahty  of  the  soul.  From 
both  results  combined  he  concludes  further  to  moral 
obligations  and  the  existence  of  a  natural  law.  Thus 
prepared  he  can  start  into  any  scientific  research  with- 
out the  necessity  of  erecting  boundary  stakes  for  the 
purpose  of  justifying  his  prejudices.  If  he  wants  to 
go  further  and  put  his  faith  upon  a  scientific  basis, 
he  may  take  the  books,  called  the  Sacred  Scriptures, 
as  a  starting-point,  apply  methodical  criticism  to 
their  authenticity,  and  find  them  just  as  reliable  as 
any  other  historical  record.  Their  contents,  proph- 
ecies, and  miracles  convince  him  of  the  Divinity  of 
Christ,  and  from  the  testimony  of  Christ  he  accepts 
the  entire  supernatural  Revelation.  He  has  con- 
structed the  science  of  his  faith  without  any  other  than 
scientific  premises.  Thus  the  science  of  the  Christian 
is  the  only  one  that  gives  freedom  of  research  and 
progress;  its  boundaries  are  none  but  the  pale  of  truth. 
Anti-Christian  science,  on  the  contrary,  is  the  slave 
of  its  own  preconceived  ethics. 

III.  Unlimited  Freedom. — The  demand  for  un- 
limited freedom  in  science  is  unreasonable  and  unjust, 
because  it  leads  to  licence  and  rebellion.  (1)  There  is 
no  unlimited  freedom  in  the  world,  and  liberty  over- 
stepping its  boundaries  always  leads  to  evil.  Man 
himself  is  neither  absolutely  free,  nor  would  he  desire 
unbounded  freedom.  Freedom  is  not  the  greatest 
boon  nor  the  final  end  of  man;  it  is  given  to  him  as  a 
means  to  reach  his  end.  Within  his  own  mind,  man 
feels  bound  to  truth.  Around  himself,  he  sees  all 
nature  bound  to  laws  and  even  dreads  disturbances 
in  their  regular  course.  In  all  his  activity  he  gets 
along  best  by  remaining  within  the  laws  set  for  him. 
Those  judgments  are  the  best  which  are  formed  in 
accordance  with  the  rules  of  logic.  Those  machines 
and  insfi-uments  are  the  finest  which  are  allowed  the 
smallest  amount  of  freedom.  Social  intercourse  is 
easiest  within  the  rules  of  propriety.  Widening  these 
boundaries  does  not  lead  to  higher  perfection.  Opin- 
ions are  free  only  where  certainty  cannot  be  reached ; 
scientific  theories  are  free  as  long  as  they  rest  on  prob- 
abilities. The  freest  of  all  in  their  thinking  are  the 
ignorant.  In  short,  the  more  freedom  of  opinion, 
the  less  science.  Similarly,  a  railway  train  with  free- 
dom in  more  than  one  line  is  disastrous,  a  ship  not 
under  the  control  of  the  helm  is  doomed.  A  nation 
that  depreciates  its  code  of  law,  that  relaxes  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  that  sets  aside  the  strict  rules 


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602 


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of  propriety,  that  does  not  protect  its  own  industry, 
that  gives  no  guarantee  for  personal  and  pubhc  prop- 
erty and  safety  is  on  the  dedine.  Unhmited  freedom 
leads  to  barbarism,  and  its  nearest  approach  is  found 
in  the  wilds  of  Australia. 

(2)  The  cry  of  anti-Christian  science  is  for  license. 
The  boundaries  enumerated  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph circumscribe  the  logical,  the  physical,  and  the 
ethical  realm  of  man.  Whenever  he  steps  outside, 
he  falls  into  error,  into  misfortune,  into  licence.  Now, 
to  which  realm  does  science  belong?  Aristotle's 
definition  fixes  it  in  the  logical  realm.  And  what  be- 
comes of  the  freedom  of  science?  Within  man,  the 
logical  realm  is  the  intellectual  faculty,  and  without, 
it  is  the  realm  of  truth.  Yet  neither  is  free.  Man's 
freedom  is  in  the  will,  not  in  the  understanding. 
Truth  is  eternal  and  alDsolute.  It  follows  that  the 
cry  for  unbounded  freedom  of  science  has  no  place  in 
the  logical  reahn;  evidently,  it  is  not  meant  for  the 
physical ;  so  it  must  belong  to  the  ethical  realm ;  it  is 
not  a  cry  for  truth,  it  is  a  cry  with  a  purpose.  What 
the  purpose  is  can  be  inferred  from  what  has  been 
said  under  II.  It  maj*  be  summed  up  in  the  state- 
ment that  it  is  rebellion  against  both  supernatural  and 
natural  revelation.  The  former  position  is  the  pri- 
mary but  could  not  consistently  be  held  without  the 
latter.  Rebellion  is  not  too  strong  a  word.  If  God 
pleases  to  reveal  Himself  in  any  way  whatever,  man 
is  obliged  to  accept  the  revelation,  and  no  arbitrary 
axiom  will  dispense  him  from  the  duty.  Against  nat- 
ural revelation  Paulsen  and  Wundt  appeal  to  the 
postulate  of  "closed  natural  causality",  meaning  by 
"closed"  the  exclusion  of  the  Creator.  Supernatural 
revelation  was  styled  by  Kant  "a  dogmatic  con- 
straint", which,  he  saj's,  may  have  an  educational 
value  for  minors  by  filling  them  with  pious  fears. 
Wundt  follows  him  by  calling  Catholicism  the  religion 
of  constraint,  and  Paulsen  praises  Kant  as  "the  re- 
deemer from  unbearable  stress".  All  these  expres- 
sions rest  on  the  supposition  that  in  science  there  is 
no  place  for  a  Creator,  no  place  for  a  Redeemer. 
Slany  attempts  have  been  made  to  put  the  axiom  on 
a  scientific  basis;  but  it  remains  an  assumed  premise, 
an  "unwavering  conviction",  as  Harnack  calls  it. 

(3)  That  the  expressions  "hcense"  and  "rebellion" 
are  just  is  clear  from  the  consequences  of  anti-Christian 
science,  (aj  Anti-Christian  science  leads  to  Atheism. 
When  science  repudiates  the  claim  of  Chri.st  as  Son 
of  God,  it  necessarily  repudiates  the  Father  who  sent 
Him,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  who  proceeds  from  both. 
The  logical  inference  does  not  find  favour  with  the 
parti.sans  of  that  science.  When  in  1892  the  school 
laws  were  being  discussed  in  the  German  Reichstag, 
Chancellor  Caprivi  had  the  courage  to  say:  "The 
point  in  question  is  Christianity  or  Atheism  .  .  . 
the  essential  in  man  is  his  relation  to  God."  The 
outcry  on  the  "liberal"  side  of  the  House  showed  that 
the  chancellor  had  touched  a  sore  point.  Since  the 
repudiation  of  the  Creator  is  clearly  an  abuse  of  free- 
dom anrl  an  infringement  of  the  natural  law,  science 
has,  by  all  means,  to  save  appearances  by  .scientifically 
sf»unding  words.  First  it  calls  the  two  great  divisions 
of  spirits  Monism  and  Dualism.  German  scientists 
have  even  former!  the  "Moni.sts'  Union",  claiming 
that  there  is  no  real  distinction  between  the  world  and 
God.  When  their  system  emphasizes  the  world  it  is 
Materialism;  when  it  accentuates  the  Divinity  it  is 
Pantheism.  Monism  is  only  a  gentler  name  for  both. 
The  plain  word  "atheism"  scicms  to  be  too  offensive. 
English  Naturalists  replaced  it  long  ago  by  better- 
sfjunding  words,  like  Deism  and  Agnosticism.  To- 
land,  Tindal,  Bolingbroke,  Shaftesbury,  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  took  satisfaction  in  removing  the 
Deity  so  far  away  from  the  world  that  he  could  have 
no  influence  on  it.  Yet  "Deity"  still  had  too  reli- 
gious an  odour  and  implied  a  gross  inconsistency.  To 
Huxley  and  other  scientists  of  the  nineteenth  century 


the  well-sounding  name  "agnosticism"  appeared 
more  dignified.  In  the  face  of  natural  law,  however, 
which  binds  man  to  know  and  to  serve  his  Creator, 
pleading  ignorance  of  God  is  as  much  a  rebellion 
against  Him  as  shutting  Him  out  of  the  world. 

All  these  and  other  tactful  terms  and  phrases  cover 
the  Siime  crude  Atheism  and  stand,  without  ex- 
ception, confessedly,  on  a  collection  of  arbitrar}'  pos- 
tulates. Dualism,  on  the  contrary-,  has  no  need  of 
postulates,  except  those  dictated  by  common  sense. 
Sound  reason  beholds  in  creation,  as  in  a  mirror,  its 
Maker,  and  is  thus  able  to  refer  natural  phenomena 
to  their  ultimate  cause.  While  science  requires  the 
knowledge  of  intermediate  causes  only,  the  knowledge 
of  things  by  their  ultimate  cause  raises  science  to  its 
highest  degree,  or  wisdom,  as  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  calls 
it.  This  is  why  logical  coherence  and  consistency  are 
always  and  exclusively  found  in  the  dualistic  doctrine. 
It  is  vain  to  hope  that  the  abyss  between  the  logical 
philosophy  of  Dualists  and  the  "unwavering  con- 
victions" of  Monists  may  be  bridged  over  bj'  dis- 
cussions. This  was  well  illustrated  when  Father 
Wasmann  lectured  in  Berlin  (1907)  on  the  theory  of 
Evolution  and  was  opposed  by  Plate  and  ten  other 
speakers.  The  result  of  the  discussion  was,  that 
each,  Plate  and  Wasmann,  put  his  respective  views  in 
print,  the  one  his  axioms  and  the  other  his  philosophy, 
and  that,  moreover,  Plate  denied  that  Wasmann  was 
entitled  to  be  considered  a  scientist  on  account  of 
what  he  called  Wasmann's  Christian  presuppositions. 

(b)  After  the  exclusion  of  God,  there  is  need  of  an 
idol;  the  necessity  hes  in  human  nature.  All  the  na- 
tions of  old  had  their  idols,  even  the  IsraeUtes,  when 
at  times  thej^  rebelled  against  the  Prophets.  The 
shape  of  the  idols  varies  with  progress.  The  savages 
made  them  of  wood,  the  civilized  pagans  of  silver  and 
gold,  and  our  own  reading  age  makes  them  of  philo- 
sophical systems.  Kant  did  not  draw  the  last  con- 
sequences from  his  "autonomy  of  rea.son " ;  it  was  done 
by  Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel.  This  Idealism  de- 
veloped into  Subjectivism  in  the  widest  sense  of  the 
word,  viz.,  into  the  complete  emancipation  of  the 
human  mind  and  will  from  God.  The  idol  is  the  hu- 
man Ego.  The  consequences  are  that  truth  and 
justice  lose  their  eternal  character  and  become  rel- 
ative concepts;  man  changes  with  the  ages,  and  with 
him  his  own  creations;  what  he  calls  true  and  right  in 
one  century,  may  become  false  and  wrong  in  another. 
In  regard  to  truth  we  have  the  explicit  statement  of 
Paulsen,  that  "there  is  no  j)hilosophy  eternally  valid ". 
Relative  to  justi(!e,  Hartmann  defines  Kant's  auton- 
omy in  the  following  words:  "It  means  neither  more 
nor  less  than  this,  that  in  moral  matters  I  am  the 
highest  tribunal  without  appeal."  R(>ligion,  which 
forms  the  principal  part  of  justice,  becomes  likewise  a 
matter  of  subjective  inclination.  Harnack  calls  sub- 
mission to  the  doctrine  of  others  treason  against  per- 
sonal religion;  and  Nietzsche  defends  his  idol  by  call- 
ing Christianity  the  immortal  shame  of  mankind. 
The  axiom  is  ])ronounced  in  more  dignified  form  by 
Pfleiderer  (1907).  "In  the  science  of  history",  he 
Bays,  "the  appearance  on  earth  of  a  superhuman  being 
cannot  be  considered".  Perhaps  in  the  most  general 
way  it  is  forirmlated  by  Paulsen  (1908):  "Switching 
off  the  supernatural  from  the  natural  and  hi.storical 
world".  Yet,  all  these  subjective  axioms  are  only 
more  or  less  scientific  forms  of  the  plain  Straussian 
postulate    (183.5):    "We   are   no   longer   Christians". 

(c)  Here  we  are  confronted  by  two  facts  that  need 
earnest  consideration.  On  the  one  hand,  the  Govern- 
ment universities  of  nearly  all  countries  in  Europe 
and  many  American  universities  exclude  all  relation 
to  God  and  practically  favour  the  atheistic  postulate 
just  mentif)ned;  and  on  the  other  hand,  these  are  the 
very  postulates  summed  up  by  Pius  X  under  the  name 
of  "modernism".  Hence  the  general  outcry  of  the 
State  universities  against  the  Encyclical  "Pascendi" 


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603 


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of  1907.  To  begin  with  the  first,  the  licence  of  sub- 
jective truth  is  the  very  hotbed  of  anarchistic  theories, 
and  the  rebelhon  against  the  teaching  of  Christ  will 
end  with  the  moral  conditions  of  Greek  and  Roman 
paganism.  As  we  are  not  concerned  here  with  the 
relation  between  science  and  the  State,  it  must  sufiice 
to  show  how  the  alarm  is  beginning  to  sound.  It 
seems  to  be  a  matter  of  course,  and  yet  it  sounds  un- 
usual, when  Count  Apponyi  as  minister  of  education 
and  worship  in  Hungary,  on  the  occasion  of  an  aca- 
demic promotion,  recommends  to  teachers  of  science 
a  moral  and  earnest  conscientiousness.  More  re- 
markable is  the  warning  of  Virchow  at  the  meeting  of 
scientists  at  Munich  (1877)  against  teaching  personal 
views  and  speculations  as  estabhshed  truths,  and  in 
particular,  against  replacing  the  dogmas  of  the  Church 
by  a  rehgion  of  evolution. 

The  moral  state  of  a  youth  growing  up  under  such 
teaching  could  be  anticipated  in  general  from  the  his- 
tory of  paganism.  It  was  reserved  to  our  anti- 
Christian  age,  however,  to  justify  immorality  with  an 
appearance  of  science.  The  assertion  has  been  made 
and  circulated  in  journals  and  meetings,  that  a  pure 
and  moral  life  is  detrimental  from  the  point  of 
view  of  medicine.  The  medical  faculty  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Christiania  found  it  necessary  to  declare 
the  assertion  entirely  false,  and  to  state  positively 
that  "we  know  of  no  harm  or  weakness  owing  to 
chastity".  The  same  protest  was  expressed  by  Dr. 
Raoult  in  the  words:  "There  is  no  such  thing  as 
pathology  of  continency";  and  by  Dr.  Vidal  (see 
below)  in  the  statement,  that  the  commandments  of 
God  ar(;  legitimate  from  the  standpoint  of  medicine, 
and  that  their  obs<>rvance  is  not  only  possible  but 
advantag(!ous.  Warnings  like  these  may  be  called 
forth  by  anticipated  effects;  but  we  hear  others  that 
prove  the  effects  already  existing.  Such  was  the 
unanimous  vote  of  the  International  Conference  for 
the  protection  of  Ilcaltli  and  Morals,  held  at  Brussels 
(September,  1902):  "Young  men  have  to  be  taught 
that  the  virtues  of  chastity  and  continency  are  not 
only  not  hurtful  but  mtjst  commendable  from  a  purely 
medical  and  hygienic;  j)()int  of  view".  The  effects  in 
educational  institutions  must  have  been  appalling 
before  scientific  authorities  dared  to  lift  the  veil  by 
public  warnings.  They  were  given  by  Dr.  Fleury 
(1899)  in  regard  to  French  colleges,  and  were  repeated 
by  Dr.  Fournier  (190."))  and  Dr.  Francotte  (1907). 
Even  louder  are  the  warnings  of  Paulsen,  Fcirster,  and 
especially  Obermcdicinalrat  Dr.  Gruber  regarding  the 
German  gymnasia  and  universities.  Dr.  Desplata 
(see  bibliograi)hy)  insists  that  in  order  to  stay  the 
current  wliich  is  carrying  the  French  along  towards 
irremediable  decadence,  it  is  necessary  to  react  against 
the  doctrinal  and  i)ractical  neo-paganism.  No  won- 
der that  the  liceiitious  doctrines  hiive  found  their 
way  from  books  into  journals  and  passed  from  the 
educated  to  the  illiterate.  Sosnosky,  a  literary  au- 
thority, comi)ares  tlie  present  moral  ej)idemic  to  that 
of  pagan  Rome  anil  of  the  French  Revolution,  and 
protests,  from  a  merelv  natural  point  of  view,  against 
the  hypocrisy  of  covering  crude  animalism  with  the 
cloak  of  art  and  science  (see  Allgemeine  Zeitung,  No. 
3,  21  January,  1911). 

What  the  State  either  will  not  or  dare  not  do,  the 
Church  does  always,  by  keeping  men  mindful  of  the 
object  or  end  of  their  existence  and  this  last  end  is  not 
science.  The  catechism  points  it  out  under  three 
heads:  the  knowledge  of  God;  the  observance  of  His 
commandments;  and  the  use  of  His  grace.  Knowledge 
of  nature  is  intended  by  God  as  a  subordinate  means 
to  this  end.  And  for  that  very  reason  there  can  never 
be  a  conflict  between  science  and  our  final  destiny. 
The  Church  does  not  teach  natural  sciences,  but 
she  helps  to  make  their  principles  tributary  to  wis- 
dom, first  by  warning  against  error  and  then  by  point- 
ing to  the  ultimate  cause  of  all  things.     When  science 


raises  the  cry  against  the  guiding  office  of  the  Church, 
it  is  comparable  to  a  system  of  navigation  without 
any  directions  outside  the  ship  itself  and  the  surround- 
ing waves.  The  formal  object  of  each  particular  sci- 
ence is  certainly  different  from  faith,  just  as  the 
steering  of  a  vessel  is  different  from  the  knowledge 
of  the  stars;  but  the  exclusion  of  all  guiding  fights 
beyond  the  biUows  of  scientific  opinions  and  hypoth- 
eses is  entirely  arbitrary,  unwise,  and  disastrous. 

B.  The  Church. — The  Church  in  her  relation  to 
science  may  be  better  understood  by  a  division  of  the 
subject  into  the  following  parts:  Opposite  views;  dis- 
tinction between  the  teaching  body  and  the  ecdesia 
discens;  the  holders  of  the  teaching  office;  science  of 
faith;  pretended  conflicts. 

I.  Opposite  views. — On  the  relation  of  the  Church 
to  science  there  are  two  irreconcilable  views:  (1) 
Leo  XIII  in  his  Apostolic  Letter  of  22  January,  1899, 
calls  attention  to  the  dangers  imminent  at  the  present 
time  to  the  minds  of  Catholics,  and  specifies  them  as 
a  confusion  between  licence  and  freedom,  as  a  passion 
for  saying  and  reviling  whatever  one  pleases,  as  a 
habit  of  thinking  or  printing  without  restraint.  The 
shadows  cast  by  these  dangers  on  men's  minds,  he 
says,  are  so  deep  as  to  make  the  e.xercise  of  the  teach- 
ing office  of  the  Apostolic  See  more  necessary  now  than 
ever.  The  pope  strengthens  his  words  by  the  author- 
ity of  the  Vatican  Council,  which  claims  Divine  faith 
for  all  things  proposed  by  the  Church,  whether  in 
solemn  decision  or  by  the  ordinary  universal  magis- 
terium. 

(2)  Not  so  those  outside  the  Church.  To  them, 
spiritual  restriction  of  thinking,  speaking,  writing  is 
a  remnant  of  the  times  when  science  was  in  fetters,  a 
relic  of  the  Dark  Ages.  Virchow,  in  discussing  the 
appointment  of  professors  of  Protestant  theology  at 
Bonn  and  Marburg  by  the  Prussian  Government, 
made  the  following  declaration  in  the  Chamber  (6 
March,  1890):  "If  it  is  considered  incumbent  upon 
the  theological  faculties  to  preserve  and  to  interpret 
a  certain  (lejjosit  of  so-called  Divine  and  revealed 
trvitlis,  then  they  do  not  fit  into  the  framework  of 
universiti(^s,  they  are  in  opposition  to  the  scientific 
machinery  prevailing  there.  The  Reformers  of  the 
sixteenth  century",  he  continued,  "are  to-day  replaced 
b)^  free  scientific  criticism;  consistently,  instead  of 
halting  before  the  theological  faculties,  they  should 
have  abolished  them,  and  the  troubles  ever  arising 
from  a  certain  class  of  men  who  claim  to  be  holders  of 
Divine  truth,  would  have  vanished"  (reported  by  Hert- 
ling,  see  below,  p.  49  sqq.).  Such  is  the  general  voice 
of  those  who  stand  outside  of  any  creed.  There  are 
others  who  wish  to  adhere  to  certain  articles  of  faith 
established  either  by  a  congress  of  Reformers,  or  by 
a  sovereign,  or  by  Parhament.  Although  widely  dif- 
fering among  themselves  as  to  the  inspired  Books, 
the  Divinity  of  Christ,  and  even  th(>  existence  of 
Revelation,  they  all  agree  in  considering  the  papacy 
a  usurpation,  and  Catholic  obedience  in  matters  of 
faith  and  morals,  spiritual  darkness  and  slavery. 

(3)  These  conflicting  views  have  existed  from  the 
very  cradle  of  Christianity,  and  wiU  last  to  the  end  of 
the  world.  St.  Ambrose  (397)  speaking  of  the  wise 
of  the  world  (sapienles  mundi)  says:  "Deviating  from 
faith,  they  are  implicated  in  the  darkness  of  perpetual 
blindness,  although  they  have  the  day  of  Christ  and 
the  light  of  the  Church  before  them ;  while  seeing  noth- 
ing, they  open  their  mouth  as  if  they  knew  everything, 
keen  for  vain  things  and  dull  for  things  eternal" 
(Hexaemeron,  V,  xxiv,  86,  in  P.  L.,  XIV,  240).  Those 
who  accept  the  teaching  of  Christ  have  always  formed 
the  smaller  portion  of  mankind,  and  the  mass  of  the 
small  flock  is  not  compo.sed  of  the  rich  or  the  mighty 
or  the  wise  of  the  world.  They  maintain  that  the 
Church  is  a  Divine  institution,  endowed  with  the 
triple  power  of  priesthood,  teaching,  and  government ; 
hence  their  submission,  firmness,  and  union  in  matters 


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604 


SCIENCE 


oiF  faith  a31  over  the  world.  Those  who  stand  aloof 
and  see  in  the  Church  nothing  but  a  human  institu- 
tion, hke  the  old  Roman  Empire  for  instance,  may  be 
consistent  in  condemning  the  Catholic  position;  at 
the  same  time  they  cannot  help  seeing  even  greater 
consistency  in  the  Cathohc  point  of  view.  To  submit 
one's  understanding  to  a  doctrine  supposed  to  be 
Divine  and  guaranteed  to  be  infallible  is  undoubtedly 
more  consistent  than  to  accept  prevailing  postulates 
of  science,  or  national  doctrines,  or  a  passing  public 
opinion.  Cathohcs  must  be  permitted  to  interpret 
in  their  own  favour  what  the  Scripture  says  about  the 
light  of  faith,  the  darkness  of  error,  and  the  hberty 
of  truth. 

II.  The  Teaching  Body  and  the  Ecclesia  Discens. — 
The  teaching  and  hearing  bodies  of  Christ's  Church 
are  technically  called  "ecclesia  docens"  and  "ecclesia 
discens".  (1)  The  distinction  between  the  teaching 
body  of  the  Church  and  the  body  of  hearers  was  made 
by  its  Founder  in  the  command:  "Going  therefore, 
teach  ye  all  nations"  (Matt.,  xx^'iii,  19);  "he  that 
heareth  you.  heareth  me"  (Luke,  x,  16).  The  same 
division  is  illustrated  by  St.  Paul  in  the  comparison 
between  the  human  body  and  the  mystical  body  of 
Christ:  "If  the  whole  body  were  the  eye,  where  would 
be  the  hearing?"  (I  Cor.,  xii,  17).  The  office  of 
teaching  was  communicated  to  the  Church  together 
with  the  dignity  of  priesthood  and  the  authority  of 
government.  The  trii:)le  power  rests  in  St.  Peter  and 
the  Apostles  and  their  legal  successors.  The  Divine 
office  of  teaching  is  not  to  impart  scientific  conviction, 
it  is  to  give  authoritative  declaration,  and  the  response 
to  it,  on  the  part  of  the  hearers,  is  not  science  but 
faith.  The  Church  may  even  use  her  ruling  power 
to  support  her  teaching.  All  this  is  exemplified  in  the 
early  Christian  centuries.  The  Twelve  Apostles  were 
not  conversant  with  the  schools  of  Athens,  of  Alexan- 
dria, or  of  Rome.  St.  Paul,  who  was  called  later,  was 
probably  the  onlj'  scholar  among  them;  and  even  he 
professes  that  his  preaching  was  not  in  the  persuasive 
words  of  human  wisdom  (I  Cor.,  ii,  4).  He  used  his 
power  against  Hymeneus  and  Alexander,  who  had 
made  shipwTeck  concerning  the  faith  (I  Tim.,  i,  20), 
and  exhorted  Timothy  to  use  the  same  authority 
against  those  who  would  not  endure  sound  doctrine 
(II  Tim.,  iv,  3).  The  Apostle  St.  John  blamed  several 
bishops  of  Minor  Asia  for  not  removing  false  teachers 
(Apoc,  ii,  14-20). 

(2)  The  partition  of  the  Church  in  two  bodies,  one 
teaching  and  one  hearing,  does  not  exclude  science 
from  the  latter,  any  more  than  it  necessarily  includes 
it  in  the  former.  The  assent  of  faith  is  a  rational  act ; 
before  it  can  be  made,  it  must  be  known  for  certain 
that  there  is  a  God,  that  God  has  spoken,  and  what 
He  has  spoken.  The  Apostles,  the  early  Fathers, 
councils,  and  popes  bear  witness  to  it  (Pesch,  see  below, 
pp.  18-22).  St.  Peter  wants  the  faithful  to  be  ready 
always  to  satisfy  every  one  that  asketh  a  reason  of 
that  hope  which  is  in  them  (I  Pet.,  iii,  15).  St. 
Augustine  asks:  "WTio  does  not  see  that  knowledge 
precedes  faith?  Nobody  believes  unless  he  knows 
what  to  believe".  The  following  is  the  declaration  of 
the  Vatican  Council  (Sess.  Ill,  de  fide,  cap.  3):  "To 
render  the  service  of  our  faith  reasonable,  God  has 
joine<l  to  the  interior  actions  of  the  Holy  Ghost  ex- 
terior proofs  of  His  revelation:  Divine  facts,  miracles 
Bfipecially  and  prophecies,  which  are  speaking  wit- 
nesses of  His  infinite  power  and  wisdom,  unfailing 
testimonies  of  Divine  revelation  and  adaf)l('d  (o  the 
understanding  of  every  one".  Innocent  XI  explicitly 
condemned  the  opinion  that  mere  j)robability  in  the 
knowledge  of  revelation  is  sufficient  for  the  sui)er- 
natural  a-ssent  of  faith.  Pius  IX  demands  that  human 
reason  should  inquire  conscientiously  into  the  facts 
of  Divine  revelation,   to  make  sure  that  God  has 

3)oken,  in  order  to  render  Him,  according  to  the  Apos- 
e,  a  reasonable  Bcrvice, 


In  the  knowledge  of  the  premises  of  faith,  man  has 
to  progress  with  age  and  education.  The  child  cannot 
give  supernatural  assent  of  faith  to  what  parents  or 
teachers  saj',  until  its  mind  is  sufficiently  developed 
to  be  sure  of  the  existence  and  contents  of  Divine 
revelation.  Again,  the  knowledge  that  may  suffice 
for  a  child  will  not  do  for  a  man.  He  must  apply  his 
mental  faculties  and  interest  himself  in  the  founda- 
tions of  his  faith.  The  i^rudence  of  his  mind  should 
equal  the  simplicity  of  his  will.  Prof.  Heis  used  to 
have  the  catechism  on  his  desk  beside  the  scientific 
books.  Progress  of  knowledge  is  especially  com- 
mendable in  parents,  teachers,  students,  above  all  in 
professors  of  theological  science  and  in  ecclesiastical 
dignitaries.  Under  their  scientific  methods  the  pre- 
mises of  faith  have  become  a  special  branch  of  theol- 
ogy, called  apologetics. 

(3)  The  contents  of  faith  should  be  penetrated  as 
far  as  mental  faculties  and  Divine  grace  allow.  Rev- 
elation points  out  the  eternal  destiny,  shows  the  way, 
and  gives  the  means;  it  warns  against  eternal  loss, 
helps  in  temiitation,  and  shields  from  evil.  Without 
knowledge  tliore  is  no  interest,  and  the  consequence 
is  forgetfulness  of  th(>  main  purpose  of  hfe.  Hence 
the  duty  of  all  men  to  listen  to  God,  to  meditate  on 
His  words,  and  to  understand  them  in  a  way.  The 
highest  acts  of  mercy  and  charity  are  teaching  the 
ignorant  and  correcting  the  erring.  The  study  of 
revealed  truth  and  the  propagation  by  word  and 
writing  of  the  knowledge  thus  acquired  was  practised 
in  the  Church  at  all  times  and  by  aU  classes.  Owing 
to  this  stud}^  the  Divine  deposit  of  faith  has  grown  into 
a  scientific  system  which,  in  clearness  and  firmness  of 
structure,  is  not  equalled  by  other  branches  of  knowl- 
edge. From  the  frame  of  that  system  stand  out  in 
bold  relief  the  deep  mysteries,  beyond  human  com- 
prehension, indeed,  but  well  defined  in  meaning  and 
safe  against  objections.  It  must  be  remembered, 
though,  that  divines  and  doctors,  as  such,  do  not  con- 
stitute the  teaching  body  of  the  Church;  they  all  be- 
long to  the  "Ecclesia  discens".  Theology  as  a  sci- 
entific system,  with  propositions,  arguments,  and 
objections,  is  not  the  direct  object  of  the  "Ecclesia 
docens".  She  leaves  it  to  specialists,  with  all  manner 
of  encouragement  and  direction. 

(4)  The  dangers  against  faith. — Since  faith,  as  the 
foundation  of  eternal  life,  is  a  supernatural  virtue,  it 
is  exposed  to  temptation  hke  all  other  virtues.  Some 
difficulties  are  inherent  in  the  deposit  of  faith,  others 
arise  from  outside.  A  revealed  truth  may  appear 
contrary  to  the  mind  as  unintelligible,  like  the  mys- 
teries, or  repugnant  to  the  will  as  entailing  unwelcome 
precepts.  Ti'iiii)tati()ns  from  outside  may  be  the  con- 
stant hostility  of  the  world  towards  the  Church,  dis- 
crimination against  Catliolics,  falsification  of  history, 
anti-Christian  and  infidel  literature,  scandals  within, 
and  defections  from,  the  Church. 

From  her  positive  and  exclusive  right  to  teach 
all  nations  whatsoever  Christ  has  commanded  the 
Apostles  (Matt.,  xxviii,  19-20),  the  Church  necessarily 
derives  also  the  right  of  defence.  To  protect  her 
flock  against  dangers  of  faith  she  calls  in  the  full 
authority  of  her  ruling  i)ower,  with  its  subdivisions 
of  legislation,  judiciary,  and  administration.  By  this 
jjower  she  regulatcw  the  appointment  and  removal  of 
religious  teat^hers,  the  admission  or  prohibition  of 
religif)us  do(!trines,  and  even  methods  of  teaching,  in 
word  or  writing. 

III.  The  Holders  of  the  Teaching  Office. — These  are 
the  pope  and  the  bishops,  as  successors  to  St.  Peter 
and  the  Aj)ostles.  Tlie  promise  of  Divine  a.ssistanco 
was  given  together  with  the  command  of  teaching;  it 
rests,  therefore,  in  the  same  subjects,  but  is  restricted 
to  official,  to  the  exclusion  of  private,  acts  regarding 
the  depf)sit  of  faith. 

(1)  Th(!  official  activity  of  teaching  may  be  exer- 
cised either  in  the  ordinary,  or  daily,  magislerium,  ox 


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605 


SCIENCE 


by  occasional  solemn  decisions.  The  former  goes  on 
uninterruptedly;  the  latter  are  called  forth  in  times 
of  great  danger,  especially  of  growing  heresies.  The 
promise  of  Divine  assistance  provides  for  the  integrity 
of  doctrine  "all  days,  even  to  the  consummation  of 
the  world"  (Matt.,  xxviii,  20).  From  the  nature  of 
the  case  it  follows  that  individual  bishops  may  fall 
into  error,  because  ample  provision  is  made  when  the 
entire  teaching  body  of  the  Church  and  the  supreme 
pastor  in  particular  are  protected  by  Providence. 
The  "Ecclesia  docens",  as  a  whole,  can  never  fall  into 
error  in  matters  of  faith  or  morals,  whether  her  teach- 
ing be  the  ordinary  or  the  solemn;  nor  can  the  pope 
proclaim  false  doctrines  in  his  capacity  of  supreme 
pastor  of  the  universal  Church.  Without  this  pre- 
rogative, which  is  known  by  the  name  of  Infallibihty 
(q.  v.),  the  Divine  promise  of  assistance  would  be  a 
fallacy.  To  the  right  of  teaching  on  the  part  of  the 
"Ecclesia  docens"  naturally  corresponds  the  obhga- 
tion  of  hearing  on  the  part  of  the  "Ecclesia  discens". 
Hearing  is  meant  in  the  sense  of  submitting  the  un- 
derstanding, and  it  is  of  a  double  nature,  according 
as  the  teaching  is,  or  is  not,  done  under  the  guarantee 
of  infallibility.  The  former  submission  is  called  assent 
of  faith,  the  latter  assent  of  rehgious  obedience. 

(2)  Submission  of  the  understanding  to  other  than 
Divine  authority  may  appear  objectionable,  but  is 
practised,  in  science  as  well  as  in  daily  life,  in  hun- 
dreds of  ways.  With  regard  to  the  Church  submis- 
sion of  the  understanding  is  especially  appropriate,  no 
matter  whether  she  speaks  with  infallible  or  with  ad- 
ministrative authority,  in  other  words,  whether  the 
submii5sion  is  one  of  faith  or  one  of  obedience.  Even 
from  a  human  point  of  view  her  authority  is  excep- 
tionally high  and  impartial.  To  the  teaching  that 
rests  directly  on  the  ruling  authority  only,  without 
the  prerogative  of  infallibility,  belong  the  pastoral  let- 
ters of  bishops,  particular  diocesan  catechisms,  de- 
crees of  provincial  synods,  the  decisions  of  Roman 
Congregations,  and  many  official  acts  of  the  pope, 
even  such  as  are  obhgatory  on  the  universal  Church. 
In  each  diocese  the  official  authority  in  matters  of 
faith  and  morals  is  the  bishop.  Without  his  (or 
higher)  consent  no  professor  of  theology,  no  catcchist, 
no  preacher  can  exercise  his  official  function,  and  no 
publication  that  touches  upon  matters  of  faith  and 
morals  is  permitted  within  the  diocese.  The  appro- 
bation of  teachers  is  known  as  canonical  mission, 
while  the  approval  or  refusal  of  books  is  called  censor- 
ship (q.  v.).  Above  the  diocesan  tribunals  stand  the 
Roman  Congregations  (q.  v.)  to  which  certain  matters 
are  reserved  and  to  which  appeal  can  be  made.  Sci- 
ence, in  particular,  may  come  in  contact  with  the 
Congregation  of  Rites,  which  examines  miracles  pro- 
posed in  support  of  beatifications  and  canonizations. 
More  frequently  it  is  the  Congregation  of  the  Index, 
which  officially  examines  and  decides  upon  the  dan- 
ger, to  faith  and  morals,  of  books  (not  persons)  de- 
nounced or  under  suspicion,  and  the  Holy  Office  of 
the  Inquisition,  which  decides  questions  of  ortho- 
doxy, with  the  pope  himself  as  prefect.  All  the  ec- 
clesiastical authorities,  mentioned  in  this  paragraph, 
participate,  either  officially  or  by  delegation,  in  the 
legislative,  judicial,  and  executive  powers  of  the 
Church,  in  support  of  their  functions.  It  goes  with- 
out saying  that  their  decisions  become  endowed  with 
the  prerogative  of  infallibility,  when  the  pope  ap- 
proves them,  not  in  an  ordinary  manner  as,  for  in- 
stance, when  he  acts  as  prefect  of  a  Congregation,  but 
solemnly,  or  ex  cathedra,  with  the  obligation  of  ac- 
ceptance by  the  whole  Church. 

(.3)  To  men  of  science  the  Roman  tribunals  of  the 
Index  and  the  Inquisition  are  be.st  known  in  connex- 
ion with  the  name  of  Galilei  (q.  v.)  Here  seems  to  be 
the  place  to  speak  about  the  attitude  of  non-Catholic 
scientists  towards  the  case.  It  can  be  shown  that  it 
is  not  always  in  keeping  with  the  principles  of  science, 


from  a  triple  point  of  view,  (a)  The  error  involved 
in  the  condemnation  of  Galilei  is  used  as  an  argument 
against  the  right  of  the  tribunals  to  exist.  This  is 
illogical  and  partial.  The  error  was  purely  acciden- 
tal, just  as  the  mi.searriages  of  justice  in  criminal 
courts  is  often  the  unfortunate  result  of  similar  acci- 
dental errors.  If  the  argument  does  not  hold  in  the 
latter  case,  it  holds  much  less  in  the  former.  The 
error  was  a  universal  opinion  tenaciously  defended  by 
the  Reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Besides,  it  is 
about  the  only  seriously  erroneous  decision  of  its  kind 
among  the  hundreds  that  issued  from  the  Roman  tri- 
bunals in  the  course  of  centuries. 

(b)  ^Vhat  is  objected  to  in  the  Gahlei  case  is  not 
so  much  the  historical  fact  of  the  blunder,  as  the  per- 
manent claim  of  the  Church  to  be,  by  Divine  right, 
the  guardian  of  the  Scripture;  it  is  the  principle  by 
which  she  adheres  to  the  literal  sense  of  Holy  Writ, 
as  long  as  either  the  context  or  the  nature  of  the 
case  does  not  suggest  a  metaphorical  interpretation. 
Granted  that  the  evidences,  which  convinced  Coper- 
nicus, Kepler,  and  Galilei,  should  also  have  convinced 
the  theologians  of  the  time,  the  latter  committed  a 
blunder.  It  cannot  be  this,  however,  that  is  continu- 
ally held  up  again.st  the  Church.  Official  blunders  of 
the  highest  tribunals  are  easily  and  constantly  par- 
doned, when  they  are  committed  in  the  exercise  of  an 
acknowledged  right.  Nobody  condemns  the  admin- 
istration of  justice  when  a  disputed  case,  in  its  course 
of  appeals,  is  reversed  two  or  three  times,  although 
each  reversal  puts  a  juridical  blunder  on  record. 
Hence,  what  is  condemned  in  the  case  of  Galilei,  must 
be  the  riglit  itself,  viz.,  the  claim  and  the  principle  be- 
fore mentioned.  Evidently,  however,  they  are  in  no 
way  peculiar  to  the  case  of  Gahlei;  they  are  as  old  as 
the  Church;  they  have  been  applied  in  our  own  days, 
e.  g.  in  the  Syllal)us  of  Pius  IX  (1S64),  in  the  Vatican 
Council  (1870)  and  recently  in  the  Encyclical  "Pas- 
cendi"  of  Pius  X  (1907);  and  they  will  be  applied  in 
all  the  future.  To  attack  the  claim  of  the  Church  as 
guardian  of  the  Scripture,  there  is  no  apparent  need 
for  going  back  again  and  again  to  the  old  Galilei  inci- 
dent. Nor  is  the  legal  procedure  against  Galilei  in 
any  way  peculiar  to  his  case.  The  historian  judges  it 
by  the  established  laws  of  the  seventeenth  century  and 
finds  it  unusually  mild.  What  is  it  then  that  pre- 
vents the  Galilei  controversy  from  resting?  It  is  hard 
to  see  any  other  motive  in  the  agitation  but  the  re- 
luctance to  admit  the  Church's  claim  to  be  the  inter- 
preter of  the  Scriptures. 

(c)  The  vast  Galilei  literature  shows  a  remarkable 
difference  in  the  opposite  points  of  view.  Among 
CathoHcs  httle  importance  is  attached  to  the  case, 
simply  because  Catholics  knew  before  and  after,  that 
the  Roman  Congregations  are  liable  to  error,  and  only 
wonder  that  not  more  mistakes  are  recorded  in  history. 
Among  the  others  the  sympathy  shown  for  Galilei 
is  not  easily  intelligible  from  a  scientific  point  of  view. 
The  whole  process  was  an  entirely  internal  affair  of 
the  Church:  Galilei  appeared  before  his  own  legal  su- 
periors; for  a  time  he  was  disobedient,  but  in  the 
end  submitted  to  his  condemnation.  The  character 
which  he  displayed  in  the  affair  does  not  seem  to  call 
for  the  admiration  paid  to  him.  What  then  makes  out- 
siders so  sympathetic  towards  Gahlei,  if  not  his  dis- 
obedience to  the  command  of  1616?  It  would  seem 
so,  judging  from  the  praises  given  to  his  "immortal" 
dialogues. 

IV.  The  Science  of  Faith. — Although  faith  is  not 
science,  yet  there  is  a  science  of  faith.  The  knowl- 
edge acquired  by  faith,  on  the  one  hand,  rests  upon 
science,  and  on  the  other  lends  itself  to  scientific 
methods. 

(1)  Faith  is  in  many  ways  a  parallel  case  to  his- 
tory. Although  historical  knowledge  is  not  directly 
scientific,  yet  there  is  a  science  of  history.  Scientific 
inquiries  precede  historical  knowledge,  and  the  re- 


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suits  of  historical  research  are  treated  on  scientific 
methods.  All  we  know  from  history  we  know  upon 
the  authority  of  testimony.  It  belongs  to  the  science 
of  history  to  search  into  the  existence  and  trustwor- 
thiness of  the  sources  and  into  the  unfalsified  trans- 
mission of  their  testimony  to  us.  Nor  is  that  all. 
The  science  of  history  will  arrange  the  chain  of  dis- 
covered facts,  not  chronologically  only,  but  with  a 
view  of  causality.  It  will  explain  the  why  and  the 
how  in  the  rise  and  the  downfall  of  men,  of  cities,  of 
nations. 

(2)  The  science  of  faith  is  theology. — Human  testi- 
mony is  here  replaced  by  Divine  authority.  The 
premises  of  faith  have  been  elaborated  into  a  scientific 
system  called  apologetics.  The  Divinely  revealed 
truths  have  been  studied  on  historical,  philosophical, 
and  linguistic  hnes;  they  have  been  analyzed,  defined, 
and  classified;  theoretical  consequences  have  been 
drawn  and  applications  to  church  discipline  made; 
boundary  lines  between  faith  and  science  have  been 
drawn  and  points  of  contact  established;  methodical 
objections  and  solutions  have  been  applied;  and  at- 
tacks from  outside  logically  refuted.  The  results  of  all 
these  studies  are  embodied  in  a  number  of  scientific 
branches,  like  the  Biblical  sciences,  with  their  subdi- 
visions of  historical  criticism,  theoretical  hermeneu- 
tics,  and  practical  exegesis;  then  dogmatic  and  moral 
theology,  with  their  consequences  in  canon  law  and 
sub-branches  of  pastoral  theology,  homiletics,  litur- 
gies; again  church  history  and  its  branches, — patrol- 
ogy,  history  of  dogmas,  archaeology,  art-history.  The 
men  who  represent  these  sciences  are  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Fathers  and  the  Doctors  of  the  Church,  among 
them  the  founders  of  Scholastic  theology,  not  to  men- 
tion more  recent  celebrities  among  the  regular  and 
secular  clergy.  A  vast  literature  may  be  found  in 
Migne's  edition  of  the  Fathers  and  in  Hurter's  "No- 
menclator".  The  widest  field  is  here  open  for  re- 
search eminently  scientific.  If  science  is  knowledge 
of  things  from  their  causes,  theology  is  the  highest 
grade  of  science,  since  it  traces  its  knowledge  to  the 
ultimate  cause  of  all  things.  Science  of  this  kind  is 
what  St.  Thomas  defines  as  wisdom. 

(3)  Let  it  not  be  said  that  there  is  no  progress  in  the 
sfience  of  faith.  Dogmatic  theology  may  appear  as 
the  most  rigid  of  its  branches,  and  even  there  we  find, 
with  time,  deeper  understanding,  preciser  definitions, 
stronger  proofs,  better  clas.sifications,  profounder 
knowledge  of  dogmas  in  their  mutual  relation  and  hi.s- 
tory.  Canon  law  has  not  only  kept  abreast  with,  but 
has  gone  ahead  of,  civil  law,  above  all  in  its  scientific 
foundations.  Progress  in  the  Biblical,  historical,  and 
pastoral  disciplines  is  so  apparent  as  to  need  only 
a  passing  mention.  The  answer  to  the  question, 
whether  there  should  be  no  progress  of  religion  in  the 
Church  of  Christ,  goes  as  far  back  as  the  fifth  cen- 
tury and  was  given  by  St.  Vincent  of  Lerins  in  the  fol- 
lowing words:  "Certainly  let  there  be  progress,  and 
as  much  as  may  be  .  .  .  but  so  that  it  be  really 
progress  in  the  faith,  not  an  alteration  of  it. "  About 
alterations  he  gives  the  following  explanation:  "It  is 
the  peculiarity  of  progress  for  a  thing  to  be  developed 
in  it.self ;  and  the  peculiarity  of  change,  for  a  thing  to 
be  altered  from  what  it  was  into  something  else" 
(Commonit<^>rium,  L23;  see  P.  L.,  L).  The  same  dif- 
ference between  evolution  and  change  was  established 
by  the  Vatican  Council:  "If  any  one  shall  say  that  it 
is  possible  that,  with  the  progress  of  science,  a  sense 
may  ever  be  given  to  the  doctrines  proposed  by  the 
Church,  other  than  that  which  the  Church  has  under- 
st^jod  and  understands,  let  him  be  anathema"  (Sess. 
Ill,  can.  iv,  de  fide  et  ratione.  1,  can.  3).  Science  that 
is  changed  is  not  developed  out  abandoned,  and  so  it 
is  with  faith.  True  development  is  shown  in  the 
parable  of  the  mustard  seed  which  grows  inUj  a  tree, 
without  destroying  the  organic  connexion  between  the 
root  and  the  smallest  branches. 


(4)  The  scientific  character  of  theology  has  been 
called  in  question  on  the  following  grounds :  (a)  Mys- 
teries are  said  to  be  foreign  to  human  science,  for  a 
double  reason:  they  rest  exclusively  on  Divine  revela- 
tion, a  source  foreign  to  science;  and  then,  they  cannot 
be  subjected  to  scientific  methods.  The  objection 
has  some  appearance  in  its  favour.  Mysteries,  prop- 
erly so  called,  are  truths  which  are  essentially  beyond 
the  natural  powers  of  any  created  intellect,  and  could 
never  be  known  except  by  supernatural  revelation. 
Yet  the  objection  is  only  apparent.  As  far  as  the 
source  of  knowledge  is  concerned,  science  should  be 
so  eager  for  truth  as  to  welcome  it,  no  matter  where  it 
comes  from.  It  should  esteem  the  source  of  knowl- 
edge the  higher  the  more  certainty  it  gives.  Science 
is  bound  to  accept  Divine  Creation  as  its  source;  why 
should  Divine  Revelation  be  excluded  from  its  domain? 
Natural  sciences  may  confine  themselves  to  the  for- 
mer, but  the  latter  is  in  no  way  foreign  to  the  histori- 
cal and  philosophical  sciences,  least  of  all  to  theology. 
The  assertion  that  mysteries  are  beyond  scientific 
research  is  too  general.  First,  their  existence  can  be 
proved  scientifically;  secondly,  they  can  be  analysed 
and  compared  with  other  scientific  concepts;  finally, 
they  yield  scientific  consequences  not  otherwise  access- 
ilDle.  If  the  objection  had  any  real  force,  it  would 
apply  similarly  to  mysteries  improperly  so  called,  i. 
e.,  to  natural  truths  that  we  shall  never  know  in  this 
life.  Every  science  is  full  of  them,  and  they  are  the 
very  reason  why  the  most  learned  scientists  consider 
themselves  the  most  ignorant.  The  sources  of  their 
knowledge  seem  to  be  closed  forever,  and  scientific 
methods  fail  to  open  them.  If  this  be  an  objection 
to  the  scientific  character  of  a  branch,  then  let  history, 
law,  medicine,  physics,  and  chemistry  be  cancelled 
from  the  list  of  sciences. 

(b)  Scientific  research  is  said  to  be  impossible,  when 
a  proposition  cannot  be  called  in  question,  being  bound 
up  by  the  consensus  of  the  Fathers  and  Doctors  and 
the  vigilant  authority  of  the  Church.  A  simple  dis- 
tinction between  interior  and  methodical  doubt  will 
remove  the  difficulty.  Methodical  doubt  is  so  much 
applied  in  theology  that  it  may  be  said  to  be  essential 
to  Scholastic  methods.  And  it  is  quite  sufficient  for 
impartial  research.  This  is  proved  to  evidence  by 
the  notorious  faet  that  all  the  scientific  proofs  we  now 
have  for  the  Copernican  system,  without  exception, 
have  been  furnished  by  men  who  could  never  entertain 
any  interior  doubt  of  its  truth.  The  Catholic  divine 
sees  in  the  traditional  doctrine  of  the  Church  a  guiding 
light  that  leads  him  with  great  security  through  the 
fundamental  questions  of  his  science,  where  human 
reason  alone  is  apt  to  lose  itself  in  a  labyrinth  of 
inventions,  surmises,  hypotheses.  Other  difficulties 
touching  upon  science  in  general  are  mentioned  in 
the  next  section. 

V.  Coriflicts. — The  conflicts  between  science  and 
the  Chureh  are  not  real.  They  all  rest  on  assertions 
like  these:  I'aith  is  an  obstacle  to  resoiirch;  faith  is 
contrary  to  the  dignity  of  science;  faith  is  discredited 
by  history.  Basing  the  answers  on  the  jirinciples 
explained  above,  we  can  dispel  the  phantoms  in  the 
following  manner. 

(1)  A  believer,  it  is  stated,  can  never  be  a  scientist; 
his  mind  is  boun<l  by  authority,  and  in  case  of  a  con- 
flict he  has  to  contradict  science,  (a)  The  a&sertion 
is  consistent  on  the  supposition,  that  faith  is  a  human 
invention.  The  believer,  however,  bases  faith  on 
Divine  Revelation,  and  science  on  Creation.  Both 
have  their  eommon  source  in  God,  the  Eternal  Truth. 
The  pritK-ijtal  i)oints  of  contact  between  the  two  are 
enumerated  above  in  section  A  (I),  and  only  there  can 
there  be  tiuestir)n  of  conflicts.  It  is  shown  in  the  same 
place  (IIj  that  every  one  of  the  pretended  conflicts, 
without  exception,  rests  on  arbitrary  axioms.  As  far 
as  scientific  facts  are  concerned,  the  believer  rests 
assured  that,  so  far,  none  of  them  has  ever  been  in 


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607 


SCIENCE 


contradiction  with  an  infallible  definition.  In  case 
of  an  apparent  difference  between  faith  and  science,  he 
takes  the  following  logical  position:  When  a  religious 
view  is  contradicted  by  a  well-established  scientific 
fact,  then  the  sources  of  revelation  have  to  be  re- 
examined, and  they  will  be  found  to  leave  the  question 
open.  When  a  clearly-defined  dogma  contradicts  a 
scientific  assertion,  the  latter  has  to  be  revised,  and  it 
will  be  found  premature.  When  both  contradicting  as- 
sertions, the  religious  and  the  scientific,  are  nothing  more 
than  prevailing  theories,  research  will  be  stimulated 
in  both  directions,  until  one  of  the  theories  appears  un- 
founded. The  conflict  about  the  heliocentric  system 
belonged,  theoretically  speaking,  to  the  first  case,  and 
Darwinism,  in  its  gross  form,  to  the  second;  practi- 
cally, however,  disputed  questions  generally  turn  up 
in  the  third  case,  and  so  it  was  actually  with  the 
heliocentric  system  at  the  time  of  Copernicus,  Kepler, 
and  Galilei,  (b)  It  is  true,  the  believer  is  less  free  in 
his  knowledge  than  the  unbeliever,  but  only  be- 
cause he  knows  more.  The  unbeliever  has  one  source 
of  knowledge,  the  behever  has  two.  Instead  of  barring 
his  mind  against  the  supernatural  stream  of  knowledge 
by  arbitrary  postulates,  man  ought  to  be  grateful  to 
his  Creator  for  ever^'  bit  of  knowledge,  and,  panting 
for  truth,  drink  from  both  streams  that  pour  down 
from  heaven.  Hence  it  is,  that  a  well-in.structed 
Christian  child  knows  more  of  the  important  truths 
than  did  Kant,  Herbert  Spencer,  or  Huxley.  Believing 
scientists  do  not  wish  to  be  free-thinkers  just  as  re- 
spectable peoi)le  do  not  want  to  be  vagabonds. 

(2)  Blind  acceptance  of  dogmas  and  submission  to 
non-scientific  authority  is  said  to  be  contrary  to  the 
dignity  of  science;  hence  the  conflict  between  the 
Church  and  science.  The  answer  is  as  follows:  (a)  The 
dignity  of  science  consists  in  searching  for  and  finding 
truth.  What  injures  the  dignity  of  science  is  error, 
sham  theories,  arbitrary  postulates.  None  of  these 
qualifications  is  found  in  faith.  Infallible  truth  is 
guaranteed,  and  the  assent  is  based  on  premises  which 
are  not  blindly  accepted  but  proved  by  reason,  on  the 
most  scientific  methods  if  desired.  Unworthy  of 
science  are  premises  like  the  following:  "Error  can 
be  removed  only  by  science  and  scientific  truth" 
(Lipps,  1908);  or  "The  only  authority  is  science" 
(Masaryk).  Unworthy  of  science,  again,  is  the  in- 
consistency in  not  yielding  to  premises  once  reason- 
ably established.  No  scientist  hesitates  to  accept 
results  furnished  by  branches  other  than  his  own  or 
even  from  .scientists  within  his  own  special  line.  Yet, 
many  slirink  from  accepting  faith,  though  the  exist- 
ence of  revelation  is  as  reasonably  established  as  any 
historical  fact. 

(b)  When  it  comes  to  authority  outside  of  science, 
the  believing  scientist  knows  that  the  authority  to 
which  he  gives  the  assent  of  faith  is  Divine.  The 
motive  of  his  faith  is  not  the  Church,  it  is  God.  In 
God  he  sees  the  highest  logical  truth  (infinite  Wisdom), 
the  highest  ontological  truth  (the  infinite  Being),  the 
highest  moral  truth  (infinite  Veracity).  Bowing  to 
such  authority,  infinitely  beyond  human  science,  is  so 
much  in  harmony  with  sound  reason,  that  science 
ought  to  be  the  first  to  say:  "Ecce  ancilla  Domini". 
The  dignity  of  science  is  indeed  overshadowed  by  the 
dignity  of  faith,  yet  by  no  means  degraded. 

(c)  More  difficulty  is  perhaps  found  in  the  assent 
of  religious  obedience  than  in  the  assent  of  faith. 
Here  it  is  not  an  infallible  authority  which  science  is 
asked  to  respect,  but  one  that  may  err,  like  any  human 
tribunal,  even  the  highest.  The  phrase  "dignity  of 
science"  means  practically  the  dignity  of  man  in  his 
qualification  as  a  scientist.  Now,  we  put  before  him  an 
alternative:  If  he  is  a  member  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
submission  to  lawful  authority,  which  he  knows  is 
established  by  Christ,  is  not  only  not  undignified  but 
honourable  to  him  in  all  cases,  because  he  considers 
obedience  a  higher  boon  than  science.     His  case  is 


parallel  to  that  of  the  law-abiding  citizen  in  regard  to 
the  supreme  court  of  justice.  The  citizen  may  appeal 
from  lower  tribunals  to  the  highest,  but  should  not 
revolt  against  the  latter.  If  convinced  that  injustice 
has  been  done  him,  he  will  prefer  the  common  good 
of  peaceful  order  to  private  interests,  and  feel  the 
more  dignified  for  it  as  a  citizen.  But  if  the  scientist 
stands  outside  the  Catholic  Church,  he  most  probably 
feels  quite  unconcerned  about  her  authority  in  regard 
to  himself.  He  might  then  as  well  let  the  Church  take 
care  of  her  own  internal  affairs. 

In  general,  all  scientists  may  consider  the  remark 
made  by  the  bishops  of  the  Province  of  Westminster 
in  their  joint  pastoral  letter  of  1901  (see  below):  "It 
has  been  a  fashion  to  decry  the  Roman  Congregations 
by  persons  who  have  little  or  no  knowledge  of  their 
careful  and  elaborate  methods,  of  their  system  of 
sifting  and  testing  evidence,  and  of  the  pains  taken  by 
the  Holy  See  to  summon  experts,  even  from  distant 
parts  of  "the  Church,  to  take  part  in  their  proceedings". 
As  regards  the  Congregation  of  the  Index  in  particular, 
its  purpose  is  to  shield  the  community  from  intellec- 
tual and  moral  poison.  The  prohibition  of  erroneous 
and  dangerous  publications  is  imposed  by  natural  law 
upon  the  authorities  of  the  family,  of  civil  and  reli- 
gious communities;  and  science  ought  to  be  the  first 
in  the  rank  of  co-operators.  Only  then  would  its  real 
dignity  shine  forth.  The  Catholic  scientist  sees  fur- 
thermore a  positive  law  in  the  exercise  of  this  power, 
as  derived  from  the  Divine  office  of  teaching  all  na- 
tions. And  he  sees  this  right  made  use  of  from  the 
very  beginning  of  the  Church,  although  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Index  was  not  founded  until  1570,  and 
the  first  Roman  Index  had  appeared  only  in  1559. 
Before  the  art  of  printing  was  invented,  it  sufficed  to 
burn  a  few  manuscript  copies  to  prevent  the  spreading 
of  a  doctrine.  So  it  was  done  at  Ephesus  in  presence  of 
St.  Paul  (Acts,  xix,  19).  It  is  known  that  the  other 
Apostles,  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  and  the  Council 
of  Nice  (325)  exercised  the  same  authority.  The 
enumeration  of  the  various  censures,  prohibitions,  and 
indexes  issued  by  cities,  universities,  bishops,  provin- 
cial councils,  and  popes,  through  the  Christian  cen- 
turies, may  be  seen  in  Hilgers,  "Der  Index  der  Ver- 
botenen  Biicher"  (Freiburg,  1904),  3-15. 

The  necessity  of  restricting  the  licence  of  all  manner 
of  publications  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following 
facts.  As  regards  heretical  books  one  might  suppose 
men  like  St.  Francis  of  Sales  and  Balmes  i)roof  against 
all  danger.  Yet,  the  former  thanked  CJod  for  having 
preserved  him  from  reading  infidel  books  and  from 
losing  his  faith.  The  latter  confessed  that  he  could 
not  read  a  forbidden  book  without  feeling  the  neces- 
sity of  regaining  the  proper  tune  of  mind  by  recurring 
to  the  Scripture,  the  "Imitation  of  Christ",  and  Louis 
of  Granada.  As  to  immoral  productions  of  htera- 
ture,  the  flood  has  now  become  so  enormous  and  the 
criminal  results  are  so  alarming,  that  leagues  for  pub- 
lic morality  are  being  formed,  composed  of  men  and 
women,  comprising  all  the  conservative  elements  and 
all  religious  denominations.  Political  and  social  dan- 
gers are  not  less  to  be  feared  than  moral  infection. 
For  that  reason  there  is  hardly  any  country  in  the 
world  where  some  censorship  has  not  been  exercised. 
The  measures  taken  in  England,  in  the  Netherlands, 
Scandinavia,  France,  Switzerland,  and  Germany  may 
be  found  in  Hilgers,  op.  cit.,  206-389.  To  say  that 
all  these  measures  of  self-defence  on  the  part  of  par- 
ents, of  the  State,  and  of  the  Church  are  against  the 
dignity  of  science  would  be  a  very  bold  assertion. 

(3)  Those  who  maintain  that  faith  is  discredited  by 
history  are  the  very  ones  that  discredit  history  by  fal- 
sifications. It  must  suffice  in  this  place  to  allude  to 
some  principal  points,  (a)  If  a  believer  cannot  be  a 
scientist,  as  is  maintained,  then  all  the  great  scien- 
tists must  be  unbelievers.  In  spite  of  its  boldness  the 
assertion  is  made,  in  order  to  save  the  appearance  of 


SCIENCE 


608 


SCIENCE 


consistency.  The  fact  is,  however,  that  up  to  the 
French  Revolution,  when  Voltaire  and  Rousseau 
drew  the  last  consequences  from  Atheism,  the  great 
scientists,  almost  to  a  man,  speak  with  great  rever- 
ence of  God  and  of  His  wonderful  Creation.  Is  it 
necessary  to  mention  Copernicus,  Kepler,  Galilei, 
Tycho  Brahe,  Newton,  Huyghens,  Boyle,  Haller, 
Mariotte,  the  Bernoullis,  Euler,  Linne,  and  many 
others?  Since  it  is  often  the  advocates  of  the  glorious 
principles  of  17S9  that  never  tire  of  recounting  the 
tragedy  of  Gahlei,  we  beg  to  remind  them  of  the  great 
chemist  Lavoisier,  who  died  faithful  to  his  Church 
under  the  guillotine,  while  the  free-thinkers  raised  the 
crv:  "Nous  n'avous  plus  besoin  de  chimistes"  [see 
"Etudes",  cxxiii  (Paris,  1910),  834  sqq.j.  For  the 
time  after  the  French  Revolution  we  find  in  Kneller's 
volume  (see  below)  the  names  of  a  glorious  array  of  be- 
heving  scientists,  taken  only  from  the  branch  of  natu- 
ral sciences.  According  to  Donat  ("Die  Freiheit  der 
Wissenschaft",  Innsbruck,  1910,  p.  251)  among  the 
8847  scientists  enumerated  in  Poggendorff's  "Bi- 
ographisch-Literarisches  Handworterbuch"  (Leipzig, 
18li3l  there  are  no  less  than  862  Catholic  clergymen, 
or  nearly  ten  per  cent  of  the  number. 

(b)  The  lack  of  true  arguments  for  the  theses  "that 
faith  is  discredited  by  history"  is  supplied  by  falsi- 
fication. Among  the  fables  invented  for  the  purpose 
may  be  mentioned  the  condemnation  of  the  doctrine 
about  the  Antipodes.  Its  (probable)  representative, 
Virgilius,  was  accused  in  Rome  (747)  but  not  con- 
demned (Hefele,  "Konziliengcschichte",  III,  557). 
He  became  Bi.shop  of  Salzburg,  and  was  afterwards 
canonized  by  Gregory  IX.  Another  story  is  the  al- 
leged prohibition  b}'  Boniface  VIII  of  the  anatomy  of 
the  human  body.  Columbus  is  reported  as  excom- 
municated by  the  "Council"  of  Salamanca.  The  re- 
cent re-appearance  of  Halley's  comet  has  revived  the 
etory  of  a  papal  Bull  issued  against  the  comet  by  Ca- 
lixtus  III  (1456).  The  fable  was  started  by  Laplace, 
who  invented  the  "conjuration",  though  he  tried  to 
atone  for  his  untruthfulness  by  omitting  the  phrase  in 
the  fourth  edition  of  his  "Essai  philosophique"  (see 
Laplace).  The  atheist  Arago  changed  the  conju- 
ration into  excommunication.  Vice-Admiral  Smyth 
added  the  exorcism,  Robert  Grant  the  anathema, 
Flammarion  the  "malefice",  and  finally  John  Draper 
the  malediction.  Here  the  vocabulary  came  to  an 
end.  Poetry,  gro.ss  and  fine,  sarcasm,  and  even  as- 
tronomical errors  were  resorted  to  to  illustrate  the 
conflict  between  science  and  the  Church.  Babinet 
describes  the  Friar  Minors,  during  the  Battle  of  Bel- 
grade, crucifix  in  hand,  exorcising  a  comet  which  was 
not  there;  Halley's  comet  had  disappeared  more  than 
a  week  before.  Chambers  (1861)  honoured  Callistus 
III  with  the  title  "the  silly  pope"  for  commemorating 
annually  the  victory  of  Belgrade.  Daru  lets  the  pope 
stand  at  the  foot  of  the  altar,  with  tears  in  his  eyes 
and  his  forehead  covered  with  ashes,  and  bids  him 
look  up  and  see  how  the  comet  continues  its  course 
unconcerned  about  conjurations.  John  Draper  lets 
the  pope  .scare  the  comet  away  by  noisy  bells  after  the 
fashion  of  savages.  Dr.  Dickson  White  composes  a 
papal  litany:  "From  the  Turk  and  the  comet,  good 
Lord,  deliver  us",  which  was  supplemented  by  another 
writer:  "Lord  save  us  from  the  Devil,  the  Turk 
and  the  Comet".  In  "Popular  Astronomy"  (1908) 
the  comet  is  left  more  than  a  week  too  long  on  the 
visible  sky  and  in  the  "Rivista  di  Astronomia"  (1909) 
even  a  full  month  too  long;  in  "The  Scientific  Ameri- 
can" (1909;  it  appears  fully  three  j'ears  too  soon. 
Such  fictions  and  falsificationsare  needed  to  prove  con- 
flicts between  Science  and  the  (Church  fsee  quotations 
and  rectifications  in  Stein,  "Calixtc  III  et  lacomt-tede 
Halley",  Rome,  1909;  Platina,  BAKTf)LOMEo). 

(c)  As  a  specimen  of  the  anti-('athr)lic  literature  on 
this  subject  we  may  take  the  "History  of  the  Conflicts 
between  Religion  and  Science"  of  John  W.  Draper 


(see  below),  which  deserves  special  mention,  not  for 
the  difficulty  it  presents,  but  for  its  wide  circulation 
in  various  languages.  The  author  placed  himself  ex- 
clusively on  philosophical  and  historical  grounds. 
Neither  of  them  formed  the  field  of  his  special  studies, 
and  the  many  blunders  in  his  work  might  be  pardoned, 
if  it  were  not  for  the  boldness  of  style  and  the  shallow- 
ness of  its  contents.  As  the  book  is  on  the  Index,  a 
short  specimen  may  be  welcome  to  those  who  are  not 
allowed  to  read  it.  In  connexion  with  the  subject  of 
the  preceding  paragraph,  Draper  writes:  "When  Hal- 
ley's comet  came  in  1456,  so  tremendous  was  its  ap- 
parition that  it  was  necessary  for  the  pope  himself  to 
interfere.  He  exorcised  and  expelled  it  from  the  skies. 
It  shrank  away  into  the  abysses  of  space,  terror- 
stricken  by  the  maledictions  of  Callixtus  III,  and  did 
not  venture  back  for  seventy-five  years!  .  .  .  By  or- 
der of  the  pope,  all  the  church  bells  in  Europe  were 
rung  to  scare  it  away,  the  faithful  were  commanded 
to  add  each  day  another  praj'er;  and  as  their  prayers 
had  often  in  so  marked  a  manner  been  answered  in 
eclipses  and  droughts  and  rains,  so  on  this  occasion  it 
was  declared  that  a  victorj''  over  the  comet  had  been 
vouchsafed  to  the  Pope".  Except  the  first  half 
sentence,  that  the  "comet  came  in  1456",  all  his 
statements,  without  exception,  are  historical  falsifi- 
cations. The  scurrility  of  language,  however,  makes 
one  think  that  the  author  did  not  expect  to  be  taken 
seriously.  The  same  manner  of  treatment  is  given  to 
other  historical  points,  like  Giordano  Bruno,  de  Do- 
minis,  the  Library  of  Alexandria.  How  the  Spanish 
Inquisition  comes  into  the  book  is  easily  understood 
from  its  purpose;  but  how  it  comes  under  the  title, 
"Conflicts  between  Religion  and  Science",  remains  a 
logical  problem.  The  domination  of  the  Church  in 
the  Middle  Ages  and  its  influence  upon  the  progress  of 
science  is  a  subject  that  required  a  different  mind 
from  that  of  a  chemist  or  physicist.  It  was  taken  up 
by  one  of  the  Bollandists,  Ch.  de  Smedt,  in  answer  to 
Draper.  It  was  an  easy  but,  at  the  same  time,  dis- 
gusting task  for  him  to  correct  Draper  in  this,  as 
in  all  other  historical  points  (de  Smedt,  see  below). 
Draper's  philosophical  reasonings  on  the  scientific 
freedom  of  believing  scientists,  on  the  right  of  the 
Church  in  proclaiming  dogmas  and  demanding  as- 
sent, on  the  possibility  of  miracles,  betray  complete 
ignorance  or  confusion  of  the  principles  explained  in 
the  preceding  paragraphs. 

(4)  A  fitting  conclusion  to  the  chapter  of  "Con- 
flicts between  Science  and  the  Church"  may  be  found 
in  the  declaration  of  the  Vatican  Council  (Sess.  Ill,  de 
fide,  c.  4):  "Faith  and  reason  are  of  mutual  help  to 
each  other:  by  reason,  well  applied,  the  foundations  of 
faith  are  established,  and,  in  the  light  of  faith,  the  sci- 
ence of  Divinity  is  built  up.  Faith,  on  the  other  hand 
frees  and  preserves  reason  from  error  and  enriches 
it  witli  knowledge.  The  Church,  therefore,  far  from 
hindering  the  pursuit  of  arts  and  sciences,  fosters  and 
promotes  them  in  many  ways.  .  .  .  Nor  does  she  pre- 
vent sciences,  each  in  its  sphere,  from  making  use  of 
their  own  principles  and  methods.  Yet,  while  ac- 
knowledging the  freedom  due  to  them,  she  tries  to  pre- 
serve them  from  falling  into  errors  contrary  to  Di- 
vine doctrine,  and  from  overstepping  their  own 
boundaries  and  throwing  into  confusion  matters  that 
belong  to  the  domain  of  faith.  The  doctrine  of  faith 
which  God  has  revealed  is  not  placed  before  the  hu- 
man mind  for  further  elaboration,  like  a  philosophical 
system;  it  is  a  Divine  deposit,  handed  over  to  the 
Spouse  of  Christ,  to  be  faithfully  guarded  and  infalli- 
bly declared.  Hence,  the  iiicaiiirig  once  given  to  a 
sacred  dogma  by  holy  mot  her  Church  is  to  be  main- 
tained forever  and  not  to  Ix-  dc  parted  from  under  pre- 
text of  more  profound  uiKicrstaiuling.  Let  knowl- 
edge, sci(;nce  and  wisdom  grow  with  the  course  of 
times  and  centuries,  in  individuals  as  well  as  in  the 
community,  in  each  man  as  in  the  whole  Church,  but 


SCILLIUM 


009 


SCOPIA 


in  the  proper  manner,  i.e.,  in  the  same  dogma,  in  the 
same  meaning,  in  the  same  understanding". 

What  was  pronounced  in  the  Decree  of  the  Vatican 
Council  was  represented  by  a  master's  hand  on  a  wall  of 
the  Vatican,  three  centuries  ago.  In  his  fresco  (wrongly) 
called  '"Disputa",  Raphael  has  assigned  to  arts  and 
sciences  their  proper  place  in  the  kingdom  of  God. 
They  are  grouped  around  the  altar,  accept  the  Gos- 
pel from  angels'  hands,  raise  their  eyes  to  the  Re- 
deemer, and  from  Him  to  the  Father  and  the  Spirit, 
surrounded  by  the  Church  triumphant,  their  own  ulti- 
mate end. 

Sources: — St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  De  veritale  fidei  cathoHcw 
contra  gentiles;  Hurter,  Uber  die  Rechte  der  Vernunft  und  des 
Glaubens  (Innsbruck,  1863);  Kleutgen,  Theologie  der  Vorzeit 
(Munster,  1867-74);  Hettinger,  Apologia,  t.  V,  Lectures  21-22 
(English  tr.);  Concilhim  Vaticanum,  Const.  Dei  Filius,  cap.  4, 
with  explanations  in  Collectio  Lacensis,  VII,  535-7;  Hilgers, 
Der  Index  der  verbotenen  Bucher  (Freiburg,  1904) ;  Donat,  Die 
Freiheit  der  Wissenschaft  (Innsbruck,  1910). 

Reference  literature: — Draper,  Hist,  of  the  Conflicts  between 
Religion  and.  Science  (New  York,  1873),  a  work  put  on  the  Index 
on  4  September,  1870;  the  following  three  publications  appeared 
against  Draper's  tirade:  De  Smedt,  Uiglise  et  la  science  in 
Rev.  des  quest,  scient.,  I  (Brussels,  1877) ;  Orti  y  Lara,  La  ciencia 
y  la  divina  revelacidn  (Madrid,  1881);  Mir,  Harmonia  entre  la 
ciencia  y  la  Fe  (Madrid,  1885) ;  these  two  Spanish  essays  were 
crowned  with  the  second  prize  (together  with  two  others  of 
RuBio  Y  Ors  and  Abd6n  de  Paz)  by  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Moral  and  Political  Sciences  of  Madrid.  The  same  matter  is  also 
treated  in  the  CiviUd  cattolica,  ser.  X,  vols.  I,  II,  III  (1876) 
and  vol.  XI  (1878),  and  by  Men^ndez  t  Pelayo,  Hist,  de  los 
heterodoxos  espafloles  (Madrid,  1880,  1888-91) ;  Zockler,  Gesch. 
der  Beziehungen  zwischen  Theologie  und  Naturmssenschaften,  II 
(Frankfurt,  1877-8),  .595;  Braun,  Uber  Kosmogonie  vom  Stand- 
punkte  christlicher  Wissenschaft  (Munster,  1887,  1895,  1905); 
Zahm,  Catholic  Science  and  Catholic  Scientists  (Philadelphia, 
1893);  Brownson,  Faith  and  Science  (Detroit,  1895);  Hert- 
LING,  Das  Princip  des  Katholicismus  und  die  Wissenschaft  (Frei- 
burg, 1899);  Pesch,  Das  kirchliche  Lehramt  und  die  Freiheit 
der  theologischen  Wissenschaft  in  Stimmen,  supplementary  no. 
LXXVI  (Freiburg,  1900);  joint  pastoral  letter  by  the  cardinal 
archbishop  and  the  bishops  of  the  Province  of  Westminster  in 
The  Tablet,  LXV  (London,  1901),  8,  50;  Cathrein,  Glauben 
und  Wissen  (Freiburg,  1903) ;  Kneller,  Das  Christentum  und 
die  Vertreter  der  neueren  Naturwissenschaft  (Freiburg,  1904), 
tr.  Kettle,  Christianity  and  Modern  Science  (St.  Louis,  1911); 
Gerard,  The  Old  Riddle  and  the  Newest  Answer  (London,  1907); 
FoNK,  Die  naturwissenschafllichen  Schwierigkeiten  in  der  Bibel 
in  Zeit.  filr  kath.  Theol.,  XXXI  (1907),  401-32;  with  a  supple- 
ment by  the  writer,  750-5;  Peters,  Klerikale  Weltauffassung 
und  Freie  Forschung,  Ein  offenes  Wort  an  Prof.  Dr.  K,  Menger 
(Vienna,  1908);  Leahy,  Astronomical  Essays  (Boston,  1910); 
ViDAL,  Religion  et  medecine  (Paris,  1910), — in  connexion  with  this 
book  may  be  consulted  the  lectures  of  Desplats  and  Francotte, 
delivered  in  the  Section  de  medicine  de  la  soci^t6  scientifique 
de  Bruxelles  (s^^'ances  of  1908  and  1907  respectively);  Schia- 
PARELLi,  Astronomy  of  the  Old  Testament  (Oxford,  1905); 
Maunder,  The  Astronomy  of  the  Bible  (New  York,  1908); 
Cohausz,  Das  modeme  Denken  (Cologne,  1911). 

J.  G.  Hagen. 

Scillium,  a  titular  see  in  Africa  Proconsularis, 
suffragan  of  Carthage.  Perhaps  the  name  should 
be  written  Scilium:  the  real  name  was  possibly 
Scilli,  or  better,  Scili.  On  17  July,  ISO,  six  martyrs 
suffered  for  the  Faith  at  Scillium;  later,  a  basilica 
in  which  St.  Augustine  preached  (Victor  Vit.,  Per- 
secut.  Vandal.  I,  3,  9;  August,  Serm.  1.55,  ed.  Migne) 
was  dedicated  to  them  (near  Douar  esh-Shott,  west 
of  the  town).  The  Greek  version  of  their  Acts,  in 
an  addition  which  is  later,  says  they  were  natives  of 
"Ischle,  'Iffx^v,  in  Numidia".  This  name  is  a  Greek 
transcription  of  ScilUum.  The  tradition  is  already 
recorded  in  the  primitive  calendar  of  Carthage: 
XVI  K.  Aug.  ss.  Scilitanorum  (see  Martyrolog. 
Hieronym.",  ed.  Duchesne  and  de  Rossi,  pp.  Ixx 
and  92).  The  Greek  compiler  intended  po.ssibly 
to  speak  not  of  the  Province  of  Numidia,  but  of  the 
Numidian  country  and  so  would  have  placed  Scillium 
in  Proconsular  Numidia.  In  an  epitaph  of  Simitthu, 
now  Chemtou,  we  read  Iscilitana;  Simitthu  was  cer- 
tainly in  Proconsular  Numidia,  but  was  Scillium  near 
it?  A  definitive  answer  is  impossible,  and  the  exact 
location  of  Scillium  is  unknown.  Two  of  its  bishops 
are  mentioned:  Squillacius,  present  at  the  Con- 
ference of  Carthage,  411;  and  Pariator,  who  signed 
the  letter  addressed  in  CA6  by  the  council  of  the  pro- 
consulate to  the  Patriarch  Paul  of  Constantinople 
XIII.— 39 


against  the  Monothelites.  The  town  is  mentioned 
in  the  seventh  century  by  Georgius  Oyprius  ("De- 
scriptio  orbis  romani",  662,  ed.  Gelzer,  Leipzig,  1890, 
pp.  34,  106)  under  the  name  of  SxiJXi;.  Scillium  was 
the  native  place  of  St.  Cucuphas,  martyred  at 
Barcelona  (feast  on  25  July;  cf.  Acta  SS.,  July  VI, 
149),  and  of  St.  Felix,  martyred  at  Gerona  (feast  on 
1  August;  cf.  Acta  SS.,  August,  I,  22).  Scillium  must 
not  be  confounded  with  Silli,  or  Sililli,  in  Numidia, 
the  situation  of  which  is  unknown,  nor,  as  Battandier 
does  ("Annuaire  pontifiual  catholique",  Paris,  1910), 
identified  with  Kasrin,  which  is  Cillium,  a  see  of 
Byzantium. 

TouLOTTE,  Geog.  de  VAfrique  chritienne.  Proconsulaire  (Rennes 
and  Paris,  1892),  235;  Monceaux,  Hist,  de  VAfrique  chritienne, 
I  (Paris,  1901),  61  seq. 

S.    Pl^TRIDfcs. 

Scillium,  Martyrs  of. — In  the  year  180  six 
Christians  were  condemned  to  death  by  the  sword, 
in  the  town  of  Scillium,  by  Vigellius  Saturninus, 
Proconsul  of  Africa.  The  Acts  of  their  martyrdom 
are  of  special  interest,  as  being  the  most  ancient  Acts 
we  possess  for  the  Roman  Province  of  Africa.  Their 
trial  is  also  notable  among  the  trials  of  early  martyrs 
inasmuch  as  the  accused  were  not  subjected  to 
torture.  The  dialogue  between  the  Proconsul  and 
the  martyrs  shows  that  the  former  entertained  no 
prejudices  against  the  Christians.  He  exhorts  them 
to  comply  with  the  law,  and  when  they  decline  he 
suggests  that  they  take  time  to  think  on  the  subject. 
The  Christians  quietly  assure  him  that  their  minds 
are  made  up,  whereupon  he  pronounces  sentence: 
"Whereas  Speratus,  Nartallus,  Cittimus,  Donata, 
Vestia,  Secunda  have  affirmed  that  they  live  after  the 
fashion  of  the  Christians,  and  when  offered  a  remand 
to  return  to  the  manner  of  life  of  the  Romans,  per- 
sisted in  their  contumacy,  we  sentence  them  to  perish 
by  the  sword". 

Leclerq,  Les  Martyrs,  I  (Paris,  1906) ;  All,\rd,  Ten  Lectures 
on  the  Martyrs  (New  York,  1907). 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Scollard,  David  J.  See  Satjlt  Sainte  Marie, 
Diocese  of. 

Scopia,  Archdiocese  of  (Scupi;  Scopiensis),  an- 
cient residence  of  the  early  Servian  rulers,  is  the 
modern  Uscub  (Uskiib,  Ushkiip,  or  Skoplje),  a  city 
of  25,000  inhabitants,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Vardar  in  Macedonia.  The  first  known  bishop  is 
Perigorius,  present  at  the  Council  of  Sardica  (343). 
Scopia  was  probably  a  metropolitan  see  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century. 

After  553  we  have  no  notice  of  bishops  of  Scopia 
till  882.  The  Bulgarian  wars  in  the  tenth  century 
caused  a  temporary  suppression  of  the  see,  but  when 
the  Bulgarians  were  converted  a  century  later  it 
again  became  a  metropolitan  see.  •  Scopia  has  also 
long  been  a  Greek  schismatic  archiepiscopal  see, 
subject  to  the  Servian  Patriarch  of  Ipck  (or  Pod); 
in  1717  it  became,  as  it  is  now,  a  suffragan  of  Con- 
stantinople (Jirecek,  "Geschichte  der  Bulgaren", 
p.  102).  In  1346,  Greek  schismatic  bishops  held  a 
national  council  under  the  patronage  of  the  Ser- 
vian ruler  Dusan  (1331-55),  (Markovid,  "Gh  Slavi", 
ed.  i,  Papi  II,  371).  Catholic  bishops  continued  to 
govern  the  See  of  Scopia  during  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries.  After  1340  Scopia  had  only 
titular  bishops  until  1656  when  it  became  again  a 
residential  see.  Since  1700  the  bishops  of  Scopia 
bear  the  title  of  Apostolic  administrators  or  of  arch- 
bishops immediately  dependent  on  the  Roman  See. 
Until  1860  the  Catholic  archbishops  had  an  uncertain 
residence  in  the  mountains  of  Macedonia  or  Alba- 
nia, owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  Turks.  They  now 
reside  in  Uskup.  Scopia  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
famous  sixteenth  century  Minorite,  John  Bandilovid, 
a  Croatian  theologian  and  writer  whose  "Pistoloje 


SCOT 


610 


SCOTISM 


i  Evanglelja"  (Epistles  and  Gospels)  was  printed  at 
Venice  in  1613,  and  often  reprinted.  Worthy  of 
mention  among  the  archbishops  of  Seopia  are  the 
Franciscan,  Urbanus  Bogdanovic  (d.  1S64),  and 
Darius  Bucciarelli  (d.  1S7S).  The  archbishopric 
extends  over  parts  of  Rumelia,  Albania,  and  Old 
Servia,  and  numbers  11  parishes  with  a  Catholic 
population  of  19,473.  Its  ecclesiastical  candidates  are 
educated  at  the  central  seminary  of  Scutari.  The 
school  at  Prizren  and  the  archbishops  of  Seopia  are 
subsidized  by  the  Austrian  emperor  as  well  as  by 
the  Propaganda. 

G.<.Ms,  .Series  episcoporum,  p.  417;  Le  Quien,  Oriens  chris- 
tianus,  II.  309  sqq.,  Ill,  113S;    Werner,    Orb.  (err.  cath.,  124. 

Anthony  Lawrence  Gancevic. 

Scot,  Michael.    See  Michael  Scotus. 

Scot,  William  Maurus,  Venerable,  English 
Benedictine  martjT,  hanged  at  Tyburn,  30  May,  1612; 
a  younger  son  of  William  Scot  of  Chigwell,  Essex, 
who  married  Prudence,  daughter  of  Edmund  Alabaster 
of  Brett's  Hall.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  at 
Trinity  College,  and  at  Trinity  Hall.  He  was  pro- 
fessed and  ordained  at  the  Abbey  of  St.  Facundus, 
Sahagun,  Spain.  After  being  twice  imprisoned  and 
banished,  he  returned  to  England,  and  after  im- 
prisonment in  the  Gatehouse  and  Newgate  was  con- 
demned at  the  Old  Bailey,  Monday,  25  May,  1612,  for 
being  a  priest.  With  him  was  condemned  and  suf- 
fered Venerable  Richard  Newport,  alias  Smith,  a 
native  of  Northamptonshire,  ordained  priest  after 
seven  years'  study  at  Rome,  who  also  had  been  several 
times  imprisoned  and  twice  banished.  An  account  of 
their  trial  will  be  found  in  Bishop  Challoner's  work 
cited  below.     Newport  was  cut  down  while  still  alive. 

RcBEUS,  Narratio  mortis,  etc.  (Rome,  1657);  Challoner, 
Missionary  Priests,  II  (Edinburgh,  1877),  nos.  150,  151;  Gillow, 
Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Co«/i.  T  (London  and  New  York,  1885-1902), 
486;    Weldon,  Chronological  Notes  (London,   1881),  82-4. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Scotism  and  Scotists. — I.  Scotism. — This  is  the 
name  given  to  the  philosophical  and  theological  sys- 
tem or  school  named  after  John  Duns  Scotus  (q.  v.). 
It  developed  out  of  the  Old  Franciscan  School,  to 
which  Haymo  of  Faversham  (d.  1244),  Alexander  of 
Hales  (d.  124.5),  John  of  Rupella  (d.  1245),  William 
of  MeUtora  (d.  1260),  St.  Bonaventure  (d.  1274), 
Cardinal  Matthew  of  Aquasparta  (d.  1289),  John 
Pecham  (d.  1292),  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Rich- 
ard of  Middletown  (d.  about  1300),  etc.  belonged. 
This  school  had  at  first  but  few  peculiarities;  it  fol- 
lowed Augustinism  (Platonism),  which  then  ruled 
theology,  and  which  was  adopted  not  only  by  the 
Parisian  professors  belonging  to  the  secular  clergy 
(William  of  Auvergne,  Henry  of  Ghent,  etc.),  but  also 
by  prominent  teachers  of  the  Dominican  Order  (Ro- 
land of  Cremona,  Robert  P'itzacker,  Robert  of  Kil- 
wardby,  etc.).  These  theologians  knew  and  utilized 
freely  all  the  writings  of  Aristotle,  but  employed  the 
new  Peripatetic  ideas  only  in  part  or  in  an  uncritical 
fa.shion,  and  intermingled  with  Platonic  elements. 
Albertus  Magnus  and  especially  St.  Thomas  (d.  1274) 
introduce!  Aristoteleanism  more  widely  into  Scholas- 
ticism. The  procefiure  of  St.  Thomas  was  regarded 
as  an  innovation,  and  called  forth  criticism,  not  only 
from  the  Franciscans,  but  also  from  the  secular  doctors 
and  even  many  Dominicans  (cf.  Franz  Ehrle  in  "Ar- 
chiv  fiir  Literatur-  u.  Kirchengeschichte  des  Mittel- 
alters",  V,  18S9,  pp.  603  sqq. ;  Idem  in  "Zeitschrift  fur 
kathol.  Theologie",  XIII,  1889,  pp.  172  sqq.;  Bern- 
ard Jan.sen,  ibid.,  XXXII,  1908,  289  sqq.).  At  this 
time  appeared  Scotus,  the  Doctor  Sublilin,  and  found 
the  ground  alreaxJy  cleared  for  the  conflict  with  the 
followers  of  Aquinas.  He  made  indeed  very  free  use 
of  Aristoteleanism,  much  freer  than  his  predecessors, 
but  in  its  employment  exercised  sharp  criticism,  and 
in  important  points  adhered  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Older  Franciscan  School — especially  with  regard  to 


the  plurality  of  forms  or  of  souls,  the  spiritual  matter 
of  the  angels  and  of  souls,  etc.,  wherein  and  in  other 
points  he  combatted  energetically  St.  Thomas.  The 
Scotism  beginning  with  him,  or  what  is  known  as  the 
Later  Franciscan  School,  is  thus  only  a  continuation 
or  further  development  of  the  older  school,  with  a 
much  wider,  although  not  exclusive  acceptance  of 
Peripatetic  ideas,  or  with  the  e.xpress  and  strict  chal- 
lenge of  the  same  (e.  g.  the  view  that  matter  is 
the  principium  indit>iduaiio7iis).  Concerning  the  rela- 
tion of  these  schools  to  each  other,  or  the  relation  of 
Scotus  to  Alexander  of  Hales  and  St.  Bonaventure, 
consult  the  work  of  the  Flemish  Recollect,  M.  Hauzeur 
("CoUatio  totius  theologise  inter  majores  nostros, 
Alex.  Alensem,  S.  Bonaventuram,  Duns  Scotum  etc.", 
2  vols.,  Liege,  1652—). 

Concerning  the  character  and  teaching  of  Scotus  we 
have  already  spoken  in  the  special  article,  where  it 
was  stated  that  he  has  been  unjustly  charged  with 
Indeterminism,  excessive  Realism,  Pantheism,  Nes- 
torianism,  etc.  WHiat  has  been  there  said  holds  good 
of  Scotism  in  general,  the  most  important  doctrines  of 
which  were  substantially  developed  by  Scotus  him- 
self. Little  new  has  been  added  by  the  Scotists  to 
the  teaching  of  their  master;  for  the  most  part,  they 
have  merely,  in  accordance  with  the  different  ten- 
dencies of  the  day,  restated  its  fundamental  position 
and  defended  it.  It  will  be  sufficient  here  to  mention 
two  works  in  which  the  most  important  peculiarities 
of  the  Scotist  theology  are  briefly  set  forth  and 
defended — Johannes  de  Rada,  "  Controversiae  theol. 
inters.  Thom.  et  Scotum"  (1598 — );  Kihan  Kazen- 
berger,  "Assertiones  centum  ad  mentem  .  .  .  Scoti" 
(new  ed.,  Quaracchi,  1906).  Reference  may,  how- 
ever, be  made  to  the  influence  which  Scotism  exer- 
cised on  the  teaching  of  the  Church  (i.  e.  on  theology). 
It  is  especially  noteworthy  that  none  of  the  proposi- 
tions peculiar  to  Scotus  or  Scotism  has  been  censured 
by  ecclesiastical  authority,  while  the  doctrine  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception  was  soon  accepted  by  all 
schools,  orders,  and  theologians  outside  the  Dominican 
Order,  and  was  raised  to  a  dogma  by  Pius  IX.  The 
definition  of  the  Council  of  Vienne  of  1311  that  all 
were  to  be  regarded  as  heretics  who  declared  "quod 
anima  rationalis  .  .  .  non  sit  forma  corporis  humani 
per  se  et  essentialiter "  (the  rational  soul  is  not  per 
se  and  essentially  the  form  of  the  human  body),  was 
directed,  not  against  the  Scotist  doctrine  of  the  forma 
corporeitatis,  but  only  against  the  erroneous  view  of 
Olivius;  it  is  even  more  probable  that  the  Scotists  of 
the  day  suggested  the  passing  of  the  Decree  and  for- 
mulated it  (see  B.  Jansen,  loc.  cit.,  289  sqq.,  471  sqq.). 
Nominalism  is  older  than  Scotus,  but  its  revival  in 
Occamism  may  be  traced  to  the  one-sided  exaggera- 
tion of  some  propositions  of  Scotus.  The  Scotist 
Formalism  is  the  direct  opposite  of  Nominalism,  and 
the  Scotists  were  at  one  with  the  Thomists  in  combat- 
ting the  latter;  Occam  himself  (d.  about  1347)  was  a 
bitter  opponent  of  Scotus.  The  Council  of  Trent  de- 
fined as  dogma  a  series  of  doctrines  especially  empha- 
sized by  the  Scotists  (e.  g.  freedom  of  the  will, 
free  co-operation  with  grace,  meritoriousness  of  good 
works,  the  causality  of  the  sacraments  ex  opere  ope- 
rato,  the  efTect  of  absolution).  In  other  points  the 
canons  were  intentionally  so  framed  that  they  do  not 
affect  Scotism  (e.  g.  that  the  first  man  was  consiitulus 
in  holiness  and  justice).  This  was  also  done  at  the 
Vatican  Council.  In  the  Thomist  ic-Molinistic  contro- 
versy concerning  the  foreknowledge  of  God,  predes- 
tination, the  relation  of  grace  to  free  will,  the  Scotists 
took  little  part.  They  either  supported  one  of  the 
parties,  or  took  up  a  middle  position,  rejecting  both 
the  predetermination  of  the  Thomists  and  the  scien- 
tia  media  of  the  Molinists.  God  recognizes  the  free 
future  acts  in  His  es.sence,  and  provides  a  free  decree 
of  His  will,  which  does  not  predetermine  our  free  will, 
but  only  accompanies  it. 


SCOTISM 


611 


SCOTISM 


Jesuit  philosophers  and  theologians  adopted  a  series 
of  the  Scotist  propositions.     Later  authorities  reject 
in  part  many  of  these  propositions  and  partly  accept 
them,  or  at  least  do  not  directly  oppose  them.     This 
refers  mostly  to  doctrines  touching  the  deepest  phil- 
osophical and  theological  questions,  on  which  a  com- 
pletely certain  judgment  is  difficult  to  obtain.     The 
following  are  generally  rejected:  formahsm  with  the 
distinctio  formalis,  the  spiritual  matter  of  angels  and 
of  the  soul,  the  view  that  the  metaphysical  essence  of 
God  consists  in  radical  infinity,  that  the  relationes 
trinitarioe  are  not  a  perfection  sim-pliciter  simplex;  that 
the  Holy  Ghost  would  be  a  distinct  Person  from  the 
Son,   even  though   He  proceeded  from  the  Father 
alone;  that  the  angels  can  naturaliter  know  the  secreta 
cordium  (secret  thoughts);  that  the  soul  of  Christ  is 
formally  holy  and  impeccable,  not  by  the  very  fact 
of  the  hjT)ostatic  union,  but  through  another  gratia 
areata  (the  visio  heatifica) ;  that  the  merits  of  Christ  are 
not  simpliciter  et  intrinsece,  but  only  extrinsece  and 
secundum  quid,  infinite;  that  there  are  indifferent  acts 
in  individuo;  that  the  gratia  sanctificnns  and  the  chori- 
tas  habitualis  are  the  same  habitus;  that  circumcision 
is  a  sacrament  in  the  strict  sense;  that  transubstantia- 
tion  makes  the  Body  of  Christ  present  per  modum  ad- 
duclionis,  etc.     Another  series  of  propositions  was 
misunderstood  even  by  Catholic  theologians,  and  then 
in  this  false  sense  rightly  rejected — e.  g.  the  doctrine 
of  the  univocatio  entis,  of  the  acceptation  of  the  merits 
of  Christ  and  man,  etc.     Of  the  propositions  which 
have  been  accepted  or  at  least  favourably  treated  by 
a  large  number  of  scholars,  we  may  mention:  the 
Scotist  view  of  the  relation  between  essentia  and  exist- 
entia;  that  between  ens  and  nihil  the  distance  is  not 
infinite  but  only  as  great  as  the  reality  that  the  par- 
ticular ens  possesses;  that  the  accidens  as  such  also 
possesses  a  separate  existence  (e.  g.  the  accidentia  of 
bread  and  wine  in  the  Eucharist) ;  that  not  only  God, 
but  also  man  can  produce  an  esse  simpliciter  (e.  g. 
man    by  generation);   hcecceitas    as    the   principium 
individuationis.     Also  many  propositions  from  psy- 
chology: e.  g.  that  the  powers  of  the  soul  are  not 
merely  accidents  even  natural  and  necessary  of  the 
soul,  that  they  are  not  really  distinct  from  the  sub- 
stance of  the  soul  or  from  one  another;  that  son.se- 
perception  is  not  purely  passive;  that  the  intellect 
can  recognize  the  singular  directly,  not  merely  indi- 
rectly; that  the  soul  separated  from  the  body  forms 
its  knowledge  from  things  themselves,   not  merely 
from  the  ideas  which  it  has  acquired  through  life  or 
which  God  infuses  into  it;  that  the  soul  is  not  united 
with  the  body  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  knowledge 
through  the  senses,  but  for  the  purpose  of  forming 
with  it  a  new  species,  i.  e.  human  nature;  that  the 
moral  virtues  are  not  necessarily  inter  se  connexw,  etc. 
Also  many  propositions  concerning  the  doctrine  of  the 
angels:  e.  g.  that  the  angels  can  be  numerically  dis- 
tinct from  one  another,  and  therefore  several  angels 
can  belong  to  the  same  species;  that  it  is  not  merely 
through  their  activity  or  the  appHcation  of  their 
powers  that  angels  can  be  in  a  given  place;  that  they 
cannot  go  from  place  to  place  without  having  to  tra- 
verse the  intermediate  space;  that  they  do  not  ac- 
quire all  natural  knowledge  from  infused  ideas  only, 
but  also  through  contemplation  of  things  themselves; 
that  their  will  must  not  necessarily  will   good  or 
evil,  according  as  it  has  once  decided.     Furthermore, 
that  Adam  in  the  state  of  innocence  could  sin  venially ; 
that  mortal  sin,  as  an  offence  against  God,  is  not  in- 
trinsically and  simpliciter,  but  only  extrinsically  in- 
finite; that  Christ  would  have  become  man,  even  if 
Adam  had  not  sinned;  that  the  human  nature  of 
Christ  had  its  proper  created  existence;  that  in  Chri.st 
there  were  two  filiationes,  or  sonships,  a  human  and  a 
Divine;  that  the  sacraments  have  only  moral  causal- 
ity; that,  formally  and  in  the  last  analysis,  heavenly 
happiness  consists  not  in  the  visio  Dei,  but  in  the 


fruitio;  that  in  hell  venial  sin  is  not  punished  with 
everlasting  punishment;  etc. 

Scotism  thus  exercised  also  positively  a  wholesome 
influence  on  the  development  of  philosophy  and  the- 
ology; its  importance  is  not,  as  is  often  asserted,  purely 
negative — that  is,  it  does  not  consist  only  in  the  fact 
that  it  exercised  a  wholesome  criticism  on  St.  Thomas 
and  his  school,  and  thus  preserved  science  from  stag- 
nation. A  comparison  of  the  Scotist  teaching  with 
that  of  St.  Thomas  has  been  often  attempted — for 
example,  in  the  above-mentioned  work  of  Hauzeur 
at  the  end  of  the  first  volume;  by  Sarnano,  "Concili- 
atio  omnium  controversiarum  etc."  (1589 — ).  It 
may  be  admitted  that  in  many  cases  the  difference 
is  rather  in  the  terminology,  or  that  a  reconciliation 
is  possible,  if  one  emphasize  certain  parts  of  Scotus 
or  St.  Thomas,  and  pass  over  or  tone  down  others. 
However,  in  not  a  few  points  the  contradiction  still 
remains.  Generally  speaking,  Scotism  found  its  sup- 
porters within  the  Franciscan  Order;  certainly,  op- 
position to  the  Dominicans,  i.  e.  to  St.  Thomas,  made 
many  members  of  the  order  disciples  of  Scotus.  How- 
ever, this  does  not  mean  that  the  foundation  and  de- 
velopment of  Scotism  is  to  be  referred  to  the  rivalry 
existing  between  the  two  orders.  Even  Aquinas  found 
at  first  not  a  few  opponents  in  his  order,  nor  did  all 
his  fellow-Dominicans  follow  him  in  every  particular 
(e.  g.  Durandus  of  St.  Pourgain,  d.  1332).  The  Scot- 
ist doctrines  were  also  supported  by  many  Minorites, 
of  whose  purity  of  purpose  there  can  be  no  doubt,  and 
of  whom  many  have  been  included  in  the  catalogue  of 
saints  and  beati  (e.  g.  Sts.  Bernardino,  John  Capis- 
tran,  Jacob  of  the  March,  Angelusof  Chiavasso,etc.). 
Furthermore,  Scotism  found  not  a  few  supporters 
among  secular  professors  and  in  other  rehgious  orders 
(e.  g.  the  Augustinians,  Servites,  etc.),  especially  in 
England,  Ireland,  and  Spain.  On  the  other  hand, 
not  all  the  Minorites  were  Scotists.  Many  attached 
themselves  to  St.  Bonaventure,  or  favoured  an  eclec- 
ticism from  Scotus,  St.  Thomas,  St.  Bonaventure,  etc. 
The  Conventuals  seem  to  have  adhered  most  faith- 
fully to  Scotus,  particularly  at  the  University  of 
Padua,  where  many  highly  esteemed  teachers  lec- 
tured. Scotism  found  least  support  among  the  Ca- 
puchins, who  preferred  St.  Bonaventure.  Besides 
Scotus,  the  order  had  other  highly-prized  teachers, 
such  as  Alexander  of  Hales,  Richard  of  Middleton, 
and  especially  St.  Bonaventure  (proclaimed  Doctor 
ecclesicB  by  Sixtus  V  in  1587),  the  asceti co-mystical 
trend  of  whose  theology  was  more  suited  to  wide 
circles  in  the  order  than  the  critical,  dispassionate, 
and  often  abstruse  teaching  of  the  Subtle  Doctor. 
In  Spain  the  martyred  tertiary.  Blessed  Raymund 
Lullus  (d.  1315),  also  had  many  friends.  It  may  be 
said  that  the  whole  order  as  such  never  had  a  uniform 
and  special  school  of  Scotists;  the  teachers,  preachers, 
etc.  were  never  compelled  to  espouse  Scotism.  His 
disciples  did  indeed  call  Scotus  "Doctor  noster", 
"Doctor  (vol  Magistor)  Ordinis",  but  even  among 
these  many  partly  followed  their  own  course  (e.  g. 
Petrus  Aureolus),  while  Walter  Burleigh  (Burteus, 
d.  about  1340)  and  still  more  so  Occam  were  oppo- 
nents of  Scotus. 

It  is  only  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  or  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century  that  a  special  Scotist 
School  can  be  spoken  of.  The  works  of  the  master 
were  then  collected,  brought  out  in  many  editions, 
commentated,  etc.  Since  1501  we  also  find  numerous 
regulations  of  general  chapters  recommending  or  di- 
rectly prescribing  Scotism  as  the  teaching  of  the  order, 
although  St.  Bonaventure's  writings  were  also  to  a  great 
extent  admitted  (cf.  Marian  Fernandez  Garcia,  "Lex- 
icon scholasticum  etc.",  Quaracchi,  1910;  "B.  Joan. 
DunsScoti:  Dererumprincipio etc.", Quaracchi,  1910, 
preface  §  3,  nn.  46  sqq.,  where  many  regulations  of 
1501-1907  are  given).  Scotism  appears  to  have  at- 
tained its  greatest  popularity  at  the  beginning  of  the 


SCOTISM 


612 


SCOTISM 


seventeenth  centuiy;  during  the  sixteenth  and  the 
seventeenth  centuries  we  even  find  special  Scotist 
chairs,  e.  g.  at  Paris,  Rome,  Coimbra,  Salamanca,  Al- 
cald,  Padua,  and  Pa\'ia.  In  the  eighteenth  centur>'  it 
had  still  an  important  foUomng.  but  in  the  nineteenth 
it  suffered  a  great  dechne.  One  of  the  reasons  for  this 
was  the  repeated  suppressions  of  the  order  in  almost 
everj^  countrj',  while  the  recommendation  of  the  teach- 
ing of  St.  Thomas  by  several  popes  could  not  be  fav- 
ourable to  Scotism. "  It  has  even  been  asserted  that 
it  is  now  merely  tolerated;  but  this  statement  is  a 
priori  improbable  in  regard  to  a  school  of  which  not 
a  single  proposition  has  been  censured,  and  to  which 
80  many  highly  venerated  men  (bishops,  cardinals, 
popes,  and  saints)  have  belonged;  and  it  is  still  less 
probable  in  \'iew  of  the  approval  of  the  various  general 
statutes  (repeated  so  often  down  to  the  present  day), 
in  which  Scotism  is  at  least  recommended.  In  their 
Decrees  Leo  XIII  and  Pius  X  have  recommended  not 
alone  St.  Thomas,  but  also  Scholasticism  in  general, 
and  this  includes  also  the  Scotist  School.  In  1897 
Leo  XIII  approved  the  " Constitutiones  Generales 
Fratrum  Minorum",  of  which  §  245  prescribes  for 
the  members  of  the  order:  "In  doctrinis  philosophicis 
et  theologicis  antiqua?  schola;  Franciscans  inhsrere 
etudeant,  quin  tamen  ceteros  scholasticos  negligant" 
(In  philosophical  and  theological  doctrine  they  shall 
take  care  to  follow  the  ancient  Franciscan  School, 
without,  however,  neglecting  the  other  Schoolmen.) 
On  11  April,  1904,  in  a  letter  to  the  Minister  General, 
Father  Dionysius  Schuler,  Pius  X  expressed  his  pleas- 
ure at  the  re\nval  of  studies  in  the  order  in  connexion 
with  the  Franciscan  schools  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  on  19  June,  1908,  in  a  letter  to  the  above- 
mentioned  Father  Marian,  praised  his  book,  "Mentis 
in  Deum  quotidiana  elevatio  duce  B.  Joanne  Duns 
Scoto  etc."  (Quaracchi,  1907.  See  Marian,  op.  cit., 
n.  66.) 

II.  ScoTiSTS. — Most  Scotists  are  both  philosophers 
and  theologians. 

Fourteenth  Century. — Pupils  of  Scotus:  Francis 
Mayron  (d.  1327),  a  very  fruitful  writer,  who  intro- 
duced the  actv^  sorbonicus  into  the  University  of  Paris, 
i.  e.  the  uninterrupted  disputation  lasting  the  whole 
day. — Petrus  Aureolus  (d.  about  1322),  Archbishop 
of  Aix. — William  de  Rubione  (about  1333). — Jerome 
de  Atharia,  Order  of  the  Blessed  Trinity  (about  1323) . — 
Antonius  Andrea?  (d.  about  1320)  from  Aragon,  a  true 
disciple  of  Scotus,  who  is  said  to  have  written  several 
treati.ses  attributed  to  the  master. — John  de  Bassolis 
(d.  about  1347).— Al varus  Pelagius  (d.  about  1350).— 
Bishop  Petrus  de  Aquila  (d.  1371),  called  Scotellus 
from  his  faithful  adherence  to  Scotus,  of  whose  teach- 
ing he  issued  a  compendium  (new  ed.,  Levanti, 
1907— ).— Landulf  Caraccioli  (d.  1351),  Archbishop 
of  Amalfi. — Nicolaus  Bonet  (Bovet),  who  went  to 
Peking  and  died  as  Bishop  of  Malta  in  1360;  John 
Bacon,  Carmelite  (d.  1346). 

Fifteenth  Ccn^ur?/.— William  Butler  (d.  1410). — 
Petrus  de  Candia  (d.  1410  as  Pope  Alexander  V). 
— Nicolaus  de  Orbellis  (d.  about  1465),  who  wrote 
a  commentary  on  the  Sentences  (many  editions). — 
William  Vorilong  (Vorhon  etc.,  d.  1464),  a  celebrated 
theologian,  who  wrote  a  frequently  quoted  "Comm. 
super  Senlent.",  but  who  also  followed  St.  Bonaven- 
ture. — Angelufl  Serpetri,  General  of  the  Order  (d. 
1454). — William  Gorrifl  (about  1480),  not  a  Franciscan, 
who  composed  the  "Scotus  pauperum". — Blessed 
Angelus  of  Chivasso  (d.  1495),  whose  "Summa" 
(called  Angelica)  is  extant  in  about  thirty  editions, 
and  contains  a  great  deal  of  Scotist  doctrine;  it  was 
publicly  burned  by  Luther  with  the  "Corpus  juris 
canonici"  in  1520. — Antonius  Sirretus  (Sirectus,  d. 
about  1490),  famous  for  hiw  "Formalitates",  to  which 
several  later  Scotists  wrote  commentaries. — Tartare- 
tuB  (about  1495),  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
and  not  a  Franciscan;  Elector  Frederick  III  of  Saxony 


had  his  philosophical  commentaries  introduced  into 

the  University  of  Wittenberg  at  his  expense. — Thomas 
Pencket,  Augustinian  (d.  1487).  knew  Scotus  almost 
by  heart,  and  edited  his  works. — Francis  Sampson, 
General  of  the  Order  (d.  1491),  was  called  by  Pope 
Sixtus  IV,  before  whom  he  held  a  disputation,  the 
most  learned  of  all. — P>ancis  de  Rovere  (d.  1484  as 
Sixtus  IV),  who  defended  in  a  disputation  before  Pius 
II  and  also  in  his  writings  the  doctrine  that  the  blood 
shed  by  Christ  on  the  Cross  was  released  from  the 
hypostatic  union.— Stephen  Brulefer  (d.  about  1499), 
renowTied  professor  in  Paris  and  later  a  Franciscan, 
who  wrote  "Comm.  in  Bonavent.  et  Scotum"  (often 
edited). 

Sixteenth  Century. — This  period  is  very  rich  in 
names.  The  following  may  be  mentioned:  Paul 
Script  oris  (d.  1505),  professor  at  the  University  of 
Tubingen,  who  had  as  students  all  the  other  profes- 
sors and  many  other  members  of  religious  orders. — 
Nicholas  de  ISIusse  (d.  1.509). — Mauritius  a  Portu 
(d.  1513  as  Archbishop  of  Tuam,  Ireland),  who  wrote 
a  commentary  on  many  works  of  Scotus. — Francis 
Lichetus,  General  of  the  Order  (d.  1520). — Anthony 
Trombetta,  Archbishop  of  Athens  (d.  1518),  who 
wrote  and  edited  able  Scotist  works. — Philip  Vara- 
gius  (about  1510). — Johannes  de  Monte  (about 
1510). — Gometius  of  Lisbon  (d.  1513),  re-edited 
the  often  issued  fourteenth-century  "Summa  Aste- 
sana". — Frizzoli  (d.  1520). — James  Almainus  (about 
1520),  Parisian  magister  and  not  a  Franciscan,  fa- 
voured Gallicanism. — Antonius  de  Fantes,  physician, 
composed  in  1530  a  Scotus  lexicon. — Jerome  Cadius 
(d.  1529).— Le  Bret  (about  1527),  UTote  "Parvus 
Scotus". — Paduanus  Barletta  (about  1545). — James 
Bargius  (about  1560). — Johannes  Dovetus,  who 
wrote  in  1579  "  Monotesseron  formalitatum  Scoti, 
Sieretti,  Trombettae  et  Bruliferi". — Joseph  Angles, 
bishop  and  celebrated  moralist  (d.  1587),  wrote  the 
often  edited  "Flores  theol." — Damian  Giner  issued 
the  "Opus  Oxoniense  Scoti"  in  a  more  convenient 
form  (1598). — Cardinal  Sarnanus  (d.  1595),  a  highly 
distinguished  scholar,  wrote  a  commentary  on  some 
philosophical  works  of  Scotus,  and  edited  the  works 
of  many  Scotists. — Salvator  Bartolucci  (about  1586), 
also  a  zealous  editor. — Felix  Perettus  (d.  1590  as 
Sixtus  V). 

Seventeenth  Century. — Of  very  many  names  we  may 
mention:  Gothutius  (about  1605). — Guido  Bartho- 
lucci  (about  1610). — Petrus  Bonaventura  (about 
1607).— Ruitz  (about  1613).— Smissing  (d.  1626).— 
Philip  Faber  (d.  1630). — Albergonius.  bi.shop  (d. 
1636).— Centini,  bi.shop  (d.  1640).— Matthsus  de 
Sousa  (about  1629). — Merinero,  bishop  (about 
1663).— Francis  Felix  (about  1642).— Vulpes  (d. 
1647)  wrote  "Summa"  and  "Commen.  theologia; 
Scoti"  in  twelve  folio  volumes. — Blondus,  bishop  (d. 
1644).— Gavatius,  archbishop  (d.  1658).— Wadding 
(d.  1657),  a  well-known  annalist,  edited  with  other 
Irishmen  in  the  College  of  S.  Isidore  at  Rome  the  com- 
plete works  of  Scotus  (12  vols.,  Lyons,  1639),  with  the 
commentaries  of  Pitigianus  of  Arezzo  (d.  1616),  Pon- 
cius  (d.  1660),  Mauritius  a  Portu  (Mac  Caughwell), 
Archbishop  of  Armagh  and  Primate  of  Ireland  (d. 
1626),  and  Anthony  Hickey  (d.  1641);  reprinted  Paris, 
1891-95. — Bricemo,  named  on  account  of  his  keen- 
ness of  intellect  the  Second  Scotus,  Bi.shop  of  Vene- 
zuela (d.  1667).— Belluti  (d.  1676),  edited  with  Mas- 
trius  a  highly  prized  "Philosoi)hia  ad  mentem  Scoti" 
(many  editions). — Mastrius  himself  (d.  1673)  wrote 
a  celebrated  " Disputationes  theol."  (many  editions) 
and  "Theologia  ad  mentem  Scoti"  (1671,  etc.). — 
Ferchius  (d.  1666)  wrote  "Vita  et  apologia  Scoti, 
etc."— Bruodinus  (d.  1664).— Herinckx  (d.  1678), 
Bishop  of  Ypres.- Stumel  (d.  1681  at  Fulda).— Boi- 
vin,  highly-esteemed  philosopher  and  theologian 
(several  editions  of  works,  1678,  etc.). — Sannig  (about 
1690). — Lambrccht  (about  1696),  named  the  Viennese 


SCOTLAND 


613 


SCOTLAND 


Scotus. — Bishop  Gennari  (d.  1684). — Cardinal  Bran- 
catius  (d.  1693),  held  in  high  favour  by  several  popes. 
Hernandez  (d.  1695).— Macedo  (d.  1681),  a  Portu- 
guese, professor  at  Padua,  is  said  to  have  composed 
over  one  hundred  writings  and  was  renowned  for  his 
pubUc  disputations. 

Eighteenth  Century. — Frassen  (d.  1711)  was  for 
thirty  years  a  celebrated  professor  at  the  Sorbonne, 
and  wrote  "Scotus  academicus  seu  universa  theol. 
Scoti"  (many  editions,  1672,  etc.;  last  ed.,  Rome, 
1900 — ),  a  very  profound  and  lucid  work. — Du- 
randus  (d.  1720)  wrote  the  great  "  Clypeus  scotisticus" 
(many  editions). — Dupasquier,  "Summa  phil."  and 
"  Summa  theol."  (about  1720;  many  editions). 
Hieronymus  a  Montefortino,  "Duns  Scoti  Summa 
theol.  ex  universis  opp.  eius  .  .  .  juxta  ordinem 
Summae  Angelici  Doctoris"  (6  vols.,  1728-34;  new 
ed.,  Rome,  1900-03),  a  very  able  work. — Panger  (d. 
1732  at  Augsburg),  Scotist  moralist. — Kikh  (d.  1769 
at  Munich),  Scotist  dogmatic  theologian. — Perez  L6- 
pez  (d.  1724). — Krisper  (d.  1749). — Hermann,  Ab- 
bot of  St.  Trudbert,  "Theologia  sec.  Scoti  principia" 
(1720).— Melgaco  (1747).— Bishop  Sarmentero  (d. 
1775). 

Nineteenth  and  Twentieth  Centuries. — In  the  nine- 
teenth century,  although  Scotism  was  retained  in  the 
schools  of  the  Franciscan  Order  in  accordance  with 
the  statutes,  we  meet  but  few  tractates  secundum 
mentem  Scoti,  in  any  case  no  celebrated  ones.  The 
twentieth  century  appears  to  promise  better.  Father 
Ferndndez,  a  Spaniard,  is  a  zealous  Scotist.  Besides 
the  above-mentioned  writings,  he  has  written  a  large 
"Scotus  Lexicon",  and  is  at  present  (1911)  issuing  a 
new  edition  of  Scotus's  "Comment,  in  Sentent. " 
Another  zealous  worker  is  Father  Deodat-Marie  de 
Basley;  his  fortnightly  journal,  "  La  bonne  parole " 
(now  entitled  "Revue  Duns  Scot."),  contains  much 
Scotistica.  He  is  also  engaged  on  the  "Capitalia 
opera  B.  Joan.  Duns  Scoti"  (Le  Ha\Te,  1908) — , 
of  which  the  "Prseparatio  philosophica"  and  "Syn- 
thesis theologica  credendorum ' '  have  already  appeared. 
Father  Parthenius  Minges  has  explained  and  de- 
fended much  of  the  Scotist  doctrine  in  his  "Com- 
pend.  theolog.  dogmat.  specialis  et  generalis"  (Mu- 
nich, 1901-02),  and  in  a  number  of  other  works  (cf. 
Catholic  Encyclopedia,  V,  199). 

Wadding,  Scriptores  Ord.  Min.  (1806;  new  ed.,  Rome,  1906); 
also  Sbaralea,  Supplementum  (1806;  new  ed.,  Rome,  1908); 
HuRTER,  NomenclatoT  (190() — );  Werner,  Joh.  Duns  Scotus 
(Vienna,  1881);  Holzapfel,  Handbuch  der  Gesch.  des  Franz.- 
ordena  (Freiburg,  1909),  268  sqq. 

Parthenius  Minges. 

Scotland. — The  term  as  at  present  used  includes 
the  whole  northern  portion  of  the  Island  of  Great 
Britain,  which  is  divided  from  England  by  the  Cheviot 
Hills,  the  River  Tweed,  and  certain  smaller  streams. 
Its  total  area  is  about  20,000,000  acres,  or  something 
over  30,000  square  miles;  its  greatest  length  is  292 
miles,  and  greatest  breadth,  155  miles.  The  chief 
physical  feature  of  the  country  is  its  mountainous 
character,  there  being  no  extensive  areas  of  level 
ground,  as  in  England;  and  only  about  a  quarter  of 
the  total  acreage  is  cultivated.  The  principal  chain 
of  mountains  is  the  Grampian  range,  and  the  highest 
individual  hill  Ben  Nevis  (4406  feet).  Valuable  coal- 
fields extend  almost  uninterruptedly  from  east  to 
west,  on  both  banks  of  the  Rivers  Forth  and  Clyde. 
The  climate  is  considerably  colder  and  (except  on 
parts  of  the  east  coast)  wetter  than  that  of  England. 
The  part  of  Scotland  lying  beyond  the  Firths  of  Forth 
and  Clyde  was  known  to  the  Romans  as  Caledonia. 
The  Caledonians  came  later  to  be  called  Picts,  and 
the  country,  after  them,  Pictland.  The  name  of 
Scotland  came  into  use  in  the  eleventh  century,  when 
the  race  of  Scots,  originally  an  Irish  colony  which 
settled  in  the  western  Highlands,  attained  to  supreme 
power  in  the  country.     Scotland  was  an  independent 


kingdom  until  James  VI  succeeded  to  the  English 
Crown  in  1603;  and  it  continued  constitutionally 
separate  from  England  until  the  conclusion  of  the 
treaty  of  union  a  century  later.  It  still  retains  its  own 
Church  (see  Scotland,  Established  Church  of)  and 
its  own  form  of  legal  procedure;  and  the  character  of 
its  people  remains  in  many  respects  quite  distinct 
from  that  of  the  English.  Formerly  the  three  pre- 
vailing nationalities  of  the  country  were  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  in  the  south,  the  Celtic  in  the  north  and  west, 
and  the  Scandinavian  in  the  north-east ;  and  these  dis- 
tinctions can  stiU  be  traced  both  in  the  characteristics 
of  the  inhabitants  and  in  the  proper  names  of  places. 
The  total  population,  according  to  the  census  of  1911, 
is  4,759,521,  being  an  increase  of  287,418  in  the  past 
decade.  The  increase  is  almost  entirely  in  the  large 
cities  and  towns,  the  rural  population  of  almost 
every  county,  except  in  the  mining  districts,  having 
sensibly  diminished,  owing  to  emigration  and  other 
causes,  since  1901. 

The  history  of  Scotland  is  dealt  with  in  the  present 
article  chiefly  in  its  ecclesiastical  aspect,  and  as  such 
it  naturally  falls  into  three  great  divisions:  I.  The 
conversion  of  the  country  and  the  prevalence  of  the 
Celtic  monastic  church;  II.  The  gradual  introduction 
and  consolidation  of  the  diocesan  system,  and  the 
history  of  Scottish  Catholicism  down  to  the  religious 
revolution  of  the  sixteenth  century;  III.  The  post- 
Reformation  history  of  the  country,  particularly  in 
connexion  with  the  persecuted  remnant  of  Catholics, 
and  finally  the  religious  revival  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Under  these  three  several  heads,  therefore, 
the  .subject  will  be  treated. 

I.  First  Period:  Fourth  to  Eleventh  Century. 
— Nothing  certain  is  known  as  to  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  into  Scotland  prior  to  the  fourth  century. 
Tertullian,  writing  at  the  end  of  the  second,  speaks 
of  portions  of  Britain  which  the  Romans  had  never 
reached  being  by  that  time  "subject  to  Christ";  and 
early  Scots  historians  relate  that  Pope  Victor,  about 
A.  D.  203,  sent  missionaries  to  Scotland.  This  pope's 
name  is  singled  out  for  special  veneration  in  a  very 
early  Scottish  (Culdee)  litany,  which  gives  some  prob- 
ability to  the  legend;  but  the  earliest  indubitable 
evidence  of  the  religious  connexion  of  Scotland  with 
Rome  is  afforded  by  the  history  of  Ninian,  who,  born 
in  the  south-west  of  Scotland  about  360,  went  to 
study  at  Rome,  was  consecrated  bi.shop  by  Pope 
Siricius,  returned  to  his  native  country  about  402, 
and  built  at  Candida  Casa,  now  Whithorn,  the  first 
stone  church  in  Scotland.  He  also  founded  there  a 
famous  monastery,  whence  saints  and  missionaries 
went  out  to  preach,  not  only  through  the  whole  south 
of  Scotland,  but  also  in  Ireland.  Ninian  died  prob- 
ably in  432;  and  current  ecclesiastical  tradition  points 
to  St.  Palladius  as  having  been  his  successor  in  the 
work  of  evangelizing  Scotland.  Pope  Leo  XIII  cited 
this  tradition  in  his  Bull  restoring  the  Scottish  hier- 
archy in  1878;  but  there  are  many  anachronisms  and 
other  difficulties  in  the  long-accepted  story  of  St. . 
Palladius  and  his  immediate  followers,  and  it  is  even 
uncertain  whether  he  ever  set  foot  in  Scotland  at  all. 
If,  however,  his  mission  was  to  the  Scoti,  who  at  this 
period  inhabited  Ireland,  he  was  at  least  indirectly 
connected  with  the  conversion  of  Scotland  also;  for 
the  earliest  extant  chronicles  of  the  Picts  show  us  how 
close  was  the  connexion  between  the  Church  of  the 
southern  Picts  and  that  of  Ireland  founded  by  St. 
Patrick.  In  the  sixth  century  three  Irish  brother- 
chieftains  crossed  over  from  Ireland  and  founded  the 
little  Kingdom  of  Dalriada,  in  the  present  County  of 
Argyll,  which  was  ultimately  to  develop  into  the 
Kingdom  of  Scotland.  They  were  already  Christians, 
and  with  them  came  Irish  missionaries,  who  spread 
the  Faith  throughout  the  western  parts  of  the  country. 
The  north  was  still  pagan,  and  even  in  the  partly 
Christianized  districts  there  were  many  relapses  and 


SCOTLAND 


614 


SCOTLAND 


apostasies  which  called  for  a  stricter  system  of  organ- 
ization and  discipline  among  the  missionaries.  It 
was  thus  that,  drawing  her  inspiration  from  the  great 
monasteries  of  Ireland,  the  early  Scottish  Church 
entered  upon  the  monastic  period  of  her  history,  of 
which  the  first  and  the  greatest  light  was  Columba, 
Apostle  of  the  northern  Picts. 

The  monasterj'  of  lona,  where  Columba  settled  in 
563,  and  whence  he  carried  on  his  work  of  evangeliz- 
ing the  mainland  of  Scotland  for  thirty-four  years,  was, 
under  him  and  his  successors  in  the  abbatial  dignity, 
considered  the  mother-house  of  all  the  monasteries 
founded  b)'  him  in  Scotland  and  in  Ireland.  Bede 
mentions  that  lona  long  held  pre-eminence  over  all 
the  monasteries  of  the  Picts,  and  it  continued  in  fact, 
all  during  the  monastic  period  of  the  Scottish  Church, 
to  be  the  centre  of  the  Columban  jurisdiction.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  argue  the  point,  which  has  been  proved 
over  and  over  again  against  the  views  put  forward 
both  by  .AjigUcans  and  Presbyterians,  that  the 
Columban  church  was  no  isolated  fragment  of 
Christendom,  but  was  united  in  faith  and  worship  and 
spiritual  life  with  the  universal  Catholic  Church 
(see,  as  to  this,  Edmonds,  "The  Early  Scottish 
Church,  its  Doctrine  and  Discipline",  Edinburgh, 
1906).  Whilst  Columba  was  labouring  among  the 
northern  Picts,  another  apostle  was  raised  up  in  the 
person  of  St.  Kentigern,  to  work  among  the  British 
inhabitants  of  the  Ivingdom  of  Strathclyde,  extend- 
ing southward  from  the  Clyde  to  Cumberland. 
Kentigern  may  be  called  the  founder  of  the  Church 
of  Cumbria,  and  became  the  first  bishop  of  what  is 
now  Glasgow;  while  in  the  east  of  Scotland  Lothian 
honours  as  its  first  apostle  the  great  St.  Cuthbert, 
who  entered  the  monastery  of  Melrose  in  650,  and 
became  bishop,  with  his  see  at  Lindisfarne,  in  684. 
He  died  three  years  later;  and  less  than  thirty  years 
afterwards  the  monastic  period  of  the  Scottish  Church 
came  to  an  end,  the  monks  throughout  Pictland, 
most  of  whom  had  resisted  the  adoption  of  the  Roman 
observance  of  Easter,  being  expelled  by  the  Pictish 
king.  This  was  in  717;  and  almost  simultaneously 
with  the  disappearance  of  the  Columban  monks  we 
see  the  advent  to  Scotland  of  the  Deicolce,  Colidei, 
or  Culdees,  the  anchorite-clerics  sprung  from  those 
ascetics  who  had  devoted  themselves  to  the  service 
of  God  in  the  solitude  of  separate  cells,  and  had  in 
the  course  of  time  formed  themselves  into  communi- 
ties of  anchorites  or  hermits.  They  had  thirteen 
monasteries  in  Scotland,  and  together  with  the  secular 
clergy  who  were  now  introduced  into  the  country 
they  carried  on  the  work  of  evangelization  which  had 
been  done  by  the  Columban  communities  which  they 
succeeded. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  to  the  middle  of 
the  ninth  century  the  political  hLstory  of  Scotland, 
as  we  dimly  see  it  to-day,  consists  of  continual  fight- 
ing between  the  rival  races  of  Angles,  Picts,  and 
Scots,  varied  by  invasions  of  Danes  and  Norsemen, 
and  culminating  at  last  in  the  imion  of  the  Scots  of 
Dalriada  and  the  Pictish  peoples  into  one  kingdom 
under  Kenneth  Mac  Alpine  in  H44.  Ecclesiastically 
speaking,  the  most  important  result  of  this  union  was 
the  elevation  by  Kenneth  of  the  church  of  Dunkeld 
to  be  the  primatial  see  of  his  new  kingdom.  Soon, 
however,  the  primacy  was  transferred  to  Abernethy, 
and  some  forty  years  after  Kenneth's  accession  we 
find  the  first  definite  mention  of  the  "Scottish 
Church",  which  King  Grig  raised  from  a  position 
of  servitude  to  honourable  independence.  Grig's 
successors  were  styled  no  longer  Kings  of  the  Picts, 
but  Kings  of  Alban,  the  name  now  given  to  the  whole 
country  between  the  Forth  and  the  Spey;  and  under 
Constantine,  second  King  of  Alban,  was  held  in  908 
the  memorable  assembly  at  Scone,  in  which  the  king 
and  Cellafih,  Bishop  of  St.  y\ndrew8,  recognized  by  this 
time  as  primate  of  the  kingdom,  and  styled  Epscop 


Alban,  solemnly  swore  to  protect  the  discipline  of  the 
Faith  and  the  right  of  the  churches  and  the  Gospel. 
In  the  reign  of  Malcolm  I,  Constantine's  successor, 
the  district  of  Cumberland  was  ceded  to  the  Scottish 
Crowm  by  Edmund  of  England;  and  among  the  very 
scanty  notices  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  during  this 
period  we  find  the  foundation  of  the  church  of  Brechin, 
of  which  the  ancient  round  tower,  built  after  the  Irish 
model,  still  remains.  This  was  in  the  reign  of 
Kenneth  II  (971-995),  who  added  yet  another 
province  to  the  Scottish  Kingdom,  Lothian  being 
made  over  to  him  by  King  Edmund  of  England, 
lona  had  meanwhile,  in  consequence  of  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  Western  Isles  by  the  Norsemen,  been 
practically  cut  off  from  Scotland,  and  had  become 
ecclesiastically  dependent  on  Ireland.  It  suffered 
much  from  repeated  Danish  raids,  and  on  Christmas 
Eve,  986,  the  abbey  was  devastated,  and  the  abbot 
with  most  of  his  monks  put  to  death.  Not  many 
years  later  the  Norwegian  power  in  Scotland  received 
a  fatal  blow  by  the  death  of  Sigurd,  Earl  of  Orkney, 
the  Norwegian  provinces  on  the  mainland  passing 
into  the  possession  of  the  Scottish  Crown.     Malcolm 

II  was  now  on  the  throne,  and  it  was  during  his  thirty 
years'  reign  that  the  Kingdom  of  Alban  became  first 
known  as  Scotia,  from  the  dominant  race  to  which 
its  people  belonged.  With  Malcolm's  death  in  1034 
the  male  line  of  Kenneth  Mac  Alpine  was  extin- 
guished, and  he  was  succeeded  by  his  daughter's  son, 
Duncan,  who  after  a  short  and  inglorious  reign  was 
murdered  by  his  kinsman  and  princii^al  general, 
Macbeth.  Macbeth  wore  his  usurped  crown  for 
seventeen  years,  and  was  himself  slain  in  1057  by 
Malcolm,  Duncan's  son,  who  ascended  the  throne  as 
Malcolm  III.  It  is  worth  noting  that  Duncan's 
father  (who  married  the  daughter  of  Malcolm  II) 
was  Crinan,  lay  Abbot  of  Dunkeld;  for  this  fact  illus- 
trates one  of  the  great  evils  under  which  the  Scottish 
Church  was  at  this  time  labouring,  namely  the 
usurpation  of  abbeys  and  benefices  by  great  secular 
chieftains,  an  abuse  existing  side  by  side,  and  closely 
connected  with,  the  scandal  of  concubinage  among 
the  clergy,  with  its  inevitable  con.sequence,  the 
hereditary  succession  to  benefices,  and  wholesale 
secularization  of  the  property  of  the  Church.  These 
evils  were  indeed  rife  in  other  parts  of  Christendom; 
but  Scotland  was  especially  affected  by  them,  owing 
to  her  want  of  a  proper  ecclesiastical  constitution 
and  a  normal  ecclesiastical  government.  The  ac- 
cession, and  more  especially  the  marriage,  of  Malcolm 

III  were  events  destined  to  have  a  profound  influence 
on  the  fortunes  of  the  Scottish  Church,  and  indeed 
to  be  a  turning-point  in  her  history. 

II.  Second  Period:  Eleventh  to  Sixteenth 
Century. — The  Norman  Conquest  of  England 
could  not  fail  to  exercise  a  deep  and  lasting  effect 
also  on  the  northern  kingdom,  and  it  was  the  im- 
mediate cau.se  of  the  introduction  of  English  ideas 
and  English  civilization  into  Scothmd.  The  flight  to 
Scotland,  after  the  Battle  of  Hastings,  of  Edgar 
Ath(!ling,  heir  of  the  Saxon  Royal  hou.se,  with  his 
mother  and  his  sisters  Margaret  and  Christina,  w:is 
followed  at  no  distant  date  by  the  marriage  of  Mar- 
garet to  King  Malcolm,  as  his  second  wife.  A  great- 
niece  of  St.  Edward  the  Confessor,  Margaret,  whose 
personality  stands  out  clearly  before  us  in  the  pages 
of  her  biography  by  her  confessor  Turgot,  was  a 
woman  not  only  of  saintly  life  but  of  strong  character, 
who  exercised  the  strongest  influence  on  the  Scot- 
tish Church  and  kingdom,  as  well  as  on  the  members 
of  her  own  family.  The  character  of  Malcolm  III 
has  been  depicted  in  verj'  different  colours  by  the 
English  and  Scottish  chroniclers,  the  former  painting 
hiin  as  the  severe  and  merciless  invader  of  England, 
while  to  the  latter  he  is  a  noble  and  heroic  prince, 
called  Canmore  (Crann-mor—nrc^ai  head)  from  his 
high  kingly  qualities.     All  however  agree  that  the 


I 


SCOTLAND 


615 


SCOTLAND 


influence  of  his  holy  queen  was  the  best  and  strongest 
element  in  his  stormy  life.  Whilst  he  was  engaged 
in  strengthening  his  frontiers  and  fighting  the  enemies 
of  his  country,  Margaret  found  time,  amid  family 
duties  and  pious  exercises,  to  take  in  hand  the  reform 
of  certain  outstanding  abuses  in  the  Scottish  Church. 
In  such  matters  as  the  fast  of  Lent,  the  Easter  com- 
munion, the  observance  of  Sunday,  and  compliance 
with  the  Church's  marriage  laws,  she  succeeded,  with 
the  king's  support,  in  bringing  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land into  line  with  the  rest  of  Cathohc  Christendom. 
Malcolm  and  Margaret  rebuilt  the  venerable  monas- 
tery of  lona,  and  founded  churches  in  various  parts 
of  the  kingdom;  and  during  their  reign  the  Christian 
faith  was  established  in  the  islands  lying  off  the  north- 
ern and  western  coasts  of  Scotland,  inhabited  by 
Norsemen.  Malcolm  was  killed  in  Northumber- 
land in  1093,  whilst  leading  an  army  against  William 
Rufus;  and  his  saintly  queen,  already  dangerously 
ill,  followed  him  to  the  grave  a  few  days  later.  In 
the  same  year  as  the  king  and  queen  died  Fothad, 
the  last  of  the  native  bishops  of  Alban,  v/hose  ex- 
tinction opened  the  way  to  the  claim,  long  upheld, 
of  the  See  of  York  to  supremacy  over  the  Scottish 
Church— a  claim  rendered  more  tenable  by  the 
strong  Anglo-Norman  influence  which  had  taken  the 
place  of  that  of  Ireland,  and  by  the  absence  of  any 
organized  system  of  diocesan  jurisdiction  in  the 
Scottish  Church. 

Edgar,  one  of  Malcolm's  younger  sons,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  his  father's  crown  after  prolonged  conflict 
with  other  pretenders  to  it,  calls  himself  in  his  extant 
charters  "King  of  Scots",  but  he  speaks  of  his  sub- 
jects as  Scots  and  English,  surrounded  himself  with 
English  advisers,  acknowledged  William  of  England 
as  his  feudal  superior,  and  thus  did  much  to  strengthen 
the  English  influence  in  the  northern  kingdom.  Dur- 
ing his  ten  years'  reign  no  successor  was  appointed 
to  Fothad  in  the  primacy ;  but  at  his  death  (when  his 
brother  Alexander  succeeded  him  as  king,  the  younger 
brother  David  obtaining  dominion  over  Cumbria 
and  Lothian,  with  the  title  of  carl)  Turgot  became 
Bishop  of  St.  Andrews,  the  first  Norman  to  occupy 
the  primatial  see.  Alexander's  reign  was  signalized 
by  the  creation  of  two  additional  sees;  the  first  being 
that  of  Moray,  in  the  district  beyond  the  Spey,  where 
Scandinavian  influence  had  long  been  dominant. 
The  see  was  fixed  first  at  Spynie  and  later  at  Elgin, 
where  a  noble  cathedral  was  founded  in  the  thir- 
teenth century.  The  other  new  see  was  that  of 
Dunkeld,  which  had  already  been  the  seat  of  the 
primacy  under  Kenneth  Mac  Alpine,  but  had  fallen 
under  lay  abbots.  Here  Alexander  replaced  the 
Culdee  community  by  a  bishop  and  chapter  of  secular 
canons.  Elsewhere  also  he  introduced  regular  re- 
ligious orders  to  take  the  place  of  the  Culdees, 
founding  monasteries  of  canons  regular  (Augustinians) 
at  Scone  and  Loch  Tay. 

Even  more  than  Alexander,  his  brother  David, 
who  succeeded  him  in  1124,  and  who  had  been  edu- 
cated at  the  English  Court  (his  sister  Matilda  having 
married  Henry  I),  laboured  to  assimilate  the  social 
state  and  institutions  of  Scotland,  both  in  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  matters,  to  Anglo-Norman  ideas. 
His  reign  of  thirty  years,  on  the  whole  a  peaceful 
one,  is  memorable  in  the  extent  of  the  changes 
wrought  during  it  in  Scotland,  under  every  aspect 
of  the  life  of  the  people.  A  modern  historian  has 
said  that  at  no  period  of  her  history  has  Scotland 
ever  stood  relatively  so  high  in  the  scale  of  nations 
as  during  the  reign  of  this  excellent  monarch. 
Penetrated  with  the  spirit  of  feudalism,  and  rec- 
ognizing the  inadequacy  of  the  Celtic  institutions 
of  the  past  to  meet  the  growing  needs  of  his  people, 
David  extended  his  reforms  to  every  department 
of  civil  life;  but  it  is  with  the  energy  and  thorough- 
ness with  which  he  set  about  the  reorganization  and 


remodelling  of  the  national  church  that  his  name  will 
always  be  identified.  While  still  Earl  of  Cumbria 
and  Lothian  he  brought  Benedictine  monks  from 
France  to  Selkirk,  and  Augustinian  canons  to 
Jedburgh,  and  procured  the  restoration  of  the  ancient 
see  of  Glasgow,  originally  founded  by  St.  Kentigern. 
Five  other  bishoprics  he  founded  after  his  accession: 
Ross,  in  early  days  a  Columban  monastery,  and 
afterwards  served  by  Culdees,  who  were  now  suc- 
ceeded by  secular  canons;  Aberdeen,  where  there  had 
also  been  a  church  in  very  early  times;  Caithness, 
with  the  see  at  Dornoch,  in  Sutherland,  where  the 
former  Culdee  community  was  now  replaced  by  a 
full  chapter  of  ten  canons,  with  dean,  precentor, 
chancellor,  treasurer,  and  archdeacon;  Dunblane, 
and  Brechin,  founded  shortly  before  the  king's  death, 
and  both,  like  the  rest,  on  the  sites  of  ancient  Celtic 
churches.  The  great  abbeys  of  Dunfermline,  Holy- 
rood,  Jedburgh,  Kelso,  Kinloss,  Melrose,  and  Dun- 
drennan  were  all  established  by  him  for  Benedictines, 
Augustinians,  or  Cistercians,  besides  several  priories 
and  convents  of  nuns,  and  houses  belonging  to  the 
military  orders.  To  one  venerable  Celtic  monastery, 
founded  by  St.  Columba,  that  of  Deer,  we  find  David 
granting  a  charter  towards  the  end  of  his  reign;  but 
his  general  policy  was  to  suppress  the  ancient  Culdee 
establishments,  now  moribund  and  almost  extinct, 
and  supersede  them  by  his  new  religious  foundations. 
Side  by  side  with  this  came  the  complete  diocesan 
reorganization  of  the  Church,  the  erection  of  cathedral 
chapters  and  rural  deaneries,  and  the  reform  of  the 
Divine  service  on  the  model  of  that  prevailing  in  the 
English  Church,  the  use  of  the  ancient  Celtic  ritual 
being  almost  universally  discontinued  in  favour  of 
that  of  Salisbury.  Two  church  councils  were  held 
in  David's  reign,  both  presided  over  by  cardinal 
legates  from  Rome;  and  in  1150  took  place,  at  St. 
Andrews,  the  first  diocesan  synod  recorded  to  have 
been  held  in  Scotland.  David  died  in  1153,  leaving 
behind  him  the  reputation  of  a  saint  as  well  as  a  great 
king — a  reputation  which  has  been  endorsed,  with 
singular  unanimity,  alike  by  ancient  chroniclers  and 
the  most  impartial  of  modern  historians. 

David's  grandson  and  successor,  Malcolm  the 
Maiden,  was  crowned  at  Scone — the  first  occasion,  as 
far  a.s  we  know,  of  such  a  ceremony  taking  place  in 
Scotland.  His  piety  was  attested  by  his  many  reli- 
gious foundations,  including  the  famous  Abbey  of 
Paisley;  but  as  a  king  he  was  weak,  whereas  England 
was  at  that  time  ruled  by  the  strong  and  masterful 
Henry  II,  who  succeeded  in  wresting  from  Scotland 
the  three  northern  English  counties  which  had  been 
subject  to  David.  Malcolm  was  succeeded  in  1165 
by  his  brother  William  the  Lion,  whose  reign  of  close 
on  fifty  years  was  the  longest  in  Scottish  history.  It 
was  by  no  means  a  period  of  peace  for  the  Scottish 
realm;  for  in  1173  William,  in  a  vain  effort  to  recover 
his  lost  English  provinces,  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
only  released  on  binding  himself,  to  be  the  liegeman 
of  the  King  of  England,  and  to  do  him  homage  for 
his  whole  kingdom.  During  a  great  part  of  his  reign 
he  was  also  in  conflict  with  his  unruly  Celtic  subjects 
in  Galloway  and  elsewhere,  as  well  as  with  the  Norse- 
men of  Caithness.  The  Scottish  Church,  too,  was 
harassed  not  only  by  the  continual  claims  of  York  to 
jurisdiction  over  her,  but  by  the  English  king's  at- 
tempts to  bring  her  into  entire  subjection  to  the 
Church  of  England.  A  great  council  at  Northampton 
in  1176,  attended  by  both  monarchs,  a  papal  legate, 
and  the  principal  English  and  Scottish  bishops,  broke 
up  without  deciding  this  question;  and  a  special  legate 
sent  by  Pope  Alexander  III  to  England  and  Scotland 
shortly  afterwards  was  not  more  successful. 

It  was  not  until  twelve  years  later  that,  in  response 
to  a  deputation  specially  sent  to  Rome  by  William  to 
urge  a  settlement.  Pope  Clement  III  (in  March,  1188) 
declared  by  Bull  the  Scottish  Church,  with  its  nine 


SCOTLAND 


610 


SCOTLAND 


dioceses,  to  be  immediatelj'  subject  to  the  Apostolic 
See.  The  issue  of  this  Bull,  which  was  confirmed  by 
succeeding  popes,  was  followed,  on  William  subscribing 
handsomely  to  Richard  Ccuur  de  Lion's  crusading 
fund,  by  the  King  of  England  agreeing  to  abrogate 
the  huniihating  treaty  which  had  made  him  the  feudal 
superior  of  the  King  of  Scots,  and  formally  recogniz- 
ing the  temporal  as  well  as  the  spiritual  independence 
of  Scotland.  WiUiam's  reign,  Uke  that  of  its  pred- 
ecessors, was  prolific  in  religious  foundations,  the 
principal  being  the  great  Abbey  of  Arbroath,  a  memo- 
rial of  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury,  with  whom  the  king 
had  been  on  terms  of  personal  friendship.  Even  more 
noteworthy  was  the  establishment  of  a  Benedictine 
monastery  in  the  sacred  Isle  of  lona  by  Reginald,  Lord 
of  the  Isles,  whose  desire,  like  that  of  the  Scottish 
kings,  was  to  sujiersede  the  effete  Culdees  in  his 
domains  by  the  regular  orders  of  the  Church.  In  1200 
a  tenth  diocese  was  erected — that  of  Argyll,  cut  off 
from  Duukeld,  and  including  an  extensive  territory 
in  which  Gaelic  was 
(as  it  still  is)  almost 
exclusively  spoken. 
The  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  was  held  in 
Rome  in  1215.  the 
year  after  WiUiam's 
death,  under  the 
great  Pope  Innocent 
III,  and  was  at- 
tended by  four  Scot- 
tish bi.shops  and  ab- 
bots, and  procurators 
of  the  other  j^relates; 
and  we  find  the  ec- 
clesiastics of  Scot- 
land, as  of  other 
countries,  ordered  to 
contribute  a  twen- 
tieth part  of  their 
re\"enues  towards  a 
new  crusade,  and  a 
papal  legate  arriv- 
ing in  Scotland  .soon  afterwards  to  collect  the  money. 
In  122.5  the  Scottish  bishops  met  in  council  for  the 
first  time  without  the  presence  of  a  legate  from 
Rome,  electing  one  of  their  number,  as  directed  by 
a  papal  bull,  to  preside  over  the  assembly  with  quasi- 
metropolitan  authority  and  the  title  of  conservator. 
The  Scottish  kings  were  regularly  represented  at 
these  councils  by  two  doctors  of  laws,  specially  nomi- 
nated by  the  sovereign. 

The  thirteenth  century,  during  the  greater  part  of 
which  (1214-86)  the  second  and  third  Alexanders 
wore  the  crown  of  Scotland,  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
the  golden  age  of  that  country.  During  that  long 
period,  in  the  words  of  a  modern  poet,  "God  gave 
them  peace,  their  land  rcpo.se<l";  and  they  were  free 
U)  carry  on  the  work  of  consolidation  and  develop- 
ment so  well  begun  by  th<!  good  King  David.  Alex- 
ander II,  indeed,  when  still  a  youth  incurred  the  papal 
excommunication  by  espousing  the  cause  of  the  Eng- 
lish barons  against  King  .John,  but  when  he  had 
obtained  absolution  he  married  a  sister  of  Henry  III, 
and  so  secured  a  good  understanding  with  England. 
The  occasional  signs  of  unrest  among  .some  of  his 
Celtic  subjects  in  Argyll,  Moray,  and  Caithness  were 
met  and  checked  with  firmness  and  success;  and  this 
reign  witnessed  a  distinct  advance  in  the  industrial 
progress  of  the  realm,  the  king  devoting  special  at- 
tention to  the  improvement  of  agriculture.  Many 
now  religious  foundations  were  also  made  by  him,  in- 
cluding monasteries  at  Culross,  Pluscardine,  Beauly, 
and  Crossraguel ;  while  the  royal  favour  was  also  ex- 
tended to  the  new  orders  of  friars  which  were  spread- 
ing throupliout  lOurojje,  and  numerous  houses  were 
founded  by  him  both  for  Dominicans  and  Franciscans, 


t 

iM 

li 

•m 

l?i^{|p 

_^ 

^^1      -■ 

.    ^T^^'l 

The  Abbey,   Dunfermlini 


the  friars,  however,  remaining  under  the  control  of 
their  English  provincials  until  nearly  a  century  later, 
David  de  Bernham  of  St.  Andrews  and  Gilbert  of 
Caithness  were  among  the  distinguished  prelates  of 
this  time,  and  did  much  for  both  the  material  and 
the  religious  welfare  of  their  dioceses.  Alexander 
III,  who  succeeded  his  father  in  1249,  was  also  for- 
tunate in  the  excellent  bishops  who  governed  the 
Scottish  Church  during  his  reign,  and  he,  like  his  pred- 
ecessors, made  some  notable  religious  foundations, 
including  the  Cistercian  Abbey  of  Sweetheart,  and 
houses  of  Carmelite  and  Trinitarian  friars.  An  im- 
portant step  in  the  consolidation  of  the  kingdom  was 
the  annexation  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  the  Hebrid(\s,  ancl 
other  western  islands  to  the  Scottish  Crown,  pecvmiary 
compensation  being  paid  to  Norway,  and  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Trondhjem  retaining  ecclesiastical  juris- 
diction over  the  islands.  Nearly  all  the  Scottish 
bishops  attended  the  general  council  convoked  by  Greg- 
ory X  at  Lj'^ons  in  1274,  which,  among  other  measures 
levied  a  fresh  tax  on 
church  benefices  in 
aid  of  a  new  crusade. 
Boiamund,  a  Pied- 
montese  canon,  went 
to  Scotland  to  collect 
thesubsidj',  a.ssessing 
the  clergy  on  a  valu- 
ation known  as 
Boiamund's  Roll, 
wliioh  gave  great 
dissatisfaction,  but 
nevertheless  re- 
mained the  guide  to 
ecclesiastical  taxa- 
tion until  the  Refor- 
mation. With  the 
death  of  Alexander 
in  1286  the  male  line 
of  his  house  came  to 
an  end,  and  he  was 
succeeded  by  his 
youthful  gran  d- 
daughter    of    King    Eric    of 


daughter,     Margaret 
Norway. 

Edward  I,  the  powerful  and  ambitious  King  of 
England,  whose  hope  was  the  union  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Scotland  with  his  own,  immediately  began  nego- 
tiations for  the  marriage  of  Margaret  to  his  son.  The 
proposal  was  favourably  received  in  Scotland;  but 
while  the  eight-year-old  queen  was  on  her  way  from 
Norway,  she  died  in  Orkney,  and  the  realm  was  im- 
mediately divided  by  rival  claimants  to  the  throne, 
John  de  Baliol  and  Robert  Bruce,  both  descended  from 
a  brother  of  William  the  Lion.  King  Edward,  chosen 
as  umpire  in  the  dispute,  decided  in  favour  of  Baliol; 
and  relying  on  his  subservience  summoned  him  to  .sup- 
port him  when  he  d(>clared  war  on  France  in  1204.  The 
Scottish  parliament,  however,  entered  instead  into  an 
alliance  with  France  .against  iMigland,  who.se  incensed 
king  at  once  marched  into  Scotland  with  a  powerful 
army,  advanced  as  far  as  Perth,  dethroned  and  de- 
gradefl  B.-Uiol,  and  returned  to  England,  carrying  with 
him  from  Scone  the  coronation  ston(>  of  the  Scottish 
kings,  which  he  placed  in  Westminster  Abbey,  where 
it  still  rcimains.  The  interposition  of  Pope  Boniface 
VIII  procured  a  temporary  truce  between  the  two 
countries  in  1.300;  but  Edward  soon  renewed  his 
efforts  to  subdue  the  Scotch,  putting  to  death  the 
valiant  and  patriotic  William  Wallace,  and  leaving 
no  stone  unturned  to  carry  out  his  object.  He  died, 
however,  in  1.307;  and  Robert  Bruce  (grandson  of 
Baliol's  rival)  utterly  routed  the  Fnglisli  forces  at 
Bannockburn  in  1314,  and  secured  the  independence 
of  .Scotland.  After  long  negotiations  peace  was  con- 
cluded between  the  two  kingdoms,  and  ratified  by 
the  betrothal  of  Robert's  only  son  to  the  sister  of  the 


SCOTLAND 


617 


SCOTLAND 


King  of  England.  Robert  died  a  few  months  later, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  David  II,  out  of  whose 
reign  of  forty  years  ten  were  spent,  during  his  youth, 
in  France,  and  eleven  in  exile  in  England,  where  he 
was  taken  prisoner  when  invading  the  dominions  of 
Edward  III.  During  the  wars  .with  England,  and 
the  long  and  inglorious  reign  of  David,  the  church  and 
people  of  Scotland  suffered  alike.  Bishops  forgot 
their  sacred  character,  and  appeared  in  armour  at  the 
head  of  their  retainers;  the  state  of  religion  and  morals, 
both  of  clergy  and  laity,  was  far  from  satisfactory, 
and  contemporary  chronicles  were  full  of  lamenta- 
tions at  the  degeneracy  of  the  times.  Some  excellent 
bishops  there  were  during  the  fourteenth  century, 
notably  Eraser  and  Lamberton  of  St.  Andrews,  the 
former  of  whom  was  chosen  one  of  the  regents  of 
the  kingdom,  while  Lamberton  completed  the  noble 
cathedral  of  St.  Andrews.  Bishop  David  of  Moray, 
a  zealous  patron  of  learning,  is  honoured  as  the  virtual 
founder  of  the  historic  Scots  College  in  Paris.  A  proof 
that  religious  zeal  was  still  warm  is  afforded  by  the 
first  foundation  in  Scotland,  at  Dunbar,  of  a  collegiate 
church,  in  1342,  precursor  of  some  forty  other  estab- 
lishments of  the  same  kind  founded  before  the 
Reformation. 

David  II  died  childless,  and  the  first  of  the  long 
line  of  Stuart  kings  now  ascended  the  throne  in  the 
person  of  Robert,  son  of  Marjorie  (daughter  of  Rob- 
ert Bruce)  and  the  High  Steward.  During  Robert's 
reign  of  nineteen  years  there  was  almost  continual 
warfare  with  the  English  on  the  Border,  France  on 
one  occasion  sending  a  force  to  help  her  Scottish  ally 
against  their  common  enemy.  Robert  was  succeeded 
in  1390  by  his  son  Robert  III,  in  whose  reign  Scotland 
suffered  more  from  its  own  turbulent  barons  than 
from  foreign  foes.  Robert,  Duke  of  Albany,  the 
king's  brother,  himself  wielded  almost  royal  power, 
imprisoned  and  (it  was  said)  starved  to  death  the 
heir-apparent  to  the  throne;  and  when  the  king  died 
in  140(5,  leaving  his  surviving  son  James  a  prisoner 
in  England,  Albany  got  him.self  appointed  regent,  and 
did  his  best  to  prevent  the  new  king's  return  to 
Scotland.  The  years  of  Albany's  dictatorship,  which 
coincided  with  the  general  unrest  in  Christendom  due 
to  a  disputed  papal  election,  were  not  prosperous  ones 
for  the  Scottish  Church.  Spiritual  authority  was 
weakened,  and  the  encroachments  of  the  State  on  the 
Church  became  increasingly  serious.  A  collection  of 
synodal  statutes  of  St.  Andrews,  however,  of  this  date 
which  has  come  down  to  us  shows  that  serious  efforts 
were  being  made  by  the  church  authorities  to  cope 
with  the  evils  of  the  time;  and  the  long  alliance  with 
France  of  course  brought  the  French  and  Scottish 
churches  into  a  close  connexion  which  was  in  many 
ways  advantageous,  although  one  effect  of  it  was  that 
Scotland,  like  France,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  anti- 
popes  against  the  rightful  pontiffs.  The  young  king, 
James  I,  was  at  length  released  from  England  in  1424, 
after  twenty  years'  captivity,  returned  to  his  realm, 
was  crowned  at  Scone,  and  immediately  showed  him- 
self a  strong  and  gifted  monarch.  He  condemned 
Albany  and  his  two  sons  to  death  for  high  treason, 
took  vigorous  steps  to  improve  and  encourage  com- 
merce and  trade,  and  evinced  the  greatest  interest 
in  the  welfare  of  religion  and  the  prosperity  of  the 
Church.  The  Parliament  of  1425  directed  a  strict 
inquisition  into  the  spread  of  Lollardism  or  other 
heresies,  and  the  punishment  of  those  who  dissemi- 
nated them;  and  James  also  personally  urged  the 
heads  of  the  religious  orders  in  his  realm  to  see  to  a 
stricter  observance  of  their  rule  and  discipline.  The 
king  sent  eight  high  Scottish  ecclesiastics  to  Basle  to 
attend  the  general  council  there;  but  in  the  midst  of 
his  plans  of  reform  he  was  assassinated  at  Perth  in 
February,  1436. 

King  James's  solicitude  as  to  the  spread  of  heresj'' 
in  Scotland  was  not  without  cause;  for  early  in  his 


reign  preachers  of  the  Wyclifite  errors  had  come  from 
England,  prominent  among  them  being  John  Resby, 
who  was  sentenced  to  death  and  suffered  at  Perth  in 
1407.  The  Scottish  Parliament  passed  a  special  act 
against  Lollardism  in  1425;  and  Paul  Crawar,  an 
emissary  from  the  Hussites  of  Bohemia,  who  appeared 
in  Scotland  on  a  proselytizing  mission  in  1433,  suffered 
the  same  fate  as  Resby.  An  oath  to  defend  the 
Church  against  Lollardism  was  taken  by  all  graduates 
of  the  new  University  of  St.  Andrews,  the  foundation 
of  which  was  a  notable  event  of  this  reign.  It  was 
formally  confirmed  in  1414  by  Pedro  de  Luna,  recog- 
nized by  the  Scottish  Church  at  that  time  as  Pope 
Benedict  XIII.  Scotland  was  the  la.st  state  in  Chris- 
tendom to  adhere  to  the  antipope,  and  only  in  1418 
declared  her  allegiance  to  the  rightful  pontiff,  Martin 
V.  The  year  before  his  death  James  received  a  visit 
from  the  learned  and  distinguished  iEneas  Sylvius 
Piccolomini,  who  afterwards  became  Pope  Pius  II, 
About  the  same  time  the  new  Diocese  of  the  Isles 
was  erected,  being  severed  from  that  of  Argyll;  and 
the  bishops  of  the  new  see  fixed  their  residence  at 
lona. 

The  new  king,  James  II,  had  a  long  minority,  dur- 
ing which  there  were  constant  feuds  among  his  nobles ; 
but  he  developed  at  manhood  into  a  firm  and  prudent 
ruler,  and  he  was  fortunate  in  having  as  an  adviser 
Bishop  Kennedy  of  St.  Andrews,  one  of  the  wisest  and 
best  prelates  who  ever  adorned  that  see.  James's 
early  death,  owing  to  an  accident,  in  1460,  was  doubly 
unfortunate,  as  his  son  and  successor  James  III  was 
a  prince  of  far  weaker  character,  unable  to  cope  with 
the  turbulent  barons,  some  of  whom  broke  out  into 
open  revolt,  seducing  the  youthful  heir  to  the  throne 
to  join  them.  Active  hostilities  followed,  and  James 
was  murdered  by  a  trooper  of  the  insurgent  army  in 
1488.  The  disturbances  of  his  reign  had  their  effect 
on  the  Scottish  Church,  in  which  abuses,  such  as  the 
intrusion  of  laymen  into  ecclestiastical  positions,  the 
deprival  suffered  by  cathedral  and  monastic  bodies 
of  their  canonical  rights,  and  the  baneful  system  of 
commendatory  abbots,  flourished  almost  unchecked. 
New  religious  foundations  there  were,  chiefly  of  the 
orders  of  friars;  and  the  diocesan  development  of  the 
Church  was  completed  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  See 
of  Galloway  from  the  jurisdiction  of  York,  and  those 
of  Orkney  and  the  Isles  from  Norway.  This  act  of 
consolidation  formed  part  of  the  provisions  of  an 
important  Bull  of  Sixtus  IV,  dated  1472,  erecting  the 
See  of  St.  Andrews  into  an  archbishopric  and  metro- 
politan church  for  the  whole  realm,  with  twelve 
suffragan  sees  dependent  on  it.  York  and  Trondh- 
jem,  of  course,  protested  against  the  change;  but  it 
seemed  to  be  equally  unwelcome  in  Scotland.  The 
new  metropolitan,  Archbishop  Graham,  found  king, 
clergy,  and  people  all  against  him ;  he  was  assailed  by 
various  serious  charges,  and  finally  deprived  of  his 
dignities,  degraded  from  his  orders,  and  sentenced  to 
lifelong  imprisonment  in  a  monastery.  His  suc- 
ce.ssor  in  the  archbishopric,  William  Sheves,  obtained 
a  Bull  from  Innocent  VIII  appointing  him  primate  of 
all  Scotland  and  legalus  natus,  with  the  same  privi- 
leges as  those  enjoyed  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. 

The  protest  of  the  See  of  Glasgow  was  followed  by  a 
Bull  exempting  that  see  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
primate;  but  in  1489  a  law  was  passed  declaring  the 
necessity  of  Glasgow's  being  erected  into  an  arch- 
bishopric. In  1492  the  pope  created  the  new  arch- 
bishopric, assigning  to  it  as  suffragans  the  Sees  of 
Dunkeld,  Dunblane,  Galloway,  and  Argyll.  Two 
years  later  we  hear  of  the  arrest  and  trial  of  a  num- 
ber of  Lollards  in  the  new  archdiocese;  but  they 
seem  to  have  escaped  with  an  admonition.  From 
1497  to  1513  the  primatial  see  was  occupied  succes- 
sively by  a  brother  and  a  natural  son  of  King 
James  IV.     The  latter,  who  was  nominated  to  the 


SCOTLAND 


618 


SCOTLAND 


primacy  when  only  sixteen,  fell  with  his  royal  father 
and  the  flower  of  the  Scottish  nobility  at  Flodden  in 
1513.  Foreman,  who  succeeded  him  as  archbishop, 
was  an  able  and  zealous  prelate;  but  by  far  the  most 
distinguished  Scottish  bishop  at  this  period  was  the 
learned  and  holy  William  Elphinstone,  Bishop  of 
Aberdeen  14S3-1514,  and  founder  of  Aberdeen  Uni- 
versity in  1494. 

In  1525  the  Lutheran  opinions  seem  first  to  have 
appeared  in  Scotland,  the  parliament  of  that  year 
passing  an  act   forbidding   the   importation   of   Lu- 
theran books.     James  V  was  a  staunch  son  of  the 
Church,  and  wrote  to  Pope  Clement  VII  in  1526, 
protesting  his  determination  to  resist  every  form  of 
heresy.     Patrick  Hamilton,  a  commendatory  abbot 
and  connected  with  the  royal  house,  was  tried  and 
condemned  for  teaching  false  doctrine,  and  burned 
at  St.  Andrews  in  152S:   but  his  death,  which  Knox 
claims  to  have  been  the  starting-point  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  Scotland,  certainly  did  not  stop  the  spread- 
ing of  the  new  opin- 
ions.    James,  whilst 
showing  himself  zeal- 
ous for  the  reform  of 
ecclesiastical   abuses 
in  his  realm,  resisted 
all  the  efforts  of  his 
uncle  Henry  VIII  of 
England  to  draw  him 
over  to  the  new  re- 
ligion.     He  married 
the  only  daughter  of 
the  King  of   France 
in    1537,    much    to 
Henry's  chagrin;  but 
his  young  wife  died 
within  three  months. 
Meanwhile  his  king- 
dom    was      divided 
into    two    opposing 
parties — one,  includ- 
ing many  nobles,  the 
queen-mother  (sister 

of  Henry  VIII),  and  the  religiously  disaffected  among 
his  subjects,  secretly  supporting  Henry's  schemes  and 
the  advance  of  the  new  opinions;  the  other,  compris- 
ing the  powerful  and  wealthy  clergy,  several  peers 
of  high  rank,  and  the  great  mass  of  his  still  Catho- 
lic and  loyal  subjects.  Severe  measures  continued 
against  the  disseminators  of  Lutheranism,  many  suffer- 
ing death  or  banishment;  and  there  were  not  wanting 
able  and  patriotic  counsellors  to  stand  by  the  king, 
notable  among  them  being  David  Beaton,  whom  we 
find  in  France  negotiating  for  the  marriage  of  Jamea 
to  Mary  of  Guise  in  1537,  and  himself  uniting  the 
royal  pair  at  St.  Andrews.  Beaton  became  cardinal 
in  1538  and  Primate  of  Scotland  a  few  weeks  later, 
on  the  death  of  his  uncle  James  Beaton,  and  found 
hims^ilf  the  object  of  Henry  VIII's  jealoasy  and  ani- 
mosity, as  the  greatest  obstacle  to  that  monarch's 
plans  and  hopes.  Henry's  anger  culminated  on  the 
bestfjwal  by  the  pope  on  th(!  King  of  Scots  of  the 
very  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith  which  he  had  him- 
self received  from  Leo  X;  open  hostilities  broke  out, 
and  shortly  after  the  disastrous  rout  of  the  Scotch 
forces  at  Solway  Moss  in  1542  James  V  died  at  Falk- 
land, leaving  a  baby  daughter,  Mary  Stuart,  to  in- 
herit his  crown  and  the  government  of  his  distracted 
country. 

James  V's  death  was  immediately  followed  by  new  ac- 
tivity on  the  part  of  the  Protestant  party.  The  Regent 
Arran  openly  favoured  the  new  doctrines,  and  many 
of  the  Scotti.sh  nol>les  bound  themselves,  for  a  money 
payment  from  Henry  VIII,  to  acknowledge  him  jih 
lord  paramount  of  Scotland.  Beaton  was  impris- 
oned, a  step  which  resulted  in  Scotland  being  placed 


under  an  interdict  by  the  pope,  whereupon  the  peo- 
ple, still  in  great  part  Catholic,  insisted  on  the  car- 
dinal's release.  Henrj-  now  connived  at,  if  he  did 
not  actually  originate,  a  plan  for  the  assassination 
of  Beaton,  in  which  George  Wishart,  a  conspicuous 
Protestant  preacher,  was  also  mixed  up.  Wishart 
was  tried  for  heresy  and  burned  at  St.  Andrews  in 
1546,  and  two  months  later  Beaton  was  murdered  in 
the  same  city.  Arran,  who  had  meanwhile  reverted 
to  Catholicism,  wrote  to  the  pope  deploring  Beaton's 
death,  and  asking  for  a  subsidy  towards  the  war  with 
England.  The  Protestants  held  the  Castle  of  St. 
Andrews,  among  them  being  John  Knox;  and  the 
fortress  was  only  recovered  by  the  aid  of  a  French 
squadron.  Disaffection  and  treachery  were  rife 
among  the  nobles,  and  the  English  Protector  Somer- 
set, secure  of  their  support,  led  an  English  army  over 
the  border,  and  defeated  the  Scottish  forces  with 
great  loss  at  Pinkie  in  1547. 

A  few  months  later  the  young  queen  was  sent  by 
her  mother,  Mary 
of  Guise,  to  France, 
which  remained  her 
home  for  thirteen 
years.  The  French 
allianceenabled  Scot- 
land to  drive  back 
her  English  invaders ; 
peace  was  declareil 
in  1550,  and  Mary  of 
Guise  was  appointed 
regent  in  succession 
to  the  weak  and 
vacillating  Arran, 
entering  on  office 
just  as  a  Catholic 
queen,  Mary  Tudor, 
was  ascending  the 
English  throne.  Ar- 
ran's  half-brother, 
John  Hamilton,  suc- 
ScoNE  Pal.\ce  ceeded     Beaton     Jis 

Archbishop  of  St. 
Andrews,  James  Beaton  soon  after  being  appointed  to 
Glasgow,  while  the  See  of  Orkney  was  held  by  the  pious, 
learned,  and  able  Robert  Reid,  the  virtual  founder 
of  Edinburgh  University.  The  primate  convoked  a 
provincial  national  council  in  Edinburgh  in  1549,  at 
which  sixty  ecclesiastics  were  present.  A  series  of 
important  canons  was  passed  at  this  council,  as  well 
as  at  a  subsequent  on(>  assembled  in  1552,  one  result 
being  the  publication  in  the  latter  year  of  a  catechism 
intended  for  the  instruction  of  the  clergy  as  well  as 
of  their  flocks.  From  1547  to  1555  John  Knox  was 
preaching  Protestantism  in  England,  Geneva,  and 
P>ankfort,  and  the  new  doctrines  made  little  head- 
way in  Scotland.  In  1555,  however,  he  returned  to 
Edinburgh,  and  started  his  crusade  against  the  an- 
cient Faith,  meeting  with  little  molestation  from  the 
authorities.  He  went  back  to  Geneva  in  the  follow- 
ing year;  but  his  Scottish  friends  and  supporters, 
emboldened  by  his  (^xliort.Uions,  subscribed  in  De- 
cember, 1557,  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  for 
the  express  object  of  the  overt  lirow  of  the  old  religion. 
Angered  by  the  execution  of  Waller  Myine  for  her(>,sy 
in  155S,  the  lords  of  the  Congregation  (as  the  Prot- 
estant party  was  now  styled)  demanded  of  the  Queen 
Regent  authorization  for  i>ublic  Protestant  service. 
Mary  laid  the  petition  before  a  provincial  council 
which  met  in  1559,  and  which,  whih^  declining  to  give 
way  to  the  Protestant  demands,  j).isse(l  many  excel- 
lent and  salutary  enactments,  chitifly  directed  against 
the  numerous  and  crying  abuses  wliich  had  too  long 
b(»en  rampant  in  theScottish  Church.  But  no  con- 
ciliar  decrees  could  avert  th(!  storm  al)out  to  burst 
over  the  realm. 


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SCOTLAND 


619 


SCOTLAND 


Knox  returned  to  Scotland  in  1559,  and  inaugu- 
rated the  work  of  destruction  by  a  violent  sermon 
which  he  preached  at  Perth.  There  and  elsewhere 
churches  and  monasteries  were  attacked  and  sacked. 
Troops  arrived  from  France  to  assist  the  regent  in 
quelling  the  insurgent  Protestants,  while  in  April, 
1560,  the  English  forces,  despatched  by  Elizabeth, 
invaded  Scotland  both  by  land  and  sea  in  support  of 
the  Congregation.  The  desecration  and  destruction 
of  churches  and  abbeys  went  on  apace;  and  in 
the  midst  of  these  scenes  of  strife  and  violence  oc- 
curred the  death  of  the  queen  regent,  in  June,  1560. 
Less  than  a  month  later,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
at  Edinburgh,  the  King  and  Queen  of  Scots  (Mary 
had  married  in  1558  Francis,  Dauphin  of  France), 
granting  various  concession  to  the  Scottish  nobles  and 
people.  In  pursuance  of  one  of  the  articles  of  the 
treaty,  the  parliament  assembled  on  1  August,  though 
without  any  writ  of  summons  from  the  sovereign. 
Although  the  treaty  had  specially  provided  that  the 
religious  question  at  issue  should  be  remitted  to  the 
king  and  queen  for  settlement,  the  assemblage  voted 
for  the  adoption,  as  the  state  religion,  of  the  Prot- 
estant Confession  of  Faith;  four  prelates  and  five 
temporal  peers  alone  dissenting.  Three  further 
statutes  respectively  abolished  papal  jurisdiction  in 
Scotland,  repealed  all  former  statutes  in  favour  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  and  made  it  a  penal  offence,  pun- 
ishable by  death  on  the  third  conviction,  either  to 
say  or  to  hear  Mass.  All  leases  of  church  lands 
granted  by  ecclesiastics  subsequent  to  March,  1558, 
were  declared  null  and  void;  and  thus  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  old  religion  in  Scotland,  as  far  as  the  hand 
of  man  could  destroy  it,  was  complete.  No  time  or 
opportunity  was  given  to  the  Church  to  carry  out 
that  reform  of  prevalent  abuses  which  was  fore- 
shadowed in  the  decrees  of  her  latest  councils.  As 
in  England  the  greed  of  a  tyrannical  king,  so  in  Scot- 
land the  cupidity  of  a  mercenary  nobility,  itching 
to  possess  themselves  of  the  Church's  accumulated 
wealth,  consummated  a  work  which  even  Protestant 
historians  have  described  as  one  of  revolution  rather 
than  of  reformation. 

III.  Thikd  Period:  Sixteenth  Century  to  the 
Present  Day. — It  does  not  belong  to  this  article 
to  trace  the  development  of  the  doctrines  and  disci- 
pline of  the  new  religion  which  supplanted  Catholicism 
in  Scotland  in  1560  (see  Scotland,  E.stablished 
Church  of).  The  aim  of  the  Reformers  was  to 
stamp  out  every  outward  vestige  of  the  ancient  Faith 
before  the  return  of  the  Catholic  queen,  now  a  widow; 
and  the  demolition  of  churches  and  monasteries  con- 
tined  unabated  during  1561.  In  August  of  that  year 
Mary  arrived  in  Edinburgh,  and  was  warmly  wel- 
comed by  her  subjects;  but  it  was  only  with  the 
greatest  difficulty  that  she  obtained  toleration  for 
herself  and  her  attendants  to  practise  their  religion, 
anti-Catholic  riots  being  of  frequent  occurrence.  The 
few  Catholic  nobles,  mostly  belonging  to  the  north, 
found  themselves  more  and  more  withdrawn  from 
Catholic  life,  while  the  prelates  and  clergy  were  in 
constant  personal  danger.  Some  champions  of  the 
Faith  there  still  were,  notably  Ninian  Winzet  and 
Quintin  Kennedy,  ready  to  risk  life  and  liberty  in 
the  public  defence  of  their  Faith;  and  Mary  herself 
did  all  in  her  power  to  cultivate  close  relations  with 
the  Holy  See.  Her  ambassador  in  France  was  Arch- 
bishop Beaton  of  Glasgow.  Pope  Pius  IV  sent  her 
the  Golden  Rose  in  1561,  and  dispatched  Nicholas  of 
Gouda,  a  Jesuit,  as  nuncio  to  Scotland  in  the  same 
year.  Only  one  bishop  ventured  to  receive  the  papal 
envoy,  who  sent  to  Rome  a  pitiful  report  of  the  re- 
ligious condition  of  Scotland.  Mary's  marriage  to 
Darnley,  a  Catholic  noble,  who  was  proclaimed  King 
of  Scots,  afforded  a  fresh  pretext  to  the  disaffected 
P*rotestant  lords  to  intrigue  against  the  throne;   and 


headed  by  Moray,  the  queen's  own  half-brother,  they 
openly  revolted  against  her.  Their  armed  rising  was 
unsuccessful,  but  their  murderous  plots  continued, 
and  Rizzio,  Mary's  confidential  secretary,  and  her 
husband  Darnley  were  both  murdered  within  lesa 
than  ayear's  interval.  Theseizureof  Mary's  person  by 
Bothwell,  her  husband's  assassin,  and  her  subsequent 
marriage  to  him,  belong  to  her  personal  history. 

A  month  after  her  marriage  Mary  was  imprisoned 
by  her  traitorous  subjects  at  Lochleven,  and  a  few 
weeks  later,  in  July,  1567,  she  was  forced  to  sign 
her  abdication,  and  virtually  ceased  to  be  Queen  of 
Scotland.  Her  baby  son,  James  VI,  was  hurriedly 
crowned  at  Stirhng,  and  in  August,  Moray,  now 
regent,  returned  to  Scotland  from  Paris,  where  he 
had  been  in  communication  with  the  French  Protes- 
tant leaders.  The  penal  laws  against  Catholics  were 
now  enforced  with  fresh  severity,  the  Bishop  of 
Dunblane  and  many  other  ecclesiastics  being  heavily 
fined,  and  in  some  cases  outlawed  for  exercising  their 
ministry.  Moray's  first  parliament  renewed  and 
ratified  all  the  ecclesiastical  enactments  of  1560; 
but  his  efforts  to  conclude  an  alliance  with  England 
and  with  France  were  alike  unsuccessful.  He  was  also 
confronted  with  a  strong  body  of  nobles  adherent  to 
the  cause  of  Mary,  who  by  their  aid  escaped  from  her 
prison;  but  in  May,  1568,  her  forces  were  defeated  by 
those  of  the  regent  at  Langside,  and  the  unfortunate 
queen  fled  over  the  border  to  English  soil,  which  she 
was  not  to  quit  till  her  tragic  death  nineteen  years 
later.  The  regent,  after  the  abortive  conferences 
at  York  and  Westminster  dealing  with  the  charges 
against  his  sister,  returned  to  Scotland,  and  con- 
tinued, with  the  support  of  the  general  assembly 
of  the  Kirk,  his  severe  measures  against  the  Catholics. 
Every  indignity  short  of  death  was  inflicted  on  the 
priests  who  were  apprehended  in  various  parts  of  the 
kingdom;  but  whilst  intriguing  to  obtain  possession 
of  the  queen's  person,  Moray  was  suddenly  himself 
cut  off  by  the  bullet  of  an  assassin.  Lennox,  who 
succeeded  him  as  regent,  proved  a  vigorous  antago- 
nist of  Mary's  adherents;  and  one  of  the  foremost 
of  these.  Archbishop  Hamilton,  was  hanged  at  Stir- 
ling after  a  mock  trial  lasting  three  days.  Robert 
Hay,  chosen  to  succeed  him  by  the  few  remaining 
members  of  the  chapter,  was  never  consecrated,  and 
the  primatial  see  remained  unoccupied  by  a  Catholic 
prelate  for  upwards  of  three  centuries.  Mar  suc- 
ceeded Lennox  as  regent,  and  Morton  followed  Mar, 
being  chosen  on  the  very  day  of  John  Knox's  death 
(24  Nov.,  1572).  The  iron  hand  of  both  pressed 
heavily  on  the  Catholics,  and  we  find  the  Privy 
Council  publishing  in  1574  a  list  of  outlaws,  including 
several  bishops,  any  dealing  with  whom  is  forbidden 
under  pain  of  death.  All  Papists  cited  before  the 
civil  tribunals  are  to  be  required  to  renounce  their 
religion,  subscribe  to  Presbyterianism,  and  receive  the 
Protestant  communion.  The  persecution  at  home 
had  had  the  effect  of  driving  many  distinguished 
Scottish  Catholics  to  the  continent.  Paris  had  been 
since  1560  the  residence  of  Archbishop  Beaton  of 
Glasgow,  and  of  the  able  and  learned  Bishop  John 
Leslie  of  Ross,  both  devoted  friends  and  counsellors 
of  Queen  Mary. 

The  hopes  that  the  young  King  James,  who  had 
been  baptized  and  crowned  with  Catholic  rites, 
might  grow  up  in  the  religion  of  his  ancestors,  were 
destroyed  by  his  signing  in  1581  a  formal  profession 
of  his  adherence  to  Protestantism  and  detestation 
of  Popery.  This  did  not  prevent  him  from  entering 
into  personal  communication  later  with  Pope  Gregory 
XIII,  when  he  thought  his  throne  in  danger  from  the 
ambition  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  promised  at  the 
same  time  conciliatory  measures  towards  his  Catholic 
subjects,  and  affected  solicitude  for  his  unfortunate 
mother;  but  he  never  made  any  practical  efforts  to 


SCOTLAND 


620 


SCOTLAND 


obtain  her  release,  and  her  cruel  death  in  15S6  seemed 
to  leave  him  singularly  callous,  though  he  attempted 
to  appease  the  Catholic  nobles,  in  their  deep  indigna- 
tion at  Marj-'s  execution,  by  restoring  Bishop  Leslie 
of  Ross  to  his  former  dignities,  and  appointing  Arch- 
bishop Beaton  liis  ambassador  in  France.  There  was 
at  this  time  a  distinct  reaction  in  favour  of  CathoUcism 
in  Scotland,  and  a  number  of  missionaries,  both  secular 
and  rehgious,  were  labouring  for  the  preservation  of 
the  Faith.  The  Kirk,  of  course,  took  alarm,  and  urged 
on  the  king  the  adoption  of  the  severest  measures  for 
the  suppression  of  every  vestige  of  Catholicism. 
James  himself  headed  an  armed  expedition  against 
the  disaffected  Cathohc  nobles  of  the  north  in  1594, 
and  after  one  severe  rebuff  put  Huntly  and  ErroU, 
the  Catholic  leaders,  to  flight.  They  left  Scotland 
forever  in  1595,  and  thenceforward  Catholicism,  as 
a  poUtical  force  to  be  reckoned  with,  may  be  said 
to  have  been  extinct  in  Scotland.  A  large  propor- 
tion of  the  people,  however,  still  clung  tenaciously 
to  their  ancient  beliefs,  and  strenuous  efforts  were 
made,  in  the  closing  years  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
to  pro\-ide  for  the  spiritual  wants  of  what  was  now 
a  missionar>'  country.  In  1576  Dr.  James  ChejTie 
had  founded  a  college  to  educate  clergy  for  the 
Scotch  Mission,  at  Toumai;  and  after  being  trans- 
ferred to  Pont-a-Mousson.  Douai,  and  Louvain,  it 
was  finally  fixed  at  Douai.  The  Scots  College  at 
Rome  was  founded  by  Pope  Clement  VIII  in  1600; 
and  there  was  also  a  Scots  College  in  Paris,  dating 
from  1325.  while  the  Scots  abbeys  at  Ratisbon  and 
Wiirzburg  likewise  became  after  the  Reformation  the 
nurserj'  of  Scottish  missionaries. 

In  1598  the  secular  clergy  in  Scotland  were  placed 
under  the  jurischction  of  George  Blackwell,  the  newly- 
appointed  archpriest  for  England.  Many  devoted 
Jesuits  were  labouring  in  Scotland  at  this  time,  not- 
ably Fathers  Creighton,  Gordon,  Hay,  and  Aber- 
cromby,  of  whom  the  last  received  into  the  Cathohc 
Church  Anne  of  Denmark,  the  queen  of  James  VI, 
probably  in  1600,  and  made  other  distinguished 
converts.  James's  succession  to  the  Crown  of 
England  in  1603,  on  the  death  of  Queen  Ehzabeth, 
gave  him  much  new  occupation  in  regulating  ecclesias- 
tical matters  in  his  new  kingdom,  and  also  in  intro- 
ducing, in  the  teeth  of  bitter  opposition,  the  Epis- 
copalian system  into  Scotland.  Pope  Clement  wrote 
to  the  king  in  1603,  urging  him  to  be  lenient  and 
generous  towards  his  Catholic  subjects,  and  after 
long  delay  received  a  ci\al  but  vaguely-worded  reply. 
James's  real  sentiments,  however,  were  shown  by  his 
immediately  afterwards  decreeing  the  banishment 
of  all  priests  from  the  kingdom,  and  returning  to  the 
pope  the  presents  sent  to  his  Catholic  queen.  The 
remainder  of  his  reign,  as  far  as  his  Catholic  subjects 
were  concerned,  was  simply  a  record  of  confiscation, 
imprisonment,  and  banishment,  inflicted  on  all 
classes  impartially;  and  one  devoted  missionary, 
John  Ogilvie,  suffered  death  for  his  Faith  at  Glas- 
gow in  1615.  The  negotiations  for  the  marriage  of 
James's  heir,  first  to  a  daughter  of  Spain,  and  then 
to  Henrietta  Maria  of  France,  occasioned  a  good  deal 
of  communication  between  Rome  and  the  English 
Court,  but  brought  about  no  relaxation  in  the  penal 
laws.  In  1623  William  Bishop  was  appointed  vicai 
Apostohc  for  England  and  Scotland;  but  the  Scotch 
CathohcB  were  afterwards  withdrawn  from  his 
jurisdiction,  and  subjected  to  their  own  missionary 
prefects.  James  VI  died  in  1625,  after  a  reign  which 
had  brought  only  calamity  and  suffering  to  the 
Catholics  of  his  native  land. 

The  thirty-five  years  which  elapsed  between  the 
Buccession  of  Charles  I  and  the  restoration  of  hie  son 
Charles  II,  after  eleven  years  of  Republican  govern- 
ment, were  perhaps  the  darkest  in  the  whole  nistory 
of  Scottish  Catholicism.     Charles  I  sanctioned  the 


ruthless  execution  of  the  penal  statutes,  perhaps 
hoping  thus  to  reconcile  the  Presbyterians  to  his 
unwelcome  liturgical  innovations;  and  his  policy 
was  continued  by  Cromwell,  apparently  out  of  pure 
hatred  of  the  Cathohc  rehgion.  Every  effort  was 
made  to  extirpate  Catholicism  by  the  education  of 
the  children  of  Catholics  in  Protestant  tenets;  and 
the  imprisonment  and  petty  persecution  of  the  ven- 
erable Countess  of  Abercorn  showed  that  neither 
age  nor  the  highest  rank  was  any  protection  to  the 
detested  Papists.  Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  whom 
Pope  Urban  VIII  urged  to  intervene  on  behalf  of 
the  Scotch  Catholics,  was  powerless  to  help  them, 
though  a  few  instances  of  personal  clemency  on  the 
part  of  Charles  may  be  attributable  to  her  influence. 
Meanwhile  the  Presbyterians  laboured  to  destroy 
not  only  what  was  left  of  the  shrines  and  other 
buildings  of  Cathohc  times,  but  to  uproot  every 
Catholic  observance  which  still  survived.  In  the 
height  of  the  persecution  we  find  steps  taken  in  Rome 
to  improve  the  organization  of  the  Catholic  body 
in  Scotland;  and  in  1653  the  scattered  clergy  were 
incorporated  under  William  Ballantyne  as  prefect 
of  the  mission.  They  numbered  only  five  or  six 
at  that  date,  the  missionaries  belonging  to  the  re- 
ligious orders  being  considerably  more  numerous, 
and  including  Jesuits,  Benedictines,  Franciscans,  and 
Lazarists.  Missionaries  from  Ireland  were  also 
labouring  on  the  Scotch  mission,  and  a  college  for 
the  education  of  Scots  clergy  had  been  opened  at 
Madrid  in  1633,  and  was  afterwards  moved  to  Val- 
ladolid,  where  it  still  flourishes. 

Charles  II,  who  succeeded  his  father  in  1660,  was 
undoubtedly  well-disposed  personally  towards  Catho- 
lics and  their  Faith;  but  his  Catholic  subjects  in 
Scotland  enjoyed  little  more  indulgence  under  the 
episcopate  restored  by  him  in  that  country  than  they 
had  done  under  the  Presbyterians.  The  odious  sep- 
aration of  children  from  their  parents  for  religious 
reasons  continued  unabated;  and  in  the  districts 
of  Aberdeenshire  especially,  where  Catholics  were 
numerous,  they  were  treated  as  rigorously  as  ever. 
We  have  detailed  reports  of  this  period  both  from  the 
prefect  of  the  clergy,  Winster,  and  from  Alexander 
Leslie,  sent  by  Propaganda  in  1677  as  Visitor  to  the 
Scottish  mission.  Their  view  of  the  religious  situa- 
tion was  far  from  encouraging;  but  fresh  hopes  were 
raised  among  the  Catholics  eight  years  later  by  the 
accession  of  a  Catholic  king,  James  II,  who  at  once 
suspended  the  execution  of  the  penal  laws,  declaring 
himself  in  favour  of  complete  liberty  of  conscience. 
He  opened  a  Catholic  school  at  Holyrood,  restored 
Catholic  worship  in  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  gave 
annual  grants  to  the  Scots  Colleges  abroad  and  to 
the  secular  and  regular  missionaries  at  home.  But 
the  Catholics  had  hardly  time  to  enjoy  this  respite 
from  persecution,  when  their  hopes  were  dashed  by 
the  Revolution  of  1()88,  which  drove  James  from 
the  throne.  William  of  Orange,  notwithstanding  his 
promises  of  toleration,  did  nothing  to  check  the  fanat- 
ical fury  which  now  assailed  the  Catholics  of  England 
and  Scotland.  The  scattered  clergy  of  the  north 
found  themselves  in  a  more  difficult  position  than 
ever;  and  this  perhaps  induced  Pope  Innocent  XII 
in  1694  to  nominate  a  vicar  Apostolic  for  Scotland  in 
the  person  of  Bishop  Thomas  Nicholson.  His  de- 
voted labours  are  manifest  from  the  reports  which 
he  addressed  to  Propaganda;  but  neither  during  the 
reign  of  William  and  Mary,  nor  of  Anne,  who  suc- 
ceeded in  1702,  was  there  the  slightest  relaxation  in  the 
penal  laws  or  their  application.  The  Union  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  in  1707  made  no  change  in  this 
respect;  and  the  first  Jacobite  rising,  in  1715,  en- 
tailed fresh  sufferings  on  the  Scottish  CathoUcs,  who 
were  so  virulently  persecuted  that  they  seemed  in 
danger  of  total  annihilation. 


SCOTLAND 

SHOWING  THE  BOUNDARIES  OF  THE 
ECCLESIASTICAL  PROVINCES  AND  DIOCESES 
Eccl.  Prov.  of  St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh 

I.  Archdiocese  of  St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh 
II.  Diocese  of  Aberdeen 

III.  Diocese  of  Arpyl!  and  the  Isles 

IV.  Diocese  of  Dunkeld 
V.  Diocese  of  Galloway 

I  I  Archdiocese  of  Glasgow 

T    Seat  of  Archbishopric 
-¥-  Former  Seat  of  Archbishopric  now 

united  with  another  See 
T     Seat  of  Bishopric 


COPVRIOMT,    181S,  Br  ROBERT  APPLETON 


SCOTLAND 


621 


SCOTLAND 


Bishop  Nicholson  had  obtained  the  s-  ■  ■'^ioes  of  a 
coadjutor,  James  Gordon,  in  1705,  and  tl  -  devotion 
of  the  two  prelates  to  their  difficult  duties  was  un- 
bounded. In  spite  of  the  penal  laws,  Catholics 
were  still  numerous  in  the  North  and  West  speaking 
chiefly  the  Gaelic  language;  and  in  1726  it  was  de- 
cided to  appoint  a  second  vicar  Apostolic  for  the  High- 
lands, Hugh  Macdonald  being  chosen.  During  his 
vicariate  occurred  the  ill-fated  rising  of  Charles 
Edward  Stuart,  the  final  failure  of  which,  consequent 
on  the  disastrous  battle  of  CuUoden,  brought  fresh 
calamities  on  the  Highland  Cathohcs.  The  High- 
land clans  were  proscribed  and  dispersed,  more  than 
a  thousand  persons  were  deported  to  America,  Catholic 
chapels  were  destroyed,  and  priests  and  people  pros- 
ecuted with  the  utmost  severity.  To  the  suffering 
of  the  Catholics  under  the  first  two  Georges  from  their 
enemies  without,  was  added  the  misfortune  of  dis- 
sensions within  the  fold.  Regular  and  secular  mis- 
sionaries were  at  variance  on  the  question  of  juris- 
diction; and  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  the 
Scottish  Church  at  this  period  was  tainted  with  the 
poison  of  Jansenism,  the  Scots  College  in  Paris  being 
especially  affected.  Every  means  was  taken  by  the 
Holy  See  to  secure  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Scottish 
clergy,  who  continued  however  for  many  years  to  be 
divided  into  the  so-called  liberal  party,  trained  in 
France,  and  the  more  strictly  Roman  section,  for  the 
most  part  alumni  of  the  Scots  College  at  Rome. 
By  far  the  most  prominent  of  the  latter  was  the  illus- 
trious Bishop  George  Hay,  the  chief  ecclesiastical 
figure  in  the  history  of  Scottish  Cathohcism  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Bishop  Hay's  life  has  been  dealt  with  elsewhere, 
and  it  will  suffice  to  say  here  that  his  episcopate  lasted 
from  within  a  few  years  of  the  accession  of  George 
III  almost  to  the  close  of  the  long  reign  of  that 
monarch.  He  saw  the  fanatical  outburst  caused  in 
Scotland  by  the  English  CathoUc  Relief  Bill  of  1777, 
when  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  were  the  scenes  of 
outrage  and  pillage  worthy  of  the  blackest  days  of  the 
penal  laws;  and  he  also  saw  in  1793  the  Catholics  of 
Scotland  released  by  Parliament  from  the  most  op- 
pressive of  those  laws,  though  still  liable  to  many 
disabilities.  He  did  much  to  improve  the  condition 
and  status  of  the  Scots  Colleges  in  Paris  and  Rome, 
which  from  various  causes  had  fallen  into  a  very  un- 
satisfactory state;  and  his  devotional  and  contro- 
versial writings  won  him  repute  beyond  the  limits 
of  Scotland.  During  his  long  vicariate  the  Scottish 
Catholics,  whose  numbers  had  greatly  fallen  after 
the  disastrous  Jacobite  rising  of  1745,  only  very 
gradually  increased.  They  numbered  probably  .some 
25,000  souls  in  1780;  and  of  these,  it  was  stated,  not 
more  than  twenty  possessed  land  worth  a  hundred 
pounds  a  year.  In  1800,  seven  years  after  the  pass- 
ing of  the  Relief  Bill,  the  faithful  were  estimated  to 
number  30,000,  ministered  to  by  three  bishops  and 
forty  priests,  with  twelve  churches.  Six  or  seven  of 
the  priests  were  emigres  from  France.  With  the 
cessation  of  active  persecution,  a  good  many  new 
churches  were  erected  throughout  the  country,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  Catholic  population  was  aug- 
mented by  a  large  influx  of  Irish.  In  1827  Pope  Leo 
XII  added  a  new  vicariate  to  the  Scottish  mission, 
which  was  now  divided  into  the  Eastern,  Western, 
and  Northern  Districts.  By  this  time  the  Catho- 
lic population  had  increased  to  70,000,  including 
fifty  priests,  with  over  thirty  churches  and  about 
twenty  schools.  The  concession  to  Catholics  of  civil 
and  political  liberty  by  the  Emancipation  Act  of 
1829  was  preceded  and  followed  in  Scotland,  as 
in  England,  by  disgraceful  exhibitions  of  bigotry 
and  intolerance,  although  many  prominent  Scots- 
men, including  Sir  Walter  Scott,  were  entirely  in  its 
favour. 


The  immediate  result  of  the  salutary  measure  of 
1829  was  the  rapid  extension  and  development  of  the 
Church  in  Scotland.  A  new  ecclestiastical  seminary 
was,  by  the  generosity  of  a  benefactor,  established  at 
Blairs,  near  Aberdeen :  the  first  convent  of  nuns  since 
the  Reformation  was  founded  in  1832,  in  Edinburgh; 
and  in  Glasgow  alone  the  number  of  Catholics 
mounted  up  from  a  few  scores  to  24,000.  Prominent 
among  the  bishops  of  Scotland  during  the  first  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  was  James  Gillis,  who  was 
nominated  as  coadjutor  for  the  Eastern  District  in 
1837,  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Victoria, 
and  laboured  indefatigably  as  administrator  and 
preacher  for  nearly  thirty  years.  The  wave  of  con- 
versions from  Anglicanism  which  originated  in  the 
Tractarian  movement  in  the  Church  of  England  was 
felt  also  in  Scotland,  where  several  notable  converts 
were  received  during  Bishop  Gillis's  episcopate,  and 
several  handsome  churches  were  built,  and  new 
missions  established,  through  their  instrumentality. 
Many  new  schools  were  also  erected,  and  more  than 
one  convent  founded,  under  the  zealous  prelate,  and 
in  the  Western  District  the  progress  of  Catholicism 
was  not  less  remarkable.  Bishop  Andrew  Scott,  who 
was  appointed  to  the  mission  of  Glasgow  in  1805 
and  died  as  vicar  Apostolic  in  1846,  saw  during  the 
interval  the  Glasgow  Catholics  increase  from  one 
thousand  to  seventy  thousand  souls;  and  his  suc- 
cessors. Bishops  Murdoch  and  Gray,  were  witnesses  of 
a  similar  increase,  and  did  much  to  multiply  churches, 
missions,  schools,  and  Catholic  institutions  through- 
out the  vicariate.  While  in  the  sparsely-inhabited 
region  included  in  the  Northern  Vicariate  there  was 
not,  during  this  period,  the  same  remarkable  numer- 
ical increase  in  the  faithful  as  in  the  more  populous 
parts  of  Scotland,  the  work  of  organization  and  de- 
velopment there  also  went  on  steadily  and  continu- 
ously. 

During  the  thirty  years'  pontificate  of  Piua  IX  the 
question  as  to  the  advisability  of  restoring  to  Scot- 
land her  regular  hierarchy  was  from  time  to  time 
brought  forward;  but  it  was  not  until  the  very  close 
of  his  reign  that  this  important  measure  was  practi- 
cally decided  on  at  Rome,  partly  as  the  result  of  the 
report  of  Archbishop  Manning,  as  Apostolic  Visitor 
to  the  Scottish  Church,  on  certain  grave  dissensions 
between  Irish  and  Scottish  Catholics  which  had  long 
existed  in  the  Glasgow  district.  Pius  IX  did  not  live 
to  carry  out  his  intention;  but  the  very  first  official 
act  of  his  successor  Leo  XIII  was  to  re-erect  the 
Scottish  hierarchy  by  his  Bull  "Ex  Supremo  Aposto- 
latus  apice",  dated  4  March,  1878.  Thus  re-estab- 
lished, the  hierarchy  was  to  consist  of  two  arch- 
bishoprics: St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh,  with  the 
four  suffragan  sees  of  Aberdeen,  Argyll  and  the  Isles, 
Dunkeld,  and  Galloway;  and  Glasgow,  without 
suffragans.  The  exotic  religious  body  styled  the 
Scottish  Episcopal  Church  immediately  published  a 
protest  against  the  adoption  of  the  ancient  titles  for 
the  newly-erected  sees;  but  the  papal  act  roused  no 
hostile  feeling  in  the  country  at  large,  and  was  gen- 
erally and  sensibly  recognized  as  one  which  concerned 
no  one  except  the  members  of  the  Catholic  body. 
They  on  their  side  welcomed  with  loyal  gratitude  a 
measure  which  restored  to  the  Church  in  Scotland 
the  full  and  normal  hierarchical  organization  which 
properly  belongs  to  her,  and  which  might  be  expected 
to  have  the  same  consoling  results  as  have  followed  a 
similar  act  in  England,  Holland,  Australia,  and  the 
United  States. 

If  the  "second  spring"  of  Catholicism  in  Scotland 
has  been  less  fruitful  and  less  remarkable  than  in  the 
countries  just  named,  Scottish  Catholics  have  never- 
theless much  to  be  thankful  for,  looking  back  through 
the  past  thirty  years  to  what  has  been  done  in  the 
way  of  growth,  development,  better  equipment,  and 
more  perfect  organization.     Between  1878  and  1911 


SCOTLAND 


622 


SCOTLAND 


the  number  of  priests,  secular  and  regular,  working 
in  Scotland  has  increased  from  257  to  555;  of  churches, 
chapels,  and  stations,  from  255  to  394;  of  congrega- 
tional schools  from  157  to  213,  of  monasteries  from 
13  to  26,  and  of  convents  from  21  to  58.  The  Catho- 
lic population,  reckoned  to  number  in  1878  about 
380,000  souls,  has  increased  to  fully  520,000.  Of 
these  only  some  25,000,  including  the  Gaelic-speaking 
inhabitants  of  the  Western  Highlands  and  islands,  and 
of  the  Diocese  of  Aberdeen,  are  of  purely  Scottish 
descent,  the  other  dioceses  comprising  a  compara- 
tively small  number  of  Catholics  of  Scottish  blood. 
The  rest  of  the  Catholics  of  Scotland,  including  at 
least  375,000  people  in  the  single  Archdiocese  of  Glas- 
gow, are  either  themselves  entirely  Irish  by  birth  and 
race,  or  descended  from  recent  immigrants  from 
Ireland  into  Scotland.  Glasgow  also  harbours,  of 
course,  a  considerable  but  fluctuating  body  of  for- 
eign Catholics;  and  a  certain  number  of  Catholic 
Poles  and  Lithuanians  are  always  employed  in  the 
coal-fields  and  iron-works  of  central  Scotland.  But 
it  would  probablj'  be  within  the  mark  to  estimate 
the  Irish  element  in  the  Catholic  population  north 
of  the  Tweed  as  amounting  to  between  90  and  95 
per  cent  of  the  whole;  and  its  tendency  is  to  increase 
rather  than  to  diminish. 

The  education  of  clergy  for  the  Scottish  mission  is 
carried  on  at  Blairs  College,  Aberdeen  (number  of 
students,  80);  at  St.  Peter's  College,  near  Glasgow 
(32),  and  at  the  Scots  Colleges  at  Rome  (33),  and  at 
Valladohd  (14).  There  are  also  a  few  Scottish  stu- 
dents at  the  College  of  Propaganda  at  Rome;  and  20 
more,  on  French  foundation-burses,  were  being  edu- 
cated in  1911  at  the  Ecole  super ieure  de  Theologie 
at  the  College  of  Issy,  near  Paris.  Good  secondary 
schools  for  boys  are  conducted  by  the  Jesuits  at  Glas- 
gow, and  by  the  Marist  Brothers  at  Glasgow  and 
DuEofries;  and  there  are  excellently  equipped  board- 
ing-schools for  girls  at  Aberdeen,  Edinburgh,  and 
elsewhere,  under  religious  of  various  orders.  The 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  are  in  charge  of  a  fine  train- 
ing-college for  teachers  just  outside  Glasgow;  and  a 
hospital  at  Lanark  is  managed  by  the  Sisters  of 
Charity,  as  well  as  a  large  orphanage  for  destitute 
children.  The  Nuns  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  the 
Sisters  of  Nazareth,  and  the  Little  Sisters  of  the 
Poor  carry  on  their  works  of  charity  and  benefi- 
cence with  zeal  and  success,  being  largely  helped  by 
kindly  Protestants;  and  many  Protestant  parents 
entrust  their  children's  education  to  the  teaching 
orders  of  the  Catholic  Church.  In  the  larger  centres 
of  population  there  is  still  a  good  deal  of  sectarian 
bitterness,  fomented  of  cour.se  by  the  members  of 
Orange  and  similar  scjcieties;  but  on  the  whole  re- 
ligious animosities  have  greatly  died  down  in  recent 
times,  and  in  those  districts  of  the  Highlands  where 
Catholics  are  rao.st  numerous,  they  live  as  a  rule  on 
terms  of  perfect  amity  with  their  Presbyterian  neigh- 
bours. 

The  public  elementary  schools  of  Scotland  are  con- 
trolled and  managed  by  the  school  boards  elected 
by  the  rate-payers  of  each  parish;  and  Government 
grants  of  money  are  made  annually  not  only  to  these 
schools,  but  also  to  other  schools  (including  those 
under  Catholic  management)  which,  in  the  words  of 
the  Act  of  Parliament  of  1872,  are  "efficiently  con- 
tributing to  the  secular  education  of  the  parish  or 
burgh  in  which  they  are  situated".  The  amount  of 
the  grant  is  conditional  on  the  attendance  and  pro- 
ficiency of  the  scholars,  the  qualifications  of  the 
teachers,  and  the  state  of  the  schools;  and  the  schools 
are  liable  to  be  inspected  at  any  time  by  inspectors 
appointed  by  the  Crown  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  Scotch  Education  Department,  and  empowered 
to  ascertain  that  the  conditions  necessary  for  obtain- 
ing the  government  grant  have  been  fulfilled.  No 
grant  is  made  in  respect  of  religious  instruction;   but 


such  instruction  is  sanctioned  and  provided  for  in  the 
code  regulating  the  scheme  of  school  work,  parents 
being,  however,  at  liberty  to  withdraw  their  children 
from  it  if  they  please.  No  complete  statistics  arc- 
available  as  to  the  total  number  of  children  in  the 
Cathohc  elementary  schools;  but  in  the  Archdiocese 
of  Glasgow  and  the  Diocese  of  Galloway,  which  to- 
gether comprise  fully  four-fifths  of  the  Catholic  popu- 
lation of  the  country,  66,482  children  were  presented 
in  1910  for  religious  examination.  Besides  the  ele- 
mentary schools,  what  are  known  as  "higher  grade 
schools"  also  receive  government  grants  in  propor- 
tion to  their  efficiency,  special  additional  grants  being 
made  to  such  schools  in  the  six  Highland  counties. 

With  regard  to  the  legal  disabilities  under  which 
Scottish  Catholics  still  lie,  notwithstanding  the 
Emancipation  Act  of  1829,  it  is  unnecessary,  as  the 
provisions  of  that  act  apply  to  Scotland  equally  with 
England,  to  do  more  than  refer  to  the  article  Eng- 
land (part  II:  England  since  the  Reformation). 
The  only  specifically  Scottish  office  from  which  Catho- 
lics are  debarred  by  statute  is  that  of  Lord  High 
Commissioner  to  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Es- 
tablished Church — an  office  which  no  Catholic,  of 
course,  would  desire  to  hold.  The  clauses  in  the  Act 
of  1829  providing  for  the  "gradual  suppression  and 
final  prohibition"  of  religious  orders  of  men  have  in 
practice  remained  a  dead  letter;  but  they  have  in 
Scotland,  as  in  England,  the  effect  of  seriously  re- 
stricting the  tenure  and  disposition  of  their  property 
by  religious  communities.  All  trusts  and  bequests 
in  favour  of  religious  orders  are  void  in  law;  and  the 
members  of  such  orders  can  hold  property  only  as 
individuals.  The  English  statutes  (of  Henry  VIII 
and  Edward  VI)  invalidating  bequests  made  to  ob- 
tain prayers  and  Masses,  on  the  ground  that  these 
are  "superstitious  uses",  do  not  apply  either  to  Ire- 
land or  to  Scotland;  and  it  is  probable  the  Scottish 
courts  would  recognize  the  validity  of  such  bequests, 
as  the  Irish  Courts  undoubtedly  do.  (See  Lilly  and 
Wallis's  "  Manual  of  the  Law  specially  affecting  Catho- 
lics ",  London,  1893.) 

I.  Celtic  Period:  Innes,  Critical  Essay  on  the  Ancient  In- 
habitants of  Scotland  (London,  1729);  Skene,  Celtic  Scotland 
(Edinburgh,  1876-80) ;  Idem,  Chronicles  of  the  Picts  and  Scots 
(Edinburgh,  1861);  Logan,  The  Scottish  Gael  (Inverness,  a.  d.); 
Anderson,  Scotland  in  Early  Christian  Times  (Edinburgh,  1881); 
Wilson,  Archceology  and  Prehistoric  Annals  of  Scotland  (Edin- 
burgh, 1851);  Cameron,  Reliquice  Celticce  (Inverness,  1892); 
Maclaqan,  Religio  Scotica  (Edinburgh,  1909);  Edmonds,  The 
Early  Scottish  Church,  its  Doctrine  and  Discipline  (Edinburgh, 
1906);  DowDEN,  The  Celtic  Church  in  Scotland  (London,  1894); 
Leal,  The  Christian  Faith  in  Early  Scolla}id  (London,  1885). 
II.  Middle  Ages:  Fordun  (with  Bower's  continuation),  Scoti- 
c/ironicoM,  ed.  GooDALL  (Edinburgh,  1759);  Leslie,  De  Origine, 
moribus,  et  rebus  gestis  Scotorum  (Rome,  1678);  Sinclair, 
Statistical  Account  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1791);  Theiner, 
Vetera  monumenta  Hibernorum  atque  Scotorum  historiam  illus- 
trantia,  1210-1547  (Rome,  1864);  Walcott,  The  Ancient  Church 
of  Scotland  (London,  1874) ;  Wyntoun,  Orygynale  Chronykil 
of  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1872-79) ;  Concilia  Scotia:  (Edinburgh, 
1866) ;  Gordon,  Scolichronicon  (including  Keith's  Catalogue 
of  Scottish  Bishops  (Glasgow,  1867);  Innes,  Sketches  of  Early 
Scotch  History  (Edinburgh,  1861);  the  publications  of  the 
Scottish  Text  Society  (Edinburgh)  are  of  great  value;  and  many 
episcopal  registers  and  cartularies  of  the  Scottish  abbeys  have 
been  printed  by  the  Bannatyne,  Maitland,  Spottiswoode,  and 
other  societies.  III.  General,  including  modern,  history:  Bur- 
ton, Hist,  of  Scotland  to  1740  (Edinburgh,  1876);  Tytler, 
I/ist.  of  Scotland,  to  the  Union  (Edinburgh,  1879);  Lano,  History 
of  Scotland,  to  1745  (Edinburgh,  1900-07);  Hume  Brown, 
Hist,  of  Scotland  (Cambridge,  1902);  Bellesheim,  Hist,  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1887-90),  vol.  IV  has 
valuable  appendices,  with  reports  to  Propaganda  on  the  state  of 
Scottish  Catholics  under  the  penal  laws;  Grub,  Ecclesiastical 
Hist,  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1861)  from  an  episcopalian  point 
of  view,  but  impartially  written;  Walsh,  Hist,  of  the  Catholic 
Church  of  Scotland  (Glasgow,  1874),  a  useful  compilation; 
P'orbes-Leith,  Narratives  of  Scottish  Catholics  under  Mary 
Stuart  and  James  VI  (Edinburgh,  1885);  Idem,  Memoirs  of 
Scottish  Catholics,  17th  and  18lh  centuries  (London,  1909);  Daw- 
son, The  Catholics  of  Scotland,  1693-18M  (London,  1890). 

D.  O.  Hunter-Blair. 

Scottish  Literature. — Literature  in  Scotland 
may  be  said  to  take  its  beginning  with  the  Life  of  St. 
Coiumba  written  by  Cuimine,  or  Cuminius,  who  be- 


SCOTLAND 


623 


SCOTLAND 


came  Abbot  of  lona  in  657.  This  was  enlarged,  in 
690,  into  the  celebrated  "Vita  Sancti  Columba;",  by 
Adamnan,  himself  Abbot  of  lona  from  679  until  his 
death  in  704.  Adamnan  also  wrote  "De  Situ  Terrae 
Sanctse".  Other  early  Latin  writers  to  whom  the 
Scottish  Borders  may  perhaps  lay  claim  are  Michael 
Scott  (c.  1194-c.  1250),  who  was  in  his  own  day,  and 
since,  even  more  celebrated  as  an  astrologer  and  ma- 
gician than  as  a  philosopher  and  expounder  of  Aristotle, 
and  John  Duns  Scotus  (1265?-1308),  the  Doctor  Sub- 
lilis  of  the  Franciscans.  The  early  Gaelic  Literature 
of  Scotland,  as  represented  by  the  Ossianic  Ballads 
and  the  other  legends  and  poems  contained  in  "The 
Book  of  the  Dean  of  Lismore",  which  was  compiled 
about  1512-26,  can  scarcely  be  called  distinctly  na- 
tional, and  falls  more  conveniently  under  the  general 
heading  of  Celtic  Literature.  Under  that  heading, 
too,  are  appropriately  grouped  the  collections  in 
"The  Book  of  Fernaig"  (1688-93)  and  in  the 
"  Beauties  of  GaeUc  Poetry",  as  well  as  the  various 
works  written  in  Scottish  Gaelic  during  the  eighteenth 
and  nineteenth  centuries. 

The  present  article  is  mainly  concerned  with  that 
which  is  generally  regarded  as  Scottish  Literature 
proper,  namely,  the  body  of  writing  produced  by  na- 
tives of  the  Scottish  Lowlands  who  wTote  in  a  dis- 
tinctive English  called,  in  the  earUest  times,  Anghan, 
in  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  early  sixteenth  cen- 
turies, Inglis,  and  from  that  time  onward,  Scottis,  or 
Scottish.  This  language,  which  had  once  held  power- 
ful sway  as  the  vehicle  of  literary  expression  used 
by  poets,  preachers,  and  chroniclers  in  great  part  of 
Northern  iMigland  and  in  that  portion  of  modern 
Scotliind  wiiicli  had  of  old  belonged  to  the  Kingdom 
of  Northunihria,  sank,  about  the  fourteenth  century, 
to  the  level  of  a  dialect  in  the  region  south  of  the 
Tweed  and  the  Cheviots,  but  continued  for  some  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years  to  flourish  north  of  those 
boundaries  as  the  official  speech  of  the  Scottish  Court 
and  kingdom,  and  as  the  spoken  and  wTitten  tongue 
of  the  great  majority  of  the  Scottish  people.  From 
the  fifteenth  century  it  spread  to  west  and  north,  and 
was  modified  by  contact  with  Highland  Gaelic,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  French  and  Latin,  on  the  other,  until  it 
acquired  characteristics  and  peculiarities  which  differ- 
entiated it  not  only  from  standard  English,  but  also 
from  its  own  cognate  diale(;ts  in  use  in  Northern  Eng- 
land. It  has  been  divided  into  three  periods,  namely: 
Early  Scottish,  extending  down  to  1475;  Middle  Scot- 
tish, the  national  period,  from  1475  to  1650;  and  Mod- 
ern Scottish,  the  dialectal  period,  from  1650  down  to 
the  present. 

The  earliest  Anglian  writing  extant  in  Scotland  is  a 
runic  in.scription  on  the  Ruthwell  Cross  in  Dumfries- 
shire, which,  long  erroneously  interpreted  as  Scandi- 
navian, has  been  definitely  deciphered  as  portion  of 
a  Caedmonian  poem,  on  the  Rood  of  Christ,  in  the 
Northumbrian,  that  is  the  Anglian,  dialect.  This  in- 
scription may  belong  anywhere  from  the  end  of  the 
seventh  to  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century.  A  "Can- 
tus"  or  lament,  in  eight  very  passable  lines,  composed 
soon  after  the  death  of  King  Alexander  III  of  Scot- 
land, which  took  place  in  1286,  is  preserved  by  An- 
drew of  Wyntoun  in  his  Chronicle.  We  have  also, 
from  other  chronicles,  evidence  to  show  that  patri- 
otic and  satirical  songs  were  composed  in  Scotland 
against  the  English,  when  King  Edward  I  was  en- 
gaged in  his  war  of  conquest  at  the  end  of  the  thir- 
teenth and  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and 
again  when,  at  Bannockburn  (1314),  Bruce  secured 
the  independence  of  his  country  by  his  crushing  defeat 
of  the  army  of  King  Edward  II.  We  may  also  infer 
from  a  statement  of  Barbour's  that  Border  ballads 
were  probably  composed  at  an  early  period. 

The  first  writer  of  the  literary  language  of  Scotland 
to  be  named  by  name  used  to  be  Thomas  Rymour 
(fl.  1280)  of  Ercildoune  (or  Earlston,  in  Berwickshire), 


because  of  his  supposed  authorship  of  the  romance  of 
"Sir  Tristrem  " ;  but  more  recent  investigations  tend  to 
show  that  "Sir  Tristrem"  was  the  work  of  an  EngUsh- 
man  earher  in  date  than  the  Scottish  claimant.  On 
the  other  hand,  modern  research  seems  destined  to 
award  a  conspicuous  niche  in  the  Scottish  literary 
temple  of  fame  to  Huchown  of  the  Awle  Reale.  He  is 
mentioned  with  much  praise  in  Andrew  of  Wyntoun's 
Chronicle  as  having  made  the  "gret  Gest  off  Ar- 
thure",  "the  Awntyre  [Adventure]  of  Gawane",  and 
the  "Pystyll  [Epistle]  of  Suete  Susane".  Eighty  or 
ninety  years  later  Dunbar  laments  "the  gude  Syr  Hew 
of  Eglyntoun".  It  has  been  generally  held  that 
Huchown  and  Sir  Hugh  of  Eghnton,  a  nobleman  of 
Ayrshire  who  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  Scottish 
history  for  about  twenty-five  years,  from  1350  to  1375, 
are  one  and  the  same.  The  "gret  Gest"  has  been 
identified  with  the  "Morte  Arthure",  a  non-rhyming 
alliterative  poem,  and  the  "Awntyre  of  Gawane", 
with  a  poem  of  similar  metric  scheme,  entitled  "Sir 
Gawane  and  the  Grene  Knight".  Besides  these 
works  and  the  "Pystyll",  there  have  also  been  at- 
tributed to  Huchown  the  "Destruction  of  Troy" 
(from  Guido  delle  Colonne's  "  Destructio  Troja) ") ;  the 
"Wars  of  Alexander"  (from  the  "De  Preliis  Alex- 
andri");  the  "Parlement  of  the  Thre  Ages"  (partly 
from  the  French  poems  "Fuerre  de  Gadres"  and  "  Voeux 
du  Paon");  the  "Awntyrs  of  Arthure";  and,  with 
other  alliterative  poems,  "Cleanness",  "Patience", 
and  "Pearl".  This  output  would  be  so  remarkable 
alike  for  quantity  and  quality  that,  should  Huchown's 
claim  be  finally  substantiated,  he  will  be  entitled  to 
rank  among  the  very  greatest  of  the  Scottish  poets. 
Other  poems  on  the  same  metrical  plan  as  the  "Awn- 
tyrs of  Arthure",  that  is,  in  rhyming  stanzas  with  con- 
stant alliteration,  are  "The  Knightly  Tale  of  Golagros 
and  Gawane",  which,  derived  from  the  "Perceval"  of 
Chrestien  de  Troyes,  is  possibly  by  Clerk  of  Tranent, 
who  died  about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century;  the 
"Buke  of  the  Howlat  [Owl]",  an  allegory  against 
pride,  suggested  probably  by  Chaucer's  "Parlement  of 
Foules",  and  written  about  1452  by  Richard  Holland, 
a  priest  of  Halkirk  in  Caithness;  and  the  anonymous 
"  Taill  of  Rauf  Coilzear  ",  written  about  1470,  and  deal- 
ing with  the  story  of  Charlemagne  and  the  charcoal 
burner. 

The  War  of  Independence,  making  as  it  did  for  an 
intense  national  sentiment,  reacted  correspondingly 
on  the  Uterature  of  the  country,  and  for  a  time  poets 
turned  from  the  mythical  paladins  of  romance  to  cele- 
brate in  verse  the  brave  exploits  of  the  sons  of  Scot- 
land. Foremost  among  the  writers  of  this  national 
epos  stands  the  venerable  figure  of  John  Barbour  (c. 
1316-1396),  Archdeacon  of  Aberdeen.  His  poem  of 
"Brus"  or  "The  Bruce",  in  about  7000  octosyllabic 
couplets,  tells  the  life-story  of  Bruce,  and  ends  with 
the  burial  of  the  hero's  heart  at  Melrose.  This  monu- 
mental poem  is,  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two 
lapses,  in  the  main  historically  accurate:  this,  too,  al- 
though it  shows  many  traces  of  the  influence  of  the 
French  romances.  "The  Bruce"  is  a  dignified  com- 
position, abounding  in  description,  and  all  aglow  with 
patriotic  fire.  To  Barbour  are  also  assigned  a  trans- 
lation of  part  of  a  medieval  romance  on  the  "Trojan 
War"  and  the  metrical  "Legends  of  the  Saints". 
More  doubtfully — on  account  of  confusion  of  dates^ 
he  has  been  credited  with  the  translation  from  the 
French  of  "The  Bulk  of  the  most  noble  andvailzeand 
Conquerour  Alexander  the  Great",  which,  in  style, 
metre,  and  phrase,  closely  resembles  "The  Bruce". 
What  Barbour  did  for  Bruce,  Blind  Harry,  or  Harry 
the  Minstrel  (d.  1492),  sought  to  do  for  the  other 
great  national  hero,  William  Wallace.  Blind  Harry's 
"Wallace"  is  in  11,858  lines  of  heroic  verse.  It  is  not 
so  faithful  to  the  facts  of  history  as  "The  Bruce",  but 
it  is  intensely  patriotic,  and  has  been,  in  its  original 
form  and  also  in  an  early  eighteenth-century  modern- 


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ized  form,  a  stimulant  of  national  feeling  through  the 
ages. 

The  desire  to  celebrate  the  historj'  of  the  na- 
tion is  also  sho^-n  in  the  "OrygjTiale  Cronykil"  com- 
posed about  1420  by  Andrew  of  Wyntoun,  canon  regu- 
lar of  St.  Andrew's  and  prior  (1395)  of  St.  Serf's  Inch 
in  Loch  Leven.  The  "Cronykil",  which  is  in  rhym- 
ing octosyllabic  couplets,  is  the  story  of  the  world 
from  its  creation,  in  nine  books,  the  last  four  of  which 
deal  specifically  with  EngUsh  and  Scottish  affairs. 
John  Fordun  (d.  1385?),  canon  of  Aberdeen  cathedral, 
WTOte  in  Latin  the  annals  of  Scotland,  his  "Scoti- 
chronicon"  coming  down  to  the  death  of  David  I  in 
1153.  It  was  continued,  also  in  Latin,  down  to  the 
death  of  James  I  in  1437  by  Walter  Bower,  or  Bow- 
maker  (d.  1449),  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Austin 
Canons  on  Inchcolm  in  the  Firth  of  Forth. 

The  influence  of  Chaucer  on  Scottish  poetry  in  the 
fifteenth  and  early  sixteenth  centuries  was  very  great. 
It  is  evident  in  the  "Kingis  Quair" — the  King's  Quire 
or  Book— of  James  I  (1394-1437).  During  his  long 
years  of  imprisonment  in  England  (1406-24)  James 
made  a  study  of  Chaucer,  and  in  his  noble  poem,  writ- 
ten to  celebrate  his  rapturous  love,  he  plainly  shows 
his  indebtedness  to  his  master.  The  "Kingis  Quair" 
is  in  the  seven-line  stanza  which,  though  previously 
wTitten  by  Chaucer  and  others,  has  ever  since  James's 
time  been  called  rime  royal.  To  James  are  also  as- 
signed "A  Ballad  of  Good  Counsel"  and,  with  con- 
siderable dissent  on  the  part  of  some  scholars,  the 
"Song  on  Absence",  "Pebhs  to  the  Play",  and 
"Chrystis  Kirk  of  the  Grene",  the  last  two  uproari- 
ous descriptions  of  popular  amusements.  Another 
Scottish  Chaucerian  is  Robert  Henryson  (1430?- 
1506?J,  notary  public  and  preceptor  in  the  Benedictine 
convent  at  Dunfermhne.  His  principal  works  are 
"The  Morall  Fabillis  of  Esope",  thirteen  in  number, 
with  two  Prologues;  "Orpheus  and  Eurydice";  "The 
Testament  of  Cresseide",  a  sequel  to  Chaucer's  "Troi- 
lus  and  Cressida " ;  the"Garmond  of  Gude  Ladies"; 
and  "  Robene  and  Makyne",  the  first  specimen  of  pas- 
toral in  the  Scottish  vernacular.  Henryson  had  a  real 
poetic  gift  and  great  mastery  of  style,  and  he  holds  a 
high  position  among  the  Scottish  poets.  The  great- 
est of  the  Scottish  Chaucerians  was  WiUiam  Dunbar 
(c.  1460-1513?).  At  one  time  a  Franciscan  and  after- 
wards a  secular  priest,  he  appears  to  have  been  more 
of  a  courtier  than  a  churchman.  His  output  of  poetry 
was  very  large.  He  has  been  called  with  good  show 
of  reason  the  most  considerable  poet  of  Britain  be- 
tween Chaucer  and  Spenser.  Seven  of  his  poems, 
printed  in  1508  at  Edinburgh,  are  among  the  earliest 
specimens  of  Scottish  typography.  His  principal 
works  are  "The  ThrLssill  and  the  Rois",  a  political 
allegory  composed  in  honour  of  the  marriage  (1503) 
of  James  IV  of  Scotland  and  Margaret  Tudor,  daugh- 
ter of  Henry  VII  of  England;  "The  Golden  Targe", 
another  allegory;  "The  ^Ierle  and  the  Nightingale",  a 
didaftic  allegory;  the  "Lament  for  the  Makaris",  a 
moralizing  poem;  the  "Dance  of  the  Sevin  Deidlie 
Synnis",  remarkable  for  its  character-painting  and  its 
stinging  satire;  and  the  "TuaMariit  Wemen  and  the 
Wedo".  Dunbar  had  poetic  verve  and  an  exuberant 
imagination;  he  had  also  a  humour  which  was  of  the 
cynical  order  and  frequently  degenerates  into  mere 
ribaldry;  and  his  mastery  over  satire  has  been  seldom 
6urpas.sed.  He  had  a  flyling,  or  poetical  scolding- 
match,  with  Walter  Kennedy,  in  which  each  poet 
sefimed  to  reach  the  depths  of  scurrility.  Apart  from 
this,  Kennedy's  other  pr)em8  are  mostly  moral  and  edi- 
fying. They  are  "The  Praise  of  Aige";  "Ane  Agit 
Man's  Invective";  "Ane  Ballat  in  Praise  of  our 
Lady";  and  a  fragmentary  poem  "On  the  Passioun  of 
Christ". 

Gavin  Douglas  (c.  1475-1622),  third  son  of  Archi- 
bald, Earl  of  Angiis  ("Bell  the  Cat"),  was  succes- 
aively  Provost  of  St.  Giles's  in  Edinburgh,  Abbot  of 


Arbroath,  and  Bishop  of  Dunkeld.  He  is  famous  for 
his  complete  translation  of  the  "^Eneid"  (1513)  into 
Scottish  vernacular  verse.  It  is  the  first  translation 
of  a  great  Latin  poet  into  any  British  tongue.  The 
metre  employed  is  the  heroic  couplet.  The  transla- 
tion is  not  accurate,  but  the  poet  shows  a  keen  sensi- 
tiveness to  the  beauties  of  Virgil.  Douglas's  original 
poems  are  his  Prologues  to  the  several  books  of  the 
"^neid";  "The  PaHce  of  Honour"  (1501),  an  alle- 
gory meant  to  show  the  triumph  of  virtue  over  diffi- 
culty; "King  Hart",  an  allegory  on  the  temptations 
that  beset  man;  and  "Conscience",  a  short  moral 
poem.  Sir  David  Lyndsay  (c.  1490-1555),  Lyon 
King  of  Arms,  was  probably  the  most  popular  of  the 
Scottish  poets  before  Burns.  He  was  a  severe  satirist 
of  corruption  in  Church  and  State,  and  spares  neither 
pope  nor  clergy,  neither  nobles  nor  king.  His  first 
poem,  "The  Dreme"  (1528),  has  a  beautiful  Pro- 
logue. "The  Dreme"  itself  is  a  .somewhat  weari- 
some description  of  what  was  to  be  seen  in  hell,  in 
heaven,  in  purgatory,  and  on  earth,  and  abounds  in 
criticism  of  the  condition  of  Scotland.  In  much  the 
same  vein  are  "The  Complaynt  to  the  King"  (1529) 
and  "The  Testament  and  Complaynt  of  our  Soverane 
Lordis  Papyngo  [Parrot]"  (1530).  Of  his  numerous 
other  works  the  most  important  are  "The  Historie 
and  Testament  of  Squyer  William  Meldrum"  (1550); 
" Monarchic "  (1553);  and  "Ane  Pleasant  Satyre  of 
the  Thrie  Estaitis".  The  last  mentioned  is  a  rude 
drama  combining  the  old  morality,  the  interlude,  and 
the  modern  play,  and  was  meant  to  satirize  the  clergy, 
the  nobles,  and  the  merchants.  It  is  interesting  in  lit- 
erary history  as  the  only  surviving  specimen  of  the  old 
Scottish  vernacular  plays,  many  of  which,  we  know, 
must  have  been  written. 

Minor  poets,  contemporaries  of  Dunbar,  were:  Sir 
John  Rowll,  who  wrote  "The  Cursing  against  the 
Steilaris  of  his  Foulis";  Quintyne  Shaw,  "Advice  to  a 
Courtier";  Patrick  Johnestoun,  "The  Three  Deid 
Powis";  John  Merscir,  "Perrell  in  Paramours";  and 
James  Afflek,  "The  Quair  of  Jelousy".  Anonymous 
pieces  of  this  period  are:  "Elegy  on  the  Princess  Mar- 
garet", daughter  of  James  I  of  Scotland  and  wife  of 
the  Dauphin,  afterwards  Louis  XI  of  France;  "Cock- 
elbie's  Sow",  which  combines  burlesque  and  fable, 
prowess  and  true  love,  in  an  extraordinary  medley; 
"The  Wowing  of  Jok  and  Jynny",  a  coarse  tale  of 
love-making;  "Gyre-Carling",  dealing  with  the  per- 
formances of  the  Mother  Witch;  "King  Bcrdok" — a 
fragment — a  burlesque  of  romance;  "The  Wife  of 
Auchtermuchty",  a  version  of  a  folk-tale  of  domestic 
rivalry;  "Sym  and  his  Brudir",  a  pointed  satire  on 
palmers;  "The  Thrie  Priestis  of  Peblis",  didactic 
tales  told  by  the  device  of  bringing  three  priests  to- 
gether in  an  inn  at  Peebles;  and  "Grey  Steill"  and 
"Clariodus",  both  romances. 

The  old  Scottish  Border  ballads  and  others,  which 
are  to  be  found  in  such  collections  as  those  made 
by  Percy,  Scott,  Furnivall,  and  Child,  present  a 
study  of  absorbing  interest.  Nothing  more  can  be 
done  here,  however,  than  to  indicate  their  directness 
of  narration,  their  rhythm  and  lilt,  their  appeal  to  the 
primal   feelings   of   human    nature,   their  occasional 

Patriotic  spirit,  and  their  still  rarer  flashes  of  humour, 
lany  of  the  best  of  them  belong  to  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries.  Such  txanii)les  as  "The  Battle 
of  Otterburn",  "Kimmont  Willie",  "Mary  Hamil- 
ton", "Sir  Patrick  Spens",  "The  Young  Tamlane", 
and  "Jamie  Telfer  of  the  Fair  Dodhead" — to  name 
only  a  few — have  been  a  source  of  perennial  delight  to 
successive  generat  ions  of  readers. 

Scottish  prose  litfirature  in  th(!  fifteenth  century  is 
not  of  much  account.  The  prin(;ipal  remains  are: 
"Ane  Schort  Memoriale  of  the  Scottis  Croniklis", 
which  belongs  to  about  the  year  1460;  "The  Craft 
of  Dying"  and  other  religious  works;  and  Sir  fiilbert 
Hay  8  translations  of  the  "Bukc  of  Battailis"  and  the 


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"Buke  of  the  Order  of  Knighthede"  from  the  French, 
and  the  "Buke  of  the  Governaunce  of  Princes"  from 
the  Latin.  In  the  sixteenth  century  Scottish  prose 
made  rapid  strides.  It  was  preluded  by  two  Scottish 
writers  in  Latin,  who  are  important  enough  to  deserv-e 
a  word  of  mention.  John  Major,  or  Mair  (c.  1470- 
L550),  philosopher,  divine,  and  historian,  Provost  of 
St.  Salvator's  College,  St.  Andrew's,  wrote,  besides 
commentaries  on  Peter  Lombard  and  manj^  theolog- 
ical and  philosophical  works,  a  famous  History'  of 
Scotland,  entitled  "De  Historia  Gentis  Scotorum 
Libri  Sex",  printed  at  Paris  in  152L  Hector  Boece 
(c.  1465-1536),  principal  of  King's  College,  Aberdeen, 
canon  of  the  cathedral  in  that  city,  and  rector  of 
Tyrie  in  the  same  county,  published  in  1522  his 
"Episcoporum  Murthlacensium  et  Aberdonensium 
Vitse"  and  in  1527,  in  seventeen  books,  his  "Scotorum 
Historiae  a  prima  gentis  origine".  Boece's  Latin  is 
much  more  elegant  than  Major's,  but  his  credulity 
is  far  greater,  and  he  admitted  as  solemn  historical 
facts  many  marvels  which  Major  had  rejected.  A 
free  translation  of  Boece's  work,  made  by  John 
Bellenden  (d.  1550?),  archdeacon  of  Moray  and  canon 
of  Ross,  was  printed  at  Edinburgh  in  1536,  under  the 
title  of  "Hystory  and  Croniklis  of  Scotland".  Bel- 
lenden's  style  is  a  fine  example  of  terse  Scottish  prose. 
Bellenden  also  translated  in  1533  the  first  five  books 
of  Livy,  which  were,  however,  not  printed  until  1822. 
An  anonymous  work,  "The  Complaynt  of  Scotlande ", 
printed  at  Paris  in  1549,  was  long  regarded  as  a  notable 
specimen  of  original  Scottish  prose,  but  recent  investi- 
gations have  proved  that  it  is  mainly  a  translation  or 
plagiarism  from  the  French.  Its  purpose  is  to  lament 
the  calamities  to  which  Scotland  was  then  subject.  It 
is  written  in  what  has  been  called  the  "aureate"  or 
"Ciceronian"  style,  employing  numerous  Latin  and 
French  words,  and  in  this  respect  aflords  a  strik- 
ing contrast  to  Bellenden's  more  homely  vernacular. 
The  "Complaynt"  is  interesting,  among  other  rea- 
sons, because  of  the  list  it  gives  of  stories,  romances, 
and  songs  popular  in  Scotland,  some  of  which  are  no 
longer  to  be  found. 

As  the  ecclesiastical  controversy  of  the  sixteenth 
century  grew  in  intensity,  a  great  development  was 
given  to  religious  and  polemic  works.  In  1552,  by 
authority  of  John  Hamilton,  Archbishop  of  St.  An- 
drew's, the  last  Catholic  Primate  of  Scotland  before 
the  Reformation,  there  was  published  at  St.  An- 
drew's a  "Catechism,  that  is  to  say  ane  Commone 
and  Catholike  Instruct ioun  of  the  Christian  People 
in  Materis  of  our  Catholike  Faith  and  Religioun". 
This  work  contains  a  popular  exposition  of  Catholic 
doctrine,  and  is  justly  regarded  as  a  noble  example 
of  the  Scottish  vernacular  of  that  period.  It  was 
edited  by  Dr.  Thomas  Graves  Law  for  the  Clarendon 
Press  in  1884.  There  were  many  Scottish  Catholic 
writers  of  this  centur>'  to  whose  works  sufficient  atten- 
tion has  not  hitherto  been  given.  Foremost  among 
them  is  Ninian  Winj^et,  or  Winzet  (1518-92),  who 
in  the  religious  upheaval  was  deprived  of  his  position 
as  provost  of  the  collegiate  church  of  Linlithgow, 
subsequently  held  offices  at  the  University  of  Paris 
and  at  the  English  College  at  Douay,  and  died  as 
Abbot  of  St.  James's  Monastery  at  Ratisbon.  His 
works  include  "Certaine  Tractat  is  for  Reformat  ioun 
of  Doctryne  and  Maneris"  and  the  "Buke  of  Four 
Scoir  and  Thrie  Questions".  Quintin  Kennedy 
(1520-1564),  Abbot  of  Crossraguel  and  son  of  the  Earl 
of  Cassilhs,  had  a  celebrated  "Disputation"  with 
Knox,  and  was  also  author  of  a  "Compendious 
Treatise  to  establish  the  Conscience  of  a  Christian 
man". 

John  Hay,  a  Jesuit,  who  was  expelled  from 
Scotland  in  1579,  printed  at  Paris,  in  1580,  his 
"Certaine  Demandes".  In  the  same  year  Nicol 
Bume,  a  secular  priest,  published  his  "Disputation 
concerning  the  Controversit  Headdis  of  Religion", 
XIII.— 40 


and  another  priest,  John  Hamilton,  published,  in 
1581,  "Ane  Catholike  and  P'acile  Traictise".  There 
were  also  able  writers  on  the  other  side,  such  as  John 
Craig  (c.  1512-1600)  and  Robert  Rollock  (c.  1555-99), 
to  say  nothing  of  John  Gau,  who  as  early  as  1533 
had  published  the  first  prose  treatise  on  the  reformed 
doctrines  in  the  Scottish  vernacular,  namely,  "The 
Richt  Vay  to  the  Kingdom  of  Heuine".  But  the 
greatest  of  these  was  John  Knox  (1505-72),  whose 
published  works,  mainly  controversial,  fill  six  large 
volumes.  He  takes  his  place  in  literature  in  virtue 
of  his  "Historic  of  the  Reformatioun  of  Religioun  in 
Scotland",  first  printed  in  1586.  An  active  part  in 
promulgating  the  new  religion  was  also  taken  by 
George  Buchanan  (1506-82),  who  wrote  but  little 
in  the  vernacular  ("The  Chamaeleon"  and  the  "Ad- 
monition to  the  trew  Lordis"),  but  whose  Latin  WTit- 
ings,  especially  his  paraphrase  of  the  Psalms  and  his 
"Rerum  Scoticarum  Historia",  gave  him  an  enormous 
reputation.  He  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  best 
Latin  scholars  of  modern  times.  Two  of  his  four 
Latin  tragedies,  the  "Baptistes"  and  the  "  Jephthes", 
had  a  great  effect  on  the  German  drama. 

Scottish  history  in  the  vernacular  was  continued  by 
Robert  Lindesay  (c.  1500-c.  1565)  of  Pitscottie  in  his 
"Chronicle  of  Scotland"  from  1436  to  1475.  John 
Leslie,  or  Lesley  (1527-96),  Bishop  of  Ross,  and  sub- 
sequently vicar-general  of  the  Diocese  of  Rouen,  wrote 
in  Scottish  a  "History  of  Scotland"  from  the  death 
of  James  I  to  his  own  time,  which  he  subsequently 
translated  in  enlarged  form  into  Latin,  under  the 
title  of  "De  origine,  moribus,  et  rebus  gestis  Sco- 
torum"; it  was  pubhshed  at  Rome  in  1578. 
In  1596  this  work  was  translated  into  Scottish 
by  Father  James  Dalr>'mple,  of  the  monastery  of 
St.  James  at  Ratisbon.  Always  consistent  in  his 
championship  of  Mary  Stuart,  Leshe  wrote  in  1569 
a  "Defence  of  the  Honour  of  Marie  Queene  of  Scot- 
land and  Dowager  of  France".  Useful  for  historical 
details  are  the  "Memoirs"  of  Sir  James  Melville 
(1535-1617)  and  the  "Diary"  of  James  Melville 
(1556-1614).  Sir  Richard  Maitland  (1496-1586) 
wrote  a  "Historic  of  the  House  of  Seytoun"  and  a 
goodly  number  of  poems ;  but  he  is  best  remembered 
for  the  magnificent  collection  of  Early  Scottish  Poems 
by  various  authors  which,  with  the  aid  of  his  daughter, 
he  got  together,  and  which  is  now  preserved  in  the 
Pepysian  Library  at  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge. 
A  similar  collection,  and  a  very  valuable  one,  made 
by  George  BannatjTie,  enriches  the  Advocates'  Li- 
brary at  Edinburgh. 

The  Reformation  in  Scotland  was  materially  ad- 
vanced by  "The  Gude  and  Godlie  Ballatis",  the 
popular  name  of  a  collection  of  poems,  partly  devo- 
tional, partly  satirical,  which,  first  published  about 
1546,  had  subsequently  a  wonderful  vogue,  the  formal 
title  being  "  Ane  Compendious  Buik  of  Godlie  Psalmes 
and  Spirituall  Sangis  for  avoiding  of  Sinne  and 
Harlotrie".  Learned  by  heart  and  sung  everj'where, 
these  psalms  and  songs  provided  a  ready  means  for 
prejudicing  the  minds  of  the  people  against  the 
ancient  Church.  The  major  portion  of  the  book 
would  appear  to  be  the  work  of  three  brothers,  James, 
John,  and  Robert  Wedderburne.  The  campaign  was 
carried  on  after  the  Reformation  by  Robert  Sempill 
(1530?-95)  in  "The  Sempill  Ballates",  which  are 
coarse  but  clever  satires  against  all  who  differed  from 
the  wTiter  in  politics  or  religion.  Poets  of  a  different 
vein  were  Alexander  Scott  (1525?-84?)  and  Alexan- 
der Montgomerie  (c.  1545-c.  1610).  Scott  has  been 
called  the  Scottish  Anacreon.  He  wrote  thirty-six 
short  poems,  nearly  all  amatory.  His  most  remark- 
able pieces  are  "Ane  New  Yeir  Gift  to  Queue  Mary" 
and  "Justing  at  the  Drum".  Montgomerie's  fame 
rests  mainly  on  "The  Cherrie  and  the  Slae"  (1597), 
an  allegory  on  virtue  and  vice.  He  also  wrote  "The 
Bankis  of  Hehcon"  and  some  seventy  sonnets,  many 


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626 


SCOTLAND 


of  which  are  direct  translations  from  the  French  poet 
of  the  Pleiadc,  Pierre  de  Ronsard.  Mar>'  Stuart's 
son,  James  VI  of  Scotland  (1566-1625),  who  as  James 
I  of  England  was  the  first  monarch  to  reign  over  both 
countries,  had  received  a  learned  education  from 
George  Buchanan,  and  practised  composition  both  in 
verse  and  prose,  and,  as  befitted  a  sovereign  of  the 
dual  kingdom,  he  wrote  not  only  in  Scottish  but  also 
in  English.  Some  of  his  poetical  works  are  "Essayes 
of  a  Prcntise  in  the  Divine  Art  of  Poesic",  "Anc 
Schort  Poeme  of  Tyme",  and  "The  Phoeni.x".  In 
prose  he  wrote  "  Doemonology "  (1597);  "Basilicon 
Doron"  (1599);  and  "A  Counterblast  against  To- 
bacco" (1604). 

Alexander  Hume  (1560?-1609),  Puritan  minister 
and  son  of  Baron  Polwarth,  published,  in  1599,  a 
volume  of  "Hymnes  or  Sacred  Songes,  wherein 
the  Right  Use 'of  Poesie  may  be  espied".  "The 
Triumph  of  the  Lord"  is  the  title  he  gives  to 
his  poem  on  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada. 
Robert  Sempill  (1595?-1659),  a  kinsman  of  the 
author  of  "The  Sempill  Ballates",  was  a  humorous 
and  satirical  wTiter.  He  continued  his  father's.  Sir 
James  Sempill's,  satire  against  the  Catholic  Church, 
"The  Packman's  Paternoster",  and  ^\Tote  many 
other  i)ieces.  He  is  best  remembered  for  "The  Life 
and  Death  of  Habbie  Simson,  Piper  of  Kilbarchan". 
The  stanza  of  six  Une^,  which  he  employed  in  this 
vivid  and  humorous  account  of  old  Scottish  pastimes, 
became  tjTjical  of  later  poems,  especially  of  a  facetious 
tj-pe,  in  the  Scottish  vernacular.  It  is  known  as  the 
"Habbie  Simson  stanza",  and  is  frequently  used  by 
Burns.  The  Scotch  tradition  for  good  Latlnity  was 
carried  on  by  John  Barclay  (1582-1621)  and  Arthur 
Johnston  (c.  1587-1614).  Johnston's  Latin  works 
include  elegies  and  epigrams,  a  paraphrase  of  the 
Canticle  of  Canticles,  and  a  complete  version  of  the 
Psalms.  He  was  editor  of  the  "Delicia;  Poetarum 
Scotorum",  a  collection  of  Latin  poems  by  various 
authors.  Barclay  wTote  " Euphormionis  Satyricon" 
(1605);  "Apologia"  (1611);  and  "Icon  Animorum" 
(1614).  His  most  celebrated  book  is  the  "Argenis" 
(1621),  a  romance  which,  translated  into  nearly  every 
European  language,  proved  a  really  seminal  work, 
and  profoundly  influenced  European  literature  for 
many  years.  After  an  eventful  career,  Barclay  died 
as  a  Catholic  at  Rome. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth,  and  throughout 
the  seventeenth,  century  Scotti.sh  literature  is,  espe- 
cially by  contrast  with  what  was  then  being  produced 
in  England,  scanty  and  poor.  There  is  scarcely  an 
outstanding  name,  if  we  except  William  Drummond 
of  Hawthomden,  and  even  he  wrote  in  English. 
An  era  of  acrid  political  or  religious  controversy,  it 
ha«  been  noted,  often  causes  the  impoverishment  of 
the  stream  of  pure  literature.  Of  such  (;ontrovcrsy 
there  was  enough  and  to  spare  in  Scotland  during  the 
jH-riod  indicated,  and  the  usual  result  now  suj)ervened. 
With  regard  to  the  language,  the  Reformation  had 
begun  a  process  of  Anglicization.  The  religious  and 
devotional  books  in  use — the  Bible,  the  Psalm-book, 
the  Hymn-bwk,  the  Confession,  the  Catechism — 
were  wTitten  in  English,  and  mostly  came  from 
Elngland.  Following  these,  the  language  of  pulpit 
and  Parliament,  of  HchfxA,  bar,  and  society  came  to 
be  normally  English.  Books  ceased  to  be  printed 
in  Scottish,  and  no  one  was  taught  to  spell  or  write 
Scottish. 

In  addition,  the  union  of  the  two  Crowns  under 
one  sfjvc-reign,  in  1603,  and  the  consequent  removal 
of  the  C<jurt  from  Edinburgh  to  lyondon  natu- 
rally tended  t^)  focus  men's  minds  on  lOngland  and 
things  English,  m  that  the  Anglicization  started 
by  the  Reformation  wuh  comjileted  by  the  turn  given 
to  iKjlilical  events,  and  the  old  national  Scottish 
vernacular,  being  now  considered  in  the  light  of  a 
provincial  dialect,  gradually  ceased  almost  entirely 


to  be  a  vehicle  of  literary  expression.  Hence  it  is 
that  poets  like  William  Drummond  (1585-1649),  Sir 
Robert  Ayton  (1570-1638),  Sir  Wilham  Alexander  of 
Menstrie,  afterwards  Earl  of  Stirling  (15677-1640),  and 
Robert  Ker,  Earl  of  Ancrum  (1578-1654),  and  prose 
WTiters  like  John  Spottiswoode  (1565-1639),  David 
Calderwood  (1575-1650),  Wilham  Lithgow  (1582- 
1645),  and  Archbishop  Robert  Leighton  (1611-84), 
who  all  wrote  in  English,  take  their  places  in  an 
accoimt  not  of  Scottish,  but  of  English,  literature  just 
as  ajipropriately  as  do  the  Scottish-born  poets,  phi- 
losophers, biographers,  historians,  and  novelists  of  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  who  used  English 
as  their  ordinary  mode  of  expression. 

But  although,  at  the  time  of  the  union  of  the  two 
Parliaments  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  (1707),  the 
"Scottis"  language  had  for  well-nigh  a  hvmdred  years 
disappeared  from  serious  literature,  it  still  lingered  on 
the  lips  of  men  and  was  freely  spoken  even  by  those 
who  read  and  wTote  English;  nay  more,  it  was  occa- 
sionally employed  in  the  composition  of  facetious  and 
satirical  verse.  Such  being  the  case,  a  revival  on  a 
grand  scale  of  the  an(;ient  Scottish  vernacular  for 
poetical  use  was  attempted  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  With  this  revival  the  name  of  Allan  Ramsay 
(1686-1758)  and  his  dramatic  pastoral,  "The  Gentle 
Shepherd"  (1725),  are  most  intimately  associated, 
although  he  himself  was  stirred  to  emulation  by 
William  Hamilton  of  Gilbcrtfield's  "Last  Dying 
Words  of  Bonnie  Heck"  (1706).  The  impetus  given 
by  Ramsay  in  "The  Gentle  Shepherd"  and  in  his 
earlier  poems  caused  many  writers  to  express  them- 
selves in  this  Scottish  way.  The  movement  soon  pro- 
duced such  a  masterpiece  as  the  ballad  of  "The  Braes 
of  Yarrow",  by  William  Hamilton  of  Bangour  (1704- 
54);  but  it  did  not  reach  its  climax  until  later  in 
the  century^  with  Robert  Fergusson  (1750-74)  and 
Robert  Burns  (1759-96). 

Among  others  who  cultivated  this  style  during 
the  eighteenth  century  may  be  named  the  two 
Alexander  Pennecuiks,  Lady  Grizel  Baillie,  Lady 
Elizabeth  Wardlaw,  Alexander  Ross,  John  Skinner, 
Jean  Elliot  of  Minto,  Mrs.  Cockburn,  Alexander 
Geddes,  Hector  Macneill,  Lady  Anne  Barnard, 
and  John  Mayne.  In  the  nineteenth  century  the 
tradition  was  continued  by  Robert  Tannahill;  Wil- 
liam Nicholson  ("  the  Galloway  Poet  ") ;  Sir  Alexander 
Boswell;  Lady  Nairne;  James  Hogg  ("the  Ettrick 
Shepherd") ;  William  Laidlaw;  Allan  Cunningham ;  and 
William  Motherwell.  In  recent  years  a  mild  attempt 
has  been  made  by  the  writers  of  what  is  irreverently 
termed  the  Kail  Yard  School  to  revive  Scottish 
vernacular  in  prose;  but  while  the  Scottish  tales  and 
sketches  of  James  Matthew  Barrie  ("Auld  Licht 
Idylls",  1888,  and  "A  Window  in  Thrums",  1889) 
and  John  Watson,  better  known  as  Ian  Maclaren 
("Beside  the  Bonnie  Brier  Bush",  1894,  and  "The 
Days  of  Auld  Lang  Syne",  1895),  who  may  be  taken 
as  the  princii)al  representatives  of  the  school,  are  full 
of  humour  and  ])allK)s,  their  example  in  the  writing 
of  Scottish  dialogue  has  not  been  widely  imitated. 

In  this  article  no  account  has  been  given  of  writers 
on  mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  juri.sprudence, 
or  medicine,  not  because  Scotland  has  not  many 
eminent  authors  in  these  departments  to  show,  for 
indeed  she  is  rich  in  such,  but  because,  on  general 
principles,  their  productions  are  not  considered  to 
come  properly  uiid<r  the  lu-ading  of  literature. 

For  the  texts  of  curlier  aiitljors  h(;c  tlic  various  pul)!iciition8  of 
the  Bannatync  Club;  tlio  .Scottisli  Text  Society;  ttic  Maitland 
Club;  the  Iloxburghc  Club;  the  Scottish  History  Society;  the 
Hunterian  Club;  the  Camden  Society;  the  Spalding  Club;  the 
Woflrow  Society;  the  Early  English  Text  Society. 

Vnr  the  liinKuuKC  see  .Sinclair,  Ohservnlions  on  the  ScoUith 
Duilirl  (r/)nilon,  1782);  .Iamiebon,  Srottish  Dictionary  (Edin- 
burgh, IHOH  1K24;  new  ed.  1879-1SS7);  Mmrray,  The  Dialect  of 
the  Souther II  ('ountien  of  Scotland  (IS7.'J);  Idem,  Scottish  Language 
in  Chamhem'H  Encyclopa-ilia,  IX  (Philadelphia.  1!»05),  247-249; 
MoRRAy(ed.),  The  New  Englinh  Dictionary  (Oxford.  1888-1910); 
Whioht  (ed.),  English  Dialed  Dictionary  (London.  1898-1905); 


SCOTLAND 


(327 


SCOTLAND 


GR^aonr  Smitu,  Specimens  of  Middle  Scots  (Edinburgh,  1902); 
Idem,  The  Scottish  Language:  Early  and  Middle  Scots  in  The 
Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature,  II  (Cambridge,  190S), 
iv,   101-14. 

For  special  controverted  points  see  Anglia,  I  (1877);  II 
(1879);  XX  (1898);  The  Scottish  Review  (1888,  1893,  1897); 
The  Scottish  Antiquary  (1897,  1898,  1899);  La  Revue  Historique, 
LXIV  (1897);  Modern  Language  Quarterly  (Nov.,  1S97);  Athe- 
naeum  (27  Feb.,  1897;  22  Julv;  16 Dec.  and  21  Dec,  1899;  12May 
and  16  June,  1900;  and  17  Nov.,  1900,  to  23  Nov.,  1901). 

For  general  history  of  Scottish  Literature  and  individual 
authors  see:  Hailes,  Ancient  Scottish  Poems  (Edinburgh,  1770); 
PiNKERTON,  Ancient  Scottish  Poems  (London,  1786);  Wartox, 
History  of  English  Poetry  (London,  1774-1781);  Irving,  Lives 
of  the  Scottish  Poets  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1804) ;  Idem,  ed  Carlyle, 
History  of  Scottish  Poetry  (Edinburgh,  1861) ;  Dalyell,  Scottish 
Poems  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  (Edinburgh,  1801) ;  Ross,  Scot- 
tish History  and  Literature  to  the  Reformation  (Glasgow,  1884) ; 
Walker,  Three  Centuries  of  Scottish  Literature  (Glasgow,  1893); 
Henderson,  Scottish  Vernacular  Literature  (London,  1898:  2nd 
ed.,  1900);  Courthope,  History  of  English  Poetry  (New  York, 
1895);  Gregory  Smith,  The  Transition  Period  in  Periods  of 
European  Literature  Series  (Edinburgh,  1900);  Graham,  Scot- 
tish Men  of  Letters  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (London,  1901) ; 
Millar,  A  Literary  History  of  Scotland  (London,  1903) ;  Child, 
English  and  Scottish  Popular  Ballads  (Boston  and  New  York, 
1882-1898) ;  Lang,  s.  v.  Ballads:  Scottish  and  English,  in  Cham- 
bers's Cyclopaedia  of  English  Literature,  I  (Philadelphia,  1902), 
520-541;  Gummere,  Introduction  to  Old  English  Ballads 
(Boston,  1894) ;  Scott,  ed.  Henderson,  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scot- 
tish Border  (Edinburgh,  1902) ;  Laing,  ed.  Hazlitt,  Ancient 
Scottish  Poetry  (2  vols.,  London,  1894);  Veitch,  History  and 
Poetry  of  the  Scottish  Border  (Glasgow,  1893);  Neilson,  John 
Barbour,  Poet  and  Translator  in  Trans.  Philological  Society 
(London,  1900) ;  Idem,  Sir  Hew  of  Eglintoun  and  Huchoun  off 
the  Awle  Ryale:  a  biographical  calendar  and  literary  estimate 
in  Trans.  Philosophical  Society  (Glasgow,  1900-1901);  Idem, 
"  Huchown  of  the  Awle  Ryale,"  the  Alliterative  Poet  (Glasgow, 
1902) ;  HoRSTMANN,  Barbours  des  Schottischen  nationaldichters 
Legendensammlung  nebst  den  Fragmenten  seines  Trojanerkrieges 
(Heilbronn,  1882);  Koppel,  Die  Fragmente  von  Barbours  Tro- 
janerkrieg  in  Englische  Studien,  X,  373;  Buss,  Sind  die  von 
Horstmann  herausgegeben  schottischen  Legenden  ein  Werk  Bar- 
bours f  in  Anglia,  IX,  493;  Trautmann,  DerDichter  Huchown  und 
Seine  Werke  (1877);  Hermann,  Untersuchungen  Uber  das  schot- 
tische  Alexanderbuch  (Berlin,  1893);  Brown,  The  Wallace  and  the 
Bruce  Restudied  (Bonn,  1900);  Idem,  The  Authorship  of  the 
Kingis  Quair:  a  New  Criticism  (Glasgow,  1896);  Jusserand, 
The  Romance  of  a  King's  Life  (London,  1896) ;  Rait,  The  Kingis 
Quair  and  the  New  Criticism  (1898) ;  Skeat,  Chaucerian  and  other 
Pieces  (London,  1897),  p.  Ixxv;  Schipper,  William  Dunbar: 
Sein  Leben  und  Seine  Gedichte  (Berlin,  1884) ;  Idem,  The  Poems  of 
William  Dunbar  edited  with  Introductions,  Various  Readings,  and 
Notes  (Vienna,  1891-95) ;  Gutman,  Untersuchungen  ober  das  mit- 
telenglische  Gedicht  "  The  Btike  of  the  H  owlat"  (Berlin,  1893);  Men- 
nicken,  Versbau  und  Sprache  in  Huchowns  Morte  Arthure  (Bonn, 
1900);  Smith  in  Dreamthorp  (1866);  Smeaton,  Dunbar  in  Fa- 
mous Scots  Series  (Edinburgh,  1898);  Kaufmann,  Traite  de  la 
Langue  du  poite  icossais,  William  Dunbar,  precide  d'une  esquisse 
de  sa  vie  et  de  ses  poimes  (Bonn,  1873) ;  Hahn,  Verbal-  und  Nominal- 
flexion  (Berlin,  1887-1889);  Baildon,  Dissertation  on  the  Rimes  of 
Dunbar  (Freiburg,  reprinted  Edinburgh,  1899) ;  Lange,  Chaucer's 
Einfluss  auf  die  Originaldichtungen  des  Schotten  Gavin  Douglas 
(Halle,  1882);  M'Crie,  Life  of  John  Knox  (1811;  reprinted  Phila- 
delphia, 1898) ;  Hume  Brown,  John  Knox:  a  Biography  (London, 
1895) ;  Idem,  George  Buchanan,  Humanist  and  Reformer  (London, 
1890);  Irving,  Life  of  George  Buchanan  (Edinburgh,  1807;  2nd 
ed.,  1817);  Hoffmann,  Studien  zu  Alexander  Montgomerie  (Alten- 
burg,  1894);  Rait,  The  Royal  Rhetorician  (1900);  Menzies  Fer- 
QU880.N,  Alexander  Hume,  an  early  Poet-Pastor  of  Logic  (Paisley, 
1899) ;  Whyte,  Samuel  Rutherford  and  his  Correspondents  (Edin- 
burgh, 1894);  Taylor  Innes,  Studies  in  Scottish  History  (Lon- 
don, 1892) ;  Idem,  John  Knox  in  Famous  Scots  Series  (Edinburgh, 
1896) ;  Omond,  The  Lord  Advocates  of  Scotland  (Glasgow,  1883) ; 
Paterson  (ed.),  William  Hamilton  of  Bangour's  Poems  and  Songs 
(1850);  Smeaton,  Allan  Ramsay  in  Famous  Scots  Series  (Edin- 
burgh, 1896);  Masson,  Edinburgh  Sketches  and  Memories  (Lon- 
don, 1892);  Chambers,  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men ((Slasgow,  1835-56) ;  Mason  Good,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and 
Writings  of  Alexander  Geddes  (London,  1803);  Irving,  Poetical 
Works,  with  Life,  of  Robert  Fergusson  (1800);  Aitken,  The  Poems 
of  Robert  Fergusson,  with  a  Sketch  of  the  Author's  Life  (189.5); 
Grosart,  Robert  Fergusson  in  Famous  Scots  Series  (1898);  Lock- 
hart,  Life  of  Burns  (London,  1828;  5th  ed.,  1847);  Wilson, 
Essays  on  Burns  in  his  Collected  Works  (1858) ;  Thomas 
Carlyle,  Essay  on  Burns  (1831);  R.  Louis  Stevenson,  Essay 
on  Burns  (1882);  Rogers,  Life  and  Songs  of  Lady  Nairne 
(1869);  Kington  Oliphant,  Jacobite  Lairds  of  Gask  (1870); 
James  Hogg,  Autobiography;  Wilson  (ed.),  Hogg's  Works, 
with  Life  (Edinburgh,  1838;  new  ed.,  1852);  Thomson  (ed.), 
Hogg's  Works,  with  Memoir  (1865);  Garden,  Memorials  of  James 
Hogg  (1885) ;  Douglas,  James  Hogg  in  Famous  Scots  Series 
(1899) ;  David  Hogg,  Life  of  Allan  Cunningham  (Dumfries,  1875); 
M'Conechy  (ed.),  William  Motherwell' s  Works  vnth  Life  (London, 
1846;  re-edited  1849;  reprinted  1881);  Hammerton,  J.  M.  Barrie 
and  His  Books  (London,  1900) ;  Giles  in  The  Cambridge  History 
of  English  Literature,  V  (Cambridge,  1908),  115-52. 

P.  J.  Lennox. 
Scotland,  Established  Chxirch  of,  the  religious 
organization  which  has  for  three  centuries  and  a  half 
claimed  the  adherence  of  the  majority  of  the  inhabi- 


tants of  Scotland,  ma\-  be  said  to  date  from  August, 
1560,  in  which  month  the  Scottish  Parliament,  as- 
sembled in  Edinburgh  without  any  writ  from  the 
sovereign,  decided  that  the  Protestant  Confession 
of  Faith  (drawn  up  on  much  the  same  lines  as  the 
Confession  of  Westminster)  should  henceforth  be  the 
established,  and  only  authorized,  creed  of  the  Scot- 
t  ish  Kingdom.  The  same  Parliament  abolished  papal 
jurisdiction,  and  forbade  the  celebration  or  hearing 
of  Mass  under  penalty  of  death;  but  it  made  no 
provision  for  the  appointment  of  the  new  clergy, 
nor  for  their  maintenance.  At  the  first  General  As- 
sembly, however,  of  the  newly-constituted  body,  held 
in  December,  1560,  the  First  Book  of  Discipline 
was  approved  in  which  not  only  doctrinal  questions 
and  the  conduct  of  worship  were  minutely  legislated 
for,  but  detailed  regulations  were  drawn  up  for  the 
election  and  admission  of  ministers,  and  for  their 
support  on  a  generous  scale  from  the  confiscated 
revenues  of  the  ancient  Church.  Scotland  was 
divided  ecclesiastically  into  ten  districts,  for  each  of 
which  was  appointed  a  superintendent  to  travel 
about,  institute  ministers,  and  generally  set  the 
Church  in  order.  A  scheme  of  popular  and  higher 
education  was  also  sketched  out,  for  which  the  early 
Scottish  Reformers  have  been  highly  lauded;  but 
it  was  never  carried  out,  and  the  whole  educational 
work  of  the  founders  of  the  Kirk  consisted  in  purging 
the  schools  and  universities  of  "idolatrous  regents" 
(i.  e.  Catholic  teachers),  more  than  a  century  being 
allowed  to  elapse  before  there  was  any  attempt  at 
national  education  in  Presbyterian  Scotland. 

The  fact  was  that  the  greedy  nobles  who  had  fallen 
on  and  divided  amongst  themselves  the  possessions 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  absolutely  refused  to  dis- 
gorge them,  notwithstanding  their  professed  zeal  for 
the  new  doctrines.  Only  a  sixth  part  of  the  eccle- 
siastical revenues  was  grudgingly  doled  out  for  the 
support  of  the  ministers,  and  even  that  was  paid  with 
great  irregularity.  The  grasping  avarice  of  the  nobles 
was  also  responsible  for  all  delay  and  difficulties  in 
settling  the  system  of  church  government  on  Presby- 
terian principles,  as  desired  by  the  Protestant  leaders. 
The  barons  saw  with  dismay  the  life-interest  of  the 
old  bishops  and  abbots  (preserved  to  them  by  the 
legislation  of  1560)  gradually  lapsing,  and  their  pos- 
sessions falling  to  the  Church.  In  a  convention 
held  in  1572  the  lords  actually  procured  the  restora- 
tion of  the  old  hierarchical  titles,  the  quasi-bishops 
thus  created  being  merely  catspaws  to  the  nobles, 
who  ho[)ed  through  them  to  get  possession  of  all  the 
remaining  ecclesiastical  endowments.  Although  the 
General  Assembly  refused  to  recognize  this  sham 
episcopate,  the  fact  of  its  existence  kept  alive  the  idea 
that  Episcopacy  might  eventually  be  the  established 
form  of  government  in  the  Scottish,  as  in  the  Eng- 
lish, Protestant  Church;  and  the  question  of  Prelacy 
versus  Presbytery  remained  a  burning  one  for  more 
than  a  century  longer.  During  the  long  reign  of 
James  VI,  whose  vacillating  character  induced  him 
first  to  cajole  the  Church  with  promises  of  spiritual 
independence  and  then  to  harass  her  by  measures  of 
the  most  despotic  Erastianism,  the  religious  condi- 
tion of  Scotland  was  in  a  state  of  continual  ferment. 
The  king  succeeded  in  getting  the  bishops  author- 
ized to  sit  in  Parliament  in  1600;  and  when,  three  years 
later,  he  succeeded  to  the  Crown'of  England,  he  openly 
proclaimed  his  favourite  maxim,  "No  bishop,  no 
king",  declared  Presbyterianism  incompatible  with 
monarchy,  suppressed  the  right  of  free  assembly,  and 
tried  and  punished  the  leaders  of  the  Scottish  Church 
for  high  treason.  The  discontent  caused  in  Scotland 
by  these  high-handed  measures  came  to  a  head  after 
his  death,  when  his  son  and  successor,  Charles  I, 
visited  Scotland  in  1633,  and  professed  himself 
pained  by  the  baldness  of  public  worship.  His  im- 
position, four  years  later,  of  the  English  'liturgy  oa 


SCOTLAND 


G28 


SCOTLAND 


everj'  congregation  in  Scotland,  on  pain  of  depriva- 
tion of  the  minister,  was  the  signal  for  a  general  up- 
rising, not  less  formidable  because  restrained.  The 
Pri\'j-  Council  permitted  (being  powerless  to  prevent) 
the  formation  of  a  provisional  government,  whose 
first  act  was  to  procure  the  renewal  of  the  National 
Ck)venant,  first  drawn  up  in  15S0,  engaging  its  sub- 
scribers to  adhere  to  and  defend  the  doctrine  and 
discipline  of  the  Scotch  Protestant  Church.  The 
Covenant  was  signed  by  all  classes  of  the  people,  and 
the  General  Assembly  of  163S,  in  spite  of  the  protest 
of  the  king's  high  commissioner,  Lord  Hamilton, 
abolished  the  episcopacy,  annulled  the  royal  ordinance 
as  to  the  service-book,  and  claimed  a  sovereign  right 
to  carry  out  the  convictions  of  the  national  church  as 
to  its  position  and  duty. 

These  high  pretensions  of  the  General  Assembly,  of 
which  King  Charles  was,  through  his  commissioner, 
a  constituent  part,  were  bound  to  come  in  confhct 
with  Charles'  lofty  idea  of  his  royal  prerogative.  He 
absolutely  refused  to  concede  the  right  of  his  Scottish 
subjects  to  choose  their  own  form  of  church  govern- 
ment, and  marched  an  army  to  the  border  to  enforce 
submission  to  his  authority.  The  Scotch,  however, 
possessed  themselves  of  Newcastle;  the  king  was 
ultimately  obliged  to  sign  a  treaty  favourable  to  them 
and  their  claims;  and  his  own  downfall,  followed  by 
the  dictatorship  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  a  sworn  oppo- 
nent of  Prelacy,  brought  the  leaders  of  the  Scottish 
Church  into  important  relations  with  the  new  order 
of  things  in  England.  The  Scottish  Commissioners 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Westminster  Assembly 
of  1643,  convened  to  draw  up  the  new  standards  of 
doctrine  and  church  government  for  England  under 
the  Commonwealth;  and  it  was  then  and  there  that 
was  framed  the  "Shorter  Catechism"  which  still 
remains  the  recognized  religious  text-book  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland.  The  latter  years 
of  the  Commonwealth  were,  in  fact,  an  epoch  of 
prosperity  hitherto  unknown  for  Scottish  Presby- 
terianism;  but  the  restoration  of  Charles  II,  who  was 
nowhere  more  warmly  welcomed  than  in  his  northern 
dominioas,  was  a  rude  blow  to  their  Church's  hopes 
of  continued  peace  and  spiritual  independence. 

Within  a  year  of  his  assumption  of  the  royal  au- 
thority, Charles  rescinded  through  his  Parliaments  all 
the  acts  approving  the  national  covenant  and  abolish- 
ing the  hierarchy;  and  a  few  months  later  his  Scottish 
subjects  were  bidden  by  proclamations  to  "com- 
pose themselves  to  a  cheerful  acquiescence"  in  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  "right  government  of  bishops", 
on  pain  of  impri-sonment.  Four  new  prelates  were 
consecrated  by  English  bishops  for  Scotland,  and  all 
occupiers  of  benefices  had  to  get  presentation  from 
the  patrons  and  collation  from  the  bishops,  or  else  be 
ejected  from  their  livings,  as  nearly  four  hundred 
actually  were.  From  this  time  until  Charles  II's 
death  in  1685,  an  era  of  persecution  prevailed  in 
Scotland,  large  numbers  of  the  Presbyterians  refusing 
to  conform  to  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  being  treated 
in  con.sequence  with  every  kind  of  indignity,  hounded 
from  their  houses,  tortured,  and  in  many  ca-ses  ma.s- 
sacred.  The  worship  of  the  Covenanters  was  pro- 
hibited under  pain  of  death,  but  was  neverthele.s9 
largely  attended  all  over  the  country,  and  the  armed 
risings  of  the  people  against  their  oppressors  were 
forcibly  put  down,  the  Covenanting  forces  being  hope- 
lessly defeated  in  several  engagements.  At  length, 
on  the  king's  death,  came  a  few  years'  breathing- 
time  and  peace;  for  his  Catholic  succeasor,  James 
II,  himself  of  course  a  diasenter  from  the  established 
religion,  immediately  conceded  toleration  and  liberty 
of  worship  all  over  the  kingdom,  although  some  of 
hia  more  fanatical  subjects  refused  to  accept  a  boon 
which  they  regarded  as  coming  from  a  polluted  source. 

The  Revolution  of  1688,  and  the  fiight  of  the  Catho- 


lic king,  opened  the  way  to  the  abolition  of  the  Pre- 
latical  government  which  was  odious  to  the  majority 
of  Scotsmen;  and  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  Parha- 
ment  assembled  in  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  William 
III  (July,  1689)  was  to  repeal  all  previous  acts  in 
favour  of  Episcopacy.  The  Presbyterian  form  of 
church  government  was  not  settled  by  this  Parlia- 
ment; but,  in  the  following  year,  the  Jacobite  and 
Prelatical  cause  having  been  rendered  hopeless  by  the 
death  of  its  leader,  Graham  of  Claverhouse,  Viscount 
Dundee,  the  king  and  queen  and  the  three  estates 
of  the  realm  formally  ratified  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession, and  re-established  the  Presbyterian  form  of 
church  government  and  discipline.  Lord  Melville, 
a  zealous  Presbyterian,  had  already  replaced  Hamil- 
ton as  the  king's  commissioner  to  the  General  As- 
sembly, and  the  Restoration  Act  of  Parliament,  as- 
serting the  supremacy  of  the  Crown  in  ecclesiastical 
causes,  had  been  repealed.  Another  act  ordered  all 
professors  and  masters  in  every  university  and  school 
to  subscribe  the  Confession,  and  the  popular  election 
of  ministers  took  the  place  of  private  patronage  to 
benefices.  The  secular  power  thus  re-established 
the  Church  as  a  fullj^-organized  Presbyterian  body, 
just  as  it  had  re-established  Episcopacj'  thirty  years 
before;  but  the  new  settlement  was  made  not  by  the 
arbitrary  will  of  the  sovereign,  but  (according  to  the 
principles  of  the  Revolution)  as  being  that  most  in 
accordance  with  the  will  of  the  people,  as  indeed  there 
is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  it  was.  A  very  consider- 
able section,  however,  especially  in  the  east  and  north- 
east of  Scotland,  and  more  particularly  among  the 
wealthy  and  aristocratic  classes,  remained  attached 
to  Episcopalian  principles;  and  though  those  of  the 
clergy  who  refused  to  conform  to  the  Establishment 
were  treated  with  considerable  harshness,  no  attempt 
was  made  to  compel  the  laity  to  attend  Presbyterian 
worship,  or  submit  to  the  rigid  Presbyterian  discipline. 
The  majority  of  the  EpiscopaUans  were  also  Jaco- 
bites at  heart,  praying,  if  not  working,  for  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Stuart  dynasty,  and  were  thus  a  disturbing 
element  in  the  country  not  only  from  a  religious, 
but  from  a  pohtical  point  of  view.  The  four  Scottish 
universities  (Aberdeen,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  St.  An- 
drews) were  beheved,  and  with  reason,  to  be  very  un- 
favourably affected  towards  the  new  order  of  things  in 
Church  and  State;  and  the  visitation  of  them  con- 
ducted in  the  closing  years  of  the  seventeenth  century 
resulted  in  the  majority  of  the  principals  being  ejected 
from  office  for  refusing  to  comply  with  the  test  ordered 
by  the  statute  of  1690.  The  effect  of  this  state  of 
things  was  that  when  the  General  Assembly  met  for 
the  first  time  after  nearly  forty  years,  the  universities 
were  unrepresented  save  by  a  single  member,  while  there 
were  hardly  any  members  belonging  to  the  nobility 
or  higher  gentry,  or  representing  the  wide  district  of 
Scotland  north  of  the  Tay.  The  Assembly  ordered  all 
ministers  and  elders  to  subscribe  the  Westminster 
Confession,  and  appointed  a  solemn  fast-day  in  expia- 
tion of  the  national  sins,  among  which  was  expressly 
mentioned  the;  introduction  of  Prelacy.  But  in  view 
of  the  divid(!(l  state  of  the  country,  it  showed  its  pru- 
dence by  not  attempting  to  renew  the  general  obliga- 
tion of  the  National  Covenant.  The  efforts  of  the 
Assembly,  through  its  commissioners,  to  purge  out  the 
old  incumbents  throughout  the  kingdom,  and  replace 
them  by  orthodox  ministers,  proved  quite  ineffectual 
in  Aberdeen  and  other  strongholds  of  Episcopacy; 
but  on  the  whole,  the  estabUshed  religion,  backed  by 
the  authority  of  the  State  and  supported  by  the 
majority  of  the  people,  held  its  own,  and  increased  in 
strength  and  numbers  during  the  reigns  of  William  III 
and  his  successor  Queen  Anne.  The  latter,  while  her- 
self a  strong  adherent  of  the  Episcopal  Church  of 
England,  showed  no  inclination  to  favour  the  hopes 
and  schemes  of  the  IOj)iscopalian  minority  in  Scotland. 
A  proposal  in  the  Scottish  ParUament  of  1703  that  the 


SCOTLAND 


029 


SCOTLAND 


free  exercise  of  religious  worship  should  be  conceded  to 
all  Protestant  Nonconformists  (Catholics,  of  course, 
were  carefully  excluded)  was  met  by  a  violent  protest 
from  the  authorities  of  the  Estabhshed  Church,  and  was 
consequently  dropped.  The  Episcopal  body,  how- 
ever, continued  its  private  worship,  though  not  sanc- 
tioned by  law,  and  provided  for  its  continued  organi- 
zation by  the  consecration  of  two  more  bishops  (the 
old  hierarchy  being  almost  extinct)  in  1705,  without, 
however,  claiming  for  them  any  diocesan  jurisdiction. 
The  Union  of  England  and  Scotland  into  one  king- 
dom in  1707;  a  measure  unpopular  with  the  great  body 
of  the  Scottish  nation,  was  resisted  by  many  Presby- 
terians, through  fear  of  the  effect  on  their  Church  of  a 
closer  connexion  with  a  kingdom  where  Prelacy  was 
legally  established.  Parliament,  however,  enacted,  as 
a  fundamental  and  essential  condition  of  the  Treaty 
of  Union,  that  the  Confession  of  Faith  and  the  Pres- 
byterian form  of  church  government  were  "to  con- 
tinue without  any  alteration  to  all  succeeding  gener- 
ations"; the  religious  tests  were  to  be  continued  in 
the  case  of  all  holding  office  in  universities  and  schools, 
and  every  succeeding  sovereign  was  to  swear  at  his 
accession  to  preserve  inviolate  the  existing  settlement 
of  religion,  worship,  government,  and  discipline  in 
Scotland.  It  was  a  rude  shock  to  those  who  believed 
the  unchallenged  supremacy  of  the  Scottish  Church 
to  be  thus  permanently  secured  to  find  the  British 
Parliament,  a  few  years  later,  not  only  passing  an  act 
tolerating  Episcopalian  worship  in  Scotland,  but  re- 
storing that  right  of  private  patronage  to  benefices 
which,  revived  at  the  Restoration,  had  been  abolished, 
it  was  thought  forever,  at  the  Revolution.  The  im- 
portance of  the  latter  measure,  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  history  of  the  Established  Church,  can  hardly 
be  exaggerated;  for  it  was  the  direct  incentive  to,  and 
the  immediate  cause  of,  the  beginning  of  the  long 
series  of  schisms  within  the  body,  the  result  of  which 
has  been,  in  the  words  of  a  Presbyterian  historian,  the 
"breaking-up  of  the  church  into  innumerable  frag- 
ments". There  were  already  included  within  the  pale 
of  the  establishment  two  widely  differing  parties :  the 
old  orthodox  Presbyterians  or  "evangelicals",  who 
upheld  the  national  covenant  to  the  letter,  and  looked 
upon  the  toleration  of  Episcopacy  as  a  national  sin 
crying  to  heaven;  and  the  new  and  semi-prelatical 
party  subsequently  known  as  "  moderates",  who  grad- 
ually became  dominant  in  the  government  of  the 
church,  regarded  their  opponents  as  fanatics,  declined 
to  check,  if  they  did  not  actually  encourage,  the 
Arminian  or  latitudinarian  doctrines  which  were  tak- 
ing the  place  of  the  old  Calvinistic  tenets,  and  sub- 
mitted without  a  murmur  to  the  restoration  of  lay 
patronage,  which  struck  at  the  very  root  of  the  es- 
Bsntial  i)rinciple  of  Presbyterian  church  government. 
The  policy  of  the  moderates  prevailed;  the  revolt  of 
the  presbyteries  was  quelled,  and  the  popular  clamour 
to  a  great  extent  silenced.  But  at  the  same  time  thou- 
sands of  people  were  alienated  from  the  establish- 
ment, so  that  by  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
there  were  in  every  centre  of  population  schis- 
matic meeting-houses  thronged  with  dissentient 
worshippers. 

The  long  period  of  ascendancy  of  the  Moderate 
party  in  the  Church  of  Scotland,  which  lasted  from 
the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  well  into  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury— a  period  of  nearly  a  hundred  years — was  on  the 
whole  an  uneventful  one.  Faithful  to  the  Hanove- 
rian settlement,  and  closely  allied  with  the  state,  the 
establishment  grew  in  power  and  dignity,  and  pro- 
duced not  a  few  scholars  and  philosophers  of  consid- 
erable eminence.  Principal  William  Robertson,  the 
historian  of  Scotland,  of  America,  and  of  Charles  V, 
was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  products  of  this 
period;  and  he  may  be  taken  also  as  typical  of  the 
cultured  Presbyterian  divines  of  the  ei'^hteenth  cen- 
tury, whose  least  conspicuous  side  was  the  theological 


or  spiritual  element  which  one  might  have  expected 
to  find  in  the  religious  leaders  of  the  time.  Spiritu- 
ality, in  truth,  was  not  the  strong  point  of  the  promi- 
nent Scottish  churchmen  of  that  epoch,  whose  doc- 
trinal la.xity  has  been  acknowledged  and  deplored  by 
their  modern  admirers  and  fellow-churchmen.  Ra- 
tionahsm  was  rife  in  manse  and  pulpit  throughout 
Scotland;  and  the  sermons  of  Hugh  Blair,  which  were 
translated  into  almost  every  European  language,  and 
were  praised  as  the  most  eloquent  utterances  of  the 
age,  are  purely  negative  from  any  theological  point 
of  view,  however  admirable  as  rhetorical  exercises. 
Whatever  spiritual  fervour  or  devotional  warmth 
there  was  in  the  Presbyterianism  of  the  eighteenth 
century  is  to  be  looked  for  not  within  the  pale  of  the 
dominant  church,  but  in  the  ranks  of  the  seceders 
from  the  establishment — the  Burghers  and  Anti- 
burghers,  and  other  strangely-named  dissentient 
bodies,  who  were  at  least  possessed  with  an  intense 
and  very  real  evangelical  zeal,  and  exercised  a  pro- 
portionate influence  on  those  with  whom  they  came 
in  contact.  That  influence  was  exerted  not  only 
personally,  and  in  their  pulpits,  but  also  in  their 
devotional  writings,  which  undoubtedly  did  more  to 
keep  the  essential  principles  of  Christianity  alive  in 
the  hearts  of  their  countrymen,  in  an  unbeheving  age, 
than  anything  effected  by  the  frigid  scholarship,  phi- 
losophy, and  rhetoric  which  were  engendered  by  the 
established  church  of  the  country  during  the  period 
under  review. 

It  is  singular  that  the  state  Church  of  Scotland, 
whose  own  religious  spirit  was  at  so  generally  low  an 
ebb  during  the  greater  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, should  nevertheless  have  during  that  period 
made  more  or  less  persistent  efforts  to  uproot  the 
last  vestiges  of  the  ancient  Faith  in  the  northern  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  many  of  which  had  remained  ab- 
solutely unaffected  by  the  Reformation.  It  was  in 
1725  that  the  yearly  gift  called  the  Royal  Bounty, 
still  bestowed  annually  by  the  Sovereign,  was  first 
forthcoming,  with  the  express  object  of  Protestan- 
tizing the  still  Cathohc  districts  of  the  Highlands. 
Schools  were  set  up,  Gaelic  teachers  and  catechists 
instituted,  copies  of  the  Protestant  Bible,  translated 
into  Gaelic,  widely  disseminated,  and  every  effort 
made  to  win  over  to  the  Presbyterian  tenets  the  poor 
people  who  still  clung  to  the  immemorial  faith  and 
practices  of  their  fathers.  Want  of  means  prevented 
as  much  being  done  in  this  direction  as  was  desired 
and  intended;  and  for  that  reason,  as  well  as  owing 
to  the  unexpected  reluctance  of  the  Catholic  High- 
landers to  exchange  their  ancient  beliefs  for  the  new 
evangel  of  the  Kirk,  the  efforts  of  the  proselytizers 
were  only  very  partially  successful,  the  inhabitants 
of  several  of  the  western  islands,  and  of  many  iso- 
lated glens  and  straths  in  the  western  portion  of  the 
Highland  mainland,  still  persisting  in  their  firm  at- 
tachment to  the  old  religion. 

Meanwhile  the  general  revival  of  Evangelicalism, 
which  was  in  part  a  reaction  from  the  excesses  and 
negations  of  the  French  Revolution,  was  beginning 
to  stir  the  dry  bones  of  Scottish  Presbyterianism, 
which  had  almost  lost  any  influence  it  had  formerly 
exercised  on  the  religious  life  of  the  people.  The  per- 
sonal piety,  ardent  zeal,  and  rugged  pulpit  eloquence 
of  men  like  Andrew  Thomson  and  Thomas  Chalmers 
awoke  the  Established  Church  from  its  apathy,  and 
one  of  the  first  evidences  of  its  new  fervour  was  the 
official  sanction  given  to  foreign  mission  work,  which 
had  been  condemned  as  "improper  and  absurd"  by 
the  General  Assembly  of  1796.  The  business  of 
church  extension  at  home  was  at  the  same  time 
energetically  undertaken;  and  though  it  was  long 
hindered  by  the  hopelessness  of  obtaining  increased 
endowments  from  the  Government — the  only  means, 
curiously  enough,  by  which  the  Church  seemed  for 
years  to  think  the  extension  could  be  brought  about 


SCOTLAND 


630 


SCOTLAND 


— private  munificence  came  to  the  rescue,  and  within 
seven  years  more  than  two  hundred  churches  were 
added  to  those  already  existing  in  Scotland.  The 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  however,  though 
a  period  of  progress,  was  by  no  means  a  period  of 
peace  mtliin  the  establishment.  Side  by  side  with 
the  evangeUcal  revival  had  sprung  up  again  the  old 
ag:itation  about  the  essential  evil  of  lay  private 
patronage.  Internally  the  Church  was  torn  by  doc- 
trinal controversies,  resulting  in  the  condemnation 
and  expulsion  of  some  ministers  of  distinction  and 
repute,  while  in  open  opposition  were  the  noncon- 
forming bodies  which  had.  at  least  temporarilj^, 
coalesced  under  the  title  of  the  United  Seceders, 
preached  uncompromising  voluntarj'ism,  and  de- 
nounced all  state  connexion  with  churches,  and  state 
endowments  of  religion,  as  intrinsically  unscriptural 
and  impious. 

It  was,  however,  the  age-long  grievance  about 
patronage  which  proved  the  rock  on  which  the  Estab- 
lished Church  was  to  split  asunder  and  to  be  wellnigh 
shattered.  The  Veto  Act,  passed  by  the  General 
Assembly  in  1833,  provided  that  the  minister  pre- 
sented by  the  patron  was  not  to  be  instituted  unless 
approved  by  a  majority  of  heads  of  families  in  the 
congregation;  but  the  highest  legal  tribunals  in  Scot- 
land absolutely  refused  to  sanction  this  enactment, 
as  did  the  House  of  Lords,  to  which  the  Assembly 
appealed.  The  claim  of  the  Church  to  legislative 
independence  was  rudely  brushed  aside  by  the  Pres- 
ident of  the  Court  of  S(>ssion,  in  his  famous  declaration 
that  "the  temporal  head  of  the  Church  is  Parliament, 
from  whose  acts  alone  it  exists  as  the  national  Church, 
and  from  which  alone  it  derives  all  its  powers".  The 
result  of  this  momentous  conflict  was  what  was  known 
as  the  "Disruption"  of  1843,  when  451  out  of  1203 
ministers  quitted  the  church,  together  with  fully  a 
third  of  its  lay  members,  and  initiated  a  new  religious 
organization  thenceforth  known  as  the  Free  Church 
(see  Free  Church  of  Scotland). 

The  Established  Church,  shorn  by  the  Disruption, 
of  all  the  men  who  had  been  most  prominent  in  pro- 
moting the  evangelical  revival,  swept  from  its  statute- 
book  everj'thing  disallowed  by  the  civil  courts,  be- 
came again  "moderate"  in  its  polity,  and  frankly 
Erastian  in  its  absolute  subservience  to  the  civil 
power.  With  its  national  reputation  seriously  im- 
paired, and  abandoned  by  its  labourers  in  the  mission 
field,  who  all,  with  one  solitary  exception,  joined  the 
rival  Church,  its  task  was  for  many  years  a  difficult 
and  ungrateful  one.  It  is  to  its  credit  as  an  organ- 
izing body  that  it  promptly  set  to  work,  and  with 
some  measure  of  success,  to  repair  the  breaches  of 
1843,  to  recruit  its  missionary  staff,  to  extend  its 
borders  at  home,  to  fill  up  the  many  vacancies  caused 
by  the  latest  schism,  and  to  erect  and  endow  new 
parishes.  In  1874,  thirty-two  years  after  the  Dis- 
ruption, the  Assembly  petitioned  Parliament  for  the 
abolition  of  the  system  of  patronage,  so  long  the  great 
bone  of  contention  in  the  Church.  The  prayer  was 
granted,  and  the  right  of  electing  their  own  minis- 
ters conferred  on  the  congregations — a  democratic  ar- 
rangement which,  however  gratifying  to  the  electors, 
often  places  the  candidate  for  their  suffrages  in  a 
position  both  humiliating  and  unflignified,  and  is  not 
mfrequently  acajmpanied  by  incidents  as  ludicroas 
as  they  are  dlsedifying.  Nor  has  the  new  order  of 
things  apparently  brought  appreciably  nearer  the 
prospects  of  reunion  bcstwerm  the  Established  and 
Free  Churches,  although  the  question  of  patronage, 
and  not  that  of  State  recognition,  was  the  main  point 
of  cleavage  between  them.  A  union  of  a  kind,  though 
not  a  complete  one,  there  has  been  of  sornf;  of  the  reli- 
gious bodifjs  outside  the  pale  of  the  Establishment: 
but  the  Stat«  Church  herself  seems  powerless  to  recall 
or  reunite  the  numerous  sects  which  have  wandered 


from  her  fold,  difficult  or  impossible  as  it  seems  to 
the  outside  observer  to  discover  what  essential  points 
of  difference  there  are  between  them  in  matters  either 
of  doctrine,  discipline,  or  church  government. 

The  Established  Church  of  Scotland  maintains  that 
her  system  of  government,  by  kirk-sessions,  presby- 
teries, .synods,  and  the  General  Assembly,  is  "agree- 
able to  the  Word  of  God  and  acceptable  to  the  people" ; 
but  she  does  not  claim  for  it  exclusively  the  Divine 
sanction  and  authority.  There  is  no  doubt  as  to  its 
general  popularity  in  Scotland,  to  whose  people  the 
democratic  element  in  Presbyterianism  strongly  ap- 
peals. In  the  lowest  judicatory  body,  the  kirk- 
session,  the  laymen  or  "elders"  greatly  preponderate, 
and  they  are  as  numerous  as  the  ministers  in  presby- 
teries and  synods;  wiiile  the  members  of  the  supreme 
bodj',  the  General  Assembly,  are  chosen  by  popular 
election.  The  Sovereign  is  represented  at  the  As- 
sembly by  his  Lord  High  Commissioner;  but  his 
presidency  is  merely  formal,  and  the  Assembly  is 
opened  and  dissolved  not  by  him  in  the  first  place, 
but  by  the  elected  head  or  "moderator",  in  the  name 
of  Christ,  the  "head  of  the  Church".  It  is  needless 
however,  to  add  that  popular  election  and  democratic 
government  notwithstanding,  the  Scottish  Estab- 
lished Church  is,  like  its  English  sister,  the  creature 
of  the  State  and  ab.solutely  subject  to  it;  and  nothing 
in  its  parliamentary  creed  can  be  changed  except  with 
the  sanction  of  the  authority  to  which  it  owes  its 
existence.  Viewed  in  the  light  of  the  history  of  the 
past  three  centuries,  the  passionate  claim  made  by  a 
section  of  Scottish  Presbyterians  to  "spiritual  in- 
dependence" is  as  ludicrous  as  it  is  pathetic.  Their 
Church  enjoys  exactlj^  as  much  independence — 
neither  less  nor  more — as  may  be  conceded  to  it  by 
the  State  which  created  and  upholds  it. 

Present-day  Statistics. — The  number  of  ecclesiastical 
parishes  in  Scotland  (1911)  is  1441;  of  chapels,  80;  of 
mission  stations,  170;  total,  1691;  and  the  increase 
of  church  sittings  since  1880  is  stated  to  be  196,000. 
The  total  endowments  of  the  Church  from  all  sources 
(i.  e.  the  national  exchequer,  local  funds,  "tcinds" 
or  tithes,  either  in  kind  or  commuted,  and  funds  raised 
within  the  Church)  are  reckoned  at  about  £360,000 
annually.  The  number  of  communicants,  as  returned 
to  the  General  Assembly  in  May,  1910,  was  711,200; 
and  there  were  2222  Sunday  schools  taught  by  about 
21,000  teachers,  with  a  roll  of  children  amounting  to 
nearly  301,000.  It  is  claimed  in  the  official  returns 
of  the  Church  that  her  membership  has  increased  52 
per  cent  in  36  years,  during  which  period  the  growth 
of  the  total  population  of  Scotland  has  increased  only 
33  per  cent.  The  Established  Church  performed  in 
1908  45  per  cent  of  Scottish  marriages,  as  compared 
with  26  per  cent  (United  Free)  and  10  per  cent 
(Catholic).  Reckoning  the  population  of  Scotland 
in  191 1  at  about  4,750,000,  the  proportion  of  communi- 
cants of  the  Establislnnent  would  be  about  14  per 
cent  of  the  whole.  The  Church  of  Scotland  has  in 
recent  years  displayed  much  energy  in  the  extension 
of  her  work  both  at  home  and  abroad.  Since  1878 
the  Home  and  Foreign  Missions  have  doubled  their 
incomes;  460  new  parishes  have  been  erected,  and  380 
new  churches  built;  missions  have  been  established 
in  Africa  and  China,  and  a  Universities  Foreign  Mi.s- 
sion  started;  and  guilds  and  associations  have  been 
founded  in  connexion  with  a  great  variety  of  religious 
objects.  During  the  same  period  of  thirty-six  years 
a  sum  of  betw(;en  sixt(;(!n  and  seventeen  millions 
sterling  (exclusive  of  government  grants,  school  fees, 
and  interest  on  capital)  has  been  voluntarily  con- 
tributefl  for  parochial,  missionary,  and  charital)l(;  pur- 
poses in  conn(!xion  with  the  Established  Church. 

The  four  Scotti.sh  Universities  all  possess  faculties 
of  "divinity",  with  well-endowed  professors  lecturing 
on  theological  or  quasi-theological  subjects;  and  a 


SCOTO-HIBERNIAN 


631 


SCOTO-HIBERNIAN 


degree  at  one  of  these  universities,  or  at  least  a  cer- 
tificate of  having  attended  courses  of  lectures  therein, 
is  as  a  rule  required  of  students  aspiring  to  the  Presby- 
terian ministry.  Many  "bursaries"  or  scholarships 
are  available  for  students  in  divinity;  and  the  course 
of  studies  prescribed  for  them  is  comprehensive  and 
carefully  arranged.  It  is  impossible,  however,  to  deny 
the  fact,  or  to  view  it  without  apprehension,  that  the 
hold  of  dogmatic  truth  is  becoming  constantly  weaker 
in  the  Established  as  in  the  Free  Church,  among  teach- 
ers and  learners  alike.  German  rationalistic  ideas 
have  penetrated  deeply  into  the  divinity  halls  of  the 
Kirk;  and  half  an  hour's  conversation  with  a  Scotch 
professor  of  Biblical  criticism  or  systematic  theology, 
or  with  the  ablest  of  the  younger  generation  of  minis- 
ters who  have  sat  at  their  feet,  will  be  sufficient  to 
show  how  wide  has  been  the  departure  from  the  old 
orthodox  standards  of  belief  within  the  Church.  The 
latest  formula  of  subscription  imposed  on  ministers 
at  their  ordination  still  professes  a  belief  in  the 
"fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Christian  faith"  con- 
tained in  the  Presbyterian  Confession;  but  this  does 
not  apparently  include  any  real  acceptance  cither  of 
the  Divinity  of  Christ  or  of  the  inspiration  of  Holy 
Scripture,  at  least  in  the  sense  in  which  tho.se  doctrines 
are  understood  by  Catholics.  "In  Presbyterian 
Scotland",  writes  a  modern  critic,  "there  are  many 
good  Christians,  but  Pr(!sbyterian  Scotland  is  em- 
phatically not  a  Christian  country,  any  more  than 
Protestant  England."  That  such  a  deliberate  ver- 
dict should  be  possible  in  the  twentieth  century  of  the 
Christian  era  is  melancholy  indeed. 

Acts  of  the  General  Assetriblies  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  1638- 
1854  (Edinburgh,  1843-75) ;  Confession  of  Faith  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1638);  First  and  Second  Book  of  Dis- 
cipline (a.  1.,  1621);  Sage,  An  Account  of  the  Present  Persecu- 
tion of  the  Church  in  Scotland  (Ix)ndon,  1690) ;  Brief  arul  True 
Account  of  the  Sufferings  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  occasioned  by 
the  Episcopalians  (London,  1690) ;  Short  Statement  of  the  origin 
and  nature  of  the  present  divisions  in  the  Church  of  Scotland 
(London,  1840) ;  Fothehi.voham,  Presbyterianism  in  Religious 
Systems  of  the  WorLl  (Edinburgh,  1861);  McCrie,  The  Public 
Worship  of  Presbyterian  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1892);  Calder- 
WOOD,  History  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1842-44) ; 
Lee,  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  from  Ref- 
ormation to  Revolution  (Edinburgh,  1860);  Kixloch,  History 
of  Scotland,  chiefly  in  its  Ecclesiastical  Aspect  (Edinburgh,  1888) ; 
Walker,  Scottish  Church  History  (Edinburgh,  1881);  Church  of 
Scotland  Year-book  (Edinburgh,  1911);  Power,  Presbyterianism 
in  C.  T.  S.  Lectures  on  Hist,  of  Religions  (London,  s.  d.) 

D.  O    Hunter-Blair. 

Scoto-Hibernian  Monasteries,  a  convenient 
term  under  which  to  include  the  monastic  institutions 
which  were  founded  during  the  sixth  century  in  the 
country  now  known  as  Scotland,  though  that  name 
was  not  used  in  its  present  sense  until  four  hundred 
years  later.  These  institutions  owed  their  origin  to 
the  zeal  and  energy  of  St.  Columba,  whose  labours 
among  the  Picts  and  Scots  extended  over  a  period 
of  nearly  forty  years,  and  whose  biographer,  Adamnan, 
the  ninth  abbot  of  lona,  is  our  chief  authority  on  the 
subject,  although  his  list  of  Columban  foundations 
is  probably  incomplete,  and  the  exact  dates  of  their 
erection  are  uncertain.  What  is  certain,  however,  is 
that  these  monastic  houses  grouped  themselves  round 
lona  as  their  centre,  and  long  remained  in  close  con- 
nexion with  her.  Like  the  Columban  houses  in  Ire- 
land, they  acknowledged  the  jurisdiction  of  lona  as 
that  of  their  mother-house,  and  the  communities 
belonging  to  them  together  formed  the  widespread 
organization  known  as  the  family  of  lona,  or  muinlir 
loe.  Not  all  these  monasteries  were  actually  founded 
by  St.  Columba  in  person,  some  of  them  owing  their 
origin  to  his  immediate  followers,  whose  names  have 
in  many  cases  survived  the  (lisai)pearance  of  all 
material  traces  of  the  establishments  in  question. 
Reeves,  Skene,  and  other  Scottish  and  Iri.sh  anti- 
quarians have  devoted  much  time,  labour,  and  re- 
search in  the  endeavour  to  identify  the  localities  men- 


tioned by  Adamnan  and  other  early  writers.  With 
out  following  them  into  these  topographical  and  phil- 
ological details,  it  may  be  stated  generally  that 
vestiges  of  Columban  foundations  are  to  be  found  in 
the  northern,  eastern,  and  western  districts  of  Scot- 
land, formerly  occupied  respectively  by  the  Northern 
and  Southern  Picts  and  by  the  Scots  of  Dalriada. 
Many  of  these  monasteries  were  established  on  the 
islands  off  the  west  coast,  including  Tiree,  Skye, 
Garveloch,  Harris,  Lewis,  North  and  South  Uist, 
Lismore,  Mull,  Eigg,  Canna,  Colonsay,  and  numerous 
smaller  islands. 

Adamnan  makes  no  mention  of  the  monasteries 
founded  by  Columba  and  his  contemporaries  and  fol- 
lowers in  the  Pictish  territories  north  and  east  of  the 
great  central  mountain-range  known  as  Drumalban; 
but  from  other  sources  we  know  that  there  were  many 
of  such  foundations,  several  of  them  being  in  the 
remote  Orkney  Islands.  The  Book  of  Deer,  a  notable 
foundation  in  the  Buchan  district,  records  the  method 
in  which  these  isolated  monasteries  were  established 
among  the  heathen  tribes,  the  head  of  a  tribe  granting 
a  cnlhair,  or  fort,  which  was  then  occupied  by  a  colony 
of  clerics  or  missionaries — a  system  of  settlement  in 
every  respect  similar  to  that  prevailing  in  the  Irish 
Church  at  the  same  period.  All  down  the  east  coast, 
as  far  as  the  Forth,  we  find  the  name  of  Colum,  Colm 
or  Comb  constantly  associated  at  the  present  day 
with  churches,  chapels,  parishes,  fau-s,  and  wells, 
showing  how  widespread  were  the  influence  and 
labours  of  the  saint  of  lona.  In  the  territory  of  th( 
Southern  Picts,  who  as  a  nation  had  been  converted 
to  Christianity  a  century  before  by  St.  Ninian 
though  many  of  the  faithful  had  since  fallen  away 
the  faith  was  revived,  and  new  centres  of  religion  and 
of  missionary  work  were  formed  by  the  monasterie."- 
established  by  Columba  and  his  friends.  The  mo 
niistic  church  of  Abernethy  was  founded,  or  rather 
refoundcd,  by  King  Gartnaidh,  son  and  successor 
of  Brude,  Columba's  own  convert  and  warm  ally. 
Another  friend  of  the  saint,  Cainnech,  founded  the 
church  and  monastery  of  Kilrimont,  celebrated  in 
after  times  as  St.  Andrews.  The  monastic  church  of 
Dunkeld,  though  founded  much  later,  at  the  event- 
ful period  when  the  Picts  and  Scots  were  united  under 
the  sceptre  of  Kenneth  Mc Alpine,  was  essentially  a 
Columban  foundation,  though  by  that  time  the  in- 
fluence of  the  venerable  mother-house  of  lona  had 
greatly  waned,  and  the  jurisdiction  over  the  Irish 
monastic  churches  had  in  fact  been  transferred  to 
Kells  in  Meath. 

In  Scotland  Dunkeld,  under  royal  patronage,  took 
the  place  of  lona  as  the  head  of  the  Columban 
churches;  and  so  clearly  was  this  recognized  that 
when  the  diocesan  form  of  church  government  was 
established  in  Scotland,  lona  was  included  in  the 
Diocese  of  Dunkeld,  and  remained  so  long  after 
Argyll,  of  which  it  formed  a  part,  became  the  seat 
of  a  bishopric  of  its  own.  By  that  time,  however, 
the  Columban  or  monastic  church,  dominant  in  Scot- 
land for  nearly  two  centuries,  had,  as  an  organized 
body,  decayed  and  disappeared.  Early  in  the  eighth 
century  the  remnant  of  Columban  monks  were  ex- 
pelled by  King  Nectan,  and  the  primacy  of  lona  came 
to  an  end.  The  numerous  Columban  monasteries, 
or  at  least  such  of  them  as  were  not  abandoned  and 
in  ruins,  came  into  the  hands  of  the  now  dominant 
Culdees;  and  they  in  turn,  when  the  Scottish  Church 
came  to  be  reorganized  on  the  English  model  under 
the  influence  of  St.  Margaret  and  her  family,  found 
themselves  gradually  superseded  by  the  regular 
monastic  orders  which  were  introduced  into  the 
country  by  the  munificence  of  kings,  princes,  and 
nobles,  and  reared  their  splendid  abbeys  on  the  sites 
of  the  humble  monasteries  of  Columban  days.  One 
Columban  house  onlv,  the  monastery  of  Deer  already 
mentioned,   which  had  been  founded  by  Columba 


SCOTS 


632 


SCOTT 


himself,  and  placed  by  him  under  the  care  of  his 
nephew  Drostan.  preserved  its  original  and  Celtic 
character  for  fifty  years  beyond  the  reign  of  David  I, 
who  granted  it  a  new  charter,  and  showed  it  special 
favour.  Early  in  the  thirteenth  century,  however, 
it  was  extinguished  like  the  rest,  the  monastery  being 
made  over  to  the  Cistercian  monks,  who  held  it  un- 
til the  Reformation.  The  building,  however,  seems 
to  have  preserved  something  of  the  primitive  sim- 
plicity of  the  Columban  foundations;  for  one  of  the 
Cistercian  abbots  is  recorded  to  have  resigned  his 
office  and  returned  to  the  stately  abbey  of  Melrose, 
which  he  preferred  to  what  he  called  "that  poor 
cottage  of  the  monks  of  Deir".  To-day  a  certain 
number  of  place-names  up  and  down  the  country,  the 
patronal  saints  of  a  certain  number  of  Scottish 
parishes,  and  a  few  grass-covered  earthen  mounds 
or  fragments  of  walls,  are  all  that  is  left  to  recall  the 
numerous  houses  of  the  muiiilir  loe,  the  cradle  ot 
Scottish  Christianity  thirteen  centuries  ago. 

Skene,  Celiic  Scotlanti.  II  (Edinburgh,  1S77) ;  Chronicles  of 
the  Picts  and  Scots  (Edinburgh,  1861);  Adamnan,  Life  of  St. 
Columba,  ed.  Reeves,  Historians  of  Scotland,  VI  (Edinburgh, 
1874)  ;  Allen,  The  Early  Christian  Monuments  of  Scotlarid 
(Edinburgh,  190.3);  Trexholme,  The  Story  of  lona  (Edinburgh, 
1909);  Origines  Parochiales  Scotioe  (Edinburgh,  18.50-5);  Belle- 
8HEIM,  Hist,  of  Cath.  Church  of  Scotland,  I  (Edinburgh,  1SS7), 
33-109;  DowDEX,  The  Celtic  Church  in  Scotland  (London, 
1894) ;  The  Book  of  Deer,  ed.  Stuart  for  Spalding  Club  (Edin- 
burgh, 1869). 

D.  O.  Hunter-Blair. 

Scots  College,  The. — Clement  VIII  gave  Scot- 
land its  college  at  Rome.  The  Bull  of  foundation, 
dated  5  December,  1600,  conferred  on  the  college  all 
the  privileges  already  enjoyed  by  the  Greek,  Ger- 
man, and  Enghsh  colleges.  The  pope  also  be- 
stowed on  the  infant  college  various  endowments,  in- 
cluding the  revenue  of  an  abbey  in  the  Neapolitan 
kingdom  and  a  monthly  pension  from  the  revenues  of 
the  Dataria.  Later,  when  the  old  Scotch  Hospice, 
which  had  stood  for  centuries  where  now  .stands  the 
Church  of  S.  Andrea  delle  Fratte,  was  clo.sed,  its  rev- 
enues were  transferred  to  the  Scots  College. 

The  first  students  arrived  in  1602,  and  for  two 
years  lived  in  the  Via  Tritone,  but  the  site  and  build- 
ings were  unsuitable,  and  in  1604  they  moved  to  the 
present  admirable  position  in  Via  Quattro  Fontane, 
close  to  the  Quirinal  Palace.  The  original  buildings 
architecturally  had  little  to  commend  them,  but  the 
handsome  and  commodious  college  which  Poletti,  the 
architect  of  St.  Paul-without-the- Walls,  erected  on  an 
extended  site  nearly  half  a  century  ago,  is  much  ad- 
mired for  its  graceful  architecture.  Attached  to  the 
college  is  an  elegant  little  church  built  in  1645,  and 
dedicatcfl  to  St.  Andrew,  Patron  of  Scotland.  The  first 
superior  of  the  new  institution  was  Mgr.  Paohni,  but  in 
1614  the  Jesuits  took  charge,  and  the  first  of  this  line 
of  rectors  was  Father  Anderson,  nephew  of  Mary  Stu- 
art's faithful  friend,  Leslie,  Bishf)p  of  Ro.ss.  To  him 
the  college  owes  its  rules  and  constitutions.  During 
the  Jesuit  regime  there  was  consirlerable  trouble  in  the 
Scots  as  well  as  in  the  other  pontifical  colleges;  many 
students  were  entering  the  Society,  and  the  authori- 
ties at  home  accused  the  Jesuits  of  tampering  with 
the  young  men's  vocations.  Even  the  stringent  ap- 
plication of  the  Mission  Oath  prescribed  by  Alex- 
ander VII  flifl  not  end  the  friction.  When  the  So- 
ciety was  suppressed  (1773)  the  bi.shops  in  Scotland 
were  asked  to  send  a  secular  priest  to  be  the  new  su- 
perior; but  in  an  evil  hour  they  urged  that  they  had 
no  one  to  spare.  They  lived  to  rue  their  refusal,  for 
under  the  rule  of  Il:iiian  seeular  priests,  finances,  dis- 
cipline, studies,  piefy,  vocations,  all  suffered,  and  it  was 
not  altogether  an  urif|ualified  misfortune  when  in  170H, 
owing  to  the  ftecupation  of  Home  by  the  soldiers  of  the 
French  lievolution,  the  college;  w;is  forcibly  closed, 
and  the  few  remaining  students  returned  toScfttland. 
In  1820  it  wafi  reopened  through  the  indefatigable  ex- 
ertions of  the  Sc<^)tB  agent,  Paul  MacPhcrson,  who 


succeeded  in  recovering  the  dilapidated  college  build- 
ings along  with  the  depleted  revenues,  and  who  be- 
came the  first  rector  from  the  Scots  secular  clergy. 

Gradually  the  college  has  bettered  its  status,  and 
now  (1911)'  with  thirty-eight  students  to  represent 
the  half  milhon  of  Scots  Catholics  it  is  proportion- 
ately the  best  attended  of  the  colleges  of  Rome.  The 
students  have  always  frequented  the  Gregorian  Uni- 
versity. Among  the  benefactors  of  the  college  are 
Father  Wilham  Thompson,  the  first  Marchioness  of 
Huntly,  Cardinals  Spinelli  and  Sacripanti,  Henry  Car- 
dinal Duke  of  York,  Mgr.Lennon,  and  Mgr.  Taggart. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  bishops  who  have  ruled  the 
Church  in  Scotland — to-day  five  out  of  six — have 
been  Roman  students,  and  all  along  a  succession  of 
pious,  learned,  and  devoted  missionaries  from  Rome 
has  done  much  to  keep  ahve  and  extend  the  Faith. 
Bishop  Hay,  whose  centenary  has  been  kept  this 
year  (1911)  with  special  celebrations  at  Fort  Au- 
gustus and  Edinburgh,  by  his  doctrinal  and  devo- 
tional works  has  laid  the  English-speaking  Catholic 
world  under  a  deep  debt.  Archbishop  William 
Smith's  work  on  the  Pentateuch  attracted  much  at- 
tention more  than  forty  years  ago  among  Biblical 
scholars  as  an  answer  to  Colenso,  and  was  pro- 
nounced by  so  great  an  authority  as  Comely  as  the 
best  work  on  the  subject  from  any  Cathohc  writer. 
The  college  has  had  its  country  house,  where  the  stu- 
dents spend  the  summer  recess,  for  nearly  three  cen- 
turies near  Grottaferrata  on  the  Alban  Hills,  in  the 
midst  of  vineyards  where  the  country  is  as  health-giv- 
ing and  picturesque  as  it  is  full  of  legendary,  histori- 
cal, and  antiquarian  interest.  The  Scots  College, 
like  other  pontifical  colleges,  is  immediately  subject 
to  the  Holy  See,  which  now  exercises  its  jurisdiction 
partly  by  a  cardinal  protector,  and  partly  by  the 
Sacred  Consistorial  Congregation.  Previous  to  1908 
the  papal  authority  was  exercised  through  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Propaganda,  and  the  students  were 
ordained  with  dimissorial  letters  issued  by  the  cardi- 
nal protector.  By  a  recent  disposition  the  student's 
ordinary  must  declare  in  scriptis  that  he  has  no  objec- 
tion to  offer  against  his  subject's  promotion  to  Orders. 

Bellesheim,  Hist,  of  Cath.  Church  in  Scotland,  tr.  Hunter- 
Blair  (London,  1889),  III.  386-7;  IV,  passim;  Strothert.  Life 
of  Bishop  Hay  in  the  Journal  and  appendix  to  the  Scotichronicon, 
26  and  passim. 

Robert  Fraser. 

Scott,  MoNTFORD,  Venerable,  English  martyr,  b. 
in  Norfolk,  England ;  martyred  at  Fleet  Street,  London, 
on  2  July,  1591.  He  went  to  Douai  College  in  1574, 
being  one  of  the  earliest  students  at  that  seminary, 
and  studied  theology.  The  next  year  he  was  made 
subdeacon,  and  accompanied  Dominic  Vaughan  to 
England.  In  Essex  they  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Government,  Dec,  1576,  and  under  examination, 
Vaughan  was  weak  enough  to  betray  the  names  of 
Catholics  both  in  London  and  Es.sex.  They  were 
then  given  over  by  the  Privy  Council  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  for  further  examination,  but 
nothing  more  was  elicited,  and  they  were  afterwards 
set  at  liberty.  Scott  returned  to  Douai  on  22  May, 
1577,  and  having  been  ordained  priest  at  Brussels 
set  out  for  the  English  mission  on  17  Jime.  The 
vessel  in  which  he  crossed  tf)  England  was  attacked 
by  pirates,  but  h(;  escaped  with  some  lo.ss  of  hia 
goofls.  He  is  mention('d  as  having  laboured  in  Kent 
(1580),  Norfolk,  Suffolk  (1.583),  Lincolnshire  and 
Yorkshire  (1.584).  On  24  April,  l.'")S4.  John  Nedeham 
and  others  were  indicted  at  Norwich  for  having  on 
1  June,  1582,  received  blessed  beads  from  him.  In 
1.584  he  w;i.s  captureil  at  ^'ork  and  brought  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  remained  a  |)risoner  for  Hev(;n  years. 
His  relea.s(^  was  procured  by  a  money  payment  of 
one  Baker,  on  condition  of  his  leaving  the  country, 
but  Topcliffc  immediately  procured  his  re-arrest. 
Meantime  he  had  visited  the  confessors  in  Wisbeach 


SCOTUS 


633 


SCRANTON 


Castle.  He  was  brought  to  trial  at  the  sessions  at 
Newgate  in  company  of  Ven.  George  Beesley  (30 
June,  1591),  and  was  condemned  on  account  of  his 
priesthood  and  of  his  being  in  the  country  contrary 
to  the  Statute.  The  next  day  he  was  drawn  to  Fleet 
Street,  where  he  suffered  martyrdom.  Topcliffe  said 
that  he  had  that  day  done  the  queen  and  the  king- 
dom a  singular  piece  of  service  in  ridding  the  realm 
of  such  a  praying  and  fafsting  papist  as  had  not  his 
peer  in  Europe. 

Privy  Council  Registers  in  the  Public  Record  Office;  Douay 
Diaries  (London,  1878);  Pollen,  Acts  of  the  English  Martyrs 
(London,  1891);  Pollen,  English  Martyrs  in  Publ.  of  the  Cath. 
Rec.  Soc.  V  (London,  1908). 

J.  L.  Whitfield. 
Scotus,  Adam.    See  Adam  Scotus. 

Scotus,  Joannes  Duns.  See  Duns  Scotus, 
John. 

Scotus,  Marianus.    See  Marianus  Scotus. 

Scottus  (Scottigena)  ,  Joannes.  See  Eriugena, 
John  Scotus. 

Scranton,  Diocese  of  (Scrantonensis),  a  suf- 
fragan see  of  Philadelphia,  U.S.  A.,  established  on  3 
March,  1868,  comprises  the  Counties  of  Lackawanna, 
Luzerne,  Bradford,  Susquehanna,  Wayne,  Tioga, 
Sullivan,  Wyoming,  Lycoming,  Pike,  and  Monroe, 
all  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  Pennsylvania;  area, 
8,487  sq.  miles. 

Scranton,  the  episcopal  see,  is  in  the  heart  of  the 
anthracite  region  and  is  a  progressive  city  of  130,000 
inhabitants  (1910).  Other  large  cities  are  Wilkes- 
Barre,  Williamsport,  Hazelton,  Carbondale,  and  Pitts- 
ton.  The  pioneer  Catholic  settlers  were  principally 
of  Irish  and  German  descent,  but  in  recent  years  the 
coal-mining  industry  has  attracted  numerous  European 
labourers,  mostly  of  the  Slav  and  Italian  races,  until 
these  now  number  almost  one-half  of  the  Catholic 
population. 

Early  History. — Although  many  of  the  pioneer 
settlers  were  Catholic  immigrants,  yet  the  first  official 
visit  of  a  priest  to  this  territory  of  which  there  is  any 
authentic  record  was  in  1787.  In  that  year  Rev. 
James  Pellentz  travelled  up  the  Susquehanna  River 
as  far  as  Elmira,  ministering  to  the  Catholics  scat- 
tered through  this  region.  He  returned  to  Baltimore, 
whence  he  had  come,  and  reported  conditions  to  his 
superiors.  A  few  years  after  the  visit  of  Father  Pel- 
lentz the  famous  French  settlement  of  Asylum  or 
"Azilum"  was  founded  (1793-94).  The  site  chosen 
was  on  the  banks  of  the  Susquehanna  River,  oppo- 
site the  present  village  of  Standing-Stone,  Bradford 
County.  It  seems  to  have  been  planned  as  a  retreat 
for  the  nobility,  who  were  forced  to  flee  from  the  ter- 
rors of  the  French  Revolution,  and  it  was  evidently 
intended  that  the  queen  herself  should  take  refuge 
there.  The  most  conspicuous  building  in  the  village, 
the  "Queen's  house"  or  "La  grande  maison",  as  it 
was  generally  calUni,  was  built  and  furnished  for  her 
special  accommodation.  These  plans,  however,  mis- 
carried, for  before  the  house  was  completed  the  un- 
fortunate queen  had  followed  her  husband  to  the 
guillotine.  For  ten  years  this  unique  settlement 
flourished.  It  was  made  up,  as  we  are  told,  of  "some 
of  the  nobility  and  gentlemen  of  the  court  of  Louis 
XVI,  several  of  the  clergy,  a  few  mechanics  and  a 
number  of  the  labouring  class' ' .  The  village  consisted 
of  about  fift}^  houses.  At  the  close  of  the  Revolution 
most  of  the  prominent  refugees  at  Asylum  accepted 
the  invitation  of  Napoleon  and  returned  to  France. 
In  1804  we  find  the  settlement  practically  abandoned. 

This  settlement  was  evidently  made  up  almost  en- 
tirely of  French  Catholics,  and  among  them  a  few 
priests.  From  a  contemporary  writer  we  learn  that 
among  the  inhabitants  of  Asylum  in  1795  was  a  cer- 
tain "M.  Carles,  a  priest  and  canon  of  Guernsey" 
and   also   a   "M.    Becdellierre,   formerly   a  canon". 


Religious  services  in  the  settlement  were  conducted  by 
Ezra  Fromentin,  "acting  priest  in  the  little  log 
chapel"  and  M.  Carles.  We  read  also  of  a  certain 
Abbe  Colin,  who,  after  the  abandonment  of  the  set- 
tlement, went  to  the  West  Indies  as  chaplain  in  the 
army.  Mention  is  also  made  of  a  beautiful  illumi- 
nated Missal  used  there  in  the  religious  services,  and 
afterwards  presented  to  the  Vatican  Museum.  To- 
day scarcely  a  trace  of  this  unique  and  interesting 
settlement  remains.  The  earliest  permanent  Cath- 
olic settlements  were  at  Friendsville  and  Silver  Lake, 
Susquehanna  County.  These,  as  well  as  the  other 
Catholic  settlers  scattered  throughout  this  district, 
were  attended  occasionally  by  priests  sent  from 
Philadelphia.  In  1825,  largely  through  the  solicita- 
tions of  Mr.  Patrick  Griffin,  father  of  Gerald  GriflSn, 
the  Irish  novelist,  dramatist,  and  poet,  then  a  resident 
of  Susquehanna  County,  Bishop  Kenrick,  of  Phila- 
delphia, sent  Rev.  John  O'Flynn  as  the  first  resident 
pjistor.  His  work,  however,  was  rather  that  of  a 
missionary,  as  his  field  of  labour  comprised  thirteen 
counties  in  north-eastern  Pennsylvania  and  five 
counties  in  New  York  State.  The  first  church  was 
built  in  1825  near  Silver  Lake.  Father  O'Flynn  died 
at  Danville  in  1829,  and  was  succeeded  by  Father 
Clancy.  On  1  Feb.,  1836,  Rev.  Henry  Fitzsimmons 
was  sent  to  take  charge  of  this  territory,  and  took  up 
his  residence  at  Carbondale,  where  a  church  had  been 
built  in  1832,  Silver  Lake  being  attended  from  Car- 
bondale as  a  mission.  In  1838  Rev.  John  Vincent 
O'Reilly  was  sent  by  Bishop  Kenrick  to  assist  in  ad- 
ministering to  the  Catholics  of  this  extensive  terri- 
tory. He  took  up  his  residence  at  Silver  Lake,  and 
his  charge  comprised  the  Counties  of  Susquehanna, 
Bradford,  Tioga,  Potter,  and  Sullivan  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  the  five  adjoining  counties  in  New  York 
State.  The  early  history  of  the  diocese  is  intimately 
bound  up  with  the  truly  heroic  labours  of  Father 
O'Reilly,  and  the  foundations  of  many  of  the  present 
parishes  were  the  results  of  his  missionary  zeal.  His 
fruitful  career  was  brought  to  an  untimely  end  at 
the  railway  station  at  Susquehanna,  4  Oct.,  1873.  He 
was  killed  while  rescuing  a  friend  from  the  path  of  an 
approaching  train. 

Bishops.— Rt.  Rev.  William  O'Hara,  D.  D.,  the 
first  bishop,  was  born  at  Dungiven,  County  Deny, 
Ireland,  14  Apr.,  1816,  where  his  early  education  was 
received.  His  philosophical  and  theological  studies 
were  made  at  the  Urban  College  of  the  Propaganda, 
Rome,  where  he  was  ordained,  21  Dec,  1842.  His 
first  appointment  was  as  assistant  at  St.  Patrick's 
Church,  Philadelphia.  He  was  afterwards  made  rec- 
tor and  professor  of  moral  theology  at  St.  Charles's 
Seminary.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  pastor  of  St. 
Patrick's  Church,  Philadelphia,  where  he  remained 
until  his  consecration  as  Bishop  of  Scranton,  12  July, 
1868.  The  diocese  then  numbered  50  churches  and 
25  priests.  To  meet  the  needs  of  his  rapidly  growing 
diocese,  he  built  St.  Patrick's  Orphanage,  The  House 
of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  St.  Thomas's  College. 
During  the  thirty  years  of  his  administration  he  saw 
the  diocese  increase  till  it  numbered  121  churches  and 
152  priests.  He  died  on  3  Feb.,  1899,  and  is  buried 
under  the  main  altar  of  the  cathedral  of  Scranton. 

Rt.  Rev.  Michael  John  Hoban,  D.  D.,  the  second 
bishop,  was  born  at  Waterloo,  New  Jersey,  6  June, 
1853.  His  early  education  was  received  at  Hawley, 
Pennsylvania,  whither  his  parents  moved  shortly  after 
his  birth.  He  afterwards  attended  St.  Francis 
Xavier's  College  (New  York),  Holy  Cross  College 
(Worcester,  Massachusetts),  and  St.  John's  College 
(Fordham).  After  one  year  at  St.  Charles's  Seminary, 
Overbrook,  he  entered  the  American  College,  Rome, 
in  1875,  where  he  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood,  22 
May,  1880.  His  first  appointment  was  as  assistant 
at  Towanda.  He  afterwards  laboured  successively 
as  assistant  at  Pittston  and  pastor  at  Troy.     In  1887 


SCREEN 


634 


SCRIBES 


he  organized  St.  Leo's  parish,  Ashley,  Pennsylvania, 
where  the  present  beautiful  church  and  rectory  are 
monuments  of  his  zeal.  There  he  remained  until  his 
consecration  as  Bishop  of  Alalis  and  coadjutor  Bishop 
of  Scranton,  22  Mar.,  1S06.  During  his  administra- 
tion, since  the  death  of  Bishop  O'Hara,  he  has  enacted 
important  legislation  with  regard  to  the  internal  af- 
fairs of  the  diocese,  and  under  his  inspiration  the 
present  beautiful  and  well-equipped  St.  Joseph's 
Infant  Asylum,  as  also  the  Maloney  Home  for  the 
Aged,  have  been  added  to  the  equipment  of  the 
diocese;  the  latter  being  the  gift  of  the  Marquess 
Martin  J.  Maloney  of  Philadelphia,  in  memor\'  of 
his  parents.  Since  the  death  of  his  predecessor,  the 
diocese  h:is  grown  from  152  priests,  121  churches, 
and  a  Catholic  population  of  135,000,  to  265  priests, 
232  churches,  and  a  Cathohc  population  of  265.000 
(1911). 

Catholic  Educxition. — Cathohc  education  in  the  dio- 
cese began  with,  and  received  a  great  impetus  from 
the  great  pioneer  Father  O'Reilly.  In  the  autumn 
of  1S42  he  opened  a  college  at  St.  Joseph's,  Susque- 
hanna County.  From  a  very  modest  beginning,  and 
under  his  immediate  supervision,  ii  grew  and  flour- 
ished; and  in  the  twenty-two  years  of  its  existence 
educated  two  bishops  and  over  a  score  of  priests.  It 
was  destroyed  by  fire,  1  Jan.,  1864,  and  was  never 
rebuilt.  AX  the  present  time  higher  education  in  the 
diocese  is  cared  for  by  St.  Thomas's  College,  in  charge 
of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools;  the  Latin 
and  Greek  courses  being  taught  by  two  of  the  dio- 
cesan clergy.  Mount  St.  Marj^'s  Seminar)^  Scranton, 
conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mar>%  and  St.  Ann's  Academy,  Wilkes-Barre,  con- 
ducted by  the  Sisters  of  Christian  Charity,  are  both 
flourishing  and  rapidly  growing  boarding-schools  for 
girls.  St.  Mary's  parochial  high  school,  Wilkes-Barre, 
conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  deserves  mention 
as  a  model  of  equipment  and  efficiency.  Nearly  all 
of  the  larger  parishes  have  their  own  parochial  schools 
conducted  by  the  sisters  of  the  different  teaching 
communities.  Facilities  for  the  preservation  of  the 
languages  of  the  various  nationalities  are  afforded  in 
their  parochial  schools,  which,  for  the  most  part,  are 
conducted  by  sisters  famihar  with  the  mother-tongue. 
To  meet  this  need  two  new  teaching  orders  have 
recently  been  established;  Sisters  of  Sts.  Cyril  and 
Methodius  (Slovak)  and  Sisters  of  St.  Casimir  (Lithu- 
anian). Both  the.se  orders  had  their  inception  in  the 
novitiate  at  Mount  St.  Mary's,  Scranton,  where  the 
first  candidates  were  trained.  The  diocese  now  num- 
bers 49  parochial  schools  and  14,440  pupils  (1911). 

Religious. — Passionist  Fathers,  St.  Ann's  Mon- 
astery, Scranton;  Theatine  Fathers  (Spanish);  Stig- 
mata Fathers  (Italian);  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools.  Sisters  Servants  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary,  mother-house  and  novitiate,  Scranton;  Sisters 
of  Mercy,  mother-house  and  novitiate,  Wilkes-Barre; 
Sisters  of  Christian  Charity  (German),  mother- 
house  and  novitiate  for  the  United  States,  Wilkes- 
Barre;  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd;  Little  Sisters  of 
the  Poor;  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  of  Nazareth 
(Polish);  Bemardine  Sisters  (Poli.sh);  Missionary 
Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (Italian);  Sisters  of  Sts. 
Cyril  and  Methodius  (Slovak). 

SUiHhHch. — Catholic  population  (U.  S.  religious 
cfnsus,  1006),  265,000,  divided  as  follows:  English- 
speaking,  133,000;  Poles,  45,000;  Italians,  21, (KK); 
Greek  Kuthenians,  20,(XX);  German,  lf;,(KM);  Slovaks, 
15,fXX);  Lithuanians,  13,000;  Magyars,  IfXK);  Syrians, 
1000;  Prifists,  265;  churches,  with  resident  priests, 
1S3;  mission  churches,  49;  parochial  schools,  49; 
pupils,  14,440;  religious,  .578;  baptisms  (1910),  12,725; 
orphan  asylum,  1 ;  infant  asylum,  1 ;  home  for  the 
aiged  poor,  1 ;  house  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  1 ;  hos- 
pital, 1;  college,  1;  value  of  Church  property  (1911), 
$5,400,000. 


Official  Catholic  Directory;  Shea,  Life  and  Times  of  the  Most 
Rev.  John  Carroll  (New  York,  18SS);  Bradsbt,  History  of  Luzerne 
Coimty  (Chicago,  1893);  Kerlin,  Catholicity  in  Philadelphia 
(Philadelphia,  1909);  L.\  Rochefoucauld-Liancourt,  Voyage 
dansles  Elats-unis  d' Amerique  (Paris,  1799-1800);  Murray,  The 
Story  of  Some  French  Refugees  and  Their"  Azilum"  (Athens,  1003). 

Andrew  J.  Brenn.\n. 

Screen.  Sec  Alt.'VR.  sub-title  Alt.\r-Screen* 
Rood. 

Scribes  (2*1Cw,  ypo-iitJ-o-Teh,  vo/uoSiSdo-xaXoi,  teach- 
ers of  the  law). — In  the  New-Testament  period  the 
scribes  were  the  professional  interpreters  of  the  Law  in 
the  Jewish  synagogues.  The  origin  of  the  profession 
dates  from  the  return  of  the  Captivity,  and  its  subse- 
quent growth  and  im])ortance  resulted  naturally  from 
the  formal  and  legalistic  trend  of  Jewish  piety  during 
the  post-Exilic  period.  The  Law  was  revered  as  the 
precise  expression  of  God's  will,  and  by  its  multifari- 
ous prescriptions  the  daily  life  of  every  pious  Jew  was 
regulated  in  all  its  minute  details.  Love  of  the  Law 
was  the  essence  of  piety,  and  the  just  or  righteous 
were  they  who  walked  "in  all  the  commandments  and 
justifications  of  the  Lord  without  blame"  (Luke,  i,  6). 
But  as  these  commandments  and  justifications  were 
exceedingly  numerous,  complicated,  and  often  obscure, 
the  needs  of  popular  guidance  called  into  existence  a 
class  of  men  whose  special  occupation  was  to  study 
and  expound  the  Law.  The  earliest  mention  of  the 
title  occurs  in  I  Esdras,  vii,  6,  where  Esdras  is  de- 
scribed as  a  "ready  scribe  in  the  law  of  Moses". 
What  this  meant  is  set  forth  in  verse  10:  "  For  Esdras 
had  prepared  his  heart  to  seek  the  law  of  the  Lord,  and 
to  do  and  to  teach  in  Israel  the  commandments  and 
judgment ".  This  descri})tion  doubtless  applies  to  the 
subsequent  scribes  of  that  period.  They  were  pious 
men  who  through  lo\-e  of  the  Divine  law  occupied 
themselves  in  collecting,  editing,  and  studying  the 
sacred  literature  of  the  Hebrews  and  in  explaining  it 
to  the  people.  The  earlier  scribes,  Uke  Esdras  him- 
self, belonged  to  the  class  of  priests  and  Levites  (I 
Esdr.,  vii,  12;  II  Esdr.,  viii,  7,  13;  II  Par.,  xxxiv,  13) 
who  were  originally  the  official  interpreters  of  the 
Law,  but  unlike  other  priestly  duties,  the  studj^  and 
exposition  of  Holy  Writ  could  be  engaged  in  by  pious 
laymen,  and  thus  little  by  little  the  scribal  profession 
became  differentiated  from  the  priesthood,  while  the 
latter  remained  chiefly  occupied  with  the  ever-gi'ow- 
ing  sacrificial  and  ritualistic  functions 

When  under  Antiochus  l<^pi])hanes  Hellenism  threat- 
ened to  overthrow  the  Jewish  religion,  the  scribes 
joined  the  party  of  the  zealous  Assideans  (I  Mach., 
vii,  12,  13),  who  were  ready  to  die  for  their  faith  (see 
account  of  the  martyrdom  of  the  scribe  Eleazar,  II 
Mach.,  vi,  18-31),  while  not  a  few  aristocratic  mem- 
bers of  the  priesthood  favoured  the  Hellenistic  tenden- 
cies. This  resulted  in  a  certain  opposition  between 
the  two  clas.ses;  the  scribes,  through  their  devotion 
to  the  Law,  acquired  great  influence  with  the  people 
while  the  priesthood  lost  much  of  its  prestige.  As 
a  natural  consequence,  the  scribes  as  a  class  became 
narrow,  haughty  and  exclusive.  Under  the  Asmo- 
nean  rule  they  became  the  leaders  of  the  new  party  of 
the  Phari.sees,  and  it  is  with  the  latter  that  we  find 
them  asso(;iated  in  the  New-Testament  records.  They 
never  wielded  any  j)<)litical  power,  but  they  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  Satilieilriii  (in  a]);ir  witli  the  chief  priests 
and  elders  and  thus  enjoyed  official  recognition.  With 
the  increasing  formalism,  which  their  influence  doubt- 
less lielped  to  develoj),  the  character  of  the  scribes  and 
their  activities  underwent  a  marked  change.  They 
neglected  the  deeper  and  more  spiritual  aspects  of  the 
Law,  and  from  being  men  of  sacred  letters  they  be- 
came mainly  juri.sts  who  devoted  mo.st  of  their  atten- 
tion tx)  mere  (piibbles  and  subtle  ca.sui.stry.  Together 
with  the  Pharisees  they  are  represented  in  the  Gospels 
as  being  very  ambitious  of  honour  (Matt.,  xxiii,  2-7, 
Mark,  xii,  .38-40;  Luke,  xi,  43,  45,  46;  xx,  46),andaa 
making  void  the  weightier  precepts  of  the  Law  by 


SCRIPTORIUM 


635 


SCRIPTURE 


their  perverse  interpretations  by  means  of  which  they 
had  gradually  laid  a  most  heavy  burden  upon  the  peo- 
ple. They  are  also  rebuked  by  Christ  because  of  the 
undue  importance  ascribed  by  them  to  the  "tradi- 
tions of  the  elders". 

Their  teaching  on  this  point  was  that  Moses  him- 
self had  dehvered  to  Israel  an  oral  as  well  as  a  written 
Law.  This  oral  Law,  according  to  their  theory,  had 
come  down  in  an  authentic  form  through  the  Proph- 
ets to  Esdras,  the  first  and  greatest  of  the  scribes,  and 
rested  practically  on  the  same  Divine  authority  as  the 
written  Word.  Through  this  conception  of  an  oral 
law  to  which  all  their  traditional  customs  and  inter- 
pretations, however  recent,  were  referred,  the  scribes 
were  led  into  many  departures  from  the  spirit  of  the 
written  Law  (Mark,  vii,  13),  and  even  with  regard 
to  the  latter  their  teaching  was  characterized  by  a 
slavish  literalism.  The  ever-accumulating  mass  of 
legal  traditions  and  legal  decisions  was  designated  by 
the  name  Halaka  (the  way).  Togetherwith  the  writ- 
ten precepts  it  constituted  the  perfect  rule  of  conduct 
which  every  Jew  should  follow.  But  while  the  scribes 
devoted  their  chief  attention  to  the  Law,  both  writ- 
ten and  oral,  they  also  elaborated  in  fantastic  and  ar- 
bitrary fashion,  teachings  of  an  edifying  character 
from  the  historical  and  didactic  contents  of  the  Old 
Testament.  These  homiletic  teachings  were  called 
Hagada,  and  embraced  doctrinal  and  practical  ad- 
monitions mingled  with  illustrative  parables  and 
legends. 

GiooT,  Outlincx  of  New  Testament  [lidonj  (New  York,  1902),  81 

sq-  James  F.  Driscoli,. 

Scriptorium,  commonly  a  large  room  set  apart 
in  a  monastery  for  the  use  of  the  scribes  or  copyists 
of  the  community.  When  no  special  room  was  de- 
voted to  this  purpose,  separate  little  cells  or  studies 
called  "carrels"  were  usually  made  in  the  cloister, 
each  scribe  having  a  window  and  desk  to  himself. 
Of  this  arrangement  the  cloister  of  St.  Peter's, 
Gloucester,  now  Gloucester  Cathedral,  supplies  the 
most  perfect  examjile  (see  Cloister).  The  scrip- 
torium was  under  the  care  of  the  precentor  or  else 
of  one  of  his  assistants  called  the  armarius,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  provide  all  the  requisites  needed  by  the 
scribes,  such  as  desks,  ink,  parchment,  pens,  pen- 
knives, i)uiuic('-st()n('  for  smoothing  down  the  sur- 
face of  the  ])archin('nt,  awls  to  make  the  guiding 
marks  for  ruling  lines,  reading-frames  for  the  books 
to  be  copied,  (;tc.  Most  of  those  were  manufactured 
on  the  premises:  thus  at  Westminster  the  ink  was 
made  by  the  precentor  himself,  and  he  had  to  do  it 
in  the  tailor's  shop.  The  rules  of  the  scriptorium 
varied  in  different  monasteries,  but  artificial  light 
was  forbidden  for  fear  of  injury  to  the  manuscripts, 
and  silence  was  always  enforced.  As  a  general  rule 
those  of  the  monks  who  possessed  skill  as  writers 
made  this  their  chief,  if  not  their  sole  active  work. 
An  anonymous  writer  of  the  ninth  or  tenth  century 
speaks  of  six  hours  a  day  as  the  usual  task  of  a  scribe, 
which  would  absorb  almost  all  the  time  available  for 
active  work  in  the  day  of  a  medieval  monk.  Very 
often  the  scriptorium  of  a  monastery  developed  some 
peculiarities  of  writing  which  were  perpetuated  for 
considerable  periods,  and  arc  of  great  value  in  as- 
certaining the  source  from  which  a  manuscript  comes. 
Thus  at  St.  Albans  the  scribes  for  a  long  time  affected 
a  peculiar  thirteenth-century  style  of  hand  with  the 
long  strokes  of  certain  letters  bent  back  or  broken, 
while  certain  special  variations  from  the  common  form 
of  spelling,  such  as  imfra  for  infra,  are  also  peculiar 
to  their  work. 

Various  names  were  in  use  to  distinguish  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  writers.  In  monasteries  the  term 
antiquarii  was  sometimes  used  for  those  monks  who 
copied  books,  the  common  writers  who  despatched  the 
•ordinary  business  of  the  house  being  called  librarii, 
or  simply  scriptores.     If  a  scribe  excelled  in  painting 


miniatures  or  initial  letters  he  usually  confined  him- 
self to  such  work,  and  was  called  illuminator,  while 
one  who  worked  chiefly  on  legal  documents  was  a 
notarius.  The  price  of  books  varied  a  good  deal  at 
different  dates,  but  was  always  what  we  should  now 
call  low,  considering  the  time  and  labour  involved. 
Thus  in  1380  John  Prust,  a  Canon  of  Windsor,  re- 
ceived seventy-five  shillings  and  eight  pence  for  an 
Evangelium,  or  book  of  the  liturgical  Gospels;  and 
in  1467  the  Paston  "letters"  show  that  a  writer  and 
illuminator  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds  received  one  hun- 
dred shillings  and  two  pence  for  a  Psalter  with  musical 
notes,  illuminations,  and  binding.  In  1469  William 
Ebesham  wrote  out  certain  legal  documents  at  two- 
pence a  leaf,  and  a  book  at  "a  peny  a  leaf,  which 
is  right  wele  worth".  It  is  to  be  observed  that  on  the 
invention  of  printing  with  movable  types,  although 
the  new  art  met  with  strong  opposition  from  the  pro- 
fessional scribes,  the  monks  commonly  welcomed  it, 
as  is  shown  by  the  establishment  of  Caxton's  press 
within  the  precincts  of  Westminster,  and  of  very 
early  presses  at  Subiaco  and  other  monasteries. 

Madan,  Books  in  Manuscript  (London,  1893);  Thompson, 
Handbook  of  Greek  and  Latin  Palaeography  (London,  1894); 
Idem,  Customary  of  the  monasteries  .  .  .  of  Canterbury  and 
Westminster  (London,  1902);  Maitland,  The  Dark  Ages  (Lon- 
don, 1845);  Feasby,  Monasticism  (London,  1898);  Gasquet, 
English  Monastic  Life  (London,   1904). 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Scripture. — Sacred  Scripture,  is  one  of  the  several 
names  denoting  the  inspired  writings  which  make  up 
the  Old  and  New  Testament. 

I.  Use  of  the  Word. — The  corresponding  Latin 
word  scriptura  occurs  in  some  passages  of  the  Vul- 
gate in  the  general  sense  of  "writing";  e.  g.,  Ex.,  xxxii, 
16:  "the  writing  also  of  God  was  graven  in  the 
tables";  again,  II  Par.,  xxxvi,  22:  "who  [Cyrus]  com- 
manded it  to  be  proclaimed  through  all  his  kingdom, 
and  by  writing  also".  In  other  passages  of  the  Vul- 
gate the  word  denotes  a  private  (Tob.,  viii,  24)  or  pub- 
lic (Esdr.,  ii,  62;  Neh.,  vii,  64)  written  document,  a 
catalogue  or  index  (Ps.  Ixxxvi,  6),  or  finally  portions  of 
Scripture,  such  as  the  canticle  of  Ezechias  (Is.,  xxxviii, 
5),  iind  the  sayings  of  the  wise  men  (Ecclus.,  xliv,  5). 
The  writer  of  1 1  Par.,  xxx,  5,  18,  refers  to  prescriptions 
of  the  Law  by  the  formula  "as  it  is  written",  which  is 
rendered  by  the  Septuagint  translators  Kara  rrjv  ypatp-ftv ; 
wapa  TT)v  ypa<priv,  "iiccording  to  Scripture".  The  same 
expre>isionisf()uiidinl  l^sdr.,  ill,  4,  and  II  Esdr.,  viii,  15; 
here  we  have  the  boginni  iig  of  the  later  form  of  appeal  to 
the  authority  of  the  inspired  books  y^ypairrai  (Matt., 
iv,  4,  6,  10;  xxi,  13;  etc.),  or  /co^tis  y^ypairrai  (Rom., 
i,  11;  ii,  24,  etc.),  "it  is  written",  "as  it  is  written". 

As  the  verb  ypd(l)eiv  was  thus  employed  to  denote 
passages  of  the  sacred  writings,  so  the  corresponding 
noun  V  ypa^TTj  gradually  came  to  signify  what  is  pre-emi- 
nently the  writing,  or  the  inspired  writing.  This  use 
of  the  word  may  be  seen  in  John,  vii,  38;  x,  35;  Acts, 
viii,  32;  Rom.,  iv,  3;  ix,  17;  Gal.,  iii,  8;  iv,  30;  II 
Tim.,  iii,  16;  James,  ii,  8;  I  Pet.,  ii,  6;  II  Pet.,  i,  20; 
the  plural  form  of  the  noun,  al  ypa<t>al,  is  used  in  the 
same  sense  in  Matt.,  xxi,  42;  xxii,  29;  xxvi,  54;  Mark, 
xii,  24;  xiv,  49;  Luke,  xxi  v.,  27,  45;  John,  v,  39;  Acts, 
xvii,  2,  17;  xviii,  24,  28;  I  Cor.,  xv,  3,  4.  In  a  simi- 
lar sense  are  employed  the  expressions  ypa<pal  dyiai 
(Rom.,  i,  2),  al  ypa<pal  tQv  ■jrpo<pr]Tuv  (Matt.,  xxvi,  56), 
ypacpal  irpo<f>7)TLKal  (Rom.,  xvi,  26).  The  word  has  a 
somewhat  modified  sense  in  Christ's  question,  "and 
have  you  not  read  this  scripture"  (Mark,  xii,  10).  In 
the  language  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles  the  expression 
"scripture"  or  "scriptures"  denotes  the  sacred  books 
of  the  Jews.  The  New  Testament  uses  the  expres- 
sions in  this  sense  about  fifty  times;  but  they  occur 
more  frequently  in  the  Fourth  Gospel  and  the  Epis- 
tles than  in  the  synoptic  Gospels.  At  times,  the  con- 
tents of  Scripture  are  indicated  more  accurately  as 
comprising  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  (Rom.,  iii,  21 ; 


SCRIPTURE 


636 


SCRIPTURE 


Acts,  xxviii,  23),  or  the  Law  of  Moses,  the  Prophets, 
and  the  Psalms  (Luke,  xxiv,  44).  The  Apostle  St. 
Peter  extends  the  designation  Scripture  also  to  ras 
\oiiras  7pa0dj  (II  Pet.,  iii,  16),  denoting  the  Pauhne 
Epistles;  St.  Paul  (I  Tim.,  v,  IS)  seems  to  refer  by  the 
same  expression  to  both  Deut.,  xx\',  4,  and  Luke,  x,  7. 

It  is  disputed  whether  the  word  7pa0i^  in  the  singu- 
lar is  ever  used  of  the  Old  Testament  as  a  whole. 
Lightfoot  (Gal.,  iii,  22)  expresses  the  opinion  that  the 
singular  ypa.4>^  in  the  New  Testament  always  means  a 
particular  passage  of  Scripture.  But  in  Rom.,  iv,  3, 
he  modifies  his  view,  appealing  to  Dr.  Vaughan's 
statement  of  the  case.  He  beheves  that  the  usage  of 
St.  John  may  admit  a  doubt,  though  he  does  not  think 
so,  personally;  but  St.  Paul's  practice  is  absolute  and 
uniform.  Mr.  Hort  says  (I  Pet.,  ii,  6)  that  in  St. 
John  and  St.  Paul  v  ypa<p-n  is  capable  of  being  under- 
stood as  approximating  to  the  collective  sense  (cf. 
Westcott.  '-Hebr.",  pp.  474  sqq.;  Deissmann,  "Bi- 
belstudien",  pp.  108  sqq.,  Eng.  tr.,  pp.  112  sqq.;  War- 
field,  "Pres.  and  Reform.  Review",  X,  July,  1899, 
pp.  472  sqq.).  Here  arises  the  question  whether  the 
expression  of  St.  Peter  (II  Pet.,  iii,  16)  t&s  XotTrds 
7po0ds  refers  to  a  collection  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles. 
Spitta  contends  that  the  term  al  ypa(pal  is  used  in  a 
general  non-technical  meaning,  denoting  only  WTit- 
ings  of  St.  Paul's  associates  (Spitta,  "Der  zweite 
Brief  des  Petrus  und  der  Brief  des  Judas",  1885,  p. 
294).  Zahn  refers  the  term  to  writings  of  a  reUgious 
character  which  could  claim  respect  in  Christian  circles 
either  on  account  of  their  authors  or  on  account  of 
their  use  in  public  worship  (Einleitung,  pp.  98  sqq., 
108).  But  Mr.  F.  H.  Chase  adheres  to  the  principle 
that  the  phrase  at  ypa4>aL  used  absolutely  points  to  a 
definite  and  recognized  collection  of  -RTitings,  i.  e., 
Scriptm-es.  The  accompanying  words  ko/,  tAj  Xoiirds, 
and  the  verb  <rTpe^\ov<nv  in  the  contex-t  confirm  Mr. 
Chase  in  his  conviction  (cf.  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  III, 
p.  810b). 

II.  Nature  of  Scripture.  A.  According  to  the 
Jews. — Whether  the  terms  ypa<pv,  ypacpai,  and  their 
svnonvmous  expressions  to  ^i^Xiov  (II  Esdr.,  viii,  8), 
TO.  pi^Xla  (Dan.,  ix,  2),  Ke<pa\is  /3i/3Xfou  (Ps.  xx.\ix,  8), 
71  iepa  /SiiSXoj  (II  Mach.,  viii,  23),  rh  ^t^Xla  ra  &yia 
(I  Mach.,  xii,  9),  rd  Iepa  ypdn/jMra  (II  Tim.,  iii,  15)  re- 
fer to  particular  wTitings  or  to  a  collection  of  books, 
they  at  least  show  the  existence  of  a  number  of  wTit- 
ten  documents  the  authority  of  which  was  generally 
accepted  as  supreme.  The  nature  of  this  authority 
may  be  inferred  from  a  number  of  other  passages. 
According  to  Deut.,  xxxi,  9-13,  Mo.ses  wrote  the  Book 
of  the  Law  (of  the  Lord),  and  delivered  it  to  the  priests 
that  they  might  keep  it  and  read  it  to  the  people;  see 
also  Ex.,  x^'ii,  14;  Deut.,  xvii,  18-19;  xxvii,  1;  xxviii,  1; 
58-61;   xxix,  20;   xxx,  10;   xxxi,  26;   I  Kings,  x,  25; 

III  Kings,  ii,  3;    IV  Kings,  xxii,  8.     It  is  clear  from 

IV  Kings,  xxiii,  1-3,  that  towards  the  end  of  the  Jew- 
ish kingdf)m  the  Book  of  the  Law  of  the  Lord  was  held 
in  the  highf.st  honour  as  containing  the  precepts  of  the 
Ivord  Himself.  That  this  wjis  also  the  case  after  the 
Captivity,  may  be  inferred  from  II  Esdr.,  viii,  1-9,  13, 
14,  IS;  the  book  here  mentioned  contained  the  in- 
junctions concerning  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  found 
in  Lev.,  xxiii,  34  sq.;  Deut.,  xvi,  13  sq.,  and  is  there- 
fore identical  with  the  pre-ExiUc  Sacred  Books.  Ac- 
cording to  I  Mach.,  i,  57-59,  Antiochus  commanded 
the  Books  of  the  Law  of  the  Lord  to  be  burned  and 
their  retainers  to  be  slain.  We  learn  from  II  Mach., 
ii,  13,  that  at  the  time  of  Xchemias  there  existed  a  col- 
lection of  books  containing  historical,  prophetical, 
and  p.salmodic  writings;  since  the  collection  is  rep- 
resentf'd  as  uniform,  and  since  the  pcjrtions  were  con- 
sidered as  certainly  of  Divine  authoritj%  we  may  infer 
that  this  characteristic  was  ascribed  to  all,  at  least  in 
some  degree.  Coming  down  to  the  time  of  Christ,  we 
find  that  Flavins  Josephus  attributes  to  the  twenty- 
two  protocanonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  Di- 


vine authority,  maintaining  that  they  had  been  writ- 
ten under  Divine  inspiration  and  that  they  contain 
God's  teachings  (Contra  Appion.,  I,  vi-viii).  The 
Hellenist  Philo  too  is  acquainted  with  the  three  parts 
of  the  sacred  Jewisli  books  to  which  he  ascribes  an 
irrefragable  authority,  because  they  contain  God's 
oracles  expressed  through  the  instrumentality  of  the 
sacred  ^Titers  ("De  vita  contempl.",  Antwerp  edi- 
tion, p.  615;  "De  vit.  Mosis",  pp.  469,  658sq.;  "De 
monarchia",  p.  564). 

B.  According  to  Christian  Teaching. — This  con- 
cept of  Scripture  is  fully  upheld  by  the  Christian 
teaching.  Jesus  Christ  Himself  appeals  to  the  au- 
thority of  Scripture,  "Search  the  scriptures"  (John, 
V,  39) ;  He  maintains  that  "one  jot,  or  one  tittle  shall 
not  pass  of  the  law,  till  all  be  fulfilled"  (Alatt.,  v,  18); 
He  regards  it  as  a  principle  that  "  the  Scripture  cannot 
be  broken"  (John,  x,  35);  He  presents  the  word  of 
Scripture  as  the  word  of  the  eternal  Father  (John  v, 
33-41),  as  the  word  of  a  writer  inspired  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  (Matt.,  xxii,  43),  as  the  word  of  God  (Matt., 
xix,  4-5;  xxii,  31);  He  declares  that  "all  things  must 
needs  be  fulfilled  which  are  WTitten  in  the  law  of  Moses, 
and  in  the  prophets,  and  in  the  psalms,  concerning 
me"  (Luke,  xxiv,  44).  The  Apostles  fully  endorsed, 
and  handed  down  to  posterity,  this  view  of  the 
Scriptures.  The  Apostles  knew  that  "prophecy  came 
not  by  the  will  of  man  at  any  time:  but  the  holy  men 
of  God  spoke,  inspired  by  the  Holy  Ghost"  (II  Pet.,  i, 
21) ;  they  regarded  "all  scripture,  inspired  of  God"  as 
"profitable  to  teach,  to  reprove,  to  correct,  to  in- 
struct in  justice"  (II  Tim.,  iii,  16).  They  considered 
the  words  of  Scripture  as  the  words  of  Gfod  speaking 
in  the  inspired  writer  or  by  the  mouth  of  the  inspired 
writer  (Hebr.,  iv,  7;  Acts,  i,  15-16;  iv,  25).  Finally, 
they  appealed  to  Scripture  as  to  an  irresistible  au- 
thority (Rom.,  passim),  they  supposed  that  parts  of 
Scripture  have  a  typical  sense  such  as  only  God  can 
employ  (John,  xix,  36;  Hebr.,  i,  5;  vii,  3  sqq.),  and 
they  derived  most  important  conclusions  even  from  a 
few  words  or  certain  grammatical  forms  of  Scripture 
(Gal.,  iii,  16;  Hebr.,  xii,  26-27).  It  is  not  surprising, 
then,  that  the  earliest  Christian  writers  speak  in  the 
same  strain  of  the  Scriptures.  St.  Clement  of  Rome 
(I  Cor.,  xlv)  tells  his  readers  to  search  the  Scriptures 
for  the  truthful  expressions  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  St.  Ire- 
nseus  (Adv.  hffr.,  II,  xxxviii, 2)  considers  the  Scriptures 
as  uttered  by  the  Word  of  God  and  His  Spirit.  Ori- 
gen  testifies  that  it  is  granted  by  both  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians that  the  Bible  was  written  under  (the  influence 
of)  the  Holy  Ghost  (Contra  Cels.,  V,  x);  again,  he 
considers  it  as  proven  by  Christ's  dwelling  in  the  flesh 
that  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  were  written  by  a 
heavenly  charisma,  and  that  the  writings  believed  to 
be  the  words  of  God  are  not  men's  work  (De  princ.,  iv, 
vi).  St.  Clement  of  Alexandria  receives  the  voice  of 
God  who  has  given  the  Scriptures,  as  a  reliable  proof 
(Strom.,  ii). 

C.  According  to  Errl(si(is({c(d  Docuincnis. — Not  to 
multiply  patristic  tcstiinoiiy  for  llic  Divine  authority 
of  Scripture,  we  may  add  the  otlicial  doctrine  of  the 
Church  on  the  nature  of  Sacnnl  Scri))ture.  The  fifth 
ttM-umenical  council  condemned  Theodore  of  Mop- 
suestia  for  his  opjjosition  against  the  Divine  authority 
of  the  books  of  Solomon,  the  Book  of  Job,  and  the 
Canticle  of  Canticles.  Since  the  fourth  century  the 
teaching  of  the  Church  concerning  the  nature  of  the 
Bible  is  practically  summed  up  in  the  dogmatic  for- 
mula that  God  is  t  he  author  of  Sacred  Scripture.  Ac- 
cording to  thefirstchapterof  the  Council  of  Carthage 
(a.  d.  398),  bishops  before  being  consecrated  must  ex- 
press their  belief  in  this  formula,  and  this  profession 
of  faith  is  exacted  <tf  them  even  to-day.  In  the  thir- 
teenth century.  Innocent  III  imposed  this  formula  on 
the  Waldensians;  Clement  IV  exacted  its  acceptance 
from  Michael  Pala'ologus,  and  the  emperor  actually 
accepted  it  in  his  letter  to  the  Second  Council  of 


SCRIPTURE 


637 


SCRIPTURE 


Lyons  (1272) .  The  same  formula  was  repeated  in  the 
fifteenth  century  by  Eugenius  IV  in  his  Decree  for  the 
Jacobites,  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  the  Council  of 
Trent  (Sess.  IV,  deer,  de  can.  Script.),  and  in  the 
nineteenth  century  by  the  Vatican  Council.  What  is 
impUed  in  this  Divine  authorship  of  Sacred  Scripture, 
and  how  it  is  to  be  explained,  has  been  set  forth  in  the 
article  Inspiration. 

III.  Collection  of  Sacred  Books. — What  has 
been  said  implies  that  Scripture  does  not  refer  to  any 
single  book,  but  comprises  a  number  of  books  written 
at  different  times  and  by  different  writers  working 
under  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Hence  the 
question,  how  could  such  a  collection  be  made,  and 
how  was  it  made  in  point  of  fact? 

A.  Question  of  Right. — The  main  difficulty  as  to 
the  first  question  (quoestio  juris)  arises  from  the  fact 
that  a  book  must  be  Divinely  inspired  in  order  to  lay 
claim  to  the  dignity  of  being  regarded  as  Scripture. 
Various  methods  have  been  suggested  for  ascertain- 
ing the  fact  of  inspiration.  It  has  been  claimed  that 
so-called  internal  criteria  are  sufficient  to  lead  us  to 
the  knowledge  of  this  fact.  But  on  closer  investiga- 
tion they  prove  inadequate.  (1)  Miracles  and  prophe- 
cies require  a  Divine  intervention  in  order  that  they 
may  happen,  not  in  order  that  they  may  be  recorded; 
hence  a  work  relating  miracles  or  prophecies  is  not 
necessarily  inspired.  (2)  The  so-called  ethico-ses- 
thetic  criterium  is  inadequate.  It  fails  to  establish 
that  certain  portions  of  Scripture  are  inspired  writ- 
ings, e.  g.,  the  genealogical  tables,  and  the  summary 
accounts  of  the  kings  of  Juda,  while  it  favours  the  in- 
spiration of  several  post-Apostolic  works,  e.  g.,  of  the 
"Imitation  of  Christ",  and  of  the  "Epistles"  of 
St.  Ignatius  Martyr.  (3)  The  same  must  be  said  of 
the  psychological  criterium,  or  the  effect  which  the 
perusal  of  Scripture  produces  in  the  heart  of  the 
reader.  Such  emotions  are  subjective,  and  vary  in 
different  readers.  The  Epistle  of  St.  James  appeared 
strawlike  to  Luther,  divine  to  Calvin.  (4)  These 
internal  criteria  are  inadequate  even  if  they  be  taken 
collectively.  Wrong  keys  are  unable  to  open  a  lock 
whether  they  be  used  singly  or  collectively. 

Other  students  of  this  subject  have  endeavored  to 
establish  Apostolic  authorship  as  a  criterium  of  in- 
spiration. But  this  answer  does  not  give  us  a 
criterium  for  the  inspiration  of  the  Old  Testament 
books,  nor  does  it  touch  the  inspiration  of  the  Gos- 
pels of  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke,  neither  of  whom  was  an 
Apostle.  Besides,  the  Apostles  were  endowed  with 
the  gift  of  infallibility  in  their  teaching,  and  in  their 
writing  as  far  as  it  formed  part  of  their  teaching;  but 
infallibility  in  writing  does  not  imply  insi)iration. 
Certain  writings  of  the  Roman  pontiff  may  be  infal- 
lible, but  they  are  not  inspired;  God  is  not  their 
author.  Nor  can  the  criterium  of  inspiration  be 
placed  in  the  testimony  of  history.  For  inspiration 
is  a  supernatural  fact,  known  only  to  God  and  prob- 
ably to  the  inspired  writer.  Hence  human  testimony 
concerning  inspiration  is  based,  at  best,  on  the  testi- 
mony of  one  person  who  is,  naturally  speaking,  an  in- 
terested party  in  the  matter  concerning  which  he  tes- 
tifies. The  history  of  the  false  prophets  of  former 
times  as  well  as  of  our  own  day  teaches  us  the  futility 
of  such  testimony.  It  is  true  that  miracles  and 
prophecy  may,  at  times,  confirm  such  human  testi- 
mony as  to  the  inspiration  of  a  work.  But,  in  the 
first  place,  not  all  inspired  writers  have  been  prophets 
or  workers  of  miracles;  in  the  second  place,  in  order 
that  prophecies  or  miracles  may  serve  as  proof  of  in- 
spiration, it  must  be  clear  that  the  miracles  were  per- 
formed, and  the  prophecies  were  uttered,  to  establish 
the  fact  in  question;  in  the  third  place,  if  this  condi- 
tion be  verified,  the  testimony  for  inspiration  is  no 
longer  merely  human,  but  it  has  become  Divine.  No 
one  will  doubt  the  sufficiency  of  Divine  testimony  to 
establish  the  fact  of  inspiration;  on  the  other  hand, 


no  one  can  deny  the  need  of  such  testimony  in  order 
that  we  may  distinguish  with  certainty  between  an 
inspired  and  a  non-inspired  book. 

B.  Question  of  Fact. — It  is  a  rather  difficult  prob- 
lem to  state  with  certainty,  how  and  when  the  several 
books  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament  were  received 
as  sacred  by  the  religious  community.  Deut.,  xxxi,  9, 
24  sqq.,  informs  us  that  Moses  delivered  the  Book  of 
the  Law  to  the  Levites  and  the  ancients  of  Israel  to  be 
deposited  "in  the  side  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant"; 
according  to  Deut.,  xvii,  18,  the  king  had  to  procure 
for  himself  a  copy  of  at  least  a  part  of  the  book,  so  as 
to  "read  it  all  the  days  of  his  life".  Josue  (xxiv,  26) 
added  his  portion  to  the  law-book  of  Israel,  and  this 
may  be  regarded  as  the  second  step  in  the  collection 
of  the  Old  Testament  writings.  According  to  Is., 
xxxiv,  16,  and  Jer.,  xxxvi,  4,  the  prophets  Isaias  and 
Jeremias  collected  their  respective  prophetic  utter- 
ances. The  words  of  II  Par.,  xxix,  30,  lead  us  to  sup- 
pose that  in  the  days  of  King  Ezechias  there  either 
existed  or  originated  a  collection  of  the  Psalms  of 
David  and  of  Asaph.  From  Prov.,  xxv,  1,  one  may 
infer  that  about  the  same  time  there  was  made  a  col- 
lection of  the  Solomonic  writings,  which  may  have 
have  been  added  to  the  collection  of  psalms.  In  the 
second  century  B.C.  the  Minor  Prophets  had  been  col- 
lected into  one  work  (Ecclus.,  xlix,  12)  which  is  cited 
in  Acts,  vii,  42,  as  "  the  books  of  the  prophets".  The 
expressions  found  in  Dan.,  ix,  2,  and  I  Mach.,  xii,  9, 
suggest  that  even  these  smaller  collections  had  been 
gathered  into  a  larger  body  of  sacred  books.  Such  a 
larger  collection  is  certainly  implied  in  the  words 
II  Mach.,  ii,  13,  and  the  prologue  of  Ecclesiasticus. 
Since  these  two  passages  mention  the  main  divisions 
of  the  Old-Testament  canon,  this  latter  must  have 
been  completed,  at  least  with  regard  to  the  earlier 
books,  during  the  course  of  the  second  century  b.  c. 

It  is  generally  granted  that  the  Jews  in  the  time  of 
Jesus  Christ  acknowledged  as  canonical  or  included 
in  their  collection  of  sacred  writings  all  the  so-called 
protocanonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  Christ 
and  the  Apostles  endorsed  this  faith  of  the  Jews,  so 
that  we  have  Divine  authority  for  their  Scriptural 
character.  As  there  are  solid  reasons  for  maintain- 
ing that  some  of  the  New-Testament  writers  made  use 
of  the  Septuagint  version  which  contained  the  deute- 
rocanonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  these  latter 
too  are  in  so  far  attested  as  part  of  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture. Again,  II  Pet.,  iii,  15-16,  ranks  all  the  Epis- 
tles of  St.  Paul  with  the  "other  scriptures",  and  I 
Tim.,  V,  18,  seems  to  quote  Luke,  x,  7,  and  to  place  it 
on  a  level  with  Deut.,  xxv,  4.  But  these  arguments 
for  the  canonicity  of  the  deuterocanonical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  and  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Luke  do  not  exclude  all  reasonable 
doubt.  Only  the  Church,  the  infallible  bearer  of  tra- 
dition, can  furnish  us  invincible  certainty  as  to  the 
number  of  the  Divinely  inspired  books  of  both  the 
Old  and  the  New  Testament.  See  Canon  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures. 

IV.  Division  of  Scripture.  A.  Old  and  New 
Testaments.— As  the  two  dispensations  of  grace  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  the  advent  of  Jesus  are 
called  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament  (Matt.,  xxvi, 
28;  II  Cor.,  iii,  14),  so  were  the  inspired  writings  be- 
longing to  either  economy  of  grace  from  the  earliest 
times  called  books  of  the  Old  or  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, or  simply  the  Old  or  the  New  Testament.  This 
name  of  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  inspired  writings 
has  been  practically  common  among  Latin  Chris- 
tians from  the  time  of  Tertullian,  though  Tertullian 
himself  frequently  employs  the  name  "Instrumen- 
tum"  or  legally  authentic  document;  Cassiodorus  uses 
the  title  "Sacred  Pandects",  or  sacred  digest  of  law. 
B.  Protocanonical  and  Deuterocanonical. — The 
word  "canon"  denoted  at  first  the  material  rule,  or 
instrument,  employed  in  various  trades;   in  a  meta- 


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phorical  sense  it  signified  the  form  of  perfection  that 
had  to  be  attained  in  the  various  arts  or  trades.  In 
this  metaphorical  sense  some  of  the  early  Fathers 
urged  the  canon  of  truth,  the  canon  of  tradition,  the 
canon  of  faith,  the  canon  of  the  Church  against  the 
erroneous  tenets  of  the  early  heretics  (St.  Clem.,  "I 
Cor.",  vii;  Clem,  of  Alex.,  "Strom.",  x\-i;  Orig.,  "De 
princip. ",  IV,  ix;  etc.).  St.  Irenacus  emploj'ed  another 
metaphor,  calling  the  Fourth  Gospel  the  canon  of  truth 
(Adv.  ha^r.,  Ill,  xi^i ;  St.  Isidore  of  Pelusium  applies  the 
name  to  all  the  inspired  wTitings  (Epist.  iv,  14).  About 
the  time  of  St.  Augustine  (Contra  Crescent.,  II,  xx.\ix) 
and  St.  Jerome  (Prolog,  gal.),  the  word  "canon"  began 
to  denote  the  collection  of  Sacred  Scriptures;  among 
later  writer.'^  it  is  used  practically  in  the  sense  of  cata- 
logue of  inspired  books.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  Sixtus 
Senensis,  O.P.,  distinguished  between  protocanonical 
and  deuterocanonical  books.  This  distinction  does 
not  indicate  a  difference  of  authority,  but  only  a  dif- 
ference of  time  at  which  the  books  were  recognized 
by  the  whole  Church  as  Divinely  inspired.  Deutero- 
canonical, therefore,  are  those  book.s  concerning  the 
inspiration  of  which  .some  Churches  doubted  more  or 
less  .seriously  for  a  time,  but  which  were  accepted  by 
the  whole  Church  as  really  inspired,  after  the  ques- 
tion had  been  thoroughly  investigated.  As  to  the 
Old  Testament,  the  Books  of  Tobias,  Judith,  Wisdom, 
Ecclcsiasticus,  Baruch,  I,  II  Machabees,  and  also 
Esther,  x,  4-xvi,  24,  Daniel,  iii,  24-90,  xiii,  1-xiv,  42, 
are  in  this  sense  deuterocanonical;  the  same  must  be 
said  of  the  following  New-Testament  books  and  por- 
tions: Hebrews,  .James,  II  Peter,  II,  III  John,  Jude, 
Apocalypse,  Mark,  xiii,  9-20,  Luke  xxii,  43-44;  John, 
vii,  53-viii,  11.  Protestant  wTiters  often  call  the 
deuterocanonical  Books  of  the  Old  Testament  the 
Apocrypha. 

C.  Tripartite  Division  of  Testaments. — The  pro- 
logue of  Ecclesiasticus  shows  that  the  Old-Testament 
books  were  divided  into  three  parts,  the  Law,  the 
Prophets,  and  the  Writings  (the  Hagiographa) .  The 
same  division  is  mentioned  in  Luke,  xxiv,  44,  and  has 
been  kept  by  the  later  Jews.  The  Law  or  the  Torah 
comprises  only  the  Pentateuch.  The  second  part 
contains  two  .sections:  the  former  Prophets  (Josue, 
Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings),  and  the  latter  Prophets 
(Isaias,  Jeremias,  Ezechiel,  and  the  Minor  Prophets, 
called  the  Twelve,  and  counted  as  one  book).  The 
third  division  embraces  three  kinds  of  books:  first 
poetical  books  (Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job);  secondly,  the 
five  Megilloth  or  Rolls  (Canticle  of  Canticles,  Ruth, 
Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes,  Esther);  thirdly,  the 
three  remaining  books  (Daniel,  Esdras,  Paralipo- 
menon).  Hence,  adding  the  five  books  of  the  first 
division  to  the  eight  of  the  second,  and  the  eleven  of 
the  third,  the  entire  Canon  of  the  Jcwi.sh  Scriptures 
embraces  twenty-four  books.  Another  arrangement 
connects  Ruth  witn  the  Book  of  Judges,  and  Lamen- 
tations with  Jeremias,  and  thus  reduces  the  number 
of  the  books  in  the  Canon  to  twenty-two.  The  divi- 
sion of  the  Nfw-Testament  books  into  the  Gospel  and 
the  Apostle  (Evangelium  et  Apostolus,  Evangelia  et 
Apostoli,  Evangelica  et  Apo.stolica)  began  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Apostolic  P'athers  (St.  Ignatius,  "Ad 
Philad.",  v;  "Epist.  ad  Diogn.,  xi)  and  was  com- 
monly adopted  about  the  end  of  the  second  century 
(St.  Iren.,  "Adv.  haer. ",  I,  iii;  Tert.,  "De  prajscr.  , 
xxxiv;  St.  Clem,  of  Alex.,  "Strom.",  VII,  iii;  etc.); 
but  the  more  recent  Fathers  did  not  adhere  to  it.  It 
has  been  found  more  convenient  to  divide  both  the 
Old  Testament  and  the  New  into  four,  or  still  better 
into  three  parts.  The  four  parts  distinguish  between 
legal,  historical,  didactic  or  doctrinal,  and  prophetic 
books,  while  the  tripartite  tlivision  adds  the  legal 
books  (the  Pentateuch  and  the  Gosijels)  to  the  hi.stori- 
cal,  and  retains  the  other  two  cla8.ses,  i.  e.,  the  didactic 
and  the  prophetic  books. 

D.  A  rrangemenl  of  Books. — The  catalogue  of  the 


Council  of  Trent  arranges  the  inspired  books  partly  in 
a  topological,  partly  in  a  chronological  order.  In  the 
Old  Testament,  we  have  first  all  the  historical  books, 
excepting  the  two  books  of  the  Machabees  which  were 
supposed  to  have  been  wTitten  last  of  all.  These  his- 
torical books  arc  arranged  according  to  the  order  of 
time  of  which  they  treat;  the  books  of  Tobias,  .Ju- 
dith, and  Esther,  however,  occupy  the  last  place  be- 
cause they  relate  personal  history.  The  body  of  di- 
dactic works  occupies  the  second  place  in  the  Canon, 
being  arranged  in  the  order  of  time  at  which  the 
writers  are  supposed  to  have  lived.  The  third  place 
is  a.ssigned  to  the  Prophets,  first  the  four  Major  and 
then  the  twelve  Minor  Prophets,  according  to  their 
respective  chronological  order.  The  Council  follows 
a  similar  method  in  the  arrangement  of  the  New-Tes- 
tament books.  The  first  place  is  given  to  the  histori- 
cal books,  i.  e.,  the  Gospels  and  the  Book  of  Acts;  the 
Gospels  follow  the  order  of  their  reputed  composition. 
The  second  place  is  occupied  by  the  didactic  books, 
the  Pauline  Epistles  preceding  the  Catholic.  The 
former  are  enumerated  according  to  the  order  of  dignity 
of  the  addresses  and  according  to  the  importance  of  the 
matter  treated.  Hence  results  the  series:  Romans;  I, 
II  Corinthians;  Galatians;  Ephesians;  Philippians; 
Colossians;  I,  II  Thes.salonians;  I,  II  Timothy; 
Titus;  Philemon;  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  occupies 
the  last  place  on  account  of  its  late  reception  into 
the  canon.  In  its  disposition  of  the  Catholic  Epistles 
the  Council  follows  the  so-called  western  order:  I,  II 
Peter;  I,  II,  III  John;  James;  Jude;  ourVulgate  edition 
follows  the  oriental  order  (James;  I,  II  Peter;  I,  II,  III 
John;  Jude)  which  .seems  to  be  based  on  Gal.,  ii,  9. 
The  Apocalypse  occupies  in  the  New  Te-stament  the 
place  corresponding  to  that  of  the  Prophets  in  the  Old 
Testament. 

E.  Liturgical  Division. — The  needs  of  liturgy  oc- 
casioned a  division  of  the  inspired  books  into  smaller 
parts.  At  the  time  of  the  Apostles  it  was  a  received 
custom  to  read  in  the  synagogue  service  of  the  sab- 
bath-day a  portion  of  the  Pentateuch  (Acts,  xv,  21) 
and  a  part  of  the  Prophets  (Luke,  iv,  16;  Acts,  xiii, 
1.5,  27).  Hence  the  Pentateuch  has  been  divided  into 
fifty-four  "parashas"  according  to  the  number  of 
sabbaths  in  the  intercalary  lunar  year.  To  each  pa- 
rasha  corresponds  a  division  of  the  prophetic  writ- 
ings, called  haphtara.  The  Talmud  speaks  of  more 
minute  divisions,  pesukim,  which  almost  resemble 
our  verses.  The  Church  transferred  to  the  Christian 
Sunday  the  Jewish  custom  of  reading  part  of  the 
Scriptures  in  the  a.sfiemblies  of  the  faithful,  but  soon 
added  to,  or  replaced,  the  Jewish  lessons  by  parts 
of  the  New  Testament  (St.  Just.,  "lApol. ",  Ixvii; 
Tert.,  " De  praescr. ",  xxxvi,  etc.).  Since  the  particular 
churches  differed  in  the  selection  of  the  Sunday  read- 
ings, this  custom  did  not  occasion  any  generally  re- 
ceived division  in  the  books  of  the  New  Testament. 
Besides,  from  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  these  Sun- 
day le.s.«ons  were  no  longer  taken  in  order,  but  the  sec- 
tions were  cho.sen  as  they  fitted  in  with  the  ecclesia.s- 
tical  feasts  and  seasons. 

V.  Divisions  to  facilitate  reference. — For  the  con- 
venience of  readers  and  students  the  text  had  to  be 
divided  more  uniformly  than  we  have  hitherto  seen. 
Such  divisions  are  traced  back  to  Tatian,  in  the  sec- 
ond century.  Ammonius,  in  the  third,  divided  the 
Gospel  text  into  1162  K€(p(i\ata  in  order  to  facilitate 
a  Gospel  harmony.  Eusebius,  Euthalius,  and  others 
carried  on  this  work  of  division  in  the  following  cen- 
turies, so  that  in  the  fifth  or  sixth  the  Gospels  were 
divided  into  318  parts  {tituli),  the  Epistles  into  254 
(capilula),  and  the  Apocalypse  into  96  (24  sermones, 
72  capilula).  Cassiodorus  relates  that  the  Old-Testa- 
ment text  was  divided  into  various  parts  (De  inst.  div. 
lit.,  I,  ii).  But  all  these  various  partitions  were  too 
imperfect  and  too  uneven  for  practical  use,  especially 
when  in  the  thirteenth  century  concordances   (see 


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Concordances)  began  to  be  constructed.  About  this 
time,  Card.  Stephen  Langton,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, who  died  1228,  divided  all  the  books  of 
Scripture  uniformly  into  chapters,  a  division  which 
found  its  way  almost  immediately  into  the  codices  of 
the  Vulgate  version  and  even  into  some  codices  of  the 
original  texts,  and  passed  into  all  the  printed  editions 
after  the  invention  of  printing.  As  the  chapters  were 
too  long  for  ready  reference,  Cardinal  Hugh  of  St. 
Cher  divided  them  into  smaller  sections  which  he  in- 
dicated by  the  capital  letters  A,  B,  etc.  Robert  Ste- 
phens, probably  imitating  R.  Nathan  (1437)divided 
the  chapters  into  verses,  and  published  his  complete 
division  into  chapters  and  verses  first  in  the  Vulgate 
text  (1548),  and  later  on  also  in  the  Greek  original  of 
the  New  Testament  (1551). 

V.  Scripture  and  the  Church. — Since  Scripture 
is  the  written  word  of  God,  its  contents  are  Divinely 
guaranteed  truths,  revealed  either  in  the  strict  or  the 
wider  sense  of  the  word.  Again,  since  the  inspiration 
of  a  writing  cannot  be  known  without  Divine  testi- 
mony, God  must  have  revealed  which  are  the  books 
that  constitute  Sacred  Scripture.  Moreover,  theolo- 
gians teach  that  Christian  Revelation  was  complete  in 
the  Apostles,  and  that  its  deposit  was  entrusted  to 
the  Apostles  to  guard  and  to  promulgate.  Hence  the 
apostolic  deposit  of  Revelation  contained  not  merely 
Sacred  Scripture  in  the  abstract,  but  also  the  knowl- 
edge as  to  its  constituent  books.  Scripture,  then,  ia 
an  Apostolic  deposit  entrusted  to  the  Church,  and  to 
the  Church  belongs  its  lawful  administration.  This 
position  of  Sacred  Scripture  in  the  Church  impUes  the 
following  consequences: — 

(1)  The  Apostles  promulgated  both  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  as  a  document  received  from  God. 
It  is  antecedently  probable  that  God  should  not  cast 
his  written  Word  upon  men  as  a  mere  windfall,  com- 
ing from  no  known  authority,  but  that  he  should  en- 
trust its  publication  to  the  care  of  those  whom  he  was 
sending  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  all  nations,  and  with 
whom  he  had  promised  to  be  for  all  days,  even  to  the 
consummation  of  the  world.  In  conformity  with  this 
principle,  St.  Jerome  (De  script,  eccl.)  says  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Mark:  "When  Peter  had  heard  it,  he 
both  approved  of  it  and  ordered  it  to  be  read  in  the 
churches".  The  Fathers  testify  to  the  promulgation 
of  Scripture  by  the  Apostles  where  they  treat  of  the 
transmission  of  the  inspired  writings. 

(2)  The  transmission  of  the  inspired  writings  con- 
sists in  the  delivery  of  Scripture  by  the  Apostles  to 
their  successors  with  the  right,  the  duty,  and  the 
power  to  continue  its  promulgation,  to  preserve  its  in- 
tegrity and  identity,  to  explain  its  meaning,  to  use  it 
in  proving  and  illustrating  Catholic  teaching,  to  op- 
pose and  condemn  any  attack  upon  its  doctrine,  or  any 
abuse  of  its  meaning.  We  may  infer  all  this  from  the 
character  of  the  inspired  wTitings  and  the  nature  of 
the  Apostolate;  but  it  is  also  attested  by  some  of  the 
weightiest  writers  of  the  early  Church.  St.  Irenseus  in- 
sists upon  these  points  against  the  Gnostics,  who  ap- 
pealed to  Scripture  as  to  private  historical  documents. 
He  excludes  this  Gnostic  view,  first  by  insisting  on  the 
mission  of  the  Apostles  and  upon  the  succession  in  the 
Apostolate,  especially  as  seen  in  the  Church  of  Rome 
(Haer.,  HI,  3-4);  secondly,  by  showing  that  the 
preaching  of  the  Apostles  continued  by  their  suc- 
cessors contains  a  supernatural  guarantee  of  infalli- 
bility through  the  indweUing  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Hter., 
Ill,  24) ;  thirdly,  by  combining  the  Apostolic  succes- 
sion and  the  supernatural  guarantee  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  (Haer.,  IV,  26).  It  seems  plain  that,  if  Scrip- 
ture cannot  be  regarded  as  a  private  historical  docu- 
ment on  account  of  the  official  mission  of  the  Apostles, 
on  account  of  the  official  succession  in  the  Apostolate 
of  their  successors,  on  account  of  the  assistance  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  promised  to  the  Ai)ostle8  and  their  suc- 
cessors, the  promulgation  of  Scripture,  the  preserva- 


tion of  its  integrity  and  identity,  and  the  explanation 
of  its  meaning  must  belong  to  the  Apostles  and  their 
legitimate  successors.  The  same  principles  are  advo- 
cated by  the  great  Alexandrian  doctor,  Origen  (De 
princ,  Praef.).  "That  alone",  he  says,  "is  to  be  be- 
lieved to  be  the  truth  which  in  nothing  differs  from  the 
ecclesiastical  and  Apostolical  tradition".  In  another 
passage  (in  Matth.  tr.  XXIX,  n.  46-47),  he  rejects  the 
contention  urged  by  the  heretics  "as  often  as  they 
bring  forward  canonical  Scriptures  in  which  every 
Christian  agrees  and  beheves",  that  "in  the  houses  is 
the  word  of  truth";  "for  from  it  (the  Church)  alone 
the  sound  hath  gone  forth  into  all  the  earth,  and  their 
words  unto  the  ends  of  the  world  ".  That  the  African 
Church  agrees  with  the  Alexandrian,  is  clear  from  the 
words  of  TertuUian  (De  praescript.,  nn.  15,  19).  He 
protests  against  the  admission  of  heretics  "to  any  dis- 
cussion whatever  touching  the  Scriptures".  "This 
question  should  be  first  proposed,  which  is  now  the 
only  one  to  be  discussed,  'To  whom  belongs  the  faith 
itself:  whose  are  the  Scriptures'?  .  .  .  For  the  true 
Scriptures  and  the  true  expositions  and  all  the  true 
Christian  traditions  will  be  wherever  both  the  true 
Christian  rule  and  faith  shall  be  shown  to  be".  St. 
Augustine  endorses  the  same  position  when  he  says: 
"I  should  not  believe  the  Gospel  except  on  the  au- 
thority of  the  CathoUc  Churcla"  (Con.  epist.  Mani- 
chaei,  fundam.,  n.  6). 

(3)  By  virtue  of  its  official  and  permanent  promul- 
gation, Scripture  is  a  public  document,  the  Divine  au- 
thority of  which  is  evident  to  all  the  members  of  the 
Church. 

(4)  The  Church  necessarily  possesses  a  text  of 
Scripture,  which  is  internally  authentic,  or  substan- 
tially identical  with  the  original.  Any  form  or  ver- 
sion of  the  text,  the  internal  authenticity  of  which  the 
Church  has  approved  either  by  its  universal  and 
constant  use,  or  by  a  formal  declaration,  enjoys  the 
character  of  external  or  pubHc  authenticity,  i.  e.,  its 
conformity  with  the  original  must  not  merely  be 
presumed  juridically,  but  must  be  admitted  as  certain 
on  account  of  the  infallibility  of  the  Church. 

(5)  The  authentic  text,  legitimately  promulgated, 
is  a  source  and  rule  of  faith,  though  it  remains  only  a 
means  or  instrument  in  the  hands  of  the  teaching 
body  of  the  Church,  which  alone  has  the  right  of  au- 
thoritatively interpreting  Scripture. 

(6)  The  achniiiisl ration  and  custody  of  Scripture  is 
not  entrusted  directly  to  the  whole  Church,  but  to  its 
teaching  body,  though  Scripture  itself  is  the  common 
property  of  the  ineinhers  of  t  he  whole  Church.  While 
the  private  liandling  of  Scripture  is  opposed  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  common  property,  its  administrators  are 
bound  to  communicate  its  contents  to  all  the  members 
of  the  Church. 

(7)  Though  Scripture  is  the  property  of  the  Church 
alone,  those  outside  her  pale  may  use  it  as  a  means  of 
discovering  or  entering  the  Church.  But  TertuUian 
shows  that  they  have  no  right  to  apply  Scripture  to 
their  own  purposes  or  to  turn  it  against  the  Church. 
He  also  teaches  Catholics  how  to  contest  the  right  of 
heretics  to  appeal  to  Scripture  at  all  (by  a  kind  of  de- 
murrer), before  arguing  with  them  on  single  points  of 
Scriptural  doctrine. 

(8)  The  rights  of  the  teaching  body  of  the  Church 
mclude  also  that  of  issuing  and  enforcing  decrees  for 
promoting  the  right  use,  or  preventing  the  abuse  of 
Scripture.  Not  to  mention  the  definition  of  the 
Canon  (see  Canon),  the  Council  of  Trent  issued  two 
decrees  concerning  the  Vulgate  (see  Vulgate),  and  a 
decree  concerning  the  interpretation  of  Scripture  (see 
Exegesis;  Hermeneutics),  and  this  last  enactment 
was  repeated  in  a  more  stringent  form  by  the  Vatican 
Council  (sess.  Ill,  Cone.  Trid.,  sess.  IV).  The  vari- 
ous decisions  of  the  Biblical  Commission  derive  their 
binding  force  from  this  same  right  of  the  teaching 
body  of  the  Church.     (Cf.   Stapleton,   Princ.  Fid. 


SCROPE 


640 


SCRUPLE 


Demonstr.,  X-XI;  Wilhelm  and  Scannell,  "  Manual 
of  Catholic  Theology",  London,  1890,  I,  61  sqq.; 
Scheeben,  "  Handbuch  der  katholischen  Dogmatik", 
Freiburg,  1873,  I,  126  sqq.). 

VI.  Attitcde  of  the  Church  towards  the 
Reading  of  the  Bible  in  the  Vernacular. — The 
attitude  of  the  Church  as  to  the  reading  of  the  Bible  in 
the  vernacular  may  be  inferred  from  the  Church's 
practice  and  legisla'tion.  It  has  been  the  practice  of 
the  Church  to  provide  newly-converted  nations,  as 
soon  as  possible,  with  vernacular  versions  of  the 
Scriptures;  hence  the  early  Latin  and  oriental  trans- 
lations, the  versioiis  existing  among  the  Armenians, 
the  Slavonians,  the  Goths,  the  Italians,  the  French, 
and  the  partial  renderings  into  English.  As  to  the 
legislation  of  the  Church  on  this  subject,  we  may  di- 
vide its  historv'  into  three  large  periods: — 

(1)  During  "the  course  of  the  first  millennium  of  her 
existence,  the  Church  did  not  promulgate  any  law 
concerning  the  reading  of  Scripture  in  the  vernacular. 
The  faithful  were  rather  encouraged  to  read  the 
Sacred  Books  according  to  their  spiritual  needs  (cf. 
St.  Irenaeus,  "Adv.  hser.".  Ill,  iv). 

(2)  The  next  five  hundred  years  show  only  local 
regulations  concerning  the  use  of  the  Bible  in  the  ver- 
nacular. On  2  Januarj',  1080,  Gregory  VII  wrote 
to  the  Duke  of  Bohemia  that  he  could  not  allow  the 
pubhcation  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  language  of  the 
countn,-.  The  letter  was  written  chiefly  to  refuse  the 
petition  of  the  Bohemians  for  permission  to  conduct 
Divine  service  in  the  Slavic  language.  The  pontiff 
feared  that  the  reading  of  the  Bible  in  the  vernacular 
would  lead  to  irreverence  and  wrong  interpretation 
of  the  inspired  text  (St.  Gregory  VII,  "  Epist.",  vii,  xi). 
The  second  document  belongs  to  the  time  of  the  Wal- 
densian  and  Albigensian  heresies.  The  Bishop  of 
Metz  had  written  to  Innocent  III  that  there  existed  in 
his  diocese  a  perfect  frenzy  for  the  Bible  in  the  ver- 
nacular. In  1199  the  pope  repUed  that  in  general  the 
desire  to  read  the  Scriptures  was  praiseworthy,  but 
that  the  practice  was  dangerous  for  the  simple  and  un- 
learned ("Epist.",  II,  cxli;  Hurter,  "Gesch.  desPapstes 
Innocent  III",  Hamburg,  1842,  IV,  501  sqq.).  After 
the  death  of  the  Innocent  III,  the  Synod  of  Toulouse 
directed  in  1229  its  fourteenth  canon  against  the  misuse 
of  Sacred  Scripture  on  the  part  of  the  Cathari:  "pro- 
hibemus,  ne  Ubros  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti  laicis 
permittatur  habere"  (Hefele,  "Concilgesch",  Frei- 
burg, 1863,  V,  875).  In  1233  the  Synod  of  Tarra- 
gona issued  a  similar  prohibition  in  its  second  canon, 
but  both  these  laws  are  intended  only  for  the  countries 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  respective  synods 
(Hefele,  ibid.,  918).  The  Third  Synod  of  Oxford,  in 
1408,  owing  to  the  disorders  of  the  Lollards,  who  in 
addition  to  their  crimes  of  violence  and  anarchy  had 
introduced  virulent  interpolations  into  the  vernacular 
BiiCTcd  text,  issued  a  law  in  virtue  of  which  only  the 
versions  approved  by  the  local  ordinary  or  the  pro- 
vincial council  were  allowed  to  be  read  by  the  laity 
(Hefele,  op.  cit.,  VI,  817). 

(3)  It  is  only  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  five  hun- 
dred years  that  we  meet  with  a  general  law  of  the 
Church  concerning  the  reading  of  the  Bible  in  the  ver- 
nacular. On  24  March,  1564,  Pius  IV  promulgated  in 
his  Constitution,  "  Dominici  gregis",  the  Index  of  Pro- 
hibited Books.  According  to  the  third  rule,  the  Old 
Testament  may  be  read  in  the  vernacular  by  pious  and 
learned  men,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  bishop, 
as  a  help  to  the  better  understanding  of  the  Vulgate. 
The  fourth  rule  places  in  the  hands  of  the  bishop  or 
the  inquisit/jr  the  power  of  allowing  the  reading  of  the 
New  Testament  in  the  vernacular  to  laymen  who  ac- 
cording to  the  judgment  of  their  confessor  or  their 
pastor  can  profit  by  this  practice.  Sixtus  V  reserved 
this  yxjwer  to  himself  or  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
the  Index,  and  Clement  VIII  abided  this  restriction 
to  the  fourth  rule  of  the  Index,  by  way  of  appendix. 


Benedict  XIV  required  that  the  vernacular  version 
read  by  laymen  should  be  either  approved  by  the 
Holy  See  or  provided  with  notes  taken  from  the  wTit- 
ings  of  the  Fathers  or  of  learned  and  pious  authors. 
It  then  became  an  open  question  whether  this  order  of 
Benedict  XIV  was  intended  to  supersede  the  former 
legislation  or  to  further  restrict  it.  This  doubt  was 
not  removed  bj''  the  next  three  documents:  the  con- 
demnation of  certain  errors  of  the  Jansenist  Quesnel 
as  to  the  necessity  of  reading  the  Bible,  by  the  Bull 
"Unigenitus"  issued  by  Clement  XI  on  8  Sept.,  1713 
(cf.  Denzinger,  "Enchir.",  nn.  1294-1300);  the  con- 
demnation of  the  same  teaching  maintained  in  the 
Synod  of  Pistoia,  by  the  Bull  "Auctorem  fidei" 
issued  on  28  Aug.,  1794,  by  Pius  VI;  the  warning 
against  allowing  the  laity  indiscriminately  to  read 
the  Scriptures  in  the  vernacular,  addressed  to  the 
Bishop  of  Mohileff  by  Pius  VII,  on  3  Sept.,  1816. 
But  the  Decree  issued  by  the  Sacred  Congregation 
of  the  Index  on  7  Jan.,  1836,  seems  to  render  it  clear 
that  henceforth  the  laity  may  read  vernacular  ver- 
sions of  the  Scriptures,  if  they  be  either  approved  by 
the  Holy  See,  or  pro\ided  with  notes  taken  from  the 
writings  of  the  Fathers  or  of  learned  Cathohc  authors. 
The  same  regulation  was  repeated  by  Gregory  XVI  in 
his  Encyclical  of  8  May,  1844.  In  general,  the  Church 
has  always  allowed  the  reading  of  the  Bible  in  the  ver- 
nacular, if  it  was  desirable  for  the  spiritual  needs  of 
her  children ;  she  has  forbidden  it  only  when  it  was 
almost  certain  to  cause  serious  spiritual  harm. 

VII.  Other  Scriptural  Questions. — The  history 
of  the  preservation  and  the  propagation  of  the  Scrip- 
ture-text is  told  in  the  articles  Manuscripts  of  the 
Bible;  Codex  Alexandrinus  (etc.);  Versions  of 
the  Bible;  Editions  of  the  Bible;  Criticism  (Text- 
ual) ;  the  interpretation  of  Scripture  is  dealt  with  in 
the  articles  Hermeneutics;  Exegesis;  Commen- 
taries ON  the  Bible;  and  Criticism  (Biblical). 
Additional  information  on  the  foregoing  questions  is 
contained  in  the  articles  Introduction;  Testament, 
The  Old;  Testament,  The  New.  The  history  of 
our  English  Version  is  treated  in  the  article  Versions 
of  the  Bible. 

A  list  of  Catholic  literature  on  Scriptural  subjects  has  been 
published  in  the  Amtrican  Ecclesiastical  Review,  xxxi  (August, 
1904),  191-201;  this  list  is  fairly  complete  up  to  the  date  of  its 
publication.  See  also  the  works  cited  throughout  the  course  of 
this  article.  Most  of  the  questions  connected  with  Scripture  are 
treated  in  special  articles  throughout  the  course  of  the  Ency- 
clopedia, for  instance,  in  addition  to  those  mentioned  above, 
Jerome;  Canon  of  the  Holy  Scriptures;  Concordances  op 
THE  Bible;  Inspiration  of  the  Bible;  Testament,  etc.  Each 
of  these  articles  has  an  abundant  literary  guide  to  its  own  special 
aspect  of  the  Scriptures. 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Scrope,  Richard.    See  York,  Ancient  See  of. 

Scruple  (Lat.  Scrupulus,  "a  small  sharp,  or 
pointed,  stone",  hence,  in  a  transferred  sense,  "un- 
easiness of  mind"),  an  unfounded  apprehension  and 
consequently  unwarranted  fear  that  something  is  a  sin 
which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  not.  It  is  not  considered 
here  so  much  as  an  isolated  act,  but  rather  as  an 
habitual  state  of  mind  known  to  directors  of  souls  as 
"a  scrupulous  conscience".  St.  Ali)lionsus  describes 
it  as  a  condition  in  which  one  infhicnccd  by  trifling 
reasons,  and  without  any  solid  foundation,  is  often 
afraid  that  sin  lies  where  it  really  does  not.  This 
anxiety  may  be  entertained  not  only  with  regard  to 
what  is  to  be  done  presently,  but  also  with  regard  to 
what  has  been  done.  The  idea  sometimes  obtaining, 
that  scrupulosity  is  in  itself  a  spiritual  benefit  of  some 
sort,  is,  of  course,  a  great  error.  The  providence  of 
God  permits  it  and  can  gather  good  from  it  as  from 
other  forms  of  evil.  That  apart,  however,  it  is  a  bad 
habit  doing  harm,  sometimes  grievously,  to  body  and 
soul.  Indeed,  persisted  in  with  the  obstinacy  char- 
act<;ristic  of  persons  who  suffer  from  this  malady,  it 
may  entail  the  most  lamentable  consequences.  The 
judgment  is  seriously  warjjcd,  the  moral  power  tired 


SCRUTINY 


641 


SCULPTURE 


out  in  futile  combat,  and  then  not  unfrequently  the 
scrupulous  person  makes  shipwreck  of  salvation  either 
on  the  Scylla  of  despair  or  the  Charybdis  of  unheeding 
indulgence  in  vice. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  be  able  to  make  a  correct 
diagnosis  of  this  disease.  Hence  especially  guides  of 
consciences  should  be  familiar  with  the  symptoms  that 
betray  its  presence  as  well  as  with  the  causes  which 
commonly  give  rise  to  it.  For  one  thing,  the  con- 
fessor should  not  confound  a  delicate  with  a  scrupu- 
lous conscience,  neither  should  he  interpret  the  rea- 
sonable solicitude  sometimes  discernible  in  those  who 
.are  trying  to  emerge  from  a  life  of  sin  as  a  sign  of 
scrupulosity.  Then,  too,  ordinarily  he  ought  not  to 
hastily  reach  this  conclusion  on  the  very  first  experi- 
ence of  his  penitent.  It  is  true  there  are  cases  of 
scruples  which  may  be  recognized  from  the  start,  but 
this  is  not  the  rule.  Some  special  indications  that  per- 
sons are  really  scrupulous,  generally  adopted  by  theo- 
logians, are  those  enumerated  by  Lacroix.  Among 
these  is  a  certain  rooted  attachment  to  their  own 
opinion  which  makes  them  unwilling  to  abide  by  the 
judgment  of  those  whom  they  consult,  even  though 
these  latter  have  every  title  to  deference.  In  conse- 
quence, they  go  from  one  confessor  to  another,  change 
their  convictions  with  hardly  a  shadow  of  motive,  and 
are  tortured  by  an  overshadowing  dread  that  sin 
lurks  in  everything  they  do,  and  say,  and  think. 
The  scrupulous  may,  and  ought  to,  act  in  defiance 
of  their  misgivings,  i.  e.  against  their  so-called  con- 
science. Nor  can  they,  therefore,  be  impeached  as 
acting  in  a  state  of  practical  doubt.  The  unreal 
phantasm  that  affrights  their  imagination,  or  the  un- 
substantial consideration  that  offers  itself  to  their 
disturbed  reason,  has  no  validity  against  the  con- 
science once  formed  upon  the  pronouncement  of  the 
confessor  or  in  some  other  equally  trustworthy  fash- 
ion. In  the  various  periJlexities  as  to  the  lawfulness 
of  their  actions  they  are  not  bound  to  employ  any 
such  scrutiny  as  would  be  incumbent  upon  persons  in 
a  normal  condition.  They  are  not  bound  to  repeat 
anything  of  former  confessions  unless  they  are  sure, 
without  protracted  examination,  that  it  is  a  mortal 
sin  and  has  never  been  properly  confessed. 

Their  chief  remedy  is,  having  reposed  confidence  in 
some  confessor,  to  obey  his  decisions  and  commands 
entirely  and  absolutely.  They  are  counselled  also  to 
avoid  idleness,  and  thus  to  close  the  avenue  of  ap- 
proach to  the  wild  conjectures  and  strange  ponderings 
responsible  for  so  many  of  their  worries.  They  should 
remove  the  cause  of  their  scruples  in  so  far  as  it  may 
have  been  of  their  own  choosing.  Hence  they  are  to 
guard  against  the  reading  of  ascetical  books  of  a 
rigorist  trend  and  any  intercourse  with  those  afflicted 
in  the  same  way  as  themselves.  If  the  source  of 
their  scruples  be  ignorance — for  example,  with  regard 
to  the  obligation  of  some  commandment — they  are  to 
be  instructed,  discretion  being  used  in  the  imparting 
of  the  necessary  information.  If  it  be  a  propensity  to 
melancholy,  certain  harmless  pleasures  and  rational 
enjoyments  may  be  employed  with  advantage.  Con- 
fessors to  whom  falls  the  difficult  task  of  receiving  the 
confessions  of  these  harassed  souls  are  to  carefully  in- 
quire into  the  origin  of  the  anxieties  laid  before  them. 
They  are  to  treat  their  unhappy  penitents  in  general 
with  great  kindness.  Occasionally,  however,  some  de- 
gree of  severity  may  be  useful  when  the  penitent  shows 
an  extreme  tenacity  in  adhering  to  his  own  unreasonable 
view  of  the  situation.  As  a  rule,  the  confessor's  an- 
swers to  the  innumerable  troubles  submitted  should  be 
clear,  unaccompanied  by  reasons,  and  so  unhesitating 
as  to  inspire  courage.  He  should  not  permit  the  pres- 
entation indefinitely  of  the  various  doubts,  much  less, 
of  course,  the  repetition  of  past  confessions.  Finally, 
he  may  sometimes  do  what  should  hardly  ever  be 
done  in  any  other  instance,  that  is,  forbid  the  penitent 
to  have  recourse  to  another  confessor, 
XIII.— 41 


Slater,  Manical  of  Moral  Theology  {New  York,  1908);  St. 
Alphonsus  Liouori,  Theologia  moralis  (Turin,  1888) ;  Genicot, 
TheologicB  moralis  instituiiones  (Louvain,  1898) ;  Ballerini,  Opus 

Iheologicum  morale  (Prato,  1898). 

Joseph  F.  Delany. 

Scrutiny  (Lat.  scrutinium  from  scrutari  to  search, 
to  investigate),  a  term  variously  employed  in  canon 
law.  (1)  In  promotion  to  orders  a  scrutiny  or  ex- 
amination of  the  candidate  is  to  be  made  according 
to  the  warning  of  the  Apostle:  "Impose  not  hands 
lightly  upon  any  man"  (I  Tim.,  v,  22).  That  the 
practice  is  ancient  is  testified  to  by  St.  Cyprian  (who 
died  in  258)  in  his  thirty-eighth  epistle.  The  ninth 
canon  of  the  Council  of  Nicsea  (325)  supposes  the  scru- 
tiny of  candidates  to  be  already  in  use.  Many  later 
synods  enforced  and  defined  more  exactly  this  scru- 
tiny of  those  who  aspired  to  orders.  The  present 
discipline  is  laid  down  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXIII,  Cap.  v,  de  ref.),  though  its  observance  in 
every  detail  has  not  been  reduced  to  practice  in  all 
countries.  A  three-fold  scrutiny  is  ordered:  first, 
through  the  inquiry  into  the  qualities  of  the  candi- 
dates by  the  parish  priest  and  teachers  and  by  public 
proclamation  in  the  Church.  The  information  thus 
obtained  is  to  be  embodied  in  a  testimonial  letter 
to  the  bishop.  Secondly,  shortly  before  ordination 
through  the  bishop  himself  and  ecclesiastical  persons 
appointed  to  examine  into  the  morals,  faith,  and  doc- 
trine of  the  candidates.  Thirdly,  through  the  cere- 
monial form  prescribed  by  the  Pontificale  Romanum 
for  the  ordination  of  a  deacon  or  priest.  (2)  Scru- 
tiny is  also  a  form  of  ecclesiastical  election  and  is  made 
either  by  written  ballot  or  by  pronouncing  the  chosen 
name  before  legitimate  scrutators  alone.  It  is  the 
usual  form  for  electing  the  pope.  (See  Papal  Elec- 
tions.) (3)  Scrutiny  is  also  the  term  for  the  exam- 
ination of  catechumens  before  baptism.  In  ancient 
times  there  were  three  such  scrutinies  and  later  on  the 
number  was  increased  to  seven.  From  the  Middle 
Ages  onwards  owing  to  the  fact  that  most  who  re- 
ceived baptism  were  infants  the  prescribed  scrutinies 
were  reduced  to  that  now  found  in  the  ritual  for  con- 
ferring baptism.  The  subject-matter  of  these  scru- 
tinies was  the  faith  and  dispositions  of  the  candidate. 

Wernz,  Jus  Decretalium,  II  (Rome,  1899). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Sculpture. — In  the  widest  sense  of  the  term,  sculp- 
ture is  the  art  of  representing  in  bodily  form  men,  ani- 
mals, and  other  objects  in  stone,  bronze,  ivory,  clay 
and  similar  materials,  whether  the  objects  repre- 
sented actually  exist  in  nature  or  are  the  creation  of 
the  imagination  of  the  artist.  A  more  concise  and  ex- 
act definition  of  sculpture  is  the  art  which  represents 
beauty  in  bodily  form  by  means  of  figures  entirely  or 
partly  in  the  round.  Sculpture  therefore  depicts  the 
beauty  of  the  corporeal  world,  not  as  docs  painting  by 
means  of  an  illusory  representation  upon  a  flat  col- 
oured surface,  but  by  imitating  in  a  solid  substance 
these  bodies  in  their  entirety,  and  achieving  the  effect 
by  means  of  form  alone.  This  effect  is  called  plastic 
beauty.  Sculpture  therefore  does  not  include  land- 
scape with  its  accompanying  vegetation,  nor  the 
phenomena  of  light  and  shade,  which  play  such  an 
important  part  in  painting.  Inasmuch  as  sculpture 
represents  bodies  in  their  actual  form  and  contours, 
its  favourite  subject,  in  contrast  to  painting,  is  the 
single  figure.  And  as  the  single  figure  never  appears 
in  close  relation  with  its  surroundings  the  significance 
of  its  personaUty  is  presented  in  a  more  effective  and 
powerful  manner,  particularly  so  because  it  is  usu- 
ally raised  above  its  surroundings  by  means  of  a 
pedestal,  and  is  placed  in  the  most  advantageous 
hght  by  a  suitable  background.  By  these  means  the 
statue  becomes  a  monument,  in  which  the  character- 
istic traits  of  a  personality  are  perpetuated  with  ar- 
tistic charm.     These  attributes  of  the  statue  render  it 


SCULPTURE 


642 


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difficult  for  sculpture  to  combine  several  figures  in  a 
group  in  which  detail  is  necessarily  subordinated  to 
the  whole.  The  most  important  principle  of  the 
group  is  that  the  figures  should  be  as  closely  joined 
together  as  is  possible,  or  as  is  compatible  with  the 
artistic  effect.  Such  a  juxtaposition  is  very  much  hin- 
dered by  the  material  in  the  case  of  figures  in  the  round. 

These  difficulties  do  not  exist  in  the  case  of  the  re- 
hef,  which  should  also  be  considered  as  sculpture,  to 
which  it  belongs  by  reason  both  of  the  material  used 
and  of  the  technique.  In  certain  characteristics,  re- 
hef  approaches  so  nearly  to  painting  that  it  may  be 
called  the  transitional  art  between  jiainting  and 
sculpture;  it  is,  so  to  speak,  pictorial  sculpture.  It 
prefers  to  represent  several  figures  side  by  side,  as  for 
example,  in  the  case  of  war  scenes,  festal  processions, 
labour  in  the  fields  and  at  home;  it  therefore  easily 
achieves  what  is  hardly  possible  for  sculpture  in  the 
round.  There  are  two  principal  kinds  of  relief:  Low 
Relief  (bas-relief,  basso-rilievo),  the  figures  of  which 
have  only  a  limited  thickness,  and  in  which  the  ap- 
pearance of  solidity  is  achieved  by  the  effect  of  light 
and  shade;  and  High  Relief  (grand-rehef,  alto-rilievo), 
in  which  the  figures  sometimes  appear  entirely  in  the 
round.  The  chief  demand  which  we  make  of  a  work 
of  sculpture,  whether  it  be  a  statue  or  a  group,  is  ar- 
tistic unity,  that  is  to  sa}',  that  all  the  parts  should  work 
together  for  the  expression  of  a  thought  or  an  idea. 
In  the  case  of  the  single  statue  it  is  not  only  the  ex- 
pression of  the  face  which  reveals  the  idea  presented 
in  the  work  of  art,  but  the  pose  of  the  body  and  the 
posture  of  the  limbs  also  contribute  to  the  same  end. 
For  this  reason  everything  irrelevant  should,  as  far 
as  possible,  be  avoided.  This  requirement  has  led  to 
the  principle  first  terselj^  enunciated  by  Lessing  in  his 
"Laocoon",  and  which  has  since  been  repeated  in- 
numerable times:  that  it  is  the  purpose  of  sculpture 
(and  also  of  painting)  to  represent  human  figures  of 
great  bodily  beauty;  from  which  Lessing  made  the 
further  deduction,  that  the  highest  purpose  of  sculp- 
ture is  not  the  representation  of  spiritual  but  of  sensu- 
ous beaut\%  that  is  to  say,  the  beautj^  of  the  human 
body  free  "from  all  draperies.  Modern  a?sthetes  have 
gone  so  far  as  to  maintain  as  a  rule  without  exception, 
that  sculpture  should  create  only  nude  bodies.  A 
scholar  of  such  fine  artistic  perception  as  Schnaase 
went  so  far  as  to  demand  that  sculpture,  in  order  to 
give  the  most  emphatic  expression  to  its  distinctive 
characteristics,  and  not  to  weaken  the  sensuous  ap- 
peal of  the  nude,  should  reduce  somewhat  the  ex- 
pression of  emotion  in  the  countenance,  which  should, 
so  to  speak,  be  attuned  a  tone  lower,  in  order  that  it 
may  harmonize  with  the  body.  These  views,  how- 
ever, are  in  accordance  neither  with  the  teachings  of 
history  nor  with  good  morals. 

Not  even  with  the  ancient  Greeks  at  the  time  of 
their  most  perfect  development,  was  the  representa- 
tion of  th(!  nude  body  the  chief  aim  of  scu][)tur<',  and 
only  in  the  age  of  their  decline  do  the  rcprcscntal ions 
of  the  nude  prevail.  The  mo.st  perfect  (ircations  of 
Grecian  plastic  art,  the  "Zeus"  and  the  "Athena" 
of  Phidias,  were  draped  figures  of  gold  and  ivory,  to 
which  pilgrimages  were  made,  not  in  order  to  enjoy 
their  sensuous  beauty  of  body,  but  to  forget  sorrow 
and  suffering  and  to  be  fortified  in  religious  b(;lief. 
Draperies  can  and  should  be  used  to  emphasize  the 
epiritual  significance  of  man.  That  Christian  re- 
ligion and  morals  have  justly  found  objections  to  the 
representations  of  the  nude  is  quite  obvious,  as  is 
also  the  fact  that  such  objections  are  removed  when 
historical  events  or  other  valid  reasons  demand  its 
representation,  as,  for  example,  in  the  case  of  Adam 
and  Eve  in  Paradise.  Another  subject  of  wide  im- 
portance demanding  a  few  words  is  the  tinting  of 
statues,  or  polychromy.  Until  a  few  decades  ago 
scholars  generally  were  of  the  opinion  that  the  ancient 
sculptors  used  no  other  tints  than  the  original  colour 


of  the  marble;  but  closer  investigation  of  the  antique 
monuments  as  well  as  of  the  accounts  in  ancient  liter- 
ature prove  beyond  doubt  that  the  Greeks  slightly 
tinted  their  statues,  as  was  necessary  when  they 
placed  them  in  richly  decorated  interiors.  Since  this 
lias  become  known  our  judgment  of  the  polychromy  of 
medieval  sculi)ture  has  become  a  more  favourable  one. 

In  accordance  with  the  material  used  and  the  dif- 
ferent methods  of  treatment  sculpture  is  variously 
classified  as  follows:  (1)  Stone  sculpture,  or  sculpture 
in  a  restricted  sense,  which  for  its  noblest  and  most 
excellent  works  made  use  of  marble.  (2)  Wood  sculp- 
ture, which  flourished  especially  in  the  Middle  Ages; 
its  success  was  much  restricted  by  the  practice  of  en- 
casing the  carved  work  with  cloth  covered  with  chalk, 
in  order  to  facilitate  polychrom5\  (3)  Sculpture  in 
metals,  which  not  only  creates  the  most  lasting  works, 
but  allows  greater  freedom  in  the  treatment  of  the 
material.  From  the  perfection  which  it  attained  in 
antiquity  metal  sculpture  degenerated  greatly  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  when  it  was  for  the  most  part  confined 
to  relief.  Not  until  the  Italian  Renaissance  was  the 
art  of  metal  casting  again  resumed  for  monumental 
statues.  (4)  Repousse  sculpture,  in  which  the  metal 
was  beaten  into  form  by  means  of  hammer  and 
puncheon.  In  antiquity  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  this 
process  was  used  for  smaller  subjects  only,  but  since 
the  seventeenth  century  it  is  used  for  great  statues  as 
well,  as  for  instance  the  colossal  statue  of  Arminius 
in  the  Teutoburgerwald.  (5)  Sculpture  in  clay  or 
terra-cotta,  in  which  the  figure  is  moulded  in  a  soft 
substance,  which  afterwards  hardens  either  by  drying 
or  firing.  In  this  art  also  the  ancients  created  much 
that  is  important,  and  during  the  Renaissance  the 
terra-cottas  of  Luca  della  Robbia  and  his  followers 
acquired  great  celebrity.  (6)  Sculpture  in  ivory  was 
used  by  the  Greeks  in  combination  with  gold  for 
monumental  works  (chryselephantine  technique) .  In 
the  Middle  Ages  and  in  modern  times  ivory  is  often 
used  for  works  of  small  proportions;  it  is  particularly 
suitable  for  delicate  and  pathetic  subjects.  (7) 
Glyptics,  or  the  art  of  cutting  gems,  as  well  as  the 
engraving  of  medals,  coins,  and  seals,  are  varieties  of 
sculpture  which  have  a  cultural  rather  than  an  ar- 
tistic and  a!sthetic  importance. 

The  origin  of  sculpture  in  a  wide  sense  belongs  to 
prehistoric  times.  The  first  attempts  to  represent  hu- 
man beings  by  images  were  probably  made  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands.  A  higher  stage  of  development  is 
shown  by  the  ancient  Mexican  sculptures,  particularly 
those  of  the  Maya  period,  among  which,  along  with 
many  crude  expressions  of  exaggerated  phantasy,  are 
also  found  works  showing  a  real  observation  of  na- 
ture. A  greater  historic  and  aesthetic  interest  is  first 
found  in  Egyptian  sculpture,  which  in  all  times  ap- 
pears closely  (ionnected  with  architecture.  As  usual 
in  primitive  art,  the  works  of  Ihe  earliest  or  Mem- 
pliitic  period  (until  u.  c.  3500)  are  distinguished  by 
originality  and  naturalism,  while  in  liic  later  period  the 
human  figure  was  m<)uld(>d  in  acconlunce  with  an  un- 
changeable canon  or  tyj)e,  from  which  only  the  counte- 
nan<!es  show  any  deviation.  The  sculptures  of  the 
later  period  are  principally  reliefs,  produced  by  in- 
cised outlines  and  slight  modelling;  statues  also  occur, 
but  groups  are  very  rare.  With  tlie  eleventh  dynasty 
of  Egyptian  kings  (about  b.  c.  3500)  the  size  of  the  fig- 
ures was  increased  to  colossal  proportions,  but  as  they 
were  all  executed  in  accordance  with  the  traditional 
type,  sculpture  gradually  declined.  No  important 
revival  occurred  because  P^gyptian  sculpture  was 
gradually  absorbed  by  the  all-embracing  Hellenistic 
art.  Besides  representations  of  religious  scenes  and 
episodes  of  Court  life,  those  depicting  the  daily  life 
of  the  people  were  also  popular.  These  were  condi- 
tioned by  th(!  belief  of  the  Egy|)tians,  that  such  repre- 
Hc^ntations  were  pleasing  to  the  dead  and  that  they 
beautified  their  life  in  the  other  world. 


SCULPTURE 


643 


SCULPTURE 


The  sculpture  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  the  sur- 
vivals of  which  have  been  excavated  on  the  sites  of  an- 
cient Nineveh  and  Babylon,  has,  notwithstanding  its 
shortcomings,  produced  works  of  imperishable  im- 
portance. It  is  imperfect  in  the  representation  of 
man,  who  is  portrayed  in  a  conventional  and  typical 
manner,  but  in  the  representation  of  animal  combats 
and  hunting  scenes  it  reveals  a  surprisingly  close  ob- 
servation of  nature,  free  composition,  and  youthful 
energy.  In  its  subjects  it  is  greatly  the  inferior  of  the 
Egyptian,  since  it  serves  almost  entirely  for  the  glori- 
fication of  the  great  and  little  deeds  of  the  deified 
rulers.  The  sculpture  of  the  Persians  has  become 
known  particularly  through  the  excavations  at  Perse- 
opolis.  It  served  the  same  purpose  as  the  Babylonian, 
but  the  relief  is  more  correct  in  perspective,  and  the 
human  figure  shows  a  touch  of  individuality. 

Pre-Christian  sculpture  attained  its  zenith  in 
Greece ;  its  sculptures  have  in  all  times  been  consid- 
ered as  unrivalled  masterpieces.  We  can  only  devote 
a  few  words  to  them  here.  The  subjects  of  Greek 
sculpture  were  taken  particularly  from  the  domain  of 
religion,  even  in  the  times  of  the  decline,  when  belief 
in  the  gods  was  rapidly  disappearing.  Numerous  vo- 
tive statues  for  deliverance  from  calamities  or  for  vic- 
torious battles,  as  well  as  those  erected  in  the  temples 
and  their  vicinity  by  the  victors  of  the  athletic  games, 
belong,  in  a  wide  sense,  to  what  may  be  called  re- 
ligious sculpture.  Besides  religious  subjects,  por- 
traits and  genre  statues  were  produced  in  great  num- 
bers. In  accordance  with  the  material  used  three 
classes  of  Greek  sculpture  may  be  distinguished: 
chryselephantine  statues,  the  nude  parts  of  which 
were  of  ivory  and  the  draperies  of  gold;  marble  (par- 
ticularly Parian  marble);  bronze,  in  which  material 
the  Greeks  achieved  perfect  mastery  of  solid  casting 
as  well  as  hollow  casting  in  a  fire-proof  mould.  The 
excellences  of  Greek  sculpture  are  ex-traordinary  sim- 
plicity and  clearness  in  composition,  plastic  repose  as 
well  as  pleasing  action,  wonderful  charm,  and  con- 
scientious technical  execution.  The  great  beauty  of 
body  which  immediately  impresses  one  at  the  sight  of 
Greek  sculpture  is  explained  partly  by  the  beauty  of 
the  Greek  race,  partly  by  the  daily  ob.servation  of 
naked  youths  and  men  as  they  appeared  in  the  pales- 
tra. But  they  reveal  no  sensual  beauty  in  the  mod- 
em sense,  and  only  during  the  period  after  Phidias 
did  sculptors  venture  to  depict  female  goddesses, 
for  instance  Aphrodite,  entirely  nude.  In  addition 
to  the  excellences  just  mentioned  especial  charac- 
teristics appear  in  each  separate  period.  Three  or 
four  periods  of  Greek  sculpture  are  usually  distin- 
guished. 

Works  of  the  first  period,  or  of  the  Archaic  style 
(b.  c.  775-449),  show  in  the  beginning  a  hfeless  con- 
straint, but  later  reveal  an  expression  of  physical 
power  and  agility.  The  second  period,  the  golden 
age  (b.  c.  449-323),  is  characterized  at  first  by  an 
ideal  trend,  represented  especially  by  Phidias  of  the 
Attic  School  in  his  gold-ivory  statues  of  the  deities; 
partly  also  by  a  tendency  to  emphasize  the  highest 
physical  beauty,  the  mo.st  celebrated  representative 
of  which  is  Polycletus  of  the  Argive  School.  The 
tendency  during  the  last  part  of  the  second  period 
was  towards  graceful,  bewitching  beauty,  combined 
with  the  expression  of  the  most  tender  sentiment, 
through  which  subjectivity  gained  the  upper  hand, 
and  through  which  the  decline  or  third  period  (32.3- 
146)  was  ushered  in.  This  age  still  produced  a  num- 
ber of  much  admired  works,  such  as  the  Laocoon 
group,  the  Farnese  Bull,  the  Apollo  Belvedere.  The 
centres  of  art  shifted  to  Pergamon  and  Rhodes.  To 
the  fourth  period,  the  period  of  decay  (b.  c.  146-  a.  d. 
397)  are  attributed  the  works,  which  partly  originals, 
partly  copies,  were  created  by  Greek  and  Roman  ar- 
tists in  Italy.  Typical  of  this  period  is  the  preva- 
lence of  portraits,  both  busts  and  statues.     Grseco- 


Roman  sculpture  was  finally  destroyed,  not,  as  the 
Assyrian  and  Babylonian,  by  violent  suppression  or 
gradual  absorption,  but  by  the  infusion  of  a  new 
spirit  and  of  new  ideas. 

III.  The  current  views  of  early  Christian  art  have 
very  recently  been  radically  changed  because  through 
the  researches  of  Strzygowski  and  others,  the  Orient  has 
received  its  just  dues.  Both  in  form  and  in  technique 
Christian  sculpture  is,  generally  speaking,  identical 
with  the  pagan  from  which  it  was  developed.  But 
what  the  latest  modern  research  has  shown  us  is  this: 
that  it  was  not  Rome  which  produced  the  best  and 
most  ancient  works  of  Christian  sculpture,  but  the 
East,  which  is  certainly  the  cradle  of  Christian  art. 
In  Asia  Minor  the  influence  of  Hellenistic  art  was  still 
so  strong  that  many  early  Christian  works  present  an 
almost  classical  character,  but  in  the  West,  where  this 
beneficent  influence  was  lacking,  sculpture  fell  earher 
into  decline.  In  pre-Constantinian  times  probably 
few  works  of  sculpture  were  executed.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  representations  of  the  Persons  of  the 
Trinity,  because  the  Jews  who  had  become  Christians 
were  averse  to  graven  images,  and  the  converted  pa- 
gans were  deterred  by  their  remembrance  of  the  in- 
numerable statues  of  their  former  gods.  But  with 
the  Emperor  Constantine  the  production  of  sculptures 
in  stone  and  bronze  immediately  began  on  a  large 
scale.  Few  examples  of  the  statuary  of  this  period  have 
been  preserved ;  but  among  these  are  a  "Pastor  Bonus  " 
in  the  Museum  of  the  Lateran,  and  a  "Christ" 
in  Berlin,  both  probably  Oriental  works.  On  the 
other  hand,  numerous  reliefs  survive,  because,  after 
the  ancient  custom,  the  sarcophagi,  of  which  a  large 
number  survive,  were  richly  decorated  with  sculptural 
representations.  The  surviving  Christian  sarcophagi 
belong  mostly  to  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  and 
may  be  classified  into  an  Occidental  and  an  Oriental 
group.  To  the  latter  belong  the  beautiful  sarcophagi 
of  Ravenna,  whose  art  stood  in  very  intimate  re- 
lation with  the  Byzantine.  Sculpture  in  wood  and 
ivory,  so  highly  developed  in  antiquity,  was  enlisted 
in  the  service  of  the  Church,  as  is  proven  by  the  por- 
tals of  the  Basilica  of  S.  Sabina  at  Rome,  and  the  nu- 
merous preserved  book-covers,  diptychs,  and  pyxea. 
For  our  knowledge  of  the  transition  from  the  early 
Christian  to  medieval  sculpture  we  are  indebted 
principally  to  reliefs  carved  in  ivory,  for  there  is  an 
almost  complete  dearth  of  statuary  until  the  tenth 
century.  Sculptvu-e  in  ivory  achieved  great  impor- 
tance in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries.  In  delicacy 
of  execution,  in  rh>i:hm  of  line,  and  in  well-considered 
ob.sorvance  of  the  laws  of  composition,  the  master- 
pieces of  this  epoch  approach  the  creations  of  the 
early  Renai.ssance.  This  branch  of  sculpture  flour- 
ished especially  in  France,  at  Tours,  Corbie,  and 
Metz. 

In  comparison  with  these  delicate  ivory  carvings, 
the  first  attempts  of  Romanesque  stone  sculpture  ap- 
pear crude  and  clumsy,  but  they  contain  the  germs  of 
a  new  life,  which  in  the  thirteenth  century  occasioned 
the  first  flower  of  medieval  sculpture.  It  is  typical 
of  this  period  that  sculpture,  especially  in  stone,  was 
predominantly  subordinated  to  architecture  and 
served  almost  exclusively  for  ecclesiastical  purposes. 
The  reliefs  are  entirely  of  symbolic  character,  and  ex- 
press thoughts  which  to  a  great  extent  have  not  yet 
been  completely  fathomed.  At  the  beginning  of  this 
period  (llth-12th  centuries)  there  was  an  important 
development  of  sculpture  in  bronze,  at  Hildesheim 
under  Bishop  Bernward  (d.  1022),  and  at  Magdeburg 
in  the  works  of  Master  Riquinus.  In  Dinant  (Bel- 
gium) also  works  of  imposing  beauty  originated  at  this 
time,  the  best  known  of  which  is  the  baptismal  font 
at  Liege  (1112),  resting  upon  twelve  bronze  oxen — the 
work  of  Renier  de  Huy.  Until  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century  sculpture  in  stone  was  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  reliefs,  which  served  as  decorations  of  baptis- 


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mal  fonts,  portals,  and  choir-screens.  The  centre  of 
German  sculpture  during  this  period  was  in  the 
North,  especially  in  Saxonj-.  South  Germany  and  the 
Rhineland  are  not  poor  in  works  of  sculpture,  but 
they  are  rather  of  an  ieonographic  than  of  historical 
importance;  as,  for  instance,  the  reliefs  of  the  SchoUcn- 
kirche  (Scots'  Church)  at  Ratisbon.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  thirteenth  century  German  sculpture  at- 
tained its  first  triumph,  which  was  accelerated  by 
Byzantine  and  French  influence.  Several  important 
schools  flourished  at  the  same  time.  In  place  of  the 
traditional  types  and  conventional  draperies  a  lively, 
naturalistic  presentation  appears.  Sculpture  in  bronze 
yields  the  first  place  to  stone  sculpture,  and  even 
statuary  assumes  its  proper  rank.  The  portals  es- 
pecially become  the  scenes  of  the  new  plastic  decora- 
tion. In  the  tympanum  the  Last  Judgement  is  gen- 
erally represented;  at  the  sides  stand  the  wise  and 
foolish  virgins,  the  apostles,  saints,  and  donors.  The 
most  important  school  of  this  period  is  the  Saxon,  with 
sculjitures  at  Wecliselburg,  Freiberg,  and  Naum- 
burg;  the  Prankish  School  with  the  rehcfs  of  the  choir- 
screens  and  statues  in  the  cathedral  of  Bamberg,  and 
the  Romanesque  sculptures  of  the  cathedral  of  Stras- 
burg,  which  in  many  respects  rival  the  best  works  of 
antique  art.  The  sculptures  of  the  remaining  Euro- 
pean countries  during  this  period  cannot  be  compared 
with  the  German;  next  in  importance  are  those  of 
France.  Here  representations  of  devils  and  hobgob- 
lins occur  with  remarkable  frequency — probably  the 
consequence  of  the  "Diableries",  then  so  popular  in 
the  plays.  The  earliest  development  in  France  oc- 
curred in  Provence  (Aries,  Toulouse),  where  ancient 
traditions  were  followed.  The  most  perfect  examples 
are  in  Central  France,  where  the  sculptures  of  the 
cathedrals  of  Chartres,  Le  Mans,  and  Bourges  achieve 
an  imposing  effect  by  reason  of  their  solemn  dignity 
and  silent  repose.  In  Italy  also  the  clmrch  portals 
are  decorated  with  mythological,  legendary,  and  sym- 
bolic reliefs,  but  they  lack  all  naturalness  and  conse- 
quently all  artistic  value.  In  no  other  country,  how- 
ever, were  there  so  many  artists  who  f(>lt  it  necessary 
to  immortalize  their  names  by  inscribing  them  upon 
their  works. 

The  transition  to  Gothic  sculpture — if,  indeed,  the 
expressions  Romanesque  and  Gothic  may  be  applied 
to  sculpture — is  not  sudden,  but  very  gradual,  as  is 
always  the  case  with  the  appearance  of  a  new  ten- 
dency in  art  and  of  all  new  ideals.  As  the  ideal  of 
the  Romanesque  sculptors  was  virility  and  a  dignified 
naturalness,  so  the  Gothic  masters  followed  an  ideal 
trend,  which  did  not  indeed  do  away  immediately  with 
naturalne.ss,  but  gradually  led  to  the  conventionali- 
zation of  figures,  anfl  a  mechanical  execution.  The 
principal  characteristics  of  the  developed  Gothic  are 
that  all  persons  have  for  the  most  part  a  youthful  ap- 
pearance, even  though  they  are  aged;  their  figures 
are  slender  and  well-formed,  with  long  and  smoothly 
flowing  draperies;  finally,  the  countenances  have 
a  thoughtful,  spiritual,  and  modest  expression.  As 
long  as  the  Gothic  sculptors  practised  moderation  in 
the  application  of  these  characteristics,  thej'  created 
works  of  classic  beauty;  but  when  the  later  generations 
attempted  to  surpass  their  predeces.sors,  they  fell  into 
mannerisms,  and  created  works  which  to-day  seem 
highly  inartistic.  We  have  only  to  recall  many  rep- 
resentations of  the  Crucified  One,  which  are  carica- 
tures of  a  human  figure.  The  so-called  Gothic  pose— 
the  exaggerated  bend  of  the  body  towards  one  side 
and  the  con.stantly  recurring  smile,  which  almost  be- 
comes a  grimace,  are  symptoms  of  the  decline.  The 
demand  for  Gothic  statues  was  enormous,  since  archi- 
tecture ma^le  the  widest  use  of  them  in  the  decoration 
of  the  churches.  A  thousand  statues  and  other  sculp- 
tures were  hardly  sufficient  for  a  cathcidral;  the  cathe- 
dral of  Milan  pfjssesses  0000.  This  necessitated  great 
rapidity  of  execution,  which  indeed  promoted  manual 


dexterity,  but  did  not  promote  artistic  conscientious- 
ness. The  innumerable  statues  should  not  however, 
be  examined  and  judged  as  individual  works,  but  in 
relation  to  the  buildings  for  which  they  were  carved. 
From  this  point  of  view  our  only  conclusion  can  be 
that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  conceive  of  anything  more 
imposing  than  a  Gothic  cathedral  with  its  wealth  of 
decorative  sculptures. 

The  favourite  place  for  sculptural  decorations  re- 
mains the  portals,  of  which  there  are  usually  three 
on  the  facade  of  a  Gothic  cathedral.  The  sculptures 
which  are  here  grouped  together  depict  the  entire 
scholastic  theology  in  stone.  A  favourite  subject  is 
the  life  of  our  Saviour  during  His  sojourn  upon  earth. 
The  place  of  honour  on  the  principal  pier  of  the  chief 
portal  is  usually  given  to  Our  Lady  with  the  Christ 
Child.  The  culmination  of  such  theological  repre- 
sentations in  stone  are  the  portals  of  the  cathedrals 
of  Paris,  Chartres,  and  Strasburg. 

The  most  perfect  development  of  Gothic  sculpture 
took  place  in  France,  where  the  style  origin- 
ated. The  principal  scene  of  this  development  is 
Central  France,  where  the  cathedrals  of  Amiens, 
Chartres,  Paris,  and  Rheims  display  a  large  number 
of  most  excellent  figures,  not  only  on  the  portals, 
but  covering  the  facade  above  the  portals  (the  so- 
called  royal  gallery),  and  even  the  choir.  The  sub- 
jects of  these  representations  are  the  Saviour  of  the 
World  and  its  Supreme  Judge,  His  Most  Holy 
Mother,  the  apostles,  saints,  kings,  prophets,  and 
sybils,  the  Virtues  and  Vices,  fables,  and  the  occupa- 
tions of  man  during  each  month  of  the  year.  This 
development  began  about  1150  at  Chartres,  and 
spread  from  there  to  St.  Denis  and  Paris,  attaining  its 
highest  development  in  the  cathedral  of  Rheims  with 
about  2500  statues,  some  of  which  indeed  belong  to 
the  late  Gothic  period.  The  statues  of  the  twelve 
apostles  in  the  Ste  Chapelle  in  Paris  are  gems  of 
Gothic  sculpture.  About  the  same  time  (1400)  able 
work  was  done  by  the  Schools  of  Burgundy  and  the 
Netherlands,  the  most  important  monument  of  which 
is  the  tomb  of  Duke  Philip  the  Bold  at  Dijon  by  Claus 
Sliiter. 

In  England  sculpture  has  always  been  a  stepchild 
among  the  arts.  There  was  practically  none  during 
the  Romanesque  period,  and  even  the  early  Gothic 
architecture  either  completely  excluded  sculptural 
representations  in  its  edifices,  or  else  used  them  only 
as  decorations,  as  on  the  keystones  and  spandrils  of 
the  arches  and  in  capitals.  The  finest  examples  are 
at  Lincoln,  Salisbury,  and  Westminster.  Statuary 
first  appears  rather  suddenly  in  southern  England, 
and  its  most  important  monuments  are  at  Wells  and 
Exeter.  These  sculptures  are  characterized  by  pleas- 
ing simplicity,  free  composition,  and  dramatic  action. 
A  new  phase  of  Gothic  sculpture  began  with  the  dis- 
covery of  the  quarries  on  Purbeck  Island,  Dorset- 
shire, which  provided  a  shell-limestone  of  warm,  pleas- 
ing colours.  The  sculptures  carved  on  the  island 
were  so  numerous  that  an  individual  style  developed 
there  (1175-1325).  At  a  later  period  London  sup- 
plied the  chief  demand  of  the  country  for  sculpture, 
which  consisted  for  the  most  part  of  sepulchral  monu- 
ments. Deserving  of  a  special  mention  is  the  School 
of  the  "Alabasters",  which  for  several  centuries  made 
use  of  the  rich  English  quarries  of  alabaster  to  carve 
small  and  large  scnilptures,  rather  in  a  mechanical 
tlian  an  .artistic  fashion.  Among  the  bronze-workers 
the  family  of  the  Tf)rels,  active  for  almost  a  century 
in  London,  is  especially  noteworthy;  of  these  William 
Torel  in  1291  cast  the  well-known  bronze  figures  of 
Queen  Eleanor  .and  Henry  III  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

During  the  Gothic  epoch  Germany  produced  a 
great  number  of  sculptural  works,  but  until  1450  there 
is  very  little  above  mediocrity.  About  that  year  a 
new  development  began  which  lasted  until  1550,  and 
achieved  such  excellence  that  it  may  be  termed  the 


SCULPTURE 


645 


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second  flower  of  German  medieval  sculpture.  Sculp- 
tures in  bronze  and  wood  rather  than  in  stone,  consti- 
tute the  finest  products  of  this  period.  While  in  the  first 
period  North  Germany  took  the  lead,  in  this  sec- 
ond period  the  hegemony  passed  to  Southern  Ger- 
many, where  the  Frankish  School  culminated  in  the 
works  of  the  three  Nuremburg  masters,  Veit  Stoss, 
Adam  Kraft,  and  Peter  Vischer,  the  Wiirtzburg 
School  in  Dill  Riemenschneider,  the  Swabian,  in  Hans 
Multscher  and  Jorg  Syrlin,  and  the  Tyrolese,  in 
Michael  Pacher.  The  causes  of  this  change  and  its 
chief  characteristics  can  be  briefly  stated.  In  con- 
trast with  the  early  Gothic  idealism  a  powerful  real- 
ism now  began  to  permeate  art.  People  were  repre- 
sented exactly  as  in  reality,  with  all  the  accidents  of 
nature  and  costume;  even  the  ugly  and  repulsive  fea- 
tures were  represented.  The  change  in  the  character 
of  the  patrons  of  art  played  no  small  part  in  promot- 
ing this  difference.  Whereas  formerly  wealthy  prel- 
ates and  haughty  nobles  almost  exclusively  gave  occu- 
pation to  the  artists,  now,  under  the  development  of 
the  third  estate,  the  wealthy  merchants  or  peasants 
caused  monuments  of  devotion  to  be  erected  in  the 
churches.  This  also  caused  a  change  in  material. 
Although  the  common  people  gladly  contributed  to 
the  decoration  of  the  churches,  they  avoided  the  great 
expense  of  stone  sculptures  and  confined  themselves 
to  presenting  sculptures  in  wood.  Indeed,  for  many 
of  these  works,  stone  was  hardly  feasible  as  a  material. 
We  have  only  to  recall  the  choir-stalls,  pulpits,  and 
almost  innumerable  altars.  This  frequent  use  of  wood 
had  also  its  effect  on  stone  sculpture.  There  are 
in  existence  stone  "sacrament  hou.ses"  (tabernacles 
for  the  Blessed  Sacrament)  of  this  period  which  are  as 
twisted  and  spiral  as  if  they  had  been  carved  from 
wood.  The  treatment  of  the  draperies  is  another 
characteristic  of  late  medieval  sculpture.  While  in 
the  fourteenth  century  the  draperies  fell  smoothly 
and  simply,  now  they  were  puffed  and  bagged, 
bunched,  and  broken  in  such  a  manner  as  never  again 
occurred.  The  subjects  of  sculj)ture  were  almost  ex- 
clusively of  a  religious  character.  In  statuary  the 
most  popular  subjects  were  the  Pietii,  Our  Lady  of 
Sorrows,  and  St.  Anne  with  the  Madonna  and  the 
Christ  Child  (for  the  cult  of  St.  Anne  was  more  popu- 
lar at  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  than  ever  before  or 
after). 

The  conditions  for  sculpture  were  especially  favour- 
able in  Italy,  where  the  chief  attention  was  centred, 
not  as  in  Germany  or  in  France  in  the  decoration  of 
the  portals  and  fagade,  but  in  pulpits,  altars,  and 
sepulchral  monuments.  Since  it  also  had  the  finest 
of  materials,  marble,  at  its  disposal,  Italian  art  ulti- 
mately took  the  palm  in  sculpture.  In  the  beginning 
relief  was  principally  attempted;  statuary  was  not 
used  till  later.  The  development  of  Italian  sculp- 
ture begins  in  the  thirteenth  century  in  Tuscany, 
which  for  about  three  centuries  plays  the  leading  part. 
It  was  the  time  of  the  proto-Renaissance,  which  is 
identified  with  the  names  of  Niccolo,  Giovanni,  An- 
drea Pi.sano  (from  Pisa),  and  Andrea  Orcagna.  The 
movement  radiated  from  Pisa,  but  with  Andrea  Pi- 
sano,  who  was  under  the  influence  of  Giotto,  Florence 
became  the  centre  and  remained  so  throughout 
the  entire  early  Renaissance.  Siena,  which  rivalled 
Florence  in  painting,  indeed  produced  a  few  able  mas- 
ters of  sculpture,  like  Tino  da  Comaino  (d.  1339), 
but  it  gradually  lagged  behind  its  rival.  This  cir- 
cumstance, that  the  early  Renaissance  prospered 
above  all  in  Florence,  is  of  importance  for  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Renaissance  itself,  which  is  still  consid- 
ered by  many  as  a  revival  of  antique  art  and  there- 
fore is  designated  anti-clerical,  whereas  in  reality  it  is 
only  an  art  which  arose  in  the  soul  of  the  Italian  peo- 
I)le  on  the  basis  of  ancient  tradition.  It  was  not 
Rome,  therefore,  where  at  that  time  the  antique 
monuments  were  being  brought  to  light  and  studied, 


but  Florence  which  became  the  cradle  of  the  early 
Renaissance. 

The  most  important  works  of  this  period  are  to  be 
found  in  the  churches,  or  in  conne.xion  with  them, 
and  they  owed  their  origin  to  princes  of  the  Church 
and  to  Church  organizations.  They  are  so  pure  and 
chaste  in  sentiment,  so  sublime  in  conception,  that 
they  are  not  inferior  to  the  best  works  of  the  Middle 
Ages — which  is  also  a  proof  that  the  early  Renais- 
sance may  not  be  designated  as  anti-religious.  True, 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  late  Renaissance,  by  a  too 
close  imitation  of  the  antique,  lost  many  of  these  noble 
qualities,  and  therefore  in  most  of  its  works  leaves 
the  spectator  cold  and  unaffected.  Among  the  nu- 
merous masters  of  the  early  Renaissance  in  Florence 
in  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  follow- 
ing three  are  especially  prominent:  Ghiberti,  who  has 
become  celebrated  as  the  sculptor  of  the  Paradise 
Portals  of  the  Baptistery  of  Florence;  Donatello,  the 
uncompromising  realist  and  the  sculptor  of  many 
statues,  and  Luca  della  Robbia,  who  in  his  terra- 
cottas attained  an  almost  classical  harmony  and 
charm.  With  them  were  associated  a  large  number 
of  masters  of  the  second  rank,  of  whom  at  least  a  few 
should  be  mentioned.  Among  the  sculptors  in  bronze 
Andrea  Verrochio  is  known  through  his  world-fa- 
mous group  of  Christ  and  St.  Thomas  in  the  church 
of  Or  San  Michele,  Florence;  among  the  sculptors  in 
marble  Desiderio  da  Settignano,  Rosselino,  Mino  da 
Fiesole,  and  Benedetto  da  Majano  are  famous.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  consider  these  artists  more  fully  here, 
because  they  are  all  treated  in  separate  articles  in 
The  Catholic  Encyclopedia. 

They  exercised  a  wide-spread  influence,  and  only 
Siena  succeeded  in  maintaining  an  independent  ten- 
dency in  the  art  of  Jacopo  della  Quercia  (d.  1438). 
Lombardy  and  Venice  also  had  important  sculptors 
at  their  disposal,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  sculptures  of 
the  Basilica  of  St.  Anthony  at  Padua  and  many  sepul- 
chral monuments  in  the  churches  of  City  of  Venice. 

In  the  age  of  Leo  X,  which  is  generally  called  the 
Golden  Age  of  Italian  art,  sculpture  also  attained  its 
apogee,  judged  from  the  purely  formal  point  of  view. 
Of  imposing  effect  are  the  works  of  the  Florentine 
Andrea  Contucci,  called  Sansovino,  as,  for  example, 
his  Baptism  of  Christ.  But  all  are  surpassed  in  gi- 
gantic power  and  original  composition  by  Michelan- 
gelo, who  was  unreservedly  followed  by  the  younger 
generation,  not  indeed  to  their  advantage;  for 
through  this  imitation  they  fell  into  mannerism,  since 
the  spirit  of  the  great  master  was  lacking  in  them, 
although  they  might  imitate  his  external  forms. 
Through  Jacopo  Sansovino  (Tatti)  Michelangelo's  ten- 
dencies were  transplanted  to  Venice.  A  few  of  the 
younger  sculptors,  who  were  able  to  preserve  their  in- 
dependence, still  created  very  able  works,  as  did  Gio- 
vanni da  Bologna;  but  their  works  do  not  to  a  great 
extent  belong  to  ecclesiastical  art.  As  the  entire  art 
of  the  seventeenth  century  turned  its  back  upon  the 
dreary  mannerism  of  the  later  sixteenth,  so  did  also 
sculpture.  It  returned  to  naturali.sm,  but  not  to  the 
naive  naturalism  of  the  fifteenth  century,  but  at- 
tempted a  presentation  which  would  show  reality  in 
its  most  effective  form.  Everything  was  calculated 
for  elTect  and  emotion.  Thus  the  movements  of  the 
limbs  are  violent  and  exaggerated,  the  muscles  stand 
out  prominently,  the  draperies  flutter  and  fly  as  if 
blown  by  a  storm.  Another  characteristic  of  this 
style  is  the  frequent  and  affected  use  of  allegory  and 
personification;  thus  a  nude  man  with  books  under  his 
arm  in  the  Annunziata,  Florence,  personifies  thought. 
This  style  is  the  well-known  Baroque  sculpture,  which, 
in  so  far  as  it  represents  religious  subjects,  has  been 
condemned  and  outlawed  by  many.  While  among 
Baroque  scultpures  there  are  many  works  which  do 
not  appeal  to  our  Christian  sentiment,  nevertheless 
this  judgment  cannot  be  appUed  to  all  sculptures  of 


SCULPTURE 


646 


SCULPTURE 


the  period.  At  all  events  a  great  number  of  these 
works  bear  testimonj'  to  the  lively  religious  interest 
and  also  to  the  seK-sacrifice  of  that  much-condemned 
age.  Furthermore,  the  Baroque  sculptures  should  not 
be  considered  by  themselves,  but  in  connexion  with 
the  surrounding  architecture.  This  period  was  ush- 
ered in  by  a  man  who  enchained  the  mind  of  his 
contemporaries  as  hardly  any  artist  has  ever  done, 
Lorenzo  Bernini,  the  favourite  of  six  popes.  Among 
others  who  worked  in  his  spirit  was  Alessandro  Al- 
gardi  (d.  1653);  but  more  independent  of  his  influ- 
ence was  Stefano  Maderna  (d.  1G36).  The  paths 
pointed  out  by  Bernini  led  sculpture  to  an  abyss, 
from  which  no  great  spirit  rescued  it.  It  sank  into 
tri\-iality,  exaggerated  naturahsm,  and  virtuosity. 

Modern  sculpture  outside  of  Italy  is  in  the  main 
dependent  on  the  development  of  Itahan  art.  In 
France,  where  the  Renaissance  entered  towards  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  sculpture,  while  preserv- 
ing national  peculiarities,  is  characterized  by  a  sim- 
ple, sometimes  crude  naturalism.  It  attained  an  im- 
portant development  on  the  Loire,  with  Tours  as  a 
centre,  and  Michael  Colombe  (d.  1512)  as  chief  mas- 
ter. Not  until  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century 
did  the  Italian  influence  become  so  powerful  that 
French  sculpture  may  be  said  to  have  reached  its 
zenith.  The  most  important  representatives  are 
Jean  Goujon,  Bontemps,  and  Pierre  Pilon.  The 
work  of  these  sculptors,  notwithstanding  great  for- 
mal beauty  and  technical  ability,  reveals  a  certain 
coldness  and  smoothness;  and  since  1560  secular  sub- 
jects are  preferred.  This  is  even  more  the  case  with 
the  younger  generation  represented  by  Pierre  Pujet, 
Francois  Giradon,  and  Antoine  Coysevox,  whose 
works  bear  a  specifically  French  imprint,  a  certain 
affected,  stilted,  and  theatrical  quality,  which  in 
the  eighteenth  century  degenerates  into  an  insipid 
elegance. 

In  the  Netherlands,  as  elsewhere,  native  and  Italian 
influences  contended  with  each  other  until  the  latter 
gained  ascendency.  Here  besides  some  fine  choir 
stalls  were  produced  pulpits  of  a  grandeur  and  mag- 
nificence unrivalled  in  other  countries.  The  stairway, 
the  body  of  the  pulpit,  and  the  sounding-board  were 
treated  as  a  single  ornamental  structure  decorated 
with  statues  and  carvings.  Splendid  examples  of  this 
sort  are  the  pulpits  of  the  cathedrals  of  Antwerp  by 
the  master,  van  der  Voort,  and  the  Church  of  St. 
Gudule  in  Brussels  by  Henri  Francois  Verbriiggen 
(1655-1724).  Other  important  Flemish  sculptors  are 
Francois  Duquesnoy  (d.  1646),  who  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Bernini,  under  whose  influence  he  carved 
St.  Andrew  in  the  cupola  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome; 
his  pupils  Arthur  Quellinus  and  Adrain  de  Fries  must 
also  be  mentioned. 

During  the  Renaissance  period  Spanish  sculpture 
was  chiefly  of  a  decorative  character,  and  was  dis- 
played especially  on  the  faf.-ades  of  the  churches  and 
palaces  and  in  the  towering  gilded  wooden  pulpits 
(rctahloH).  Favourable  to  its  growth  was  the  Spanish 
custom  of  erecting  in  th(!  churches  sculptured  scenes 
from  the  Passion  and  carrying  them  in  processions. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  masters  is  Damian  For- 
ment  Cd.  1533),  who  considered  himself  the  equal  of 
Phidias  and  Praxiteles;  one  of  his  ablest  works  is  a 
relahlos  in  the  Cathedral  del  Pilar  at  Zaragoza.  Dur- 
ing the  lat«  Renaissance  Pedro  de  Mena  (d.  1693) 
carved  for  the  church  of  Malaga  forty-two  statuettes 
of  such  beauty  and  individuality  that  they  must  be 
numbered  among  the  most  important  works  of  all 
modem  sculpture.  In  England  there  was  no  native 
sculpture  for  several  generations  after  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  Gothic  style.  The  first  sculptor  who  was 
again  able  to  create  a  living  art  was  Nicholas  Stone 
fl.'>86-1647);  the  first  fo  labour  in  the  spirit  of  the 
Renaissance  wa«  Grinling  Gibbons,  whose  finest  fleco- 
rative  works  arc  in  St.  Paul's,  London,  and  in  Trin- 


ity College,  Oxford.  From  the  complicated  and  af- 
fected traits  which  the  works  of  this  period  show, 
sculpture  at  a  later  period  went  to  the  opposite  ex- 
treme; the  first  artist  to  return  to  the  supposed  classi- 
cal purity  and  severity  was  Thomas  Banks  (1735- 
1805). 

It  is  not  true  that  Germany  until  1500  produced 
only  unimportant  works  as  has  often  been  main- 
tained. On  the  contrary  the  second  flower  of  Ger- 
man Renaissance  sculpture  lasted  till  1550,  and  many 
able  masters  date  from  that  period.  Contemporary 
with  Peter  Vischer  flourished  Pancraz  Labewolf  (d. 
1563),  Adolf  Dauer  (d.  1537),  Gregor  Erhardt  (d. 
1540),  Hans  Backofen  (d.  1519),  Heinrich  and  Jo- 
hann  Douvermann  (d.  1540),  and  others.  Two  mas- 
ters of  the  first  rank  belonging  to  a  later  period  are 
Andreas  Sliiter  (d.  1714)  in  Berlin  and  Raphael  Don- 
ner  (d.  1741)  in  Austria. 

Under  the  impetus  of  the  movement  for  the  revival 
of  classical  antiquity  inspired  by  Winkelmann,  sculp- 
ture in  the  nineteenth  century  achieved  an  unex- 
pected development,  but  it  produced  but  one  master 
who  was  recognized  Ijy  all  nations  as  pre-eminent,  the 
Dane,  Bertel  Thorwaldsen.  His  numerous  works 
breathe  the  Classic  spirit,  and  are  to  a  great  extent 
taken  from  antique  subjects.  Among  his  few  Chris- 
tian works  "Christ  and  the  Twelve  Apostles"  in 
the  Frauenkirche  at  Copenhagen  are  especiallj'^  cele- 
brated. Thorwaldsen  had  many  imitators,  partic- 
ularly in  Germany.  At  Munich  L.  Schwanthaler 
represented  the  Classical  tendencies  under  the  patron- 
age of  the  romantically  inclined  Ludwig  I.  In  North 
Germany  Schadow  and  particularly  Ranch  followed 
native  tendencies,  as  did  also  Rietschl,  whose  "Pieta" 
is  one  of  the  most  important  modern  works  of  a  re- 
ligious character.  After  the  great  wars  and  victories 
(1866-70)  numerous  sculptors  filled  the  public  places 
of  German  cities  with  monumental  statues,  but  in  these 
real  art  is  far  too  frequently  eclipsed  by  trivial  and 
affected  accessories.  An  artist  who  devoted  himself 
exclusively  to  religious  sculpture  was  the  Westphalian 
Achtermann  (d.  1885),  who  again  created  works  of 
deep  religious  sentiment.  Of  the  now  living  sculptors 
we  mention  Bolte  in  Miinster,  who  is  a  follower  of  hia 
countrj^man  Achtermann,  and  George  Busch  in  Mu- 
nich, who  is  remarkable  for  the  power  and  breadth  of 
his  creations. 

Whereas  sculpture  in  Italy  is  distinguished  by  its 
technical  bravure  rather  than  by  its  spiritual  ex- 
cellences, French  sculpture  has  for  a  long  time 
taken  the  lead  in  the  modern  development,  not  only 
by  reason  of  its  admirable  treatment  of  the  most 
varied  materials,  but  also  through  its  universality  of 
thought.  Lately  indeed  an  unpleasant  naturalism 
has  made  itself  increasingly  felt,  even  leading  to  the 
destruction  of  plastic  form.  A  pioneer  in  this  dan- 
gerous i)ath  was  Rodin  whose  works  have  b(>en  ad- 
mired by  many  as  almost  wonders  f)f  the  world.  At 
the  same  time  a  more  ideal  teiideiify  flourishes,  the 
chief  representative  of  which  is  Hurtliolome,  the  sculp- 
tor of  the  celebrated  tomb  at  Pere-Lachaise  in  Paris, 
which  is  perhaps  the  greatest  achievement  of  French 
sculpture  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Babelon,  tr.  EvETTS,  Maniuil  of  Oriental  Antiquitien  (London, 
1889);  Mitchell,  A  History  of  Ancient  Sculpture  (London,  1883); 
FuRTWANOLER,  Mcislerwerkc  der  griechischen  Plaslik  (Leipzig- 
Berlin,  1893) ;  OvERBECK,  Geschichtc  der  griechischen  Plnstxk 
(Leipzig,  1893);  Kuhn,  Geschichte  der  PlaMik  (Einsindcin,  1909); 
LCbke,  Geschichte  der  Plaslik  (2nd  cd.,  LripziR,  1880);  J.  Soren- 
BEN,  Malerei,  Dildnerei  n.  SchmUekende  Kunsl  (FrfihurR,  1901); 
Kleinschmidt,  Geschichte  der  christlichen  Kunst  (Pa<Iorl>orn, 
1910);  (loNHF,  //O  sculpture  frnn^aise  depuis  le  1/,.  siicle  (Puri.s, 
189.''>);  Reymond,  La  sculpture  florentine  (Florenne.  1897-98); 
Reber  and  Bayersderfer,  Klassischer  Skulpturen-Schatz  (Mu- 
nich, 1900) ;  Armstrong,  Art  in  Great  Hrilain  and  Ireland  (London, 
1909);  Marqttand  and  Frothinoham,  Hist,  of  Sculpture  (Nhw 
York,  1897);  Short,  l/isl.  of  Sculpture  (London.  1907). 

BeDA    KLEIN'SrHMlDT. 

ScTTLPTURE.  In  England. — The  principal  representa- 
tive of  the  classical  tendency  in  English  sculpture  was 


ATHENA,    PHIDIAS,    DRESDEN 


ST.    JOH 

N     IISI'IISI,     1)1  IS  STKLLO 

1 

mm 

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u  -^wi 

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^HiS- 

■      *ki^^:--S 

KINt;    AUTHIfi,    VISCHKU 


LAOCooN,  Vatican  museum 


riK.TA,    MICHKLANOELO 


AUGUSTUS,    VATICAN    MUSEUM 


DVVID,    VEHROCCH[r 


CHRIST,    THORWALDSEN 


JOAN    OF   ARC,    CHAPU,    PARIS 

SCULPTURE 


LINCOLN,    ST.    (JAUDLNS,    CHICAOO 


SCULPTURE 


647 


SCULPTURE 


John  Flaxman  (1755-1826),  who  found  his  inspira- 
tion in  Greek  rather  than  in  Roman  art.  He  is 
chiefly  known  for  his  pure  classical  figures  on  Wedg- 
wood pottery,  but  his  marble  reliefs  arc  also  of  great 
beauty.  Among  the  numerous  classicists  who  fol- 
lowed were:  Francis  Chantrey,  Sir  Richard  Westma- 
cott,  E.  H.  Bailey,  and  especially  John  Gibson  (1790- 
(1860),  whose  religious  works  include  a  reUef  of  Christ 
blessing  the  little  children.  The  classical  tendency 
prevailed  until  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, but  the  later  part  of  the  period  was  marked  by 
increasing  naturalism.  The  cliief  representations  of 
the  transition  include  John  Henry  Foley  (1818-74), 
whose  statues  of  Goldsmith,  Burke,  and  Grattan  at 
Dublin  are  noteworth j^ ;  Thomas  Brock,  whose  works 
include  the  O'Connell  monument  at  Dublin  and  the 
Victoria  Memorial  in  London,  England's  most  ambi- 
tious monument  of  sculpture,  seventy  feet  high,  and 
containing  many  symbolic  figures;  George  Armstead 
(1828-1905),  who  carved  a  St.  Matthew  and  other 
marble  figures  for  the  reredos  of  the  Church  of  St.  Mary, 
Aberavon;  Sir  J.  E.  Boehm  (1834-91);  Thomas  Wool- 
ner  (1825-93),  a  member  of  the  Pre-Raphaelite  Broth- 
erhood. The  most  important  British  sculptor  of  the 
nineteenth  century  was  Alfred  Stevens  (1817-75),  a 
pupil  of  Thorwaldsen,  but  whose  classical  training  did 
not  preclude  great  originality  in  all  branches  of  sculp- 
ture. His  Wellington  monument  in  St.  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral is  perhaps  the  most  important  that  English  sculp- 
ture has  produced.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of 
Lord  Leighton  (1830-1896),  whose  sculpture  excels  his 
painting,  and  particularly  of  George  Frederick  Watts, 
in  whose  works  great  power  and  originality  are  united 
with  a  high  spiritual  significance. 

The  great  change  in  English  sculpture  since  about 
1875  is  due  to  French  influence.  For  many  years 
Jules  Dalou,  a  French  political  exile  of  1870,  was  in 
charge  of  the  modelling  classes  in  South  Kensington 
Museum.  His  teachings  substituted  structure  and 
movement  for  the  previous  haphazard  methods,  and 
inaugurated  a  sane  and  healthy  naturalism.  His  pu- 
pils include  Hamo  Thorneycroft,  whose  finely-mod- 
elled Teucer  inaugurated  the  new  movement.  Other 
important  sculptors  of  the  same  tendencies  are  E. 
Onslow  Ford,  educated  at  Munich;  J.  M.  Swan,  the 
animal  sculptor;  and  George  Frampton,  whose  works 
are  of  a  fine  decorative  quality  and  quite  original  (in- 
cluding a  very  attractive  St.  George).  But  the  most 
original  and  influential  figure  of  British  art  of  the 
present  day  is  Alfred  Gilbert,  who  excels  in  all 
branches  of  sculpture,  and  whose  very  modern  style 
unites  the  goldsmith's  to  the  sculptor's  art.  His 
works  include  a  beautiful  high  relief  of  Christ  and 
Angels  for  the  reredos  of  the  St.  Albans'  Cathedral. 
Nearly  all  of  these  men  enjoyed  French  training,  but 
their  art  possesses  certain  qualities  which  are  dis- 
tinctly national. 

In  the  United  States. — Sculpture  in  the  United 
States  is  a  development  of  the  last  three  quarters  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  It  has  developed  in  connex- 
ion with  the  schools  of  Western  Europe,  but  without 
being  less  individual  or  national  than  they.  Its  his- 
tory may  be  divided  into  three  periods:  (1)  The 
Classical  Period,  (1825-50);  (2)  the  Middle  Period 
(1850-80),  in  which  classicism  still  exists,  but  increas- 
ingly gives  way  to  a  more  national  development; 
(3)  the  Contemporary  or  Cosmopolitan  Period,  de- 
veloped as  elsewhere,  under  French  mfluence. 

The  Classical  School. — Neither  the  Puritan  doc- 
trines of  the  early  settlers  nor  the  other  religious  ten- 
dencies of  the  early  nineteenth  century  were  friendly 
to  the  development  of  sculpture.  There  were  no  fa- 
cilities for  technical  training  of  any  description,  no 
monuments  to  study  or  inspire.  Consequently,  the 
few  sculptors  of  colonial  and  early  revolutionary  pe- 
riods were  unimportant  and  formed  no  schools.  The 
real  development  began  in  1825  with  the  departure  of 


Horatio  Greenough  of  Boston  (1805-52)  for  Rome. 
The  character  of  his  art  is  well  known  from  his  half- 
draped  gigantic  statue  of  Washington  as  the  Olym- 
pian Zeus,  which  long  stood  before  the  Capitol  at 
Washington.  Hiram  Powers  (1805-73)  did  similar 
work,  but  of  a  more  sentimental  character,  in  such 
statues  as  his  celebrated  "Greek  Slave",  an  example 
of  the  nude,  chastely  treated,  and  his  "Eve  Discon- 
solate". Thomas  Crawford  (1813-57),  a  pupil  of 
Thorwaldsen,  is  known  as  the  sculptor  of  the  bronze 
"Liberty"  surmounting  the  dome  of  the  Capitol  at 
Washington,  the  bronze  portals  of  the  Capitol,  and 
the  pedimental  group  of  the  Senate  Chamber. 

Middle  or  Native  Period. — Even  during  the  classi- 
cal period  the  transition  to  a  more  national  art  be- 
gan. The  pioneer  was  Henry  Kirk  Brown  (1814-86), 
whose  work,  unaffected  by  his  Italian  study,  is  best 
typified  in  his  remarkable  equestrian  statue  of  George 
Washington  in  Union  Square,  New  York.  Another 
important  sculptor  of  native  tendencies  was  Erastus 
Dow  Palmer  (1817-1904),  who  was  practically  self- 
trained  and  never  left  America.  His  ideal  nude  fig- 
ures were  the  best  executed  up  to  that  time,  while  his 
"Angel  of  the  Sepulchre"  shows  his  strength  in  re- 
ligious subjects.  Thomas  Ball  (1819)  set  a  new 
standard  in  pubhc  monuments  by  such  works  as  his 
equestrian  statue  of  General  Washington  in  Boston 
and  his  Lincoln  monument  in  Washington.  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  Classical  School  during  the  middle 
period  include  the  many-sided  W.  W.  Storey,  Ran- 
dolph Rogers,  W.  H.  Rinehart,  whose  works  may 
be  best  studied  in  Baltimore,  and  Harriet  Hosmer. 
Mention  may  also  be  made  of  the  statues  of  Civil 
War  subjects  by  John  Rogers  (1824-1904),  which  en- 
joyed great  popularity  without  being  real  art.  The 
most  distinguished  artist  of  the  later  middle  period 
was  J.  Q.  A.  Ward  (1830-1910),  a  pupil  of  H.  K. 
Brown,  whose  art  is  powerful,  simple  and  sculptur- 
esque. He  was  as  successful  in  his  public  monuments 
as  in  his  statues,  such  as  the  "Indian  Hunter",  which 
stands  in  Central  Park,  New  York. 

Contemporary  Sculpture. — The  most  recent  devel- 
opment of  American  sculpture  was  ushered  in  by  the 
Centennial  Exposition  at  Philadelphia  in  1876,  which 
revealed  the  superiority  of  European,  particularly  of 
the  French  work.  From  that  time  Paris  became  the 
training  school  of  American  sculptors,  with  the  result 
of  an  unprecedented  improvement  in  the  technique 
and  content  of  their  art  and  the  gradual  development 
of  a  national  school  of  great  promise.  Among  the 
first  to  show  the  Parisian  influence  was  O.  L.  Warner 
(1844—96),  but  the  most  prominent  figure  thus  far  in 
American  sculpture  is  Augustus  St.  Gaudens  (1848- 
1907).  To  the  highest  technical  efficiency  he  added 
remarkable  powers  of  characterization.  His  Shaw 
memorial  relief  at  Boston  and  the  statue  of  Lincoln 
in  Chicago  were  epoch-making,  and  his  General  Sher- 
man in  Central  Park,  New  York,  places  him  in  the 
first  rank  of  American  sculptors.  His  religious  works 
include  a  beautiful  "Amor  Caritas"  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg Museum,  Paris.     Foreign  influence  is  absent 

from  the  work  of  Daniel  Chester  French  (1850 ), 

whose  art  is  characterized  by  restraint  and  a  certain 
purity  of  conception.  Among  his  most  charming 
works  are  "Death  and  the  Sculptor"  (Art  Institute, 
Chicago)  and  the  O'Reilly  memorial  in  Boston,  with  a 
beautiful  figure  of  Erin  mourning.  Frederick  Mac- 
monnies  is  the  most  thoroughly  French  of  all  our  sculp- 
tors, while  Herbert  Adams  has  found  inspiration  in 
the  early  Florentine  masters. 

Other  prominent  sculptors  of  the  Cosmopolitan 
period  include  Bela  L.  Pratt,  of  Boston,  Charles 
Grafly,  of  Philadelphia,  Lorado  Taft,  of  Chicago,  and 
Douglas  Tilden,  of  San  Francisco,  whose  art  is  the 
most  radical  of  all.  But  the  centre  of  American  sculp- 
ture is  New  York.  Mention  should  be  made  of 
Charles  H.  Niehaus,  a  master  of  modelling,  who  rep- 


SCUPI 


648 


SCYTHOPOLIS 


resents  the  German  influence,  of  F.  W.  Ruckstuhl,  and 
Carl  Bitter,  whose  decorative  work  is  celebrated,  and 
of  Paul  Bartlett,  the  sculptor  of  the  La  Fay(>tto 
statue  in  Paris.  The  most  important  of  the  animal 
sculptors  are  the  late  Edward  Kemys,  whose  spe- 
cialty was  native  American  wild  animals,  E.  C.  Potter, 
and  A.  C.  Proctor,  who  has  also  portrayed  the  American 
Indian;  but  the  most  powerful  sculptor  of  the  Indian 
is  C>TUS  E.  Dallin.  The  two  most  characteristically 
American  of  the  younger  men  are  both  from  the  West; 
Solon  H.  Borglum,  the  sculptor  of  the  Indian,  the 
cowboy,  and  the  bronco,  and  George  Gray  Barnard, 
whose  strong  and  simple  art  unites  great  breadth  with 
an  ideal  characterization.  There  has  been  little  op- 
portunity for  ecclesiastical  sculpture  in  the  United 
States;  the  most  important  commission  was  the  three 
portals  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Church,  New  York, 
completed  in  1904;  the  central  portal  and  frieze  by 
D.  C.  French  and  Andrew  O'Connor,  the  others  by 
Herbert  Adams  and  Philip  Martiny.  These  very  pro- 
fuse decorations  are  excellent  from  the  modern  point 
of  view,  but  too  little  subordinated  to  the  architecture 
to  be  monumental.  The  sculptures  of  the  Anglican 
Cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  New  York,  by  Gut- 
zon  Borglum  are  noteworthy. 

.Speelmaxx,  British  Sculpture  of  To-day  (London,  1901); 
Chancellor,  Lives  of  the  British  Sculptors  (London,  1911); 
TrcKERMAN,  Book  of  the  Artists  (New  York,  1870);  Clarke, 
Great  American  Sculptors  (Philadelphia,  s.  d.);  Hartmann, 
Modern  American  Sculpture  (New  York,  a.  d.);  Caffin,  Masters 
of  American  Sculpture  (New  York,  1903) ;  Taft,  Hist,  of  American 
Sculpture  (New  York,  1903). 

George  Kriehn. 

Scupi.     See  Scopia,  Archdiocese  of. 

Scutari,  Archdiocese  of  (Scutarensis)  . — The 
first  known  bishop  was  Bassus  (387).  The  bishops 
of  Scutari  were  at  first  subject  to  the  Metropolitan 
of  Salonica,  Primate  of  all  Illyricum,  but  when 
Justinian  I  transferred  the  primacy  to  Achrida,  they 
became  suffragans  of  the  latter  see.  In  the  early 
Aliddle  Ages  Scutari  was  suffragan  of  Dioclea.  From 
the  seventh  to  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  no 
bishop  is  known.  Among  its  best-known  bishops  are: 
Francis  II  de  Sanctis  (1471-1491);  Fra  Dominicus 
Andrijasevic  (d.  at  Rome  in  1G39),  a  famous  theolo- 
gian and  philosopher,  friend  of  Gregory  XV  and  of 
Urban  VIII;  Dominicus  II  Babic  (1677-1G86);  An- 
tonius  III  de  Nigris  (1693-1702),  martyred  in  1702 
by  the  Turks.  In  1867  Scutari  was  ceque  prin- 
cipaliler  united  with  the  Archdiocese  of  Antivari, 
and  in  this  way  Pius  IX  made  Scutari  an  archdiocese 
and  metropolis.  The  first  archbishop  of  the  united 
diocese,  Mgr.  Charles  Pooten,  native  of  Teveran  near 
Aachen,  who  had  been  Apostolic  Administrator  of 
Antivari  (1834-185.5),  died  at  Scutari  on  15  January, 
1886.  From  1063  to  1886  only  53  bi.shops  of  Scutari 
are  known.  On  23  October,  1886,  the  Archdiocese 
of  Scutari  was  separated  from  that  of  Antivari,  and 
remained  an  archdiocese  and  a  metropolis  with  three 
suffragans:  Ale.ssio,  Sappa,  and  Pulati.  The  ancient 
See  of  Ulcinium,  in  the  territory  of  Scutari,  was  in 
1571  occupied  by  the  Turks  and  ceased  to  exist,  for 
no  Christians  remained.  During  the  existence  of 
Ulcinium,  its  bishops  were  suffragans  of  the  Metro- 
politan of  Antivari  or  of  that  of  Dioclea.  About  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  ancient  See  of 
Suacium  was  forever  8uppre.s.sed.  Other  ancient  sees 
in  this  territory  were  the  Sees  of  Dinnastrum  and 
Balazum. 

The  Archdiocese  of  Scutari  comprises  29  parishes, 
of  which  8  are  held  by  Franciscans,  and  has  a  Catholic 
population  of  about  33,8(J7.  Its  present  metropolitan 
ifl  Mgr.  Pa.schalis  Guerini,  b.  at  Pezzagno  in  Dalmatia, 
21  May,  1821;  ordained  priest  on  27  June,  1848; 
appointed  Coadjutor  Bishop  of  Scutari  and  titular 
Bishop  of  Paphos  on  6  May.  1879;  elected  as  Metro- 
politan and  Archbishop  of  Scutari  on  23  November, 
1886.     The  episcopal  residence  is  at  Scutari.     The 


Archdiocese  of  Scutari  has  a  Collegium  Pontificium 
Albaniense  founded  as  a  central  seminary  (1853) 
by  the  Holy  Sec.  Burned  and  again  destroyed  by  the 
Turks,  it  was  reopened  in  1859,  the  Emperor  of  Austria, 
Francis  Joseph  I,  bearing  two-tliirds  of  the  expense. 
The  Austrian  Government  supported  at  first  fifteen 
seminarians,  now  twenty-four;  Propaganda  supports 
ten;  the  remaining  eleven  are  at  the  charge  of  their 
bishops.  It  is  administered  by  the  Jesuits.  A  pre- 
paratory school,  the  Collegium  S.  Francisci  Xaverii, 
was  opened  in  1841  by  the  Jesuits,  to  which  in  1868, 
by  the  wish  of  Pius  IX,  a  course  of  philosophy  was 
added  and  later  a  trade-school  (Handelsschule). 
The  Franciscans  have  a  college  or  so-called  probandat 
at  Scutari  and  a  novitiate  at  Rubigo.  The  Scolopii 
have  an  orphanage  for  boys,  and  there  is  also  an  or- 
phanage for  poor  girls.  There  are  Sisters  of  Charity 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  four  Catholic  elementary 
schools.  The  Franciscans  have  hospices  at  Ar- 
ramadhe-Scutari  and  at  Kastrati,  and  a  monastery 
at  Scutari.  The  schools  and  colleges  are  sustained 
mostly  by  the  Propaganda  and  by  the  Austrian 
Government. 

Farlati,  Illyricum  sacrum,  VII,  304-334;  Gams,  Series 
episcoporum  Eccl.  Cath.  (Ratisbon,  1873,  1886),  408;  Theiner, 
Monumenta  Slavorum,  I,  nn.  170,  254,  284,  285,  286,  352,  368, 
640;  II,  nn.  78,  228  (p.  214),  233  (p.  217-18);  Narkovic,  Dukl- 
jansko-barska  metropolija  (Zagreb,  1902),  39  sq.;  Nihacevic, 
Iz  Albanije  o  Albaniji  u  "  Serafinskom  Perivoju"  (Lijevno- 
Sarajevo,  1909),  Godina  XXIII,  126-129. 

Anthony-Lawrence  Gancevic. 

Scythopolis,  a  titular  metropolitan  see  of  Palaes- 
tina  Secunda.  It  is  the  ancient  Bethsan  (q.  v.)  so 
often  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  as  proved  by  texts  in 
the  writings  of  Josephus.  Its  Greek  name  Scytho- 
polis is  very  likely  derived  from  a  colony  of  Scythians 
who  invaded  Palestine  in  the  seventh  century  b.  c. 
(Herodotus,  I,  103-5),  and  left  some  of  their  number 
behind  (Pliny,  "Hist,  natur.",  V,  16;  John  Malalas, 
"Chronographia",  V,  in  P.  G.,  XCVII,  236;  George 
Syncellus,  "Chronographia",  214  etc.).  The  earliest 
known  use  of  the  name  is  in  II  Mach.,  xii,  29,  and  in 
the  Greek  text  of  Judith,  iii,  10.  Although  Scytho- 
polis was  the  only  town  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Jordan,  it  was  the  capital  of  Decapolis  and  in 
the  fourth  century  became  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
metropolis  of  Palaestina  Secunda.  Several  bishops 
are  known.  Patropnilus,  intimate  friend  of  Arius 
and  his  adherents,  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Nicaea 
in  325  and  at  various  councils  of  the  Arians  till  360. 
Cruel  and  fanatical,  he  ill-treated  the  Catholic  bish- 
ops exiled  to  Scythopolis,  especially  St.  Eusebius 
of  Vercelli.  He  was  deposed  by  the  Council  of 
Seleucia  in  359  and  died  soon  after;  his  remains  were 
desecrated  by  the  pagans  in  361.  We  may  also  men- 
tion Philij)  and  Athanasius,  both  Arians;  Saturninus, 
present  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  in  381; 
Theodosius,  friend  of  St.  John  Chrysostom;  Acacius, 
friend  of  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria;  St.  Servianus,  killed 
by  the  Monophysites  in  452,  honoured  on  21  February; 
John,  who  wrote  in  defence  of  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
don ;  Theodore,  who  about  553  was  compelled  to  sign 
an  anti-origenist  profession  of  faith,  still  preserved 
(Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christianus. ",  III,  681-94). 

At  the  time  of  the  Prankish  occupation,  the  see  was 
transferred  to  Nazareth;  the  Greeks  long  preserved 
the  Sees  of  Scythopolis  and  Nazareth,  but  only  the 
latter  now  exists.  Among  illustrious  Christians  of 
Scythopolis  were:  St.  Procopius,  martyr  (8  July), 
who  belonged  to  the  clergy  of  the  town  (Delehaye, 
"Les  16gendes  hagiographiques",  Paris,  19{)5,  144-6); 
Asterius,  commentator  of  th(^  Psalms  in  the  fourth 
century,  cited  with  praise  by  St.  Jerome;  Cyril, 
charming  historian  of  monastic  life  in  Palestine,  who 
wrote  seven  lives  of  saints.  In  the  sixth  century 
there  were  four  churches  at  Scythopolis,  dedicated 
to  St.  Thomas,  St.  John,  St.  Procopius,  and  St. 
Basil,  a  local  martyr.     Many  monks  lived  in  the 


SEAL 


649 


SEAL 


town  and  its  environs,  occupied  in  making  baskets 
and  fans  from  the  palms  in  the  neighbouring  forests 
(Sozomen,  "Hist,  eccles. ",  VIII,  13);  with  them 
the  four  Tall  Brothers  took  refuge  when  expelled 
from  Egypt  by  the  patriarch  Theophilus  for  so- 
called  origenist  ideas.  In  634  the  Greeks  were  de- 
feated by  the  Arabs  in  the  marshes  of  Bethsan;  in 
1182  the  little  town  fought  valiantly  against  Saladin. 
To-day  Beisan  is  a  Mu-ssulman  village,  situated  by 
the  railway  from  Caipha  to  Mzerib  in  the  Hauran. 
The  ancient  ruins  still  exist,  e.si:)ecially  those  of  the 
theatre  which  measures  130  metres  in  half-circum- 
ference; the  ruined  acropolis  stands  in  the  hill  of 
Kalat  el  Hosn.  The  climate  is  charming,  the  land 
very  fertile  and  well  watered.  Rabbi  Simon  ben 
Lakish  said:  "If  paradise  is  in  Palestine,  its  gate  is 
at  Beisan". 

Smith,  Diet.  Gr.  and  Roman  Geog.,  s.  v.  Bethsan;  Robinson, 
Biblical  Researches,  326-9;  Sumey  of  Western  Palestine.  Memoires 
II  (London,  1882),  101-13;  Neubaueb,  La  geographic  du 
Talmud  (Paris,  1868),  174  sqq.;  Gu^rin,  Description  de  la 
Palestine.  Samarie,  I  (Paris,  1874),  284-98;  Legbndre  in  Diet, 
de  la  Bible,  a.  v.  Bethsan;  Bouilujn  in  Echos  d'Orient,  I,  .371-8; 
Thomsen,  Loca  sancta  (Halle,  1907),  106. 

S.  Vailh^. 

Seal. — The  use  of  a  seal  by  men  of  wealth  and  posi- 
tion was  common  before  the  Christian  era.  It  was 
natural  then  that  high  functionaries  of  the  Church 
should  adopt  the  habit  as  soon  as  they  became  so- 
cially and  politically  important.  An  incidental  allusion 
in  one  of  St.  Augustine's  letters  (ccxvii  to  Victori- 
nus)  lets  us  know  that  he  used  a  seal.  The  prac- 
tice spread  and  it  seems  to  be  taken  for  granted  by 
Clovis  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  Merovingian  pe- 
riod (Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Leg.,  II,  2).  Later  ecclesias- 
tical synods  require  that  letters  under  the  bishop's 
seal  should  be  given  to  priests  when  for  some  reason 
they  lawfully  quitted  their  own  proper  diocese.  So  it 
was  enacted  at  Chalon-sur-Saonc  in  813.  Pope  Nicho- 
las I  in  the  same  century  complains  that  the  bishops 
of  Dole  and  Reims  had  contra  morem  sent  their  letters 
to  him  unsealed  (.Jaffe,  "Regesta",  nn.  2789,  280G, 
2823).  The  custom  of  bi.shops  possessing  seals  may 
from  this  dxite  be  assumed  to  have  been  pretty  gen- 
eral. At  first  they  were  only  used  for  securing  the 
document  from  impertinent  curiosity  and  the  seal 
was  commonly  attached  to  the  ties  with  which  it  was 
fastened.  When  the  letter  was  opened  by  the  ad- 
dressee the  seal  was  necessarily  broken.  Later  the 
seal  served  as  an  authentication  and  was  attached  to 
the  face  of  the  document.  The  deed  was  thus  only 
held  to  be  valid  .so  long  as  the  seal  remained  intact. 
It  soon  came  to  follow  from  this  point  of  view  that  not 
only  real  persons  like  kings  and  bishops,  but  also  every 
kind  of  body  corporate,  cathedral  chapters,  munici- 
palities, monasteries,  etc.,  also  required  a  common 
seal  to  validate  the  acts  which  were  executed  in  their 
name. 

During  the  early  Middle  Ages  seals  of  lead,  or  more 
properly  "bulls"  (q.  v.),  were  in  common  use  both  in 
East  and  West,  but  except  in  the  case  of  the  papal 
chancery,  these  leaden  authentications  soon  went  out 
of  favour  in  western  Christendom  and  it  became  the 
universal  practice  to  take  the  impressions  in  wax.  In 
England  hardly  any  waxen  seals  have  survived  of 
earlier  date  than  the  Norman  Conquest.  In  the 
British  Museum  collection  the  earliest  bishop's  seals 
preserved  are  those  of  William  of  St.  Carileph,  Bishop 
of  Durham  (1081-96)  and  of  St.  Anselm,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  (1093-1109).  The  importance  of  the 
seal  as  a  means  of  authentication  necessitated  that 
when  authority  passed  into  new  hands  the  old  seal 
should  be  destroyed  and  a  new  one  made.  When  the 
pope  dies  it  is  the  first  duty  of  the  Cardinal  Camer- 
lengo  to  obtain  possession  of  the  Fisherman's  Ring,  the 
papal  signet,  and  to  see  that  it  is  broken  up.  A  simi- 
lar practice  prevailed  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  it  is 
often  alluded  to  by  historians,  as  it  seems  to  have  been 


a  matter  of  some  ceremony.  Thus  we  are  concisely 
told:  "There  died  in  this  year  Robert  de  Insula, 
Bishop  of  Durham.  After  his  burial,  his  seal  was  pub- 
hcly  broken  up  in  the  presence  of  all  by  Master  Rob- 
ert Avenel."  (Hist.  Dunel.  Scrip.  Tres.,  p.  63). 
Matthew  Paris  gives  a  similar  description  of  the 
breaking  of  the  seal  of  WilHam,  Abbot  of  St.  Albans,  in 
1235. 

GmY,  Manuel  de  Diplomatique  (Pani,  1894),  622-657;  Demay, 
Inventaire  des  sceaux  de  la  Normandie  (Paris,  1881) ;  Birch,  Reah, 
Connoisseurs'  Library  (1907) ;  Birch,  Catalogue  of  Seals  in  British 
Museum  (Ix)nf)on,  1S87-99);  d'Arcq,  Collection  de  Sceaux  (3 
vols.,  Paris,  1868).  HERBERT   ThURSTON. 

Seal  of  Confession,  The  Law  of  the. — In  the 
"Decretum"  of  the  Gratian  who  compiled  the  edicts 
of  previous  councils  and  the  principles  of  Church  law 
which  he  published  about  1151,  we  find  (secunda  pars, 
dist.  VI,  c.  II)  the  following  declaration  of  the  law  as 
to  the  seal  of  confession:  "Deponatur  sacerdos  qui 
peccata  poenitentis  pubhcare  pra?sumit",  i.  e.,  "Let 
the  priest  who  dares  to  make  known  the  sins  of  his 
penitent  be  deposed",  and  he  goes  on  to  say  that  the 
violator  of  this  law  should  be  made  a  life-long,  igno- 
minious wanderer.  Canon  21  of  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  (1215),  binding  on  the  whole  Church,  lays 
down  tlu!  obligation  of  secrecy  in  the  following  words: 
"Let  the  priest  absolutely  beware  that  he  does  not  by 
word  or  sign  or  by  any  manner  whatever  in  any  way  be- 
tray the  sinner:  but  if  he  should  happen  to  need  wiser 
counsel  let  him  cautiously  seek  the  same  without  any 
mention  of  person.  For  whoever  shall  dare  to  reveal 
a  sin  disclosed  to  him  in  the  tribunal  of  penance  we 
decree  that  he  shall  be  not  only  deposed  from  the 
priestly  office  but  that  he  shall  also  be  sent  into  the 
confinement  of  a  monastery  to  do  perpetual  penance" 
(see  Hefele-Leclercq,  "Hist,  des  Conciles"  at  the 
year  1215;  also  Mansi  or  Harduin,  "Coll.  concilio- 
rum").  It  is  to  be  noted  that  neither  this  canon  nor 
the  law  of  the  "Decretum"  purports  to  enact  for  the 
first  time  the  secrecy  of  confession.  In  a  context 
cited  further  on  the  great  fifteenth-century  English 
canonist,  Lyndwood,  speaks  of  two  reasons  why  a 
priest  is  bound  to  keep  secret  a  confession,  the  first 
being  on  account  of  the  sacrament  because  it  is  almost 
(quasi)  of  the  essence  of  the  sacrament  to  keep  secret 
the  confession.  (Cf.  also  Jos.  Mascardus,  "De  pro- 
bationibus",  Frankfort,  1703,  arg.  378.) 

England. — Medieval  England. — At  a  much  earlier 
date  in  Anglo-Saxon  England  we  meet  with  several 
laws  concerning  confession.  The  laws  of  Edward  the 
Elder  (921-4),  son  of  Alfred  the  Great,  enjoin:  "And 
if  a  man  guilty  of  death  (i.  e.,  who  has  incurred  the 
penalty  of  death)  desires  confession  let  it  never  be 
denied  him".  This  injunction  is  repeated  in  the 
forty-fourth  of  the  secular  laws  of  King  Canute 
(1017-35).  These  laws  are  prefaced  thus:  "This 
then  is  the  secular  law  which  by  the  counsel  of  my 
'witan'  I  will  that  it  be  observed  all  over  England". 
The  laws  of  King  Ethelred  who  reigned  from  978  to 
1016  declare  (V,  22) :  "And  let  every  Christian  man 
do  as  is  needful  to  him:  let  him  strictly  keep  his 
Christianity  and  accustom  himself  frequently  to 
shrift  (i.  e.,  confess):  and  fearlessly  declare  his  sins". 
The  very  close  connexion  between  the  religion  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons  and  their  laws,  many  of  which  are 
purely  ordinances  of  religious  observance  enacted 
by  the  State,  the  repeated  recognition  of  the  supreme 
jurisdiction  of  the  pope,  and  the  various  instances  of 
the  application  in  the  Church  in  England  of  the  laws 
of  the  Church  in  general  lead  conclusively  to  the 
opinion  that  the  ecclesiastical  law  of  the  secrecy  of 
confession  was  recognized  by  the  law  of  the  land  in 
Anglo-Saxon  England. 

In  the  period  between  the  Norman  Conquest  and 
the  Reformation  we  find  the  law  of  the  Church  in  gen- 
eral as  to  the  inviolability  of  the  seal  of  confession 
stringently  enjoined  by  English  councils.     The  Coun- 


SEAL 


650 


SEAL 


cil  of  Durham  (1220)  declared  as  follows:  "Nc  sac- 
erdos  revelet  confessionem — Nullus  ira,  vel  odio,  vel 
Ecclesiae  metu  vel  mortis  in  aliquo  audeat  revelare 
confessiones,  signo  vel  verbo  generali  vel  speciali  ut 
dicendo  'Ego  scio  quales  vos  estis',  sub  periculo  or- 
dinis  et  beneficii,  et  si  convict  us  fuerit,  absque  mise- 
ricordia  degradabitur",  i.  e.,  "A  priest  shall  not  re- 
veal a  confession — let  none  dare  from  anger  or  hatred 
or  fear  of  the  Church  or  of  death,  in  any  way  to  re- 
veal confessions,  by  sign  or  word,  general  or  special,  as 
(for  instance),  by  saying,  'I  know  what  manner  of 
men  ye  are'  under  peril  of  his  Order  and  Benefice,  and 
if  he  shall  be  convicted  thereof  he  shall  be  degraded 
without  mercy"  (see  Wilkins,  "Concilia",  I,  577, 
595).  The  provincial  Council  of  Oxford,  held  in 
1222,  contains  a  similar  canon,  in  which  degradation 
is  prescribed  for  any  breach  of  the  seal.  We  find  the 
law,  as  laid  down  by  the  21st  canon  of  the  Lateran 
Council,  declared  in  the  Acts  of  the  Synod  of  Exeter 
in  1287  (Spelman,  "Concilia",  II,  357). 

The  fact  that  the  laws  of  the  Church  were  so  em- 
phatic on  the  subject,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  the 
Church  was  then  the  Church  of  the  nation,  affords 
good  ground  for  inferring  that  the  secular  courts 
recognized  the  seal.  The  recognition  of  it  would  not 
have  rested  on  any  principle  of  immunity  from  dis- 
closure of  confidential  commimications  made  to 
clergj^men.  It  would  have  rested  on  the  fact  that 
confession  was  a  sacrament,  on  the  fact  of  that  ne- 
ce.ssity  for  it  which  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  laid 
down,  on  the  fact  of  the  practice  of  it  by  both  king 
and  people,  and  on  the  fact  that  the  practice  was 
wholly  a  matter  of  .spiritual  discipline  and  one,  more- 
over, in  regard  to  which  the  Church  had  so  definitely 
declared  the  law  of  absolute  secrecy. 

It  is  stated  by  some,  among  others  by  the  Commis- 
sioners appointed  to  report  upon  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  in  their  report  published  in  1883,  that  the 
ecclesiastical  courts  in  England  did  not  regard  them- 
selves as  bound  by  the  rules  of  canon  law  framed  by 
the  Church  outside  England,  by  the  various  papal 
Decrees,  Rescripts,  etc.  But  the  Commissioners  add 
that  these  courts  paid  great  respect  and  attention  to 
these  Rules,  Decrees,  etc.  There  seems  to  be 
so  much  weighty  evidence  against  this  view  that 
it  is  difficult  to  accept  it.  Sir  Frederick  Pollock 
and  Professor  Maitland  in  their  joint  "History  of 
English  Law"  (I,  94  and  95)  say  that  the  jus  com- 
mune or  common  law  of  the  universal  Church  was 
the  law  of  the  Church  in  England.  In  this  connexion 
important  material  is  contained  in  the  "Provinciale" 
of  Lyndwood  (Oxford,  1679),  the  only  great  English 
canonist. 

The  "Provinciale"  consists  of  the  provincial  consti- 
tutions of  fourteen  archbishops  of  Canterbury  from 
Stephen  Langton  (d.  1228)  to  Henry  Chichele  (d. 
1443).     When  Lynrlwood  was  engaged  on  this  com- 

Cilation  he  was  the  principal  official  of  the  Arch- 
ishop  of  Canterbury :  he  had  been,  also,  the  prolocu- 
tor of  the  clergy  in  the  Convocation  of  Canterbury. 
Professor  Maitland,  in  his  essays  on  "Roman  Canon 
Law  in  the  Church  of  England",  expresses  the  opin- 
ion that  the  ecclesiastical  courts  in  England  re- 
garded the  general  body  of  canon  law,  including  the 
various  papal  Decrees  and  Rescripts  and  the  com- 
mentaries of  the  various  great  writers,  as  their  law, 
which  they  had  to  administer.  In  citing  Lyndwood 
as  providing  us  with  strong  ground  for  this  opinion. 
Professor  Maitland  aptly  says:  "At  any  rate  he  will 
Btatfl  the  law  which  he  atJministers  in  the  chief  of  all 
the  English  ecclesiastical  courts". 

In  the  "I'rovinciale"  there  is  a  constitution  of 
Walter,  Anhbishop  of  Canterbury,  apparetil  ly  Walter 
Reynolds,  transferred  from  the  See  of  Worcester  to 
the  primatiiil  see  in  1313.  The  constitution  begins 
with  a  prohibition  to  priests  who  have  fallen  into  mor- 
tal sin  to  say  Mass  without  first  going  to  confession 


and  warning  them  against  imagining,  as  some  be- 
lievers erroneously  do,  that  mortal  sins  are  forgiven 
by  the  general  confession  made  in  the  recitation  of  the 
Confiteor.  It  continues  as  follows:  "Also  let  no 
priest  dare  from  anger,  hatred  or  fear,  even  of  death, 
to  disclose  in  any  manner  whatsoever,  whether  by 
sign,  gesture  or  word,  in  general  or  in  particular,  any- 
body's confession.  And  if  he  shall  be  convicted  of 
this  he  shall  be,  deservedl}-,  degraded,  without  hope  of 
reconciliation". 

Upon  this  constitution  we  have  the  following  com- 
mentary by  Lyndwood  occurring  upon  the  word 
"Confession " :  " Supply  ' Sacramental '.  For  in  a  Con- 
fession which  is  not  sacramental,  when,  for  instance, 
anyone  in  secret  counsel  reveals  to  some  one  else 
something  which  is  not  in  the  nature  of  sin,  thus,  sup- 
pose he  reveals  to  a  priest  what  he  owes  or  what  is 
owing  to  him,  the  prieSt  is  not  to  receive  such  a  secret 
under  the  seal  of  Confession.  And  although  through 
indiscretion  he  may  have  so  received  it,  he  is  not  to 
•conceal  it  imless  as  a  matter  of  counsel  or  secret. 
Wherefore,  if  the  ]-)riest  were  ordered  (compulsus)  by  a 
judge  to  tell  the  truth  about  such  a  debt,  whenever  a 
judge  rightly  inquires  about  the  matter  in  order  that 
he  may  know  the  truth,  he  is  bound  to  do  so,  notwith- 
standing that  he  may  have  received  the  secret  under 
the  seal  of  Confession.  And  though  he  may  have 
sworn  to  keep  the  matter  secret,  yet  if  afterwards  that 
debt  should  be  forfeited  and  the  judge  makes  inquiry 
thereinto,  if  the  priest  is  examined,  he  is  bound  to  tell 
the  truth,  notwithstanding  his  sworn  promise.  For 
that  oath  is  not  binding  on  him,  being  an  unlawful  one 
and,  thus,  one  not  to  be  kept  to  the  prejudice  of  an- 
other's right" ; — he  cites  in  support,  St.  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas and  Hostiensis — "but  if  some  such  debt  is  un- 
justly demanded  by  some  tyrant,  then  though  he  is 
aware  of  the  debt  he  ought  to  keep  silence  about  it  or 
to  change  the  subject  or  to  reply  sophistically  ('res- 
pondere  sophistice')" — he  cites  in  support  a  com- 
mentary on  Raymond  de  Pennaforte.— "But",  Lynd- 
wood continues,  "what  if  the  priest  should  know  that 
matter  by  any  other  means  than  by  Confession  before 
the  spiritual  tribunal  (in  foro  anima?)?  It  may  be 
said  that  in  as  far  as  he  knows  it  by  any  other  means 
and  he  is  ordered  (compulsus)  by  a  judge  he  may  tell 
it,  but  not,  of  course,  so  as  he  heard  it  in  confession; 
but  let  him  say,  as  follows:  'I  heard  it  thus  or  I  saw  it 
thus'.  But  let  him  always  refrain  as  far  as  possible 
from  speaking  about  the  person  so  as  to  avoid  scandal 
unless  there  be  immediate  necessity"; — he  cites  in 
support.  Innocent  IV,  the  glossary  on  Raymond  de 
Pennaforte  and  Asti.sanus,  a  Friar  Minor  and  writer 
of  the  fourteenth  century. 

Dealing  with  the  priest's  being  found  guilty  of  re- 
vealing a  confession,  he  says:  "  But  what  if  the  person 
confessing  consents  to  its  being  revealed,  because, 
perch;ince,  he  calls  the  Confessor  as  a  witness?"  His 
answer  is:  "The  floctors  say  that  he  may  reveal  it. 
But  understand  this  in  such  way  that  the  priest  shall 
on  no  account  reveal  that  which  he  knows  only 
through  confession  (hoc  tamcn  sic  intellige  quod  sa- 
cerdos  illud,  (juod  scrit  solum  per  confe.ssionem,  nullo 
modo  debet  revelare).  But  the  person  who  has  (con- 
fessed can  intimate  the  matter  to  hirn  in  some  other 
way  which  gives  him  leave  to  reveal  it:  and  then  h(^ 
can  tell,  but,  none  the  less,  he  ought  to  avoid  scandal 
its  much  as  possible.  For  he  is  bound  to  conceal  the 
confession  for  two  reasons,  viz.,  on  account  of  the  sac- 
rament, because  it  is  almost  of  the  essence  of  the  sac- 
rament to  conceal  the  confession  (quia  quasi  de  essen- 
tia Sacrament i  est,  celare  Confessionem):  likewise  for 
reason  of  the  scandal.  The  first  is  removed  by  the 
permission  of  the  i)erson  confessing,  but  t he  second  re- 
rnains  none  the  I(!.sk:  and,  therefore,  where  scandal  is 
lo  be  feared,  he  ought  not  to  make  use  of  such  permis- 
sion. These  are  the  pronouncement  of  Thomas  and 
of  Peter,   according  to  what  is  noted  by  John  in 


SEAL 


651 


SEAL 


•Summa  Confessionis  Rubrica  de  Confessione  cel- 
anda,  qusestio,  100',  and  with  this  pronouncement 
Johannes  Andra^us  seems  to  agree.  But  I  ask — what 
if  confession  is  made  of  some  sin  about  to  be  com- 
mitted, but  not  yet  committed?  F'or  instance,  some 
one  confesses  that  he  wants  to  kill  a  man  or  to  com- 
mit some  other  misdeed  and  he  says  that  he  is  unable 
to  resist  the  temptation.  May  the  priest  reveal  it? 
Some  say  that  he  may  reveal  it  to  such  a  person  as  can 
be  beneficial  and  not  detrimental  (tali  qui  potest  pro- 
desse  et  non  obesse),  but  the  doctors  of  theology  in 
this  case  say  in  general  (communiter)  that  he  must 
not  reveal  it,  but  must  keep  it  entirely  secret  (om- 
nino  celare).  Henry  de  Segusio  says,  however,  that 
whatever  he  can  properly  (bono  modo)  do  for  the  pre- 
vention of  the  sin,  he  ought  to  do,  but  without  men- 
tion of  person  and  without  betrayal  of  him  who  makes 
the  confession.  Others  say  that  where  the  confession 
is  one  of  a  sin  about  to  be  committed  it  is  not  a  real 
confession,  and  that  to  the  person  making  it,  a  pen- 
ance cannot  be  given  (neo  tali  dari  potest  poenitentia) 
and  for  these  reasons  it  may  be  revealed  to  those  who 
can  be  beneficial  and  not  detrimental  as  I  have  said 
before"; — he  quotes  Rudovicus  and  Guido  of  Baysio. 

He  states  that  Henry  de  Bohic  "seems  to  adhere  to 
the  opinion  of  those  theologians  who  say  that  even 
where  future  danger  threatens,  as,  for  instance,  in  the 
case  of  a  heretic  who  proposes  to  corrupt  the  faith,  or 
of  a  murder  or  of  some  other  future  temporal  injury, 
the  confessor  ought  to  furnish  a  remedy  (adhibere  re- 
medium)  as  far  as  he  can  without  the  revelation  of  the 
Confession,  as,  for  instance,  by  moving  those  confes- 
sing to  desist  and  otherwise  using  diligence  to  prevent 
the  purpose  of  the  person  confessing.  He  may,  too, 
tell  the  prelate  to  look  rather  diligently  (diligent  ius) 
after  his  flock :  provided  that  he  does  not  say  anything 
through  whi(!h  by  w^ord  or  gesture  he  might  betray 
the  person  confessing.  And  this  opinion  I  hold  to  be 
more  correct  and  more  in  keeping  with  the  law,  which 
speaks  plainly.  But  the  other  opinion  which  sanc- 
tions the  revelation  of  the  Confession  to  those  who 
can  be  beneficial  and  not  detrimental  might  hold  good 
when  the  person  confessing  consents  to  it  according  to 
what  I  have  said  above". 

Lyndwood  then  continues  as  follows:  "One  may 
deduce  from  the  premises  that  if  a  judge  maliciously 
presses  and  inquires  of  a  priest  whether  he  knows 
anything  of  such  a  fact,  which  he  has,  perhaps, 
heard  in  confession,  if  he  cannot,  by  changing  the  sub- 
ject or  by  some  other  means,  turn  aside  the  unjust 
judge,  he  can  answer  that  he  knows  nothing  thence- 
forth (inde),  because  it  is  secretly  understood  (sub- 
intelligitur)  'as  man':  or  he  can  say  simply  'I  know 
nothing  through  confession'  because  it  is  secretly  un- 
derstood '  nothing  to  be  revealed  to  you '. "  Upon  the 
word  "  generaliter "  there  is  the  following  comment : 
"And  so  truly,  not  at  all  (i.  e.  the  confession  is  not  to 
be  in  any  way  revealed)  when  the  confession  has  been 
made  to  the  priest  not  as  judge  but  as  the  minister  of 
God.  For  if  anything  have  been  revealed  to  him  as 
judge  he  is  not  bound  to  conceal  it"; — he  cites  Hos- 
tiensis  in  support.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  there  is 
nowhere  an  exception  in  respect  of  the  crime  of  trea- 
son. His  commentary  on  the  duty  of  not  disclosing 
the  confession  of  a  crime  proposed  to  be  committed 
tends  to  show  that  he  would  not  have  recognized  any 
such  exception. 

A  manual,  called  "Pupilla  oculi"  (see  Gasquet, 
" Pre-Reformation  Essays"),  which  appears  to  have 
been  mainly  designed  for  practical  use  among  the 
clergy,  was  compiled  towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century  by  John  de  Burgh,  a  professor  of  theology  and 
Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Cambridge.  Accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Edward  Badeley  who  wrote  in  1865  a  most 
able  pamphlet  on  the  privilege  of  the  seal  of  confes- 
sion entitled  "The  Privilege  of  Religious  Confessions 
in  English  Courts  of  Justice",  this  manual,  to  which 


Professor  Maitland  also  refers,  enjoyed  great  popu- 
larity. Its  counsels  to  confessors  who  may  happen  to 
be  witnesses  in  a  court  of  justice  are  sufficiently  like 
those  already  cited  from  Lyndwood's  "Provinciale" 
to  render  it  unnecessary  to  quote  them. 

Lyndwood  thus  affords  us,  as  Professor  Maitland 
points  out,  even  by  the  fact  of  citing  these  various 
authorities,  very  strong  evidence  that  the  general 
canon  law  was  the  law  of  the  English  ecclesiastical 
courts  also.  It  may  be  remarked  here  that  before 
the  Reformation  ecclesiastical  canons  were  made  by 
the  authority  of  the  synod  with  the  sanction  of  the 
metropolitan.  No  crown  sanction  was  required  for 
their  validity  as  canons.  But  the  particular  law  in 
question  was  not  one  demanding  observance  in  ec- 
clesiastical courts  merely,  but  in  the  civil  and  crim- 
inal courts  of  the  land  and  on  all  occasions.  It  is  an 
established  principle  of  English  law  that  no  such  rule 
or  law  could  have  become  legally  binding  in  England 
without  being  allowed  and  accepted  there.  The 
accuracy  of  the  principle  itself  seems  unquestionable 
and  probably  the  only  difference  of  opinion  will  arise 
as  to  the  causes  which  might  lead  to  the  allowance  and 
acceptance  in  England  of  rules  of  canon  law.  Adopt- 
ing merely  the  basis  that  only  such  decrees  and  such 
rules  of  canon  law  as  had  been  in  fact  received  and  ac- 
cepted in  England  were  binding  there,  we  have  evi- 
dence that  the  aforesaid  Fourth  Lateran  Council,  as 
to,  at  least,  two  of  its  decrees,  viz.,  as  to  pluralities 
and  as  to  clandestine  marriages,  was  received  and 
accepted  in  England.  The  judgments  of  the  Courts 
in  the  case  of  Evans  v.  Ascuithe,  tried  in  the  third 
year  of  Charles  I  and  reported  in  Palmer's  "Reports", 
is  based  upon  the  validity  of  the  former  decree  in 
England  and  it  cites  two  cases,  decided  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  III,  showing  that  the  law  declared  by  that 
decree  had  been  acted  upon  by  the  civil  courts  of  the 
land  in  that  reign.  The  judgment  of  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench  delivered  by  Lord  Hardwicke,  in  the  case 
of  Middleton  v.  Croft  [(1736)  cases  temp.  Ld.  Hard- 
wicke, 326],  though  not  expressly  saying  that  the  sec- 
ond decree  was  accepted  and  allowed  in  England,  by 
its  reasoning  shows  us  that  such  was  the  case. 

Remarkable  evidence  of  the  acceptance  of  the  de- 
crees of  the  Council  of  Lateran  in  England  is  brought 
to  our  notice  by  Professor  Maitland  in  his  introduc- 
tion to  his  edition  of  "Pleas  of  the  Crown  for  the 
County  of  Gloucester  for  the  year  1221".  Speaking 
of  trial  by  ordeal  he  says:  "In  1215  the  Lateran 
Council  condemned  the  ordeal  and  at  the  beginning 
of  Henry's  (the  Third)  reign  the  relation  of  England 
to  Rome  was  such  that  this  decree  of  the  Church  was 
at  once,  and  of  course,  obeyed.  As  already  said,  the 
next  e>Te  (i.  e.  Circuit  of  judges  for  trials  in  the  vari- 
ous counties),  and  a  very  general  eyre  it  was,  took 
place  in  the  winter  of  1218-9.  The  judges  had  already 
started  on  their  journeys  when  an  order  of  the  king  in 
council  was  sent  round  to  them.  It  was  dated  26th 
January,  1219,  and  is  of  such  great  moment  in  the  his- 
tory of  our  law,  and,  seemingly,  so  little  known,  that 
its  substance  shall  be  stated — '  When  you  started  on 
your  eyre  it  was  as  yet  undetermined  what  should  be 
done  with  persons  accused  of  crime,  the  Church  hav- 
ing forbidden  the  ordeal'."  The  order,  thereupon, 
proceeds  to  suggest  certain  rules  for  the  judges  to 
follow. 

In  the  Anglican  Church. — In  the  "Codex  Juris 
Ecclesiastici  Anglican!"  (London,  1761)  by  Dr.  Ed- 
mund Gibson,  chaplain  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury and  afterwards  Bishop  of  London,  is  found  a 
compilation  of  the  various  canons  and  constitutions 
which  had  been  made  for  the  Church  in  England  at 
different  times.  In  his  introduction  to  that  work,  in 
which  he  cites  the  statute  25  Hen.  VIII,  c.  21,  con- 
cerning Peterspence  and  the  exercise  of  papal  jurisdic- 
tion in  England,  the  author,  in  touching  upon  canon 
law,  says  as  follows:   "This  is  another  branch  of  the 


SEAL 


652 


SEAL 


Laws  of  the  Church  of  England  and  is  partly  Foreign 
and  partly  Domestick.  The  Foreign  is  what  we  com- 
monly call  the  Body  of  Canon  Law  consisting  of  the 
Councils,  Decrees  of  Popes  and  the  like:  which  ob- 
tained in  England  by  virtue  of  theii-  own  Authority 
(in  like  maimer  as  they  did  in  other  parts  of  the  West- 
ern Church)  till  the  time  of  the  Reformation:  and 
from  That  time  have  continued  upon  the  foot  of  Con- 
sent, Usage,  and  Custom",  He  cites  25  Hen.  VIII, 
c.  21. 

He  goes  on  to  say  that  before  the  Reformation, 
their  not  being  repugnant  to  the  laws  of  the  land 
was  the  condition  of  these  laws  being  received  here. 
But  he  also  cites  commentaries  of  John  de  Athon  on 
certain  constitutions  of  Otho  andOthobon,  which  the 
commentator  says  were  not  received  here.  Dr.  Gib- 
son cites  a  constitution  of  Simon  Sudbury,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  (1378),  ordering  confessions  to  be 
heard  three  times  a  year,  and  that  whoever  would  not 
confess  at  least  once  a  j^ear  should  be  prevented  from 
entering  a  church  while  living  and  should  not  receive 
Christian  burial  when  dead:  and  this  order  was  to  be 
published  frequently  in  the  churches. 

That  the  particular  decree  as  to  the  secrecy  of  the 
seal  of  confession  was  locally  re-enacted  by  English 
councils  and  synods  has  already  been  shown.  Its 
importance,  whether  as  enacted  by  the  Universal 
Council  of  the  Lateran  or  re-enacted  by  the  English 
councils,  seems  to  have  been  only  confirmatory  of 
something  already  well  established  in  the  Church  or, 
at  most,  as  definitelj'  declaring  the  punishment  for 
the  violation  of  the  secrecy.  That  the  decree  was 
allowed  and  accepted  by  the  civil  courts  of  England 
can  only  be  a  matter  for  deduction.  There  is  no  di- 
rect proof  of  it,  as  there  is,  for  instance,  in  the  cases  of 
these  two  other  decrees,  which  are  cited  only  as  some 
evidence  of  the  probability  of  the  acceptance  of  this 
particular  decree.  Before  enumerating  other  and 
chief  grounds  of  this  probability  it  is  well  to  remem- 
ber that  if  the  law  of  the  secrecy  of  confession  was 
already  well  established  in  the  Church  it  would  be 
very  unlikely  that  we  should  find  evidence  of  any 
direct  notice  of  the  decree  as  in  the  cases  of  the  two 
others. 

But  there  seems  to  be  absolutely  no  evidence  which 
could  cause  one  to  doubt  that  a  rule  declared  by  the 
Church  as  to  a  matter  essentially  bound  up  with  a  sac- 
rament, which  formed  part  of  the  necessary  religious 
practice  of  the  nation,  would  have  been  unhesitat- 
ingly accepted  by  the  nation  by  reason  of  the  mere 
fact  that  the  universal  Church  had  declared  it.  As 
there  are  such  strong  grounds  for  holding  that  the  rule 
only  solemnly  declares  an  obligation  upon  priests 
which  the  nation  had  always  believed  to  lie  upon 
them,  one  would  not  expect  to  find  any  overt  accept- 
ance of  the  rule.  Again,  it  is  important  to  remember 
that  the  rule  itself  concerned  priests  mainly  and  that, 
undoubtedly,  they  were  bound  by  it,  and  we  see  from 
the  English  canons  re-enact  ing  it  th(^  severe  penalties 
to  which  they  became  liahk;  in  th(!  ecclesiastical 
courts  in  England  for  any  breach  of  it.  Therefore, 
the  disregard  of  it  by  the  civil  courts  would  have 
caused  a  perpetual  conflict  between  these  two  tri- 
bunals even  where  the  former  was  only  exercising  the 
jurisdiction  which  rightfully  b<;longed  to  it,  besides 
the  fact  that  it  would  have  m  sharply  conflicted  with 
the  religion  practised  by  the  nation. 

The  question  of  jurisdiction  over  clerks  transgres- 
sing ecclesiastical  law  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
Church.  The  "  Report  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Courts 
C<^)mmi.Hsion,  1883",  to  which  we  have  already  al- 
luded, tells  us  that  "ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  in  its 
widest  sense  covered  all  the  ground  of  ecclesiastical 
relations,  persons,  properties,  rights  and  remedies: 
clergymen  in  all  their  relations".  But  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  extended  even  much 
further,  including  an  it  did  the  province  of  marriage, 


and  that  of  probate  coupled  with  the  devolution  of 
movable  property  in  cases  of  intestacy.  Within  this 
latter  province  there  would  have  been,  perhaps,  more 
than  in  any  other  province  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
any  court,  occasion  for  desiring  to  know  something 
that  might  have  transpired  under  the  seal  of  confes- 
sion. Pollock  and  Maitland's  "History  of  the  Laws 
of  England  "  tells  us  that  intestacy  was  regarded  with 
an  abhorrence  somewhat  akin  to  that  with  which  a 
death  without  sacramental  confession  was  regarded. 
This  may  probably  be  a  considerable  overstatement, 
but  it  ser\'es  to  show  that  this  province  was,  at  least, 
as  much  calculated  as  any  other  to  raise  the  question 
of  the  seal  of  confession. 

Again,  let  us  remember  that  in  some  districts,  such 
as  Durham  and  Chester,  bishops  exercised  temporal 
jurisdiction.  Even  in  the  King's  Courts,  as  Lord 
Coke  points  out,  oftentimes  the  judges  were  priests, 
before  Innocent  IV  prohibited  priests  from  acting  as 
judges.  Pollock  and  Maitland's  "History  of  the 
Laws  of  England"  gives  us  as  a  specimen  date,  that  of 
16  July,  1195,  on  which  there  sat  in  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench  an  archbishop,  three  bishops,  and  three 
archdeacons.  The  same  book  tells  us  that  "it  is  by 
popish  clergymen  that  our  English  common  law  is  con- 
verted from  a  rude  mass  of  customs  into  an  articulate 
system,  and  when  the  '  popish  clergymen '  yielding  at 
length  to  the  pope's  commands  no  longer  sit  as  the 
principal  justices  of  the  king's  court  the  golden  age 
of  the  common  law  is  over".  It  is  highly  improbable 
that  at  a  period  when  systematization  of  the  common 
law  was  proceeding  at  the  hands  of  "popish  clergy- 
men" a  rule  compelling  the  disclosure  of  confession 
would  have  grown  up.  Finally,  it  is  worthy  of  some 
observation  that  there  is  not  a  single  reported  case, 
textbook  or  commentary,  during  the  whole  pre- 
Reformation  period  which  contains  any  suggestion 
that  the  laws  of  evidence  did  not  respect  the  seal  of 
confession.  These  grounds  seem  sufficient  to  lead  to 
the  conclusion  that  before  the  Reformation  the  seal 
was  regarded  as  sacred  by  the  common  law  of  Eng- 
land. Sir  Robert  Phillimore  in  his  work  on  (Angli- 
can) ecclesiastical  law  makes  a  definite  statement  to 
this  effect. 

The  only  recorded  statute  of  the  English  Parliament 
which  deals  with  the  right  of  confession  is  Statute  I 
of  the  9th  year  of  Edward  II,  c.  10.  The  statute  is 
called  "Articuli  Cleri",  and  the  part  referred  todeala 
with  the  rights  of  offenders  who  abjure  the  realm  and, 
fleeing  to  a  church  for  refuge,  claim  privilege  of  sanc- 
tuary. After  stating  that  such  persons  are  to  be  al- 
lowed to  have  the  necessaries  of  life  and  that  they  are 
to  be  at  liberty  to  go  out  of  the  church  to  relieve  na- 
ture, the  statute  continues  as  follows:  "Placet  etiam 
Domino  Regi,  ut  latrones  vel  appellatores  quando- 
cunque  voluerint  possint  sacerdotibus  sua  facinora 
confiteri:  sed  caveant  confessoree  ne  erronice  hujus- 
modi  appellatores  informent".  This  law,  long  obso- 
lete, was  repeahid  in  1S63,  and  is  translated  in  the  col- 
lections of  the  Statutes  (Statutes  of  the  Realm,  I, 
173),  and  in  Pickering's  edition  of  "Statutes  at  Large" 
(Cambridge,  1782):  "And  the  King's  Pleasure  is, 
that  Thieves  or  Appellors  (whensoever  they  will)  may 
confess  their Ofi'ences  unto  Priests:  but  let  the  Con- 
fessors beware  that  they  do  not  erroneously  inform 
such  Appellors". 

Sir  Edivard  Coke,  the  great  common  lawyer  who  was 
Chief  Justice  under  James  I,  in  the  2nd  Institute,  c.  X, 
says:  "This  branch  extendeth  only  to  thieves  and  ap- 
provers indited  of  felony,  but  extendeth  not  to  high 
treasons:  for  if  high  treason  be  discovered  to  the  con- 
fessor, he  ought  to  discover  it  for  the  danger  that 
thereupon  dependcth  to  the  king  and  the  whole 
realme:  therefore  the  branch  dedareth  the  common 
law,  that  the  privilege  of  confession  extendeth  only  to 
felonies"  .  .  .  "for  by  the  common  law",  he  states 
further  on,  "a  man  indited  of  high  treason  could  not 


\ 


SEAL 


653 


SEAL 


have  the  benefit  of  clergy  nor  any  clergyman  privilege 
of  confession  to  conceale  high  treason".  It  is  not 
quite  clear  from  his  comment,  but  it  seems  likely,  that 
Sir  Edward  Coke  has  interpreted  the  concluding  cau- 
tion to  the  confessors  as  a  recognition  of  the  seal  of 
confession,  and,  if  so,  it  would  seem  that  he  has 
wrongly  interpreted  it,  because  the  translation  of  the 
word  "informare"  as  "to  inform  against"  would  ap- 
pear to  be  incorrect.  The  correct  interpretation  of 
the  clause  would  seem  to  be  as  one  of  warning  to  the 
confessors  not  to  inform  these  offenders,  when  they 
are  admitted  to  hear  their  confessions,  of  what  is  go- 
ing on  outside. 

Therefore,  except  in  so  far  as  it  shows  that 
the  right  of  freely  confessing  was  reserved  to  these 
offenders,  the  statute,  in  its  actual  words,  contains  no 
declaration  of  the  privilege  of  the  seal  of  confession. 
But  Sir  Edward  Coke's  comment  is  important  as  be- 
ing a  statement  by  him  of  the  existence  of  the  priv- 
ilege at  common  law  in  respect  of  felonies.  For  the 
exclusion  of  it  from  cases  of  high  treason  there  appears 
to  be  no  foundation  except  Sir  Edward  Coke's  own 
view  as  quoted,  because  the  two  cases  which  he  cites 
in  support  of  that  view  nowise  support  it. 

The  first  of  these  cases  is  that  of  Friar  John  Ran- 
dolf,  cited  from  the  Rolls  of  Parliament,  7  Heru-y  V, 
who  was  the  confessor  of  Queen  Joan,  widow  of 
Henry  IV.  There  is  nothing  in  that  record  from 
which  Sir  Edward  Coke's  averment  that  the  queen's 
conspiracy  had  been  proved  by  the  disclosure  of  her 
confession  to  Friar  Randolf  can  be  deduced.  The 
words  are  "Tant  p  relation  &  confession  d'une  frere 
John  Randolf  de  I'ordre  des  Freres  Menours  come  p 
autres  evidences  creables".  The  word  "confession 
is,  clearly,  there  used  in  its  primary  sense  of  an  ad- 
mission. The  reports  of  the  matter  in  Holinshed's 
"Chronicles"  and  in  Stow's  "Chronicle  of  England" 
support  this  view  as  they  state  that  Randolf  was  im- 
prisoned, Holinshed  saying  that  "it  was  reported  that 
he  had  conspired  with  the  quaene  by  sorcerie  and  ne- 
cromancie  to  destroie  the  King",  while  Stow  says  that 
he  had  counselled  the  queen  to  her  crime.  Thus,  evi- 
dently, when  he  was  imprisoned  on  the  charge  of  the 
conspiracy  with  the  queen  he  confessed  it. 

The  second  case  is  one  which  occurred  after  the 
Reformation.  It  is  the  trial  of  the  Jesuit,  Fr.  Gar- 
net (see  Garnet,  Henry),  on  the  charge  of  conspir- 
acy in  the  Gunpowder  Plot.  It  is  reported  in  the 
records  of  the  state  trials.  There  is  not  only  no  men- 
tion of  any  decision  by  the  court  that  the  privilege 
of  confession  did  not  extend  to  the  concealment  of 
high  treason,  but  there  is  not  even  the  faintest  indi- 
cation of  any  opinion  to  that  effect  by  any  member  of 
the  court.  There  was  no  question  of  the  giving  of  evi- 
dence by  a  witness  before  a  court  of  justice  of  matter 
revealed  to  him  in  confession.  The  issue  being 
whether  Fr.  Garnet  was  a  party  to  the  conspiracy,  the 
question  of  his  cognizance  and,  if  cognizant,  of  his 
non-disclosure  of  it  was  essential.  It  was  not  dis- 
puted that  he  had  heard  the  particulars  of  the  plot 
from  Greenwell,  one  of  the  conspirators,  but  the  de- 
fence was  that  he  had  heard  them  only  in  confession, 
though  he  had  previously  received  a  general  indica- 
tion of  the  plot  from  another  of  the  conspirators, 
Catesby.  Not  only  was  the  defence  not  rejected  at 
once  by  the  court  as  being  bad  in  law,  but,  to  infer 
from  the  arguments  put  to  the  prisoner  upon  it  by 
certain  members  of  the  court,  it  was  treated  with  a 
seriousness  which  seems  surprising  in  a  post-Refor- 
mation period,  and,  especially,  at  a  moment  of  such 
strong  anti-Catholic  feeling. 

Lord  Salisbury,  a  member  of  the  court,  asked  Fr. 
Garnet  if  there  must  not  be  confession  and  contrition 
before  the  absolution,  and,  having  received  an  affirma- 
tive answer,  he  observed  to  him  that  Greenwell  had 
shown  no  penitence,  or  intention  to  desist.  "Here- 
by", he  said,  "it  appears  that  either  Greenwell  told 


you  out  of  confession,  and  then  there  would  be  no 
secrecy:  or,  if  it  were  in  confession,  he  professed  no 
penitency,  and  therefore  you  could  not  absolve 
him."  He  further  said  to  him  that  after  Greenwell 
had  told  him  in  particular  what  Catesby  meant,  and 
he  then  called  to  mind  what  Catesby  had  previously 
told  him  (Fr.  Garnet)  in  general,  he  might  have  dis- 
closed it  out  of  his  general  knowledge  from  Catesby. 
He  further  asked  him  why,  after  Greenwell's  con- 
fession, when  Catesby  wished  to  tell  him  the  particu- 
lars, he  had  refused  to  hear  him,  to  which  Fr.  Gar- 
net answered  that  he  was  loth  to  hear  any  more. 
Sir  Edward  Coke,  for  the  prosecution,  addressed  to 
the  court  six  arguments  on  the  subject,  the  first  being 
that  this  particular  confession  was  not  sacramental, 
the  fifth  being  that  Fr.  Garnet  had  learned  of  the  con- 
spiracy from  Catesby  extra  confessionem,  and  the  last 
being  that  "by  the  common  law,  howsoever  it  (the 
confession)  were,  it  being  a  crimen  Icesce  majestatis,  he 
ought  to  have  disclosed  it".  There  is  no  indication 
of  any  adoption  by  the  court  of  this  last  proposition. 
The  confession  in  question  was  only  an  item  in  the 
evidence  brought  forward.  One  infers  from  the  re- 
port that  the  court  were  not  satisfied  with  the  de- 
fence, as  a  fact,  of  the  confession,  and,  also,  that  they 
considered  the  charge  to  be  proved  from  the  other 
evidence. 

In  a  paper  on  the  law  relating  to  confession  in  crim- 
inal cases  by  Mr.  Charles  H.  Hopwood,  the  writer  ad- 
mits the  probability  of  the  recognition  of  the  seal  be- 
fore the  Reformation.  He  says  that  Garnet's  case 
even  as  cited  by  Lord  Coke  could  hardly  be  in  point, 
inasmuch  as  Garnet  was  not  called  as  a  witness  in  the 
Gunpowder  treason  trial,  and  that  the  obligation  of 
the  seal  of  confession,  if  put  forward  by  Garnet  at  all, 
was  only  done  so  by  way  of  his  own  defence  that  he 
was  not  a  conspirator,  but  merely  knew  whatever  he 
knew  through  hearing  the  confession  of  the  others, 
and  that  Sir  E.  Coke  appears  almost  to  confess  and 
avoid  this  plea  by  retorting  that  the  confession  was 
one  of  crime  not  yet  executed.  Sir  Edward  Coke  in 
his  commentary  on  the  "Articuli  Cleri",  c.  10,  inter- 
preting the  wording  of  it  as  he  does,  says  that  it  de- 
clares the  common  law.  His  supporting  this  state- 
ment by  the  citation  of  a  then  recent  case,  together 
with  his  own  argument,  already  mentioned,  in  that 
case,  affords  strong  evidence  that  this  great  common 
lawyer  was  of  opinion  that  even  in  his  post-Reforma- 
tion period  the  common  law  of  England  recognized 
the  privilege  of  confession,  except  in  the  case  of  trea- 
son. If  that  is  his  view,  as  seems,  at  least,  highly 
probable,  it  is  profoundly  interesting  as  the  opinion 
of  a  very  distinguished  lawyer  and  a  fierce  champion 
of  Protestantism. 

It  is  important,  however,  to  bear  in  mind  that  by  the 
penal  laws  Catholicism  was  a  proscribed  religion. 
The  practice  of  it  was  subjected  to  severe  penal 
statutes  and  priests  performing  its  rites  were  rigor- 
ously penaUzed.  Statute  law  displaces  the  common 
law  if  the  latter  is  inconsistent  with  the  provisions  of 
the  statute.  It  is  true  that  there  is  no  statute  which 
expressly  declares  that  religious  confession  shall  not  be 
privileged  from  disclosure  in  the  witness-box.  But  so 
many  statutes  were  passed  against  the  practice  of  the 
Catholic  rehgion  that  it  would  seem  inconsistent  with 
them  to  hold  that  such  a  privilege  still  prevailed  at 
common  law. 

Confession  and  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. — In  the 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  nearly  all  these 
laws  were  repealed,  most  of  them  having  been  for  some 
time  inoperative.  There  has  never  been  any  legisla- 
tion one  way  or  the  other  about  the  disclosure  in  evi- 
dence of  religious  confession.  If  the  privilege  had 
ceased  to  be  part  of  the  common  law  legislation  would 
be  necessary  to  re-establish  it.  If  it  survived  in  the 
common  law  it  can  only  have  done  so  through  the  al- 
lowance of  it  in  the  case  of  the  Protestant  Church  of 


SEAL 


654 


SEAL 


England.  If  there  was  any  such  allowance  it  might 
be  argued  that  by  the  sanction  now  given  by  the 
State  to  the  practice  by  Cathohcs  of  their  reUgion  the 
same  allowance  to  them,  too,  is  to  be  implied.  In  or- 
der to  consider  whether  any  allowance  of  the  privilege 
of  reUgious  confession  endured  in  the  Protestant 
Church  of  England,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  whether 
confession  itself  endured  there  and,  if  so,  to  what  ex- 
tent. 

It  is  material  to  recollect  that  the  whole  system  of 
spiritual  jurisdiction  and  the  administration  of  canon 
law  in  England  received  a  paralyzing  blow  with  the 
advent  of  the  Reformation.  The  Submission  of  the 
Clergy  Act  in  1533  (25  Henry  VIII,  c.  19)  deprived  the 
laws  of  the  universal  Church,  under  the  headship  of 
the  pope,  of  all  the  validity  in  England  which  was 
based  on  the  mere  ground  of  their  being  Decrees  of 
the  universal  Church.  That  statute  appointed  a 
commission  of  thirty-two  persons,  sixteen  lay  and  six- 
teen ecclesiastical,  to  inquire  into  the  various  ecclesi- 
astical constitutions  and  canons,  and  it  enacted  that 
such  of  them  as,  in  the  opinion  of  the  commissioners 
or  the  majority  of  them,  ought  to  be  abolished,  should 
be  abolished,  and  such  of  them  as,  in  their  opinion, 
ought  to  stand,  should  stand,  the  king's  assent  being 
first  obtained;  but  until  they  should  have  so  deter- 
mined, any  canons,  or  constitutions  which  were  not 
contrariant  to  the  laws,  statutes,  or  customs  of  the 
realm  or  were  not  to  the  damage  of  the  king's  preroga- 
tive, were  stiU  to  be  used  and  executed  as  before.  The 
statute  was  repealed  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary,  but 
re\aved  in  that  of  Elizabeth;  however,  the  commis- 
sion never  completed  its  labours  and  never  arrived  at 
any  determination.  The  same  direction  is  further 
pursued  by  other  statutes  in  the  same  reign.  Thus 
the  preamble  to  25  Henry  VIII,  c.  21,  states  that  the 
realm  of  England  is  subject  only  to  such  laws  as  have 
been  made  within  the  kingdom  or  such  as,  by  the  suf- 
ferance of  the  sovereign,  the  people  of  the  realm  have 
taken  by  their  own  consent  to  be  used  among  them, 
and  to  the  observance  of  which  they  have  bound 
themselves  by  long  use  and  custom,  which  sufferance, 
consent,  and  custom  are  the  basis  of  the  force 
thereof. 

In  an  Act  of  the  same  reign  relating  to  marriage, 
the  prelude  runs  thus :  ' '  Whereas  the  usurped  power  of 
the  bishop  of  Rome  hath  always  intangled  and 
troubled  the  meer  jurisdiction  and  regal  power  of  this 
realm  of  England".  There  is,  also,  the  Act  37  Henry 
VIII,  c.  17,  which  declares  that  "by  the  word  of 
God"  the  king  is  "supreme  head  in  earth  of  the 
church  of  England",  having  power  and  authority  to 
exercise  all  manner  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  Thus, 
in  the  reign  of  Henrj^  VIII,  the  whole  basis  of  canon 
law — the  jurisdiction  of  the  universal  Church  with  the 
pope  for  its  head — was  removed,  and  for  such  canon  law 
and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  as  remained  a  new  basis 
was  constructed,  viz.  that  of  the  consent  of  the  Eng- 
lish nation  and  the  royal  sufferance.  Professor  Mait- 
land  observes  that  these  various  statutes  impose  upon 
the  ecclesiastical  courts  "not  merely  new  law,  but  a 
new  theory  about  the  old  law".  "Their  decisions",  he 
says,  "were  dictated  to  them  by  acts  of  Parliament — 
and  that  is  a  very  new  phenomenon."  "In  this 
reign",  he  says,  "we  come  upon  a  sudden  catastrophe 
in  the  history  of  the  spiritual  courts." 

This  reign  is  the  introduction  of  the  Protestant 
Reformation  into  England  inasmuch  as  it  nationalizes 
the  Church,  makes  it  dependent  upon  the  State,  sepa- 
rates it  from  the  authority  of  the  pope,  and  consti- 
tutes the  king  supreme  head.  Still  we  find  the  king 
sternly  checking  the  growth  of  Protestant  doctrine 
and  by  the  Statute  of  the  Six  Articles,  passed  in  the 
thirty-first  year  of  his  reign,  we  find  it  declared  that 
"auricular  confession  is  expedient  and  necessary  to  be 
retained  and  continued,  used  and  frequented  in  the 
Church  of  God",  and  it  was  thereby  made  a  felony  to 


assert  a  contrary  opinion.  Therefore,  with  the  excep- 
tion, conceivably,  of  its  exclusion  in  cases  deemed  to 
offend  against  the  king's  prerogative  which  was  then 
carried  to  great  lengths,  there  is  no  reason  to  think 
that  the  privilege  of  the  seal  would  not  have  been  ob- 
served in  that  reign.  But  under  Edward  VI  and  his 
Calvinistic  uncle,  the  Lord  Protector  Somerset,  the 
Church  of  the  State  rapidly  became  Protestant  in  its 
doctrine  also,  and  in  matters  other  than  that  of  its 
headship.  In  the  first  year  of  his  reign  (1547),  we  find 
a  mention  of  confession  in  a  royal  injunction  issued  to 
all  his  subjects,  clergy  and  laity.  The  ninth  of  the 
royal  injunctions  issued  that  year  runs  as  follows: 
"That  they  (i.  e.  parsons,  vicars  and  other  curates) 
shall  in  confessions  every  Lent  examine  every  person 
that  Cometh  to  confession  to  them,  whether  they  can 
recite  the  articles  of  their  faith,  and  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments in  English,  and  hear  them  say  the  same 
particularly". 

In  the  First  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI,  published 
by  parliamentary  authority  (1548),  the  Communion 
service  prescribes  a  general  confession.  The  service 
for  the  visitation  of  the  sick  contains  a  mention  of  con- 
fession and  a  form  of  absolution  in  the  following 
words:  "Here  shall  the  sick  person  make  a  spe- 
cial confession,  if  he  feel  his  conscience  troubled 
with  any  weighty  matter:  After  which  confession  the 
Priest  shall  absolve  him  after  this  sorte:  Our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  who  hath  left  power  to  his  Church  to  ab- 
solve all  sinners  which  truly  repent  and  believe  in  him, 
of  his  great  mercy  forgive  thee  thine  offences;  and 
by  his  authority  committed  to  me,  I  absolve  thee  from 
ail  thy  sins,  in  the  name  of  the  father  and  of  the  son 
and  of  the  holy  ghost".  This  Prayer  Book  goes  on 
immediately  to  say:  "and  the  same  form  of  absolu- 
tion shall  be  used  in  all  private  confessions". 

The  Second  Prayer  Book,  which  was  published  in 
1552,  contains  the  same  form  as  the  First  Prayer 
Book  in  the  service  for  the  visitation  of  the  sick,  but 
it  omits  all  mention  of  private  confession.  It  also 
prescribes  the  general  confession  in  the  service  before 
the  Communion,  as  to  which  last  named,  however,  it  ex- 
pressly denies  transubstantiation  or  consubstantia- 
tion.  This  denial  was  omitted  in  the  Third  Prayer 
Book  and  is  omitted  from  the  Prayer  Book  as  finally 
settled  in  1662.  The  service  for  the  visitation  of  the 
sick  remains  the  same  in  that  final  version  with  the 
exception  that,  instead  of  saying  "Here  the  sick  per- 
son shall  make  a  special  confession  ",  it  says:  "shall  be 
moved  to  make  a  special  confession  of  his  sins",  and 
that,  after  the  direction  to  absolve  him,  there  are  the 
words  "(if  he  humbly  and  heartily  desire  it)".  The 
mention  of  private  confession  is  omitted. 

We  receive  an  indication  of  the  nature  of  the  con- 
fession spoken  of  from  the  exhortation  to  the  Com- 
munion service,  prescribed  in  all  the  versions  of  the 
Prayer  Book,  which  directs  the  minister  to  exhort  the 
congregation  in  the  following  words :  ' '  And  if  there  be 
any  of  you  whose  conscience  is  troubled  and  grieved  in 
anything,  lacking  comfort  or  counsel  let  him  come  to 
me  or  to  .some  other  discreet  and  learned  priest,  taught 
in  the  law  of  God,  and  confess  and  open  his  sin  and 
grief  secretly,  that  he  may  receive  such  ghostly  coun- 
sel, advice  and  comfort  that  his  conscience  may  be 
relieved  and  that  of  us  (as  of  the  ministers  of  God  and 
of  the  Church)  he  may  receive  comfort  and  absolu- 
tion to  the  satisfaction  of  his  mind,  and  avoiding  of 
all  scruple  and  doubtfulness:  requiring  such  as  shall 
be  satisfied  with  a  general  confession  not  to  be  of- 
fended with  them  that  do  use,  to  their  further  satisfy- 
ing, the  auricular  and  secret  confession  to  the  Priest: 
nor  those  also  which  think  needful  or  convenient  for 
the  quietness  of  their  own  consciences  particularly  to 
open  their  sins  to  the  priest  to  be  offended  with  them 
that  are  satisfied  with  their  humble  confession  to  God 
and  the  general  confession  to  the  church".  The  lat- 
ter part,  from  "requiring,  etc.",  was  omitted  in  the 


SEAL 


655 


SEAL 


Second  and  subsequent  Prayer  Books.  In  the  or- 
dination service  prescribed  in  the  Prayer  Book  the 
bishop  is  to  speak  the  following  words:  "Receive 
the  holy  ghost  for  the  office  and  work  of  a  Priest  in  the 
Church  of  God  now  committed  to  thee  by  the  Impo- 
sition of  our  hands.  Whose  sins  thou  dost  forgive 
they  are  forgiven;  and  whose  sins  thou  dost  retain 
they  are  retained ' ' . 

The  two  "Books  of  the  Homilies"  are  official  docu- 
ments of  the  Protestant  Church  of  England.  The 
publication  of  homilies  was  much  encouraged  by 
Archbishop  Cranmer  and  other  leaders  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  England  and  by  the  sovereign.  King  Ed- 
ward VI.  They  were  designed  for  the  use  of  the 
clergy  in  their  parish  churches,  mainly  in  order  to  put 
doctrine  before  the  people  in  plain  language.  The 
first  "Book  of  the  Homilies"  appeared  in  1547.  The 
reading  of  the  homilies  or  one  of  them  every  Sunday  in 
parish  churches  was  enjoined  by  royal  authority. 
They  subsequently  received  sanction  from  the  men- 
tion made  of  them  in  the  Communion  service  con- 
tained in  the  Prayer  Book.  It  is  evident  that  it  was 
intended  that  further  homilies  should  be  written 
later. 

The  second  "Book  of  the  Homilies"  was  published 
by  the  authority  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  was  ap- 
pointed to  be  read  in  every  parish  church.  It  con- 
tains a  homily  on  Repentance,  the  second  part  of 
which,  definitely  and  with  argument,  condemns  the 
doctrine  of  the  necessity  of  auricular  confession.  The 
condemnation  concludes  as  follows:  "I  do  not  say 
but  that,  if  any  do  find  themselves  troubled  in  con- 
science, they  may  repair  to  their  learned  curate  or 
pastor,  or  to  some  other  godly  learned  man,  and  shew 
the  trouble  and  doubt  of  their  conscience  to  them, 
that  they  may  receive  at  their  hand  the  comfortable 
salve  of  God's  word:  but  it  is  again.st  the  true  Chris- 
tian liberty,  that  any  man  should  be  bound  to  the 
numbering  of  his  sins,  as  it  hath  been  used  heretofore 
in  the  time  of  blindness  and  ignorance".  We  find,  on 
the  other  hand,  on  the  revival  of  Catholicism  under 
Edward's  successor.  Queen  Marj',  some  special  men- 
tions of  confession  which  appear  to  indicate  that  its 
practice  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  tests  of  orthodoxy. 
In  articles  of  visitation  of  his  diocese  by  Bonner, 
Bishop  of  London,  in  lo54,  we  find  the  following  in- 
quiry under  Art.  XX:  "Whether  any  person  have  re- 
fused or  contemned  to  receive  the  sacrament  of  the 
altar,  or  to  be  confessed  and  receive  r.t  the  priest's 
hand  ab.solution  according  to  the  laudable  custom  of 
this  realm?"  Among  similar  articles  set  forth  in 
1557  by  Cardinal  Pole  for  the  visitation  of  his  Arch- 
diocese ot  Canterbury,  we  find  the  following :  "Touch- 
ing the  Lay  People.  III.  Item,  Whether  they  do 
contemn  or  despise  by  any  manner  of  means  any  other 
of  the  sacraments,  rites  or  ceremonies  of  the  church, 
or  do  refuse  or  deny  auricular  confession?" 

This  may  be  said  to  constitute  the  official  docu- 
mentary evidence  of  the  doctrine  and  discipline  of  the 
Church  of  England  with  regard  to  confession.  It  was 
not  ranked  as  a  sacrament,  and  the  exercise  of  it  was 
to  be  optional,  the  only  instance  with  regard  to  which 
we  find  any  imperative  words  used  being  that  of  a 
dying  person  who  should  feel  his  conscience  troubled 
with  "any  weighty  matter".  It  may  be  that  these 
last  words  are  a  literal  translation  of  the  Latin  "gravi 
materia"  frequently  used,  and  so,  perhaps,  may  de- 
note, approximately,  grievous  or  mortal  sin.  But 
even  as  to  this  occasion  we  find,  as  already  pointed 
out,  the  words  "shall  make"  altered  to  "shall  be 
moved  to  make".  It  was  not  part  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  Church  of  England  as  it  continued  established 
under  Edward  VI  and,  subsequently,  from  the  acces- 
sion of  Elizabeth  onwards,  that  auricular  confessi()n 
was  necessary  for  forgiveness.  The  Statute  of  the  Six 
Articles  was  repealed  in  the  first  year  of  Edward  VI. 
The  opinion  and  belief  in  the  Protestant  Church  of 


England  during  that  and  the  succeeding  centuries 
were  opposed  to  such  a  doctrine. 

Anglican  Canonists  and  Theologians. — Bishop 
Hooker,  the  Caroline  divine,  was  opposed  to  obUga- 
tory  confession.  In  the  afore-mentioned  "Codex 
Juris  Ecclesiastici  Anglicani"  of  Dr.  Gibson,  the 
writer  characterizes  as  follows  the  Sacraments  of 
Penance  and  Extreme  Unction:  "Title  XXI.  The 
Two  Popish  Sacraments  of  Penance  and  Extreme 
Unction".  In  the  "Parergon  Juris  Canonici  Angli- 
cani", published  by  Dr.  John  Ayliffe  (London,  1726), 
we  find  in  the  introduction  (p.  XL)  this  passage: 
"  Tho'  several  Titles  of  the  Canon  Law  are  out  of  use 
with  us  here  in  England  by  reason  of  the  gross  Idola- 
try they  contain  in  them,  as  the  Title  of  the  Authority 
and  Use  of  the  Pall,  the  Title  of  the  Mass,  the  Title  of 
Relicts,  and  the  Worship  of  the  Saints,  the  Title  of 
Monks  and  Regular  Canons,  the  Title  of  keeping  the 
Eucharist  and  Chrism,  and  such  other  of  the  like 
Quality:  Yet  these  are  retained  in  the  general ".  It  is 
true  that  he  does  not  include  confession  amongst  these 
titles,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  makes  no  reference 
to  any  laws  as  to  it  in  the  Church  of  England.  More- 
over, in  the  chapter  on  public  penance  (p.  420)  we  find 
a  statement  that  penance  is  distinguished  by  the  Ro- 
manists and  the  canon  law  as  (1)  external  which  in- 
cludes confession  to  a  priest,  and  that  it  is  this  first 
kind  which  they  make  a  sacrament  for  the  interest 
and  advantage  of  the  priesthood  as  it  consists  in  the 
absolution  of  the  priest.  "But",  Dr.  Ayliffe  con- 
tinues, "we  Protestants  who  deny  Penance  to  be  a 
Sacrament  say  that  it  consists  in  sorrow,  confessing  to 
God  in  Foro  Conscientiai." 

In  Wheatley's  "  Rational  Illustration  of  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer,  being  the  substance  of  everything 
liturgical  in  Bishop  Sparrow,  Mr.  L'Estrange,  Dr. 
Comber,  Dr.  Nichols,  and  all  former  Ritualists,  Com- 
mentators or  Others  upon  the  same  Subject,  collected 
and  reduced  into  one  continued  and  regular  method 
and  interspersed  all  along  with  new  observations",  we 
find  (p.  374)  the  following  comment  on  the  words  con- 
tained in  the  service  for  the  visitation  of  the  sick, 
which  have  been  set  out  above:  "i.  e.  I  suppose  if  he 
has  committed  any  sin,  for  which  the  censure  of  the 
Church  ought  to  be  inflicted  or  else  if  he  is  perplexed 
concerning  the  nature  or  some  nice  circumstances  of 
his  crime".  On  the  words  of  absolution  we  find  this 
marginal  note:  "Seems  only  to  respect  the  censures 
of  the  Church",  which  means,  apparently,  that  it  is 
not  the  imparting  of  a  Divine  forgiveness  for  the 
actual  sin. 

The  only  occasion  in  which  the  concealment  of  a 
confession  is  imposed  as  a  duty  by  the  Protestant 
Church  of  England  seems  to  be  in  the  canons  which 
were  made  in  1603.  Canon  113  deals  with  the  sup- 
pression of  evil  deeds  by  the  reporting  thereof  by  the 
persons  concerned  with  the  administration  of  each 
parish.  It  provides  for  the  presentment  to  the  Or- 
dinary by  parsons,  vicars,  or  curates  of  the  crimes  and 
iniquities  committed  in  the  parish.  It  concludes  with 
the  following  reservation:  "Provided  always.  That  if 
any  man  confess  his  secret  and  hidden  sins  to  the 
minister,  for  the  unburdening  of  his  conscience,  and 
to  receive  spiritual  consolation  and  ease  of  mind  from 
him:  we  do  not  in  any  way  bind  the  said  minister  by 
this  our  Constitution,  but  do  straitly  charge  and  ad- 
monish him,  that  he  do  not  at  any  time  reveal  and 
make  known  to  any  person  whatsoever  any  crime  or 
offence  so  committed  to  his  trust  and  secrecy  (ex- 
cept they  be  such  crimes  as  by  the  laws  of  this  realm 
his  own  life  may  be  called  into  question  for  concealing 
the  same)  under  pain  of  irregularity". 

There  are  three  points  to  be  observed  in  the  canon : 
First,  the  confession  there  referred  to,  from  the  like- 
ness of  the  words  used  to  those  ased  in  such  parts  of 
the  liturgy  as  mention  confession,  which  have  been 
noticed  above,  seems  to  be  the  confession  mentioned 


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656 


SEAL 


in  the  liturgy,  viz.  such  form  of  confession  as  sur- 
vived in  the  Protestant  Church  of  England.  Second, 
there  is  an  express  exemption  from  the  duty  of  se- 
crecy where  such  duty  should  conflict  with  one  im- 
posed by  the  civil  power  under  a  certain  penalty. 
There  does  not  appear  to  have  been,  in  fact,  at  that 
time  any  law  which  made  the  mere  concealment  of  any 
crime,  including  treason,  an  offence  punishable  with 
forfeiture  of  life.  But  this  in  no  way  affects  the  prin- 
ciple laid  down  in  the  canon.  The  exemption  is  a 
marked  departure  from  the  pre-Reformation  ecclesi- 
astical law  on  the  subject  as  shown  by  the  pre-Refor- 
mation English  canons  and  otherwise.  Third,  even 
apart  from  the  exemption,  the  language  used  to  declare 
the  injunction  bears  a  marked  contrast  to  the  language 
used  to  declare  the  secrecj'  in  pro-Reformation  daj^s. 
It  is  evident  that  secrecy  is  not  quasi  of  the  essence  of 
this  confession,  as  Lj-ndwood  had  declared  it  to  be  of 
the  confession  of  which  he  wTote.  The  confession  as 
to  whose  secrecy  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council,  in  be- 
half of  the  Church  in  the  whole  world,  and  the  Eng- 
lish Councils  of  Durham,  Oxford,  etc.,  in  behalf  of  the 
Church  in  England,  had  made  stringent  decrees  seems 
to  have  been  banished  by  the  Reformation. 

It  results  from  the  Submission  of  the  Clergy  Act, 
mentioned  above,  that  a  canon  is  void  if  it  contra- 
venes common  or  statute  law,  and,  accordingly,  it  be- 
comes void  if  at  any  subsequent  period  a  statute  in- 
consistent with  it  is  passed,  as  was  held  in  the  recent 
case  of  R.  v.  Dibdin  (Law  Reports,  1910,  Probate, 
57).  It  does  not  seem  that  there  was  in  1603  any 
statute  to  which  canon  113  was  necessarily  contrari- 
ant  or  that  any  has  been  passed  since.  When  we  have 
to  decide  whether  or  not  it  conflicted  with  the  com- 
mon law  it  must  be  remembered  that  many  items  of 
the  common  law  must  have  disappeared  or  have  un- 
dergone considerable  alteration  by  such  a  change  in 
the  whole  national  life  as  that  which  was  caused  by 
the  Reformation.  Rules  of  canon  law  and  certain 
precepts  of  the  Church  had,  undoubtedly,  formed 
some  of  the  stones  in  the  growing  fabric  of  English 
common  law.  So,  where  the  practices  to  which  these 
rules  or  precepts  applied  were  repudiated  or  consider- 
abl}'  modified  one  must  expect  a  corresponding  cessa- 
tion or  modification  of  the  common  law  relating 
thereto.  Of  many  such  instances  confession  would 
be  one.  Even  the  Established  Church  of  England 
did  not  claim  for  this  confession  which  she  sanctioned 
absolute  inviolability,  as  the  canon  which  has  just 
been  quoted  shows. 

The  Civil  Courts. — It  was  decided  by  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench  in  a  judgment  delivered  by  Lord  Hard- 
wicke  in  the  case  of  Middleton  v.  Croft,  already  re- 
ferred to,  that  the  canons  of  1603,  though  binding  on 
the  clergy,  do  not  bind  the  laity.  The  reason  for  this 
is  that  though  canons,  in  order  to  be  valid  must,  as 
these  did,  receive  the  royal  sanction,  they  are  made  in 
convocation,  and,  thus,  without  representation  of  the 
laity.  Accordingly,  if  this  canon  infringed  a  right  en- 
joyed by  the  lay  subjects  of  the  realm  it  would, 
seemingly,  in  as  far  as  it  did  so,  not  be  valid  against 
them.  Thus,  a  canon  purporting  to  forbid  clergymen 
from  appearing  as  witnesses  in  any  action  which  a  sub- 
ject might  lawfully  bring  in  the  king's  courts  would, 
seemingly,  be  void  as  against  the  subject.  The  funda- 
mental principle  is  that  a  witness  shall  give  in  evidence 
the  whole  truth  that  he  knows  concerning  the  matter 
in  dispute  and  that  the  parties  to  the  tlispute  are  en- 
titled to  have  that  evidence  given.  The  rules  which 
regulate  and  which,  in  certain  exceptional  cases,  re- 
strict the  giving  of  evidence  are  the  growth  of  prac- 
tice and  of  the  rulings  of  juflges,  occurring  mainly 
within  the  last  two  to  three  centiirir-s  (sec  the  judg- 
ment of  Parke  B.  in  the  ca.se  of  TIk-  C^uccsn  v.  Ryle, 
9  M.  &  \y.,  244).  The  rule  which  excludes  evidence, 
the  requiring  of  which  would  be  contrary  to  public 
policy,  as  may  occur  in  relation  to  the  conduct  of  the 


business  of  a  state  department,  is  an  instance.  In 
view  of  the  absolute  repudiation  by  the  State  of  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Catholic  Church  and  in  view  of  the 
abandonment  of  the  Sacrament  of  Confession  as  prac- 
tised before  the  Reformation,  one  may  fairly  presume 
that,  from  the  date  of  that  event,  confession  would  no 
longer  have  been  regarded  as  a  ground  from  motives 
of  public  policy,  entitling  to  an  exemption  from  the 
principle  of  the  disclosure  of  all  the  truth  known  about 
the  cause,  were  it  to  be  civil  or  criminal. 

Important  Cases  and  Decisions. — We  know  for  cer- 
tain that  in  the  gradual  growth  of  the  rules  of  evidence 
as  laid  down  within  the  last  two  to  three  centuries  by 
the  judges  of  the  King's  Courts  the  cases  of  privilege 
from  exemption  from  disclosure  are  few,  and  that  the 
only  private  relationship  which  the  courts  recognized 
as  enjoying  the  privilege  was  that  between  chent  and 
attorney  or  counsel.  We  find  an  express  instance  of 
the  recognition  of  privilege  in  the  case  of  that  par- 
ticular relationship  in  the  judgment  of  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench  in  1663  in  the  case  of  Sparke  v.  Mid- 
dleton (I  Keble's  Reports,  505).  In  an  anony- 
mous case  reported  in  Skinner's  "Reports",  404,  in 
1693,  Lord  Chief  Justice  Holt  said  that  the  privilege 
would  extend  to  a  law  scri^-ener,  because  he  would  be 
counsel  to  a  man  with  whom  he  would  advise.  But 
he  is  reported  to  have  added  "  otherwise  of  a  Gentle- 
man, Parson  etc.".  Mr.  Badeley  in  his  pamphlet,  al- 
ready referred  to,  maintains  that  Lord  Holt  did  not 
mean  this  last  assertion  to  be  general  and  exclusive. 
This  may  conceivably  be  so.  It  is  recorded  in  an- 
other anonymous  case,  which  we  find  in  Lord  Ray- 
mond's "Reports",  p.  733,  that  the  same  judge  re- 
fused to  admit  the  evidence  of  a  person  entrusted  by 
both  the  parties  to  the  cause  to  make  and  keep  secret 
a  bargain;  and  he  added  that  "(by  him)  a  trustee 
should  not  be  a  witiK?ss  in  order  to  betray  the  trust". 
But  the  last  decision  cannot  be  said  to  be  in  agree- 
ment with  the  law  of  evidence  as  generally  laid  down. 

In  the  case  of  Vaillant  v.  Dodemead  [  (1743)  2 
Atkyn's  "Reports",  524]  Lord  Hardwicke  L.  C.  held 
that  to  claim  the  privilege  as  clerk  in  court  or  agent  to 
a  party  was  too  general,  "for",  he  .said,  "no  persons 
are  privileged  from  being  examined  in  such  cases  but 
persons  of  the  profession,  as  counsel,  solicitor,  or  at- 
torney". But  we  find  the  privilege  even  in  the 
cases  of  the  relationship  of  client  to  attorney  or 
counsel  restricted  to  the  subsistence  of  that  rela- 
tionship when  professionally  created  by  the  employ- 
ment by  the  client  of  the  attorney  or  counsel  as  such, 
and  that  it  is  not  extended  to  confidential  communi- 
cations taking  place  between  a  person  and  a  friend 
whom  he  confidentially  consults  because  he  happens 
to  be  a  .solicitor  (Wilson  v.  Rastall,  1792,  4  Term  Re- 
ports, 753).  In  the  Duchess  of  Kingston's  case 
[(1796),  20  State  Trials,  p.  572]  it  was  held  that  a 
physician  or  surgeon  was  compellable  to  give  evidence 
of  matters  which  might  have  come  to  his  knowledge 
in  the  course  of  his  professional  relation.ship  to  a  party 
to  a  suit.  The  great  commentator  on  the  laws  of 
England,  Mr.  Justice  Blackstone,  confines  the  privi- 
lege to  communications  made  for  the  purpose  of  a 
legal  cau.se.  He  specifies  the  persons  who  are  ex- 
empted as  "counsel,  attorney  or  other  person  in- 
trusted with  the  secrets  of  the  cause".  Mr.  Ser- 
jeant Peake  in  his  work  on  the  law  of  evidence  ex- 
pressly excludes  clergymen  or  priests  or  physicians. 

At  the  same  time  one  may  observe  in  the  judgment 
in  the  ca.se  of  Wilson  v.  Rastall  as  in  some  other  cases 
the  indication  of  a  j)()tent  iaiity  of  an  expansion  of  this 
8id(>  of  the  law  of  evidence.  "1  have  always  under- 
stood", Lord  Kcnyon  s;iid,  giving  judgmc^nt,  "that 
the  privilege  of  a  client  only  cxt(!nds  to  (he  case  of  the 
attorney  foiliirii:  Though  whet  her  or  not  it  ought  (o  be 
extended  fart  her,  I  am  happy  to  think  may  Ix;  inquired 
into  in  this  cause.  "  lie  meant  that  the  matter  would 
not  be  definitely  concluded  as  an  appeal  would  be 


SEAL 


657 


SEAL 


possible.  In  the  case  of  Du  Barre  v.  Livette  (Peake's 
"Nisi  Prius  Cases",  108)  the  same  judge,  Lord  Ken- 
yon,  logically  held  that  the  privilege  would  extend  so 
as  to  preclude  an  interpreter  between  a  solicitor  and  a 
foreign  client  from  giving  evidence  of  what  had  passed. 
In  the  report  of  that  case  we  find  that  the  plaintiff's 
counsel  informed  the  court  that  Mr.  Justice  Buller 
had  recently  tried  on  circuit  a  case  of  the  King  v. 
Sparkes:  that  the  prisoner,  in  that  case,  was  a  "pa- 
pist" and  that  it  came  out  at  the  trial  that  he  had 
made  a  confession  of  his  crime  (a  capital  one)  to  a 
Protestant  clergyman:  that  this  confession  was  re- 
ceived in  evidence  by  the  judge:  and  that  the  prisoner 
was  convicted  and  executed.  It  seems  obvious  from 
what  we  are  told  about  the  two  persons  concerned 
that  neither  of  them  could  have  regarded  the  con- 
fession as  sacramental.  Lord  Kenyon  said  that  he 
would  have  paused  before  admitting  such  evidence. 
He  added  "But  this  ca.se  differs  from  it.  The  Po- 
pish religion  is  now  no  longer  known  to  the  law  of  this 
country,  nor  was  it  necessary  for  the  prisoner  to  make 
that  confession  to  aid  him  in  his  defence.  But  the 
relation  between  attorney  and  client  is  as  old  as  the 
law  itself". 

The  case  of  Butler  v.  Moore  was  decided  in  Ireland 
by  Sir  Michael  Smith,  Master  of  the  Rolls,  in  1802. 
It  is  reported  in  MacNally's  "Rules  of  Evidence", 
p.  253.  It  concerned  the  will  of  Lord  Dunboyne, 
who  had  abandoned  the  Catholic  Faith:  he  was  al- 
leged, however,  to  have  returned  to  it  and,  thereby,  to 
have  come  within  the  penal  law  which  deprived 
"lapsed  papists"  of  the  power  to  make  a  will.  The 
circumstances  under  which  he  abandoned  his  Faith 
and  those  under  which  he  is  generally  said  to  have  re- 
turned to  it  are  as  follows:  He  was  Bishop  of  Cork 
at  the  time  of  the  death  of  the  previous  peer.  Anxious 
to  be  able  to  transmit  in  a  direct  line  the  peerage  and 
the  headship  of  an  ancient  house,  the  new  Lord  Dun- 
boyne appealed  to  Rome  for  a  dispensation  from  his 
vow  of  celibacy.  It  was  refused  him,  and,  thereupon, 
he  joined  the  Protestant  Church  and  married,  but  had 
no  issue.  It  is  said  that  one  day  while  he  was  driving 
along  a  country  road  a  woman  rushed  out  of  a  cottage, 
calling  for  a  priest  for  some  one  who  lay  dangerously 
ill  inside.  Lord  Dunboyne  answered  her  "I  am  a 
priest",  and,  entering  the  cottage,  he  heard  the  dying 
person's  confession.  From  a  certain  moment,  said 
to  have  been  this,  till  the  end  of  his  life  he  con- 
formed again,  at  least,  privately,  to  the  Catholic 
Faith.  His  will  was  disputed  by  his  sister,  Mrs.  Cath- 
erine O'Brien  Butler,  on  the  ground  that,  having  re- 
conformed  to  Catholicism,  he  was  incapable  of  making 
one.  In  order  to  prove  that  fact  she  administered 
interrogatories  to  Father  Gahan,  a  priest  who  had 
attended  Lord  Dunboyne  shortly  before  his  death, 
to  the  following  effect :  What  religion  did  Lord  Dun- 
boyne profess,  first,  from  1783  to  1792?  and,  second, 
at  the  time  of  his  death,  and  a  short  time  before?  As 
to  the  first  question,  Fr.  Gahan  answered  that  Lord 
Dunboyne  professed  the  Protestant  religion.  To  the 
second  question  he  demurred  on  the  ground  that  his 
knowledge  (if  any)  arose  from  a  confidential  commu- 
nication made  to  him  in  the  exercise  of  his  clerical 
functions,  which  the  principles  of  his  religion  forbade 
him  to  disclose,  nor  was  he  bound  by  the  law  of  the 
land  to  answer.  The  Master  of  the  Rolls  held,  after 
argument  by  counsel,  that  there  was  no  privilege,  and 
he  overruled  the  demurrer.  Fr.  Gahan  adhered  to  his 
refusal  to  answer  and  he  was  adjudged  guilty  of  con- 
tempt of  court  and  was  imprisoned. 

In  1823  in  the  case  of  the  King  v.  Redford,  which 
was  tried  before  Best  C.J.  on  circuit,  when  a  Church 
of  England  clergyman  was  about  to  give  in  evidence 
a  confession  of  guilt  made  to  him  by  the  prisoner, 
the  judge  checked  him  and  indignantly  expressed  his 
opinion  that  it  was  improper  for  a  clergyman  to  re- 
veal a  confession.  In  1828  in  the  case  of  Broad  v. 
XIII.— 42 


Pitt  (3  C.  &  P.,  518),  where  the  privilege  of  communi- 
cations to  an  attorney  was  under  discussion,  the  same 
judge  said:  "The  privilege  does  not  apply  to  clergy- 
men since  the  decision  the  other  day  in  the  case  of 
Gilham.  I,  for  one,  will  never  compel  a  clergyman  to 
disclose  communications  made  to  him  by  a  prisoner: 
but  if  he  chooses  to  disclose  them,  I  shall  receive  them 
in  evidence".  As  a  fact,  the  case  of  R.  v.  Gilham 
(1  Moo.  C.  C,  186),  tried  in  1828,  did  not  decide  nor 
did  it  even  turn  on  the  question  of  privilege  of  confes- 
sion to  a  clergyman.  It  turned  on  the  question  of  the 
admissibility  in  evidence  against  a  prisoner  of  an 
acknowledgment  of  his  guilt  which  had  been  induced 
by  the  ministrations  and  words  of  the  Protestant 
prison  chaplain.  The  acknowledgment  of  the  mur- 
der with  which  he  was  charged  was  made  by  the  pris- 
oner to  the  jailer  and,  subsequently,  to  the  authorities; 
he  appears  to  have  made  no  acknowledgment  of  it  to 
the  chaplain  himself.  In  the  case  of  the  King  v.  Shaw 
[  (1834)  6  C.  &  P.,  392],  a  witness  who  had  taken  an 
oath  not  to  reveal  a  statement  which  had  been  made 
to  him  by  the  prisoner,  was  ordered  to  reveal  it. 
"Everybody  ",  said  Mr.  Justice  Patteson,  who  tried  the 
case,  "except  counsel  and  attorneys,  is  compellable  to 
reveal  what  they  may  have  heard."  In  the  case  of 
Greenlaw  v.  King  [  (1838)  1  Beav.,  p.  145],  Lord  Lang- 
dale  M.R.  said:  "The  cases  of  privilege  are  con- 
fined to  solicitors  and  their  clients;  and  stewards, 
parents,  medical  attendants,  clergymen,  and  persons  in 
the  most  closely  confidential  relation,  are  bound  to  dis- 
close communications  made  to  them". 

The  foundation  of  the  rule  protecting  communica- 
tions to  attorneys  and  counsel  was  stated  by  Lord 
Brougham,  Lord  Chancellor,  in  an  exhaustive  judg- 
ment on  the  subject  in  the  case  of  Greenough  v. 
Gaskell  [(1833)  1  Mylne  &  Keen,  p.  103],  to  be  the 
necessity  of  having  the  aid  of  men  skilled  in  jurispru- 
dence for  the  purpose  of  the  administration  of  justice. 
It  was  not,  he  said,  on  account  of  any  particular  im- 
portance which  the  law  attributed  to  the  business  of 
people  in  the  legal  profession  or  of  any  particular  dis- 
position to  afford  them  protection,  though  it  was  not 
easy  to  see  why  a  like  privilege  was  refused  to  others, 
especially  to  medical  advisers.  A  like  opinion  was 
expressed  by  Turner  V.C.  in  the  case  of  Russell  v. 
Jackson  [  (1851)  9  Hare,  p.  391]  in  the  following 
words:  "It  is  evident  that  the  rule  which  protects 
from  disclosure  confidential  communications,  be- 
tween solicitor  and  client  does  not  rest  simply  upon 
the  confidence  reposed  by  the  client  in  the  solicitor, 
for  there  is  no  such  rule  in  other  cases,  in  which,  at 
least,  equal  confidence  is  reposed :  in  the  cases,  for  in- 
stance, of  the  medical  adviser  and  the  patient,  and  of 
the  clergyman  and  the  prisoner".  Moreover,  in  the 
relationship  of  lawyer  and  client  the  privilege  was 
confined  to  communications  between  them  made  in 
respect  of  the  particular  litigation  and  it  did  not  ex- 
tend to  communications  generally  passing  between  a 
client  and  his  lawyer  professionally.  But  the  princi- 
ple has  developed  so  as  now  to  include  all  profes- 
sional communications  passing  in  a  professional  ca- 
pacity, and  to  the  information  and  belief  founded 
thereon:  Minet  v.  Morgan  [  (1873)  8  Chancery  Ap- 
peals, p.  366];  Lyell  v.  Kennedy  [  (1883)  9  Appeal 
Cases,  p.  90].  In  the  former  case  Lord  Selborne, 
Lord  Chancellor,  said:  "There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  law  of  the  Court  as  to  this  class  of  cases  did  not 
at  once  reach  a  broad  and  reasonable  footing,  but 
reached  it  by  successive  steps,  founded  upon  that 
respect  for  principle  which  usually  leads  the  Court 
aright". 

In  1853  in  the  case  of  the  Queen  v.  Griffin,  a  Church 
of  England  workhouse  chaplain  was  called  to  prove 
conversations  with  a  prisoner  charged  with  child-mur- 
der whom,  he  stated,  he  had  visited  in  a  spiritual  ca- 
pacity. The  judge,  Mr.  Baron  Alderson,  strongly  in- 
timated to  counsel  that  he  thought  such  conversations 


SEAL 


658 


SEAL 


ought  not  to  be  given  in  evidence,  saying  that  there 
was  an  analogy  between  the  necessity  for  privilege  in 
the  case  of  an  attorney  to  enable  legal  evidence  to  be 
given  and  that  in  the  case  of  the  clergyman  to  enable 
spiritual  assistance  to  be  given.  He  added,  "I  do 
not  lay  this  down  as  an  absolute  rule:  but  I  think 
such  evidence  ought  not  to  be  given". 

In  1865  the  question  attracted  public  attention  in 
England  upon  the  prosecution  of  Constance  Kent  for  a 
murder  committed  five  years  previously.  She  made  a 
statement  confessing  her  guilt  to  a  Church  of  England 
clergyman,  the  Rev.  Arthur  Wagner,  and  she  ex- 
pressed to  him  her  resolution  to  give  herself  up  to 
justice.  He  assisted  her  in  carrying  out  this  resolu- 
tion and  he  gave  eviilence  of  this  statement  before  the 
magistrates.  But  he  prefaced  his  evidence  by  a  dec- 
laration that  he  must  withhold  any  further  infor- 
mation on  the  ground  that  it  had  been  received  under 
the  seal  of  "sacramental  confession".  He  was  but 
slightly  pressed  by  the  magistrates,  the  fact  of  the 
matter  being  that  the  prisoner  was  not  defending 
the  charge.  At  the  Assizes,  Constance  Kent  pleaded 
guilty  and  her  plea  was  accepted  so  that  Mr.  Wagner 
was  not  again  called.  The  position  which  Mr.  Wag- 
ner assumed  before  the  magistrates  caused  much  pub- 
he  debate  in  the  press.  There  was  considerable  ex- 
pression of  public  indignation  that  it  should  have  been 
suggested  that  Mr.  Wagner  could  have  any  right  as 
against  the  State  to  -wnthhold  evidence  on  the  ground 
which  he  had  put  forward.  The  indignation  seems  to 
have  been  largely  directed  against  the  assumption 
that  sacramental  confession  was  known  to  the  Church 
of  England.  Questions  were  asked  in  both  Houses  of 
Parhament.  In  the  House  of  Lords,  Lord  Westbury, 
Lord  Chancellor,  in  reply  to  the  Marquis  of  West- 
meath,  stated  that  "there  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  a 
suit  or  criminal  proceeding  a  clergyman  of  the  Church 
of  England  is  not  privileged  so  as  to  decline  to  answer 
a  question  which  is  put  to  him  for  the  purposes  of 
justice,  on  the  ground  that  his  answer  would  reveal 
something  that  he  had  known  in  confession.  He  is 
compeUed  to  answer  such  a  question,  and  the  law  of 
England  does  not  even  extend  the  privilege  of  refus- 
ing to  answer  to  Roman  Catholic  clergymen  in  dealing 
with  a  person  of  their  owti  persuasion".  He  stated 
that  it  appeared  that  an  order  for  commitment  had  in 
fact  been  made  against  Mr.  Wagner.  If  that  is  so,  it 
was  not  enforced. 

On  the  same  occasion  Lord  Chelmsford,  a  previous 
Lord  Chancellor,  stated  that  the  law  was  clear  that  Mr. 
Wagner  had  no  privilege  at  all  to  withhold  facts  which 
came  under  his  knowledge  in  confession.  Lord  West- 
meat  h  said  that  there  had  been  two  recent  cases,  one 
being  the  case  of  a  priest  in  Scotland,  who,  on  refusing 
to  give  evidence,  had  been  committed  to  prison.  As 
to  this  case  Lord  Westmeath  stated  that,  upon  an  ap- 
plication for  the  priest's  release  being  made  to  the 
Home  Secretary,  Sir  George  Grey,  the  latter  had  re- 
plied that  if  he  were  to  remit  the  sentence  without  an 
admiasion  of  error  on  the  part  of  the  Catholic  priest 
and  without  an  assurance  on  his  part  that  he  would 
not  again  in  a  similar  case  adopt  the  same  course,  he 
(the  Home  Secretary)  would  be  giving  a  sanction  to  the 
assumption  of  a  privilege  by  ministers  of  every  de- 
nomination which,  he  was  advised,  they  could  not 
claim. 

Lord  Westbury's  statement  in  the  Hou.se  of  Lords 
drew  a  protest  from  Dr.  Phillpotts,  the  then  Bishop  of 
Exeter,  who  wrote  him  a  letter  strongly  maintaining 
the  privilfgc  which  had  been  claimed  by  Mr.  Wagner. 
The  bishop  argued  that  the  canon  law  on  the  subject 
had  bfcn  accepted  without  gain.sayiiig  or  oi)position 
from  any  temporal  court,  that  it  had  been  confirmed 
by  the  Book  of  Cornrnon  Prayer  in  the  service  for  the 
visitation  of  the  sick,  and,  thus,  sanctioned  by  the  Act 
of  Uniformity.  From  the  bishop's  reply  to  Lord  West- 
bury's answer  to  his  letter  it  is  apparent  that  Lord 


Westbury  had  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  113th 
canon  of  1603  simply  meant  that  the  "clergyman  must 
not  mero  motu  and  voluntarily  and  without  legal  obli- 
gation reveal  what  is  communicated  to  him  in  confes- 
sion' ' .  He  appears,  also,  to  have  expressed  an  opinion 
that  the  public  was  not  at  the  time  in  a  temper  to  bear 
any  alteration  of  the  rule  compelling  the  disclosure  of 
such  evidence. 

The  second  case  referred  to  by  Lord  Westmeath  was 
that  of  the  Queen  v.  Hay,  tried  before  Mr.  Jus- 
tice Hill  at  the  Durham  Assizes  in  1860  (2  Foster  and 
FinlaisoUj  p.  4).  The  prosecutor  had  been  robbed  of 
his  watch  by  the  prisoner  and  another  man.  A  police 
inspector  had  subsequently  received  the  watch  from 
Fr.  Kelly,  a  priest  in  the  neighbourhood,  upon  his  call- 
ing at  the  presbytery.  Fr.  Kelly  was  summoned  as  a 
witness  by  the  prosecutor,  and  as  the  oath  was  about 
to  be  administered  to  him  he  objected  to  its  form — 
not,  he  explained,  to  that  part  of  it  which  required 
him  to  tell  the  truth  and  nothing  but  the  truth,  "but 
as  a  minister  of  the  Catholic  Church",  he  said,  "I  ob- 
ject to  that  part  which  states  that  I  shall  tell  the 
whole  truth".  The  judge  answered  him:  "The  mean- 
ing of  the  oath  is  this:  it  is  the  whole  truth  touching 
the  trial  which  you  are  asked:  which  you  legiti- 
mately, according  to  law,  can  be  asked.  If  anything 
is  asked  of  you  in  the  witness-box  which  the  law  says 
ought  not  to  be  asked — for  instance,  if  you  are  asked  a 
question  the  answer  to  which  might  criminate  your- 
self— you  would  be  entitled  to  say,  '  I  object  to  answer 
that  question '  " .  The  judge  told  him  that  he  must  be 
sworn.  Wlien  asked  by  counsel  from  whom  he  had 
received  the  watch  Fr.  Kelly  replied:  "I  received 
it  in  connexion  with  the  confessional".  The  judge 
said:  "You  are  not  asked  at  present  to  disclose  any- 
thing stated  to  you  in  the  confessional :  you  are  asked 
a  simple  fact — from  whom  did  you  receive  that  watch 
which  you  gave  to  the  policeman?".  Fr.  Kelly  pro- 
tested: "The  reply  to  that  question  would  implicate 
the  person  who  gave  me  the  watch,  therefore  I  cannot 
answer  it.  If  I  answered  it  my  suspension  for  life 
would  be  a  necessary  consequence.  I  should  be  vio- 
lating the  laws  of  the  Church  as  well  as  the  natural 
laws ".  The  judge  said :  "On  the  ground  that  I  have 
stated  to  you,  you  are  not  asked  to  disclose  anything 
that  a  penitent  may  have  said  to  you  in  the  confes- 
sional. That  you  are  not  asked  to  disclose :  but  you 
are  asked  to  disclose  from  whom  you  received  the 
stolen  property  on  the  25th  December  last.  Do  you 
answer  or  do  you  not?".  Fr.  Kelly  replied:  "I  really 
cannot,  my  Lord",  and  he  was  forthwith  committed 
into  custody. 

It  may  be  fairly  deduced  from  Mr.  Justice  Hill's 
words  that  he  would  not  have  required  Fr.  Kelly  to 
disclo.se  any  statement  which  had  been  made  to  him  in 
the  confessional,  and,  in  this  sense,  his  words  may  be 
said  to  give  some  support  to  the  Catholic  claim  for 
privilege  for  sacramental  confession.  But  we  need 
not  wonder  that  he  was  not  ready  to  extend  the  pro 
tection  to  the  act  of  restitution,  though,  even  in  the 
eyes  of  non-Catholics,  it  ought ,  in  all  logic,  to  have  been 
entitled  to  the  same  secrecy,  in  view  of  the  circum- 
stances under  which,  obviously,  it  was  made. 

The  laws  of  evidence  except  where  they  have  been 
prescribed  or  declared  by  statute  are  the  growth  of  the 
rulings  of  judges  and  of  practice  which  has  been  fol- 
lowed. Thus,  their  origin  affords  an  opportunity  for 
d(!velopment  in  accordance  with  the  development  of 
society  itself  and  of  its  principles  and  opinions.  We 
havc^  seen  this  develoijinc^nt  in  regard  to  the  extension 
of  Uw  {)rivil('gc,  accorded  from  the  beginning  to 
communi(;:t1ion,s  jjiissing  between  counsel  and  attor- 
neys and  their  clients.  It  is  conceivable  that  this 
spirit  of  development  may  spread  itself  over  other 
provinces  as  to  which  no  privilege  shall  then^tofore 
have  been  recognized.  It  is  possible  that  it  may  be 
even  now  ready  to  declare  the  privilege  in  the  case  of 


SEAL 


659 


SEAL 


religious  confession  when  that  case  next  arises.  Some 
indication  of  this  possibihty  is  found  in  the  case  of 
Ruthven  v.  De  Bonn,  which  was  tried  before  Mr.  Jus- 
tice Ridley  and  a  jury  in  1901.  The  defendant,  a 
CathoUc  priest,  having  been  asked  a  general  question 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  matters  mentioned  in  sacra- 
mental confession,  was  told  by  the  judge  that  he  was 
not  bound  to  answer  it.  The  writer  was  present  in 
court  at  the  hearing  of  the  trial  and,  as  far  as  his  recol- 
lection serves  him,  he  understood  Mr.  Justice  Ridley 
to  say  something  to  the  effect  that  the  judges  had 
come  to  this  mind  in  the  matter,  but  the  report  of  the 
trial  in  "  The  Times  "  of  8  February,  1901,  does  not  con- 
tain such  a  statement.  The  learned  judge  said  to  the 
plaintiff,  who  was  conducting  his  case  in  person: 
"You  are  not  entitled  to  ask  what  questions  priests 
ask  in  the  confessional  or  the  answers  given". 

If  upon  a  case  involving  the  question  of  the  privi- 
lege next  arising  a  ruling  in  favour  of  it  should  be  made, 
this  would  be  probably  rather  as  a  growth  of  the  con- 
ception of  public  policy  and  not  as  a  matter  of  tra- 
ditional common  law.  There  is  a  case  in  1893  (Nor- 
manshaw  v.  Normanshaw,  69  L.  T.,  468)  which  was 
heard  before  the  then  President  of  the  Divorce  Court, 
Sir  Francis  Jeune,  which  shows  a  kind  of  middle 
attitude  with  regard  to  the  question.  A  witness,  a 
vicar  of  the  Church  of  England,  objected  to  giving 
evidence  of  a  conversation  which  he  had  had  with  the 
respondent  upon  her  being  sent  to  see  him  after  her 
misconduct.  Upon  the  witness  objecting  to  disclose 
the  conversation,  the  President  said  that  each  case  of 
confidential  communication  should  be  dealt  with  on 
its  own  merits  and  that  he  .saw  no  reason  why  this  par- 
ticular converstaion  should  not  be  disclosed,  and  he 
ordered  the  witness  to  disclose  it.  In  summing  up  he 
remarked  that  it  was  not  to  be  supposed  for  a  single 
moment  that  a  clergyman  had  any  right  to  withhold 
evidence  from  a  court  of  law,  and  that  it  was  a  prin- 
ciple of  our  jurisprudence  that  justice  should  prevail, 
and  that  no  unrecognized  privilege  could  be  allowed  to 
stand  in  the  way  of  it.  But  it  is  to  be  observed  that 
there  had  been  no  allegation  of  a  religous  confession. 
It  is  probable  from  the  manner  in  which  the  President 
expressed  himself  that  if  a  sacramental  confession  had 
been  alleged  he  would  not  have  ordered  its  disclosure. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  1881,  in  the  case  of  Wheeler  v. 
Le  Marchant  (17  Ch.  D.,  681),  where  the  production 
of  certain  correspondence  between  the  defendants' 
solicitors  and  their  surveyors,  passing  before  action 
brought,  was  in  question,  the  Court  of  Appeal  held 
that  the  principle  which  protected  communications 
between  client  and  legal  advisers  did  not  extend  to  the 
communications  between  solicitors  and  other  pensons 
not  made  for  the  purposes  of  litigation.  The  follow- 
ing words  were  spoken  in  his  judgment  by  Sir  George 
Jessel  M.R.,  a  judge  of  great  eminence:  "In  the  first 
place,  the  principle  protecting  confidential  communi- 
cations is  of  a  very  limited  character.  .  .  .  There  are 
many  communications,  which,  though  absolutely  nec- 
essary because  without  them  the  ordinary  business  of 
life  cannot  be  carried  on,  still  are  not  privileged.  .  .  . 
Communications  made  to  a  priest  in  the  confessional 
on  matters  perhaps  considered  by  the  penitent  to  be 
more  important  than  his  hfe  or  his  fortune,  are  not 
protected". 

The  tenth  edition  of  Taylor,  "On  Evidence",  edited 
by  Hume-Williams,  contains  a  note  by  the  editor  say- 
ing that  he  has  advised  magistrates  that  they  are 
bound  not  to  suffer  statements  to  be  withheld  from 
evidence  on  the  ground  of  their  having  been  made  by 
way  of  religious  confession.  But  the  editor  appears 
to  base  the  obligation  of  their  disclosure  on  the  de- 
cision in  the  case  of  R.  v.  Gilham,  which,  as  said  above, 
does  not  seem  to  be  to  the  effect  attributed  to  it.  In 
Sir  Robert  Phillimore's  work  on  "The  Ecclesiastical 
Law  of  the  Church  of  England  "  we  find  the  following 
statement:   "It  seems  to  me  at  least  not  improbable 


that,  when  this  question  is  again  raised  in  an  English 
court  of  justice,  that  court  will  decide  it  in  favour  of 
the  inviolability  of  the  confession,  and  expound  the 
law  so  as  to  make  it  in  harmony  with  that  of  almost 
every  other  Christian  state".  In  Best's  work  on 
"The  Law  of  Evidence"  we  find  not  only  an  expres- 
sion of  opinion  that  the  privilege  should  be  accorded 
but  one  to  the  effect  that  there  is  ground  for  holding 
that  the  right  to  the  privilege  is  existent. 

Jeremy  Benlham. — As  regards  the  policy  of  ex- 
empting from  disclosure  statements  made  to  clergy- 
men by  way  of  religious  confession,  opinion  is  not 
unanimous.  Jeremy  Bentham,  writing  in  the  early 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  devotes  a  whole 
chapter  to  serious,  considered  argument  that  Catholic 
confession  should  be  exempted  from  disclosure  in  ju- 
dicial proceedings,  even  in  Protestant  countries.  The 
chapter  is  headed:  "Exclusion  of  the  Evidence  of  a 
Catholic  Priest,  respecting  the  confessions  entrusted 
to  him,  proper".  The  following  are  extracts  of  some 
of  the  most  remarkable  passages  in  it.  "Among  the 
cases",  it  begins,  "in  which  the  exclusion  of  evidence 
presents  itself  as  expedient,  the  case  of  Catholic  con- 
fession possesses  a  special  claim  to  notice.  In  a  politi- 
cal state,  in  which  this  most  extensively  adopted  modi- 
fication of  the  Christian  religion  is  established  upon  a 
footing  either  of  equality  or  preference,  the  necessity 
of  the  exclusion  demanded  will  probably  appear  too 
imperious  to  admit  of  dispute.  In  taking  a  view  of  the 
reasons  which  plead  in  favour  of  it,  let  us  therefore 
suppose  the  scene  to  lie  in  a  country  in  which  the 
Catholic  religion  is  barely  tolerated :  in  which  the  wish 
would  be  to  see  the  number  of  its  votaries  decline,  but 
without  being  accompanied  with  any  intention  to  aim 
at  its  suprression  by  coercive  methods.  Any  reasons 
which  plead  in  favour  of  the  exclusion  in  this  case  will, 
a  fortiori,  serve  to  justify  the  maintenance  of  it,  in  a 
country  in  which  this  religion  is  predominant  or 
established." 

He  refers  the  reasons  in  favour  of  the  exclusion  to 
two  heads:  (1)  evidence  (the  aggregate  mass  of  evi- 
dence) not  lessened;  and  (2)  vexation,  preponderant 
vexation.  Under  the  first  heading  he  says  that  the 
effect  of  non-exclusion  would  be  the  decrease  in  the 
practice  of  confession.  "The  advantage  gained  by 
the  coercion",  he  says,  "gained  in  the  shape  of  assist- 
ance to  justice,  would  be  casual,  and  even  rare:  the 
mischief  produced  by  it,  constant  and  all-extensive. 
.  .  .  The  advantages  of  a  temporal  nature,  which,  in 
the  countries  in  which  this  religious  practice  is  in  use, 
flow  from  it  at  present,  would  in  a  great  degree  be  lost: 
the  loss  of  them  would  be  as  extensive  as  the  good 
effects  of  the  coercion  in  the  character  of  an  aid  to 
justice.  To  form  any  comparative  estimate  of  the 
bad  and  good  effects  flowing  from  this  institution,  be- 
longs not,  even  in  a  point  of  view  purely  temporal,  to 
the  design  of  this  work.  The  basis  of  the  inquiry 
is  that  this  institution  is  an  essential  feature  of  the 
Catholic  religion,  and  that  the  Catholic  religion  is  not 
to  be  suppressed  by  force.  If  in  some  shapes  the 
revelation  of  testimony  thus  obtained  would  be  of  use 
to  justice,  there  are  others  in  which  the  disclosures 
thus  made  are  actually  of  use  to  justice,  under  the  as- 
surance of  their  never  reaching  the  ears  of  the  judge. 
Repentance,  and  consequent  abstinence  from  future 
misdeeds  of  the  like  nature;  repentance,  followed  even 
by  satisfaction  in  some  shape  or  other,  satisfaction 
more  or  less  adequate  for  the  past :  such  are  the  \yell- 
known  consequences  of  the  institution:  though  in  a 
proportion  which,  besides  being  everywhere  unascer- 
tainable,  will  in  every  country  and  in  every  age  be 
variable,  according  to  the  degree  and  quality  of  the 
influence  exercised  over  the  people  by  the  religious 
sanction  in  that  form,  and  the  complexion  of  the  moral 
part  of  their  character  in  other  resepcts." 

These  words  are  all  the  more  remarkable  when  we 
call  to  mind  what  a  strenuous  opponent  the  author  of 


SEAL 


660 


SEAL 


them  was  to  the  privilege  allowed  to  communications 
between  legal  advisers  and  their  clients.  It  is  no- 
ticeable that,  in  dealing  with  this  question,  the  Catho- 
lic religion  alone  presents  itself  to  the  mind  of  Jeremy 
Bentham  as  being  concerned  with  it.  The  whole 
chapter  is  exclusively  limited  to  the  claim  for  protec- 
tion for  the  Catholic  practice  of  confession.  It  must 
be  admitted  by  the  most  ordinary  impartial  observer 
that  Catholics  are  in  fact  upon  a  different  and  much 
stronger  footing  in  regard  to  the  matter  than  any  other 
religious  body,  because  they  are  the  only  large  re- 
ligious organization,  in  Western  Europe  and  America, 
of  whose  discipline,  in  the  continuation  of  long  tradi- 
tion and  practice,  confession  forms  a  vital  constitu- 
ent part.  It  is  noticeable  that  British  judges  and 
lawyers,  where  denying  the  existence  of  the  privilege, 
have  stated  that  it  cannot  be  allowed  even  in  the  case 
of  Catholics,  thereby  recognizing,  in  the  light  of  obvi- 
ous fact,  that  their  claim  is  not  only  most  forcible  but 
is  pecuhar. 

As  it  has  been  sought  to  indicate,  one  can  hardly 
contend  as  a  legal  sequence  that  the  removal  of  the 
proscription  of  Catholicism  by  the  State  has  revived 
the  privilege  in  favour  of  confession,  the  existence  of 
which  in  pre-Reformation  days  has  been  sought  here 
to  be  proved.  But  there  are  cogent  arguments,  on  the 
ground  of  public  policy  and  of  the  desirability  of  can- 
did consistency  in  state  conduct,  in  favour  of  the  seal 
being  respected.  The  Catholic  religion  is  now  not 
only  tolerated  in  England  and  Ireland,  but  it  is  sanc- 
tioned by  the  State,  which  appoints  as  its  owti  officers 
Catholic  chaplains  to  the  army,  the  navy,  and  to  the 
prisons.  Moreover,  the  State  knows  full  well  that 
confession  is  an  essential  part  of  Catholic  practice  and 
that  the  inviolability  of  the  seal  is  an  essential  part  of 
confession;  the  three  main  objects  for  which  these 
chaplains  are  required  are  that  they  may  hear  the  con- 
fessions of  the  persons  in  their  charge,  say  Mass  in 
their  presence,  and  communicate  them.  To  say  that, 
despite  these  facts,  the  Catholic  chaplain  of  a  remand 
prison  might  be  required,  under  pain  of  committal,  to 
disclose,  on  the  prisoner's  trial,  a  sacramental  confes- 
sion which  the  latter  had  made,  would  seem  like  lay- 
ing a  trap  for  both  the  priest  and  the  prisoner.  No 
one  having  the  least  acquaintance  with  trials  as  con- 
ducted by  English  or  Irish  judges  to-day  can  think  of 
such  an  event  except  as  being  in  the  remotest  degree 
improbable.  Yet,  if  the  confession  should  have 
been  made  voluntarily,  without  the  inducement  of  any 
hope  or  fear  by  any  person  possessed,  in  some  way,  of 
authority,  the  same  legal  principles  would  seem  to 
apply  to  it  as  would  apply  to  such  a  confession  made 
by  any  other  penitent  or  in  any  other  place.  If  it 
should  become  an  establi-shed  principle^  whether  by 
judicial  ruling  or  by  legislation,  that  religious  confes- 
sion should  be  immune  from  disclosure  in  courts  of 
justice,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  principle  will 
embrace  any  denomination  in  which  a  confession  in 
the  nature  of  a  religious  exercise  shall  have  occurred. 
One  is  disposed  to  believe  that  such  a  principle  would 
accfjrd  with  the  bulk  of  modem  feeling  towards  the 
question. 

Irela.vd. — The  legal  position  as  to  the  seal  of  con- 
fession is  the  same  with  regard  to  Ireland  as  it  is  with 
regard  to  England. 

Scotland. — In  Scottish  law  there  does  not  appear 
to  be  any  exact  or  clearly  defined  principle  protecting 
from  disclosure  confessions  to  clergymen.  But  there 
appears  to  be  a  recognized  leaning  towards  such  pro- 
tection, at  least,  to  a  limited  extent.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  none  of  the  works  referred  to  below  men- 
tion sacramental  confession  as  practised  by  Catholics, 
which,  perhaps,  would  be  regarded  by  the  courts  as 
having  a  peculiar  claim  to  protection.  In  the  case  of 
Anderson  and  Marshall,  which  is  cited  by  Hume  as  hav- 
ing taken  place  in  1728,  Hume  tells  us  that  Anderson 
had  made  a  conf  ession  in  the  presence  of  a  minister  and 


two  bailies.  Though  Anderson,  he  tells  us,  had 
sent  for  the  minister  in  order  to  disburden  his  con- 
science to  him,  evidence  of  the  confession  was  re- 
ceived at  the  trial  of  Anderson.  Hume  comments 
unfavourably  upon  the  reception  in  evidence  of  this 
confession,  on  the  ground  that  the  admission  of  such 
evidence  tends  to  deprive  a  prisoner  of  the  relief  of 
confession  to  a  person  in  a  spiritual  capacit3\  But  he 
says  further  on  (p.  350)  that  there  is  no  privilege  on 
the  part  of  "surgeons,  physicians  or  clergymen  with 
respect  even  to  circumstances  of  a  secret  nature, 
which  have  been  revealed  to  them  in  the  course  of  their 
duty".  He  thinks  that  probably  no  clergyman  will 
ever  be  called  upon  to  disclose  any  confession  made  to 
him  by  a  prisoner  under  arrest.  He  goes  on  to  give  a 
h3'pothetical  case  of  a  person  pursuing  a  course  of 
crime  and  then,  being  suddenly  seized  with  compunc- 
tion, making  a  confession  to  the  clergyman  of  his  par- 
ish, and,  finally,  relapsing  and  completing  his  crime. 
He  thinks  that  in  such  a  case,  on  the  crime  being  com- 
mitted, the  clergyman  might,  on  the  ground  of  public 
expediency,  be  required  to  give  evidence  of  this  con- 
fession, made  at  the  previous  stage,  as  being  impor- 
tant in  the  history  of  the  crime.  But  he  cites  no 
authority. 

Tait,  in  his  "Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Evidence  in 
Scotland"  (p.  396),  having  dealt  with  the  disqualifi- 
cation of  a  witness  by  having  been  agent  or  advocate 
of  the  opposite  party,  says:  "There  is  only  one  other 
situation  in  which  the  law  allows  the  exclusion  of  evi- 
dence on  the  ground  of  confidence,  and  that  chiefly 
in  reference  to  proceedings  of  a  criminal  nature  as 
where  a  prisoner  in  custody  and  preparing  for  his 
trial,  has  confessed  his  crime  to  a  clergyman  in  order 
to  obtain  spiritual  advice  and  comfort".  But  Tait's 
authority  seems  to  be  derived  from  Hume,  who  is 
cited  above.  Alison,  in  his  work  on  the  "Practice 
of  the  Criminal  Law  of  Scotland",  having  cited  An- 
derson and  Marshall's  case,  makes  the  following  state- 
ment: "And  there  is  nothing  exceptionable  in  the  ad- 
mission of  such  testimony,  if  he  heard  the  confession 
tanquam  quilibet,  that  is,  if  he  heard  it  as  an  ordinary 
acquaintance  or  bystander,  and  not  in  the  confidence 
and  under  the  seal  of  a  religious  duty.  But  our  law 
utterly  disowns  any  attempt  to  make  a  clergyman  of 
any  religious  persuasion  whatever  divulge  any  confes- 
sions made  to  him  in  the  course  of  religious  visits,  or 
for  the  sake  of  spiritual  consolation ;  as  subversive  of 
the  great  object  of  punishment,  the  reformation  and 
improvement  of  the  offender". 

India. — In  India  the  British  law  as  to  the  seal  of 
confession  is  the  same  as  in  England 

British  Colonies.— Apart  from  any  express  legis- 
lation or  from  any  local  law  to  the  contrary  i)revailing, 
the  law  on  the  subject  in  the  British  Colonies  and 
throughout  the  British  Empire  would  be  the  same  as 
that  which  prevails  in  England.  In  Cape  Colony 
the  law  is  the  same  as  in  England.  The  legal  ad- 
viser is  privileged:  there  is  no  ordinance  or  statute 
extending  the  privilege  to  the  priest.  Of  the  Com- 
monwealth of  Australia,  Victoria,  by  the  Evidence  Act, 
1890,  S.  55,  has  enacted  that  "No  clergyman  of  any 
church  or  religious  denomination  shall,  without  con- 
sent of  the  person  making  the  confession,  divulge  in 
any  suit,  action  or  procecnling  whether  civil  or  crim- 
inal any  confession  made  to  him  in  his  professional 
character  according  to  the  usage  of  the  church  or  re- 
ligious denomination  to  which  he  belongs".  In  New 
Zealand,  by  the  Evidence  Act,  1908,  S.  8  (l),"a  min- 
ister shall  not  divulge  in  any  proc(!eding  any  confes- 
sion made  to  him,  in  his  ])rofossi()nal  character,  ex- 
cept with  the  consent  of  the  person  who  made  such 
confession". 

For  the  Dominion  of  Canada  the  law  on  the  subject 
is  the  same  as  in  England.  There  is  no  Dominion 
legislation  upon  the  subject.  But  the  Province  of 
Quebec,  by  Art.  273  of  its  Code  of  Civil  Procedure,  has 


SEAL 


661 


SEAL 


enacted  that  a  witness  "  cannot  be  compelled  to  de- 
clare what  has  been  revealed  to  him  confidentially  in 
his  professional  character  as  religious  or  legal  ad- 
viser". But  even  apart  from  this  express  legislation 
the  privilege  of  the  seal  has  been  transmitted,  in  Que- 
bec, from  the  old  French  law  of  the  province,  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  liberty  of  the  Catholic  religion  having 
been  guaranteed  (see  Gill  v.  Bouchard,  1896,  R.  J., 
5  Q.  B.,  138). 

In  the  case  of  Masse  v.  Robillard  [(1880)  10  Revue 
legale,  p.  527] — which  turned  upon  a  political  elec- 
tion— a  witness  was  asked,  with  regard  to  his  voting, 
whether  he  had  been  to  confession  to  a  certain  priest 
and  for  what  reason  that  priest  had  refused  to  hear  his 
confession.  The  defendant  to  the  suit  objected  to  the 
question  as  being  a  violation  of  the  privilege  of  confes- 
sion. It  was  argued  on  the  other  side  that  the  privi- 
lege did  not  extend  so  as  to  prohibit  a  penitent  from 
revealing  what  had  been  said  by  the  priest.  The 
court  upheld  the  objection,  deciding  that  a  witness 
cannot  be  asked  what  a  priest  said  to  him  during  con- 
fession and  that  the  disclosure  of  what  has  been  said 
during  confession  is  not  permitted. 

In  the  case  of  Gill  v.  Bouchard,  referred  to  above, 
it  was  held  by  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  on  an  ap- 
peal from  a  judge  of  the  Superior  Court,  that  a  priest, 
who  was  being  sued  for  damages  for  having  (it  was 
alleged)  induced  an  apprentice  to  leave  his  master, 
could  not  be  compelled  to  disclose  what  he  had  said  to 
the  apprentice  on  the  subject  during  the  latter's  con- 
fession, even  though  his  advice  to  the  apprentice  was 
the  alleged  unlawful  act  for  which  he  was  being  sued. 
It  was  held  that  the  priest  was  protected  by  Art.  275 
of  the  Code  of  Civil  Procedure,  and  that,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  evidence  to  the  contrary,  the  priest's  state- 
ment that  whatever  he  had  said  was  said  while  he  was 
fulfilling  his  functions  as  religious  adviser  must  be 
final  and  conclusive.  Thus,  unless  the  person  seeking 
to  get  in  evidence  what  has  passed  in  the  confessional 
can  prove  that  such  matter  has  not  passed  in  the 
performance  of  the  practice  of  confession  or  in  the  ful- 
filment by  the  priest  of  his  duty  as  confessor  or  re- 
ligious adviser,  the  priest's  statement  that  if  anything 
has  passed,  it  has  passed  in  the  fulfilment  of  such  duty 
or  in  the  course  of  confession  is  conclusive,  and  any 
question  upon  the  matter  is  entirely  precluded  by  that 
statement.  In  this  particular  case  the  priest  had,  at 
the  trial,  answ;ered:  "  If  I  spoke  to  the  child  about  the 
matter  it  was  in  the  confessional ".  (The  boy's  father 
told  the  court  that  the  boy  had  said  that  drinking  and 
bad  words  took  place  at  his  master's  workshop.)  The 
priest  was  then  asked  whether  "he  had  counselled  or 
advised  the  apprentice  to  leave  his  master's  service, 
either  in  the  confessional  or  elsewhere?".  The  priest 
objected  to  answering  this  question  and  contended 
that  he  was  not  legally  bound  to  do  so.  The  judge  of 
the  Superior  Court  held,  on  the  ground  that  the  ques- 
tion was  one  as  to  whether  the  priest  had  or  had  not 
committed  a  legal  wrong,  that  he  was  not  exempt  from 
the  obligation  of  answering  it,  and  as  the  priest  con- 
tinued to  refuse,  he  was  declared  guilty  of  contempt 
of  court  and  ordered  to  be  imprisoned.  This  de- 
cision, as  already  mentioned,  was,  after  an  exhaustive 
argument  of  the  question,  reversed  on  appeal  by  the 
Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  which  declared  the  law  to  be 
as  stated  above. 

In  Newfoundland,  by  the  Consolidated  Statutes, 
1872,  C.  23,  s.  11,  which  section  has  since  been  in- 
corporated in  the  Consolidated  Statutes,  1892,  it  is 
enacted  that  "a  clergyman  or  priest  shall  not  be  com- 
pellable to  give  evidence  as  to  any  confession  made  to 
him  in  his  professional  character". 

United  States  of  America. — The  position  of  the 
question  at  common  law  is  the  same  in  America  as  it 
is  in  England.  In  the  case  of  the  Commonwealth  v. 
Drake  [(1818)  15  Mass.,  154],  we  find  it  argued  on  the 
one  side  that  a  confession  of  a  criminal  offence  made 


penitentially  by  a  member  of  a  certain  Church  to  other 
members,  in  accordance  with  the  discipline  of  that 
Church,  may  not  be  given  in  evidence.  These  others 
-were  called  as  witnesses.  The  solicitor-general,  on  the 
other  hand,  argued  that  religious  confession  was  not 
protected  from  disclosure.  It  is  true  that  he,  also, 
took  the  point  that  in  this  case  "the  confession  was 
not  to  the  church  nor  required  by  any  known  ecclesias- 
tical rule",  but  was  made  voluntarily  to  friends  and 
neighbours.  The  court  held  that  the  evidence  was 
rightly  received.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  case  of 
People  V.  Phillips  (1  Southwest  L.  J.,  90),  in  the  year 
1813,  the  Court  of  General  Sessions  in  New  York,  in  a 
decision  rendered  by  De  Witt  Clinton,  recognized  the 
privilege,  and  10  Dec,  1828  it  was  embodied  in  the 
law  of  the  State  of  New  York.  This  was  directly  ow- 
ing to  the  trial  of  Rev.  Anthony  Kohlmann,  S.J.,  who 
refused  to  reveal  in  court  information  received  under 
the  seal  of  confession.  (See  Kohlmann,  Anthony; 
and  Sampson,  "The  Catholic  Question  in  America", 
New  York,  1813,  appendix).  There  is  also  Smith's 
case  reported  in  the  "  New  York  City  Hall  Recorder  ", 
vol.  II,  p.  77,  which,  apparently,  was  decided  in  the  same 
way.  But  these  few  reported  cases,  as  to  the  first  of 
which  we  have  no  report  of  the  grounds  of  the  de- 
cision, and  the  two  latter  of  which  come  from  in- 
ferior courts,  are  hardly  of  sufficient  weight  to  help 
to  a  real  determination  of  the  question  one  way  or  the 
other.  If  the  question  had  ever  had  occasion  to  call 
for  the  considered  judgment  of  a  court  of  appeal,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  answer  to  it  at  common  law 
would  have  been  deduced  from  its  history  in  England. 

But  some  of  the  states  have  made  the  privilege  a 
matter  of  statute  law.  In  Arizona  (Revised  Stat- 
utes, 1910,  S.  2535,  par.  5)  a  clergyman  or  priest  can- 
not without  the  consent  of  the  po^rson  making  the  con- 
fession be  examined  as  to  any  confession  made  to  him 
in  his  professional  character  in  the  course  of  disci- 
pline enjoined  by  the  Church  to  which  he  belongs. 
The  same  provision  is  enacted  in  the  Penal  Code, 
S.  1111,  with  the  prelude  "There  are  particular  rela- 
tions in  which  it  is  the  policy  of  the  law  to  encourage 
confidence  and  to  preserve  it  inviolate". 

The  Territory  of  Alaska  (C.  C.  P.,  1900,  S.  1037) 
and  the  State  of  Oregon  (annot.  C.  C.  P.,  1892,  S. 
712,  par.  3)  have  provisions  almost  identically  the 
same  as  that  prevailing  in  Arizona  with  the  substitu- 
tion of  the  words  "shall  not"  for  "cannot".  The 
States  of  Colorado  (Annotated  Statutes,  1891,  S. 
4824),  California  (Code  of  Civil  Procedure,  1872,  S. 
1881,  par.  3),  Idaho  (Revised  Stat.,  1887,  S.  5958), 
Minnesota  (Gen.  Stat.,  1894,  S.  5662),  Montana 
(Code  of  Civil  Proc,  1895,  S.  3163  (3),  Nevada  (Gen. 
Stat.,  1885,  S.  3405),  Washington  (Code  and  Stat. 
1897,  S.  5994),  Utah  (Rev.  Stat.,  1898,  S.  3414), 
North  Dakota  (Rev.  Codes,  1895,  S.  5703  (3),  and 
South  Dakota  (Stat.,  1899,  S.  6544)  have  statutory 
provisions  similar  to  that  prevailing  in  Arizona. 

In  California  the  provision  was  amended  by  the 
Code  Commission,  1901,  by  the  addition  to  S.  1881  of 
the  words:  "Nor  as  to  any  information  obtained  by 
him  from  a  person  about  to  make  such  confession  and 
received  in  the  course  of  preparation  for  such  confes- 
sion". The  Commission  also  added  a  section  (1882) 
to  the  effect  that  when  a  person  who  has  made  such  a 
confession  testifies,  without  objection  on  his  part,  to 
it  or  to  any  part  of  it,  the  clergyman  to  whom  it  was 
made  may  be  examined  fully  as  to  it  in  the  same  ac- 
tion or  proceeding:  and  that  nothing  contained  in  S. 
1882  is  to  affect  the  right  of  the  court  to  admit  evi- 
dence of  such  confession  when  no  objc^ction  is  season- 
ably interposed  thereto,  or  when  the  court  finds  as  an 
inference  from  proper  evidence  that  the  consent  has 
been  expressly  or  impliedly  given.  But  all  the 
amendments  of  the  Commission  have  been  held  to  be 
void  on  fonnal  grounds  (Lewis  v.  Dunne,  134  Cal., 
291).     By  the  Statutes  of  the  State  of  Arkansas,  1894 


SEAL 


662 


SEAL 


CS.  2918) :  "No  minister  of  the  gospel  or  priest  of  any 
denomination  shall  be  compelled  to  testify  in  rela- 
tion to  any  confession  made  to  him  in  his  professional 
character,  in  the  course  of  discipline  enjoined  by  the 
rules  or  practice  of  such  denomination  ".  By  the  Re- 
vised Statutes  of  the  State  of  Indiana,  1897  (S.  507), 
certain  classes  of  persons  are  enumerated  who  are 
"not  to  be  competent  witnesses",  which  classes  in- 
clude "clergj-men  as  to  confessions  or  admissions 
made  to  them  in  course  of  discipline  enjoined  by  their 
respective  churches".  Similarly,  in  the  State  of  Mis- 
souri (Revised  Statutes,  1899,  S.  4659),  "a  minister  of 
the  gospel  or  priest  of  any  denomination,  concerning  a 
confession  made  to  him  in  his  professional  character, 
in  the  course  of  discipline  enjoined  by  the  rules  of 
practice  of  such  denomination,"  is  to  be  incompetent 
to  testify. 

The  States  of  Kansas  [General  Statutes,  1901,  S. 
4771  (5)],  and  Oklahoma  (Statutes,  1893,  S.  335) 
have  laws  by  which  "a  clergyman  or  priest,  concern- 
ing anj^  confession  made  to  him  in  his  professional 
character  in  the  course  of  discipline  enjoined  by  the 
church  to  which  he  belongs,  without  the  con.sent  of 
the  person  making  the  confession"  is  to  be  incompe- 
tent as  a  witness.  In  the  State  of  Iowa  it  is  enacted 
(Code,  1897,  S.  4608)  that  no  "minister  of  the  gospel 
or  priest  of  any  denomination  shall  be  allowed,  in  giv- 
ing testimony,  to  disclose  any  confidential  communi- 
cation properly  intrusted  to  him  in  his  professional 
capacity,  and  necessarj^  and  proper  to  enable  him  to 
discharge  the  functions  of  his  office  according  to  the 
usual  course  of  practice  or  discipline".  But  the  pro- 
hibition is  not  to  apply  to  cases  where  the  party  in 
whose  favour  it  is  made  waives  the  right.  The 
State  of  Nebraska  (Compiled  Statutes,  1899,  S.  S. 
5907  and  5908)  has  like  provisions.  It  has,  also, 
(S.  5902)  a  similar  enactment  to  that  in  force  in  Kan- 
sas, which  has  been  mentioned  above.  In  the  State 
of  Kentucky  it  is  enacted  (C.  C.  P.,  1895,  606  (5)  that 
a  clergyman  or  priest  shall  not  testify  to  any  confes- 
sion made  to  him  in  his  professional  character  in  the 
course  of  discipline  enjoined  by  the  Church  to  which 
he  belongs,  without  the  consent  of  the  person  confess- 
ing. In  Ohio  (Annotated  Revised  Statutes,  1898, 
S.  5241)  and  in  Wyoming  (Revised  Statutes,  1887,  S. 
2589)  there  are  almost  identical  enactments,  save  for 
the  final  qualification  as  to  consent,  which  is  omitted. 
North  Dakota  (Revi-sed  Codes,  1895,  S.  5704)  and 
South  Dakota  (Statutes  1899,  S.  6545)  have  provi- 
sions that  if  a  person  offers  himself  as  a  witness  that  is 
to  be  deemed  a  consent  to  the  examination  also  of  a 
clergyman  or  priest  on  the  same  subject  within  the 
meaning  of  the  enactment.  Colorado  (Annotated 
Statutes,  1891,  S.  4825)  and  Oklahoma  have  like  pro- 
visions as  to  implied  consent. 

In  the  State  of  Michigan  it  is  enacted  (Compiled 
Laws,  1897,  S.  10,180)  that  "  No  minister  of  the  gospel 
or  priest  of  any  denomination  whatsoever  shall  be  al- 
lowed to  disclose  any  confessions  made  to  him  in  his 
professional  character  in  the  course  of  discipline  en- 
joined by  the  rules  or  practice  of  such  denomination  ". 
In  the  State  of  New  York  it  is  enacted  (Code  of  Civil 
Procedure,  1877,  S.  833)  that  "a  clergyman  or  other 
minister  of  any  religion  shall  not  be  allowed  to  dis- 
closfi  a  confession  made  to  him  in  his  professional 
character  in  the  course  of  discipline  enjoined  by  the 
rules  or  practice  of  the  religious  body  to  which  he  be- 
longs". By  S.  836  the  protection  is  to  apply  unless 
the  person  who  has  confessed  expressly  waives  it  upon 
the  trial  or  examination.  In  the  State  of  Wisconsin 
(Statutes,  1898,  S.  4074)  there  is  an  enactment  like 
unto  S.  833  of  the  New  York  Code  of  Civil  Procedure 
with  the  addition  of  the  qualification  "without  con- 
sent thereto  by  the  party  confessing".  In  the  State 
of  Vermont  it  is  enacted  (Statutes,  1896,  no.  30)  that 
"no  priest  or  minister  of  the  gospel  shall  be  permitted 
to  testify  in  any  court  in  this  State  to  statements  made 


to  him  by  any  person  under  the  sanction  of  a  religious 
confessional".  In  Hawaii  it  is  enacted  (Civil  Law, 
1897.  S.  1418)  that  "no  clergj^man  of  any  church  or 
religious  denomination  shall,  without  the  consent  of 
the  person  making  the  confession,  divulge  in  any 
action,  suit  or  proceeding,  whether  civil  or  criminal, 
any  confession  made  to  him  in  his  professional  char- 
acter according  to  the  uses  of  the  church  or  religious 
denomination  to  which  he  belongs". 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  each  case,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Hawaii,  Iowa,  and  Vermont,  the  enactment 
contains  the  words  "discipline  enjoined",  while  of 
these  others,  Hawaii  has  the  words  "according  to  the 
uses  of  the  church  or  religious  denomination",  and 
Vermont  has  the  words  "under  the  sanction  of  a  re- 
ligious confessional ".  Iowa  appears  to  have  the  most 
widely-worded  provision  on  the  subject:  a  "confi- 
dential communication  to  a  clergyman  properly  en- 
trusted to  him  in  his  professional  capacity"  is  in- 
cluded in  the  same  sentence  with  confidential  commu- 
nications to  an  attorney,  counsellor,  or  doctor,  and  the 
only  other  qualification  put  upon  it  is  that  it  should 
be  "necessary  and  proper  to  enable  him  (the  clergy- 
man) to  discharge  the  functions  of  his  office  according 
to  the  usual  course  of  practice  or  discipline".  But 
the  statutes  would  not  cover  a  casual  communication 
made  to  a  clergyman  which  is  not  made  to  him  by 
reason  of  his  professional  capacity  (State  v.  Brown, 
1895,  95  Iowa,  381).  In  like  manner  it  was  held  in 
1835  in  the  State  of  New  York  that  a  communication 
made  to  a  clergyman  by  a  member  of  his  congregation, 
but  not  made  to  him  as  a  clergyman  or  in  the  course 
of  discipline,  was  not  within  the  privilege  (People  v. 
Gates  (1835),  13  Wend.,  311).  Similarly,  in  Indi- 
ana, it  has  been  held  that  where  the  evidence  given  by 
a  priest  does  not  concern  any  confession  made  to  him 
in  the  course  of  discipline,  enjoined  by  the  Church, 
the  evidence  is  admissible  (Gillooley  v.  State  (1877), 
56  Ind.,  182);  that  only  statements  made  to  clergy- 
men in  obedience  to  some  suppo.sed  religious  duty  are 
privileged  (Knight  v.  Lee,  80  Ind.,  201).  The  States 
of  Georgia,  Louisiana,  North  Carolina,  Pennsylvania, 
Tennessee,  and  Texas  have  statutes  protecting  com- 
munications made  to  attorneys  professionally.  From 
the  fact  of  such  communications  being  protected  by 
statute  while  these  passing  between  priest  and  peni- 
tent are  not  so  protected  it  does  not  necessarily  fol- 
low that  no  privilege  is  accorded  to  these  latter  com- 
munications, because  the  former  were  already  privi- 
leged at  common  law. 

France. — In  the  western  portion  of  the  Continent 
of  Europe  the  sacredness  of  the  seal  of  confession  re- 
ceived public  recognition  at  a  very  early  date. 
Among  the  Capitularies  of  Charlemagne  the  first  ca- 
pitulary of  the  year  813,  Article  XXVII,  is  as  follows: 
"that  inquiry  shall  be  made  whether  what  is  re- 
ported from  Austria  (de  partibus  Austria;)  is  true  or 
not,  viz.,  that  priests,  for  reward  received,  make 
known  thieves  from  their  confessions  (quod  presby- 
teri  de  confcssionibus  accepto  pretio  manifestent  la- 
trones)  ".  The  Austria  here  referred  to  is  the  eastern 
part  of  the  old  Western  Empire,  then  called  Austria. 
In  France  it  was  an  in(;ontestal)ly  established  i)rinci- 
ple  not  only  that  a  confessor  could  not  be  examined 
m  a  court  of  justice  as  to  matters  revealed  to  him  in 
confession,  but  that  admissions  made  in  confession,  if 
disclosed,  might  not  be  received  or  acted  upon  by  the 
court  and  would  not  be  evidence.  Merlin  and  Guyot, 
distinguished  writers  on  French  jurisprudence,  cite  a 
decree  of  the  Parliament  of  Normandy  deciding  the 
principle  and  laying  down  that  a  person  charged  upon 
the  evidence  of  a  confession  cannot  be  convicted  and 
must  be  discharged.  They  cite  decrees  of  other  Par- 
liaments laying  down  the  sacredness  of  the  seal  of  con- 
fession. Among  others,  they  cite  a  decree  of  the  Par- 
liament of  Paris  in  1580,  that  a  confessor  could  not  be 
compelled  to  disclose  the  accomplices  of  a  certain 


SEAL 


663 


SEAL 


criminal,  whose  names  the  criminal  had  confessed  to 
hini  when  going  to  the  scaffold.  These  decrees  were 
judicial.  From  the  able  and  comprehensive  argu- 
ment of  the  appellant's  counsel  in  the  Quebec  case  of 
Gill  V.  Bouchard,  which  has  been  mentioned  above, 
much  valuable  information  on  the  French  law  upon 
the  subject  is  to  be  obtained.  In  that  argument  there 
is  cited  a  decree  by  the  Parhament  of  Flanders  in  1776 
declaring  that  the  evidence  of  a  witness  who  repeated 
a  confession  which  he  had  overheard  was  not  admis- 
sible, and  reversing  the  judgment  which  had  been 
passed  on  the  admission  of  .such  evidence. 

Muteau,  another  distinguished  French  jurist, 
speaks  in  clear  and  emphatic  terms  of  the  sacredness 
of  the  seal,  citing,  also,  various  instances  in  proof. 
He  tells  us  in  a  foot-note  of  a  certain  Marquise  de 
Brinvilliers,  among  whose  papers,  after  she  had  been 
arrested,  was  found  a  general  confession  (apparently 
made  in  pursuance  of  religious  discipline)  accusing 
herself  of  an  attempt  to  murder  various  members  of 
her  family.  The  court  trying  her,  he  says,  ab.so- 
lutely  ignored  this  confession.  Muteau  gives  us  a 
quotation  from  ffirodius  in  Pandect  f.  73,  in  which 
(Erodius  says:  "He  who  has  confessed  to  a  priest  is 
not  held  to  have  confessed  ".  In  Bonino's  case,  which 
is  (;ited  in  the  cour.se  of  the  appellant's  argument  in 
Gill  V.  Bouchard  as  having  been  decided  by  the  Court 
of  Ca.ssation  of  Turin  (at  that  time  i)art  of  the  French 
Empire)  in  February,  1810,  and  as  being  reported  in 
the  "Journal  du  Palais  periodique",  VIII,  667,  the 
court  is  reported  to  have  decided  that  an  open  avowal 
made  by  a  penitent  in  consequence  of  his  being  coun- 
selled in  confession  to  make  such  avowal  ought  not  to 
be  received  in  evidence  against  him. 

Merlin  and  Muteau  tell  us  that  formerly  the  breach 
of  the  seal  by  a  priest  was  puni.shable  with  death. 
Guyot  says  that  canonists  are  not  agreed  as  to  whether 
the  breach  is  an  offence  cognizable  by  the  civil 
courts  (si  c'est  un  delit  commun  ou  un  cas  royal),  but 
that  several  canonists  maintain  that  the  civil  judges 
ought  to  have  cognizance  of  it.  This  appears  to  be 
his  own  view  because  the  breach  is  a  grave  crime 
against  religion  and  society,  a  public  scandal,  and  a 
sacrilege.  He  cites,  however,  a  decree  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Toulouse  of  16  Feb.,  1679,  deciding  that  the 
cognizance  of  the  offence  belonged  to  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal judge. 

All  these  three  writers  except  from  the  general  in- 
violability of  the  seal  the  single  case  of  high  treason, 
that  is,  an  offence  against  the  person  of  the  king  or 
against  the  safety  of  the  State.  Merlin  and  Guyot, 
appear  to  base  their  authority  for  this  exception  on  a 
statement  by  Laurent  Bouchel,  a  distinguished  French 
advocate  (1559-1629).  He  practised  before  the 
French  Parliament;  he  was  also  an  expert  in  canon 
law  and  he  wrote  a  work  on  the  Decrees  of  the  Galil- 
ean Church.  They  cite  Bouchel  as  stating  that  "on 
account  of  the  gravity  and  importance  of  the  crime  of 
high  treason  the  confessor  is  excused  if  he  reveals  it; 
that  he  (Bouchel)  does  not  know  if  one  ought  to  go 
further  and  say  that  the  i)riest  who  may  have  kept 
such  a  matter  secret  and  not  have  denounced  it  to  the 
magistrate  would  be  guilty  and  would  be  an  accom- 
plice; that  one  cannot  doubt  that  a  person  who  is  in- 
formed of  a  conspiracy  against  the  person  and  estate 
of  the  prince  would  be  excommunicated  and  anathem- 
atized if  he  did  not  denounce  it  to  the  magistrate  to 
have  it  punished  " .  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  this  state- 
ment by  Bouchel,  as  cited  by  Merlin  and  Guyot,  does 
not  mention  any  decree  or  decision  or  any  other  au- 
thority supporting  it.  Muteau,  in  excepting  high 
treason,  appears  to  base  the  exception  mainly  uj)on  a 
decree  of  Louis  XI,  of  22  December,  1477,  enjoining 
"upon  all  persons  whatsoever"  to  denounce  certain 
crimes  against  the  safety  of  the  State  and  the  person 
of  the  king  which  might  come  to  their  knowledge. 
He  says  that  the  theologians  have  invariably  main- 


tained that  confessors  were  not  included  among  per- 
sons bound  to  reveal  high  treason.  Muteau  points 
out,  also,  that  the  Inquisition  itself  uniformly  laid 
down  that  "never,  in  no  interest,"  should  the  seal  of 
confession  be  violated. 

Dalloz  (aine)  in  his  learned  and  comprehensive 
work  on  jurisprudence,  in  which  the  whole  of  French 
law  is  compiled  and  commented  on  under  the  numer- 
ous subjects  affected  by  it,  says  that  as  the  laws  of 
France  (his  work  was  published  in  1853,  when  he 
was  an  advocate  practising  at  the  imperial  Court  of 
Paris)  protect  the  rules  of  ecclesiastical  discipline, 
they  could  not  exact  from  the  clergyman,  in  breach  of 
these  rules,  the  disclosure  of  secrets  revealed  to  him 
m  the  exercise  of  his  ministry.  Citing  the  canon  of 
the  Council  of  Lateran  enjoining  the  secrecy  of  the  seal, 
which,  he  tells  us,  only  reproduces  an  older  rule  going 
back  to  the  year  600,  he  observes  that  the  inviolability 
declared  by  it  is  absolute  and  without  distmction. 

The  decision  of  the  Court  of  Cassation  in  Laveine's 
case  (30  Nov.,  1810,  Receuil  general  desloisetdes  arrets, 
XI,  i,  49)  aiTords  support,  not  by  the  actual  decision, 
but  by  certain  words  u.sed  in  it,  to  the  contention  for 
the  exception  of  high  treason,  while  the  actual  decision 
is  commonly  cited  as  one  of  the  leading  judicial  author- 
ities for  the  general  principle  of  the  immunity  of  the  con- 
fessor. It  was  a  case  in  which  restitution  had  been 
made  by  a  thief  through  a  priest  outside  confession, 
the  thief,  however,  stating  at  the  time  that  he  re- 
garded the  conversation  as  being  to  his  confessor  and 
as  made  under  the  seal  of  confession,  to  which  the 
priest  assented.  The  court  of  first  instance  held  that 
only  a  communication  received  in  sacramental  con- 
fession would  be  privileged  and  that,  therefore,  the 
priest  was  bound  in  this  case  to  di-sclose  the  name  of 
the  thief.  The  Court  of  Cassation  reversed  this  de- 
cision. Its  judgment  commences  with  a  reference  to 
the  existence  of  the  Concordat  and  to  the  result  that 
the  Catholic  religion  is  placed  uniler  the  protection  of 
the  State,  and  it  go(;s  on  to  say  that,  a  confessor  may 
not  be  ordered  to  disclose  secret  communications  made 
to  him  in  the  exercise  of  his  calling,  "excepting  those 
cases  which  appertain  directly  to  the  safety  of  the 
State"  (hors  les  cas  qui  tiennent  immcdiatement  k  la 
sdretd  de  I'etat).  Commenting  on  these  words,  Dalloz 
(aine)  says  that  the  jurist,  Legraverend,  admits  the 
exception.  Dalloz  appears  not  to  agree  with  it. 
"The  oath,"  he  says,  "prescribed  by  the  Concordat 
and  the  Organic  Articles  is  no  longer  used :  even  if  it 
were,  the  obligation  which  would  result  from  it  to  dis- 
close to  the  Government  what  was  being  plotted  to  its 
prejudice  in  the  diocese  or  elsewhere  could  not  apply 
to  confession.  The  duty  of  informing  having  been, 
moreover,  struck  out  from  our  laws,  at  the  time  of  the 
revision  of  the  penal  code  in  1832,  it  could  not  subsist 
in  such  a  case." 

By  Art.  378  of  the  French  Penal  Code  "doctors, 
surgeons,  and  other  officers  of  health  as  well  as  apothe- 
caries, mid-wives,  and  all  other  persons  who,  by  their 
status  (etat.)  or  profession  are  the  depositaries  of  se- 
crets confided  to  them,  revealing  such  secrets,  except  in 
cases  in  which  the  law  obliges  them  to  inform  (hors  les 
cas  oh  la  loi  les  oblige  a  se  porter  denonciateurs)  shall 
be  punished  with  imprisonment  from  one  to  six  months, 
and  with  a  fine  of  from  100  to  500  francs."  The  ex- 
ception, mentioned  in  the  article,  of  persons  obliged 
by  law  to  be  informers,  as  pointed  out  by  M.  Dalloz, 
has  become  obsolete  owing  to  the  fact  that  Articles 
103-107,  which  dealt  with  the  obligation  of  inform- 
ing, were  repealed  by  the  law  of  28  April,  1832.  Dr. 
H.  F.  Riviere,  counsellor  to  the  Court  of  Cassation,  in 
his  edition  of  the  French  Corles  (Code  Penal,  p.  t)8) 
has  a  note  to  that  effect .  M.  Armand  Dalloz,  the  .son 
and  collaborator  of  the  author  of  the  "Jurisprudence 
g6nerale,  "  .says  in  another  work :  "  Supposing  that  one 
may  admit  a  derogation  from  this  principle  in  favour 
of  the  interests  of  the  State  compromised  by  some 


SEAL 


664 


SEAL 


plot,  which  is,  at  least,  very  debatable,  one  must, 
nevertheless,  maintain  in  private  cases  the  obligation 
of  secrecy  in  its  integrity".  The  same  writer  says 
that  the  exception  of  the  confessor  is  deduced  from 
the  principle  of  Art.  37S  of  the  Penal  Code,  from  the 
needs  of  the  soul  and,  above  all,  from  the  laws  which 
have  recognized  the  Catholic  religion.  "And  it 
would  be  repugnant,  "  he  continues,  "that  one  could, 
in  any  case  at  all,  force  the  religious  conscience  of  the 
confessor  in  constraining  him  to  break,  in  defiance  of 
one  of  the  most  imperious  duties  of  his  office,  the  seal 
of  confession." 

In  Fay's  case  [  (Dec.  4,  1S91),  Receuil  general  des 
lois  et  des  arrets,  1S92,  I,  473]  the  Court  of  Cassation 
held  that  the  ministers  of  religions  legally  recognized 
are  obliged  to  keep  secret  communications  made  to 
them  by  reason  of  their  functions;  and  that  with  re- 
gard to  priests  no  distinction  is  made  as  to  whether 
the  secret  is  made  known  in  confession  or  outside  it, 
and  the  obligation  of  secrecy  is  absolute  and  is  a  mat- 
ter of  public  policy:  C.  Penal  378.  The  anno ta tor  of 
the  report  begins  his  notes  by  saying  that  it  is  an  uni- 
versally admitted  point  that  the  exemption  from  giv- 
ing evidence  is  necessarily  extended  to  priests  with  re- 
gard to  the  matters  confided  to  them  in  confession. 
He  cites,  among  other  cases,  one  of  the  Court  of  Cas- 
sation in  Belgium  declaring  that  there  has  never  been 
any  doubt  that  priests  are  not  bound  to  disclose  con- 
fessions in  the  witness-box.  The  Concordat  between 
France  and  the  Holy  See  having  been  broken,  and, 
consequenth',  the  Catholic  religion  being  no  longer 
established  in  France  under  the  auspices  of  the  State, 
part  of  the  grounds  adduced  for  some  of  the  decisions 
cited  above  cease  to  hold  good.  But  Art.  378  of  the 
Penal  Code  endures,  and,  as  shown,  there  is  no  longer 
any  statutory  obligation  upon  the  classes  of  persons 
enumerated  in  it  to  give  information  of  crime  of  any 
nature.  Consequently,  in  virtue  of  that  article,  con- 
fessors are  not  only  absolutely  exempt  from  any  obli- 
gation ever  to  di.sclo.se  a  confession,  but  they  are  under 
a  statutory  obligation  never  to  do  so. 

Sp.\ix. — In  Spain,  from  an  indirect  report  given  by 
Muteau,  we  get  stern  proof,  at  a  comparatively  early 
period,  of  the  abhorrence  in  which  a  breach  of  the  seal 
of  confession  was  held.  According  to  Muteau,  Ra- 
viot,  in  his  "Observations  sur  le  receuil  des  arrets  de 
Perrier",  cites  a  Spanish  writer  as  stating  that  under 
James  I  of  Aragon,  who  reigned  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, if  a  priest  were  convicted  of  a  breach  of  the  seal 
of  confession,  his  tongue  was  cut  out.  The  same  un- 
named author  .says,  we  are  told,  that  priests  con- 
victed of  the  offence  have  been  handed  over  by  popes 
to  the  civil  power  to  receive  the  punishment  of  death. 
In  a  country  in  which  there  are  still  to-day  so  many 
laws  for  maintaining  respect  for  the  Catholic  religion, 
it  is  clear  that  the  law  would  not  demand  that  priests 
should  be  required  to  reveal  in  the  witness-box  what 
had  been  said  to  them  in  sacramental  confession. 

Italy. — Farinaccius,  a  famous  sixteenth-century 
Italian  writer  on  jurisprudence,  perhaps  the  most 
gifted  and  able  lawyer  of  his  day,  and  almost  univer- 
sally folioweil  (his  "Praxis  criminalis"  being  for  two 
centuries  the  standard  for  the  great  majority  of  crim- 
inal juri.s<]ictions  in  Western  Continental  Europe) 
expres.sly  denies  that  cases  of  high  tresison  form  any 
exception  to  the  general  and  uniform  rule  of  the  invio- 
lability of  the  seal  of  confession.  He  states  (Quaest. 
51:  nn.  99,  100  and  101)  as  follows:  "Sacerdos  non 
potest  delicta  commissa  per  confitentem  revelare 
etiam  quod  sint  atrocissima  ac  etiam  quod  continen- 
tur  sub  crimine  lajsa;  majestatis,  imo  nee  etiam  ad  id 
cogipotiwtde  mandato  papae",  i.e.,  " a  priest  may  not 
reveal  the  offences  committed  by  the  person  confess- 
ing, even  though  they  be  of  the  most  atrocious,  and 
even  though  they  come  under  the  crime  of  high 
treasfjn:  and,  what  is  more,  he  cannot  even  be  com- 
pelled thereto  by  order  of  the  pope".    In  modern  Italy, 


by  the  Code  of  Civil  Procedure,  Art.  288,  doctors,  sur- 
geons, etc.,  and  every  other  person  to  whom  by  reason 
of  his  state,  profession,  or  office  a  secret  has  been  con- 
fided, may  not  be  obliged  to  give  evidence  of  such 
secret  under  pain  of  nullity  (i.  e.,  of  his  evidence), 
save  in  the  cases  in  which  the  law  expressly  obliges 
them  to  give  information  of  any  matter  to  the  public 
authority.  There  appears  to  be  no  such  express  obli- 
gation upon  priests  in  the  law. 

German  Empire. — By  the  Code  of  Civil  Procedure 
for  the  German  Empire  of  30  Jan.,  1877,  book  II, 
pirt  I,  title  7,  par.  348,  certain  classes  of  persons  are 
entitled  to  refuse  to  give  evidence.  The  fourth  class 
consists  of  "clergymen  in  respect  of  matters  which 
have  been  confided  to  them  in  their  exercise  of  the  care 
of  souls".  It  was  held  by  a  decision  of  the  Imperial 
Court  of  8  June,  1883,  that  if  a  clergyman  should  have 
communicated  to  a  third  person  any  matter  so  con- 
fided to  him  he  would  not  be  exempt  from  giving  evi- 
dence of  the  communication  to  the  third  person. 
Dr.  von  Wilmowski  and  Justizrath  Levy  in  their  edi- 
tion of  the  German  Imperial  Code  of  Civil  Procedure 
have  a  comment  expressing  doubt  as  to  the  correct- 
ness of  this  decision.  Paragraph  350  enacts  that 
clergymen  may  not  refuse  to  give  evidence  when  they 
are  released  from  the  obligation  of  secrecy.  Dr.  von 
Wilmowski  and  Levy  comment  as  follows  upon  this 
l^aragraph:  "Whether  clergymen  are  effectually  re- 
leased through  the  consent  of  the  confident  or  through 
permission  of  their  superiors  is  to  be  decided  according 
to  the  religious  conceptions  {Religionsbegriffe)  of  the  de- 
nomination to  which  the  clergyman  belongs.  By 
Catholic  ecclesiastical  law  a  release  from  the  obliga- 
tion to  keep  secret  anything  communicated  under  the 
seal  of  confession  is  entirely  excluded  (c.  12,  X,  de 
poenit.  5,  38)" 

Austria. — In  Austria  by  the  Code  of  Criminal  Pro- 
cedure {Straf-process-Ordnung)  of  23  May,  1873,  par. 
151,  certain  classes  of  pensons  may  not  be  examined 
as  witnesses  and  if  they  should  be  so  examined  their 
evidence  shall  be  null  and  void  (bet  sonstiger  Nichtig- 
keil  ihrer  Aussage).  The  first  class  consists  of  clergy- 
men in  respect  of  what  has  been  confided  to  them  in 
confession  or  otherwise  under  the  seal  of  clerical  pro- 
fessional secrecy. 

Egypt. — In  Egypt  there  is  in  the  Penal  Code 
(Art.  274)  a  provision  to  the  same  effect  as  that  of 
Art.  378  of  the  French  Penal  Code. 

Mexico. — By  the  Penal  Code  of  Mexico,  promul- 
gated 20  December,  1891,  Art.  768,  confessors,  doc- 
tors, surgeons  etc.  are  not  to  be  compelled  by  the 
authorities  to  reveal  secrets  which  have  been  confided 
to  them  by  reason  of  their  state  or  in  the  exercise  of 
their  profession,  nor  are  they  to  be  compelled  to  give 
notice  of  offences  of  which  they  have  become  cog- 
nizant in  this  way. 

Brazil. — By  the  Penal  Code  of  the  United  States 
of  Brazil,  Art.  192,  it  is  a  penal  offence  to  reveal  any 
person  or  secret  of  whom  or  which  notice  or  cognizance 
is  had  by  reason  of  office,  employment,  or  profession 
(see  Confession  ;  Secret)  . 

Mascakdus,  De  probationibus  (Frankfort,  1703);  Wilkins, 
Concilia  MaoncE  Britanniae  et  Ilibernice,  I  (London,  1737),  577, 
59.5;  Spelman,  Conct7ta,  II  (London,  1664),  357;  Lyndwood,  Pro- 
vincirUe  (hcu  ConstitutioneH  Anglicr)  cui  adjiciuntur  Constitutionei 
legatintB  D.  Othonis  et  D.  Olhobonis,  cum  annolationibux  Johannit 
de  Athona  (Oxford.  1679);  Statutes  of  the  Realm  (London,  1810); 
StatuleK  at  Large,  od.  Pickering  (CambridRe,  1762);  Holinshed, 
Chronirles  (London,  15H7);  Stow,  Chronicle  of  England  (London, 
1631  2);  The  Two  Books  of  the  Ifomilies,  ed.  Griffiths  (Oxford, 
1859);  GiBBOs.  Codex  juris  eccl.  anglic.  {Oxford,  1761);  Atliffe, 
Comment,  by  Way  of  Suppl.  to  the  Canons  and  Constitutions  of  the 
Church  of  England  (London,  1726);  Hi.ackhtone,  Comment,  on 
the  Laws  of  England,  111  C2]Hte(i.,ljOTuion,  \H44),  xxiii;  Peake, 
Imw  of  Evidence  (5th  ed.,  London,  1822),  175;  Cokbett,  Com- 
plete Colled,  of  the  Slate  Trials.  II  (London,  1809);  Bentham, 
Rationale  of  Judicial  Evidence,  ed.  .Mill,  IV  (London,  1827),  586; 
Carijwell,  Documentary  Annals  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  Eng- 
land (Oxford,  1854);  Badelet,  Prvilege  of  Religious  Confessions 
in  English  Courts  of  Justice  (London,  1865);  Phillimore,  Ec- 
rle^iaslicnl  Law  of  the  Church  of  England,  I  (2nd  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1895),  vi;  Pollock  and  Maitland,  Hist,  of  English  Law  be- 


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665 


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fore  the  time  of  Edward  I  (Cambridge,  1895);  Maitland,  Roman 
Canon  Law  in  the  Church  of  England  (London,  1898);  Hopwood, 
Law  of  Confession  in  Criminal  Cases  (London,  1871);  Wheat- 
ley,  Rational  Illustration  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
(Oxford,  1846);  Maitland,  Pleas  of  the  Crown  for  the  County  of 
Gloucester  for  the  year  1221  (London,  1884);  MacNally,  Rules 
of  Evidence  on  Pleas  of  the  Crown  (Dublin,  1802) ;  Taylor,  Law  of 
Evidence,  ed.  Hume-William8,  I  (10th  ed.,  London,  1906),  647-9; 
Best,  Law  of  Evidence,  ed.  Lely  (London,  1906);  Alison,  Pract. 
of  the  Crim.  Law  of  Scotland,  II  (Edinburgh,  1833),  586;  Tait,  Law 
of  Evidence  in  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1827) ;  Hume,  Comment,  on 
the  Law  of  Scotland  respecting  Crimes,  II  (3rd  ed.,  Edinburgh, 
1829),  xii,  335;  Wiomore,  System  of  Evidence  in  Trials  at  Common 
Law,  IV  (Boston,  1905),  Ixxxiv;  Greenleaf,  Law  of  Evidence, 
ed.  Crosswell,  I  (15th  ed.,  Boston,  1892),  xiii;  Corpus  juris  ger- 
manici  ant.  (Magdeburg,  1738);  Guyot,  Repertoire  unioersel  et 
raisonne dejurisprud.  civ.  crim.  canon,  et  benefic,  IV  (new  ed.,  Paris, 
1784).  420;  Merlin.  Repert.  univ.  et  raisonne  dejurisprud. ,\  (5th 
ed.,  Brussels,  1825),  406;  Dalloz,  Jurisprud.  generale,  XIV 
(Paris,  1853),  754;  RivifeRE,  HifiuE,  and  Pont,  Codes  frangais  et 
lois  usuelles  (16th  ed.,  Paris,  1888);  Von  Wil.mowski  and  Levy, 
Civilprozessordnung  und  Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz  fur  das  Deutsche 
Reich  nehst  den  Einfuhrungsgesetzen,  1  (7th  ed.,  Berlin,  1895); 
Nash,  Life  of  Lord  Westbury,  II  (London,  1888);  Lilly  and 
Wallis,  The  Law  Specially  affecting  Catholics  (London,  1893). 

R.  S.  Nolan. 


Seattle,  Diocese  of  (Seattlensis),  comprises 
the  entire  State  of  Washington,  U.  S.  A.,  and  em- 
braces an  area  of  66,680  sq.  miles  with  over  a  million 
inhabitants.  The  diocese  was  originally  created  on 
24  July,  1846,  by  Pius  IX  as  the  See  of  Walla  Walla, 
but  on  31  May,  18.50,  the  name  was  changed  to  that 
of  the  Diocese  of  Nesqually,  with  Vancouver,  Wash- 
ington, as  the  episcopal  city.  Owing  to  important 
considerations,  the  title  was  again  changed,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1907,  to  that  of  the  Diocese  of  Seattle,  with 
the  new  cathedral  and  residence  of  the  bishop  in  the 
city  of  the  same  name  on  Puget  Sound. 

One  hundred  years  ago  the  State  of  Washington 
formed  a  portion  of  that  great  terra  incognita  called 
the  "Oregon  Country",  whose  rugged  and  romantic 
wilderness  is  described  by  the  Jesuit  missionary. 
Father  De  Smet,  in  his  account  of  the  Oregon 
missions.  The  introduction  of  the  Catholic  Faith 
into  the  States  of  Washington  and  Oregon  is  somewhat 
remarkable.  It  was  not  primarily  brought  about,  as 
in  so  many  instances,  by  priests  of  religious  orders, 
but  by  secular  priests  who  came  at  the  earnest  .solici- 
tations of  Catholic  laymen.  Simon  Plamondon  of 
Cowlitz,  Washington,  initiated  a  petition  for  prie.stp 
in  1833,  and  renewed  it  in  the  year  1835.  Hence, 
the  State  of  Washington  may  lay  claim  to  being 
the  cradle  of  Catholicism  in  the  North-west.  The 
Hudson  Bay  Company  for  many  years  carried  on 
an  extensive  fur  trade  in  the  North-west  territory, 
which  extended  as  far  south  as  the  Columbia  River. 
Its  employees  were  a  heterogeneous  aggregation; 
and  hence,  though  an  English  corporation  with  head- 
quarters in  London,  it  numbered  among  them  many 
P'rench  Canadians.  These  hardy  trai)pers  and  hun- 
ters, far  from  all  civilization  and  with  little  hope  of 
ever  returning  to  their  homes,  took  Indian  women 
as  wives  and  established  families  in  the  Walla- 
mette  and  Cowlitz  valleys  on  land  granted  to  them 
by  the  company.  These  retired  hunters,  advancing  in 
years,  longed  for  the  ministrations  of  the  rehgion  of 
their  youth.  The  fatherly  chief  factor,  Dr.  John 
McLoughhn,  who  presided  at  Fort  Vancouver  (estab- 
Ushed  in  1828),  tried  to  maintain  a  rehgious  spirit 
among  his  men,  as  much  from  policy  as  to  satisfy 
their  desires,  by  gathering  them  on  Sundays  for  reli- 
gious services;  but  he  clearly  saw,  though  himself  a 
Protestant  at  that  time,  that  his  ministrations  did 
not  satisfy  the  Catholics.  Protestant  missionaries 
arrived  from  the  United  States.  McLoughlin  wel- 
comed them  in  the  midst  of  his  mixed  class  of  settlers, 
hoping  that  now  the  religious  problem  was  solved. 
He  .soon  became  aware  that  a  denominational  brand 
of  Christianity  was  distasteful  to  the  French  Cana- 
dians. On  their  behalf,  therefore,  he  sent,  in  1834  and 
1835,  two  earnest  appeals  for  priests  to  the  nearest 
Catholic  bishop,  Right  Rev.  J.  N.  Provencher  of  Red 


River,  Canada,  and  through  him  to  Archbishop  J. 
Signay  of  Quebec.  Their  replies  were  most  discour- 
aging; they  had  no  priests  to  send  to  so  distant  a 
field.  The  Hudson  Bay  Company,  moreover,  in- 
formed of  the  appeal,  refused  transportation  for  any 
Cathohc  missionaries  to  their  territory.  McLoughlin, 
however,  was  not  so  easily  conquered,  and  his  services 
to  the  company  were  too  important  to  be  disregarded. 
Finally  the  Home  Office  relented,  and  in  1837  Fathers 
F.  N.  Blanchet  and  M.  Demers  of  the  Archdiocese  of' 
Quebec  were  allowed  to  accompany  the  annual  con- 
voy to  the  North-west. 

The  two  missionaries  arrived  at  Vancouver,  Wash- 
ington, on  24  Nov.,  1838.  Their  reception  was  an 
ovation  for  the  Cathohc  Faith.  Tears  were  shed  when 
the  Holy  Sacrifice  was  offered  for  the  first  time. 
When  the  few  days  of  mutual  joy  had  passed  the 


The  Catiikdu 


priests  would  wilhngly  have  proceeded  to  the  south 
side  of  the  Columbia,  where  twenty-six  famihes 
claimed  their  services,  but  the  orders  of  theu-  eccle- 
siastical superiors  disposed  otherwise,  and  they  per- 
manently located  north  of  the  Columbia  River.  The 
Hudson  Bay  Company  maintained  no  less  than 
twenty-eight  established  posts  in  the  territory  north 
of  the  Columbia  River,  which  was  inhabited  by  about 
100,000  Indians.  At  Cowlitz,  therefore,  with  its  four 
Catholic  families.  Father  Blanchet  opened  his  first 
mission,  which  can  rightfully  claim  to  be  the  parent 
church  of  the  North-west.  Here  he  erected  in  1839  a 
log  building,  twenty  by  thirty  feet  in  size,  which  he 
dedicated  to  St.  Francis  Xavier,  and  which  served  as 
his  chapel  and  residence.  During  the  erection  of  this 
building  an  unexpected  difficulty  presented  itself.  A 
delegation  of  Nesqually  Indians  wished  to  see  the 
"real  Blackrobe"  and  to  be  instructed  by  him.  Being 
ignorant  of  their  language  and  at  a  loss  to  make  him- 
self understood,  he  thought  of  a  novel  contrivance  to 
instruct  them.  He  made  a  long  flat  stick  or  ladder 
with  forty  short  parallel  lines  on  it  to  represent  the 
four  thousand  years  before  Christ;  these  were  fol- 
lowed by  thirty-three  points  and  three  crosses  to  show 
the  years  of  Christ's  life  and  the  manner  of  His  death. 
A  church  and  twelve  perpendicular  marks  denoted  the 
beginning  of  the  Catholic  Church  at  the  death  of 
Christ  through  the  Apostles;    eighteen  further  liori- 


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666 


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zontal  marks  and  thirty-nine  points  showed  the  time 
elapsed  since  the  death  of  the  Saviour.  The  lesson 
proved  successful.  The  Indians  took  home  copies  of 
the  stick,  which  they  called  the  Sa-cha-lee-stick,  and 
which  is  known  as  the  "CathoUc  ladder".  On  the 
completion  of  his  architectural  labours,  Father 
Blanchet  made  several  short  visits  to  the  Wallamette 
Valley  settlers. 

Meanwhile  Father  Demers  followed  the  route  of 
the  hunters  and  trappers,  and  visited  the  Indian 
settlements  in  the  interior.  He  was  welcomed 
ever>-where  by  both  whites  and  natives.  During  the 
following  four  j'ears  the  two  missionaries  met  but 
rarely — twice  a  year  in  Vancouver  to  console  and 
encourage  each  other.  The  only  change  made  in 
their  lives  during  this  period  came  when  Chief  Fac- 
tor Douglas  notified  them  (October,  1839)  that  his 
company  had  no  longer  any  reason  for  preventing 
their  estabUshing  themselves  south  of  the  Columbia. 
In  consequence  of  this  notification,  Father  Blanchet 
took  up  his  residence  at  St.  Paul,  Oregon,  while 
Father  Demers  was  left  at  the  Cowlitz  mission.  From 
this  moment  he  was  in  charge  almost  exclusively  of 
the  whole  present  State  of  Washington,  although 
Father  Blanchet  made  a  few  journeys  to  the  Nes- 
qually  Indians,  and  even  planted  the  cross  on  WTiit- 
by  Island,  where  he  said  Mass  in  1S40.  Manuel  Ber- 
nier  of  Newaukum  Prairie  accompanied  Father 
Blanchet  from  CowUtz  to  the  Nesqually  Prairie  and 
to  \\'hitby  Island,  where  they  built  the  first  church 
on  Puget'  Sound.  The  Oblate  Fathers  also  estab- 
lished missions  for  the  Indians  and  whites  on  Puget 
Sound.  The  semi-annual  meeting  in  1842  was  of 
special  importance  for  the  Oregon  missions.  Father 
De  Smet,  who  had  come  from  the  Rocky  Mountains 
missions  to  Vancouver  in  quest  of  supplies,  was  pres- 
ent, and,  as  a  result  of  the  conference,  he  set  out  for 
Europe  to  obtain  help  and  to  expose  their  needs  to 
the  sovereign  pontiff.  Archbishop  Signay  was  like- 
wise interested  in  their  work;  he  had  not  only  sent  an 
appeal  to  Rome,  but,  as  soon  as  available,  despatched 
to  their  assistance  Fathers  A.  Langlois  and  J.  B. 
Bolduc.  These  priests  arrived  at  Vancouver  on  17 
Sept.,  1843.  The  former  took  charge  of  Walla  Walla. 
Father  Demers  retired  to  the  newly-founded  Oregon 
City.  Father  De  Smet  returned  in  August,  1844,  ac- 
companied by  four  Jesuit  Fathers  and  six  Sisters  of 
Not  re-Dame  de  Namur;  and  almost  simultaneously, 
on  4  Nov.,  1844,  at  St.  Paul,  letters  arrived,  contain- 
ing the  news  that  the  territory  had  been  created  a  vi- 
cariate, with  Father  F.  N.  Blanchet  as  vicar  Apos- 
tohc.  The  briefs  appointing  Father  Blanchet  as 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Oregon  were  received  at  Vancouver 
on  4  Nov.,  1844.  He  was  named  bishop  with  the  titu- 
lar See  of  Philadelphia,  which,  on  some  representation 
to  Rome,  was  changed  to  that  of  Drusa,  after  his  con- 
secration at  Montreal,  on  25  July,  1845.  Bishop 
Blanchet  sailed  for  Europe  to  lay  the  news  of  his  ex- 
tensi\'e  vicariate  before  the  Holy  See,  and  Father  De- 
mers was  appointed  vicar-general  and  administrator 
of  the  vicariate  during  his  absence.  In  the  autumn 
of  1847  Bishop  Blanchet  returned  to  the  Oregon  coast, 
accompanied  by  five  secular  priests,  two  deacons,  one 
novice,  three  Jesuit  Fathers,  three  lay  brothers,  and 
seven  Sisters  of  Notre-Dame  de  Namur.  Meanwhile 
Rome  had  transformed  his  vicariate  into  an  ecclesi- 
astical province,  and  on  his  return  he  found  himself 
the  first  Archbishop  of  Oregon  City  which  comprised 
all  the  territory  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains.  His 
suffragans  were  to  be  his  own  brother,  Magloire,  as 
bi.shop  of  the  newly-created  Diocese  of  Walla  Walla, 
which  extended  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  and 
his  vicar-general  Father  Demers  as  Bishop  of  the  new 
Diocese  of  Vancouver  Island. 

A  unique  historical  feature  characterized  the  erec- 
tion of  the  ecclesia-stical  Province  of  Oregon.  The 
three  constituting  dioceses  were  created  rather  simul- 


taneously than  successively ;  they  were  the  result  of 
a  wise  division  of  a  large  field  of  labour  rather  than 
the  dismemberment  of  a  constituted  and  governed 
see.  Vicar  Apostolic  F.  N.  Blanchet,  while  retuining 
from  Rome,  was  suddenly  raised  to  the  archiejiiscopal 
dignity,  and  his  brother,  A.  M.  A.  Blanchet,  seem- 
ingly without  the  archbishop's  knowledge,  was  nom- 
inated and  consecrated  his  suffragan  before  the 
former  had  actually  taken  charge  of  his  archdiocese. 

Bishop  A.  M.  A.  Blanchet  (consecrated  27  Sept., 
1846;  d.  25  Feb.,  1887),  was  formerly  a  canon  of  the 
Montreal  cathedral.  Accompanied  by  Father  A.  B. 
Brouillet  and  two  students  from  Montreal,  and  Fa- 
ther Rosseau  with  five  Oblate  Fathers  from  St.  Louis, 
the  new  bishop  an•i^•ed  at  Fort  ^^\alla  Walla,  on  5 
Sept.,  1847.  Aided  by  his  experienced  brother,  he 
soon  acquainted  himself  with  the  new  conditions  and 
the  great  task  before  him,  and  during  his  long  apos- 
tolic career  he  showed  himself  at  all  times  a  man  of 
great  seK-sacrifice  and  wisdom  under  the  most  trying 
circumstances.  His  tact  was  especially  tested  when 
the  deplorable  massacre  of  Dr.  M.  \Miitman  and  his 
family  by  enraged  Cayuse  Indians  occurred  in  No- 
vember, 1847.  The  troubles  following  this  massacre 
and  the  reprisals  by  the  whites  during  the  subsequent 
Cayuse  war  placed  the  whole  vicinity  of  Walla  Walla 
for  more  than  two  years  in  such  a  state  of  turmoil 
that  the  bishop  was  obliged  to  remove  permanently  to 
Fort  Vancouver.  Here  he  constructed  of  logs  his 
residence  and  a  church,  his  cathedral,  which  he  dedi- 
cated to  St.  James  in  memory  of  the  St.  James  Cathe- 
dral of  Montreal.  A  few  years  later  these  buildings 
were  replaced  by  better,  though  wooden,  structures. 
With  the  approval  of  the  Holy  See,  the  name  of  the 
diocese  and  the  bishop's  seat  were  changed  on  31  May, 
1850,  the  diocese  becoming  known  as  the  Diocese  of 
Nesqually.  The  first  priest  ordained  for  the  Walla 
Walla  diocese  was  Father  Chirouse,  O.M.I.  He  was 
stationed  at  St.  Rose's  mission,  w'hich  was  estab- 
lished in  1847  among  the  Yakimas.  On  account  of 
the  Indian  wars  this  mission  with  St.  Joseph's  was 
abandoned,  but  was  revived  in  1866  by  P^ither  St. 
Onge  and  Rev.  J.  B.  Boulet.  The  register  of  the  Ob- 
late Fathers  for  Puget  Sound  contains  no  less  than 
3,811  baptisms  from  January,  1848,  to  August,  1868. 
The  Tulalip  mission  among  the  Snohomish,  Swini- 
mish,  Lummis,  and  St.  Pierre  Reserve  of  Seattle  or 
Duwamish  Indians  was  opened  in  1860.  Bishop  De- 
mers held  the  first  religious  service  in  Seattle.  The 
present  state  (territory  of  Washington)  then  seceded 
from  the  old  Oregon  territory.  This  political  change 
caused  a  new  division  of  the  Diocese  of  Nesqually, 
whose  limits  now  became  identified  with  those  of  the 
new  territory.  Little  more  remains  to  be  said  of 
Bishop  Blanchet's  e[)iscopate.  A  source  of  joy  for 
him  was  the  arrival,  on  8  Dec,  1856,  of  several  Sis- 
ters of  Providence  from  Montreal,  who  on  that  day 
began  their  mission  of  charity  in  the  hospitals  of  the 
North-west.  Broken  in  health  and  strength.  Bishop 
Blanchet  resigned  his  office  in  1879. 

Bishop  A.  Junger  (consecrated  28  Oct.,  1879;  d. 
26  Dec,  1895)  became  the  second  Bishop  of  Nes- 
qually. He  had  been  in  the  territory  of  Washington 
since  his  ordination  in  1862.  His  active  missionary 
life  as  a  priest  was  short.  After  two  years  as  assist- 
ant to  Father  Brouillet  at  Walla  Walla,  he  was  re- 
called by  Bishop  Blanchet  to  Vancouver,  \yhere  he 
laboured  until  he  was  left  in  charge  of  the  diocese  as 
its  bishop.  To  him  is  due  the  erection  at  Vancouver, 
in  1884,  of  a  large  cathedral,  Gothic  in  design  and 
built  of  brick  and  stone,  to  replace  the  wooden  struc- 
ture erected  thirty  years  previously.  Bishop  Jun- 
ger's  chief  aim  was  to  relieve  his  clergy,  who  were 
hardly  able  to  attend  the  wants  of  an  increasing 
Catholic  population  throughout  the  state,  and  to  fa- 
cilitate attendance  at  the  Divine  Services.  Many 
small  churches  and  chapels  were  built  during  his  in- 


SEBASTE 


667 


SEBASTIA 


cumbency.  Another  object  of  his  solicitude  was  the 
Christian  education  of  the  younger  generation.  Dur- 
ing his  administration  the  Jesuits  transformed  (1886) 
their  common  school  at  Spokane  into  a  college  for 
boys,  and  entered  (1889)  the  small  but  growing  town 
of  Seattle.  At  his  invitation  the  Redemptorist  and 
Benedictine  Orders,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic,  St. 
Francis,  the  Holy  Names,  and  the  Visitation  entered 
the  diocese  and  began  their  useful  work.  At  his 
death  the  diocese  had:  41  churches  and  chapels;  37 
secular  priests;  21  priests  of  religious  orders. 

The  Right  Rev.  Edward  J.  O'Dea  (b.  23  Nov., 
1856,  at  Roxbury,  Mass.;  consecrated  8  Sept.,  1896, 
at  Vancouver)  became  third  Bishop  of  Nesqually  and 
first  Bishop  of  Seattle.  Preceding  his  elevation  to  the 
episcopal  dignity  he  spent  twelve  years  in  the  service 
of  the  Archdiocese  of  Oregon.  The  new  bishop  was 
confronted  with  financial  difficulties.  He  came  into 
a  strange  territory,  and  had  to  assume  a  cathedral 
debt  of  $25,000,  which  at  this  period  of  incipient 
diocesan  development  and  general  financial  dejiression 
throughout  the  country  jin'ssed  heavily  upon  him. 
The  foundation  for  the  reorganization  of  the  diocese 
was  laid  at  a  dioc(>san  synod  held  in  189S,  when  a 
constitution  for  its  government  was  adopted  and 
promulgated.  On  this  occasion  also  the  bishop's 
financial  embarassment  was  taken  from  his  shoulders 
by  his  clergy.  The  spiritual  needs  of  the  youthful 
commonwealth  were  his  next  care.  The  former  terri- 
tory had  become  a  state.  The  Indians,  decimated  by 
disease  and  other  causes,  were  relegated  to  small 
reservations,  and  industrious  and  thrifty  immigrant 
farmers  were  rapidly  taking  their  places.  From  a  white 
population  of  75, ()()()  in  ISSO  the  new  state  was  making 
gigantic  strides  towards  its  goal  of  more  than  one 
million  inhabitants  in  1910.  The  bi.shop's  solicitude 
was  not  limited  to  the  general  needs  of  the  diocese;  it  ex- 
tended also  to  the  wants  of  the  (children  and  the  needy. 

He  encouraged  the  establishment  of  parochial 
schools  when  possible.  In  1909  an  industrial  home 
for  neglected  and  orphan  hoys  was  established  under 
his  personal  supervision.  To  protect  the  Italian  immi- 
grants and  llieir  familir>s  against  the  dangers  to  their 
faith  in  large  cities,  lie  invited  th(>  Missionary  Sisters 
of  the  Saci-cd  Heart,  an  Italian  religious  order,  to  the 
city  of  Seattle,  and  encouraged  them  in  their  dilHcuit 
and  often  ungrateful  work.  Washington's  centre  of 
population  had  .shifted  towards  Puget  Sound,  and 
Seattle  became  a  city  of  2;)7,()()0  inhal)itants.  Its 
new  cathedral,  the  Cathedral  of  St.  James,  built  on  a 
hill  overlooking  the  city  and  harbour,  was  begun  in 
1905  and  was  dedicated  on  22  Dec,  1907.  By  Decree 
of  11  Sept.,  1907,  the  name  of  the  see  was  changed  to 
that  of  the  Diocese  of  Seattle. 

Statistics. — There  are  in  the  diocese  (1911):  141 
priests,  including  52  of  religious  orders;  76  churches 
with  resident  priests,  and  166  mission  churches  and 
chapels;  43  brothers  and  503  sisters  of  religious  orders; 
6  colleges  for  bovs;  IS  acad(Miiics  for  girls,  of  which  2 
are  Normal  schools;  32  parochial  schools  with  5126 
pupils;  1  protectorate,  now  accommodating  78  boys; 
1  home  for  working  girls;  2  rescue  homes  for  girls; 
6  orphanages  with  over  .500  children;  13  hospitals; 
3  homes  for  aged  poor.  The  estimated  CathoHc 
population  of  Washington  is  about  100,000. 

De  Smet,  Western  Missions  and  Missionaries  (New  York, 
1859) ;  Idem,  Oregon  Missions  and  Travels  over  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains (New  York,  1847) ;  Pall.4.dino,  Indian  and  White  (Balti- 
more, 1894);  Blanchet,  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  Oregon  (Portland,  1878) ;  Snowden,  History  of  Washington 
(New  York,  1909);  Costello,  The  Siwash  (Seattle,  1895). 

W.  J.  Metz. 

Sebaste,  a  titular  see  in  Phrygia  Pacatiana,  suf- 
fragan of  Laodicea.  Sebaste  is  known  to  us,  apart  from 
Hierocles,  "  Synecdemus",  667-8,  by  its  coins  and  more 
so  by  its  inscriptions;  the  latter  identify  it  with  the 
present  village  of  Sivasli,  in  a  fertile  region  at  the 
foot  of  Bourgas  Dagh,  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 


plain  of  Banaz  Ova,  a  vilayet  of  Brousse.  The  neigh- 
bouring village  of  Sedjukler,  a  mile  and  a  half  distant, 
is  also  full  of  its  ruins.  Sebaste  owes  its  name  and 
foundation  to  Emperor  Augustus,  who  established  in- 
habitants of  the  adjacent  villages  in  it;  the  Phrygian 
god  Men  and  his  Grecian  equivalent  Zeus,  as  well  as 
Apollo  and  Artemis,  were  adored  there.  The  town 
was  governed  by  strategi  or  archons,  and  in  a.  d.  99 
a  gcrousia  or  council  was  established.  Several  of  the 
inscriptions,  which  have  been  discovered  in  Sebaste, 
are  Christian. 

Le  Quien  (Oriens  christ.,  I,  805)  mentions  seven 
bishops,  six  of  whom  are  known  to  have  taken  part 
in  councils,  by  their  signatures:  Modestus  at  Chal- 
cedon,  451;  Anatolius  at  Constantinople,  553  (pos- 
sible Bishop  of  Sebaste  in  Cilicia);  Plato  at  Con- 
stantinople, 692;  Leo  at  Nicaa,  787;  Euthymius  at 
Constantinople,  869;  Constantine  at  the  Photian 
Council,  Constantinople,  879;  Theodore,  the  author 
of  a  lost  historical  work,  in  the  tenth  century.  The 
see  is  mentioned  in  the  "Notitia)  episcopatuum" 
until  the  thirteenth  century,  sometimes  under  the 
name  of  Sebastia. 

Another  Sebaste  occurs  in  the  "Notitiic  epis- 
copatuum" as  a  bishopric  in  Cilicia  Prima,  Tarsus 
being  its  metropolis,  and  also  a  Julio-Sebaste,  a  see 
in  Isauria,  suffragan  of  Seleucia. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geog.,  s.  v.;  Ramsay,  Asia 
Minor,  381,  etc.;  Idem,  The  Cities  and  Bishoprics  of  Phrygia,  560, 
.■>S1  seq.,  GOO  seq.,  616,  791,  and  passim. 

S.  P^tridJis. 

Sebaste,  Forty  Martyrs  of.  See  Forty  Martyrs. 

Sebastia  (Sivas),  Armenian  Catholic  Diocese 
OF. — The  city,  which  existed  perhai)s  under  another 
name  in  pre-Roman  times,  was  called  Sebastia  and  en- 
larged by  Augustus  (Babelon  and  Hcinach,  "  Monnaies 
d'Asie  Mineure",  I,  101);  under  Diocletian  it  became 
the  capital  of  Armenia  Prima  and  af  t  (>r  Justinian  who  re- 
built its  walls,  the  capital  of  Armenia  Secunda  (Proco- 
pius,  "De/Edificiis",  111,4;  Justin.,  "Nov.",  xxxi,  1). 
Towards  640  Sebastia  numbered  five  .suffragan  bishop- 
rics and  only  four  in  the  tent  ii  c(Milui'y  (Cielzer,  "Unge- 
druckte  .  .  .  Texte  der  Notitia"  episcojiatuum",  538, 
553).  Inl347the(liocesestille\isted,andaslate,  per- 
haps, as  1371  (Miklosichand  Miiller,  " Acta patriarch- 
atus  Constant  in<)i)olitani",  1,  257,  .558;  II,  65,  78);  in 
the  fifteenth  century  it  had  become  merely  a  titular  see. 
Among  its  bishops,  of  whom  Le  Quien  mentions  fif- 
teen (Oriens  christ.,  I,  419-26),  were:  St.  Blasius, 
whose  feast  is  celebrated  3  February;  Eulahus,  present 
at  the  Council  of  Nica;a  in  325;  Eustathius,  who  was 
several  times  condemned,  and  who  played  a  consider- 
able part  in  the  establishment  of  monasticism;  St. 
Meletius,  who  later  became"  Bishop  of  Antioch;  St. 
Peter,  brother  of  St.  Basil  the  Great  of  Cajsarea 
(feast  9  January) . 

This  city  produced  many  martyrs:  St.  Antiochus, 
feast  16  July;  Saint  Trenarchus  under  Diocletian,  29 
November;  Sts.  Atticus,  iMuloxius,  and  their  compan- 
ion.s,  martyrs  under  the  Emi)eror  Licinius,  2  Novem- 
ber; St.  Severian,  9  September;  and  esjjecially  the 
Forty  Martyrs,  soldiers  who  were  i)hinged  into  a 
frozen  lake  and  suffered  martyrdom  in  320,  and  whose 
feast  occurs  9  March.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  century  the  city  was  governed  under  the  suze- 
rainty of  the  Greek  emperors,  by  an  Armenian  dynasty 
which  disappeared  about  1080;  in  the  twelfth 
century  it  became  the  residence  of  the  Turcoman 
emirs;  in  the  thirteenth  century,  of  the  Seljuk  princes, 
one  of  whom,  Ala-ed-Din,  rebuilt  the  city  in  1224.  To 
this  epoch  may  be  traced  several  very  beautiful  me- 
dris.sas,  or  schools,  still  in  a  state  of  preservation. 
Another  Turkish  dynasty  was  there  exterminated  in 
1392  by  Sultan  Bajazet.  Taken  and  destroyed  in 
1400  by  Timur,  who,  it  is  said,  caused  the  massacre  of 
its  100,000  inhabitants,  Sebastia  passed  anew  under 
the  sway  of  the  Osmanlis.     Sivas  is  the  chief  city  of  a 


SEBASTIAN 


668 


SEBENICO 


vilayet  and  numbers  45,000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
10,000  are  Armenian  Gregorians,  2000  schismatic 
Greeks,  200  Cathohcs,  and  the  remainder  Turks. 
The  CathoUc  Armenian  diocese  comprises  3000  faith- 
ful, 18  priests,  7  churches,  4  chapels,  a  large  college 
conducted  by  the  French  Jesuits,  and  a  school  taught 
by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Lyons.  At  Tokat,  a 
dependency  of  this  diocese,  are  also  a  Jesuit  house, 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  and  Armenian  Sisters. 

SMfTH,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Geog.,  s.  v.;  Girard,  Sivas,  huit 
aiechs  d'histoire  in  Rerue  de  I'orient  chretien,  X,  79-95,  169-81, 
283-8,  337-49;  Cuinet,  La  Turquie  d'Asie,  I,  663-73;  Cumont, 
Studia  Pontica  (Brussels,  1906),  217-26;  Missiones  catholicm 
(Rome,  1907),  758;  Piolet,  Les  missions  catholiques  franfaises 
au  XIX  siide,  I,  178-80.  S.   VaILHE. 


Sebastian,  Saint,  Roman  martyr;  little  more  than 
the  fact  of  his  martyrdom  can  be  proved  about  St. 
Sebastian.  In  the  "Depositio  martyrum"  of  the 
chronologer  of  354  it  is  mentioned  that  Sebastian  was 
buried  on  the  Via 
Appia.  St.  Ambrose 
("In  Psalmum 
cxviii";  "Sermo", 
XX,  no.  xhv  in  P. 
L.,  XV,  1497)  states 
that  Sebastian  came 
from  Milan  and  even 
in  the  time  of  St. 
Ambrose  was  vener- 
ated there.  The 
Acts,  probably  writ- 
ten at  the  beginning 
of  the  fifth  century 
and  formerly  as- 
cribed erroneously 
to  Ambrose,  relate 
that  he  was  an  offi- 
cer in  the  imperial 
body-guard  and  had 
secretly  done  many 
acts  of  love  and 
charity  for  his  breth- 
ren in  the  Faith. 
WTien  he  was  finally 
discovered   to   be   a  ^      ^ 

Christian,  in  286,  he  ^"=  Cathedral.  Sebenico 

was  handed  over  to  the  Mauretanian  archers,  who 
pierced  him  with  arrows;  he  was  healed,  however,  by 
the  widowed  St.  Irene.  He  was  finally  killed  by  the 
blows  of  a  club.  The.se  stories  are  unhistorirai  and 
not  worthy  of  belief.  The  earliest  mosaic  picture  of 
St.  Sebastian,  which  probably  belongs  to  the  year 
682,  shows  a  grown,  bearded  man  in  court  dress  but 
contains  no  trace  of  an  arrow.  It  was  the  art  of  the 
Renaissance  that  first  portrayed  him  as  a  youth 
pierced  by  arrows.  In  367  a  basilica  which  was  one 
of  the  seven  chief  churches  of  Rome  was  built  over  his 
grave.  The  present  church  was  completcfl  in  1611  by 
Cardinal  Scipio  Borghe.se.  His  relics  in  part  were 
taken  in  the  year  826  to  St.  Medard  at  SoLssons. 
Sebastian  is  considered  a  protector  against  the  plague. 
Celebrated  answers  to  prayer  for  his  protection 
against  the  plague  are  related  of  Rome  in  680,  Milan 
in  1575,  Lisbon  in  l.'iOO.    His  feast  dav  is  20  Januarv. 

Ada  SS.,  January,  II.  2.07-96;  Bibliolheca  hnaiof/raphica  Inli'na 
(Brussels.  1898-1900},  1093-4;  A.naUcla  BoUandiana,  XXVIII 
(1909),  489. 

Klemens  Loffler. 


Charterhouse  and  became  a  monk  there.  He  signed 
the  Oath  of  Succession  "in  as  far  as  the  law  of  God 
permits",  6  June,  1534.  Arrested  on  25  May,  1535, 
tor  denying  the  king's  supremacy,  he  was  thrown  into 
the  Marshalsea  prison,  where  he  was  kept  for  four- 
teen days  bound  to  a  pillar,  standing  upright,  with 
iron  rings  round  his  neck,  hands,  and  feet.  There 
he  was  visited  by  the  king  who  offered  to  load  him 
with  riches  and  honours  if  he  would  conform.  He  was 
then  brought  before  the  Council,  and  sent  to  the 
Tower,  where  Henry  visited  him  again.  His  trial 
took  place,  11  June,  and  after  condemnation  he  was 
sent  back  to  the  Tower.  With  him  suffered  Blessed 
William  Exmew  and  Blessed  Humphrey  Middlemore. 

Camm,  BleKxed  Sfbaxtian  Newdigate  (London,  1901);    and  the 
authorities  there  cited.  JoHN   B.   WaINEWRIGHT. 


XV-XVI  Centdry 


Sebastian  Newdigate,  Blessfd,  executed  at 
Tyburn,  19  Juik-,  l.'j.i.'j.  A  younger  son  of  John 
Newdigatf;  of  Hanfield  Plare,  Middlesex,  king's  ser- 
geant, and  Amphelys,  daughter  and  heiress  of  John 
Nevill  of  Sutton,  Lincolnsliire.  H<r  was  educated 
at  Cambridge  and  on  going  to  Court  became  an 
intimate  friend  of  Henry  VIII  and  a  privy  councillor. 
He  married  and  ha/l  a  flaughter,  named  Amphelys, 
but  hifl  wife  dying  in  1524,  he  entered  the  London 


Sebastopolis,  a  titular  see  in  Armenia  Prima,  suf- 
fragan of  Sebastia.  The  primitive  name  of  this  city 
was  Carana,  depend- 
ent on  Zela,  which 
was  included  in  the 
principality  given  to 
Ateporix  by  An- 
thony or  Augustus. 
On  the  death  of  the 
Galatian  tetrarch  (3 
or  2  B.  c.)  it  was 
incorporated  in  Pon- 
tus  Galaticus  and 
made  part  of  the 
Roman  Empire. 
Carana  formed  a  city 
l)eopled  by  the  in- 
habitants of  the  sur- 
rounding country, 
and  whose  era  was 
dated  from  this 
event.  It  is  probably 
at  that  time  or  per- 
haps a  little  later,  in 
19  a.  d.,  that  the 
name  of  Sebastopolis 
appeared.  The 
town  was  organized 
like  all  the  provin- 
cial cities;  it  worshipped  the  emperors;  with  some  ad- 
jacent towns  it  formed  a  convcntus  of  which  the  capi- 
tal was  Neocaesarea;  it  had  coins  dating  from  Trajan. 
The  city  received  its  importance  from  its  position  on 
the  great  highway  leading  from  Tavium  in  Galatea 
towards  Sebastia  and  Armenia.  It  seems  that  Tra- 
jan, who  annexed  Pont  us  Galaticus  to  the  reorganized 
Cappadocia,  made  SebastoiK)lis  a  centre  of  Roman  cul- 
ture in  a  st  ill  barbarous  coimtry.  Adrian  visited  the 
city  in  124;  under  this  prince  and  his  successors  its 
beauty  was  increased  by  the  erection  of  new  edifices, 
a  stadium,  a  portico,  a  gymnasium,  and  temples;  the 
principal  go<i  was  Hercules,  whence  its  surname, 
Heracleopolis.  Under  Justinian  (Novell,  xxxi,  1), 
Sebastopolis  was  one;  of  the  villages  of  Armenia  Se- 
cunda;  later  one  finds  it  placed  by  the  Greek  "Noti- 
tia;  episcopatum"  in  Armenia  Secunda  or  Prima,  until 
the  thirteenth  century,  first  among  the  sufi'ragans  of 
Sebastia.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christ.,  I,  425)  gives 
four  bishops:  Meletius,  fourth  century;  Cecropius, 
451;  Gregory,  458;  Photius,  692.  By  the  inscrip- 
tion Sebastopolis  is  identified  with  Soulou  Serai,  a 
village  of  500  inhabitants  to  the  south-east  of  Zileh, 
formerly  Zeja,  vilayet  of  Sivas.  The  chief  ancient  relic  is 
a  bridge  over  the  Scylax.  There  is  also  a  Byzantine 
cemetery  which  furnishes  numerous  inscriptions. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Geog.,  a.  v.;  Anderron,  Studia 
Pontica  (HriiHscls,  1903),  34-6;  F.  AND  E.  Cumont,  Ibid.  (Brus- 

H.-ls.  1 'tor,).  201-9.  s.    PfiTRinfes. 


Sebenico  (Sibinicbnsis),  Diocese  or,  sufTragan  (jf 
Zara.     Sebenico  was  the  seat  of  a  bishop  before 


SECCHI 


669 


SECCHI 


the  establishment  of  a  see.  As  the  people  could 
not  get  along  with  their  bishop  in  Trau,  they 
chose  their  own  bishops  until  fifty  years  later 
the  energetic  Boniface  VIII  established  the  see 
and  appointed  as  first  bishop  the  Franciscan,  Sis- 
gorich.  The  building  of  the  cathedral,  which  was 
not  consecrated  until  a  century  later,  was  begun 
in  1443.  The  Dominican  bishop,  Vincenzo  Arri- 
goni,  did  much  for  the  see;  he  held  seven  synods 
between  1602-26.  John  Berzich  attended  the  Vienna 
synod  in  1849.  Johann  Zaffron  was  Pater  concilii  of 
the  Vatican  council.  Despite  the  additions  of  Scar- 
dona  (1813),  parts  of  Tiau  and  Tinin  (1828),  the 
bishopric  Sebenico  has  but  93,000  Catholics  with  54 
priests,  83  friars  in  7  stations,  and  68  nuns  in  4 
stations. 

Farlati,  Illyricum  sacrum,  IV  (Venice,  1775),  449-500;  Thei- 
NER,  Vetera  monumenta  Slavorum  meridionalium  historiam  illus- 
trantia  (Rome.  1863),  nos.  80,  82  aq.,  210  sq.,  498,  505,  521,  523 
sq.,  570;  Idem,  Monum.  Hungnri/e  (Rome,  1859),  I,  381,  II,  490 
Gams,  Series  episcop.  eccles.  (Ratisbon,  1873),  419. 

C.    WOLFSGRUBER. 

Secchi,  Angelo,    astronomer,    b.    at   Reggio   in 
Emilia,  Italy,  18  June,  1818;  d.  26  Feb.,  1878.     He 
was  the  son  of  a  joiner,  Antonio  Kecchi.     His  mother 
(nee  Luise  Belgieri),  a  practical  middle-class  woman, 
had  her  son  taught  even  sewing  and  knitting.     After 
studying  for  several  years  in  the  gymnasium  kept 
by  the  Jesuits  in  his  native  town,  Secchi  in  his  six- 
teenth year  entered  the  Jesuit  Order  at  Rome  on  3 
Nov.,    1833.     After  completing  his  humanistic  and 
philosophical    studies    at    the    Roman    College,    on 
account  of  his  extraordinary  talent  for  the  natural 
sciences  he  was  appointed  tutor  of  mathematics  and 
physics  at  Rome  in  1839,  and  professor  of  physics 
in  the  Jesuit    college    at  Loreto  in  1841.      In  the 
autumn  of    1844    he  began  the  study  of  theology 
under  the  most  distinguished  professors  (Passaglia, 
Perrone,  Patrizi,  Ant.  Ballerini),  and  on  12  Sept., 
1847,  was  ordained  priest  by  Mgr  Canali.     At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Roman  revolution  in  1848,  he  had 
to  leave  Rome  with  all  his  fellow-Jesuits.     Accom- 
panied by  his  teachers,   de  Vico  and  Pianciani,  he 
travelled  first  through  Paris  to  England,  where  he  re- 
sided for  a  short  period  at  Stonyhurst  College.   On  24 
Oct.,  1848,  he  sailed  with  twenty  other  exiled  Jesuits 
from  Liverpool  to  the  United  States,  which  he  reached 
on  19  Nov.     Secchi's  companion,  de  Vico,  renowned 
as  the  discoverer  of  several  comets,  had  succumbed 
in  London   to  typhus    fever    contracted    in    conse- 
quence of  the  hardships  of  the  journey,  and  in  death 
was    honoured    in   an  enthusiastic   notice  by   John 
Herschel  in  the  "Monthly  Notices  of  the  Astronomi- 
cal Society".     Secchi    settled    in    Georgetown,  near 
Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  where  the  Amer- 
ican Jesuits  conducted  a  university  and  an  observa- 
tory (then  under  the  care  of  Father  Curley).     Here 
he    brought    his    suddenly    interrupted    theological 
studies  to  a  close  by  a  brilHant  examination  for  the 
doctorate,  and  joined  the  faculty  of  the  university 
as  professor  of  physics.     Astronomy  as  yet  claimed 
little  of  his  attention,  as  he  wished  to  perfect  himself 
as  a  physicist.     Of  decisive  importance  for  his  later 
achievements  in  the  domain  of  meteorology  was  his 
close  friendship  with  the  celebrated  hydrographer, 
meteorologist,  and  astronomer,  F.  M.  Maury,  who 
lived  in  Wa.shington.     To  this  friendship,  through  the 
medium  of  Secchi,  Italy  owed  its  first  acquaintance 
with  the  epoch-making  discoveries  of  the  great  Ameri- 
can, whose  valuable  services  in  marine  meteorology 
and  navigation  cannot  be  overrated.     In  later  years 
Secchi  dedicated  to  his  friend,  "as  a  token  of  our 
mutual  friendship",  his  work,  "Sui  recenti  progres.si 
della  Meteorologia"  (Rome,  1861),  and  on  his  death 
in  1873  gave  him  an  enduring  memorial  in  a  warm 
and  touching  necrology  (cf.  "BuUettino  meteorolo- 
igco   del   CoUegio    Romano",    XII,    Rome,    1873). 


Contrary  to  expectation,  Secchi's  residence  at  George- 
town soon  came  to  an  end,  when  the  Roman  revolu- 
tion was  forcibly  terminated  by  the  French  general, 
Oudinot.  On  21  September,  1849,  he  had  to  begin 
his  return  journey  to  England,  and  in  1850  he  under- 
took the  direction  of  the  observatory  in  the  Roman 
College,  for  which  post  his  teacher  de  Vico  had  warm- 
ly recommended  him  on  his  death-bed.  Because  of 
the  instability  of  the  foundation  walls  and  the  want 
of  modern  instruments,  Secchi  was  at  first  (1850-52) 
compelled  to  be  content  with  his  investigation  con- 
cerning the  radiation  of  the  sun,  the  rings  of  Saturn, 
and  the  planetoids.  By  the  end  of  1852,  however, 
his  energy  had  succeeded  in  having  a  new  observa- 
tory prepared  on  the  firm  vault  of  the  Church  of 
St.  Ignatius  in  the  Roman  College,  and  fitted  with 
new  instruments.  From  this  time  date  Secchi's 
brilliant  scientific  activity  and  the  European  fame 
of  his  observatory.  On  account  of  the  extraordinary 
variety  of  his  investigations,  we  must  distinguish 
three  persons  in  Secchi;  the  astronomer,  the  meteor- 
ologist, and  the  physicist. 

As  an  astronomer  Secchi  began  with  a  revision  of 
the  great  catalogue  of  the  double  stars  made  by  W. 
Struvc  at   Dorpat   (1824-37).     After  seven  years  of 
strenuous  labour  he  was  able  to  print  the  chief  por- 
tion  of   his   results   in   the   "Memorie   del   CoUegio 
Romano ;'  (Rome,  18.59)  with  10,000  verified  double 
stars;  this  was  continued  in  two  supplements,  pub- 
lished by  his  assistant  in  1868  and  1875.     One  of  the 
best  calculators  of  the  courses  of  the  double  stars, 
the  astronomer  Doberck  of  Dublin,  has  to  a  great 
extent  taken  Secchi's  catalogue  as  the  basis  of  his 
calculations.     Hand  in  hand  with  this  gigantic  task 
went   his   study   of   the   physical   conditions   of   the 
planets  Saturn,  Jupiter,  and  Mars,  and  of  the  four 
great  moons  of  Jupiter.     On  the  discovery  of  spec- 
trum   analysis    by    Kirchhoff    and    Bunsen    (I860), 
Secchi  was  the  first  to  investigate  closely  the  spec- 
tra of  Uranus  and  Neptune.     From  1852  the  moon 
also  became  the  subject  of  his  investigations.     He 
made  so  exact  a  micrometrical  map  of  the  great 
crater  of   the   moon    (Copernicus)    that   the   Royal 
Society    of    London    had    numerous    photographic 
copies  made  of  it,  and  had  them  distributed  among 
those  interested  in  astronomy.     All  Secchi's  studies 
on  the  planets  were  included  in  his  great  work,  "II 
quadro  fisico  del  sistema  solare  secondo  le  piil  recenti 
osservazioni "    (Rome,    1859).     However,    the   chief 
object  of  his  study  was  the  sun,  with  its  wonderful 
facula;  and  spots,  to  which  he  devoted  from  the  very 
beginning    his     ince-ssant    attention,     industriously 
"registering  his  observations.     Epoch-making  for  the 
study  of  the  sun  was  his  expedition  to  Spain  to  ob- 
serve the  total  eclipse  of  18  July,  1860,  becau.se  by 
him  and  his  fellow-observer  it  was  first  definitively 
established  by  photographic  records  that  the  corona 
and  the  prominences  rising  from  the  chromosphere 
(i.  e.  the  red  protuberances  around  the  edge  of  the 
eclipsed  disc  of  the  sun)  were  real  features  of  the  sun 
itself,  and  not  optical  delusions  or  illuminated  moun- 
tains on  the  moon.     When,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
eclipse  of  the  sun  of  18  August,  1868,  the  French 
astrononier  Pierre  Janssen  demonstrated  practically 
the  possibility  of  studying  the  protuberances  even 
in  clear  daylight  by  certain  manipulations  of  the 
spectroscope    (this  had   been   independently  shown 
in  theory  by  Norman   Lockyer  in  London),  Secchi 
was   one   of   the   first   to   keep   a   regular  diary  of 
all   phenomena   connected   with   the   protuberances 
and  of  all  other  data  concerning  the  physics  of  the 
sun.     He  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  unique  "Sun 
Records",  which  have  been  continued  to  the  present 
day;  no  other  observatory  in  the  world  possesses 
a  work  of  this  character  which  has  been  kept  so  long 
(cf.  Millosevich,  " Commemorazione  del  P.  Secchi", 
Rome,  1903,  p.  20). 


SECCHI 


670 


SECCHI 


Secchi  also  took  part  in  the  Italian  expedition  to 
observe  the  eclipse  of  the  sun  on  22  Dec,  1S70, 
in  Augusta,  Sicily.  Although  his  observations  were 
not  favouied  by  the  weather,  he  was  repaid  for  this 
journey  by  the  discovery  of  what  is  called  the  "flash 
sp>ectrum"  which  is  considered  a  direct  proof  of  the 
existence  of  a  "reverting  stratum"  {" umkercndcn 
Schicht"),  a  mixture  of  glowing  metal  vapours  which 
bes  over  the  photosphere  and  bj^  its  elective  absorp- 
tion produces  the  dark  Fraunhofer  lines  in  the  sun's 
spectrum.  During  this  same  eclipse  Professor  Young 
of  the  American  expedition  saw  clearly  in  his  spec- 
troscope the  bright  lines  of  the  flash  spectrum. 
Secchi  published  the  results  of  his  own  investiga- 
tions and  those  of  others  in  a  French  work  long 
regarded  as  standard:  "Le  soleil.  Expose  des  prin- 
cipales  decouvertes  modernes"  (Paris,  1870).  The 
second  appeared  in  two  volumes  as  an  edition 
de  luxe  (Paris,  1875-77),  after  the  German  trans- 
lation by  Schellen  had  appeared  under  the  title 
"Originalwerk  beziiglich  der  neuesten  vom  Verfasser 
hinzugefugten  Beobachtungen  u.  Entdeckungen " 
(Brunswick,  1872).  In  the  study  of  the  fixed  stars 
Secchi  distinguished  himself  not  only  by  the  inven- 
tion of  new  instruments  (heliospectroscope,  star 
spectroscope,  telcspectroscope),  but  especially  by 
the  discovery  of  what  are  known  as  the  five  Secchi 
types  of  stars  deduced  from  about  4000  spectra  of 
stars,  on  which  he  had  been  at  work  since  1863. 
The  unexpected  discovery  that  all  fixed  stars  may, 
according  to  their  physico-chemical  nature,  be 
reduced  to  a  few  spectral  types,  was  an  achievement 
of  as  great  significance  as  Newton's  law  of  gravita- 
tion. This  great  law  was  confirmed  by  the  works  of 
d'Arrest  of  Copenhagen  and  E.  C.  Pickering  of 
Harvard  (in  his  well-known  "Draper  Catalogue"). 
When  H.  C.  Vogel  of  Potsdam  (1874)  changed  Scc- 
chi's  purely  empirical  division  of  the  stars  into  a 
genetic  development  of  the  stars  from  type  to  type, 
the  theory  of  the  unity  of  the  world  and  of  the  iden- 
tity of  the  fixed  stars  and  the  sun  received  most 
profound  scientific  demonstration  and  confirmation. 
Secchi  published  his  views  concerning  the  world  of 
stars  in  "Le  Stelle"  (Milan,  1877),  which  appeared 
in  German  as  the  thirty-fourth  volume  of  the  "In- 
ternationale wissen.schaftliche  Bibliothek"  (Leipzig, 
1878).  Passing  over  his  other  investigations  con- 
cerning comets,  groups  of  stars,  and  nebulous  stars,  we 
may  remark  in  pa-ssing  that  Schiaparelli's  celebrated 
treati.se  on  the  relations  between  the  groups  of  aster- 
oids and  comets  wa-s  pubH.shed  in  Secchi's  "Bullet- 
tino   meteorologico"    (Rome,    1866). 

As  a  meteorologist,  Secchi  was,  as  already  said, 
an  enthusiastic  disciple  of  the  American  F.  M. 
Maury,  whose  discoveries  he  utilized  and  continued 
with  uninterrupted  zeal  throughout  his  life.  He 
turned  his  attention  to  the  most  varied  phenomena, 
e.  g.  the  aurora  borealis,  the  origin  of  hail,  of  quick- 
sand, the  effects  of  lightning,  the  nature  of  good 
drinking  water,  etc.  He  was  the  first  to  ascribe, 
on  the  basis  of  ingenious  experiments,  the  telluric 
lines  of  the  spectrum  of  the  sun  to  the  influence  of 
atmospheric  vapour.  Secchi  especially  studied  the 
"Roman  climate".  Still  greater  interest  for  him 
had  the  investigation  of  terrestrial  magnetism  and 
terrestrial  electric  currents.  He  was  the  first  to 
organize  a  systematic  observation  of  these  currents 
aa  an  eventual  means  of  prognosticating  the  weather, 
and  worke<l  with  good  results  in  union  with  other 
observatories  with  similar  aims  (e.  g.  Greenwich, 
England).  The  .Magnetic  Observatory,  arranged 
and  fitterl  by  Secchi  in  1858,  was  for  a  long  periofl 
the  only  one  in  Italy.  Commissioned  by  Pius  IX, 
who  promoted  all  his  undertakings  with  princely 
liberality,  he  ma^le  long  travels  through  France  and 
Germany  in  1858  t/)  procure  the  most  suitable  pro- 
jection lenses  for  the  hghthouses  of  the  papal  harbour 


towns.  He  secured,  however,  his  greatest  fame  by 
his  invention  of  the  "Meteorograph",  a  skilfully-con- 
structed weather  machine,  which  works  day  and 
night  and  records  the  curves  of  atmospheric  pre.ssure, 
temperature,  rainfall,  rainy  season,  strength  of 
wind,  and  relative  dampness  of  the  atmosphere. 
In  its  original  form  the  "Meteorograph"  was  ex- 
tremely simple,  but  in  1867,  through  the  munificence 
of  Pius  IX,  it  received  a  magnificent  case,  and  in  this 
form  claimed  the  admiration  of  everybody  at  the 
Paris  Exliibition  of  1867.  It  created  a  great  sensa- 
tion, and  Secchi  received  as  prize  of  honour  from  the 
hands  of  Napoleon  III  the  large  gold  medal  and 
the  insignia  of  Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour; 
from  the  Emperor  of  Brazil  he  received  the  Order  of 
the  Golden  Rose.  \n  exact  description  of  the  ap- 
paratus with  illustrations  is  given  in  the  brochure,  "II 
meteorografo  del  Collegio  Romano"  (Rome,  1870). 
As  phy.sici.st  Secchi  was  a  disciple  of  Piancini,  and 
devoted  himself  from  the  beginning  preferentially 
to  astrophysics,  then  to  a  great  extent  regarded  as 
of  secondary  importance.  American  readers  will 
be  interested  to  learn  that  Secchi  contributed  one 
of  his  best  works  on  "Electrical  Rheometry"  to 
the  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge", 
III  (Washington,  1852).  If  we  may  include  in 
physics  geodetic  measurements,  the  calculation  of 
the  trigonometric  basis  on  the  Appian  Way  for 
the  future  triangulation  of  the  Papal  States  especi- 
ally deserves  honourable  mention.  By  discharging 
this  tedioas  and  difficult  task  on  the  commission  of 
the  papal  government  between  2  Nov.,  1854,  and 
26  April,  1855,  he  supplied  one  of  the  most  important 
fundamental  data  for  the  subsequent  gradation  of 
Southern  Europe.  His  results  were  edited  in  model 
fashion  in  the  great  work,  "Misura  della  Ba.se  trigono- 
metrica  eseguita  suUa  Via  Appia"  (Rome,  1858). 
He  acquired  world-wide  fame  as  a  physicist  by  his 
greatly-admired  work,  "Sulla  unit^  delle  forze 
fisiche"  (Rome,  1864),  which  attempts  to  trace  all 
natural  processes  to  kinetic  energy.  With  astound- 
ing acumen  he  here  combines  in  a  uniform  pic- 
ture all  the  results  of  earlier  natural  science,  and 
anticipates  and  even  in  certain  ways  outstrips  later 
investigations  and  views.  The  second  edition  (2 
vols.,  Milan,  1874)  was  translated  into  French, 
Engli.sh,  German,  and  Ru.ssian.  Secchi  was,  how- 
ever, too  much  of  a  philosopher  and  a  Christian 
to  venture,  after  the  fashion  of  more  modern 
Materialists  and  Monists,  to  extend  his  "kinetic 
atomistics"  to  the  domain  of  the  soul  and  the  intel- 
lectual. On  the  contrary,  his  whole  natural  system 
was  founded  on  a  theistic  basis,  inasmuch  as  he 
traced  back  the  world  of  matter  and  its  motion  to 
a  Divine  creative  act.  In  two  magnificent  lectures, 
which  he  published  at  the  beginning  of  his  "Lezioni 
elementari  di  fisica  terrestre"  (Turin  and  Rome, 
1879)  and  independently  in  a  German  translation 
by  Dr.  Guttler  (Leipzig,  1882;  4th  cd.,  1885),  ho 
gave  a  more  than  eloquent  expression  to  his  Chris- 
tian vi(!W  of  life.  After  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the 
Piedmontese  in  1870,  his  firmness  of  faith  and  his 
fidelity  to  the  pope  and  the  Jesuit  Order  were  more 
than  once  put  to  a  rude  test.  But  no  enticements, 
however  alluring,  of  the  new  rulers  (e.  g.  the  general 
supervision  of  all  the  observatories;  the  granting 
of  the  senatorial  dignity  with  express  release  from 
the  constitutional  oath)  could  induce  him  to  falter 
in  his  loyalty  or  fidelity.  The  new  authorities  did 
not  venture  to  exp(;l  him  from  his  laboratory,  and 
he  continued  his  investigations  vmtil  he  succumbed 
to  a  fatal  disorder  of  the  stomach. 

MoiOMO,  P.  Hecr.hi,  sa  vie,  son  obHervatoire,  ses  travaui,  se.i  (critH 
(Paris,  1879);  Respiohi,  Elogio  del  P.  Secchi  (Rome,  1879); 
Manuei.li,  Sulln  vita  e  le  Opere  del  P.  Secchi  (Reggio,  18S1) :  and 
in  connexion  therowith  CiviUA  Caltolicn,  .scrips  XL.  vol.  VII  (Rome, 
1881),  .W)  sqq.;  Bricarei-li,  Delia,  vita  e  delle  opere  del  P.  Secchi 
(Rome,    1888);     Millosevich,    Commemorazione   del   P.   Secchi 


SECHELT 


671 


SECHNALL 


(Rome,  1903) ;  Al  P.  Secchi  nell  XX  V.  della  morte  il  Comitato  Ro- 
mano (Rome,  1903) ;  the  most  complete  biography,  with  catalogue 
of  his  some  800  writings,  is  Pohle,  P.  Angelo  Secchi,  ein  Lebens-  u. 
KuUurbild  aus  dem  10.  Jahrhunderl  (2nd  ed.,  Cologne,  1904). 

J.  Pohle. 

Sechelt  Indians  (properly  Siciatl),  a  small  tribe 
speaking  a  distinct  language  of  Salishan  linguistic 
stock,  formerly  occupying  the  territory  about  the 
entrance  of  Jervis  and  Sechelt  inlets,  Nelson  Island, 
and  South  Texada  Island,  and  now  gathered  upon  a 
reservation  on  the  Sechelt  Peninsula  in  south-western 
British  Columbia,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Fraser  River  agency.  In  their  primitive  condition 
the  Sechelt  consisted  of  four  divisions  occupying 
different  settlements.  Socially  they  had  three 
castes:  chiefs,  nobles,  or  respectables,  and  the  lower 
class.  The  chiefs  as  a  rule  owed  their  hereditary 
distinction  to  the  superior  generosity  of  some  ancestor 
on  occasion  of  the  great  ceremonial  gift-distribution 
or  potlatch,  common  to  all  the  tribes  of  the  North-west 
Coast.  The  middle  class,  or  nobles,  consisted  of 
the  wealthy  and  those  of  unquestioned  respectable 
parentage,  and  its  members  were  eligible  to  the 
chiefship  through  the  medium  of  the  potlatch.  The 
third  and  lowest  class  consisted  of  the  thriftless  and 
the  slaves,  which  last  were  prisoners  of  war  or  their 
descendants,  and  could  never  hope  to  attain  the  rank 
of  freemen. 

They  seem  to  have  been  without  the  secret  socie- 
ties which  constituted  .so  important  a  factor  in  the 
life  of  several  other  tribes  of  the  region,  but  their 
shaman  priests  and  doctors  of  both  sexes  possessed 
great  influence,  and  in  some  cases  appear  to  have  had 
clairvoyant  powers.  The  severe  tests  to  which  can- 
didates were  subjected,  including  long  fasts,  seclu- 
sion, and  sleepless  vigils,  served  to  limit  their  number 
to  those  of  superior  physique  and  will  power  and  to 
correspondingly  increase  the  respect  in  which  they 
were  held.  Certain  candidates  for  occult  hunting 
powers  were  prohibited  from  having  their  hair  cut 
and  were  shut  up  in  boxlike  receptacles,  from  which 
they  were  never  allowed  to  issue  for  years,  except 
after  dark  and  accompanied  by  guards,  to  prevent 
their  being  seen  by  others.  The  same  custom  pre- 
vailed also  among  the  neighbouring  Thomp.son  Kiver 
Indians.  Descent  was  in  the  male  line,  and  polyg- 
amy was  common.  The  clan  system  proi)er  ap- 
parently did  not  exist,  and  the  carved  and  painted 
poles  set  up  in  front  of  the  houses  were,  in  this  tribe, 
commemorative  rather  than  totemic.  Both  boys 
and  girls  were  secluded  and  .subjected  to  a  special 
discipline  for  some  days  at  the  puberty  period.  The 
general  religion  was  animistic,  with  many  tabu 
regulations,  the  chief  gods  being  the  sun  and  the 
"Great  Wanderer".  The  dead  were  laid  away  in 
boxes  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground  on  some  retired 
island.  Their  souls  were  supposed  to  ascend  to  the 
sun  and  to  return  later  in  a  second  incarnation.  A 
few  of  their  myths  have  been  recorded  by  Hill-Tout. 

The  Sechelt  .subsisted  by  hunting,  fi.shing,  and  the 
gathering  of  roots  and  berries,  the  salmon,  the  deer, 
and  the  salal  berry  being  the  three  most  important 
food  items,  and  the  fishing,  hunting,  and  drying 
paraphernalia,  their  most  important  belongings. 
Their  hou.ses  were  long  communal  structures  of  cedar 
boards  divided  into  family  compartments  by  hanging 
mats,  related  families  generally  living  together.  A 
continuous  platform  running  around  the  inside 
served  both  as  lounge  and  bed.  Food  was  stored 
in  secret  places  outside.  Baskets  of  various  sizes 
and  purposes,  woven  from  cedar  rootlets  and  taste- 
fully designed  and  decorated,  were  the  principal 
household  furniture,  together  with  bowls,  tubs,  and 
dance  masks  of  cedarwood.  Dre-ssed  skins,  fabrics 
of  cedar-bark,  and  blankets  woven  from  the  hair  of 
mountain  sheep,  or  of  dogs,  served  for  dress.  Head- 
flattening  was  practised,  as  among  other  tribes  of 


the  region.  Practically  all  of  the  former  beliefs  and 
customs,  except  such  as  relate  to  household  econo- 
mies, are  now  obsolete  and  almost  forgotten. 

The  work  of  Christianization  and  civilization  was 
begun  among  the  Sechelt  in  1S60  by  the  Oblate 
Father  (afterwards  Bishop)  Pierre  P.  Durieu  (d. 
1899).  At  that  time,  they,  in  common  with  nearly 
all  the  tribes  of  the  North-west  coast,  were  sunk  in 
the  lowest  depths  of  drunkenness  and  degradation 
from  contact  with  profligate  whites.  In  spite  of 
abuse  and  threats,  Father  Durieu  persevered,  with 
such  good  effect  that  in  a  few  j-ears  the  whole  tribe 
was  entirely  Catholic,  with  heathenism  and  dissi- 
pation ahke  eliminated.  For  the  better  advance- 
ment of  civilization  and  religion  he  gathered  the 
people  of  the  .several  scattered  villages  into  a  new 
compact  and  orderly  town,  Chatelech  (meaning 
"Outside  Water"),  with  about  one  hundred  neat 
cottages,  each  with  its  own  garden,  an  assembly 
hall,  band  pavilion,  street  lamps,  waterworks,  and 
a  mission  church,  all  built  by  the  Indians,  under 
supervision,  and  paid  for  by  themselves.  A  flourish- 
ing boarding-school  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Anne  cares  for  the  children.  Hill-Tout,  our  princi- 
pal authority  on  the  tribe,  says:  "As  a  body,  the 
Siciatl  are,  without  doubt,  the  most  industrious  and 
prosperous  of  all  the  native  peoples  of  this  province. 
.  .  .  Respecting  their  improved  condition,  their 
tribal  and  individual  prosperity,  highly  moral  char- 
acter and  orderly  conduct,  it  is  only  right  to  say  that 
they  owe  it  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  to  the  Fathers 
of  the  Oblate  mission,  and  particularly  to  the  late 
Bishop  Durieu,  who  more  than  forty  years  ago  went 
first  among  them  and  won  them  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Faith.  And  most  devout  and  reverent  con- 
verts have  they  become,  cheerfully  and  generously 
sustaining  the  mission  in  their  midst,  and  supplying 
all  the  wants  of  the  mission  Fathers  when  amongst 
them". 

The  Sechelt  probably  numbered  originally  at  least 
1000  .souls,  but  were  already  decreasing  from  dissi- 
I)ation  and  introduced  diseases  before  Father  Durieu's 
advent.  In  1862,  in  common  with  all  the  tribes  of 
.southern  British  Columbia,  they  were  terribly  wasted 
by  an  epidemic  of  smallpox  introduced  by  gold- 
niiners.  During  the  continuance  of  the  scourge 
some  twenty  thousand  Indians  of  the  various  tribes 
were  vaccinated  by  the  four  Oblate  missionaries 
then  in  the  country.  In  1904  they  were  reported  at 
32.5.  They  number  now  about  250,  all  CathoUcs. 
Their  principal  industries  are  hunting,  fishing,  and 
lumbering,  while  the  women  are  expert  basket- 
makers.  According  to  the  official  report,  "they  are 
very  honest,  industrious  and  ambitious,  and  are 
making  marked  progress.  Drunkenness  is  practi- 
cally unknown  and  they  are  strictly  moral". 

Bo.\s,  Fifth  Rept.  on  North-western  Tribes  of  Canada,  Brit. 
Assn.  Adv.  Sci.  (London,  1889);  Can.\da,  Dept.  I.vd.  Affairs 
Annioil  Reports  (Ottawa);  Hill-Tout,  Rept.  on  the  Ethnoloay  of 
the  Slriatl,  in  Jour.  Anthrop.  Institute  of  Gt.  Brit,  and  Ireland, 
XXXIV  (London,  1904);  Morice,  Ifist.  Catholic  Church  in 
Western  Canada  (Toronto,  1910). 

James  Mooney. 

Sechnall  (Secundixus),  Saint,  bi.shop  and  con- 
fessor, b.  372  or  373;  d.  at  Dunshaughlin,  27  Nov.,  4.57. 
Son  of  Restitutus,  a  Lombard,  and  Liamain,  sister  of 
St.  Patrick,  he  was  one  of  nine  brothers,  eight  of 
whom  became  bishops  in  Ireland.  His  early  life 
and  training  is  obscure,  but  he  appears  to  have 
studied  in  Gaul,  and  to  have  accompanied  St.  Patrick 
to  Ireland  in  4.32.  The  first  documentary  evidence 
we  have  is  an  entry  in  the  Iri.sh  Annals  recording 
the  arrival  of  St.  Sechnall  and  his  brother  St.  AuxiUus 
"to  help  St.  Patrick  ".  He  had  much  experience  before 
his  coming  to  assist  in  the  conversion  of  the  Irish. 
In  433  he  was  appointed  by  St.  Patrick  as  first  Bishop 
of  Duashaughlin  (Co.  Meath),  and  so  great  was  his 
reputation  for  learning  and  prudence,  that  he  was 


SECKAU 


672 


SECKAU 


assistant  Bishop  of  Armagh  from  434  till  his  death. 
At  the  commencement  of  his  episcopal  rule,  the  local 
fair  (aoiwch)  was  accustomed  to  be  held  in  the  church 
enclosure,  and  i\s  the  people  ignored  the  saint's 
denunciation  as  to  holding  a  fair  on  hallowed  ground, 
we  read  that  "the  earth  opened  and  swallowed  up 
thirteen  horses,  chariots,  and  drivers,  while  the  re- 
mainder fled".  He  died  after  an  episcopate  of  four- 
teen years.  The  name  of  his  see  in  the  corrupt 
form,  Dunshaughlin  (correctly  Domnach  Sechnaille), 
testifies  to  the  veneration  in  which  he  was  held. 

St.  Sechnall's  fame  in  the  Uterary  world  is  as  the 
writer  of  the  earliest  Latin  poem  in  the  Irish  Church, 
the  well-known  alphabetic  hymn  commencing  "  Audite 
omnes  amantes  Deum,  sancta  merita".  This  he 
composed  in  praise  of  his  uncle,  St.  Patrick,  and  was 
rewarded  with  a  promise  that  whoever  would  recite 
daily  (morning  and  evening)  the  concluding  three 
verses  with  proper  disposition  would  obtain  ever- 
lasting bliss  in  Heaven.  It  consists  of  twenty-three 
stanzas  in  the  same  metre  as  employed  by  St.  Hilary 
in  his  hj^mn  "Ymnum  dicat  turba  fratrum,  Ymnum 
cantus  personet",  and  was  printed  by  Colgan  and 
Muratori.  It  was  regarded  as  a  lorica  or  preserver 
to  be  sung  (or  recited)  in  any  great  emergency,  and 
its  singing  was  one  of  the  "Four  honours"  paid  to 
St.  Patrick,  being  assigned  as  the  hymn  for  the  feast 
of  the  national  Apostle.  Another  beautiful  hymn  by 
St.  Sechnall  is  "Sancti  venite,  Christi  corpus  sumite", 
traditionally  sung  by  angels  in  the  church  of  Dun- 
shaughlin, and  adopted  for  use  at  the  reception  of 
Holy  Communion. 

Stokes,  Tripanite  Life  of  St.  Patrick  (London,  1887) ;  Hyde, 
Literary  History  of  Ireland  (London,  1900) ;  Colgan,  Diocese  of 
Meath  (Dublin,  1862);  He.^ly,  Life  and  Writings  of  St.  Patrick 
(Dublin,   1905). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Seckau,  Diocese  of  (Secoviensis),  in  Styria, 
Austria,  suffragan  of  Salzburg.  The  See  of  Seckau 
was  founded  by  Archbishop  Eberhard  II  of  Salzburg, 
with  the  permission  of  Honorius  III,  22  June,  1218, 
and  made  suffragan  of  Salzburg.  Emperor  Frederick 
II  gave  his  consent,  26  October,  1218,  and  conferred 
on  the  incumbent  of  the  see  the  dignity  of  prince  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  The  first  bishop  was  Provost  Karl 
von  Friesach  (1218-30).  Under  Jo.seph  II  the  dio- 
cese was  reorganized  and  its  territory  enlarged.  The 
original  intention  of  that  emperor,  to  establi-sh  an 
archbishopric  at  Graz,  was  frustrated  by  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg.  In  1 786,  however, 
the  residence  of  the  prince-bishop  was  transferred  from 
Seckau  to  Graz,  the  capital  of  Styria,  but  the  name  of 
the  diocese  remained  unchanged.  A  new  cathedral 
chapter  was  installed  at  Graz,  composed  at  first  of 
three  dignitaries  and  four  canons.  The  .see  included 
thenceforth  the  Salzburg  territory  in  Styria;  at  the 
same  time  a  new  diocese  (Leoben)  was  created  for 
Upper  StjTia.  After  the  death  of  the  first  and 
only  Bishop  of  Leoben,  the  administration  of  this  see, 
since  1808,  was  entru.sted  to  the  bishops  of  Seckau. 
The  limits  of  Seckau  are  due  to  a  regulation  of  1859, 
incorporating  the  Diocese  of  Leoben  with  that  of 
Seckau,  while;  Seckau  ceded  Southern  Styria  with  its 
(chiefly)  Slovenian  population  t^)  flio  Dioce.se  of 
Lavant.  At  the  present  time  (1900)  llic  Diocese  of 
Seckau  comprises  all  Upper  and  Middh;  Styria,  with 
a  pc^pulation  nearly  all  German. 

Among  the  prince-bishops  of  Seckau  in  earlier  days 
the  foremost  is  Martin  Brenner  (1585-1615),  distin- 
gujshefl  by  his  labours  for  the  restoration  of  Catholic 
fife  in  Styria.  In  the  nineteenth  century  Seckau  was 
adorned  by  such  men  as  Roman  Sebastian  Zangerle 
(1824-48)  and  the  apostolic  Johann  Baptist  Zwerger 
(1867-93),  hijjhly  esteemed  for  his  great  zeal  and  his 
popular  religious  WTitings.  Dr.  Leopold  Schuster, 
who  became  prince-bishop  in  1893,  was  before  his 
elevation  profeawjr  of  Church  history  in  the  University 


of  Graz,  and  is  well  known  for  his  historical  writings. 
In  1910,  the  diocese  numbered  937,000  Catholics,  dis- 
tributed over  336  parishes,  with  45  deaneries.  The 
cathedral  chapter  consists  of  eleven  residential  canons 
and  six  honorary  canons.  The  following  religious  com- 
munities are  established  in  the  diocese:  the  Benedic- 
tines in  the  venerable  Abbey  of  Admont  (founded 
1074)  and  at  St.  Lambrecht  (1103);  since  18S3  also 
at  Seckau,  which  house  was  made  an  independent 
abbey  in  1887,  and  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Beuren  Con- 
gregation; the  Cistercians  at  Rein  (founded  1129); 
the    Canons    Regular    of    St.    Augustine    at    Vorau 


Ihi;  Cathedral,  Graz 

(founded  1103).  There  are  Dominicans  at  Graz: 
Franciscans  at  Graz,  Lankowitz,  Maria-Trost,  and 
Gleichenberg;  Minorites  at  Graz;  Capuchins  at  Leib- 
nitz, Hartberg,  Schwanberg,  Knittelfeld,  Murau,  and 
Irdning;  Carmelites  at  Graz;  Brothers  of  St.  John  of 
God  at  Graz,  Algersdorf,  and  Kainbach;  Lazarists  at 
Graz,  Redetnptorists  at  Mautern  and  Leoben.  The 
orders  and  congregations  of  women  in  the  diocese 
devote  them.selves  principally  to  the  care  of  the  sick 
(Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth,  Si.sters  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cro.ss)  and  the  education  of 
the  young  (Ursulines,  I^adies  of  the  Sacred  Heart). 
The  students  of  the  diocesan  seminary  receive  their 
theological  education  at  the  University  of  Graz. 

Of  the  religious  communities,  the  Benedictines 
have  a  theological  school  of  their  own  at  Admont: 
the  Re(lcmi)torists  at  Mautern;  the  Dominicans  and 
Lazari.sts  at  (^raz,  where  Ihere  is  also  a  diocesan  semi- 
nary for  boys  connected  with  a  gymnasium.  Pre- 
paratory schf)olH  for  classical  studies  {Llnlcr-dym- 
nasien)  are  conducted  by  the  Benedictines  at  Admont 
and  St.  Lam})recht.  Not  a  few  famous  scientists  have 
come  from  the  secular  clergy  of  the  diocese  and  from 
the  religious  orders.  The  scientific  services  of  the 
earlier  monastic  houses  deserve  praise.  The  following 
periodicals  are  carried  on  by  the  diocesan  clergy: 
"Kirchliches  Jahrbuch  fiir  die  kath.  Geistlichkeit" 
(Graz  1837-40);  "Der  Kirchenschmuck,  Blatter  des 
christlichen  Kunstvereins  der  Diozese  Seckau"  (since 
1870),   edited   by   Joh.    Graus;    " Literarischer   An- 


SECOND 


673 


SECRET 


zeiger"  (first  with  the  restriction  "zunachst  fur  den 
kath.  Klerus  der  Kirchenprovinz  Salzburg";  since 
1902,  with  the  additional  title  "Katholisches  Litera- 
turblatt")  pubhshed  since  1886,  and  conducted  since 
1902  by  Gutjalu-  and  Haring.  Great  zeal  for  the 
spread  of  Catholic  literature  is  shown  by  the  "Kath- 
oUscher  Pressverein",  to  which  is  also  due  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Catholic  printing  press  and  pubhshing 
house,  "Styria".  The  cathedral  at  Graz  is  a  rare 
monument  of  Gothic  architecture.  No  less  remark- 
able as  ecclesiastical  architecture  are  the  churches  of 
the  ancient  monasteries.  In  recent  times  the  "  Christ- 
licher  Kunstverein  fiir  die  Diozese  Seckau"  has  fos- 
tered the  study  of  Christian  art  in  general  and  dis- 
played rare  practical  interest  in  new  ecclesiastical 
edifices  and  for  the  restoration  of  some  older  ones 
(Sacred  Heart  Church,  Graz;  Romanesque  Cathedral, 
Seckau).  The  ancient  pilgrimage  of  Mariazell  (an- 
nually 80,000  to  100,000  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of 
Europe)  is  in  the  Diocese  of  Seckau. 

PusCH,  Diplomataria  sacra  ducatus  Styriae,  ed.  Frohlich, 
(2  vols.,  Vienna,  17.56);  Aquilinus  Cmsar,  Annales  ducatus 
Styrice  (Graz,  1768-77);  Idem,  Staals-und  Kirchengeschichte  des 
Herzogthums  Steyermark  (Graz,  1786-88);  Klein,  Geschichte 
des  Christenthums  in  Oesterreich  und  Steiermark  (1840-42) ; 
Die  katholische  Kirche  unserer  Zeit  und  ihre  Diener  in  Wort 
und  Bild,  II  (2nd  ed.,  Munich,  1907),  302-08;  Schuster,  FUrst- 
bischof  Martin  Brenner,  ein  Charakterbild  aus  der  steirischen  Refor- 
mationsgeschichte  (Graz  and  Leipzig,  1898) ;  Sentzer,  Roman 
Sebastian  Zdngerle,  Fiirstbischof  von  Seckau  und  Administrator  der 
Leobener  DiScese,  1771-1848  (Graz,  1901);  von  Oer.  Furstbischof 
Johann  Baptist  Zwerger  von  Seckau  (Graz,  1897) ;  Zschokke,  Die 
theologischen  Sludien  und  Anstalten  der  kath.  Kirche  in  Oester- 
reich (Vienna  and  Leipzig,  1894),  220-35,  744-74,  11.52-54, 
1218-22,  1223  sq. 

Friedrich  Lauchert. 

Second  Advent.  See  Judgment,  Divixe;  Mil- 
lennium AND   MiLLENARIANlSM. 

Secret  (Lat.  secemere,  "to  set  apart"),  in  Moral 
Theology,  something  not  commonly  known,  and 
which  it  is  one's  duty  to  keep  concealed.  Theolo- 
gians are  wont  to  enumerate  three  kinds :  the  natural 
secret,  the  secret  by  promise ,  and  the  secret  of  trust, 
There  is  also  the  self-accusation  made  in  sacramental 
confession  (see  Seal  of  Confe.ssion).  The  natural 
secret  is  that  upon  which  one  happens  and  which  can- 
not be  divulged  without  inflicting  hurt  or  causing  sor- 
row to  its  owner.  The  secret  by  jiromise,  as  its  name 
implies,  is  that  whose  obligation  grows  out  of  a 
promise  made  either  of  one's  own  accord  after  having 
accidentally  become  acquainted  with  the  fact,  or 
given  in  response  to  the  request  of  him  who  has  com- 
municated the  matter  in  question  without  any  pre- 
vious agreement  as  to  secrecy.  Lastly,  the  secret  of 
trust  is  one  which  is  confided  to  a  person  under  an  ex- 
press or  implied  contract  not  to  use  the  information  so 
obtained  without  the  consent  and  according  to  the 
good  pleasure  of  the  giver.  The  engagement  is  said 
to  be  explicit  when  the  secret  is  plainly  accepted  on  the 
condition  laid  down,  or  at  any  rate  no  protest  is  made. 
It  is  said  to  be  tacit  when  the  circumstances  and  the 
office  of  him  in  whom  confidence  is  reposed  make  it 
clear  that  this  has  been  done  only  with  the  rigorous 
understanding  above  indicated.  This  is  pre-emi- 
nently true  of  things  told  to  physicians,  lawyers, 
priests,  and  others  in  their  professional  capacity. 

The  natural  secret  derives  its  binding  force  from  the 
virtues  of  justice  and  charity,  either  or  both  of  which 
may  be  infringed  by  its  violation.  Speaking  gener- 
ally, therefore,  and  apart  from  inadvertence  in  the  act 
or  the  trivial  nature  of  the  thing  involved,  its  betrayal 
without  sufficient  cause  will  be  a  serious  misdeed. 
The  occasions  when  it  may  lawfully  be  revealed  are 
covered  by  the  general  rule  governing  the  manifesta- 
tion of  secrets.  Moralists  say  that  this  may  justly  be 
done  whenever  it  is  necessary  to  prevent  serious  harm 
either  to  oneself,  or  to  a  third  party,  or  to  the  com- 
munity. Sometimes  a  valid  justification  is  found  in 
the  reasonably  presumed  consent  of  him  whose  secret  it 
is.  In  any  case,  whenever  it  appears  that  only  charity, 
XIII.— 43 


and  not  justice,  dictates  its  concealment,  one  will  not 
be  bound  to  undergo  a  great  inconvenience  in  order  to 
keep  the  secret.  It  is  an  acknowledged  principle  that 
charity  does  not  ordinarily  bind  at  such  a  cost.  The 
secret  by  promise,  if  it  be  that  only  and  not — as  may 
often  happen — a  natural  secret  as  well,  does  not  for 
the  most  part  oblige  under  pain  of  mortal  sin.  The 
failure  to  keep  one's  word,  while  reprehensible,  does 
not  involve  the  heinousness  of  a  grievous  offence.  It 
would  be  otherwise  if  the  promiser  meant  specifically 
to  take  upon  himself  an  obligation  of  justice.  The  in- 
fraction of  this  virtue  may  more  easily  be  a  serious 
transgression.  Of  course,  a  promise,  no  matter  how 
solemn,  can  never  hold  one  to  a  line  of  action  dis- 
cerned to  be  wrong.  Hence  one  is  bound  to  reveal 
secrets,  whether  promised  or  natural,  when  ordered  to 
do  so  by  a  superior  acting  within  the  legitimate  exer- 
cise of  his  authority.  Thus  a  witness  in  a  court  of 
law,  being  lawfully  interrogated  about  such  a  secret, 
cannot  take  refuge  in  the  confidential  nature  of  his 
information,  but  must  answer  truthfully.  Moralists 
are  not  at  one  as  to  whether  a  man  who  had  promised 
to  hold  a  secret  at  the  cost  of  his  life  would  be  obliged 
to  make  good  his  promise  when  actually  confronted 
with  so  distressing  an  alternative :  the  more  probable 
teaching  seems  to  be  that  he  would  have  to  stand  by 
his  pledge.  When  there  has  been  no  such  special 
guarantee  furnished,  then  the  general  principle  ap- 
plies that  one  cannot  be  constrained  to  keep  faith  at 
the  expense  of  serious  harm  to  himself.  It  ought  to 
be  noted  that  when  the  publishing  of  a  promised 
secret  carries  with  it  damage  of  some  consequence  for 
the  person  to  whom  it  belonged,  than  not  merely 
fidelity,  but  justice  has  been  grievously  outraged. 
The  same  is  to  be  said  if  the  parties  to  the  secret  have 
bound  themselves  by  mutual  declarations. 

The  secret  of  trust  outranks  the  others  as  to  strin- 
gency of  obligation.  The  exceptions  in  which  it  may 
lawfully  be  disclosed  are  much  fewer.  This  is  be- 
cause its  contractual  nature  as  well  as  the  demand  of 
the  natural  law  for  the  sanctity  of  confidences  given 
for  purposes  of  consultation  requires  an  inviolability 
to  be  departed  from  only  for  reasons  of  the  gravest 
import.  Hence  the  guilt  of  surrendering  a  secret  of 
trust  would  ordinarily  be  grievous.  However,  all  are 
agreed  that  it  may  be  given  up  if  it  threaten  consider- 
able evil  to  the  commonwealth,  civil  or  ecclesiastical. 
Likewise  it  may  be  revealed  if  its  keeping  would  seri- 
ously jeopardize  some  unoffending  third  party,  and  if 
at  the  same  time  the  owner  of  the  secret  is  the  cause  of 
the  impending  mischief  and  refuses  to  desist.  Lastly, 
it  may  be  delivered  up  even  when  holding  it  sacred 
would  result  in  notable  harm  to  the  one  with  whom  it 
has  been  deposited.  St.  Alphonsus  Liguori  qualifies 
this  last  assertion  by  saying  that  it  would  not  hold 
true  if  the  breach  of  faith  were  to  work  grave  injury 
to  the  common  weal.  The  thing  to  put  stress  on  is 
that  this  class  of  secrets  is  privileged.  Even  the  pre- 
cept of  a  superior  commanding  their  manifestation 
avails  nothing  against  the  natural  law  which  confers 
on  them  a  peculiarly  sacrosanct  character. 

Slater,  Manual  of  Moral  Theology  (New  York,  190S) ;  Rick- 
ABY,  Ethics  and  Natural  Law  (London,  1908);  Ballbrini,  Op. 
theol.  morale  (Prato,  1899) ;  D' Annibale,  Summula  theol.  moral. 
(Rome,  1908) ;  St.  Alphonsus  Liguori,  Theol.  moral.  (Turin, 
1888). 

Joseph  F.  Delany. 

Secret. — The  Secret  (Lat.  Secreta,  sc.  oratio 
secreta)  is  the  prayer  said  in  a  low  voice  by  the  cele- 
brant at  the  end  of  the  Offertory  in  the  Roman 
Liturgy.  It  is  the  original  and  for  a  long  time  was 
the  only  offertory  prayer.  It  is  said  in  a  low  voice 
merely  because  at  the  same  time  the  choir  sings  the 
Offertory,  and  it  has  inherited  the  special  name  of 
Secret  as  being  the  only  prayer  said  in  that  way  at  the 
beginning.  The  silent  recital  of  the  Canon  (which 
is  sometimes    called    "Secreta",   as  by    Durandus, 


SECRETARIES 


674 


SECT 


"Rat.  div.  off.",  IV,  xxx\'),  did  not  begin  earlier  than 
the  sixth  or  seventh  century;  Cardinal  Bona  thinks 
not  till  the  tenth  (.Rer.  liturg.,  II,  13,  §1).  More- 
over all  our  present  offertorj'  prayers  are  late  addi- 
tions, not  made  in  Rome  till  the  fourteenth  century 
(see  Offertory).  Till  then  the  offertory  act  was 
made  in  silence,  the  corresponding  prayer  that 
followed  it  was  our  Secret.  Already  in  "Apostolic 
Const.",  VIII,  XII,  4,  the  celebrant,  receiving  the 
bread  and  wine,  prays  "silently"  (Brightman, 
"Eastern  Liturgies",  p.  14),  doubtless  for  the  same 
reason,  because  a  psalm  was  being  sung.  Since  it 
is  said  silently  the  Secret  is  not  mtroduced  by  the 
invitation  to  the  people:  "Oremus".  It  is  part  of 
the  Proper  of  the  Mass,  changing  for  each  feast  or 
occasion,  and  is  built  up  in  the  same  way  as  the 
Collect  (q.  v.).  The  Secret  too  alludes  to  the  saint 
or  occasion  of  the  day.  But  it  keeps  its  special 
character  inasmuch  as  it  nearly  always  (always  in 
the  case  of  the  old  ones)  asks  God  to  receive  these 
present  gifts,  to  sanctify  them,  etc.  All  this  is  found 
exactly  as  now  in  the  earliest  Secrets  we  know,  those 
of  the  Leonine  Sacramentary.  Already  there  the 
Collect,  Secret,  Postcommunion,  and  "Oratio  ad 
populum"  form  a  connected  and  homogeneous  group 
of  prayers.  So  the  multiplication  of  Collects  in  one 
Mass  (see  Collect)  entailed  a  corresponding  multi- 
plication of  Secrets.  For  every  Collect  the  corres- 
ponding Secret  is  said. 

The  name  "Secreta"  is  used  in  the  "Gelasian 
Sacramentary";  in  the  Gregorian  book  these  prayers 
have  the  title  "Super  oblata".  Both  names  occur 
frequently  in  the  early  Middle  Ages.  In  "Ordo 
Rom.  II"  they  are:  "Oratio  super  oblationes  secreta" 
(P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  973).  In  the  Galilean  Rite  there 
was  also  a  variable  offertory  prayer  introduced  by  an 
invitation  to  the  people  (Duchesne,  "Origines  du 
culte",  Paris,  1898,  pp.  197-8).  It  has  no  special 
name.  At  Milan  the  prayer  called  "Oratio  super 
Bindonem"  {Sindon  for  the  veil  that  covers  the 
oblata)  is  said  while  the  Offertory  is  being  made  and 
another  "Oratio  super  oblata"  follows  after  the 
Creed,  just  before  the  Preface.  In  the  Mozarabic 
Rite  after  an  invitation  to  the  people,  to  which  they 
answer:  "Prajsta  a;terne  omnipotens  Deus",  the 
celebrant  says  a  prayer  that  corresponds  to  our 
Secret  and  continues  at  once  to  the  memory  of  the 
saints  and  intercession  prayer.  It  has  no  special 
name  (P.  L.,  LXXXV,  540-1).  But  in  the.se  other 
Western  rites  this  prayer  is  said  aloud.  All  the  East- 
ern rites  have  prayers,  now  said  silently,  after  the 
Great  Entrance,  when  the  gifts  are  brought  to  the 
altar  and  offered  to  God,  but  they  are  invariable 
all  the  year  round  and  no  one  of  them  can  be  exactly 
compared  to  our  Secret.  Only  in  general  can  one 
say  that  the  Eastern  rites  have  prayers,  correspond- 
ing more  or  less  to  our  offertory  idea,  repeated  when 
the  bread  and  wine  are  brought  to  the  altar. 

At  either  high  or  low  Mass  the  celebrant,  having 
answered  "Amen"  to  the  prayer  "Suscipiat  Dominus 
sacrificium",  says  in  a  low  voice  the  Secret  or  Secrets 
in  the  same  order  as  he  said  the  Collects,  finding  each 
at  its  place  in  the  proper  Mass.  He  ends  the  first 
and  last  only  with  the  form  "Per  Dominum  nostrum" 
(as  the  Collects).  The  last  clause  of  the  last  Secret: 
"  Per  omnia  saecula  sajculorum"  is  said  or  sung  aloud, 
forming  the  ekphonesis  before  the  Preface. 

DcKASDUB,  Ra'iomU  diointrum  oficiorum,  IV,  xxxii;  GlHR, 
Ths  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mats  ftr.  St.   Louis.   1908).  .547-9. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

SecretarieB,  Papal.    See  Roman  Curia. 

Secret  Discipline,  See  Discipline  of  the  Secret. 

Sect  and  Sects. — I.  Etymology  and  Meaning. — 
The  word  "sect"  is  not  derived,  as  is  sometimes  as- 
serted, from  secare,  to  cut,  to  flisseot,  but  from  .vqui,  to 
follow  (Skeat,  "Etymological  Diet.",  3rd  ed.,  Oxford, 


1898,  s.  v.).  In  the  classical  Latin  tongue  secta  sig- 
nified the  mode  of  thought,  the  manner  of  life  and,  in 
a  more  specific  sense,  designated  the  pohtical  party 
to  which  one  had  sworn  allegiance,  or  the  philosoph- 
ical school  whose  tenents  he  had  embraced.  Ety- 
mologically  no  offensive  connotation  is  attached  to  the 
term.  In  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  it  is  applied  both 
in  the  Latin  of  the  Vulgate  and  in  the  English  of  the 
Douay  version  to  the  rehgious  tendency  with  which 
one  has  identified  himself  (xxiv,  5 ;  xxvi,  5;  xxviii,  22; 
see  xxiv,  14).  The  Epistles  of  the  New  Testament 
disparagingly  apply  it  to  the  divisions  within  the 
Christian  communities.  The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians 
(v,  20)  numbers  among  the  works  of  the  flesh,  "quar- 
rels, dissensions,  sects";  and  St.  Peter  in  his  second 
Epistle  (ii,  1)  speaks  of  the  "lying  teachers,  who  shall 
bring  in  sects  of  perdition".  In  subsequent  Catholic 
ecclesiastical  usage  this  meaning  was  retained  (see 
August,  contra  Faust.  Manich.  XX,  3);  but  in  Chris- 
tian antiquity  and  the  Middle  Ages  the  term  was 
of  much  less  frequent  use  than  "heresy"  or  "schism". 
These  words  were  more  specific  and  consequently 
clearer.  Moreover,  as  heresy  directly  designated 
substantial  doctrinal  error  and  sect  applied  to  ex- 
ternal fellowship,  the  Church,  which  has  always 
attached  paramount  importance  to  soundness  in 
doctrine,  would  naturally  prefer  the  doctrinal  designa- 
tion. 

With  the  rise  of  Protestantism  and  the  consequent 
disruption  of  the  Christian  religion  into  numerous 
denominations,  the  use  of  the  word  sect  has  become 
frequent  among  Christians.  It  usually  implies  at 
present  disapproval  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker  or 
writer.  Such,  however,  is  not  necessarily  the  case 
as  is  evidenced  by  the  widely  used  expression  "sec- 
tarian" (for  denominational)  institutions  and  by  the 
statement  of  the  well-known  authority  H.  W.  Lyon 
that  he  uses  the  word  "in  no  invidious  sense"  ("A 
Study  of  the  Sects",  Boston,  1891,  p.  4).  This 
extension  of  the  term  to  all  Christian  denominations 
results  no  doubt,  from  the  tendency  of  the  modern 
non-Catholic  world  to  consider  all  the  various  forms 
of  Christianity  as  the  embodiment  of  revealed  truths 
and  as  equally  entitled  to  recognition.  Some  churches, 
however,  still  take  exception  to  the  application  of  the 
term  to  themselves  because  of  its  implication,  in  their 
eyes,  of  inferiority  or  depreciation.  The  Protestant 
denominations  which  assume  such  an  attitude  are  at 
a  loss  to  determine  the  essential  elements  of  a  sect. 
In  countries  like  England  and  Germany,  where  State 
Churches  exist,  it  is  usual  to  apply  the  name  "sect" 
to  all  dissenters.  Obedience  to  the  civil  authority  in 
religious  matters  thus  becomes  the  nec^essary  pre- 
requisite for  a  fair  religious  name.  In  lands  where  no 
particular  religion  is  officially  recognized  the  distinc- 
tion between  Church  and  sect  is  considered  impossible 
by  some  Protestants  (Loofs,  "Symbolik",  Leipzig, 
1902,  74).  Others  claim  that  the  preaching  of  the 
pure  and  unalloyed  Word  of  God,  the  legitimate 
administration  of  the  sacraments  and  the  historical 
identification  with  the  national  life  of  a  people  entitle 
a  denomination  to  be  designated  as  a  Church;  in  the 
absence  of  these  qualifications  it  is  merely  a  sect 
(Kalb,  .')92-94).  This,  however,  does  not  solve  the 
question;  for  what  authority  among  Protestants  will 
ultimately  and  to  their  general  satisfaction  judge  of 
the  character  of  the  prcacliing  or  tlie  manner  in  which 
the  sacraments  are  adiiiiDistcrcd?  Furlhcrmore,  an 
historical  religion  may  contain  many  elements  of 
falsehoofl.  Roman  jjaganism  was  more  closely  iden- 
tified with  tlie  life  of  the  nation  than  any  Christian 
religion  ever  was,  and  still  it  was  an  utterly  defective 
religious  system.  It  was  a  non-Christian  system, 
but  the  example  nevertheless  illustrates  the  point  at 
issue;  for  a  religion  true  or  false  will  remain  so  inde- 
pendently of  subsequent  historical  association  or 
national  service. 


SECULAR 


675 


SECULAR 


To  the  Catholic  the  distinction  of  Church  and  sect 
presents  no  difficulty.  For  him,  any  Christian  denom- 
ination which  has  set  itself  up  independently  of  his  own 
Church  is  a  sect.  According  to  Cathohc  teaching  any 
Christians  who,  banded  together,  refuse  to  accept 
the  entire  doctrine  or  to  acknowledge  the  supreme 
authority  of  the  Cathohc  Church,  constitute  merely 
a  reUgious  party  under  human  unauthorized  leader- 
ship. The  Catholic  Church  alone  is  that  universal 
society  instituted  by  Jesus  Christ  which  has  a  rightful 
claim  to  the  allegiance  of  all  men,  although  in  fact, 
this  allegiance  is  withheld  by  many  because  of  ignor- 
ance and  the  abuse  of  free-will.  She  is  the  sole 
custodian  of  the  complete  teaching  of  Jesus  Christ 
which  must  be  accepted  in  its  entirety  by  all  mankind. 
Her  members  do  not  constitute  a  sect  nor  will  they 
consent  to  be  known  as  such,  because  they  do  not 
belong  to  a  party  called  into  existence  by  a  human 
leader,  or  to  a  school  of  thought  sworn  to  the  dictates 
of  a  mortal  master.  They  form  part  of  a  Church  which 
embraces  all  space  and  in  a  certain  sense  both  time 
and  eternity,  since  it  is  mihtant,  suffering,  and 
triumphant.  This  claim  that  the  Cathohc  religion 
is  the  only  genuine  form  of  Christianity  may  startle 
some  by  its  exclusiveness.  But  the  truth  is  necessarily 
exclusive;  it  must  exclude  error  just  as  necessarily 
as  light  is  incompatible  with  darkness.  As  all  non- 
Catholic  denominations  reject  some  truth  or  truths 
taught  by  Christ,  or  repudiate  the  authority  insti- 
tuted by  him  in  his  Church,  they  have  in  some  essential 
point  sacrificed  his  doctrine  to  human  learning  or  his 
authority  to  self-constituted  leadership.  That  the 
Church  should  refuse  to  acknowledge  such  religious 
societies  as  organizations,  like  herself,  of  Divine 
origin  and  authority  is  the  only  logical  course  open 
to  her.  No  fair-minded  person  will  be  offended  at 
this  if  it  be  remembered  that  faithfulness  to  its  Divine 
mission  enforces  this  uncompromising  attitude  on  the 
ecclesiastical  authority.  It  is  but  a  practical  a.ssertion 
of  the  principle  that  Divinely  revealed  truth  cannot 
and  must  not  be  sacrificed  to  human  objection  and 
speculation.  But  while  the  Church  condemns  the 
errors  of  non-CathoUcs,  she  teaches  the  practice  of 
justice  and  charity  towards  their  persons,  repudiates 
the  use  of  violence  and  compulsion  to  effect  their 
conversion  and  is  ever  ready  to  welcome  back  into  the 
fold  persons  who  have  strayed  from  the  path  of  truth. 
II.  Historical  Survey;  Causes;  Remedy  of 
Sectarianism.— The  recognition  by  the  Church  of 
the  sects  which  sprang  up  in  the  course  of  her  history 
would  necessarily  have  been  fatal  to  herself  and  to  any 
consistent  religious  organization.  From  the  time 
when  Jewish  and  pagan  elements  threatened  the 
purity  of  her  doctrine  to  the  days  of  modernistic 
errors,  her  history  would  have  been  but  one  long 
accommodation  to  new  and  sometimes  contradictory 
opinions.  Gnosticism,  Manichaiism,  Arianism  in  the 
earlier  days  and  Albigensianism,  Hussitism,  and  Pro- 
testantism of  later  date,  to  mention  only  a  few 
heresies,  would  have  called  for  equal  recognition. 
The  different  parties  into  which  the  sects  usually  split 
soon  after  their  separation  from  the  Mother  Church 
would  have  been  entitled  in  their  turn  to  similar 
consideration.  Not  only  Lutheranism,  Calvinism, 
and  Zwinglianism,  but  all  the  countless  sects  spring- 
ing from  them  would  have  had  to  be  looked  upon  as 
equally  capable  of  leading  men  to  Christ  and  salvation. 
The  present  existence  of  168  Christian  denominations 
in  the  United  States  alone  sufficiently  illustrates  this 
contention.  A  Church  adopting  such  a  policy  of 
universal  approval  is  not  liberal  but  indifferent;  it 
does  not  lead  but  follows  and  cannot  be  said  to  have 
a  teaching  mission  among  men.  Numerous  general 
causes  may  be  assigned  for  the  disruption  of  Christian- 
ity. Among  the  principal  ones  were  doctrinal  con- 
troversies, disobedience  to  disciplinary  prescriptions, 
and  dissatisfaction  with  real  or  fancied  ecclesiastical 


abuses.  Political  issues  and  national  sentiment  also 
had  a  share  in  complicating  the  rehgious  difficulty. 
Moreover  reasons  of  a  personal  nature  and  human 
passions  not  infrequently  hindered  that  calm  exercise 
of  judgment  so  necessary  in  religious  matters.  These 
general  causes  resulted  in  the  rejection  of  the  vivify- 
ing principle  of  supernatural  authority  which  is  the 
foundation  of  all  unity. 

It  is  this  principle  of  a  living  authority  divinely 
commissioned  to  preserve  and  authoritatively  inter- 
pret Divine  Revelation  which  is  the  bond  of  union 
among  the  different  members  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
To  its  repudiation  is  not  only  due  the  initial  separation 
of  non-Catholics,  but  also  their  subsequent  failure  in 
preserving  union  among  themselves.  Protestantism 
in  particular,  by  its  proclamation  of  the  right  of 
private  interpretation  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  swept 
away  with  one  stroke  all  living  authority  and  consti- 
tuted the  individual  supreme  judge  in  doctrinal  mat- 
ters. Its  divisions  are  therefore  but  natural,  and  its 
heresy  trials  in  disagreement  with  one  of  its  funda- 
mental principles.  The  disastrous  results  of  the  many 
divisions  among  Christians  are  keenly  felt  to-day  and 
the  longing  for  union  is  manifest.  The  manner,  how- 
ever, in  which  the  desired  result  may  be  attained  is  not 
clear  to  non-Catholics.  Many  see  the  solution  in 
undogmatic  Christianity  or  undenominationalism. 
The  points  of  disagreement,  they  believe,  ought  to  be 
overlooked  and  a  common  basis  for  union  thus  ob- 
tained. Hence  they  advocate  the  relegation  of  doc- 
trinal differences  to  the  background  and  attempt  to 
rear  a  united  Christianity  chiefly  on  a  moral  basis. 
This  plan,  however,  rests  on  a  false  assumption;  for 
its  minimizes,  in  an  unwarranted  degree,  the  import- 
ance of  the  right  teaching  and  sound  belief  and  thus 
tends  to  transform  Christianity  into  a  mere  ethical 
code.  From  the  inferior  j)osition  assigned  to  doc- 
trinal principles  there  is  but  one  step  to  their  partial 
or  complete  rejection,  and  undenominationalism,  in- 
stead of  b('ing  a  return  to  the  unity  desired  by  Christ, 
cannot  but  result  in  the  destruction  of  Christianity. 
It  is  not  in  the  further  rejection  of  truth  that 
the  divisions  of  Christianity  can  be  healed,  but 
in  the  sincere  acceptance  of  what  has  been  discarded; 
the  remedy  lies  in  the  return  of  all  dissenters  to  the 
Catholic  Church. 

Catholic  authorities:  Benson,  Non-Calholic  Denominations 
(New  York,  1910);  Mohler,  Symbolism,  tr.  Robertson,  3rd  ed. 
(New  York,  s.  d.) ;  Petre,  The  Fallacy  of  Undenominationalism 
in  Catholic  World,  LXXXIV  (1906-07),  640-46;  Dollinger, 
Kirche  u.  Kirchen  (Munich,  1861);  Von  Ruville,  Back  to  Holy 
Church,  tr.  Schoetensack  (New  York,  1911);  a  Catholic 
monthly  magazine  specifically  devoted  to  Church  unity  is  The 
Lamp  (Garrison,  New  York)  non-Catholic  authorities:  Car- 
roll, The  Religious  Forces  of  the  United  States,  in  American 
Church  Hist.  Series  I  (New  York,  1893);  Kalb,  Kirchen  u. 
Sekten  der  Gegenwart  (Stuttgart,  1907) ;  Kawerad,  in  Realencyk- 
lop.f.  prot.  Theol.,  3rd  ed.,8.  v.;  Sektenwesen  in  Deutschland; 
Blunt,  Diet,  of  Sects  (London,  1874) ;  Mason,  A  Study  of  Sec- 
tarianism in  New  Church  Review,  I  (Boston,  1894),  366-82; 
McBeb,  An  Eirenic  Itinerary  (New  York,  1911). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Secular  Clergy  (Lat.  derus  sacularis). — In  the 
language  of  religious  the  world  (sa^culum)  is  opposed 
to  the  cloister;  religious  who  follow  a  rule,  especially 
those  who  have  been  ordained,  form  the  regular 
clergy,  while  those  who  live  in  the  world  are  called 
the  secular  clergy.  Hence  the  expression  so  fre- 
quentl}^  used  in  canonical  texts:  "uterque  clerus", 
both  secular  and  regular  clergy.  The  secular  cleric 
makes  no  profession  and  follows  no  religious  rule,  he 
possesses  his  own  propert}-  like  laymen,  he  owes  to  his 
bishop  canonical  obedience,  not  the  renunciation  of 
his  own  will,  which  results  from  the  religious  vow  of 
obedience;  only  the  practice  of  celibacy  in  Holy 
Orders  is  identical  with  the  vow  of  chastity  of  the 
religious.  The  secular  clergy,  in  which  the  hierarchy 
essentially  resides,  always  takes  precedence  of  the 
regular  clergy  of  equal  rank;  the  latter  is  not  essential 
to  the  Church  nor  can  it  subsist  by  itself,  being 


SECULARISM 


676 


SECULARISM 


dependent  on  bishops  for  ordination.     (See  Cleric; 
Reguiars.) 

Dd  Cange,  Glossarium,  a.  w.  Smculum;  Clericus. 

A.    BOUDINHON. 

Secularism,  a  term  used  for  the  first  time  about 
1846  by  George  Jacob  Holyoake  to  denote  "a  form  of 
opinion  wliich  concerns  itself  only  with  questions,  the 
issues  of  which  can  be  tested  by  the  experience  of  this 
life"  (English  Secularism,  60).  More  explicitly, 
"Secularism  is  that  which  seeks  the  development  of 
the  physical,  moral,  and  intellectual  nature  of  man  to 
the  highest  possible  point,  as  the  immediate  duty  of  life 
— wliich  inculcates  the  practical  sufficiency  of  natural 
morahty  apart  from  Atheism,  Theism,  or  the  Bible — 
which  selects  as  its  methods  of  procedure  the  promo- 
tion of  human  improvement  by  material  means,  and 
proposes  these  positive  agreements  as  the  common  bond 
of  union,  to  all  who  would  regulate  life  by  reason  and 
ennoble  it  by  service"  (Principles  of  Secularism,  17). 
And  again,  "Secularism  is  a  code  of  duty  pertaining 
to  this  life,  founded  on  considerations  purely  human, 
and  intended  mainly  for  those  who  find  theology  in- 
definite or  inadequate,  unreliable  or  unbelievable. 
Its  essential  principles  are  three:  1.  The  improve- 
ment of  this  life  by  material  means.  2.  That  science 
is  the  available  Providence  of  man.  3.  That  it  is 
good  to  do  good.  Wliether  there  be  other  good  or 
not,  the  good  of  the  present  life  is  good,  and  it  is  good 
to  seek  that  good"  (English  Secularism,  35). 

I.  History. — The  origin  of  Secularism  is  associated 
especially  with  the  names  of  Holyoake  and  Brad- 
laugh.  George  Jacob  Holj'oake  (b.  at  Birmingham, 
13  April,  1817;  d.  at  Brighton,  22  January,  1906) 
met  Robert  Owen  in  1837,  became  his  friend,  and  be- 
gan to  lecture  and  write  articles  advocating  socialism 
or  co-operation.  In  1841,  with  Southwell,  Ryall,  and 
Chilton,  he  founded  a  magazine  called  "The  Oracle  of 
Reason"  which  was  succeeded  by  "The  Movement" 
(1843),  and  by  "The  Reasoner"  (1846).  In  1861  the 
pubhcation  of  the  latter  was  discontinued,  and  Holy- 
oake founded  "The  Coun.sellor",  which,  later  on,  was 
merged  with  Bradlaugh's  "National  Reformer". 
Owing  to  differences  between  Bradlaugh  and  Holy- 
oake, the  latter  withdrew  from  "The  National  Re- 
former," started  the  publication  of  "The  Secular 
World  and  Social  Economist"  (1862-64),  and  in  1883 
of  "The  Present  Day".  Among  the  political  and 
economical  agitatioas  in  which  Holyoake  took  a  lead- 
ing part  may  be  mentioned  those  for  the  repeal  of  the 
law  prohibiting  the  use  of  unstamped  paper  for  period- 
ical publications,  for  the  abolition  of  all  oaths  re- 
quired by  law,  for  the  secularization  of  education  in 
the  pubhc  schools,  for  the  disestablishment  of  the 
Church,  for  the  promotion  of  the  co-operative  move- 
ment among  the  working  classes,  etc. 

Charles  Bradlaugh  (b.  at  Hoxton,  London,  26  Sep- 
tember, 1S33;  d.  30  January,  1891)  was  a  zealous 
Sunday  school  teacher  in  the  Church  of  England, 
when  Rev.  Mr.  Packer,  the  incumbent  of  St.  Peter's, 
Hackney  Road,  asked  him  to  prepare  for  confirma- 
tion which  was  to  be  administered  by  the  Bishop  of 
London.  "I  studied  a  Httle",  writes  Bradlaugh. 
"the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  the  four  Gofpels,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
they  differed"  (Autobiography,  6).  He  wrote  this  to 
Rev.  Mr.  Packer,  who  hastily  denounced  him  as  an 
atheist.  His  views,  which  at  this  time  were  deistical, 
later  on  reached  extreme  Atheism.  From  1853  till 
1868  he  wrote  a  great  number  of  articles  under  the 
pseudonym  of  "Iconoclast",  gave  many  lectures,  and 
held  many  public  debates.  In  18.58  he  edited  "The 
Investigator",  and  in  1850  foundr-d  "The  National 
Reformer".  Elcfted  by  Northampton  as  a  member 
of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1880,  he  refused  to  take 
the  required  oath,  and  was  not  allowed  to  sit  in  the 
House.     Re-clecte<i  the  following  year,  he  consented 


to  take  the  oath,  but  this  was  refused  on  account  of 
his  Atheism.  Finally,  in  1886,  the  new  Speaker  al- 
lowed him  to  take  the  oath  and  sit  in  ParUament. 
In  1858  Bradlaugh  succeeded  Holyoake  as  president 
of  the  London  Secular  Society,  and  in  1866  enlarged 
the  scope  of  this  association  by  founding  the  National 
Secular  Society,  over  which  he  presided  until  1890. 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  G.  W.  Foote,  the  actual 
president.  The  following  words  from  Bradlaugh's 
farewell  speech  are  significant:  "One  element  of  dan- 
ger in  Europe  is  the  approach  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  towards  meddling  in  pohtical  Ufe.  .  .  .  Be- 
ware when  that  great  Church,  whose  power  none  can 
deny,  the  capacity  of  whose  leading  men  is  marked, 
tries  to  use  the  democracy  as  its  weapon.  There  is 
danger  to  freedom  of  thought,  to  freedom  of  speech, 
to  freedom  of  action.  The  great  struggle  in  this  coun- 
try will  not  be  between  Freethought  and  the  Church 
of  England,  not  between  Freethought  and  Dissent, 
but — as  I  have  long  taught,  and  now  repeat — between 
Freethought  and  Rome"  (Charles  Bradlaugh,  II, 
412). 

In  the  United  States,  the  American  Secular  Union 
and  Freethought  Federation,  presided  over  by  Mr. 
E.  P.  Peacock,  with  many  affiliated  local  societies,  has 
for  its  object  the  separation  of  Church  and  State,  and 
for  its  platform  the  nine  demands  of  Liberalism, 
namely:  (1)  that  churches  and  other  ecclesiastical 
property  shall  be  no  longer  exempt  from  taxation; 
(2)  that  the  employment  of  chaplains  in  Congress,  in 
state  legislatures,  in  the  army  and  navy,  and  in  pris- 
ons, asylums,  and  all  institutions  supported  by  public 
money,  shall  be  discontinued,  and  that  all  religious  ser- 
vices maintained  by  national,  state,  or  municipal  gov- 
ernments shall  be  abolished;  (3)  that  all  public  ap- 
propriations for  educational  and  charitable  institu- 
tions of  a  sectarian  character  shall  cease;  (4)  that, 
while  advocating  the  loftiest  instruction  in  morals  and 
the  inculcation  of  the  strictest  uprightness  of  conduct, 
religious  teaching  and  the  use  of  the  Bible  for  religious 
purposes  in  public  schools  shall  be  prohibited;  (5) 
that  the  appointment  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States  and  the  governors  of  the  various  states  of  re- 
ligious festivals,  fasts,  and  days  of  prayer  and  thanks- 
giving shall  be  discontinued;  (6)  that  the  theological 
oath  in  the  courts  and  in  other  departments  of  gov- 
ernment shall  be  abolished,  and  simple  affirmation, 
under  the  pains  and  penalties  of  perjury,  established 
in  its  stead;  (7)  that  all  laws  directly  or  indirectly 
enforcing  in  any  degree  the  religious  and  theological 
dogma  of  Sunday  or  Sabbath  observance  shall  be  re- 
pealed; (8)  that  all  laws  looking  to  the  enforcement 
of  Christian  morality  as  such  shall  be  abrogated,  and 
that  all  laws  shall  be  conformed  to  the  requirements 
of  natural  morality,  equal  rights  and  impartial  ju.s- 
tice;  (9)  that,  in  harmony  with  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  con.stitutions  of  the  several 
states,  no  special  privilege's  or  advantage's  shall  be 
conceded  to  Christianity  or  any  other  religion;  that 
our  entire  political  system  shall  be  conducted  and  ad- 
ministered on  a  purely  secular  basis;  and  that  what- 
ever changes  are  necessary  to  this  end  shall  be  con- 
sistently, unflinchingly,  and  promptly  made. 

Although  the  name  Secularism  is  of  recent  origin, 
its  various  doctrines  have  been  taught  by  free-thinkers 
of  all  ages,  and,  in  fact.  Secularism  claims  to  be  only 
an  extension  of  free-thought.  "The  term  Secularism 
was  cho.sen  to  exj^ress  the  extension  of  freethought  to 
ethics"  (English  Secularism,  34).  With  regard  to  the 
question  of  the  existence  of  God,  Bradlaugh  was  an 
atheist,  Holyoake  an  agnostic.     The  latter  held  that  , 

Secularism  is  based  simply  on  the  study  of  nature  and 
has  nothing  to  do  with  religion,  while  Bradlaugh 
claimed  that  Secularism  should  start  with  the  dis- 
proof of  religion.  In  a  public  debate  held  in  1870  be- 
tween these  two  secularists,  Bradlaugh  said:    "Al- 


SECULARIZATION 


677 


SECULARIZATION 


though  at  present  it  may  be  perfectly  true  that  all 
men  who  are  Secularists  are  not  Atheists,  I  put  it  that 
in  my  opinion  the  logical  consequence  of  the  accept- 
ance of  Secularism  must  be  that  the  man  gets  to 
Atheism  if  he  has  brains  enough  to  comprehend. 
.  .  .  You  cannot  have  a  scheme  of  morality  without 
Atheism.  The  Utilitarian  scheme  is  a  defiance  of  the 
doctrine  of  Providence  and  a  protest  against  God". 
On  the  other  hand,  Holyoakc  affirmed  that  "Secu- 
larism is  not  an  argument  against  Christianity,  it  is 
one  independent  of  it.  It  does  not  question  the  pre- 
tensions of  Christianity;  it  advances  others.  Secu- 
larism does  not  say  there  is  no  light  or  guidance  else- 
where, but  maintains  that  there  is  light  and  guidance 
in  secular  truth,  whose  conditions  and  sanctions  exist 
independently,  and  act  forever.  Secular  knowledge 
is  manifestly  that  kind  of  knowledge  which  is  founded 
in  this  life,  which  relates  to  the  conduct  of  this  life, 
conduces  to  the  welfare  of  this  life,  and  is  capable  of 
being  tested  by  the  experience  of  this  hfe"  (Charles 
Bradlaugh,  I,  334,  336).  But  in  many  passages  of  his 
writings,  Holyoake  goes  much  further  and  seeks  to 
disprove  Christian  truths.  To  the  criticism  of  theol- 
ogy. Secularism  adds  a  great  concern  for  culture,  so- 
cial progress,  and  the  improvement  of  the  material  con- 
ditions of  life,  especially  for  the  working  classes.  In 
ethics  it  is  utilitarian,  and  seeks  only  the  greatest 
good  of  the  present  life,  since  the  existence  of  a  future 
fife,  as  well  as  the  existence  of  God,  "belong  to  the 
debatable  ground  of  speculation"  (English  Secular- 
ism, 37).  It  tends  to  substitute  "the  piety  of  useful 
men  for  the  usefulness  of  piety"  (ibid.,  8). 

II.  Criticism. — The  fundamental  principle  of 
Secularism  is  that,  in  his  whole  conduct,  man  should 
be  guided  exclusively  by  considerations  derived  from 
the  present  life  itself.  Anything  that  is  above  or  be- 
yond the  present  life  should  be  entirely  overlooked. 
Whether  God  exists  or  not,  whether  the  soul  is  im- 
mortal or  not,  are  questions  which  at  best  cannot  be 
answered,  and  on  which  consequently  no  motives  of 
action  can  be  based.  A  fortiori  all  motives  derived 
from  the  Christian  religion  are  worthless.  "Things 
Secular  are  as  separate  from  the  Church  as  land  from 
the  ocean"  (English  Secularism,  1).  This  principle 
is  in  strict  opposition  to  essential  Catholic  doctrines. 
The  Church  is  as  intent  as  Secularism  on  the  improve- 
ment of  this  life,  as  respectful  of  scientific  achieve- 
ments, as  eager  for  the  fulfilment  of  all  duties  pertain- 
ing to  the  present  life.  But  the  present  life  cannot 
be  looked  upon  as  an  end  in  itself,  and  independent  of 
the  future  life.  The  knowledge  of  the  material  world 
leads  to  the  knowledge  of  the  spiritual  world,  and 
among  the  duties  of  the  present  life  must  be  reckoned 
those  which  arise  from  the  existence  and  nature  of 
God,  the  fact  of  a  Divine  Revelation,  and  the  neces- 
sity of  preparing  for  the  future  life.  If  God  exists, 
how  can  Secularism  "inculcate  the  practical  suffi- 
ciency of  natural  morality?  "  If  "Secularism  does  not 
say  there  is  no  light  or  guidance  elsewhere",  how  can 
it  command  us  to  follow  exclusively  the  light  and 
guidance  of  secular  truth?  Only  the  Atheist  can 
be  a  consistent  Secularist. 

According  as  man  makes  present  happiness  the  only 
criterion  of  the  value  of  life,  or  on  the  contrary  admits 
the  existence  of  God  and  the  fact  of  a  Divine  Revela- 
tion and  of  a  future  life,  the  whole  aspect  of  the  pres- 
ent life  changes.  These  questions  cannot  be  ignored, 
for  on  them  depends  the  right  conduct  of  life  and  "the 
development  of  the  moral  and  intellectual  nature  of 
man  to  the  highest  possible  point".  If  anything  can 
be  known  about  God  and  a  future  life,  duties  to  be  ful- 
filled in  the  present  life  are  thereby  imposed  on  "all 
who  would  regulate  life  by  reason  and  ennoble  it  by 
service".  "Considerations  purely  human"  become 
inadequate,  and  the  "light  and  guidance"  found  in 
secular  truth  must  be  referred  to  and  judged  from  a 
higher  point  of  view.     Hence  the  present  life  in  itself 


cannot  be  looked  upon  as  the  only  standard  of  man's 
worth.  The  Church  would  fail  in  her  Divine  mission 
if  she  did  not  insist  on  the  insufficiency  of  a  life  con- 
ducted exclusively  along  secular  lines,  and  therefore 
on  the  falsity  of  the  main  assumption  of  Secu- 
larism. 

Again,  the  Catholic  Church  does  not  admit  that 
rehgion  is  simply  a  private  affair.  God  is  the  author 
and  ruler  not  only  of  individuals,  but  also  of  societies. 
Hence  the  State  should  not  be  indifferent  to  religious 
matters  (see  Ethics).  How  far  in  practice  Church 
and  State  should  go  together  depends  on  a  number  of 
circumstances  and  cannot  be  determined  by  any  gen- 
eral rule,  but  the  principle  remains  true  that  religion 
is  a  social  as  well  as  an  individual  duty. 

In  practice  again,  owing  to  special  circumstances,  a 
secular  education  in  the  public  schools  may  be  the  only 
possible  one.  At  the  same  time,  this  is  a  serious  defect 
which  must  be  supplied  otherwise.  It  is  not  enough 
for  the  child  to  be  taught  the  various  human  sciences, 
he  must  also  be  given  the  knowledge  of  the  necessary 
means  of  salvation.  The  Church  cannot  renounce 
her  mission  to  teach  the  truths  she  has  received  from 
her  Divine  Founder.  Not  only  as  individuals,  but 
also  as  citizens,  all  men  have  the  right  to  perform  the 
religious  duties  which  their  conscience  dictates.  The 
complete  secularization  of  all  public  institutions  in  a 
Christian  nation  is  therefore  inadmissible.  Man 
must  not  only  be  learned  in  human  science ;  his  whole 
life  must  be  directed  to  the  higher  and  nobler  pursuits 
of  morality  and  religion,  to  God  Himself.  While 
fully  recognizing  the  value  of  the  present  life,  the 
Church  cannot  look  upon  it  as  an  end  in  itself,  but 
only  as  a  movement  toward  a  future  life  for  which 
preparation  must  be  made  by  compliance  with  the 
laws  of  nature  and  the  laws  of  God.  Hence  there  is 
no  possible  compromise  between  the  Church  and  Sec- 
ularism, since  Secularism  would  stifle  in  man  that  which, 
for  the  Church,  constitutes  the  highest  and  truest  mo- 
tives of  action,  and  the  noblest  human  aspirations. 

Holyoake,  The  Principles  of  Secularism  (London,  I860) ; 
Idem,  Sixty  Years  of  an  Agitator's  Life  (London,  1892),  autobi- 
ography; Idem,  The  Origin  and  Nature  of  Secularism  (London, 
1896) ;  published  simultaneously  in  America  under  the  title  Eng- 
lish Secularism,  A  Confession  of  Belief  (Chicago,  1896) ;  McCabe, 
Life  and  Letters  of  George  Jacob  Holyoake  (London,  1908) ;  Goss, 
A  Descriptive  Bibliography  of  the  Writings  of  George  Jacob  Holy- 
oake, with  a  Brief  Sketch  of  his  Life  (London,  1908);  The  Auto- 
biography of  Mr.  Bradlaugh  (London,  s.  d.) ;  Bonner,  Charles 
Bradlaugh  (7th  ed.,  London,  1908);  Funt.  Anti-Theistic  Theories 
(5th  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1894). 

C.    A.    DUBRAY. 

Secularization  (Lat.  scecularizatio),  an  authoriza- 
tion given  to  rehgious  with  solemn  vows  and  by  ex- 
tension to  those  with  simple  vows  to  live  for  a  time  or 
permanently  in  the  "world"  (sseculum),  i.  e.,  outside 
the  cloister  and  their  order,  while  maintaining  the 
essence  of  religious  profession.  It  is  a  measure  of 
kindness  towards  the  religious  and  is  therefore  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  "expulsion"  of  religious  with 
solemn  vows,  and  the  "dismissal"  of  religious  with 
simple  vows,  which  are  penal  measures  towards 
guilty  subjects.  On  the  other  hand,  as  secularization 
does  not  annul  the  religious  character,  it  is  distinct 
from  absolute  dispensation  from  vows;  this  likewise  is 
a  lenient  measure,  but  it  annuls  the  vows  and  their 
obligation,  and  the  one  dispensed  is  no  longer  a  reli- 
gious. As  a  general  rule  dispensation  is  the  measure 
taken  in  the  case  of  religious  with  simple  vows  while 
secularization  is  employed  where  there  are  solemn 
vows.  Nevertheless  there  are  exceptions  in  both 
cases.  Sometimes  lav  religious  with  solemn  vows  or 
lay  sisters  are  wholly  dispensed  from  their  vows, 
religious  life  in  the  world  being  very  difficult  for  lay 
persons;  in  other  instances  religious  men  or  women 
with  simple  vows  are  authorized  at  least  for  a  time 
to  lay  aside  their  habit  and  live  outside  their  houses, 
at  the  same  time  observing  their  vows;  such  is  the 
case  for  instance  with  the  rehgious  men  and  women  in 


SECUNDINUS 


678 


SEDGWICK 


France,  who  have  temporan'  renewable  seculariza- 
tion in  \-irtue  of  tlie  Instructions  of  the  S.  C.  of 
Bishops  and  Regulars  (24  March,  1903).  It  is  not 
therefore  correct  to  speak  of  rehgious  dispensed  from 
their  vows  as  secularized ;  the  expression  apphes 
onlj-  to  rehgious  with  solemn  vows,  especially  to 
rehgious  priests. 

Secularization  is  granted  to  these  regulars  hke  dis- 
pensation to  religious  with  simple  vows,  either  for 
reasons  of  general  order  or  for  motives  of  personal 
and  private  order.  To  the  first  class  belong  expulsions 
and  suppression  of  religious  houses  by  various  govern- 
ments, for  instance,  Spain  in  1839,  Italy  in  1866, 
France  in  1902;  to  the  second  class  belong  various 
reasons  of  health,  family,  etc.  Secularization  may 
be  summarized  under  two  heads:  maintenance  of  the 
rehgious  hfe,  and  at  the  same  time  relaxation  of  the 
religious  life  so  far  as  is  necessary  in  order  to  hve  in 
the  world. 

Secularization  is  di^^ded  into  temporary  and  per- 
petual; the  first  is  simply  the  authorization  given  to 
a  subject  to  hve  outside  of  his  order,  either  for  a  fixed 
time,  e.  g.,  one  or  two  years,  or  for  the  duration  of 
particular  circumstances,  conditions  of  health,  family, 
business,  etc.,  but  there  is  no  change  in  either  the 
conditions  or  duties  of  the  rehgious.  He  is  dependent 
on  his  superiors,  only  he  is  placed  provisionally  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of  the  place,  to  whom  he 
is  subject  in  virtue  of  the  vow  of  obedience.  In  most 
instances  the  rehgious  lays  aside  his  habit,  retaining 
privately  however  something  indicative  of  his  reh- 
gious affihatien.  At  the  e\-piration  of  the  time  of 
indult  the  rehgious  returns  to  his  cloister,  unless  this 
temporary  secularization  be  granted  in  preparation 
for  perpetual  secularization,  e.  g.,  to  allow  a  religious 
priest  to  find  a  bishop  who  will  consent  to  receive  him 
in  his  diocese.  Perpetual  secularization  on  the  other 
hand  whohy  removes  the  subject  from  his  order, 
whose  habit  he  puts  off,  and  of  which  he  no  longer 
has  the  right  to  ask  his  support,  without  previous 
agreement.  But  the  one  .secularized  does  not  cease 
to  be  a  rehgious;  his  vows  remain  a  permanent  ob- 
hgation  and  he  thus  continues  to  observe  the  essentials 
of  a  rehgious  life.  The  vow  of  chastity  being  purely 
negative  is  observed  in  the  world  as  in  the  cloister;  the 
vow  of  obedience  remains  intact,  but  henceforth 
binds  the  subject  to  his  bishop,  to  whom  he  owes  not 
only  canonical  oberlience,  like  every  cleric,  but  also 
the  full  religious  obedience  vowed  at  profession.  The 
vow  of  povr-rty  neces.sarily  undergoes  alleviation  with 
respect  to  temporal  goods,  but  binds  as  to  capacity  to 
acquire  ;ind  give  away,  as  well  as  to  bequeath  without 
in(lults,  which  are  rejwlily  granted  at  need.  In  the 
abs«;nce  of  indults  the  property  of  the  secularized 
persf)n  goes  to  his  order  (S.  C.  Bishops  and  Regulars, 
6  June,  1836). 

But  the  most  important  aspect  of  perpetual  secular- 
ization ;is  regards  regulars  is  the  regulation  of  their 
ecclesia-st  ical  st  atus.  The  regular  ordained  to  poverty, 
the  religious  ordained  to  a  common  revenue  depend 
not  on  a  bishop,  but  on  their  superiors.  If  they  pass 
by  secularization  into  the  secular  clergy  they  cannot 
remain  without  an  ordinary  and  must  necessarily  be 
attache<^l  to  a  diocese.  Formerly  it  waa  admitted 
that  ihr  one  secularized  fell  once  more  under  the 
juriwliction  of  his  original  ordinary,  but  what  was  at 
first  that  ordinary's  right  eventually  became  a 
responsibility  (cf.  S.  C.  Bishops  and  Regulars  in 
O)lonien.,  24  Feb.,  1893),  and  this  discipline  aroused 
just  complaints  (cf.  postulatum  of  the  Bishops  of 
Prussia,  19  Aug.,  1892).  Also  the  Decree  "Auctus 
admodum"  given  by  the  Congregation  of  Bishops  and 
l{cgulars  (4  Nov.,  1892)  declared  that  every  religious 
cleric  who  desired  to  bf  secularized  or  to  leave  his 
congregation  must  first  find  a  bishop  willing  to  receive 
him  among  his  own  clergy,  and  if  prior  to  this  he  left 
bis  house  he  was  suspended.    Now  no  bishop  is  com- 


pelled to  receive  a  rehgious  into  his  diocese;  if  he 
admits  him  it  is  on  the  same  condition  as  a  cleric. 
This  is  why  by  common  law  the  religious  must  first 
secure  for  himself  an  ecclesiastical  patrimony;  in 
dioceses  where  this  law  is  not  observed  religious 
acquire  the  same  rights  and  contract  the  same  obliga- 
tions towards  the  bishop  as  incorporated  secular 
clerics.  Though  he  may  perform  sacerdotal  duties 
and  receive  legitimate  emoluments  he  cannot  without 
indult  receive  a  residential  benefice  or  a  cure  of  souls 
(S.  C.  of  Regular  Disciphne,  31  Jan.,  1899). 

To  prevent  persons  from  becoming  religious  in  or- 
der to  attain  ordination  under  the  easiest  conditions 
with  the  intention  of  subsequently  seeking  seculariza- 
tion and  entering  the  ranks  of  the  secular  clergy  the 
Decree  of  15  June,  1909,  decided  that  to  all  Rescripts 
of  temporar>^  or  perpetual  secularizat  ion  or  disiirnsa- 
tion  from  perpetual  vows  be  do  facto  annexed,  even  if 
they  are  not  expressed,  the  following  clauses  and  \n-a- 
hibitions,  dispensation  from  which  is  reserved  to  the 
Holy  See;  these  religious  are  debarred  from:  (1)  every 
office  (and  if  they  are  eligible  to  benefices)  every  ben- 
efice in  major  or  minor  basilicas  and  catliedrals;  (2) 
every  position  as  teacher  and  office  in  greater  or  lesser 
clerical  seminaries;  in  other  houses  for  the  instruction 
of  clerics;  in  universities  or  institutes  conferring  degrees 
by  Apostolic  privilege;  (3)  every  office  in  episcopal 
curiae;  (4)  the  office  of  visitor  or  director  of  religious 
houses  of  men  or  women,  even  in  diocesan  congrega- 
tions; (5)  habitual  dwelling  in  localities  where  there 
are  houses  of  the  province  or  mission  left  by  the 
religious.  Finally  if  the  religious  wishes  to  return  to 
his  order  he  has  not  to  make  again  his  novitiate  or 
his  profession,  but  takes  rank  from  the  time  of  his 
return. 

The  word  secularization  has  a  verj^  different  mean- 
ing when  ai)plied  not  to  persons  but  to  things.  It 
then  signifies  ecclesiastical  property  become  secular, 
as  has  occurred  on  several  occasions  in  consequence 
of  governmental  usurjjation  (see  Laiciz.\tion).  The 
word  may  also  signify  the  sui)pression  of  sovereign  or 
of  feudal  right  b<'longing  to  ecclesiastical  dignitaries 
as  such.  The  chief  ecclesiastical  principalities  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  notably  the  electorates,  were 
secularized  by  the  Decree  of  25  Feb.,  1803.  The  word 
secularization  may  also  be  applied  to  the  abandon- 
ment by  the  Church  of  its  goods  to  purchasers  after 
governmental  confiscations,  most  frequently  after  a 
merciful  composition  or  arrangement.  Concessions 
of  this  kind  were  nia(l(>  by  Julius  III  for  England  in 
1554,  by  Clement  XI  for  Saxony  in  1714,  bv  Pius  VII 
for  France  in  1801,  by  Pius  IX  for  Italy  in  188(),  and 
finally  by  Pius  X  for  I-'rance  in  1907. 

Cf.  the  canonistH  untlor  the  title  Dr  sfalu  mounchnrutv, 
lib.  iii,  tit.  .'JH;  Gknnari,  Conniilliilioiis  canoniquea,  cons,  iii 
(French tr.,  Paris,  190!)) ;  Bouix.  Dc.jurc  rcgulaHum  (Paris.  1897) ; 
Vermbersch,  De  relig.  innlit.  et  personis  (2n(l  ed.,  Bruges,  1909) ; 
Nerveona,  De  jure  praclico  regularium  (Rome,  1901). 

A.    BoUDINHON. 

Secundinus,  Saint.    See  Sechnall,  Saint. 

Sedgwick  (Segeswick),  Thomas,  regius  professor 
of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  1557,  rector  of  Stanhope, 
Durham,  and  vicar  of  Gainford,  Durham,  both  in 
1558;  d.  in  a  Yorkshire  prison,  1573.  He  was  de- 
prived of  the  three  preferments  noted  above  soon  after 
Elizabeth's  accession,  and  was  restricted  to  within  ten 
miles  of  Richmond,  Yorkshire,  from  1562  to  1570,  when 
he  seems  to  have  been  sent  to  prison  at  York.  An  un- 
friendly hand  in  l.')62  describes  him  as  "learned  l)ut 
not  very  wise".  He  argued  against  Bucer  in  1550, 
and  again.st  Cranmer,  Latimer,  and  Ridley  in  April, 
1554,  when  he  was  incorporated  D.D.  at  Oxford.  He 
had  been  rector  of  Edwarton,  Suffolk,  1552,  Lady 
Margaret  professor  of  divinity,  1554,  vicar  of  Enfield, 
Middlesex,  1555,  and  rector  of  Toft,  Cambridgeshire, 
1556,  but  had  given  up  these  four  preferments  before 
Queen  Mary  died. 


SEDIA 


679 


SEDUCTION 


Cooper  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v.;  Catholic  Record  Society  Pub- 
lications, V  (London,  1905),  193;  Record  Office,  State  Papers  Dom. 
Arc.  Eliz.,  XVII,  72;  Gee,  Elizabethan  Clergy,  passim. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Sedia  Gestatoria,  the  Italian  name  of  the  port- 
able papal  throne  used  on  certain  solemn  occasions 
in  the  pontifical  ceremonies.  It  consists  of  a  richly- 
adorned,  silk-covered  armchair,  fastened  on  a  suppe- 
daneum,  on  each  side  of  which  are  two  gilded  rings; 
through  these  rings  pass  the  long  rods  with  which 
twelve  footmen  (palafrenieri),  in  red  uniforms,  carry 
the  tlirone  on  their  shoulders.  Two  large  fans 
(flabella)  made  of  white  feathers^ — a  reUc  of  the 
ancient  liturgical  use  of  the  flabellum,  mentioned  in  the 
"  Constitutioncs  ApostoUcae",  VIII,  12 — are  cariied 
at  the  sides  of  the  Sedia  Gestatoria.  This  throne 
is  used  more  especially  in  the  ceremonies  at  the  coro- 
nation of  a  now  pope,  and  generally  at  all  solemn 
entries  of  the  pope  to  St.  Peter's  or  to  pubhc 
consistories.  In  the  first  case  three  bundles  of  tow 
are  burnt  before  the  newly-elected  pontiff,  who  sits 
on  the  Sedia  Gestatoria,  whilst  a  master  of  cere- 
monies says:  "Sancte  Pater  sic  transit  gloria  mundi," 
(Holy  Father,  so  passes  the  glory  of  the  world). 
The  custom  of  carrying  the  newly-elected  pope,  and 
formerly  in  some  countries  the  newly-elected  bishop, 
to  his  church  can  be,  in  some  instances,  traced  back 
very  far  and  may  be  compared  with  the  Roman  use 
of  the  Sedis  curulis,  on  which  newly-elected  consuls 
were  carried  through  the  city.  Already  Ennodius, 
Bishop  of  Pavia  (d.  521)  records  in  his  "Apologia 
pro  Synodo"  ("P.  L.",  LXIII,  200;  "Corpus 
Script,  eccl.",  yi,  Vienna,  1882,  328)  "Gestatoriam 
sellam  apostoUcae  conf  essionis "  alluding  to  the 
cathedra  S.  Petri,  still  preserved  in  the  choir  of  St. 
Peter's  at  Rome.  This  is  a  portable  wooden  arm- 
chair, inlaid  with  ivory,  with  two  iron  rings  on  each 
side.  Besides  the  present  constant  use  of  the  Sedia 
Gestatoria  at  the  coronation  of  the  pope  (which 
seems  to  date  from  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century),  etc.,  it  served  in  the  past  on  diflferent 
other  occasions,  for  instance  when  the  pope  received 
the  yearly  tribute  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  and  of 
other  fiefs,  and  also,  at  least  since  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, when  he  carried  the  Blessed  Sacrament  publicly, 
in  which  case  the  Sedia  Gestatoria  took  a  different 
form,  a  table  being  adjusted  before  the  throne. 
Pius  X  made  use  of  this  on  the  occasion  of  the  Euchar- 
istic  Congress  at  Rome  in  1905. 

BoNANMi,  Gerarchia  ecclesiastica  considerala  nelle  re.sji  sacre  e 
civile  usate  da  quelli  li  quali  la  compongono  (Rome,  1720),  I,  390- 
95;  Cancellieri,  Storia  de'  solenni  posses.<>i  de'  Sommi  Pontefici 
detti  anticamente  Processi  o  Processioni  do-po  la  loro  Coronazione 
dalla  Basilica  Vaticana  alia  Lateranense  (Rome,  1802),  146—47, 
272;  DR  Rossi,  Bullettino  di  Archeologia  cristiana  (Rome,  1867), 
33  sq.;  Krads,  Real-EncyclopOdie  der  christlichen  Altertiimer,  II 
(Freiburg,  1886),  156  sq.    See  also  Flabellum. 

LivARius  Oliger. 

Sedilia  (plural  of  Latin  sedile,  a  seat),  the  name 
given  to  seats  on  the  south  side  of  the  sanctuary,  used 
by  the  officiating  clergy  during  the  liturgy.  The 
earliest  examples  are  found  in  the  catacombs,  where 
a  single  stone  seat  at  the  south  end  of  the  altar  was 
used  by  the  celebrant.  Similar  single  seats  are  found 
in  Spain  (at  Barcekma,  Saragossa,  Toledo,  and  else- 
where) and  England  (at  Lenham  and  Beckley).  In 
course  of  time  the  number  of  seats  was  increased  to 
three  (for  celebrant,  deacon,  and  sub-deacon),  which 
is  the  number  usually  found,  though  sometimes  there 
are  four  and  even  five.  They  became  common  in 
England  by  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century,  and 
were  frequently  recessed  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  of 
the  church.  In  other  European  countries  they  are 
coniparatively  rare,  movable  wooden  benches  or 
chairs  being  usual.  Some  early  English  examples  are 
merely  stone  benches,  but  the  later  ones  were  almost 
invariably  built  in  the  form  of  niches,  richly  decorated 
with  carved  canopies,  moulded  shafts,  pinnacles,  and 


Decorated  Gothic  Sedilia 
Ruins  of  Holycross  Abbey,  Thurles 


tabernacle  work.  The  piscina  was  often  incorporated 
with  them,  its  position  being  east  of  the  sedilia  proper. 
Four  seats,  instead  of  three,  are  found  at  Durham, 
Furness,  and  Ottery,  and  five  at  Southwell,  Padua 
(S.  Maria),  and  Esslingen.  In  many  cases  they  are 
on  different  levels 
and  the  celebrant 
occupied  the  high- 
est, i.  e.,  the  east- 
ernmost. But 
when  they  were  all 
on  the  same  level, 
which  is  said  to  in- 
dicate the  date  at 
which  priests  be- 
gan to  act  as  assis- 
tants at  Mass, 
there  is  some 
doubt  as  to  which 
was  the  cele- 
brant's. If  there 
were  only  three, 
it  was  probably  the 
central  one,  as  in 
the  presentRoman 
u.sage,  but  with 
four  or  five  noth- 
ing can  be  stated 
with  certainty, 
though  possibly 
the  easternmost 
was  considered  the 
highest  in  dignity. 
Mention  may  here  be  made  of  the  royal  chair  of-Scot- 
land  given  by  Edward  I  to  Westminster  Abbey  to  be 
used  as  the  celebrant's  chair,  and  it  is  probably  this 
same  seat,  on  the  south  side  of  the  high  altar,  that 
figures  in  the  "I>liii  lloll". 

Walcott,  Snr..       I  7  (London,  1868);  Lee,  Glossary  of 

Liturgical  and  K  !'■  rms  (London,  1877);    Martiqny, 

Did.  des  antiquih       '  I'iih.  1865). 

G.  Cyprian  Alston. 

Seduction  (Lat.  seducere,  to  lead  aside  or  astray) 
is  here  taken  to  mean  the  inducing  of  a  previously 
virtuous  woman  to  engage  in  unlawful  sexual  inter- 
course. Two  cases  are  distinguishable.  The  seducer 
may  have  brought  about  the  surrender  of  his  victim's 
chastity  either  with  or  without  a  y)romise  of  subse- 
quent marriage.  For  the  purpose  of  this  article 
we  do  not  suppose  the  employment  of  violence,  but 
only  persuasion  and  the  like.  The  obligation  of  res- 
titution in  either  hypothesis  for  the  bodily  damage 
wrought,  considered  specifically  as  such,  cannot  be 
imposed.  The  obvious  reason  is  that  its  performance 
is  impo.ssible.  We  are  speaking  of  course  only  of 
the  court  of  conscience.  In  certain  cases  the  civil 
tribunal  may  justly  mulct  the  seducer  to  make 
pecuniary  compensation,  and  he  will  be  bound  to  obey. 
If  the  woman  has  been  lured  into  carnal  relations 
by  the  promise  of  marriage,  it  is  the  generally  re- 
ceived and  practically  certain  teaching  that  the  man 
is  bound  to  marry  her.  This  is  true,  independently 
of  whether  she  has  become  pregnant  or  not.  Granted 
that  the  bargain  is  a  vicious  one,  still  she  has  executed 
her  part  of  it.  What  remains  is  not  sinful,  and  unless 
it  is  carried  out  she  is  subjected  to  an  injury  reparable 
ordinarily  only  by  marriage.  This  doctrine  holds 
good  whether  the  promise  be  real  or  only  feigned. 

Moralists  note  that  this  solution  does  not  cover 
every  situation.  It  will  not  apply,  for  instance,  if 
the  woman  can  easily  gather  from  the  circumstances 
that  her  seducer  has  no  serious  intention  to  wed  her, 
or  if  he  is  vastly  her  superior  in  social  position,  or  if 
the  outcome  of  such  an  union  is  likely  to  be  very  un- 
happy (as  it  will  often  be).  None  the  less,  even  in 
these  conditions,  the  betrayer  may  at  times  be  obliged 
to  furnish  other  reparation,  such  as  money  for  her 


SEDULIUS 


680 


SEDULIUS 


dowrj'.  WTien  no  promise  of  marriage  has  been 
given  bj-  the  seducer  and  the  woman  has  yielded  freelj^ 
to  his  soheitations,  the  only  obligation  devolving  on 
the  man  is  one  which  he  shares  with  his  paramour, 
viz.,  to  care  for  the  fruit  of  their  sin,  if  there  is  any. 
Strictly  speaking,  he  has  done  no  injury  to  her; 
she  has  accepted  his  advances.  The  only  duty  there- 
fore which  emerges  is  one  that  touches,  not  her,  but 
the  possible  offspring.  It  must  be  observed,  however, 
that  if  he,  by  talking  about  his  crime,  has  brought 
about  the  defamation  of  his  partner  or  her  parents, 
he  will  be  obliged  to  make  good  whatever  losses  they 
sustain  in  consequence.  Then,  however,  the  im- 
mediate source  of  his  responsibilitj'  is  not  his  criminal 
intercourse  with  her,  but  the  shattering  of  her  and  her 
parents'  reputation. 

Sl.*.ter,  Maniuil  of  Moral  Theology  (New  York,  1908);  Lehm- 
KUHL,  Theologia  Moralis  (Fribourg,  1887);  Genicot,  Theologim 
Moralis  Institutiones  (Louvain,  1898) ;  D ' Annibale,  Summula 
Theologice  Moralis  (Rome,  1908). 

Joseph  F.  Delany. 

Sedulius,  Christian  poet  of  the  fifth  century. 
The  name  of  Caelius,  which  at  times  precedes  that  of 
Sedulius,  finds  but  little  confirmation  in  the  manu- 
scripts. All  our  information  regarding  his  personal 
history  comes  from  two  sources.  Isidore  of  Seville 
in  his  "De  viris  illustribus"  assigns  Sedulius  the 
seventh  place,  before  Possidius,  while  Avitus  and 
Dracontius  have  respectively  the  twenty-third  and 
twenty-fourth  places.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
manuscripts  of  Sedulius  contain  a  biographical  notice 
which  may  have  been  \\Titten  by  Gennadius.  This 
account  represents  Sedulius  as  a  lajinan,  who  lived 
at  first  in  Italy  and  was  devoted  to  the  study  of 
philosophy;  consequently  he  probably  wrote  his 
works  in  Achaia  during  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the 
Younger  (d.  450)  and  of  Valentinian  III  (d.  455). 

The  principal  work  of  Sedulius  is  a  poem  in  five 
books  called  "Carmen  paschale".  The  first  book 
contains  a  summary  of  the  Old  Testament;  the 
four  others  a  summary  of  the  New  Testament.  A 
prose  introduction  dedicates  the  work  to  a  priest 
named  Macedonius.  The  author  says  that  he  had 
given  himself  at  first  to  secular  studies  and  to  the 
"barren  diversions"  of  secular  poetry.  The  poem 
Ls  .skilfully  written  and  is  more  original  than  that  of 
Juvencus.  Sedulius  takes  for  granted  a  knowledge 
of  the  story  of  the  Gospels,  and  this  enables  him 
to  treat  his  subject  more  freely.  He  gives  his  at- 
tention chiefly  to  the  thoughts  and  sentiments  which 
would  naturally  arise  from  meditations  on  the  sacred 
writings.  He  pays,  however,  less  care  to  uniting  the 
various  parts  ana  making  of  them  a  coherent  recital. 
He  follows  usually  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  His 
ordinary  method  of  exegesis  consists  of  allegory  and 
eymboli.sm.  Thus  the  four  Evangelists  correspond 
to  the  four  sea.sons,  the  twelve  Apostles  to  the  twelve 
hours  of  the  day  and  the  twelve  months,  the  four 
arms  of  the  cross  to  the  four  cardinal  points.  The 
style  is  a  skilful  imitation  and  shows  evidences  of 
an  extensive  reading  of  Terence,  Tibullus,  Ovid, 
Lucan,  and  above  all  of  Virgil.  At  times  the 
rhetoric  is  unfortunately  influenced  by  what  he  has 
read,  as  in  the  ten  lines  (V,  .59-68)  of  invective  against 
Judas.  It  is,  however,  in  the  prose  paraphra.se  of 
the  "Carmen",  the  "Opus  pa.schale",  that  the  most 
unfortunate  impression  is  produced.  In  the  poem 
the  language  of  Sedulius  is  dignified  and  almost 
classic,  in  the  prose  version  it  becomes  difTuse,  pre- 
tentious, and  incorrect.  The  prose  version,  the 
"Opus  paschale"  was  written  at  the  request  of  the 
priest  Macedonius  in  order,  as  it  appears,  to  fill  up 
the  gaps  of  the  poem.  Facts  scarcely  indicated  in 
the  "Carmen"  are  treated  at  length  in  the  "Opus", 
and  the  expressions  borrowed  from  the  Bible  give  the 
work  a  more  ecclesiastical  characU^r. 

Sedulius  also  wrote  two  hymns.     One  is  epanalep- 


tic  in  form,  that  is,  in  the  distich,  the  second  half  of 
the  pentameter  repeats  the  first  half  of  the  hexameter. 
Up  to  line  48  the  author  sets  in  opposition  the  tj'pes 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  realities  of  the  New, 
a  theme  very  favourable  to  epanalepsis.  The  poem 
is  only  of  interest  for  the  history  of  typology.  In 
the  sequence  of  these  110  lines  other  antitheses  are 
utilized,  notably  those  of  the  benefits  of  God  and 
of  the  ingratitude  of  man.  The  other  hymn  ig 
abecedarian.  It  is  composed  of  twenty-tliree  strophes, 
each  of  which  commences  with  a  letter  of  the  alphabet. 
The  strophe  is  made  of  four  iambic  dimeters  (eight 
syllables).  The  structure  of  these  lines  is  generally 
correct,  excepting  an  occasional  hiatus  and  the 
lengthening  of  syllables  when  in  difficulties.  The 
poem  is  a  summarj^  of  the  story  of  the  Gospels, 
treated  very  freely,  for  in  92  lines  40  relate  the  child- 
hood of  Christ.  The  diction  is  at  the  same  time 
simple  and  distinguished,  the  style  easy  and  concise. 
These  qualities  led  the  Church  to  take  parts  of  this 
hymn  for  its  offices:  "A  solis  ortus  cardine"  for 
Christmas,  and  "Hostis  Herodes  impie"  under  the 
form  of  "Crudelis  Herodes  Deum"  for  Epiphany. 
It  has  also  taken  two  lines  of  the  "Carmen"  (II, 
63-64)  to  serve  as  the  Introit  in  the  Masses  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  "Salve  Sancta  Parens". 

The  best  edition  of  Sedulius  is  that  of  J.  Huemer 
in  the  "Corp.  script,  eccl.  lat."  (Vienna,  1885). 
From  a  note  which  is  found  in  several  manuscripts 
we  learn  that  the  works  of  Sedulius  were  edited  as 
early  as  the  fifth  century  by  Turcius  Rufius  Asterius 
(consul  in  494),  author  of  a  superscription  in  the 
Medicean  manuscript   of  Virgil. 

Huemer,  De  Sedulii  poetce  vita  et  ncriptis  commentatio  (Vienna, 
1878) ;  BoissiER,  Le  Carmen  paschale  et  I'opus  paschale  in 
Journal  des  savants  (Paris,  Sept.,  1881),  5.53;  Idem  in  Revue 
de  philologie,  VI  (Paris,  1882),  28. 

Paul  Lejay. 

Sedulius  Scotus,  an  Irish  teacher,  grammarian, 
and  Scriptural  commentator,  who  lived  in  the  ninth 
century.  Sedulius  is  sometimes  called  Sedulius  the 
Younger,  to  distinguish  him  from  Coelius  Sedulius, 
also,  probably,  an  Irishman,  the  author  of  the  "Car- 
men Paschale",  and  other  sacred  poems.  The  Irish 
form  of  the  name  is  Siadhal,  or  Shiel.  Sedulius  the 
Younger  flourished  from  840  to  860.  There  are, 
altogether,  six  Siadhals  mentioned  in  the  "Annals 
of  the  Four  Masters"  between  the  years  785  and  855. 
Of  these,  one  was  present  at  a  council  at  Rome  in 
721,  and  another  was  Abbot  of  Kildare,  and  died  in 
828.  The  best  known,  however,  and  the  most  im- 
portant, was  neither  of  these,  but  a  Siadhal  who, 
during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Lothair  (840-855), 
was  one  of  a  colony  of  Irish  teachers  at  Liege.  It 
appears  from  the  manuscript  records  of  the  ninth 
century  that  there  was  a  teacher  at  St.  Lambert, 
Li&ge,  who  was  known  as  Sedulius  Scotus,  and  was 
a  scribe  and  a  poet.  He  was  a  student  of  Greek,  and, 
according  to  Montfau(,on,  it  was  he  who  coi)ied  the 
Greek  Psalter  now  no.  8047  in  the  "Bil)liothoque  de 
TAnsenale",  Paris.  His  poems,  to  the  number  of 
ninety,  are  published  by  Traube  in  the  "  Poetie  ^vi 
Carolini",  which  is  a  portion  of  the  "Monumenta 
Germania'  Ilistorica".  It  is  quite  probable  that, 
towards  the  end  of  his  days,  he  went  to  Milan, 
following  (he  example  of  his  countryman,  Dungal, 
who  established  a  school  at  Pavia.  When  and  where 
he  died  is  unknown.  Sedulius's  most  important 
works  arc  his  treatise  "  De  Rectoribus  Christianis", 
a  commentary  on  Porphyry's  "Lsagoge",  or  intro- 
duction to  the  logic  of  Aristotle,  and  a  scriptural 
commentary  "Collectanea  in  omnes  beati  Pauli 
Epistolas".  The  first  of  these  is  a  noteworthy  con- 
tribution to  Christian  ethics.  It  is  the  first,  appar- 
ently, of  a  long  line  of  treatises  written  during  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  for  the;  instruction  of  Christian  princes  and 
rulers,  a  dissertation  on  the  duties  peculiar  to  that 


SEEKERS 


681 


state  of  life,  a  "Mirror  for  Princes",  as  such  works 
came  to  be  called  at  a  much  later  period.  Sedulius's 
work  shows,  among  other  remarkable  traits,  a  deep 
moral  feeling,  a  realization  of  the  fact  that  the  mis- 
sion of  the  State  is  neither  purely  economic  on  the 
one  hand  nor  exclusively  ecclesiastical,  on  the  other. 
The  question  of  the  relations  between  Church  and 
State  had,  indeed,  been  raised,  and  Sedulius,  it  need 
hardly  be  said,  does  not  hesitate  to  affirm  the  rights 
of  the  Church  and  defend  them.  He  is  not  on  the 
side  of  those  who,  seeing  in  Charlemagne  the  ideal 
of  a  pontiff  and  ruler  in  one  person,  were  in  favour 
of  the  idea  that  the  prince  should  in  fact  be  supreme 
in  matters  religious.  On  the  contrary,  he  is  in  favour 
of  a  division  of  temporal  and  spiritual  .powers  and  re- 
quires of  the  prince  a  careful  observance  of  the 
Church's  rights  and  privileges.  The  description  of 
the  qualifications  of  the  queen  (pp.  34  sq.  in  Hell- 
mann's  ed.)  is  not  only  Christian  in  feeling  and  tone, 
but  also  humanistic,  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word. 
The  commentary  on  the  "Isagoge"  is  remarkable 
because  it  seems  to  exhibit  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
text  of  that  work,  although  in  the  ninth  century  and 
for  at  least  three  t-enturies  after  the  ninth,  the 
"Isagoge"  was  known  in  Western  Europe  in  the 
Latin  version  only.  Not  the  least  interesting  of  the 
writings  of  Sedulius  are  his  letters,  some  of  which 
are  published  in  the  "Neues  Archiv",  II,  188,  and 
IV,  315.  In  them  are  narrated  the  vicissitudes  of 
the  Irish  exiles  on  the  Continent,  and  an  insight 
is  given  into  the  attitude  observed  towards  those 
exiles  by  the  authorities,  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  as 
well  ae  by  the  people. 

Hellman.v,  Sedulius  Scolus  (Munich,  1906) ;  Cath.  Univ.  Bul- 
letin  (April,    1898,    and    July,    1907). 

William  Turner. 

Seekers,  an  obscure  Puritan  sect  which  arose  in 
England  in  the  middle  of  the  sev(^nt(>eiith  century. 
They  represented  an  Antinomiaii  tendency  among 
some  of  the  Indepenflents,  and  jirofessed  to  be  seek- 
ing for  the  true  Church,  Sc^ripture,  Ministry,  and  Sac- 
raments. In  his  contemporary  account  Richard  Bax- 
ter says  of  them:  "They  taught  that  our  .scripture  was 
uncertain;  that  present  miracles  are  necessary  to  faith; 
that  our  ministry  is  null  and  without  authority,  and 
our  worship  and  ordinances  unnecessary  or  vain,  the 
Church,  ministry,  scripture  and  ordinances  being  lost, 
for  which  they  are  now  seeking. "  He  adds  the  ab- 
surd statement:  "I  quickly  found  that  the  Papists 
principally  hatched  and  actuated  this  sect,  and  that  a 
considerable  number  that  were  of  this  profession  were 
some  Papists  and  some  infidels"  (Life  and  Times,  76). 
According  to  Baxter,  they  amalgamated  with  the  Van- 
ists.  Weingarten  considers  that  they  held  Millen- 
arian  views.  Probably  the  name  denotes  a  school  of 
thought  rather  than  a  definitely-organized  body. 

Baxter,  Reliquia;  Baxterianct  (London,  IfiflO);  Weingarten, 
Die  Revolulionskirchen  Englands  (Leipzig,  1868). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Seelos,  Francis  X.,  b.  at  Fussen,  Bavaria,  11 
January,  1819;  d.  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  4  Oct.,  1867. 
When  a  child,  asked  by  his  mother  what  he  intended 
to  be,  he  pointed  to  the  picture  of  his  patron,  St. 
Francis  Xavier,  and  said:  "I'm  going  to  be  another 
St.  Francis."  He  pursued  his  studies  in  Augsburg 
and  Munich,  and  entered  the  Congregation  of  the 
Most  Holy  Redeemer,  offering  himself  for  the  Amer- 
ican mission;  he  arrived  in  America  on  17  April,  1843. 
The  following  year,  16  May,  1844,  he  made  his  religious 
profession  at  the  Redemptorist  novitiate,  Baltimore, 
and  seven  months  later  he  was  ordained  by  Arch- 
bishop Eccleston  of  Baltimore.  He  was  assigned  to 
St.  James's,  Baltimore.  In  May,  1845,  he  was  sent 
to  Pittsburg,  where  he  had  as  superior  Ven.  John 
Neuniann.  In  1851  Father  Seelos  was  appointed 
superior   of    the    Pittsburg    community,    where    he 


Francis  X.  Seelos,  C.SS.R. 


laboured  untiringly  for  nine  years.  His  confessional 
was  constantly  besieged  by  crowds  of  people  of  every 
description  and  class.  It  was  said  by  many  that  he 
could  read  their  very  souls.  From  Pittsburg,  he  was 
transferred  to  St.  Alphonsus's,  Baltimore,  where  he 
felldangerouslyill. 
On  his  recovery  he 
was  appointed 
prefect  (spiritual 
director)  of  the 
professed  stu- 
dents, and  he  suc- 
ceeded in  winning 
the  love  and  es- 
teem of  all  who 
were  privileged  to 
be  under  his  spirit- 
ual guidance.  In 
1860  his  name  was 
proposed  for  the 
vacant  See  of 
Pittsburg,  but 
humbly  refused 
the  honour.  The 
year  1S()2  found 
him  again  at  mis- 
sion work.  In 
1866  he  was  sum- 
moned to  Detroit, 
and  in  September 
of  the  same  year  to  New  Orleans,  Louisiana.  The 
cause  of  his  beatification  is  in  progress. 

ZiMMER,  Leben  des  P.  F.  X.  Seelos  (New  York,  1887);  Beck, 
Die  Redemptoristen  in  Pittsburg  (Pittsburg,  1889) ;  History  of  the 
Redemptorists  in  Annapolis  (Ilchester,  1904);  Benedetti,  Album 
Servorum  Dei,  C.  SS.  R.  (Rome,  1903) ;  Shea,  History  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  in  the  United  States,  I  (New  York,  1908). 

Cornelius  J.  Warren. 

Seerth,  a  Chaldean  see,  appears  to  have  succeeded 
the  See  of  Arzon  in  the  same  province,  several  of  the 
Nestorian  bishops  of  which  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries  are  known  (Chabot,  "Synodicon  orientale", 
666),  as  are  also  a  large  number  of  Jacobite  bishops 
(Revue  de  I'Orient  Chretien,  VI,  192).  The  diocese 
began  to  have  Catholic  titulars  in  the  time  of  Julius 
III.  Seerth  is  now  the  chief  town  of  a  sandjak  in  the 
vilayet  of  Bitlis,  containing  15,000  inhabitants.  It 
has  fine  orchards  and  vineyards,  is  an  industrial  cen- 
tre containing  much  gypsum,  and  manufacturing 
arms  and  printed  calico.  The  Dominicans  have  a 
mission  there;  the  Catholic  bishop,  Mgr  Addai  Scher, 
is  well  known  by  his  editions  of  Syriac  texts.  Amer- 
ican Protestants  have  schools  supported  by  their 
missionary  societies.  The  diocese  contains  3000 
faithful,  20  priests,  24  churches  or  chapels,  43  sta- 
tions, and  3  primary  schools. 

Revue  de  I'Orient  Chretien,  I,  447;  Cuinet,  La  Turquie  d'  Asie, 
II,  .596-605;    Missiones  catholicce  (Rome,  1907),  813 

S.  Vailhe. 

Seez,  Diocese  of  (Sagium),  embraces  the  Depart- 
ment of  Orne.  Re-established  by  the  Concordat  of 
1802,  which,  by  adding  to  it  some  parishes  of  the 
dioceses  of  Bayeux,  Lisieux,  Le  Mans,  and  Chartres, 
and  by  cutting  off  some  districts  formerly  included 
in  it,  made  it  exactly  coextensive  with  the  department. 
It  is  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Rouen.  Mgr. 
Duchesne  is  of  opinion  that  for  the  period  anterior 
to  900  no  reliance  can  be  placed  on  the  episcopal 
catalogue  of  Seez,  which  we  know  by  certain  compila- 
tions of  the  sixth  century.  This  catalogue  mentions 
Sigisbald  and  Saint  Latuinus  (Lain  or  Latuin)  as  the 
first  two  bishops  of  the  see.  Saint  Landry,  martyr, 
would  be  the  third.  Some  historians  say  that  Sigis- 
bald lived  about  451,  and  Landry  about  480;  others, 
relying  on  a  later  tradition,  assign  Saint  Latuinus  to 
the  first  century  and  make  him  a  missionary  sent  by 
Saint  Clement.    The  fiist  Bishop  of  Seez  historically 


SEGARELLI 


682 


SEGHERS 


known,  according  to  Mgr.  Duchesne,  is  Passivus,  who 
assisted  at  four  councils  after  the  year  533.  As 
bishops  of  Seez  the  following  merit  mention:  St. 
Raverennus  (date  uncertain),  whom  Mgr.  Duchesne 
does  not  include  in  the  episcopal  list;  St.  Aunobertus 
(about  6S9);  St.  Lotharius  and  St.  Godegrandus 
(Chrodegang),  assassinated,  whose  double  episcopacy 
^Igr.  Duchesne  assigns  to  the  close  of  the  seventh  or 
the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century;  St.  Adalhelmus 
( Adelin ) ,  aut  hor  of  a  work  on  the  life  and  miracles  of  St. 


Thk  Cathedral,  S^ez 

Opportuna;  Gervaise  (1220-28),  a  Premonstraten- 
sian,  who  had  the  confidence  of  Celestine  III,  Inno- 
cent III,  and  Honorius  III;  Jean  Bertaut  (1607-11), 
who,  with  his  fellow-student  and  friend,  Du  Perron, 
contributed  greatly  to  the  conversion  of  Henry  IV, 
and  who  was  esteemed  for  his  poetical  talents;  for 
the  occupation  of  the  See  of  Seez  in  1813  by  Guillaume 
Baston  (1741-1825),  see  Baston,  Guillaume-Andr6- 
Ren6. 

St.  EvTOul,  a  native  of  the  Diocese  of  Bayeux, 
founded,  after  560,  several  monasteries  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  a/icz ;  one  of  them  became  the  important  Abbey 
of  Sf-Martin-<ie-Seez,  which,  owing  to  the  influence 
of  Richelieu,  its  aflmini.strator-general,  was  reformed 
in  1636  by  the  Benediftines  of  St-Maur.  Rotrou  II, 
Count  of  Perche,  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  established 
in  1 122,  at  Soligny,  the  Abbey  of  I>a  IVappe,  in  favour 
of  which  Bulls  were  issued  by  Eugene  III  (1147), 
Alexander  III  (1173),  and  Innocent  III  (1203),  and 
which  was  reformed  in  1662  by  Abbot  y\mand  Jean 
le  Bouthillier  de  Ranc6  (q.  v.).  During  the  Revolu- 
tion the  Trappists  went  with  Dom  Augustin  de 
l^/ostranges.  26  April,  1791,  into  Switzerland,  where 
they  founrjefl  the  convent  of  La  Val  Sainte,  but  re- 
tumwi  to  Soligny  wwn  after  the  accession  of  lAiuin 
XVIIl.  Among  the  abbots  of  the  Trappist  monas- 
ferj'  at  Soligny  were:  Cardinal  Jean  du  Bellay,  who 
held  a  number  of  bishoprics  and  resigned  his  abbatial 
dignity  in  l.'<38;  the  historian  Dom  Gervai.se,  superior 
of  the  abbey  from  1 69(^-8.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
Ma.s.sacreof  St.  Bartholomew  (\T)12)  Matignon,  lea/lcr 
of  the  Catholics,  succeeded  in  saving  the  lives  of  the 
Protestants  at  Alen5on.    The  cathedral  of  S6ez  dates 


from  the  twelfth  century;  that  of  AlenQon  was  begun 
in  the  fourteenth.  The  following  saints  are  the  object 
of  special  devotion:  SS.  Ravennus  and  Rasyphus, 
martyred  in  the  diocese  about  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century;  St.  C6ronne  (d.  about  490),  who  founded 
two  monasteries  of  nuns  near  Mortagne;  St.  Cenericus, 
or  Ceneri  (d .  about  669 ) ,  born  at  Spoleto,  founder  of  t  he 
monaster\'  of  St.  Cenericus;  St.  Opportuna,  sister  of 
St.  Chrodegang,  and  her  aunt,  St.  Lanthilda,  abbesses 
of  the  two  monasteries  of  Almeneches  (end  of  the 
seventh  or  beginning  of  the  eighth  centur>') ;  St.  Evre- 
mond  (d.  about  720),  founder  of  the  monasteries  of 
Fontenay  les  Louvets  and  Montmevrey;  St.  Osmund, 
Bishop  of  Salisbury  (d.  1099),  who,  as  Comte  de  Sc^ez, 
had  followed  William  the  Conqueror  into  England. 

The  chief  pilgrimages  in  the  diocese  are:  Notre- 
Dame  des  Champs  at  Seez,  Notre-Dame  du  Vallet, 
Notre-Dame  du  Repos,  near  Almeneches,  three  very 
ancient  shrines;  Notre-Dame  de  Lignerollcs,  a  pil- 
grimage of  the  seventh  century;  Notre-Dame  de 
Recouvrance,  at  Les  Tourailles,  dating  beyond  900; 
Notre-Dame  de  Longny,  established  in  the  sixteenth 
century;  Notre-Dame  du  Lignon,  a  pilgrimage  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  In  1884  Mgr  Buguet,  cure  of 
Montligeon  chapel,  founded  an  expiatory  society  for 
the  abandoned  souls  in  Purgatorj^,  since  erected  by 
Leo  XIII  into  a  Prima  Primaria  archconf  rat  emit  y, 
which  publishes  six  bulletins  in  different  languages 
and  has  members  in  every  part  of  the  world.  Notre 
Dame  de  la  Chapelle  Montligeon  is  also  a  place  of 
pilgrimage.  The  Grande  Trappe  of  Soligny  still 
exists  in  the  Diocese  of  Seez,  which  before  the  applica- 
tion of  the  law  of  1901  against  religious  congregations 
had  different  teaching  congregations  of  brothers,  in 
addition  to  the  Redemptorists.  Among  the  congrega- 
tions of  nuns  originating  in  the  diocese  may  be  men- 
tioned: the  Si.sters  of  Providence,  a  teaching  and 
nursing  institute  founded  in  1683  with  mother-house 
at  Seez;  the  Sisters  of  Christian  Education,  estab- 
lished in  1817  by  Abb6  Lafosse,  mother-house  at 
Argentan,  and  a  branch  of  the  order  at  Farnborough 
in  England;  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  founded  in  1818 
by  Abbe  Bazin  to  nurse  the  sick  in  their  own  homes. 
At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  religious 
congregations  had  in  the  diocese:  2  infant  asylums, 
24  infant  schools,  3  workshops,  1  school  for  the 
blind,  1  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  4  boj's'  orphanages, 
11  girls'  orphanages,  2  refuges,  16  hospitals,  16  con- 
vents of  nuns  devoted  to  the  care  of  the  sick  at  home, 
and  1  insane  asvlum.  At  the  time  of  the  destruction 
of  the  Concordat  (1905)  the  diocese  contained  326,952 
inhabitants,  45  cures,  467  succursal  churches,  135 
vicarates  towards  the  support  of  which  the  State 
contributed. 

GaUia  Chrisliaria  (nom),  XI  (1759),  674-711,  instr.  1.51-200; 
Duchesne,  Pastes  ipiscopaux,  II,  229-.34;  Fisquet,  France  ponti- 
ficale,  diocise  de  Siez  CPann,  1866);  Hommey,  Hisloire  Gfnirale, 
ecdesiastique  el  civile  du  diocese  de  Siez  (Alpncon,  1899-1900); 
Marais  and  Beaddouin,  EsKni  historique  sur  la  calhidrale  et  le 
chapUre  de  SSez  (Alencon,  1878) ;  Blin,  Vie  des  saints  du  diocise  de 
Siez  et  histoire  de  leur  cuUe,  I  (LaigUs  187.3). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Segarelli,  Gerard.    See  Apostolici. 

Seghers,  Charles  John,  Bishop  of  Vancouver 
Island  (to-dav  Victoria),  Apostle  of  Alaska,  b.  at 
Ghent,  Belgium,  26  Dec,  1839;  d.  in  Alaska,  28  Nov., 
1886.  Left  an  orphan  at  a  very  early  date,  he  was 
brought  up  by  his  uncles.  After  having  studied  in 
locaL institutions  and  in  the  American  Seminary  at 
Ix)uvain,  he  was  ordaincul  jjriest  on  31  May,  1863. 
On  14  Sept.  of  the  same  year  he  left  for  Vancouver 
Island,  where  for  the  space  of  ten  years  he  was  en- 
gaged in  valuable  missionary  labours  among  the  pion- 
eer whites  and  the  natives.  On  23  March,  1873,  he 
was  apj)ointed  to  succeed  Bishop  Demers  (q.  v.). 
One  of  the  first  cares  of  the  new  prelate  was  to  visit 
the  territory  of  Alaska,  after  which  he  turned  his 
attention  towards  the  west  coast  of  Vancouver  Island, 


SEGNERI 


683 


SEGNI 


where  he  established  missions  for  the  Indians.  In 
1877  he  again  repaired  to  Alaska,  and  evangelized  in 
succession  St.  Michael's,  Nulato,  Ulukuk,  Kaltag, 
Nuklukayet,  and  various  other  points  along  the 
Yukon.  He  did  not  return  to  Victoria  before  20  Sept., 
1878.  He  was  then  named  coadjutor  to  the  Arch- 
bi.shop  of  Oregon  City,  whom  he  succeeded  12  Dec, 
1880.  After  meritorious  apostolic  labours  in  his  new 
field  of  action,  as  no  titular  could  be  found  for  his 
old  diocese  of  Victoria,  he  generously  volunteered  to 
return  thither,  with  a  view  to  following  up  his  work 
in  Alaska.  This  act  of  disinterestedness  deeply 
touched  Leo  XIII,  and  on  2  April,  1885,  Archbishop 
Seghers  again  took  possession  of  his  former  see. 
Whites  and  Indians  then  received  the  benefit  of  his 
ministrations,  and  two  missions  were  founded  (1885) 
in  Alaska,  one  at  Sitka,  the  other  at  Juneau.  But  in 
the  course  of  his  fifth  expedition  to  that  distant  land 
he  was  heartlessly  murdered  by  a  white  companion 
named  Fuller,  whose  mind  had  become  more  or  less 
unbalanced  under  the  stress  of  the  hardships  of  the 
journey  and  the  evil  counsels  of  an  American  who 
foresaw  in  the  coming  of  the  two  Jesuit  priests  the 
archbishop  had  brought  with  him  an  implied  re- 
proach. The  remains  of  the  bishop  were  ultimately 
transferred  to  Victoria. 

De  Baets,  Mgr.  Seghers,  I'Apdlre  de  V Alaska  (Paris,  1896); 
MoRiCE,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Western  Canada 
(Toronto,  1910). 

A.   G.    MORICE. 

Segneri,  Paolo,  the  elder,  Italian  Jesuit,  preacher, 
missionary,  ascetical  writer,  b.  at  Nettuno,  21 
March  (cf.  Massei)  1624;  d.  at  Rome,  9  Dec,  1694. 
He  studied  at  the  Roman  College,  and  in  1637  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus,  not  without  opposition 
from  his  father. 
The  eloquent 
Olivawas  his  first 
master  in  the  re- 
ligious life;  Sforza 
Pallavicini  taught 
him  theology. 
Under  such  guides 
his  virtues  and 
talents  developed 
1o  maturity.  He 
lectured  on  hu- 
manities for  sev- 
eral years,  and 
was  ordained 
priest  in  1653.  By 
a  careful  study  of 
Scripture,  the 
Fathers,  and  the 
Orations  of  Cicero, 
he  had  prepared 
himself  for  the 
l)ulpit,  for  which 
he  had  ever  felt 
a  strong  attraction.  He  volunteered  for  the  foreign 
missions,  but  Tuscany,  the  Papal  States,  and  the 
chief  cities  of  Italy  were  to  be  the  scene  of  his  labours. 
He  preached  at  first  in  the  great  cathedrals,  and  then 
for  twenty-seven  years  (1665-92)  gave  popular  mis- 
sions with  an  eloquence  surpassed  only  by  his  holi- 
m?ss.  His  "  Quaresimale "  (Florence,  1679,  tr.  New 
York,  1874)  had  been  read  and  admired  by  Antonio 
Pignatelli,  who  as  Pope  Innocent  XII  summoned  the 
missionary  to  preach  before  him,  and  made  him 
theologian  of  the  Penitentiaria.  Segneri's  biographer, 
Massei,  states  distinctly  that  "Le  Prediche  dette  nel 
palazzo  apostolico"  (Rome,  1694)  won  the  admira- 
tion of  the  pontiff  and  his  Court. 

After  St.  Bernardine  of  Siena  and  Savonarola, 
Segneri  was  Italy's  greatest  orator.  He  reformed 
the  Italian  pulpit.  Marini  and  the  Marinisti  with 
the  petty  tricks  and  simpering  graces  of  the  "Sei- 


cento"  had  degraded  the  national  literature.  The 
pulpit  even  was  infected.  Segneri  at  times  stumbles 
into  the  defects  of  the  "Seicentisti",  but  his  occa- 
sional bad  taste  and  abuse  of  profane  erudition 
cannot  blind  the  impartial  critic  to  his  merits. 
The  "Quaresimale",  the  "Prediche",  the  "Pane- 
gyrici  Sacri"  (Florence,  1684,  translated  by  Father 
Humphrey,  London,  1877),  stamp  him  as  a  great 
orator.  His  qualities  are  a  vigour  of  reasoning,  a 
strategist's  marshalling  of  converging  proofs  and  argu- 
ments, which  recall  Bourdaloue;  a  richness  of  imag- 
ination which  the  French  Jesuit  does  not  possess; 
a  deep  and  melting  pathos.  He  is  particularly  co- 
gent in  refutation;  to  harmony  of  thought  and  plan, 
he  unites  a  Dorian  harmony  of  phrase ;  he  is  full  of 
unction,  priestly,  and  popular.  He  has  two  sources 
of  inspiration,  his  love  of  God  and  of  the  people  be- 
fore him.  To  his  oratorical  powers,  he  added  the 
zeal  of  an  apostle  and  the  austerities  of  a  great 
penitent.  All  this  readily  explains  his  wonderful 
success  with  people  naturally  emotional  and  deeply 
Catholic  Entire  districts  flocked  to  hear  him;  ex- 
traordinary graces  and  favours  marked  his  career. 
His  triumphs  loft  him  simple  as  a  child.  In  his 
theological  discussion  with  his  superior-general, 
Thyrsus  Gonzalez,  who  was  a  firm  champion  of 
Probabiliorism,  he  combined  the  respect  and  obe- 
dience of  the  .subject  with  the  reasonable  and  manly 
independence  of  the  trained  thinker  (cf.  "  Lett  ere 
suUa  Materia  del  Probabile"  in  vol.  IV  of  "Opere", 
Venice,  1748).  Segneri  WTote  also  "II  penitente  is-, 
truito"  (Bologna,  1669);  "II  confes.sore  istruito" 
(Brescia,  1672);  "La  Manna  dell  anima"  (Milan, 
1683,  tr.  London,  New  York,  1892);  "II  Cristiano 
istruito"  (Florence,  1686);  "L'  Incredulo  senza 
scusa"  (Florence,  1690).  His  complete  works  (cf. 
Sommervogel)  have  been  frequently  edited:  at 
Parma,  1701;  Venice,  1712-58;  Turin,  1855,  etc. 
The  "Quaresimale"  has  been  printed  at  least  thirty 
times.  Some  of  Segneri's  works  have  been  trans- 
lated into  Arabic  Hallam  criticizes  Segneri  unfairly; 
Ford  is  more  just  in  his  appreciation. 

Massei,  Breve  raqyuaglio  della  Vita  del  Ven.  Servo  di  Dio  il 
Padre  Paolo  Segneri  (Florence,  Parma,  1701),  tr.  in  no.  27  of 
the  Oratory  Series  (London,  1851);  Tiraboschi,  Storia  della 
letteratura  italiana  (Modena,  1771-82),  VIII;  Fabroni,  VitcE 
Italorum  (Pisa,  1788-99);  Patrignani-Boero,  Menologio 
(Rome,  1859) ;  Audisio,  Lezioni  di  Eloquema  Sacra  (Turin, 
i859),  I,  Lecture  vi,  II,  Lecture  xxvi,  xxix,  III,  Lecture 
vi,  vii;  Ford,  Sermons  from  the  Quaresimale,  with  a  preface 
relating  to  the  author  (London,  1869)  Protestant;  Hallam,  In- 
trod.  to  the  Lit.  of  Europe  (New  York,  1841),  II,  26;  de  Coppier, 
Le  P.  Segneri  considere  comme  Oraleur  in  Etudes  (Dec,  1878); 
Trebbi,  II  Quaresimale,  con  discorso  ed  analisi  (Turin,  1883) ; 
Morris,  The  Lights  in  Prayer  of  the  Ven.  Frs.  de  la  Puente,  de  la 
Colombiire,  and  the  Rev.  Fr.  P.  Segneri,  S.J.  (London,  1893); 
Beli.oni,  II  seicento  (Milan,  1899);  Tacchi-Venturi,  Lettere 
inedite  di  P.  Segneri  ,  .  .  intorno  all  opera  segneriana  "  La 
Concordia"  (Florence,  1903);  Bulgarelli,  II  P.  Segneri  e  la 
diocesi  di  Modigliana  (Saluzzo,  1908);  Baumgartner,  Die  Ges- 
chichte  der  Weltliteratur,  VI  Band,  Die  italienische  Literalur  (St. 
Louis,  1911);  Cm7<d  Ca«oZica,  3rd  Series,  VIII.  454;  15th  Series, 
XII,  257;  lethSeries,  V,  314;  18thSeries,  V,  142;  Sommervogel, 
Bibl.  de  la  C.  de  J.,  VII;  Forn.^ciari,  Disegno  storico  della  lettera- 
tura italiana  (Florence,  1898). 

John  C.  Reville. 

Segni  (SiGNiNsis),  in  the  Province  of  Rome. 
The  city,  situated  on  a  hill  in  the  Monti  Lepini 
overlooks  the  valley  of  the  river  Sacco.  There  still 
exist  the  double  enclosure  of  a  cyclopean  wall  and 
the  gates,  the  architrave  of  which  is  a  large  monolith; 
one  of  these  is  the  famous  Porta  Saracinesca.  There 
are  also  the  ruins  of  a  church  (St.  Peter's)  and  some 
underground  excavations,  which  recall  Etruscan 
influence.  Under  Tarquin  the  Proud,  of  Etruscan 
origin,  it  became  a  colony.  With  other  Latin  cities  it 
rebelled  against  Rome  more  than  once.  On  several 
occasions  it  served  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  popes, 
and  Eugenius  III  erected  a  palace  there.  In  the 
twelfth  century  it  came  into  possession  of  the  Conti 
Marsi,  which  family  gave  four  members  to  the  papal 
ranks.     In  1558  it  was  sacked  by  the  forces  of  the 


SEGORBE 


684 


SEGOVIA 


Duke  of  Alba  in  the  war  against  Paul  IV;  immense 
booty  was  captured,  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  other 
towns  of  the  Campagna  had  fled  thither.  Segni 
is  the  birthplace  of  Pope  St.  Vitahanus  and  of  the 
physician  Ezio  Cleti.  The  Cappella  Conti  in  the 
cathedral  is  worthy  of  admiration  The  first  known 
bishop  of  Scgni  is  Sanctulus  (about  494) ;  among  his 
successors  are:  St.  Bruno  (1079),  who  ^^Tote  an  ex- 
cellent commentary  on  the  Scriptures;  Trasmundo 
(1123),  deposed  for  supporting  Anacletus  II,  the 
anti-pope;  on  his  repentance  he  was  restored;  under 
John  III  (1138),  St.  Thoma.s  a  Becket  was  canonized 
in  the  cathedral  (1173) ;  Lucio  Fazini  (14S2),  renowned 
for  his  erudition;  Fra  Bernardino  Callini  (1541), 
wrote  the  Ufe  of  St.  Bruno;  Giuseppe  PanfiH,  O.S.A. 
(1570),  deposed  and  imprisoned  on  account  of  his 
misdeeds;  Paolo  Ciotti  (1784),  who  governed  the 
diocese  with  great  wisdom  during  the  Revolution. 
The  diocese  is  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See; 
it  contains  12  parishes;  58  secular  and  18  regular 
priests;  20,000  inhabitants;  3  houses  of  religious  and 
8  of  nuns;  a  college  for  young  boys  and  5  educational 
establishments  for  young  girls. 

C.vPPELLETTi,  Le  chiese  d'ltalia,  II  (Venice,  1887). 

U.  Benigni. 

Segorbe  (or  C.4.stell6x  de  la  Plana),  Diocese 
OF  (Segobiensis,  or  Castellionensis),  in  Spain, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Castell6n  and  Teruel,  on  the 
east  by  Castell6n,  on  the  south  by  Valencia,  and  on 
the  west  by  ^'alencia  and  Teruel,  has  its  jurisdiction 
in  the  civil  Provinces  of  Castell6n,  Valencia,  Teruel, 
and  Cuenca.  It  is  suffragan  of  Valencia,  and  its  capi- 
tal, containing  7500  inhabitants,  is  also  the  capital  of 
the  Province  of  Castell6n  de  la  Plana.  This  city, 
though  the  capital  of  a  province,  has  no  episcopal  see: 
by  the  Concordat  of  1851  the  See  of  Tortosa,  to  which 
dioce.se  a  large  part  of  the  province  belongs,  is  to  be 
transferred  to  it.  According  to  the  common  opinion, 
Segorbe  Ls  the  ancient  Segobriga,  of  which  PUny 
speaks  as  the  capital  of  Celtiberia.  For  this  reason 
it  is  probable  that  the  town  has  been  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric  from  very  early  times;  however,  no  name 
of  any  Bishop  of  Segorbe  Ls  known  earlier  than  Pro- 
culus,  who  signed  in  the  Third  Council  of  Toledo. 
Porcarius  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Gundemar;  An- 
tonius,  at  the  fourth  of  Toledo;  Floridius,  at  the 
seventh;  Eusicius,  at  the  ninth  and  tenth;  Memorius, 
at  the  eleventh  and  twelfth;  Olipa,  at  the  thirteenth; 
Anterius  at  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth.  After  this  we 
have  no  information  of  its  bishops  until  the  Arab  in- 
vasion, when  its  church  was  converted  into  a  mosque. 
In  1172  Pedro  Ruiz  de  Azagra,  son  of  the  Lord  of 
Estella,  took  the  city  of  Albarracln,  and  succeeded  in 
estabhshmg  there  a  bi.shop  (Martin),  who  took  the  title 
of  Arcubricense,  and  afterwards  that  of  Seqohriceme, 
thinking  that  Albarracln  was  nearer  to  the  ancient 
Segobriga  than  to  Ercdvica,  or  Arcilbrica.  When 
Segorbe  was  conquered  by  Jaime  I  in  1245,  its  church 
was  purified,  and  Jimcno,  Bi.shop  of  Albarracln,  took 
possession  of  it.  The  bishops  of  Valencia  ojiposod 
this,  and  Amau  of  Peralta  entered  the  church  of 
Segorbe  by  force  of  arms.  The  controversv  beint; 
referred    io    Rxjme,    the    bishops    of    Segorbe    had 

Sart  of  their  territory  restored  to  them;  but  the 
chism  of  the  West  supervened,  and  the  aUitm^  quo 
continued.  In  1571  Francisco  Soto  Salazar  being 
bishop,  the  Diocese  of  Albarracln  was  separated  from 
Segorbe.  Eminent  among  the  bi.shops  of  the  latter 
was  Juan  Bautista  P^;rez,  who  exposed  the  fraudulent 
chronicl««.  In  modem  times  Domingo  Canubio,  the 
Dominican,  and  Francisco  Aguilar,  author  of  various 
historical  works,  are  worthy  of  mention. 

The  cathedral,  once  a  mosque,  has  been  completely 
rebuilt  in  such  a  manner  that  it  preserves  no  trace  of 
Arab  architecture.  It  is  connected  by  a  bridge  with 
the  old  episcopal  palace.  Its  time-stained  tower  and 
Its  cloister  are  built  on  a  trapezoidal  ground-plan. 


The  restoration  was  completed  in  1534;  and  in  1795 
the  nave  was  lengthened,  and  new  altars  added,  in  the 
episcopate  of  Lorenzo  Haedo.  Segorbe  possessed  a 
castle,  in  which  King  Martin  of  Aragon  lived  and  held 
his  court;  but  the  demolition  of  this  building  was  be- 
gun in  1785,  and  its  materials  were  used  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  hospital  and  Casa  de  Misericordia. 
The  seminary  is  in  the  Jesuit  college  given  by  Carlos 
III.  The  convents  of  the  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  the 
Augustinian  nuns,  and  the  Charterhouse  {Cartuja)  of 
Valdecristo  have  been  converted  to  secular  uses. 

P^rez-Aguilar,  Episcopologium  Segobricense;  Villagrasa, 
Antiguedades  de  la  Igl.  Cat.  de  Segorbe,  etc.  (Valencia,  1664); 
ViLL.\NUEVA,  Viaje  literario.  III,  IV;  Fl6rez,  Esp.  Sagrada,  VIII 
(Madrid,  1860) ;  Llorente,  Valencia  in  Espana  sus  monumentos 
(Barcelona,  1887). 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Am  ado. 

Segovia,  Diocese  of  (Segoviensis,  Segovi.*:), 
in  Spain,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Valladolid, 
Burgos,  and  Soria;  on  the  east  by  Guadalajara;  on 
the  south  by  Madrid ;  on  the  west  by  Avila  and  Valla- 
dohd.  It  extends  through  the  civil  Provinces  of 
Segovia,  Valladolid,  Burgos,  and  Avila.  The  episcopal 
city  has  a  population  of  about  15,000.  In  ancient 
times  this  region  was  within  the  country  of  the  Are- 
vaci.  and,  according  to  Plinj-,  belonged  to  the  juridi- 
cal convenlus  of  Clunia  in  Hispania  Carthagi- 
nensis.  As  to  the  origin  of  the  diocese,  the  spurious 
chronicle  attributed  to  Flavins  Dexter  pretends  that 
its  first  bishop  was  Hierotheus,  the  master  of  Diony- 
sius  the  Areopagite,  and  disciple  of  St.  Paul.  This 
tradition,  propagated  by  false  chronicles,  has  been 
refuted  by  a  Segovian,  the  Marques  de  Mondejar. 
It  is  more  probable  that  Segovia  belonged  to  the 
Diocese  of  Palencia  until  the  year  527,  when,  a  cer- 
tain bishop  having  been  consecrated  in  violation  of 
the  canon  law,  the  metropolitan  of  Toledo,  Montanus, 


Chitbch  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Segovia,  1150 


assigned  to  him  for  his  becoming  support  the  cities 
of  Segovia,  Coca,  and  Britalbo,  which  he  was  to 
keep  for  life.  As  Segovia  had  him  for  its  bishop  until 
his  death,  which  did  not  take  place  for  some  length  of 
time,  it  then  claimed  the  right  to  name  a  successor,  a 
demand  favoured  by  the  great  size  of  the  Diocese  of 


SEGOVIA 


685 


SEGOVIA 


Palencia.  It  is  certain  that,  in  589,  Petrus  signed  as 
Bishop  of  Segovia  in  the  Third  Council  of  Toledo; 
in  King  Gundemar's  synod,  Minicianus  signed  (610); 
in  the  Fourth  to  the  Eighth  Councils  of  Toledo,  Auser- 
icus;  in  the  Eleventh  (675),  Sinduitus;  in  the  Twelfth 
to  the  Fifteenth,  Deodatus;  in  the  Sixteenth  (693), 
Decentius. 

In  their  conquest  of  Spain,  the  Mussulmans  took 
Segovia  soon  after  conquering  Toledo,  about  714. 
With  this  calamity  is  associated  the  legend  of  St. 
Frutos,  the  patron  of  the  city,  who  Uved  as  a  sohtary 
in  the  northern  mountains  of  the  province,  with  his 
brother  and  sister,  Valentine  and  Engracia,  and  re- 
ceived the  Segovian  fugitives.  There  is  a  fissure  in 
the  rocks  which  is  called  "la  Hendidura  de  San  Fru- 
tos" (the  Ga.sh  of  St.  Frutos),  and  the  legend  runs 
that,  as  the  Saracens  were  about  to  pass  that  spot, 
the  saint  went  out  to  meet  them  and,  with  his  staff, 
drew  a  hne  beyond  which  they  must  not  come,  upon 
which  the  mountain  opened,  making  this  chasm. 
The  site  of  this  mona.stic  colony  of  fugitives  was 
granted,  after  the  reconquest,  to  the  monks  of  Silos 
(1076),  and  the  priory  of  San  Frutos  was  founded. 
To  the  period  of  the  Reconquest  also  belongs  the 
tradition  of  Nuestra  Senora  de  la  Fuenciscla,  an 
image  of  the  Ble.s.sed  Virgin  which  takes  its  name 
from  the  peak  rising  above  Las  Fuentes  (Fuenciscla 
being  derived  from  Jons  stillans,  "dripping  well"). 
A  cleric  hid  this  image  in  one  of  the  vaults  of  the 
cathedral,  supposed  to  have  been  what  is  now  the 
parish  church  of  San  Gil,  in  which  the  tombs,  accord- 
ing to  Mondejar,  are  those  of  the  ancient  bishops. 
After  the  Reconquest  the  image  was  placed  over  the 
door  of  the  old  cathedral.  .\n  Arabic  inscription  of 
960,  cut  on  a  capital,  proves  that  Segovia  was  at  that 
time  subject  to  Abderramdn  III;  the  Mozarabs, 
however,  preserved  their  religious  worship  there  and 
for  some  time  had  bishops,  of  whom  Ilderedo  governed 
the  diocese  in  940,  as  appears  in  a  deed  of  gift  made  by 
him  to  the  Bishop  of  Leon,  which  Fray  Atanasio  fie 
Lobera,  in  his  "History  of  L<5on",  testifies  to  having 
seen.  After  that  Segovia  was,  as  the  Tolotan  Annals 
tell  us,  "deserted  for  many  years".  It  is  beyond 
question,  however,  that  Christians  inhabited  it  in 
1072,  when  it  was  laid  waste  by  Alamun,  King  of 
Toledo,  who,  according  to  the  .\rab  historians  quoted 
by  Luis  de  Mdrmol,  made  bold  to  levy  war  against 
Sancho  II.  The  final  restoration  of  Segovia  took 
place  in  1088;  Count  Raymond  of  Burgundy,  son-in- 
law  of  Alfonso  VI,  repeopled  it  with  mountaineers 
of  Northern  Spain,  from  Galicia  to  Rioja. 

Alfonso  VII  re-established  the  episcopal  see,  the 
first  bishop,  Pedro,  being  con.secrated  on  25  January, 
1120,  according  to  the  Toletan  Annals,  although 
Pedro  had  already  signed  the  Council  of  Oviedo  as 
Bishop  of  Segovia  in  1115.  The  council  placed 
under  his  authority  the  quarter  of  the  city  lying 
between  the  Gate  of  St.  Andrew  and  the  castle;  in 
1122  Alfonso  I  of  Aragon  made  other  grants  to  him, 
and  in  1123  Queen  Urraca  gave  him  the  towns  and 
domains  of  Turegano  and  Caballar.  Callistus  II 
confirmed  all  this  in  the  Bull  of  9  April,  1123,  in  which 
the  events  leading  up  to  the  restoration  are  explained. 
Alfonso  VII  was  in  Segovia  on  many  occasions,  on 
one  of  which  he  restored  peace  between  its  bishop 
and  the  Bishop  of  Palencia,  who  had  been  quarrel- 
ing about  the  jurisdiction  over  certain  towns.  Pedro 
was  succeeded,  on  his  death  in  1148,  by  Juan,  who 
was  soon  after  promoted  to  the  See  of  Toledo,  and 
Vicente,  who  died  about  the  same  time  as  Alfonso, 
the  Emperor.  Sancho  III,  shortly  before  his  death, 
granted  Navarres  to  Bishop  Guillermo  (13  July, 
1158).  In  1161  the  Laras  took  Segovia  from  Alfonso 
VIII,  then  a  child  of  five  years,  who  yielded  also  the 
fourth  part  of  the  revenues  of  the  cathedral.  Bishop 
Gutierre  Gir6n  perished,  with  the  Segovians  whom 
he  was  leading,  in  the  disastrous  battle  of  Alarcos. 


In  1192  the  fifth  Bishop  of  Segovia  from  the  restora- 
tion had  been  succeeded  by  Gonzalo;  he  was  followed 
by  Gonzalo  Miguel,  who  lived  until  1211. 

On  the  re-establishment  of  the  see,  attention  was 
naturally  turned  to  the  rebuilding  of  the  cathedral. 
Certain  documents  of  1136  speak  of  the  Church  of 
S.  Maria  as  in  course  of  being  founded,  and  in  1144 
it  is  mentioned  as  having  been  founded,  from  which 
Diego  de  Colmenares,  the  historian  of  Segovia,  infers 
that  it  must  have  been  finished  at  that  time.  It 
certainly  was  not  consecrated,  however,  until  16 
July,    1228,  by  the  papal  legate,  John,   Bishop  of 


Chttrch  of  S.  Est^ban,  Segovia,  1210 

Sabina.  Situated  on  an  esplanade  to  the  east  of  the 
castle,  it  retains  only  a  suggestion  of  its  Byzantine 
structure,  as  it  was  entirely  destroyed  in  the  War  of 
the  Commons,  when  the  Comuneros  used  it  as  a  base 
of  attack  on  the  neighbouring  castle.  The  relics 
and  treasures  of  the  basilica  were  saved  in  the  church 
of  S.  Clara,  in  the  Plaza  Mayor,  to  which  they  were 
transferred  in  solemn  procession  on  25  October,  1522. 
About  1470  Bishop  Juan  Arias  Ddvila  undertook  the 
construction  of  a  fine  cloister,  which,  in  1524,  Juan 
Campero  caused  to  be  removed,  stone  by  stone,  to 
the  site  of  the  new  cathedral.  The  structure  of  the 
cloister  being  closely  connected  with  the  episcopal 
dwelling,  the  same  bishop.  Arias  Ddvila,  transferred 
the  latter  to  the  west  of  the  church  and  there  the 
bishops  continued  to  reside  even  after  the  cathedral 
was  transferred,  until,  about  the  year  1750,  they 
moved  into  the  episcopal  palace  in  the  Plaza  de  San 
Esteban,  during  the  episcopate  of  Bishop  Murillo 
y  Argdiz.  The  older  dwelUng  was  not  totally  de- 
molished until  1816. 

The  old  cathedral  having  been  irreparably  de- 
stroyed. Bishop  Fadrique  de  Portugal  selected,  as  a 
foundation  for  the  new,  the  Church  of  S.  Clara,  which 
the  nuns  had  left  when  they  were  incorporated  with  the 
community  of  S.  Antonio  el  Real.  On  24  May,  1525, 
Diego  de  Rivera,  Bishop  of  Segovia,  inaugurated  the 
laying  of  the  foundations,  and  on  8  June  solemnly 


S^GUR 


686 


SEGUR 


blessed  the  first  stone  and,  with  Gil  de  Hontaff6n  as 
master,  began  the  works  of  the  western  side  at  the 
spot  called  Puerta  del  Perd6n  (the  Gate  of  Pardon). 
Hontan6n  was  succeeded,  after  six  years,  b}'  his 
overseer,  Garcia  CubiUas.  On  14  August,  1558,  the 
new  church  was  consecrated,  and  the  mortal  remains 
of  Pedro,  son  of  Enrique  II,  as  well  as  of  many  pre- 
lates, were  transferred  to  it.  Not  until  the  entry  of 
Anne  of  Austria,  bride-elect  of  Philip  II,  in  1570, 
were  the  ruins  of  the  old  cathedral  razed,  so  as  to 
clear  the  way  to  the  castle.  In  August,  1563,  Rod- 
rigo  Gil  laid  the  foundations  of  the  main  choir.  In 
1615  the  tower,  burned  do'mi  the  year  before,  was 
constructed  under  the  dhection  of  Juan  de  Magaguren. 
The  barroque  stone  portal  of  the  north  transept  was 
designed  in  1620  by  Pedro  de  Brizuela.  Francisco 
de  Campo  Agiiero  and  Francisco  Viadero  executed 
the  sacristy,  the  sanctuary,  the  archivium,  and  the 
chapter  house.  The  brilliant  windows  which  give 
its  character  to  this  cathedral  are  the  work  of  Fran- 
cisco Herrainz.  The  style  of  the  structure  is  pure 
Gothic,  with  tliree  naves  and  lateral  chapels.  It 
was  consecrated  in  1768,  and  its  floor  was  flagged 
between  1789  and  1792.  The  retable,  executed  by 
Sabbatini  in  1768,  at  the  expense  of  Carlos  III,  is 
out  of  harmony  with  the  style  of  the  magnificent 
church.  Among  the  chapels,  the  last  one  on  the 
Gospel  side,  with  the  "Xuestra  Seiiora  de  Piedad" 
of  Juan  Juni  of  Valladolid,  merits  special  notice. 
In  the  chapel  through  which  access  is  gained  to  the 
cloister  is  the  "Cristo  del  Con.suelo",  as  well  as  the 
tombs  of  Bishops  Raimundo  de  Losana  and  Diego  de 
Covarrubias. 

Segovia  has  some  very  old  parish  churches,  which, 
\vith  their  square  Romanesque  towers,  were  certainly 
built  before  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  A 
celebrated  one  is  that  of  San  Miguel;  its  Gothic  struc- 
ture collapsed  in  1532,  and  the  rebuilding  of  it  in  its 
present  form  was  completed  in  1558.  It  contains 
the  tomb  of  the  famous  Andres  Laguna,  physician 
to  Julius  III  and  to  Charles  V.  San  Est6ban,  oppo- 
site the  bishop's  palace,  has  the  most  beautiful 
Byzantine  tower  in  Spain.  In  San  Juan  de  los  Cabal- 
leros  (St.  John  of  the  Knights)  repose  the  remains  of 
Diego  de  Colmenares,  the  historian  of  Segovia,  who 
was  pari.sh  priest  of  that  church.  The  parish  churches 
of  San  Gil  and  San  Bias  dispute  between  them  the 
honour  of  having  been  the  original  cathedral.  The 
former  was  rebuilt  in  the  thirteenth  century  by  Bishop 
Raimundo  de  Losana.  They  are  both  in  ruins. 
King  Juan  I  instituted  in  the  cathedral  of  Segovia 
an  order  of  knighthood,  that  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (1390). 

The  city  po.s.ses.ses  a  famous  Roman  aqueduct, 
probably  built  by  Trajan;  in  the  Plaza  del  Azoguejo 
its  arches  are  92  feet  in  height;  it  is  3000  (Spanish) 
feet  in  length,  and  has  one  hundred  and  seventy 
arches,  thirty-six  of  which  were  reconstructed  by 
Juan  de  Escobedo,  a  Hieronymite  friar  (1484- 
1489).  The  castle  (alcdzar)  of  Segovia,  which  Alfonso 
VI  caused  to  be  built  in  1075,  is  a  remarkable  struc- 
ture. It  has  a  lofty  rectangular  tower,  known  as 
that  of  Don  Juan  II,  and  several  other  round  ones 
surmounted  with  high  conical  roofs.  In  it  Carlos 
III  establi.shed  the  Artillery  Academy  which  remained 
there  until  1862,  when  a  conflagration  occurred  which 
compelled  its  removal  to  the  old  Franciscan  convent. 
The  seminary,  founded  by  Bishop  Antonio  Marcos 
de  Llanes  (1791),  is  under  the  invocation  of  Sts. 
Frutos  and  Ildefonso.  In  this  diocese  is  the  roj'al 
estate  of  San  Ildefonso,  or  La  Granja,  the  summer 
residence  of  the  kings  of  Spain,  built  by  Philip  V 
on  the  site  of  an  ancient  hermitage  dedicated  to  S. 
Ildefonso  and  an  estate  (granja)  granted  by  the 
Catholic  monarchs  to  the  Hieronymites  of  Parral. 
Part  of  the  royal  estate,  too,  is  forme<l  by  the  colle- 

f'ate  church  founded  by  Philip  V  and  restored  by 
emando  Vll. 


In  addition  to  authors  cited  in  the  body  of  this  article,  see 
also:  Fl6rez,  EspaAa  Sagrada,  VIII  (Madrid,  1849);  Ccadkado, 
Segoria  in  EspaAa,  sua  monumentos  (Barcelona,  18S4);  Madoz, 
Dice,  geogr.,  XIV  (Madrid,  1849);  Gebh.vrdt,  Hist.  gen.  de  Esp. 
(Barcelona). 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Amado. 

Segur,  Louis  Gaston  de,  prelate  and  French 
apologist,  b.  15  April,  1820,  in  Paris;  d.  9  June,  1881, 
in  the  same  city.  He  was  descended  on  his  paternal 
side  from  the  Marquis  of  S6gur — Marshal  of  France 
and  Minister  of  Louis  XVI,  who  occupied  this  posi- 
tion during  the  participation  of  France  in  the  war 
of  emancipation  of  the  United  States — from  the  Comte 
de  Segur,  companion  of  Lafaj^ette  in  America,  and 
on  his  maternal  side  was  descended  from  the  Russian 
Count  Rostopchine  who  burned  Moscow  in  1812  to 
WTest  it  from  Napoleon.  After  his  humanities,  from 
a  comparative  indifference  to  religion  he  experienced 
a  remarkable  fervour ;  entering  the  diplomatic  service, 
he  was  made  attache  to  the  Embassy  at  Rome  in 
1842,  but  the  following  year  he  left  this  post  and  even 
gave  up  painting,  for  which  he  had  excellent  taste 
and  much  talent,  to  enter  the  Seminary  of  Saint- 
Sulpice  and  to  prepare  himself  for  the  priesthood,  to 
which  he  was  ordained  in  1847.  Thenceforth  he 
dedicated  himself  to  the  evangelization  of  the  people 
in  Paris;  the  children,  the  poor,  the  imprisoned  sol- 
diers to  whom  he  was  the  volunteer  and  gratuitous 
chaplain,  occupied  his  ministry  until  he  was  appointed 
to  be  auditor  of  the  Rota  for  France  at  Rome.  He 
remained  in  this  position  for  four  years,  honoured 
with  the  affectionate  esteem  of  Pius  IX  and  with 
the  friendship  of  many  personages  of  the  pontifical 
and  diplomatic  Court.  He  united  with  his  judicial 
functions  some  political  negotiations  which  Napoleon 
III  had  confided  to  him,  and  also  ministrations  to  the 
French  soldiers  in  the  garrison  at  Rome.  Attacked 
with  blindness,  he  was  obliged  to  resign  from  his 
duties  in  1856;  he  returned  to  Paris  with  the  honours 
and  privileges  of  the  episcopate,  the  title  and  reality 
of  which  his  infirmity  prevented  him  from  receiv- 
ing. His  life  was  devoted  to  his  official  duties 
and  to  religious  works.  The  chief  among  these  was 
the  patronage  of  young  apprentices,  the  union  of 
workingmen's  societies,  ecclesiastical  vocations  and 
seminaries,  military  chaplaincies,  and  the  evangeliza- 
tion of  the  suburbs  of  Paris.  To  each  of  these  works 
he  gave  unstintedly  his  time,  his  care,  his  preaching, 
his  money,  and  that  of  others,  of  whom  he  asked  it 
without  false  pride.  Among  his  undertakings,  and 
one  which  most  occupied  him,  was  the  work  connected 
with  the  St.  Francis  de  Sales  Association,  for  the  de- 
fence and  preservation  of  the  Faith.  After  founding 
this  devotion  he  established  it  in  forty  dioceses  of 
France  in  less  than  a  year  after  its  foundation  (1859), 
and  was  able  also  to  gather  and  distribute  30,000 
francs  in  alms.  Mgr  de  S(5gur  worked  incessantly 
for  its  development.  When  he  died  it  numbered 
1,900,000  associates,  collected  annually  800,000 
francs,  and  extended  its  activities  and  benefits  to 
France,  Belgium,  Italy,  Spain,  and  even  to  Canada. 

Besides  his  apostolate  and  ministry  he  was  also 
engaged  in  writing.  In  1851  he  published  in  a  modest 
form  "R6ponses  aux  objections  les  plus  rdpandues 
contre  la  religion  " ;  it  met  with  considerable  success. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  700,000  copies  had  been  sold 
in  France  and  Belgium  without  counting  the  many 
editions  in  Italian,  German,  English,  Spanish,  and 
even  in  the  Hindu  language.  After  his  affliction 
with  blindness  his  works  multiplied  noticeably;  some 
were  destined  to  make  known  or  defend  Catholic 
ideas  concerning  questions  which  occupied  public 
attention;  others  to  extend  or  to  confirm  his  apos- 
tolate of  preaching  in  forming  souls  to  piety  or  to 
the  interior  life.  To  the  first  category  belong  among 
others  the  "  Causer ies  sur  le  protestantisme"  (1898); 
"le   Pape"    (1860);     "le   Denier  de   Saint   Pierre" 


S^GUR 


687 


SEITZ 


(1861)  ;  "la  Divinity  de  Notre  Seigneur  Jesus 
Christ"  (1862);  "les  objections  populaires  contre 
rencyclique  [Quanta  cura]"  (1869);  "Les  Francs- 
Masons''  (1867);  "le  Pape  est  infaillible"  (1870); 
"I'Ecole  sans  Dieu"  (1873).  To  the  second  class 
belong  among  others:  "les  Instructions  familieres 
sur  toutes  les  verites  de  la  religion  "  (1863) ;  "  Notions 
fundamen tales  sur  la  piete  (1863);  "La  piete  et  la 
vie  interieure"  (1864);  "Jesus  vivant  en  nous" 
(of  which  an  Italian  translation  was  put  on  the  Index) 
(1869);  "La  piete  enseignee  aux  enfants"  (1864). 
One  need  not  seek  in  these  works  vast  learning  nor 
didactic  discussions.  The  author  did  not  strive  for 
this;  he  intended  his  apologetic  books  for  the  people 
and  for  all  who  ignored  religion.  They  were  mostly 
brief  pamphlets,  vigilant,  full  of  vivacity  and  spirit, 
written  with  a  frankness  wholly  French  in  a  popular 
style,  sprinkled  with  caustic  irony  and  Parisian 
pleasantries.  In  his  ascetical  works  he  aimed  above 
all  to  spread  the  true  principles  of  Catholic  spirit- 
uality in  opposition  to  the  old  traditions  of  Jansenism 
and  Gallicanism.  His  zeal  was  crowned  with  success, 
his  little  books  attained  numerous  editions.  Thus 
at  his  death  there  had  been  .sold  44,000  copies  of 
his  "Instructions  familieres",  his  works  "Le  Pape", 
"La  Communion",  and  " La  Confession "  were  issued 
to  the  number  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  copies. 
His  complete  works  have  been  edited  in  ten  volumes 
(Paris,  1876-7);  since  have  appeared  "Cent  cin- 
quante  beaux  miracles  de  Notre  Dame  de  Lourdes" 
(2  vols.  Paris,  1882);  "Journal  d'un  voyage  en 
Italic"  (Paris,  1822);  "Lettres  de  Mgr  de  Segur" 
(2  vols.  Paris,  1882). 

Marquis  db  S^gur,  Mgr  de  Segur,  Souvenirs  et  recits  d'un 
frkre. 

Antoine  Degert. 

Segur,  Sophie  Rostopchine,  Comtesse  de,  b. 
1797;  d.  1874.  Her  father  was  General  Rostop- 
chine who  ordered  the  city  of  Moscow  to  be  set  on  fire 
after  the  battle  of  Borodino  (1812)  and  thus  com- 
pelled Napoleon  to  begin  his  disastrous  retreat  from 
Russia.  She  married  Eugene  Comtc  de  S6gur, 
grandson  of  Louis  Philippe  de  Segur,  and  nephew  of 
Philippe  Paul  de  S6gur,  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
officers  in  the  imperial  army  and  author  of  "Histoire 
de  Napol6on  et  de  la  grande  arm^e  pendant  I'annce 
1812"  which  had  more  than  fifteen  editions  and  was 
translated  into  most  of  the  European  languages. 
Mme.  de  S6gur  was  a  woman  of  culture  and  uncom- 
mon literary  talent.  She  contributed  a  number  of 
stories  to  the  "  Bibliotheque  Rose",  a  collection  of 
short  novels  for  young  people;  among  them  are: 
"Pauvre  Blaise"  (Paris,  1862);  "Le  G<5n6ral  Doura- 
kine"  (Paris,  1864);  "Un  bon  petit  diable"  (Paris, 
1865);  "Les  vacances",  (Paris,  1865);  "Lemauvais 
g^nie"   (Paris,   1867).  Pierre  Marique. 

Segusio,  Henry  of.  See  Henry  of  Segusio, 
Blessed. 

Sehna  (Sihnah),  Diocese  of  (Sehanensis),  a 
Chaldean  see,  governed  by  a  patriarchal  adminis- 
trator with  episcopal  rank.  It  was  erected  in  1853, 
its  subjects  being  partly  in  Persia  and  partly  in 
Turkey  at  Suleimanieh.  It  is  likely  to  be  united  to 
the  See  of  Kerkuk.  The  diocese  was  in  fact  admin- 
istered by  the  Archbishop  of  Kerkuk  about  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  contains  700  Catholics, 
5  priests,  2  primary  schools,  and  2  chapels.  Sehna  or 
Sinna,  the  principal  town,  is  in  Persia. 

Revue  de  VOrient  Chritien,  I,  452;  Miss.  Cath.  (Rome,  1907), 
874. 

S.  Vailhje. 

Seidl,  Johann  Gabriel,  poet,  author  of  the  pres- 
ent Austrian  national  hymn,  b.  at  Vienna,  21  June, 
1804;  d.  there  ,  17  July,  1875.  The  family  of  Seidl 
was  of  Swiss  origin,  Johann's  grandparents  having 


settled  in  Austria.  The  poet's  father  is  described 
as  an  able  lawyer,  and  his  mother  as  a  good  housewife. 
After  passing  through  the  gymnasium  with  the  great- 
est success,  their  only  son  attended  the  university 
at  the  age  of  fifteen  to  devote  the  then  usual  two 
years  to  philosophy  On  the  completion  of  this 
period,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  jurispru- 
dence, but  the  early  death  of  his  father  compelled 
him  to  support  himself  and  his  mother  by  acting  as 
private  tutor.  Consequently  he  exchanged  juris- 
prudence for  pedagogy,  passed  his  qualifying  examina- 
tion in  this  faculty  in  1827,  and  two  years  later  was 
appointed  to  the  state  gymnasium  in  Cilli.  Before 
moving  thither  he  married  Therese  Schlesinger,  who 
bore  him  two  children.  The  laudatory  necrologies, 
which  a  false  report  of  his  death  evoked  both  at  home 
and  abroad,  attracted  the  attention  of  the  authorities, 
so  that  after  eleven  happy  years  at  Cilli  he  had  to 
return  again  to  Vienna  as  custodian  of  the  imperial 
cabinet  of  medals  and  antiques.  A  little  later  he  was 
appointed  censor  of  books,  an  office  which  he  filled 
until  1848.  He  was  then  elected  corresponding,  and 
in  1851  regular,  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of 
Sciences.  After  his  version  of  the  Haschka  national 
anthem  had  been  declared  the  authentic  text,  honours 
were  heaped  on  the  poet:  the  knight's  cross  of  the 
Order  of  Franz  Joseph,  medal  for  art  and  science, 
the  post  of  imperial  treasurer  (1856),  and  appoint- 
ment as  ministerial  counsel  (1866).  In  1871  he 
received  a  pension  and  was  simultaneously  invested 
with  the  Order  of  the  Iron  Crown  of  the  third  class; 
on  the  occasion  of  his  seventieth  birthday,  he  re- 
ceived the  title  and  character  of  an  aulic  councillor. 
The  town  of  Cilli  named  him  an  honorary  freeman. 
Shortly  afterwards  his  health  began  to  fail.  His 
death  was  characterized  by  the  same  piety  which 
had  marked  his  life.  In  1892  the  municipal  council 
of  Vienna  dedicated  to  him  an  honorary  grave  in  the 
Zentralfriedhof,  and  at  the  centenary  of  his  birth 
a  bust  and  memorial  tablet  were  unveiled  at  his 
former  residence  in  Cilli.  Seidl  was  a  very  fruitful 
poet  and  author,  and  the  enumeration  of  his  works 
occupies  twenty-five  pages  in  Godeke's  "Grundriss". 
Only  a  few,  however,  have  an  interest  for  modern 
readers.  Of  the  numerous  collections  of  poems  the 
"Bifolien"  are  still  of  interest,  but  his  novels,  sixty 
in  number,  are  long  forgotten.  For  drama  he  had  no 
talent,  however  much  he  strove  after  the  palm  of 
tlramatic  poetry.  His  best  compositions  are  his 
dialectic  poems,  "Flinserln",  of  which  many  have 
become  real  folksongs  of  Austria.  His  name  is  im- 
mortally linked  with  his  adaptation  of  the  Austrian 
national  anthem.  As  a  scholar  Seidl  was  tirelessly 
active.  Still  prized  are  his  collections  of  legends, 
and  also  his  contribution  to  the  "  Stizungsberichten 
der  kaiserlichen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften", 
to  scientific,  historical,  and  geographical  journals, 
and  to  the  "Zeitschrift  fiir  die  osterreichischen 
Gymnasien",  founded  in  1850. 

GoDEKE,  Grundriss,  LX  (1910),  102-30.  The  most  important 
literature  on  Seidl  are  the  writings  published  on  the  occasion  of 
the  centenary  of  his  birth  in  Zeilschr.  fur  die  listerreich.  Gymnasien 
and  Grillparzerjahrhuch.  His  complete  works  have  been  edited 
by  Max  (6  vols.,  1871-81),  Wurzbach  (4  vols.,  1904,  with  bio- 
graphical introduction,  pp.  i-lxxx),  Reklam  (2  vols.,   1906). 

N.    SCHEID. 

SeitZ,  Alexander  Maximilian,  painter,  b.  at 
Munich,  1811;  d.  at  Rome,  1SS8.  He  studied  under 
Cornelius,  and  two  early  pictures  "Joseph  sold  by  his 
Brethren",  and  the  "Seven  Sleepers"  received  speedy 
recognition.  Heinrich  Hess  employed  him  on  the 
frescoes  in  the  Church  of  All  Saints.  After  he  had 
painted  compositions  depicting  four  of  the  sacraments, 
Cornelius  took  him  to  Rome.  Here  Seitz  found  in 
Overbeck  a  man  of  the  same  religious  opinions,  with 
a  style  which  he  at  once  sought  to  make  his  own.  He 
aided  Overbeck  in  carrying  out  the  frescoes  of  the 


SEJNY 


688 


SELEUCIANS 


Evangelists  and  Apostles  at  Caste!  Gandolfo,  and  at 
a  later  date,  when  Overbeck's  strength  was  no  longer 
equal  to  the  task,  Seitz,  with  the  aid  of  his  gifted  son, 
Ludwig  Seitz,  completed  Overbeck's  frescoes  in  the 
cathedral  at  Diakovar  by  filling  the  gaps  with  com- 
positions of  his  own.  With  the  help  of  his  son,  Seitz 
painted  a  cj'cle  of  pictures  of  saints,  for  Herder  of 
Freiburg.  Besides  some  secular  compositions,  as  the 
genre  pictures  of  the  life  of  the  common  people  at 
Rome,  he  treated  pre-eminently  scenes  and  persons 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  His  pictures  of  the 
"Adoration  of  the  Shepherds",  "Christ  as  the  Friend 
of  Children",  "Awakening  of  the  Young  Man  of 
Naim",  "Tribute  Money",  "Jacob  and  Esau",  and 
"The  Finding  of  Moses",  are  entirely  in  the  spirit  of 
Overbeck.  A  "Mater  Amabilis"  aroused  much  ad- 
miration; an  enthroned  ISIadonna  went  to  England. 
The  "St.  Anthony,  and  St.  Benedict",  as  engraved 
by  the  Capuchin  Bernardo  da  Monaco,  had  a  wide 
popularity.  Good  pictures  also  are:  "Translation  of 
St.  Catherine  to  Sinai  by  angels",  and  especially  a 
round  picture  of  "Rest  during  the  Flight  to  Egj-pt". 
In  this  three  angels  worship  Christ,  who  lies  with  out- 
stretched arms  on  the  lap  of  the  mother,  while  at  some 
distance  is  Joseph  ^\'ith  the  beast  of  burden.  In  the 
Trinita  de'  Monti  at  Rome  he  painted  in  fresco  the 
return  of  the  prodigal  son  and  Christ  with  heart 
aflame. 

R.VCZTN9KJ,  Histoire  de  I'art  moderne  en  Allemagne,  II,  III 
(Paris,  1840);  Forster,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Kunst  (5  vols., 
Leipzig,  1860). 

G.    GlETMANN. 

Sejny  (August6wo)  Diocese  of  (Sejnensis,  or 
AuGUSTOviENSis),  a  diocese  in  the  northwestern  part 
of  Russian  Poland  near  the  border  of  East  Prussia, 
German  Poland.  Its  territory  formerly  belonged  to 
the  Diocese  of  Vilna,  but  upon  the  first  partition  of 
Poland  it  fell  to  Germany.  Consequentlj^  a  separate 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  was  desired,  and  so  Pius  VI, 
on  27  March,  1798,  carved  out  the  new  diocese  and 
e.stablished  its  see  at  the  Camaldolese  monastery  of 
Wigry,  a  village  about  ten  miles  east  of  the  present 
city  of  Suwalki.  This  monastery  of  Camaldoli  was 
founded  under  the  patronage  of  King  Jagiello  in  1418, 
and  the  Church  of  Our  Lady,  which  became  the  cathe- 
dral, is  now  the  parish  church  of  Wigry.  The  first 
bishop  of  the  diocese  was  the  celebrated  preacher 
Michael  Francis  Karpowicz  (b.  1744;  d.  1805).  His 
successor  was  John  Clement  Golaszewski  (b.  1748;  d. 
1820),  who  enlarged  the  Wigry  cathedral.  After  the 
third  partition  of  Poland  this  territory  was  ceded  to 
Rassia,  and  in  1818  the  Church  throughout  the  Polish 
kingdom  was  reorganized.  By  a  Bull  of  Pius  VII 
Warsaw  was  made  the  metropolitan  see  and  the  see  of 
Wigry  was  changed  to  Augustowo,  a  city  founded  in 
1561  by  King  Sigrfiund  Augustus,  after  whom  it  was 
named,  which  is  still  the  largest  place  in  tliat  section 
(population  65,000).  The  new  catherlral  and  chapter 
there  were  inaugurated  on  December  8,  1819.  The 
next  bishop,  Ignatius  Czyzewski,  the  first  to  rule  the 
newly  named  diocese,  did  not  remain  at  August6wo, 
but  changed  his  place  of  residence  in  1823  to  Sejny,  a 
town  founded  in  1.522  by  King  Sigmund  I,  and  "which 
is  about  twenty  miles  east  of  Suwalki,  the  capital  of 
the  district.  The  succeeding  bishop,  Nicholas  John 
Manugicwicz,  established  the  diocesan  seminary  in 
1830,  and  for  many  years  resided  sometimes  at  Au- 
gust/)\yo  and  then  at  Sejny.  His  successor  was  Stanis- 
laus Choromartski,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Warsaw. 
The  next  bishop,  Straflz.\'fiski,  made  the  old  Domini- 
can church  at  Sejny  his  catherlral  and  entered  it  as 
bishop,  4  February,  1837.  He  was  in  frequent  col- 
lision with  the  Russian  authorities,  and  on  his  death  in 
1847  the  see  was  kept  vacant  bv  the  Pussian  Govern- 
ment until  1863.  Constantine  Lubiertski  was  then 
made  bishop,  and  on  his  death  in  I860  at  Nowgrodzie 
was  succeeded   by   Bishop  Wierzbowski.     His  suc- 


cessor was  Anthony  Baranowski,  and  the  present 
bishop  (1911)  is  Anthony  Kara^.  Sejny  has  the  cathe- 
dral church,  chapter  and  consistory,  the  diocesan  sem- 
inary and  the  hospital  of  St.  Simon  managed  by  the 
Sisters  of  Charity.  The  diocese  is  divided  into  eleven 
deaneries  and  has  a  Cathohc  population  of  692,250. 
There  are  119  parish  churches  and  20  subordinate 
ones,  besides  100  chapels  and  3  convents.  The  dio- 
cese has  352  secular  priests,  4  regulars,  86  seminarians, 
24  lay  religious,  besides  8  nuns  and  26  Sisters  of 
Charity.  Owing  to  the  Russian  regulations  against 
receiving  novices  and  postulants,  the  regular  clergy 
and  monastic  institutions  are  dying  out. 

Battandier.  Annnaire  Pontificale  (Paris,  1911);  Slownik  Geo- 
groficzny,  X  (Warsaw,  1900).  ANDREW   J.    ShIPMAN. 

Sekanais  (or  more  properlj^  Tshe-'k^h-ne,  "Peoplie 
on  the  Rocks",  i.  e.,  the  Rocky  Mountains),  a D^n6 
tribe  whose  habitat  is  on  both  sides  of  the  Rockies, 
from  52°  to  57°  30'  N.  lat.  By  language  they  are 
an  eastern  tribe,  and  it  is  not  much  more  than  130 
years  since  a  portion  of  their  congeners,  having  come 
into  possession  of  fire-arms  through  the  Canadian 
fur  traders,  made  such  reckless  use  of  the  same  that 
the  westernmost  bands  had  to  cross  the  mountains 
to  get  out  of  their  reach.  These  quondam  aggressors 
originally  roamed  along  the  Athabasca  and  Beaver 
Rivers,  and  they  are  to-day  known  under  the  name 
of  Beavers,  claiming  now  the  valley  of  the  Peace  be- 
tween Fort  Dunvegan  and  a  point  some  distance  from 
L.  Athabasca.  Another  split  in  the  Sekanais  ranks, 
which  was  due  to  an  insignificant  incident,  brought 
into  existence  still  another  tribe,  whose  members  were 
ultimately  admitted  into  the  Blackfeet  Confederacy 
under  the  name  of  Sarcees.  The  Sekanais  proper  are 
not  to-day  more  than  450;  the  Beavers,  perhaps 
550,  and  the  Sarcees,  190.  By  natural  disposition 
as  much  as  from  necessity  the  Sekanais  are  invet- 
erate nomads.  They  have  no  fixed  abodes,  and 
therefore  no  villages,  or  even  chiefs  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word.  The  best  related  among  the 
fathers  of  families  are  their  only  headmen,  and  their 
role  is  restricted  to  directing  the  movements  of  their 
respective  bands.  Yet  the  Sekanais  are  scrupulously 
honest  and  moral,  though  theirs  is  the  only  D^nc 
tribe  in  which  polyandry  is  known  to  have  existed 
in  pre-missionary  times.  Superstitious  and  naive 
to  a  degree,  they  received  the  Gospel  without  ques- 
tioning; but  their  habitat  and  environment,  with 
their  consequent  nomadic  habits,  have  conspired 
to  make  the  establishment  of  permanent  mis- 
sions among  them  difficult.  However,  most  of  them 
are  to-day  under  the  influence  of  the  Catholic 
priest.  Even  the  Beavers,  who  are  less  religiously 
inclined,  have  steadfastly  resisted  the  advances  of 
the  Protestant  ministers. 

MoRicE,  The  Western  Denen;  their  Manners  and  Customs  (To- 
ronto, 1890);  Idem,  Notes  on  the  Western  Dinfs  (Toronto,  1892); 
Idem,  History  of  the  Northern  Interior  of  British  Columbia  (To- 
ronto, 1904);  Idem,  The  Great  Dini  Race  (Vienna,  in  cour.se  of  pub- 
liration);    Petitot,  Monographie  des  Dini-Dindjii  (Paris,  187,5). 

A.  G.  MoRicE. 

Seleucians,  a  Gnostic  sect  who  are  said  to  have 
flourished  in  (ialatia.  They  derived  their  name  from 
Seleucus,  who  with  a  certain  Hermias  is  said  to  have 
propounded  and  taught  their  peculiar  heresies. 
According  to  Philastrus  (Liber  Diversarum  Haeres- 
eon,  LV)  the  teaching  of  these  heresies  was  based  on 
the  crudest  form  of  Dualism.  While  they  maintained 
that  God  was  incorporeal,  they  asserted  that  matter 
was  coeternal  with  Him.  They  exceeded  the  usual 
dualistic  tenets  in  attributing  evil  to  God  as  well  as  to 
matter.  In  their  system  the  souls  of  men  were  not 
created  by  God,  but  were  formed  from  earthly  com- 
ponents— fire  and  air — by  angels.  Christ,  t  hey  .said, 
did  not  sit  at  the  right  hand  of  the  Father  in  Heaven 
because  (Psalm  xviii,  6)  "He  hath  set  his  tabernacle 
in  the  sun"  must  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  Christ 


SELEUCIA 


689 


SELEUCIA 


left  His  body  in  the  sun.  They  did  not  practise 
baptism,  basing  their  refusal  to  do  so  on  the  words 
of  John  the  Baptist  (Matt.,  iii,  11)  :  "He  shall 
baptize  you  in  the  Holy  Ghost  and  fire".  By  hell 
they  understood  this  present  world,  while  Resurrec- 
tion they  explained  as  being  merely  the  procreation 
of  children  which  went  on  daily,  not  the  triumph 
over  death  with  the  expectation  of  a  glorious  im- 
mortality. The  doctrines  of  Seleucus  and  his  ad- 
herents were  the  source  of  another  series  of  errors 
taught  by  some  of  their  disciples  who  called  them- 
selves Proclinianites  or  Hermeonites.  These  latter 
rejected  the  Scriptures  with  the  exception  of  the  Book 
of  Wisdom.  They  denied  that  Christ  appeared  in 
the  flesh  and  that  he  was  born  of  a  virgin.  They 
also  rejected  the  dogmas  of  the  Resurrection  and 
Judgment.  According  to  Philastrius  they  perverted 
large  numbers.  It  must  be  said  that  a  great  deal  of 
uncertainty  exists  regarding  the  history  and  real 
character  of  this  heresy.  Some  recent  authors,  be- 
cause of  the  fact  that  the  doctrines  of  the  Seleucians 
so  closely  resembled  those  of  Hcrmogenes,  and  because 
Hermogenes  is  not  mentioned  by  Philastrius,  conclude 
that  these  two  were  one  and  the  same  heresy.  This 
assumption  is  plausible  but  there  are  vital  differences 
between  the  teaching  of  Hermogenes  and  that  of 
the  Seleucians  as,  for  example,  on  the  subject  of 
Christ  as  Creator  which,  together  with  the  virgin 
birth,  was  admitted  by  Hermogenes.  If  any  weight 
is  to  be  attached  to  a  method  of  chronology  which 
seems  rather  arbitrary,  the  date  assigned  by  Philas- 
trius to  the  Seleucians,  viz.  after  the  reign  of  Decius, 
would  exclude  the  suppo.sition  that  he  confounded 
them  with  the  followers  of  Hermogenes. 

Ketzbii-Walch,   Historic    (Leipzig,   1767),   1,  584   seq.;    Hil- 
GENFELD,  Die  Ketzersjeschichte  des  Urchrislentums  (Leipzig,  1884). 

Patrick  J.  Healy 

Seleucia  Pieria,  titular  metropolis  of  Syria  Prima. 
The  city  was  foundcni  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orontes, 
not  far  from  Mount  Casius,  by  Seleucus  Nicator 
about  300  B.  c.  According  to  Pausanias,  Damascene, 
and  Malalas,  there  appears  to  have  been  previously 
another  city  here,  named  Paheopolis.  Seleucia  was  a 
commercial  port  of  Antioch,  Syria,  with  which  it  com- 
municated by  the  Orontes;  it  was  at  the  same  time  a 
naval  port.  The  first  colonists  were  the  Greeks  of 
Antigonia  in  Greece,  also  some  Jews.  It  was  taken 
and  retaken  by  the  Lagidic  and  the  Seleucides  until 
219,  when  it  again  fell  into  the  power  of  the  kings 
of  Syria.  Then  it  obtained  its  freedom  and  kept 
it  even  to  the  end  of  the  Roman  occupation;  it  had 
long  enjoyed  the  right  of  coinage.  Of  its  famous 
men,  ApoUophanes,  a  physician  of  Antiochus  (third 
century  b.  c),  is  known,  also  Firmus  who  aroused 
Palmyra  and  Egypt  against  Rome  in  272  a.  d.  The 
harbour  was  enlarged  several  times,  e.  g.,  under 
Diocletian  and  Constantius.  Saint  Paul  and  Saint 
Barnabas  stopped  at  Seleucia  (Acts,  xiii,  4)  but 
nothing  indicates  that  they  made  any  converts.  In 
the  Apocryphal  Acts  of  Saint  Ignatius  of  Antioch, 
this  city  is  also  mentioned.  The  oldest  bishop 
known  is  Zenobius,  present  at  Nicaea  in  325.  There 
is  mention  of  Eusebius,  the  Arian,  and  Bizus  in  the 
fourth  centurj^  with  twelve  others  found  in  Le 
Quien  (Oriens  Christianus,  II,  777-780).  In  the 
sixth  century  the  "Notitia  episcopatuum"  of  An- 
tioch, gives  Seleucia  Pieria  as  an  autocephalous  arch- 
bishopric, suffragan  of  Antioch  (Echos  d 'Orient,  X, 
144) ;  the  diocese  existed  until  the  tenth  century,  and 
its  boundaries  are  known  (Echos  d'Orient,  X,  97). 
For  some  Latin  titularies  see  Eubel,  "Hierarchia 
cathoUca  medii  sevi",  I,  468.  During  the  Byzantine 
occupation  from  970,  followed  soon  after  by  the 
Frankish  occupation,  Seleucia  regained  its  importance ; 
during  the  Crusades  its  port  was  known  by  the  name 
of  Saint  Symeon.  The  Greek- Arabic  schismatic 
XIII.— 44 


patriarchate  of  Antioch  had  since  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury united  the  title  of  Seleucia  Pieria  to  that  of 
Zahleh  in  Lebanon. 

The  upper  city,  about  eight  miles  in  circumference, 
is  still  distinguishable.  The  site  is  now  occupied  by 
the  two  villages  of  Souhdieh  and  Kaboucie,  inhabited 
by  800  Armenians.  The  lower  city,  smaller  than 
the  preceding  one,  was  more  thickly  populated;  there 
arose  the  village  of  Meghragagik,  inhabited  by  150 
Ansariehs.  Among  the  curiosities  of  the  village  are 
a  necropolis  of  little  interest,  some  irrigation  works, 
and  some  fortifications  very  much  damaged. 

Allen,  Journal  of  the  Geographical  Society,  XXIII  (1855); 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geog.  (1857),  s.  v.;  Ainsworth, 
A  Personal  Narrative  of  the  Euphrates  Expedition,  II  (London, 
1888),  400-404;  Waddington,  Inscriptions  de  Grkce  et  d'Asie- 
Mineure,  n.  2714-2719;  Ritter,  Erdkunde  von  Asien,  VIII,  2-3, 
1238-1271;  Chesney,  La  baie  d'Antioche  et  les  ruines  de  Seleucie 
de  Pierie  in  Nouvelles  annales  des  voyages  et  des  sciences  geograph- 
iques  d'Eyrits  (1839),  II;  Bottrquenoud,  Memoires  sur  les  ruines 
de  SSleucie  de  Pierie  in  Etudes  religieuses  (1860),  40;  Chapot  in 
Bulletin  de  correspondance  helUnique,  XXVI,  164-175;  Chapot, 
Seleucie  de  Pierie  (Paris,  1907). 

S.  Vailhe. 

Seleucia  Trachsea,  metropolitan  see  of  Isauria  in 
the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch.  The  city  was  built  by 
Seleucus  I,  Nicator,  King  of  Syria,  about  300  B.  c. 
It  is  probable  that  on  its  site  existed  one  or  two  towns 
called  Olbia  and  Hyria,  and  that  Seleucia  merely 
united  them,  giving  them  his  name.  At  the  same  time 
the  inhabitants  of  Holmi  were  transported  thither 
(Stephanus  Byzantius,  s.  v.;  Strabo,  XIV,  670). 
Under  the  Romans  it  was  autonomous,  eventually 
becoming  the  capital  of  Isauria.  A  council  was  held 
there  in  359  which  assembled  about  160  bishops  who 
declared  in  favour  of  the  bix.oiov<rio%  and  condemned 
the  chief  errors  of  the  Anomoeans.  St.  Hilary  of 
Poitiers  assisted  at  it.  Seleucia  was  famous  for  the 
tomb  of  St.  Thecla,  a  virgin  of  Iconium,  converted 
by  St.  Paul,  and  who  died  at  Seleucia,  according  to 
the  "Acta  Pauli  et  Thecla;",  an  apocryphal  work  of 
the  second  century.  In  any  case  the  sanctuary  built 
over  this  tomb  and  restored  several  times,  among 
others  by  the  Emperor  Zcno  in  the  fifth  century,  was 
one  of  the  most  (•elcl)r:it(>(l  in  the  Christian  world. 
Its  ruins  are  called  M(>ri:iinlik  ("  Denkschriften  der 
k.  Akadem.  der  Wissenschaft.  philos.-histor.  Klasse", 
Vienna,  XLIV,  6,  105-08).  In  the  fifth  century  the 
imperial  governor  {comes  Isauria)  in  residence  at 
Seleucia  had  two  legions  at  his  disposal,  the  Secunda 
Isnura  and  the  Tertia  Isaura.  From  this  period,  and 
perhaps  from  the  fourth  century,  dates  the  Christian 
necropolis,  lying  west  of  the  town  and  containing 
many  tombs  of  Christian  soldiers  with  inscriptions. 
According  to  the  "Notitia  episcopatuum"  of  Antioch, 
in  the  sixth  century  Seleucia  had  twenty-four  suffragan 
sees  (Echoes  d'Orient,  X,  145).  About  732  nearly  all 
ecclesiastical  Isauria  was  incorporated  with  the 
Patriarchate  of  Constantinople;  henceforth  the 
province  figures  in  the  "Notitia;"  of  Byzantium,  but 
under  the  name  of  Pamphylia. 

In  the  "Notitia;"  of  Leo  the  Wise  (c.  900)  Seleucia 
has  22  suffragan  bishoprics  (Gelzer,  "Ungedruckte 
.  .  .  Te.xte  der  Notitise  episcopatuum",  557);  in  that 
of  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  (c.  940)  it  has  23 
("Georgii  Cyprii  descriptio orbis  romani",  ed.  Gelzer, 
76).  In  968  Antioch  again  fell  into  the  pow^r  of  the 
Greeks,  and  with  the  Province  of  Isauria  Seleucia  was 
restored  to  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch  (Gelzer,  op. 
cit.,  573).  At  pre.sent  the  title  of  Seleucia  is  borne 
by  the  Metropolitan  of  Tarsus-Adana,  dependent  on 
the  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christ., 
II,  1012-16)  mentions  10  metropolitans  of  this  see, 
the  first  of  whom,  Agapetus,  attended  the  Council  of 
Nicsea  in  325;  Neonas  was  at  Seleucia  in  359; 
Symposius  at  Constantinople  in  381;  Dexianus  at 
Ephesus  in  431 ;  Basil,  a  celebrated  orator  and  writer, 
whose  conduct  was  rather  ambiguous  at  the  Robber 
Council  of  Ephesus  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  Coun- 


SELEUCIDS 


690 


SELEUCIDS 


cilof  Chalcedon  in  451;  Theodore  was  at  the  Fifth 
(Ecumenical  Council  in  553;  Macrobius  at  the  Sixth 
Council  and  the  Council  in  Trullo  in  692.  Three 
others  are  mentioned  in  "The  Sixth  Book  of  the  Select 
Letters  of  Severus"  (ed.  Brooks,  passim).  Several 
Latin  titulars  are  also  known  after  1345  (Eubel, 
"Hierarchia  cathoUca  medii  aevi",  I,  468).  Seleucia 
was  captured  by  the  Seljuks  in  the  eleventh  century, 
and  later  by  the.\rmenians  of  the  Kingdom  of  Cihcia. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  it  was  in 
the  possession  of  the  Hospitallers,  as  was  also  its 
stronghold.  The  Caranianian  Turks  captured  it  in 
the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  then 
the  Osmanlis,  who  still  possess  it.  As  Liman-Iskelessi, 
or  Selefke-Lskelessi,  it  is  now  a  caza  in  the  sandjak 
of  Itch-Il  and  the  vilayet  of  Adana.  It  has  about  3000 
inhabitants,  half  of  whom  are  Greek  schismatics. 
Ruins  of  the  theatre  and  some  temples  are  to  be  seen. 
The  stronghold  which  crowns  the  mountain  is  of 
Armenian  origin. 

Smith,  Dirt,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Geog.,  s.  v.;  Texier,  Asie  Mhieure 
(Paris,  1862),  724;  Langlois,  Voyage  dans  la  Cilicie  (Paris,  1861), 
180-92;  Waddington,  Voyage  archeologigue  en  Asie  Mineure, 
339— il;  Duchesne  in  Bulletin  de  correspondance  hellenique,  IV, 
195-202;  Cuinet,  La  Turquie  d'Asie,  II,  67-9;  Alishan,  Sissouan 
(Venice,  1899),  328-35. 

S.  Vailhe. 

Seleucids,  the  name  given  to  the  Macedonian 
dj'nasty,  which  was  founded  by  Seleucus,  a  general 
under  Alexander  the  Great,  and  ruled  over  Syria  from 
312  B.  c.  In  321  Seleucus  received  the  satrapy  of 
Babylonia  from  Antipater,  administrator  of  Alexan- 
der's empire.  After  being  temporarily  supplanted  by 
Antigonus,  he  returned  to  Babylonia  after  the  battle 
of  Gaza  (312),  from  which  his  rule  is  dated  (the  first 
year  of  the  Seleucid  era).  Seleucus  I  Nicator  (312- 
281  B.  c.)  assumed  the  title  of  king  in  306.  He  first 
subdued  Upper  Asia  as  far  as  the  Indus  and  Jaxartes. 
The  battle  of  Ipsus  brought  SjTia  under  his  dominion, 
although  ho  had  to  recognize  the  supremacy  of  Egypt 
over  Pha'ni(;ia  and  Palestine.  By  a  victory  over 
Lysimachus  he  conquered  the  greater  part  of  Asia 
Minor  (281),  but  a  little  later,  when  he  encroacihed  on 
European  territory,  he  was  mvnxlered  by  Ptolemy 
Ceraunus.  Besides  various  other  cities,  Seleucus 
founded  the  magnificent  residential  towns  of  Seleucia 
on  the  Tigris  and  Antiochia  on  the  Orontcs.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  .son,  Antiochus  I  Soter  (281-61), 
who,  through  fear  of  the  Parthians,  transferred  his 
residence  to  Antiochia.  Under  Soter's  son,  An- 
TiocHUs  II  Theos  (261-46),  began  the  wars  with  the 
Ptolemies  for  the  po.ssession  of  Phoenicia  and  Pales- 
tine. The  marriage  of  Antiochus  II  to  Berenice, 
daughter  of  Ptolemy  II  Philadelphus,  brought  about 
a  temporary  cessation  of  the  struggle;  but  on  Ptol- 
emy's death,  Laodice,  the  first  and  disowned  wife  of 
Antiochus,  was  recalled  and  avenged  herself  by  having 
Antiochus,  Berenice,  and  their  child  put  to  death. 
The  son  of  Antiochus  and  Laodice,  Seleucu.s  II 
Callinicus  (246-26),  succeeded.  To  avenge  the 
death  of  his  sister  and  to  assure  his  possession  of 
Syria,  King  Ptolemy  III  Euergctes  made  a  successful 
campaign  against  Seleucus,  advancing  victoriously  as 
far  as  the  Euphrates.  The  eastern  provinces  passed 
^adually  into  the  hands  of  the  Parthians,  and  por- 
tions of  the  western  were  lost  to  Attains  II  of  Per- 
gamum.  While  in  flight  after  a  battle  in  which  he 
had  HufTered  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Attalus,  Seleucus 
was  killed  by  a  fall  from  his  horse.  Seleucus  III 
Cerau.\U8  (220-24),  the  (;lder  son  of  Seleucus,  suc- 
ceeded, and  on  his  assassination  the  younger  son 
Antiochuh  III  THE  Great  (224-187).  To  secure 
poasfssion  of  Cdlc-Syria  and  Palestine!  this  monarch 
began  a  war  with  piolcniv  V;  aitliough  defeated  at 
Raphia  (217),  the  battle  of  Paneas  (HWj  resulted  in 
his  favour,  Palestine  thenceforth  belonging  to  the 
Syrian  Empire.     Interference  in  the  affairs  of  the 


west  led  to  a  war  with  Rome.  After  the  battle  of 
Magnesia  (189)  the  king  had  to  accept  harsh  condi- 
tions and  surrender  his  possessions  in  Asia  Minor 
north  of  the  Taurus.  Antiochus  was  unable  to  con- 
quer Parthia,  which  his  father  had  lost.  During  an 
attempt  to  plunder  a  temple  in  Elam,  he  was  slain  by 
the  natives.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  elder  son,  Seleu- 
cus IV  Philopator  (187-75).  Seleucus  secured  the 
retiu-n  of  his  younger  brother  Antiochus,  who  lived  as 
a  hostage  in  Rome,  by  sending  his  own  son  Demetrius 
thither  instead.  Before  Antiochus  arrived  home, 
Seleucus  had  been  murdered  by  his  minister  Helio- 
dorus;  the  former  was  thus  able  to  take  possession  of 
the  Throne,  which  really  belonged  to  his  nephew 
Demetrius. 

Antiochus  IV  Epiphanes  (175-64)  was  an  am- 
bitious prince,  of  a  truly  despotic  nature  and  fond  of 
display.  Entanglements  with  Egypt  gave  him  the 
occasion  to  make  repeated  successful  inroads  into  that 
country,  and  in  168  he  might  have  succeeded  in  secur- 
ing possession  of  it,  had  not  the  Romans  compelled 
him  to  withdraw  (embassy  of  Popilius  Lienas).  His 
hostile  measures  against  the  Jews,  whom  he  tried  to 
hellenize  by  sheer  force,  resulted  in  the  Machabean 
rising  (see  Machabees,  The).  He  died  at  Taba?  in 
Persia,  while  on  a  campaign  against  the  Parthians. 
His  son  Antiochus  V  Eupator  (164-62)  was  a  minor, 
and  simply  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  imperial  admin- 
istrator Lysias.  Both  were  removed  by  the  son  of 
Seleucus  IV,  Demetrius  I  Soter  (162-i5),  who  had 
previously  lived  as  a  hostage  at  Rome.  Alexander 
Balas,  who  claimed  to  be  a  son  of  Antiochus  IV,  re- 
belled in  151,  and  Demetrius  fell  in  battle.  His  son 
Demetrius  continued  the  war  against  Alexander  Balas 
(150-45)  in  union  with  the  Egyptian  king  Ptolemy 
VI.  Conquered  by  the  latter  near  Antiochia,  Alexan- 
der fled  to  Arabia,  and  was  there  treacherouslv  mur- 
dered. Demetrius  II  Nicator  (145-38  and  129-25) 
found  his  right  to  the  throne  contested  by  Diodotus 
(surnamed  Tryphon) ,  a  general  of  Balas,  in  favour 
of  the  latter's  son  Antiochus  VI,  a  minor.  Later 
(141),  setting  aside  his  ward,  Try]:)hon  strove  to  secure 
the  throne  for  himself.  When  Dcmet  rius  II  was  cap- 
tured during  an  expedition  against  the  Parthians  and 
cast  into  prison,  his  brother  Antiochus  continued  the 
war  against  Tryphon,  who,  being  finally  overcome, 
committed  suicide  (138).  Antiochus  VII  Sidetes 
(138-29)  was  killed  during  a  campaign  against  the 
Parthians.  Demetrius  II,  who  had  been  released 
from  captivity  during  the  war,  now  became  king  for 
the  second  time  (129-25).  An  anti-king  in  the  person 
of  Alexander  Zabinas,  a  supposed  son  of  Alexander 
Balas,  was  set  up  in  128  by  the  Egyptian  king, 
Ptolemy  VII  Physcon.  Conquered  near  Damascus, 
Demetrius  had  to  flee,  and  was  murdered  when  he 
attempted  to  land  in  Tyre.  H(;  was  followed  by  his 
elder  son  Seleucus  V,  who,  at  the  instigation  of  his 
own  mother,  was  removed  shortly  after  his  accession. 
His  younger  brother,  Antiochus  VIII  Grypus  (12.5- 
113)  conquered  Alexander  Zabinas  and  had  him  exe- 
cuted (125),  but  he  himself  was  driven  from  his  throne 
by  his  maternal  half-brother  Antiochus  IX  Cyzice- 
nus  (113-95),  the  youngest  son  of  Antiochus  VII. 
Returning,  however,  after  two  years,  Grypus  succeeded 
in  winning  for  himself  a  large  part  of  Syria,  the  king- 
dom being  thus  divided. 

On  the  death  of  Antiochus  VIII  (96)  his  domains 
and  claims  were  inherited  by  his  elder  son  Seleucus 
VI.  Defeated  by  Seleucus  near  Antiocihia  in  95,  Anti- 
ochus IX  committed  suicide  to  escape  imprisonment. 
However,  his  son  Antiochus  X  defeated  Seleucus  in 
the  sam(!  year,  and  the  latter  had  to  flee  to  Cilicia, 
where  he  died.  Ilis  two  brothers  Antkx^hus  XI  and 
Philij)  continued  the  war,  but  were  defeated,  and  dur- 
ing the  fliglit  Antiochus  XI  met  death  in  the  waves  of 
the  Orontes.  Philip  continued  the  war,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  securing  possession  of  at  least  a  portion  of 


SELF-ABANDONMENT 


691 


SELGAS 


Syria,  while  the  fourth  son  of  Antiochus  VIII, 
Demetrius  III  Eucerus,  was  elevated  to  the  rank 
of  king  in  Damascus  by  Ptolemy  Soter  II  of  Egypt. 
Antiochus  X  was  finally  overcome  by  the  brothers, 
Philip  and  Demetrius.  Concerning  his  death  we  have 
conflicting  reports.  According  to  Appian  he  was  first 
completely  ousted  by  Tigranes  (see  below),  although 
he  seems  to  have  asserted  himself  in  a  portion  of  Syria. 
Failing  in  his  design  of  reconquering  Judea,  Demetrius 
endeavoured  to  supplant  his  brother  Philip,  besieging 
him  in  Bercea,  but  was  surrounded  by  the  Parthians 
whom  Philip  had  summoned  to  his  aid,  and  forced  to 
surrender.  He  died  at  the  Court  of  the  Parthian  king. 
Philip  now  marched  on  Antiochia,  secured  possession 
of  the  city,  and  thenceforth  held  sway  over  Syria 
(about  88).  In  Coele-Syria  and  Damascus,  however, 
appeared  a  new  pretender  in  his  youngest  brother, 
Antiochus  XII  Dionysus,  who  made  him.self  king 
of  these  parts,  but  later  fell  in  a  campaign  against  the 
Nabataeans  (about  84).  Meanwhile,  King  Tigranes 
of  Armenia  appeared  from  the  north,  and  in  83  suc- 
ceeded in  possessing  himself  of  the  kingdom.  After 
overcoming  Tigranes  in  69,  Lucullus  granted  the 
realm  to  the  son  of  Antiochus  X,  Antiochus  XIII 
AsiATicus,  the  last  of  the  Seleucids.  In  64  Pompey 
made  Syria  a  Roman  province,  and  Antiochus  XIII 
was  murdered  a  short  time  afterwards. 

Genealogt  of  the  Seleucids 
Seleucus  I  Nicator,  d.  281 


Antiochus  I  Soter,  d.  261 
Antiochus  II  Theos,  d.  246 
Seleucus  II  Calhnicus,  d.  226 


ileucus  III  Ceraunus,  d.  224  Antiochus  III  the  Great,  d.  187 

Seleucus  IV  Philopator,  d.  17.5  Antiochus  IV  Epiphanes,  d.  164 
Demetrius  I  Soter,  d.  150     Antiochus  V  Eupator,  d.  162 
Demetrius  II  Nicator,  d.  125     Antiochus  VII  Sidetes,  d.  129 


Seleucus,  V,  d.  12.5.  Antiochus    Antiochus  IX  Cyzicenus,  d.  95 

VIII  Grjijus,  d.  96  . ■ * , 

Antiochus  X  Eusebes 

, * ^ 

Antiochus  XIII  Asiaticus 


Seleucus  VI,  Antiochus  XI,  Philip, 
Demetrius  III,  Antiochus  XII 


Flathe,  Gesch.  Macedonienn,  II  (Leipzig,  1834);  Holm, 
Oriechenlands  Gesch.,  IV  (Berlin,  1894);  Niese  Gesch.  der 
griech.  u.  maced.  Staateii  .teit  der  Schlacht  bei  Charonx  (3  parts, 
Gotha,  1893-1903);  Kuhn,  Beitrage  zur  Gesch.  der  Seleuciden 
(programme  of  Altkirch  in  Alsace,  1891);  Bevan,  The  House  of 
Seleucus  (2  vols.,  London,  1€02).  Concerning  the  relations  of 
the  Seleucids  with  the  Jews,  cf.  SchCrer,  Gesch.  des  jild.  Volkes 
im  Zeitalter  Jesu  Christi,  I  (3rd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1903),  166  sqq. 

Franz  ScHtJHLEiN. 
Self  Abandonment.    See  Quietism. 

Self-Defence. — Ethically  the  subject  of  self- 
defence  regards  the  right  of  a  private  person  to 
employ  force  against  any  one  who  unjustly  attacks 
his  life  or  person,  his  property  or  good  name.  While 
differing  among  themselves  on  some  of  the  more 
subtle  and  less  practical  points  comprised  in  this 
topic,  our  moralists  may  be  said  to  be  unanimous  on 
the  main  principles  and  their  appli  ation  regarding 
the  right  of  self-defence.  The  teaching  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows: 

I.  Defence  of  life  and  person. — Everyone  has 
the  right  to  defend  his  life  against  the  attacks  of  an 
unjust  aggressor.  For  this  end  he  may  employ  what- 
ever force  is  necessary  and  even  take  the  life  of  an 
unjust  assailant.  As  bodily  integrity  is  included  in 
the  good  of  life,  it  may  be  defended  in  the  same  way 
as  life  itself.  It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  no 
more  injury  may  be  inflicted  on  the  assailant  than  is 
necessary  to  defeat  his  purpose.  If,  for  example,  he 
can  be  driven  off  by  a  call  fur  help  or  by  inflicting  a 
slight  wound  on  him,  he  may  not  lawfully  be  slain. 
Again  the  unjust  attack  must  be  actually  begun,  at 
least  morally  speaking,  not  merely  planned  or  intended 


for  some  future  time  or  occasion.  Generally  speaking 
one  is  not  bound  to  preserve  one's  own  life  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  assailant's;  one  may,  out  of  charity,  fore- 
go one's  right  in  the  matter.  Sometimes,  however, 
one  may  be  bound  to  defend  one's  own  life  to  the  ut- 
most on  account  of  one's  duty  of  state  or  other  ob- 
ligations. The  life  of  another  person  may  be  defended 
on  the  same  conditions  by  us  as  our  own.  For  since 
each  person  has  the  right  to  defend  his  life  unjustly 
attacked,  what  he  can  lawfully  do  through  his  own 
efforts  he  may  also  do  through  the  agency  of  others. 
Sometimes,  too,  charity,  natural  affection,  or  official 
duty  imposes  the  obligation  of  defending  others.  A 
father  ought,  for  example,  to  defend  the  lives  of  hia 
children;  a  husband,  his  wife;  and  all  ought  to  defend 
the  life  of  one  whose  death  would  be  a  serious  loss  to 
the  community.  Soldiers,  policemen,  and  private 
guards  hired  for  that  purpose  are  bound  in  justice  to 
safeguard  the  lives  of  those  entrusted  to  them. 

II.  Defence  of  property.— It  is  lawful  to  de- 
fend one's  material  goods  even  at  the  expense  of  the 
aggressor's  life;  for  neither  justice  nor  charity  require 
that  one  should  sacrifice  possessions,  even  though  they 
be  of  less  value  than  human  life  in  order  to  preserve 
the  life  of  a  man  who  wantonly  exposes  it  in  order  to 
do  an  injustice.  Here,  however,  we  must  recall  the 
principle  that  in  extreme  necessity  every  man  has  a 
right  to  appropriate  whatever  is  necessary  to  preserve 
his  life.  The  starving  man  who  snatches  a  meal  is  not 
an  unjust  aggressor;  consequently  it  is  not  lawful  to 
use  force  against  him.  Again,  the  property  which 
may  be  defended  at  the  expense  of  the  aggressor's  life 
must  be  of  considerable  value;  for  charity  forbids  that 
in  order  to  protect  ourselves  from  a  trivial  loss  we 
should  deprive  our  neighbour  of  his  life.  Thefts  or 
robberies,  however,  of  small  values  are  to  be  considered 
not  in  their  individual,  but  in  their  cumulative,  aspect. 
A  thief  may  be  slain  in  the  act  of  carrying  away  stolen 
property  provided  that  it  cannot  be  recovered  from 
him  by  any  other  means:  if,  for  example,  he  can  be 
made  to  abandon  his  spoil  through  fright,  then  it 
would  not  be  lawful  to  shoot  him.  If  he  has  carried 
the  goods  away  to  safety  he  cannot  then  be  killed  in 
order  to  recover  them;  but  the  owner  may  endeavor 
to  take  them  from  him,  and  if  the  thief  resists  with 
violence  he  may  be  killed  in  self-defence. 

III.  Honour. — Since  it  is  lawful  to  take  life  in  the 
legitimate  defence  of  one's  material  goods,  it  is  evi- 
dently also  lawful  to  do  so  in  defence  of  chastity  which 
is  a  good  of  a  much  higher  order.  With  regard  to 
honour  or  reputation,  it  is  not  lawful  to  kill  one  to 
prevent  an  insult  or  an  attack  upon  our  reputation 
which  we  believe  he  intends,  or  threatens.  Nor  may 
we  take  a  life  to  avenge  an  insult  already  offered. 
This  proceeding  would  not  be  defence  of  our  honour 
or  reputation,  but  revenge.  Besides,  in  the  general 
estimation  honour  and  reputation  may  be  sufficiently 
protected  without  taking  the  life  of  the  offender. 

NoLDiN,  Summa  Theologiae  Moralis,  II  (Innsbruck,  1908), 
352-6;  De  occisione  injusH  aggressoris;  Lehmkuhl,  Theologia 
Moralis,  I  (St.  Louis,  1910),  iii,  tr.  2;  Zigliara,  Summa  Phil- 
osophica.  III,  I,  iii;  St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theologica,  II-II,  Q. 
Ixvii,  a.  7;    Billuakt,  Cursus  Theologim:    in  II-II  St.   Thorns, 

d.  X,  a.  V.  James  J.  Fox. 

Saigas  y  Carrasco,  Jose,  poet  and  novelist,  b. 
at  Lorca,  Murcia,  Spain,  1824;  d.  at  Madrid,  5 
Feb.,  1882,  he  received  his  early  training  at  the 
Seminary  of  San  Fulgencio;  his  family  being  in 
straitened  circumstances,  he  was  obliged  to  cut  short 
his  studies  in  order  to  contribute  to  its  support. 
Going  to  Madrid,  he  there  occupied  minor  Govern- 
ment positions,  and  engaged  in  journalism.  .A.s 
a  staunch  Conservative  he  assailed  the  Liberals  in 
the  articles  which  he  wrote  for  the  periodical  "El 
Padre  Cobos"  and  other  newspapers.  He  acted  as 
secretary  for  Martinez  Campos  when  the  latter  was 
Prime  Minister.     The  Spanish  Academy  made  him 


SELOE 


692 


SELYMBRIA 


one  of  ita  members.  Selgas  belongs  among  the  minor 
^Titers.  His  repute  depends  upon  his  lyrics  and  his 
short  tales  rather  than  upon  his  niore  ambitious 
novels.  The  best  of  his  verse,  which  is  generallj' 
marked  by  a  gentle  melancholy,  will  be  found  in  the 
two  coUections,  "La  Primavera"  and  "El  Estio", 
both  put  forth  in  ISoO.  After  his  death  there  ap- 
peared the  voliune  of  poems  entitled  "Flores  y 
Espinas".  Of  his  longer  novels  there  maj^  be  men- 
tioned the  "Dos  Rivales"  and  "Una  Madre",  both 
rather  tedious  compositions.  In  his  short  tales  he 
is  most  successful  when  he  indulges  in  the  senti- 
mental; he  is  less  attractive  when  he  gives  utterance 
to  his  pessimistic  feeling.  At  times  his  sentimental- 
ism  and  pessimism  become  even  morbid.  A  number 
of  his  journalistic  articles  have  been  brought  together 
in  several  of  the  volumes  of  his  collected  works,  as 
"Hojas  sueltas",  "Estudios  sociales",  etc.  They 
illustrate  his  ultra-Conservativism  in  politics. 

Obras  completas,  ed.  Dubrull  (15  vols.,  Madrid,  1887); 
G.\BCi.*.,  La  Literatura  espaflola  en  el  siglo  XIX,  pt.  I,  ii. 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

Selge,  a  titular  see  in  Pamphylia  Prima,  suf- 
fragan of  Side.  Situated  in  a  fertile  plain  on  the 
south  slope  of  the  Taurus,  it  boasted  that  it  was 
founded  by  the  di\dner  Calchas,  but  in  reality  was 
probably  a  Lacedaemonian  colony.  Although  dif- 
ficult of  access,  it  became  the  most  populous  and 
powerful  of  the  cities  of  Pisidia.  Its  army  of  2000 
soldiers  was  in  constant  strife  with  the  neighbouring 
cities.  Greek  grammarians  connect  its  name  with 
do-fXviJi,  which  means  "Ucentious";  some  think 
the  first  letter  of  the  word  a  negative  particle,  but 
others  find  in  it  a  meaning  of  reinforcement.  When 
Alexander  passed  through  Pisidia,  Selge  sought  his 
friendship.  In  208  b.c.  it  was  besieged  by  Acha>us, 
ally  of  its  rival  city  of  Pednelissus,  and  forced  to  pay 
a  heavy  war  tax.  Its  coins  show  it  to  have  flourished 
under  Trajan,  but  in  the  fifth  century  it  was  only 
a  small  city,  still  capable,  however,  of  repulsing  an 
attack  of  the  Goths.  After  the  new  division  of  the 
empire  it  was  included  in  Pamphylia;  in  the  fifth 
century  it  was  connected,  at  least  ecclesiastically, 
with  Side,  metropolis  of  Pamphylia  Prima.  In  the 
ninth  century  it  had  become  an  autocephalous  arch- 
diocese. Subsequent  "Notitia;  episcopatuum"  do 
not  mention  it.  Le  Quien  ("Oriens  Christ.",  I, 
1011)  names  four  of  its  bishops:  Uranion,  who  must 
have  as.sisted  at  the  Council  of  Nicaea  in  325,  but  whose 
name  does  not  occur  in  the  lists  of  the  Fathers  ot  that 
council;  Xunechius,  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus  in 
431;  Marcianus  at  Constantinople  in  869;  Gregory 
at  the  Photian  Council  of  Constantinople  in  879. 
The  ruins  of  Selge  are  located  at  the  village  of  Siirk 
in  the  sandiak  of  Adalia  and  the  vilayet  of  Koniah; 
they  include  temples,  an  aqueduct,  a  portico,  a 
stadium,  a  theatre,  a  church,  etc. 

Smith,  Did.  Gr.  and  Rom.  Geog.,  s.  v.;  Lanckor6n8ki,  Les 
tiUet  de  la  Pamphylie  el  de  la  Pisidie,  II  (Paria,  1893).  182-19.5. 

S.  P^tridJjs. 

SelinuB,  a  titular  see  in  Isauria,  near  the 
Gulf  of  AdaUa.  Selinus,  mentioned  by  Ptolemy, 
V,  8,  2,  Pliny,  V,  22,  and  other  ancient  geographies, 
waw  a  port  on  the  east  side  of  Cilicia  at  the  mouth  of 
a  river  of  the  same  name.  Its  situation  on  a  steep 
rock,  whence  its  Greek  name,  rendered  it  almost 
impregnable.  The  only  known  fact  of  its  history 
is  that  Trajan  died  there  in  117.  Then  it  took  the 
name  of  Trajanopolis,  but  the  old  one  prevailed,  as 
is  shown  by  coins  and  other  documents.  Later 
Selinufl  was  joined  to  Isauria.  In  198  Longinus  of 
Selinus,  a  rebel  leader,  was  taken  by  Count  Driscus 
and  sent  to  Constantinople.  Basil  of  Seleucia  (Vita 
8.  Theclae,  II,  17)  said  that  the  city,  which  was 
formerly  of  much  importance,  lost  it  from  his  time 
to  the  fifth  century.     Constantine  Porphyrogenitufl, 


in  the  tenth  century,  called  it  a  small  town.  To-day 
it  is  the  Uttle  village  of  Selinti  in  the  vilayet  of  Adana; 
there  are  ruins  of  a  theatre,  aqueduct,  market-place, 
bath,  etc.  Selinus  was  suffragan  of  Seleucia  Tracha^a. 
Le  Quien  (Oriens  christianus,  II,  1019)  names  four 
bishops:  Neon,  present  at  the  council  of  Constan- 
tinople, 381;  Alypius,  at  Ephesus,  431;  .Elianus,  at 
Chalcedon,  451;  Gheon,  signer  of  the  letter  of  the 
bishops  of  the  province  to  Emperor  Leo,  458.  The 
see  is  in  the  Greek  "Notitia;  Episcopatuum"  of  the 
Patriarchate  of  Antioch  from  the  fifth  to  the  tenth 
century  (Vailhe  in  "Echos  d'Orient",  X,  95,  145). 
It  was  also  perhaps  an  Armenian  bishopric  until  the 
tenth  century  (Alishan,  Sissouan,  Venice,  1899,  p. 
60).  Eubel  (Hierarchia  catholica  medii  a;vi,  I, 
468)  names  a  Latin  bishop  in  1345. 

Beaufort,  Karamania,  186  seq.;  Smith,  Diet.  Gr.  and  Rom. 
Geog.,  s.  v.;  Tomaschek,  Zur  histor.  topogr.  Don  Kleinasien  im 
Mittelalter,  57. 

S.    P^TRlDfes. 

Selvaggrio,  Giulio  Lorenzo,  canonist  and  archaeolo- 
gist, b.  at  Naples,  10  August,  1728;  d.  there, 
November,  1772.  He  entered  the  seminary  of 
Naples  in  1744,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1752. 
He  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
history,  philosophy,  and  the  Oriental  languages. 
He  became  censor  of  books  and  synodal  examiner 
for  the  Diocese  of  Naples,  and  wrote  the  notes  for 
the  Italian  edition  of  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  the 
Lutheran  historian,  Mosheim.  Appointed  professor 
of  canon  law  in  1764,  he  published  "Institutionum 
canonicarum  libri  tres"  (Padua,  1770)  and  con- 
ferences in  civil  law,  interesting  from  the  standpoint 
of  contemporary  Neapolitan  law.  Mamachi's  work 
on  Christian  antiquities  being  unfinished,  Selvaggio 
resolved  to  treat  the  same  subject  in  a  smaller  work, 
but  he  died  before  finishing  it.  His  friend,  Canon 
Kalephati,  continued  the  publication  of  the  "An- 
tiquitatum  ecclesiasticarum  institutiones "  (6  vols., 
Naples,  1772-6),  prefacing  them  with  a  biography 
of  the  author:  " Commentarius  de  vita  et  scriptis 
J.  L.  Selvagii". 

HuRTER,  Nomenclator,  III  (Innsbruck,  1895),  172-4. 

R.  Maere. 

Selymbria,  a  titular  see  in  Thracia  Prima,  suf- 
fragan of  Heraclea.  Selymbria,  or  Selybria,  the  city 
of  Selys  on  the  Propontis,  was  a  colony  of  the 
Megarians  founded  before  Byzantium.  It  was  the 
native  place  of  Prodicus,  a  disciple  of  Hippocrates; 
there  Xenophon  met  Medosades,  the  envoy  of 
Seuthes,  whose  army  later  encamped  near  by.  In 
410  B.C.  Alcibiades,  who  commanded  in  the  Pro- 
pontis for  the  Athenians,  was  not  allowed  to  enter 
the  town,  but  the  inhabitants  paid  him  a  sum  of 
money;  somewhat  later  he  captured  it  by  treason 
and  left  a  garri.son  there.  In  351  B.C.,  Selymbria 
was  an  ally  of  the  Athenians  and  in  343  was  perhajis 
attacked  by  Philip.  In  honour  of  Eudoxia,  wife  of 
the  Emperor  Arcadius,  it  was  called  Eudoxiopolis, 
still  its  official  name  in  the  seventh  century,  doubtless 
together  with  the  older  one  which  finally  survived. 
In  805  it  was  pillaged  by  the  liulgarian  king,  Kroum. 
Michael  III  constructed  a  fortress  the  ruins  of  which 
are  still  existing  there.  The  town  is  often  nicntioned 
by  the  Byzantin(!  historians;  in  1096  Ciodfrey  of 
Bouillon  ravaged  the  country.  Cantacuzenus  cele- 
brated the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Theodora  and 
the  sultan  Orkhan  with  great  pomp  at  Selymbria. 
The  Turks  captured  the  town  in  1453.  It  is  now 
Silivri,  chief  town  of  a  caza  in  the  vilayet  of  Adriano- 
polis,  containing  8000  inhabitants,  Turks  and  Greeks, 
mostly  farmers  or  fishermen. 

In  the  tenth  century  it  became  an  autocephalous 
archbishopric  and  under  Marcus  Comnenus  a  metrop- 
olis without  suffragan  sees.  It  would  be  easy,  therefore, 
to  add  to  the  list  of  its  bishops  given  by  Le  Quien 


693 


SEMIARIANS 


in  "Oriens  christianus",  I,  1137.  The  oldest  known 
is  Theophilus  transferred  from  Apamea  (Socrates, 
"Hist,  eccl.",  VII,  xxxvi).  We  may  mention  before 
the  Schism:  Romanus,  448,  451;  Sergius,  80; 
George,  692;  Epiphanius,  author  of  a  lost  work 
against  the  Iconoclasts.  Simeon  assisted  in  879  at 
the  Council  of  Constantinople  which  re-established 
Photius.  Under  Michael  Palseologus,  the  Metro- 
politan of  Selymbria,  whose  name  is  unknown,  was 
one  of  the  prelates  who  signed  a  letter  to  the  pope  on 
the  union  of  the  Churches.  In  1347  Methodius  was 
one  of  the  signatories  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople 
which  deposed  the  patriarch  John  Calecas,  the  ad- 
versary of  the  Palamites.  The  date  of  Ignatius,  w^ho 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Constantine  and  Helena"  is  un- 
known, perhaps  about  1431.  Among  the  bishops 
omitted  by  Le  Quien  must  be  mentioned  Philotheus, 
who  lived  about  136.5,  the  author  of  the  panegyric 
on  St.  Agathonicus,  a  martyr  of  Nicomedia  who  suf- 
fered at  Selymbria  under  Maximian,  and  of  the  pane- 
gyric on  Saint  (?)  Macarius,  a  monk  of  Constantinople 
towards  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  (Krum- 
bacher,  "Gesch.  der  byzant.  Litteratur",  Munich, 
1897,   205). 

Smith,  Diet.  Gr.  and  Rom.  Geog.,  a.  v.;  Bouttras,  Diet,  of  Hist, 
and  Geog.  (.Greek),  VII,  509;  Tomaschek,  Zut  Kunde  der  Hdmus- 
Halbinsel  (Vienna,  1887),  23. 

S.  P6tridI;s. 

Sem  izt\  "name",  "fame",  "renown";  in  Septua- 
gint,  S^m;  a.  v.,  Shem),  son  of  Noe ;  according  to  Gen., 
X,  21,  the  eldest.  His  birth  and  generations  are  re- 
corded in  Gen.,  v,  31;  xi,  lOsqq.  (cf.  I  Par.,  i,  4,  17  sq.; 
Luke,  iii,  36).  He  lived  to  be  six  hundred  years  of  age. 
An  incident,  narrated  Gen. ,  ix,  1 8  sqq . ,  discloses  his  filial 
reverence.  His  reward  was  a  blessing  of  great  import 
(cf.  Ecclus.,  xlix,  19).  Noe's  prophetic  words  (ac- 
cording to  Massor.  Text),  "Blessed  be  Yahweh,  the 
God  of  Sem"  (for  the  glory  of  a  nation  is  its  God), 
designate,  in  a  special  manner,  Yahweh  as  the  God  of 
Sem  and,  consequently,  Sem  as  the  bearer  of  the 
Messianic  promises.  Ha\-ing  enumerated  the  Semitic 
nations,  whose  habitat  extended  over  the  central  por- 
tions of  the  then  known  world  (Gen.,  x,  21-31),  the 
Sacred  Writer  resumes  (xt,  10  sqq.)  the  genealog>'  of 
the  descendants  of  Arphaxad,  the  direct  ancestor  of 
Abraham,  David,  and  Christ. 

HuMMELAUER,  Comment,  in  Gcnesim  (Paris.  1895),  loc.  cit.,  and 
Hagen,  Lex.  Bibl.  (Paris,  1905-11),  both  in  Cursus  Scripture 
Sacrw;  Strack,  Genew  (Munich,  1894),  loc.  cit.  in  Kurzgef. 
Kommentar  z.  d.  hi.  Schriflen  .Alt.  u.  N.  Test.;  Hoberg,  Die  Gene- 
sis (Freiburg,  1908),  loc.  cit.;  Maas,  Christ  in  Type  and  Prophecy, 
I  (New  York),  212  sq. 

Thomas  Plassmann. 

Semiarians  and  Semiarianism,  a  name  fre- 
quently given  to  the  conservative  majority  in  the 
East  in  the  fourth  century  as  opposed  to  the  strict 
Arians.  More  accurately  it  is  reserved  (as  by  St. 
Epiphanius,  "Ha>r.",  Ixxiii)  for  the  party  of  reaction 
headed  by  Basil  of  Ancyra  in  358.  The  greater 
number  of  the  Eastern  bishops,  who  agreed  to  the 
deposition  of  St.  Athanasius  at  Tyre  in  335  and  re- 
ceived the  Arians  to  communion  at  Jerusalem  on  their 
repentance,  were  not  Arians,  yet  they  were  far  from 
being  all  orthodox.  The  dedication  Council  of 
Antioch  in  341  put  forth  a  creed  which  was  un- 
exceptionable but  for  its  omission  of  the  Nicene 
"of  One  Substance".  Even  disciples  of  Arius,  such 
as  George,  Bishop  of  Laodicea  (335-47),  and  Eusta- 
thius  of  Sebaste  (c.  35(>-80),  joined  the  moderate 
party,  and  after  the  death  of  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia, 
the  leaders  of  the  court  faction,  Ursacius,  Valens, 
and  Germinius,  were  not  tied  to  any  formula,  for  Con- 
stantius  himself  hated  Arianism,  though  he  dis- 
liked Athanasius  yet  more.  When  Marcellus  of 
Ancyra  w'as  deposed  in  336,  he  was  succeeded  by 
Basil.  Marcellus  was  reinstated  by  the  Council  of 
Sardica  and  the  pope  in  343,  but  Basil  was  restored 


in  350  by  Constantius,  over  whom  he  gained  con- 
siderable influence.  He  was  the  leader  of  a  council 
at  Sirmium  in  351  held  against  Photinus  who  had  been 
a  deacon  at  Ancyra,  and  the  canons  of  this  synod 
begin  by  condemning  Arianism,  though  they  do  not 
quite  come  up  to  the  Nicene  standard.  Basil  had  after- 
wards a  disputation  with  the  Arian  Aetius.  After 
the  defeat  of  Magnentius  at  Mursa  in  351,  Valens, 
bishop  of  that  city,  became  the  spiritual  director 
of  Constantius.  In  355  Valens  and  Ursacius  ob- 
tained the  exile  of  the  Western  confessors  Eusebius, 
Lucifer,  Liberius,  and  that  of  Hilary  followed.  In 
357  they  issued  the  second  Creed  of  Sirmium,  or 
"formula  of  Hosius",  in  which  homoousios  and 
homoiousios  were  both  rejected.  Eudoxius,  a  violent 
Arian,  seized  the  See  of  Antioch,  and  supported 
Aetius  and  his  disciple  Eunomius. 

In  the  Lent  of  358  Basil  with  many  bishops  was 
holding  the  dedicatory  feast  of  a  new  church  he  had 
built  at  Ancyra,  when  he  received  a  letter  from  George 
of  Laodicea  relating  how  Eudoxius  had  approved  of 
Aetius,  and  begging  Macedonius  of  Constantinople, 
Basil,  and  the  rest  of  the  assembled  bishops  to 
decree  the  expulsion  of  Eudoxius  and  his  followers 
from  Antioch,  else  that  gi-eat  see  were  lost.  In  con- 
sequence the  SjTiod  of  Ajic>Ta  published  a  long  reply 
addressed  to  George  and  the  other  bishops  of  Phceni- 
cia,  in  which  they  recite  the  Creed  of  Antioch  (341), 
adding  explanations  against  the  "unlikeness"  of  the 
Son  to  the  Father  taught  by  the  Arians  (Anomoeans, 
from  dvdfioios),  and  showing  that  the  very  name 
of  father  implies  a  son  of  like  substance  (oyuotoiJo-tos,  or 
5/xoios  /car'  ovjiav)  Anathematisms  are  appended, 
in  which  Anomoeanism  is  explicitly  condemned  and 
the  teaching  of  "likeness  of  substance"  enforced. 
The  nineteenth  of  these  canons  forbids  the  use  also 
of  ofioovffios  and  rauTooi^crtos;  this  may  be  an  after- 
thought due  to  the  instance  of  Macedonius,  as  Basil 
does  not  seem  to  have  insisted  on  it  later.  Legates 
were  dispatched  to  the  Court  at  Sirmium — Basil, 
Eustathius  of  Sebaste,  an  ascetic  of  no  dogmatic 
principles,  Eleusius  of  Cyzicus,  a  follower  of  Mace- 
donius, and  Leontius,  a  priest  who  was  one  of  the 
emperor's  chaplains.  They  arrived  just  in  time, 
for  the  emperor  had  been  lending  his  ear  to  an 
Eudoxian;  but  he  now  veered  round,  and  issued  a 
letter  (Sozomen,  IV,  xiv)  declaring  the  Son  to  be 
"like  in  substance"  to  the  Father,  and  condemning 
the  Arians  of  Antioch. 

According  to  Sozomen  it  was  at  this  point  that 
Liberius  was  released  from  exile  on  his  signing  three 
formulae  combined  by  Basil;  against  this  story  see 
Liberius,  Pope.  Basil  persuaded  Constantius  to  sum- 
mon a  general  council,  Ancyra  being  proposed,  then 
Nicomedia;  but  the  latter  city  was  destroyed  Ijy  an 
earthquake.  Basil,  therefore,  was  again  at  Sirmium 
in  359,  where  the  Arianizers  had  meanwhile  regained 
their  footing  With  Germinius  of  Sirmium,  George 
of  Alexandria,  L^rsacius  and  Valens,  and  Marcus  of 
Arethusa,  he  held  a  conference  which  lasted  until 
night.  A  confession  of  faith,  ridiculed  under  the 
name  of  the  "dated  creed",  was  drawn  up  by  Marcus 
on  22  May  (Hilary,  "Fragment,  xv").  Arianism 
was  of  course  rejected,  but  the  6fj.oi.os  /card  riiv  oixriav 
was  not  admitted,  and  the  e.xpression  Kara,  wivra 
SiMioi,  "like  in  all  things",  was  substituted.  Basil 
was  disappointed,  and  added  to  his  signature  the  ex- 
planation that  the  words  "in  all  things"  mean  not 
only  in  will,  but  in  existence  and  being  (kotA  ttjv  ijirap^iv 
Kal  (carcl  t6  ehai).  Not  content  with  this,  BasQ, 
George  of  Laodicea,  and  others  published  a  joint 
ex-planation  (Epiph.,  Ixxiii,  12-22)  that  "in  all  things" 
must  include  "in  substance". 

The  court  party  arranged  that  two  councils  should 
be  held,  at  Rimini  and  Seleucia  respectively.  At 
Seleucia  (359)  the  Semiarians  were  in  a  majority, 
being  supported  by  such  men  as  St.  Cyril  of  Jeru- 


SEMIDOUBLE 


094 


SEMINARY 


salem,  his  friend  Silvanus  of  Tarsus,  and  even  St. 
Hilary,  but  they  were  unable  to  obtain  their  ends. 
Basil,"  Silvanus,  and  Eleusius,  therefore,  went  as 
envoys  to  Constantinople,  where  a  council  was  held 
(360j  which  followed  Rimini  in  condemning  ofioiovffioi 
together  with  oyuooiJtrioj,  and  allowed  S/xoios  alone, 
without  addition.  This  new  phrase  was  the  invention 
of  Acacius  of  Ca-sarea,  who  now  deserted  the  ex- 
tremer  .\rians  and  became  leader  of  the  new 
"Homoean"  party.  He  procured  the  exile  of  Mace- 
donius,  Eleusius,  Basil,  Eustathius,  Silvanus,  Cyril, 
and  others. 

Constantius  died  at  the  end  of  361.  Under  Julian 
the  exiles  returned.  Basil  was  probably  dead. 
Macedonius  organized  a  party  which  confessed  the 
Son  to  be  Kard  iriura  S/ioios,  while  it  declared  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  be  the  minister  and  ser\'ant  of  the  Father, 
and  a  creature.  Eleusius  joined  him,  and  so  did 
Eustathius  for  a  time.  This  remnant  of  the  Semi- 
arian  party  held  synods  at  Zele  and  elsewhere. 
The  accession  of  Jovian,  who  was  orthodox,  induced 
the  versatile  Acacius,  with  Meletius  of  Antioch 
and  twentj'-five  bishops,  to  accept  the  Nicene  formula, 
adding  an  exi^lanation  that  the  Nicene  Fathers  meant 
by  ofioova-ios  merclj^  S/xows  /car'  ova-Lav.  Thus  Acacius 
had  taken  up  the  original  formula  of  the  Semi- 
arians.  In  365  the  Macedonians  assembled  at 
Lampsacus  under  the  presidency  of  Eleusius,  and 
condemned  the  Councils  of  Ariminum  and  Antioch 
(360),  asserting  again  the  likeness  in  substance. 
But  the  threats  of  the  Arian  emperor  Valens  caused 
Eleusius  to  sign  an  .Arian  creed  at  Nicomedia  in  366. 
He  returned  to  his  diocese  full  of  remorse,  and  begged 
for  the  election  of  another  bishop;  but  his  diocesans 
refused  to  let  him  resign.  The  West  was  at  peace 
imder  Valentinian,  so  the  Semiarians  sent  envoys 
to  that  emperor  and  to  the  pope  to  get  help.  Liberius 
refused  to  see  them  until  they  presented  him  with  a 
confession  of  faith  which  included  the  Nicene  formula. 
He  seems  to  have  been  unaware  that  the  party  now 
rejected  the  Divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  but  this 
was  perhaps  not  true  of  the  envoys  Eustathius  and 
Silvanus.  On  the  return  of  the  legates,  the  docu- 
ments they  brought  were  received  with  great  joy 
by  a  sjTiod  at  Tyana,  which  embraced  the  Nicene 
faith.  But  another  synod  in  Caria  still  refused  the 
homoousion.  For  the  rest  of  the  history  of  the  sect, 
who  are  now  to  be  called  Macedonians,  see 
Pnecmatomachi. 

In  addition  to  bibliography  under  Arianism  and  Eusebius  op 
Nicomedia,  Bishop,  see  articles  Basilius  of  Ancyra,  Eleusius, 
Eustathius  ofSebaste  by  Venables  in  Diet  .Christ.  Biug.;  Lichten- 
BTElN,  Eusebius  von  Nikomedien  (Halle,  1903);  Looks,  Eusta- 
thius von  Sebaste  und  die  Chronologie  der  Basilius-Briefe  (Halle, 
1898). 

John  Chapman. 

Semidouble  (Semiduplex).  See  Feasts,  Ec- 
clesiastical. 

Seminary,  Ecclesiastical. — ^I.  Terminology. — 
The  word  seminary  (Fr.  semiruiire,  Ger.  Seminar)  is 
sometimes  us(id,  especially  in  Germany,  to  designate 
a  group  of  university  students  devoted  to  a  special 
line  of  work.  The  same  word  is  often  applied  in 
England  and  the  United  States  to  young  ladies' 
acaidemies,  Protestant  or  Catholic.  When  qualified 
by  the  word  cccleHinMiail,  it  is  reserved  to  schools 
instituted,  in  accordance  with  a  decree  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  for  the  training  of  the  Catholic  diocesan 
clergy.  It  differs  therefore  from  the  novitiate  and 
the  scholasticate  where  members  of  religious  orders 
receive  their  spiritual  and  intellectual  formation.  In 
the  ecclesiastical  seminary  both  go  together.  Hence, 
a  faculty  of  theology  in  a  university  is  not  a  seminary; 
neither  is  the  word  to  be  applied  to  the  German  Kon- 
viclus,  where  eccleBiastical  students  live  together  while 
attending  lectures  of  the  faculty  of  theology  in  the 
State  universities. 


An  ecclesiastical  seminary  is  diocesan,  interdiocesan, 
provincial,  or  pontifical,  according  as  it  is  under  the 
control  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  of  several  bishops 
who  send  there  their  students,  of  all  the  bishops  of  an 
ecclesiastical  province,  or  of  the  Holj'  See.  A  semi- 
nary which  receives  students  from  several  provinces 
or  from  dioceses  in  various  parts  of  the  country  is 
called  a  central,  or  a  national,  seminary. 

A  theological  seminary  {grand  seminaire)  provides 
courses  in  Holy  Scripture,  philosophy,  theology  etc., 
and  gives  young  men  immediate  preparation  for  ordi- 
nation. A  preparatory  seminary  {]Mit  seminaire) 
gives  only  a  collegiate  course  as  a  preparation  for 
entrance  into  the  theological  seminary.  The  word 
seminary  when  used  alone  designates  either  a  theolog- 
ical seminary  or  a  seminary  including  both  the  col- 
legiate and  the  theological  courses. 

In  this  connexion  it  should  be  noted  tnat  the  name 
"college"  is  sometimes  given  to  institutions  which 
offer  no  collegiate  courses  in  the  usual  sense  of  the 
term,  but  receive  only  ecclesiastics  who  intend  to 
study  philosoph}^  and  theology.  Su(!h  are  All  Hal- 
lows College,  Drumcondra,  Ireland,  the  Irish  col- 
leges on  the  Continent,  and  the  various  national  col- 
leges in  Rome  (see  respective  articles).  These  are  in 
reality  seminaries  as  regards  both  instruction  and 
disciphne.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  seminaries 
which  provide  undergraduate  courses  as  preparatory 
to  philosophy  and  theology,  thus  combining  in  one 
institution  the  work  of  the  petit  seminaire  and  that  of 
the  grand  seminaire. 

II.  Purpose  of  Seminary  Education. — A  semi- 
nary is  a  school  in  which  priests  are  trained.  A  priest 
is  the  representative  of  Christ  among  men:  his  mission 
is  to  carrj'^  on  Christ's  work  for  the  salvation  of  souls; 
in  Christ's  name  and  by  His  power,  he  teaches  men 
what  they  ought  to  believe  and  what  they  ought  to 
do:  he  forgives  sins,  and  offers  in  sacrifice  the  Body  and 
Blood  of  Christ.  He  is  another  Christ  {sacerdos 
alter  Chris(us).  His  training,  therefore,  must  be  in 
harmony  with  this  high  office  and  consequently 
different  in  many  ways  from  the  preparation  for 
secular  professions.  He  must  possess  not  only  a  lib- 
eral education,  but  also  professional  knowledge,  and 
moreover,  like  an  army  or  navy  officer,  he  needs  to  ac- 
quire the  manners  and  personal  habits  becoming  his 
calling.  To  teach  candidates  for  the  priesthood  what 
a  priest  ought  to  know  and  to  make  them  what  a  priest 
ought  to  be  is  the  purpose  of  seminary  education;  to 
this  twofold  end  everything  in  the  form  of  studies  and 
discipline  must  be  directed. 

III.  Life  in  the  Seminary. — When  a  boy  of  in- 
telligence and  piety  shows  an  inclination  to  become 
a  priest,  he  is  scmt  after  gradual  ion  from  the  grammar 
or  high  school  to  pursue  a  classical  course,  either  in  a 
preparatory  seminary  or  in  a  Cathohc  mixed  college 
where  lay  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  students  receive  a 
classical  education.  This  course,  successfully  com- 
pleted, prepares  him  for  admission  into  the  theological 
seminary.  The  year  opens  with  a  retreat  of  eight  or 
ten  days,  during  which  by  meditations,  conferences, 
visits  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  recitation  of  the 
office,  consultations  with  his  spiritual  director,  his 
mind  and  heart  are  brought  under  the  influence  of  the 
great  truths  of  religion,  so  as  to  make  him  realize  and 
feel  the  importance  of  his  seminary  training.  Then 
begins  the  ordinary  routine  of  the  seminary,  inter- 
rupted only  by  a  short  recess,  usually  at  the  end  of 
the  first  term,  and  by  the  retreats  which  precede  the 
Christmas  and  Trinity  ordinations.  The  receptions 
of  Holy  orders  are  the  greatest  and  the  most  joyful 
events  of  the  year,  for  they  keep  before  the  mind  of 
the  student  the  goal  of  all  his  efforts,  the  priesthood. 
During  the  scholastic  year,  a  day  of  each  week  is  set 
apart  for  a  holiday:  the  morning  is  devoted  to  recrea- 
tion, or  to  some  favourite  study;  in  the  afternoon  there 
is  usually  a  walk,  and  at  times  the  students  visit  hos- 


SEMINARY 


695 


SEMINAR? 


pitals  or  other  institutions,  where  they  acquire  a  fore- 
taste and  gain  some  experience  of  their  future  work 
among  the  sick  and  the  poor.  On  Sunday  they  all 
assist  at  a  solemn  High  Mass  and  at  Vespers,  and  in 
some  places  they  also  attend  a  conference  on  Holy 
Scripture.  The  summer  vacation,  lasting  about  three 
months,  is  spent  either  at  the  seminary  villa,  as  is 
the  general  practice  in  Italy,  or  at  home,  as  is  com- 
monly done  in  the  United  States  and  other  countries. 

The  ordinary  working  day  is  divided  between 
prayer,  study,  and  recreation.  Summer  and  winter, 
the  student  rises  at  5  or  5.30  a.  m.,  makes  his  medita- 
tion for  a  half-hour,  hears  Mass,  and  usually  receives 
Communion.  Breakfast  is  about  two  hours  after 
rising.  In  the  forenoon  there  are  two  classes  of  one 
hour  each,  while  two  hours  also  are  devoted  to  private 
study.  After  dinner  there  is  about  an  hour  of  recrea- 
tion. In  the  afternoon  four  hours  are  divided  be- 
tween class  and  study,  and  as  a  rule  another  hour  of 
study  follows  supper.  A  visit  to  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment, the  recitation  of  the  Rosary,  and  spiritual  read- 
ing take  place  in  the  afternoon  or  evening;  and  the  day 
closes  with  night  prayer.  Thus  the  student  has  de- 
voted about  three  hours  to  exercises  of  piety  and  nine 
hours  to  work.  After  six  years  of  this  mental  and 
moral  training  in  retirement  from  the  world,  and  in 
the  society  of  fellow  students  animated  by  the  same 
purpose  and  striving  after  the  same  ideals,  he  is  deemed 
worthy  of  receiving  the  honour  and  capable  of  bearing 
the  burden  of  the  priesthood :  he  is  an  educated  Chris- 
tian gentleman,  he  possesses  professional  knowledge, 
he  is  ready  to  live  and  to  work  among  men  as  the  am- 
bassador of  Christ. 

IV.  History. — A.  Late  Origin. — This  system  of 
seminary  education,  which  has  now  become  an  essen- 
tial feature  of  the  Church's  life,  had  its  origin  only  in 
the  sixteenth  century  in  a  decree  of  the  Council  of 
Trent.  Since  Christ's  work  on  earth  is  to  be  con- 
tinued chiefly  through  diocesan  priests,  the  Apostles 
and  the  early  popes  and  bishops  always  gave  special 
care  to  the  selection  and  training  of  the  clergy.  St. 
Paul  warns  Timothy  not  to  impo.se  hands  lightly  on 
any  man  (I  Tim.,  v,  22).  In  the  scanty  records  of  the 
early  Roman  pontiffs  we  invariably  read  the  number 
of  deacons,  priests,  and  bishops  whom  they  ordained. 
But  although  the  training  of  the  clergy  was  ever  held 
to  be  a  matter  of  vital  importance,  we  should  look  in 
vain  during  the  first  centuries  for  an  organized  sys- 
tem of  clerical  education,  just  as  we  should  look  in 
vain  for  the  fully-developed  theology  of  St.  Thomas. 

B.  Individual  Training  in  Early  Times. — Before 
St.  Augustine  no  trace  can  be  found  of  any  special  in- 
stitutions for  the  education  of  the  clergy.  Professors 
and  students  in  the  famous  Christian  schools  of  Alex- 
andria and  Edessa  supplied  priests  and  bi.shops;  but 
these  schools  were  intended  for  the  teaching  of  cate- 
chumens, and  for  general  instruction;  they  cannot, 
therefore,  be  considered  as  seminaries.  The  training 
of  priests  was  personal  and  practical;  boys  and  young 
men  attached  to  the  servicie  of  a  church  assisted  the 
bishop  and  the  priests  in  the  discharge  of  their  func- 
tions, and  thus,  by  the  exercise  of  the  duties  of  the 
minor  orders,  they  gradually  learned  to  look  after 
the  church,  to  read  and  explain  Holy  Scripture,  to 
prepare  catechumens  for  baptism  and  to  administer 
the  sacraments.  Some  of  the  greatest  bishops  of  the 
period  had  moreover  received  a  hberal  education  in 
pagan  schools,  and  before  ordination  spent  some  time 
in  retirement,  penitential  exercises,  and  meditation  on 
Holy  Scripture. 

C.  From  St.  Augustine  to  the  Foundation  of  the 
Universities. — St.  Augustine  established  near  the 
cathedral,  in  his  own  house  (in  domo  ecclesiw),  a  mo- 
nasterium  clericorum  in  which  his  clergy  lived  together. 
He  would  raise  to  Holy  orders  only  such  as  were  will- 
ing to  unite  the  community  hfe  with  the  exercise  of 
the  ministry.     In  a  few  years  this  institution  gave 


ten  bishops  to  various  sees  in  Africa.     It  was,  how- 
ever, rather  a  clergy  house  than  a  seminary. 

The  example  of  St.  Augustine  was  soon  followed  at 
Milan,  Nola,  and  elsewhere.  A  council  held  in  529 
at  Vaison,  in  Southern  Gaul,  exhorted  parish  priests  to 
adopt  a  custom  aheady  obtaining  in  Italy,  to  have 
young  clerics  in  their  house,  and  to  instruct  them  with 
fatherly  zeal  so  as  to  prepare  for  themselves  worthy 
successors.  Two  years  later  the  second  Council  of 
Toledo  decreed  that  clerics  should  be  trained  by  a 
superior  in  the  house  of  the  Church  {in  domo 
Ecclesice),  under  the  eye  of  the  bishop.  Another 
CouncU  of  Toledo,  held  in  633,  urges  that  this  training 
be  begun  early,  so  that  future  priests  may  spend  their 
youth  not  in  unlawful  pleasures  but  under  ecclesias- 
tical discipline.  Among  those  cathedral  schools,  the 
best  known  is  that  establi-shed  near  the  Lateran  Basil- 
ica, where  many  popes  and  bishops  were  educated  ab 
infantia.  Besides,  not  a  few  monasteries,  such  as  St. 
Victor  in  Paris,  Le  Bee  in  Normandy,  Oxford,  and 
Fulda,  educated  not  only  their  own  subjects,  but  also 
aspirants  to  the  secular  clergy. 

D.  From  the  Thirteenth  Century  to  the  Council  of 
Trent. — Out  of  the  local  episcopal  schools  grew  the 
medieval  universities,  when  illustrious  teachers  at- 
tracted to  a  few  cities,  e.  g.  Paris,  Bologna,  Oxford 
etc.,  students  from  various  provinces  and  even  from 
all  parts  of  Europe.  As  in  these  schools  theology, 
philosophy,  and  canon  law  held  the  first  rank,  a  large 
proportion  of  the  students  were  ecclesiastics  or  mem- 
bers of  religious  orders;  deprived  of  their  ablest  teach- 
ers and  most  gifted  students,  the  cathedral  and 
monastic  schools  gradually  declined.  Still,  only  about 
one  per  cent  of  the  clergy  were  able  to  attend  univer- 
sity courses.  The  education  of  the  vast  majority, 
therefore,  was  more  and  more  neglected,  while  the 
privileged  few  enjoyed  indeed  the  highest  intellectual 
advantages,  but  received  little  or  no  spiritual  train- 
ing. The  colleges  in  which  Ihoy  lived  maintained  for 
a  while  good  discipline;  but  in  less  than  a  century  the 
life  of  ecclesiastical  students  at  the  universities  was 
no  better  than  that  of  the  lay  students.  What  was 
lacking  was  character-formation  and  the  practical 
preparation  for  the  ministry. 

E.  The  Decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent. — After  the 
Reformation  the  need  of  a  well-trained  clergy  was 
more  keenly  felt.  In  the  work  of  the  commission  ap- 
pointed by  the  pope  to  prepare  questions  to  be  dis- 
cussed in  the  Council  of  Trent,  ecclesiastical  educa- 
tion occupies  an  important  place.  When  the  council 
convened  "to  extirpate  heresy  and  reform  morals", 
it  decreed  in  its  Fifth  Session  (June,  1546)  that  pro- 
vision should  be  made  in  every  cathedral  for  the 
teaching  of  grammar  and  Holy  Scripture  to  clerics  and 
poor  scholars.  The  council  was  interrupted  before 
the  question  of  clerical  training  could  be  formally 
taken  up.  Meanwhile,  St.  Ignatius  established  at 
Rome  (1553)  the  Collegium  Germanicum  for  the 
education  of  German  ecclesiastical  students.  Car- 
dinal Pole,  who  had  witnessed  the  foundation  of  the 
German  College  and  had  been  a  member  of  the  com- 
mi.ssion  to  prepare  for  the  Council  of  Trent,  went  to 
England  after  the  death  of  Henry  VIII  to  re-establish 
the  Catholic  religion.  In  the  regulations  which  he 
issued  in  1556,  the  word  seminary  seems  to  have  been 
used  for  the  first  time  in  its  modern  sense,  to  designate 
a  school  exclusively  devoted  to  the  training  of  the 
clergy.  After  the  council  reopened,  the  Fathers  re- 
sumed the  question  of  clerical  training;  and  after 
discussing  it  for  about  a  month,  they  adopted  the 
decree  on  the  foundation  of  ecclesiastical  seminaries. 

On  15  July,  in  the  Twenty-third  Session,  it  was 
solemnly  proclaimed  in  its  present  form,  and  has  ever 
since  remained  the  fundamental  law  of  the  Church  on 
the  education  of  priests.  In  substance  it  is  as  fol- 
lows: (1)  Every  diocese  is  bound  to  support,  to  rear  in 
piety,  and  to  train  in  ecclesiastical  discipUne  a  certain 


SEMINARY 


696 


SEMINARY 


number  of  youths,  in  a  college  to  be  chosen  by  the 
bishop  for  that  purpose;  poor  dioceses  may  combine, 
large  dioceses  may  have  more  than  one  seminary.  (2)  In 
these  institutions  are  to  be  received  boj's  who  are  at 
least  twelve  years  of  age,  can  read  and  write  passably, 
and  by  their  good  disposition  give  hope  that  thej'  will 
persevere  in  the  service  of  the  Church;  children  of 
the  poor  are  to  be  preferred.  (3)  Besides  the  elements 
of  a  hberal  education  [as  then  understood],  the  stu- 
dents are  to  be  given  professional  knowledge  to  enable 
them  to  preach,  to  conduct  Divine  worship,  and  to  ad- 
minister the  sacraments.  (4)  Seminaries  are  to  be  sup- 
ported by  a  tax  on  the  income  of  bishoprics,  chapters, 
abbeys,  and  other  benefices.  (5)  In  the  government  of 
the  seminary,  the  bishop  is  to  be  assisted  by  two  com- 
missions of  priests,  one  for  spiritual,  the  other  for  tem- 
p>oral  matters. 

So  well  did  the  Fathers  of  Trent  understand  the  im- 
portance of  the  decree,  so  much  did  they  expect  from 
it,  that  they  congratulated  one  another,  and  several 
declared  that,  had  the  council  done  nothing  else,  this 
would  be  more  than  sufficient  reward  of  all  their  la- 
bours. An  historian  of  the  council.  Cardinal  Palla- 
vicini,  does  not  hesitate  to  caU  the  institution  of  sem- 
inaries the  most  important  reform  enacted  by  the 
council. 

F.  Execution  of  the  Decree  of  Trent  in  various  Conn- 
tries. — To  provide  for  the  carrying  out  of  this  im- 
portant decree,  Pius  IV  forthwith  instituted  a  com- 
mission of  cardinals.  The  following  year  (April, 
1564),  he  decreed  the  foundation  of  the  Roman  Sem- 
inary, which  was  opened  in  Feb.,  1565,  and  which  for 
more  than  three  centuries  has  been  a  nursery  of 
priests,  bishops,  cardinals,  and  popes.  St.  Charles 
Borromeo,  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Milan,  who  had 
taken  a  leading  part  in  the  work  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  was  also  mo.st  zealous  and  successful  in  enfor- 
cing its  decisions.  For  his  large  diocese  ho  established 
three  seminaries:  one  of  them  furnished  a  complete 
course  of  ecclesiastical  studies;  in  another,  a  shorter 
course  was  provided,  especially  for  those  destined  to 
country  parishes;  the  third  was  for  priests  who  needed 
to  make  up  the  deficiencies  of  previous  training.  For 
these  institutions  St.  Charles  drew  up  a  set  of  regula- 
tions, which  have  been  ever  since  an  inspiration  and  a 
model  for  all  founders  of  seminaries.  In  other  parts 
of  Italy  the  decree  of  Trent  was  gradually  put  into 
effect,  so  that  the  smallest  of  the  three  hundred  dio- 
ceses had  its  own  complete  seminary,  including  both 
collegiate  and  theological  departments. 

In  Germany,  w'ar  and  the  progress  of  heresy  were 
serious  ob.stacles  to  the  carrying  out  of  the  decree  of 
Trent;  still  seminaries  were  founfled  at  Eichstadt 
(1564),  Munster  (1610),  and  Prague  (1631). 

In  Portugal  the  Venerable  Bartholomew  of  the 
Martyrs,  Archbishop  of  Braga,  established  a  seminary 
a  few  months  after  the  close  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

Various  attempts  by  PVench  bishops  ended  in  fail- 
ure, until  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  and  Father  OVwr  opened 
seminaries  in  Paris  (1642),  and  helped  to  establish 
them  elsewhere  in  France.  A  feature  of  these  semi- 
naries and,  it  is  claimed,  one  of  the  causes  of  their  suc- 
cess was  the  separation  of  theological  students  from 
those  who  were  studying  the  classics,  of  the  theo- 
logical from  the  preparatory  seminary.  In  Paris  the 
students  of  St-8ulpice  usually  followed  lectures  at  the 
Sorbonne;  srjme  courses  given  at  the  seminary  com- 
pleted their  intellectual  training,  while  meditation, 
spiritual  conferences,  etc.  provided  for  their  moral 
and  religious  formation.  In  other  places,  especially 
when  there  was  no  university,  a  complete  course  of  in- 
struction was  organized  in  the  seminary  itself.  As 
tli'TC  was  no  Church  law  reouiring  students  to  spend 
a  fixed  time  in  the  seminary  Dcfore  ordination,  and  as 
the  powers  of  the  bishops  were  hampered  by  existing 
customs,  some  of  the  clergy,  previous  to  the  Vrench 
Revolution,  were  not  trained  in  these  institutions. 


In  England  and  Ireland  persecution  prevented  the 
foundation  of  seminaries;  before  the  French  Revolu- 
tion priests  for  the  English  mission  were  trained  at  the 
English  College  of  Douai.  Irish  aspirants  to  the 
priesthood,  leaving  Ireland  at  the  peril  of  their  lives, 
went  to  the  colleges  founded  for  them  in  Paris,  Lou- 
vain,  and  Salamanca  by  Irish  exiles  and  other  gen- 
erous benefactors,  to  prepare  for  a  life  of  self-sacri- 
fice often  ending  in  martyrdom. 

G.  Aitempls  at  Secularization. — Towards  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  Emperor  Joseph  II  at- 
tempted to  bring  the  education  of  the  clergy  in  Aus- 
tria, Northern  Italy,  and  the  Netherlands  under  the 
control  of  the  State.  Students  were  forbidden  by  law 
to  frequent  the  German  College  in  Rome;  episcopal 
seminaries  were  suppressed,  and  in  their  place  central 
seminaries  were  founded  at  Vienna,  Budapest,  Pavia, 
Freiburg,  and  Louvain,  in  which  all  clerical  students 
were  forced  to  receive  their  education  under  the  con- 
trol not  of  the  bishops  but  of  the  state.  Professors 
and  text  books  were  chosen  by  state  officials,  who  also 
regulated  the  discipline.  Against  this  usurpation, 
protests  came  not  only  from  the  Holy  See  and  the 
bishops,  but  also  from  the  people;  at  Louvain  the  cen- 
tral seminary  was  burned  to  the  ground.  The  scheme 
had  to  be  abandoned,  and  the  successor  of  Joseph  II 
allowed  the  bishops  to  possess  and  rule  their  own 
seminaries. 

The  tendency  to  interference,  however,  remained, 
and  has  since  show-n  itself  in  various  German  states. 
In  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  policy 
of  secularization  was  adopted  by  the  Bavarian  Gov- 
ernment. Protestants  or  Free-thinkers  were  ap- 
pointed teachers  in  the  faculty  of  theology  and  the 
seminaries;  regulations  were  drawn  up  for  the  choice 
of  superiors,  discipline,  plan  of  studies,  examinations, 
admission,  and  dismissal  of  students.  After  a  long 
conflict  a  concordat  was  signed  in  1817,  by  which  the 
rights  of  bishops  to  erect  and  control  seminaries  were 
recognized.  The  same  struggle  occurred  in  other 
German  states.  The  conflict  became  specially  acute 
in  1873,  when  the  Prussian  Government  in  the  fa- 
mous May  Laws  issued  a  scheme  which  prescribed  a 
regular  course  in  a  gymnasium,  three  years  theology  at 
a  state  university,  and  then  examination  before  state 
inspectors,  as  essential  conditions  of  appointment  to 
any  ecclesiastical  position.  Education  in  seminaries 
might  be  accepted  as  equivalent  if  the  bishops  sub- 
mitted the  rules  to  the  State  for  approval.  As  they 
refused  to  comply,  the  seminaries  of  Treves,  Gnesen- 
Posen,  Strasburg,  and  others  were  closed.  Negotia- 
tions between  the  Government  and  the  Holy  See  were 
opened  after  the  election  of  Leo  XIII.  Among  the 
points  on  which  the  Church  could  never  yield,  the 
pope  laid  stress  upon  the  rights  of  bishops  to  have 
seminaries  and  to  control  the  education  of  the  clergy. 
The  more  vexatious  measures  were  abolished,  and  har- 
mony was  restored  between  Church  and  State. 

H.  Present  Conditions  in  Germany. — At  present 
nearly  all  ecclesiastical  students  make  their  college 
course  in  a  public  gymnasium,  together  with  lay  stu- 
dents. VoT  the  teaching  of  theology  and  spiritual  for- 
mation there  are  two  systems.  The  first  consists  of  a 
course  of  three  years  in  one  of  the  faculties  of  theology, 
in  the  State  universities  of  Bonn,  Breslau,  Freiburg, 
Munich,  Munster,  Tubingen,  or  Wiirzburg.  The  ap- 
pointment of  processors  in  these  faculties  is  made  by 
the  Government  but  with  the  approval  of  the  bishops, 
who  can  moreover  forbid  their  students  to  attend  the 
lectures  of  obje(;tionahle  teachers.  While  at  the  uni- 
versity the  students  usually  live  together  in  nKonvictus 
under  one  or  two  priests,  but  they  enjoy  about  as 
much  liberty  as  lay  students.  After  completing  their 
course  they  spend  a  year  or  eighteen  months  in  a  prac- 
tical seminary  (priesterseminar) ,  to  learn  ceremonies, 
ascetic  and  pastoral  theology,  and  thus  prepare  im- 
mediately   for    ordination.     F'or  this  system,   which 


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697 


SEMINARY 


haa  many  strong  advocates,  the  following  advantages 
are  pointed  out:  it  develops  intellectual  and  moral 
initiative,  accustoms  the  students  to  live  in  the  world, 
and  gives  them  the  prestige  of  a  university  education. 
Its  opponents  insist :  That  it  is  not  in  harmony  with  the 
decree  of  Trent  and  the  subsequent  instructions  of  the 
Holy  See,  urging  bishops  to  estabhsh  seminaries  ad 
menlem  concilii  Tridenlini,  where  candidates  for  the 
priesthood  may  receive  the  special  education  proper 
to  their  calling;  that,  the  university  professors  being 
irremovable,  the  bishops  have  not  sufficient  control 
over  the  orthodoxy  of  their  teaching ;  that  instruction 
obtained  in  those  faculties  lacks  unity  and  co-ordina- 
tion, some  essential  points  being  overlooked,  while  un- 
due importance  is  at  times  attached  to  matters  of  little 
practical  utility  for  the  majority  of  the  clergy;  that 
the  spiritual  training,  neglected  in  the  universities, 
cannot  be  obtained  in  the  few  months  spent  at  the 
practical  seminary. 

There  are  regular  Tridentine  seminaries  at  Eich- 
stadt,  Fulda,  Mainz,  Metz,  and  Trier,  in  which  pro- 
fessional instruction  and  spiritual  formation  go  to- 
gether. Recently  a  compromise  between  the  univer- 
sity and  the  seminary  systems  of  clerical  training  has 
been  effected  in  Strasburg. 

J.  Recent  Developments  and  Present  Conditions  in 
other  Countries. — (1)  France. — The  Revolution  swept 
away  the  seminaries  and  the  faculty  of  theology  of 
the  Sorbonne  where  the  leaders  of  the  French  clergy 
had  been  trained.  As  soon  as  liberty  was  restored, 
one  of  the  first  cares  of  the  bishops  was  to  re-establish 
their  seminaries.  On  account  of  the  lack  of  thor- 
oughly competent  teachers  in  many  places  and  the 
urgent  need  of  priests  everywhere,  only  a  minimum 
of  knowledge  could  be  exacted.  Nor  had  the  short- 
lived faculty  of  theology  established  by  the  State  at 
the  Sorbonne  much  influence  in  raising  the  general 
standard  of  clerical  studios.  During  the  last  thirty 
years,  however,  the  Catholic  institutes  of  Paris, 
Lyons,  Toulouse,  Lille,  and  Angers  have  done  much 
to  train  teachers  for  theological  seminaries,  as  well  as 
for  the  petits  seminaires.  The  latter  are  usually  open 
to  all  who  seek  a  liberal  education,  whether  they  in- 
tend to  become  priests  or  not;  hence,  they  do  not 
realize  the  Tridentine  ideal.  As  a  result  of  the  Sepa- 
ration Law,  the  seminaries,  even  those  built  by  pri- 
vate contributions  of  Catholics,  hav(>  been  confiscated 
by  the  State.  In  spite  of  financial  difficult  ics  ;uid  the 
faUing-off  in  the  number  of  students,  dioc:\san  semina- 
ries are  maintained,  some  with  less  than  a  score  of 
students.  As  to  preparatory  seminaries,  whereas  for- 
merly there  were  several  in  most  dioceses,  their  num- 
ber is  considerably  reduced. 

(2)  England. — The  English  College  at  Douai,  sup- 
pressed by  the  French  Revolution,  was  replaced  in 
England  by  St.  Edmund's,  Ushaw,  and  Oscott. 
These  provided  a  complete  cour.se  of  clerical  educa- 
tion, including  collegiate  and  theological  studies;  none, 
however,  was  a  .seminary  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  for  they  received  lay  as  well  as  ec- 
clesiastical students.  In  the  provincial  councils  of 
Westminster,  the  bishops  advocated  the  separation  of 
clerical  from  lay  students  as  the  only  remedy  against 
worldliness;  they  decreed  that  the  foundation  of  sem- 
inaries for  the  exclusive  education  of  the  clergy  would 
contribute  powerfully  to  the  increase  of  religion,  and 
finally  they  pledged  themselves  to  establish  such  sem- 
inaries. Cardinal  Manning  founded  a  separate  sem- 
inary for  the  theological  students  of  the  Archdiocese 
of  Westminster,  and  regarded  this  as  the  great  work 
of  his  life.  Other  bishops  followed  this  example.  A 
seminary  in  full  harmony  with  the  Council  of  Trent, 
i.  e.  exclusively  for  ecclesiastical  students,  and  des- 
tined to  provide  a  complete  course  of  preparation  for 
the  priesthood  was  opened  for  the  Diocese  of  South- 
wark. 
Cardinal  Vaughan,  who  succeeded  Cardinal  Man- 


ning in  1893,  had  long  been  of  opinion  that  separate 
diocesan  seminaries  were  not  opportune  in  England. 
He  advocated  a  central  seminary  for  the  southern 
dioceses,  in  which  by  combining  their  resources  in 
men  and  money  the  bishops  could  provide  excellent 
teachers,  a  good  library,  the  emulation  which  comes 
with  increased  number  of  students,  and  the  stability 
which  would  be  secured,  if  the  control  of  one  bishop 
were  replaced  by  that  of  a  board  of  all  the  bishops  in- 
terested. These  views  being  freely  expressed  in  "The 
Tablet"  (London),  Dr.  Bourne,  the  future  successor 
of  Cardinal  Vaughan  at  Westminster,  then  rector  of 
the  Southwark  Seminary,  set  forth  in  the  same  peri- 
odical the  reasons  for  separate  diocesan  seminaries, 
i.  e.  the  authority  of  the  Council  of  Trent  and  of  the 
provincial  councils  of  Westminster,  the  possibility  of 
giving  in  most  dioceses  the  elementary  yet  solid  in- 
struction needed  for  the  ministry,  and  of  sending  some 
of  the  most  gifted  students  to  some  foreign  Catholic 
university  where  they  would  receive  higher  instruction 
than  could  be  provided  in  a  central  seminary  in  Eng- 
land. Cardinal  Vaughan  having  secured  the  appro- 
bation and  encouragement  of  Leo  XIII  for  his  proj- 
ect determined,  together  with  four  other  bishops,  to 
send  his  theological  students  to  Oscott,  which  thus, 
from  being  the  diocesan  seminary  of  Birmingham,  be- 
came in  1897  a  central  seminary  for  six  dioceses.  No 
change,  however,  was  made  in  the  faculty,  and  the 
administration  continued  in  the  main  to  be  diocesan. 
Shortly  after  the  cardinal's  death,  a  theological  sem- 
inary for  the  Archdiocese  of  Westminster  was  opened 
in  connexion  with  St.  Edmund's  College. 

(3)  Ireland. — Irish  colleges  on  the  Continent,  which 
harboured  about  five  hundred  students,  having  been 
closed  by  the  Revolution,  it  became  necessary  to  pro- 
vide in  Ireland  for  the  training  of  the  clergy.  A  col- 
lege opened  at  Carlow  in  1793  was  soon  closed  through 
fear  of  Government  prosecution.  Re-estabHshed  later, 
it  now  gives  a  complete  course  of  ecclesiastical  train- 
ing. The  foundation  of  a  Catholic  college  being 
made  legal  by  an  Act  of  Parliament,  Maynooth  was 
opened  in  1795  with  forty  students.  It  has  rapidly 
developed,  especially  during  the  last  years  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  missionary  college  of  All  Hal- 
lows was  founded  in  1842,  and  placed  in  1892  under 
the  direction  of  the  Vincentians;  it  has  sent  hundreds 
of  priests  to  Australia,  New  Zealand,  South  Africa, 
and  the  United  States.  Besides  these  and  other 
institutions,  most  of  the  dioceses  have  their  pre- 
paratory seminaries.  There  are  also  some  Irish  stu- 
dents at  Salamanca  and  at  Rome.  The  Irish  College 
in  Paris  has  been  closed  in  consequence  of  the  Separa- 
tion Laws  in  France. 

(4)  Canada. — The  Jesuits  established  a  college  at 
Quebec  in  1637.  Bishop  Laval  founded  a  theological 
seminary  in  1663  and  in  1668  a  preparatory  seminary, 
the  students  of  which  followed  the  classes  of  the 
Jesuit  College.  When  the  latter  was  suppressed  after 
the  English  conquest,  the  preparatory  seminary  be- 
came a  mixed  college.  In  1852  the  seminary  and  col- 
lege of  Quebec  were  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  university, 
with  the  title  of  Laval  in  honour  of  the  founder.  At 
Montreal  a  college  was  founded  by  the  Sulpicians  in 
1767,  a  separate  theological  department  was  estab- 
hshed  in  1840,  and  the  seminary  of  philosophy  in  1847. 
More  recently  theological  seminaries  have  been  opened 
at  Ottawa  by  the  Oblates  and  at  Halifax  by  the 
Eudists,  and  one  is  being  erected  at  Toronto.  Until 
recently,  in  several  dioceses  of  Canada,  candidates  for 
the  priesthood  received  their  training  not  in  seminaries, 
but  in  mixed  colleges  where,  after  finishing  their  clas- 
sical course,  they  read  theology,  whilst  discharging  the 
duties  of  prefect  or  teacher.  Upon  the  advice  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Propaganda,  the  Provincial 
Council  of  Montreal  (1895)  decreed  that  ecclesiastics 
studying  for  the  priesthood  in  colleges  can  only  be 
prefects  and  not  teachers;  it  also  decreed  that  before 


SEMINARY 


SEMINARY 


ordination  they  must  spend  three  years  in  a  regular 
seminary. 

(.5)  United  States. — In  colonial  days,  Spanish 
Jesuits  and  Franciscans  laboured  in  Florida,  Louisi- 
ana, New  Mexico,  and  California;  missionaries  from 
France  and  Canada  were  the  pioneers  in  Maine,  New 
York,  and  the  Mississippi  \'alley;  the  Maryland  mis- 
sions, under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Vicar  Apostohc 
of  Lx)ndon,  were  in  charge  of  Enghsh  Jesuits.  When 
John  Carroll  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Baltimore,  one 
of  his  first  cares  was  to  provide  the  means  for  the 
training  of  a  native  clergy.  In  England,  where  he 
went  to  receive  episcopal  consecration,  he  obtained 
from  a  friend  a  generous  gift  for  his  future  seminary, 
and  he  accepted  an  offer  made  to  him  in  London,  in 
the  name  of  Father  Emer>',  superior  of  St-Sulpice,  to 
send  some  members  of  his  society  to  establish  a 
seminary  at  Baltimore.  In  his  first  address  to  his 
clergy  and  people  on  his  return  to  America,  Bishop 
Carroll  mentioned  among  the  duties  of  his  pastoral 
office  the  institution  of  a  seminary  "for  training  up 
ministers  for  the  sanctuarj^  and  the  services  of  religion 
that  we  may  no  longer  depend  on  foreign  and  uncertain 
coadjutors". 

The  following  year  (1791)  Father  Nagot,  with  three 
other  Sulpicians  "and  four  students,  reached  Baltimore 
and  opened  St.  Marj-'s  Seminary  in  the  place  where  it 
stands  to-dav.  In  this  first  American  seminary 
Bishop  Carroll  ordained,  25  May,  1793,  his  first 
priest.  Rev.  S.  Badin,  who  for  over  half  a  century 
laboured  on  the  missions  of  Kentucky.  The  lack  of 
a  sufficient  number  of  ecclesiastical  students  forced 
the  Sulpicians  to  receive  lay  students  also,  even 
Protestants,  so  that  St.  Mary's  became  a  mixed  col- 
lege and,  until  the  classical  department  was  closed  in 
1852,  had  but  few  seminarians.  In  order  to  foster 
and  preserve  ecclesiastical  vocations.  Father  Nagot 
opened  (1807)  at  Pigeon  Hill,  Pennsylvania,  a  pre- 
paratory- seminar>-  which  was  the  following  year  trans- 
ferred to  Mount  St.  Mary's,  but  this  institution  soon 
became  (like  St.  Mary's  at  Baltimore),  and  has  re- 
mained to  this  day  (1911),  a  mixed  college  with  a  theo- 
logical seminarj',  the  students  of  which  help  in  carr>'- 
ing  on  the  work  of  the  collegiate  department.  A  more 
successful  attempt  to  have  a  purely  preparatory 
seminarj'  was  made  by  the  Sulpicians  in  the  founda- 
tion of  St.  Charles's  College;  opened  in  1848,  it  has 
always  been  destined  exclusively  for  aspirants  to  the 
priesthood. 

As  new  dioceses  were  created,  the  first  care  of  the 
bishops  was  to  provide  a  clergj'.  Shortly  after  their 
consecration,  the  bi.shops  usually  went  to  Europe  to  re- 
cruit priests,  while  at  home  they  spared  no  pains  to 
train  a  native  clergj'.  Bishop  Flaget  went  to  Bards- 
town  in  1811  with  "three  students,  the  nucleus  of  St. 
Thomas's  Seminary  which  for  half  a  century  was  the 
nursery  of  many  pioneer  priests  and  bishops  of  the 
West.  It  was  closed  in  1869.  Seminaries  were  like- 
wLse  established  by :  Bishop  England  at  Charleston 
(1822);  Bishop  Dubourg  at  St.  Louis  (1818);  Bishop 
Fenwick  at  Cincinnati  (1829);  Bishoj)  Fcnwick  at 
Boston  (1829);  Bishop  Kenrick  at  Phihulclpliia  (1832) ; 
Bishop  Dubois  at  New  York  (1832;;  liishoj)  Blanc  at 
New  Orlcan-s  (1838j;  Bishop  0'Con,nor  at  Pittsburg 
(1844);  Bishop  Whelan  at  Richmond  (1842)  and 
Wheeling  (185()j;  Bishop  Henni  at  Milwaukee  (1846); 
Bishop  Ix-febre  at  Detroit  (1846);  Bishop  Timon  at 
Buffalo  (1847);  Bishop  Rappe  at  Clevehuid  (1849); 
Bishop  Ixjras  at  Dubuque  (1849).  As  a  rule  these 
seminaries  were  begun  in  or  near  the  bishop's  house, 
and  often  with  the  Ijishop  as  the  chief  instructor.  The 
more  advanced  students  helped  to  instruct  the  others, 
and  all  took  part  in  the  services  of  the  cathedral. 
Their  education,  like  that  given  to  priests  in  the  Early 
Church,  was  individual  and  practical;  their  intellec- 
tual training  may  have  been  somewhat  deficient,  but 
their  priestly  character  was  moulded  by  daily  inter- 


course with  the  self-sacrificing  pioneer  bishops  and 
priests. 

Most  of  those  imperfectly  organized  seminaries, 
after  doing  good  service  in  their  day,  have  long  ceased 
to  exist,  while  a  few  have  been  transformed  into  mod- 
ern institutions.  The  diocesan  seminary  of  New  York 
was  transferred  (1836)  from  Nyack  to  Lafargeville, 
in  the  Thousand  Islands,  and  later  on  to  Fordham 
(1840).  In  1864  a  seminary  was  opened  at  Troy  for 
the  provinces  of  New  Y'ork  and  Boston;  the  Tatter 
established  its  own  seminarj^  in  1884,  and  in  1897 
the  New  Y'ork  seminary  was  transferred  to  its  present 
location  at  Dunwoodie.  The  theological  seminary- 
at  Philadelphia,  which  commenced  with  five  students 
in  the  upper  rooms  of  Bisliop  Kenrick's  residence,  was 
after  various  vicissitudes  transferred  in  1865  to  its 
actual  site  at  Overbrook,  where  the  preparatory-  semi- 
nar}^ opened  at  Glen  Riddle  in  1859  was  also  located 
in  1871.  The  Seminary  of  St.  Francis,  Milwaukee, 
started  in  1846  with  seven  students  in  a  wooden 
building  attached  to  Bishop  Henni's  house,  was 
through  the  efforts  of  Dr.  Salzmann  removed  to  the 
present  building,  w-hich  was  dedicated  in  1856.  In 
San  Francisco,  after  several  unsuccessful  attempts 
under  Bishop  Amat  and  Archbishop  Alemany,  a  pre- 
paratory seminary  was  opened  by  Archbishop  Riordan 
in  1896;  to  this  was  soon  added  a  theological  depart- 
ment. The  St.  Paul  Seminaiy,  opened  by  Arch- 
bishop Ireland  in  1894-95,  has  done  excellent  service 
in  educating  priests  for  many  of  the  western  dioceses. 

Among  the  leaders  in  the  development  of  ecclesias- 
tical education  in  America  the  late  Bishop  MacQuaid 
deserves  a  prominent  place.  He  was  the  first  presi- 
dent of  Set  on  Hall  College  (1856),  and  later  on  as 
Bishop  of  Rochester  he  established  the  preparatory 
Seminary  of  St.  Andrew,  1871,  and  the  theological 
Seminary  of  St.  Bernard.  The  latter,  which  opened 
in  1893  with  thirty-nine  students,  numbers  now  over 
two  hundred  from  various  dioceses.  The  Josc^phi- 
num,  founded  at  Columbus  (1875)  and  placed  under 
the  immediate  direction  of  Propaganda  (1892),  pro- 
vides a  free  and  complete  course  for  priests  destined 
for  the  American  missions,  especially  in  German- 
speaking  congregations.  The  Polish  college  and 
seminary  at  Detroit  has  been  established  to  meet  the 
special  needs  of  Polish  Catholics  in  the  United  States. 

Religious  orders  had  their  full  share  in  this  growth 
of  seminaries.  The  Vincent  ians,  who  have  alwaj^s 
considered  the  training  of  the  clergy  as  an  essen- 
tial part  of  their  work,  opened  the  seminary  at  St. 
Louis  (1816)  which  has  been  under  their  care  ever 
since.  They  also  conducted  the  seminary  of  New 
Orleans  from  1838  until  its  supj^rcssion.  They 
founded  Niagara  (1867),  which  has  been  raised  to  the 
rank  of  a  university  and  maintains  an  important 
theological  department.  P'or  ten  years  they  were  in 
charge  of  the  seminary  at  Philadcliiliia.  They  have 
directed  the  diocesan  seminary  at  Brooklyn  from  the 
beginning,  and  they  have  recently  opened  a  theo- 
logical seminary  at  Denver.  The  Sulpicians,  a  society 
of  secular  priests  founded  esijecially  for  training  the 
clerg}',  besides  their  own  theological  and  preparatory 
seminary  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Baltimore,  also 
opened  and  directed  for  some  years  the  diocesan 
seminaries  of  Boston  and  New  York  (Dunwoodie). 
They  have  also  been  in  charge  of  the  seininarj-  of  San 
Francisco  since  its  inception.  The  Benetlictines,  in 
keeping  with  the  tradition  of  their  early  monastic 
schools,  have  trained  students  for  ihv.  diocesan  ])riest- 
hood  along  with  the  members  of  their  or(l(>r  at  St 
Vincent's,  Pennsylvania  (1846),  St.  Meinrad's,  Indiana 
(1857),  and  Belmont,  North  Carolina  (1878).  The 
Franciscans  have  a  theological  seminary  connected 
with  their  college  at  Allegany,  New  Y'ork  (1859). 
The  Oblates  have  recently  (1903)  opened  a  theological 
seminary  at  San  Antonio,  Texas.  In  their  colleges 
all  over  the  country  the  Jesuit  Fathers  have  given  to 


SEMINARY 


699 


SEMINARY 


a  large  proportion  of  the  American  priests  their  classi- 
cal training;  their  Holy  Cross  College  at  Worcester 
has  been  since  1835  a  nursery  of  the  New  England 
clergy.  Moreover,  not  a  few  American  priests  have 
received  their  theological  training  from  the  Jesuits 
of  Innsbruck. 

The  growth  of  seminaries  in  America  did  not  until 
recently  keep  pace  with  the  need  of  priests;  many  have 
come  from  Ireland,  Germany,  France  and  other  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  while  American  students  have  sought 
their  education  in  the  American  colleges  founded  at 
Louvain  in  1857  and  Rome  in  1859,  or  in  other  in- 
stitutions on  the  Continent.  About  two  thousand 
American  priests,  moreover,  have  been  educated  in 
the  Sulpician  Seminary  at  Montreal.  Of  late  years 
the  need  of  preparatory  seminaries  has  been  more 
keenly  felt,  and  we  find  them  established  in  Rochester, 
Hartford,  Chicago,  New  York,  and  other  dioceses. 
Some  of  these  are  merely  day  schools  and,  whilst 
having  certain  advantages,  fail  to  effect  the  separa- 
tion of  aspirants  to  the  priesthood  from  the  world,  as 
contemplated  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  Since  1904 
the  annual  meetings  of  the  seminary  department  of 
the  Catholic  Educational  Association  have  been  found 
to  be  of  great  value  in  raising  the  standard  of  eccle- 
siastical education.  Carefully  prepared  papers  have 
been  read  and  discussed  on  the  various  topics  of 
seminary  training,  such  as  entrance  requirements, 
discipline,  spiritual  formation,  and  the  method  of 
teaching  the  various  branches  of  the  seminary  curric- 
ulum: Holy  Scripture,  dogmatic  and  moral  theology, 
natural  sciences,  and  social  pr()l)lrms. 

V.  Ecclesiastical  Legislation  on  Seminaries. 
A.  Sources. — The  general  laws  of  the  Church  on  the 
subject  of  seminaries  are  found  in  the  decree  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  and  in  various  documents  issued  by 
the  Holy  See.  At  no  time  has  the  question  of  cleri- 
cal training  been  the  object  of  so  much  attention  or 
brought  forth  so  many  decrees  as  under  Leo  XIII  and 
Pius  X.  Some  of  their  acts  refer  only  to  Italian  sem- 
inaries, others  to  the  whole  Church.  They  will, 
doubtless,  be  embodied  in  the  Code  of  Canon  Law 
now  in  preparation.  Meanwhile,  the  most  important 
issued  before  1908  may  be  found  arranged  in  logical 
order  in  M.  Bargilliat's  handy  little  vohune  "De  In- 
stitutione  Clcricorum".  In  Aj)()stolic  letters  to  the 
bishops  of  Prussia  (6  Jan.,  1880),  of  Hungary  (22 
Aug.,  1886),  of  Bavaria  (22  Dec,  1887),  of  Poland 
(19  March,  1894),  of  Brazil  (18  Sept.,  1899),  Leo  XIII 
insists  on  the  right  and  duty  of  bishops  to  esta})lish 
seminaries  where  future  priests  may  he  1  rained  in  sci- 
ence and  holin(\ss.  Th(>  various  branclies  of  study  in 
the  seminary  w('r(>  tlie  object  of  special  instructions. 
Thus  he  prescrilxMl  tlie  study  of  St.  Thomas's  phil- 
osophy ("^<]terni  Patris",  4  Aug.,  1879),  encouraged 
historical  research  (18  Aug.,  1883),  gave  directions  for 
Bibhcal  studies  ("Providentissimus  Dcus",  18  Nov., 
1893),  and  instituted  a  special  commission  to  foster 
them  (30  Oct.,  1902).  Towards  the  end  of  his  long 
pontificate  he  wrote  two  letters:  one  to  the  French 
bishops,  the  other  to  the  Italian  bishops  (8  Sept., 
1899  and  8  Dec,  1902),  in  which  the  training  of  the 
clergy  is  treated  at  length. 

Pius  X  even  more  than  his  predecessor  has  taken  a 
lively  interest  in  the  education  of  priests.  Convinced 
that  the  restoration  of  all  things  in  Christ  requires 
first  of  all  the  good  training  of  the  clergy,  he  urged 
the  bishops  in  his  first  Encyclical  (4  Oct.,  1903)  to 
consider  the  care  of  their  seminary  as  their  first  duty. 
He  himself  has  brought  about  various  reforms  in 
Italy.  Ecclesiastical  students  in  Rome  must  live  in 
a  college  and  before  ordination  undergo  an  examina- 
tion. As  many  dioceses  in  Italy  cannot  support  well- 
equipped  seminaries,  the  Holy  Father  has  suppressed 
some  and  united  others.  A  central  seminary  has 
been  opened  at  Capua  and  placed  under  the  direction 
of  the  Jesuits;  others  have  been  entrusted  to  the  Vin- 


centians.  In  order  to  raise  the  standard  of  studies  a 
detailed  programme  has  been  issued  for  all  Italian 
seminaries:  it  prescribes  a  course  of  five  years  in  the 
gymnasium,  three  years  in  the  lyceum  (philosophy),  a 
year  of  preparation,  and  four  years  of  study  of  theol- 
ogy. To  this  has  been  added  a  set  of  regulations  for 
the  disciphne  and  moral  training  of  the  students,  in 
which  no  detail  is  omitted  (10  May,  1907;  18  Jan., 
1908).  Other  acts  of  Pius  X  extend  not  only  to 
Italian  but  to  all  seminaries:  they  relate  to  the  ad- 
mission of  students,  to  various  branches  of  studies, 
etc;  they  all  tend  to  protect  the  faith  of  the  stu- 
dents ag;iinst  Modernistic  tendencies  and  to  train  a 
more  learned  and  more  pious  clergy.  On  the  occa- 
sion of  tlie  golden  jubilee  of  his  priesthood  the  Holy 
Father  addi-essed  to  the  clergy  of  the  world  (4  Aug., 
1908)  an  exliortation  which  will  remain  the  vade-me- 
cum of  seminarians  and  priests,  for  it  sets  forth  the 
ideal  priestly  life  with  the  means  by  which  it  can  be 
attained  and  preserved. 

Special  regulations  for  the  United  States  were  en- 
acted in  the  second  and  third  Plenary  Councils  of 
Baltimore  in  1866  and  1884.  These  laws  of  the 
Church  leave  undetermined  many  details  of  seminary 
discipline,  which  are  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  bishop. 
Several  methods,  all  based  on  the  famou3  "Institu- 
tiones"  of  St.  Charles  and  varying  only  in  non-essen- 
tial points,  have  been  and  are  still  in  force.  Among 
them  are  those  framed  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Blessed 
John  Eudes,  Father  Olier,  and  St.  Alphonsus.  None 
of  these  is  imposed  by  the  Church  or  generally  adopted 
in  all  its  details. 

B.  Foundation  of  Seminaries. — The  decree  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  imposes  on  every  bishop  the 
duty  of  having  a  seminary,  that  is,  a  school  exclu- 
sively destined  to  pr(>i)are  candidates  for  the  priest- 
hood. It  should  jirovide  a  thorough  course  of  eccle- 
siastical training,  and  therefore,  according  to  present 
discipline,  include  academic,  collegiate,  and  theologi- 
cal courses.  The  ideal  Tridentine  s(>minary  is  an  in- 
stitution like  Overbrook  (Philadelphia)  or  Menlo 
Park  (San  Francisco),  where  the  future  priests  of  the 
diocese  are  received  from  the  grammar  school  and 
kept  until  ordination.  The  Church,  however,  does 
not  condemn,  and  Leo  XIII  has  expressly  approved 
the  separation  of  the  preparatory  from  the  theological 
seminary;  even  in  this  case  they  are  considered  by 
law  as  forming  but  one  diocesan  institution,  under  the 
bishop  with  the  same  advisory  board.  For  the 
foundation  and  support  of  tlie  seminary  the  tax  on 
benefices,  authorized  l)y  tlie  Council  of  Trent,  is  not 
prac^ticable  in  Aiii(>rica;  the  l)ishoi)  has  to  depend  on 
the  generosity  of  the  faithful;  he  may  presc^ribe  an 
annual  collection  or  fix  the  amount  to  be  contributed 
by  each  parish.  Poor  dioceses  may  combine  their  re- 
sources to  found  an  interdiocesan  seminary,  to  be  con- 
trolled by  the  several  bishops  inleicsted. 

The  controversy  on  the  question  of  central  versus 
diocesan  seminaries  has  never  been  raised  in  this 
country.  It  belongs  only  to  the  Holy  See  and  to  the 
bishop  to  decide  whether  it  is  practicable  for  a  given 
diocese  to  have  its  separate  seminary.  In  the  United 
States  the  majority  of  dioceses  are  now,  and  many  will 
long  remain,  incapable  of  supporting  a  seminary.  In- 
terdiocesan seminaries,  such  as  the  Council  of  Trent 
recognizes  and  such  as  are  now  being  established  in 
Italy,  are  practically  unknown.  In  their  place  there 
are  seminaries  such  as  St.  Paul,  Rochester,  New  York, 
founded  and  controlled  by  one  bishop,  Init  receiving 
students  from  other  dioceses;  and  likewise  seminaries 
in  charge  of  religious  orders  or  societies  of  secular  priests, 
the  students  of  which  belong  to  various  dioceses:  such 
are  St.  Mary's  and  Mount  St.  Mary's  (Baltimore), 
St.  Vincent's  (Pittsburg),  Our  Lady  of  Angels  (Buffalo), 
etc.  Though  such  institutions  were  not  contemplated 
by  the  Council  of  Trent,  they  have  the  earnest  ap- 
proval of  the  bishops  and  of  the  Holy  See. 


SEMINARY 


700 


SEMINARY 


English-Speaking  Seminaries  throughout  the  World. 

T — Theological  seminarj';  P — Preparatory  seminary;  PT — Seminary  including  preparatory  and  theological  departments. 


Belgium. 
Canada. , 


England. 


India. . . 
Ireland . 


Italy 


New  Zealand . 

Portugal 

Scotland 

Spain 


Sydney 


Halifax... 
Montreal . 


Ottawa 

Quebec 

St.  Boniface. . 
St.  Albert.... 

Kandy 

Westminster . 


Birmingham . 
Hexham .... 

Leeds 

Liverpool . . .  . 


South  wark 

Verapoly 

.Armagh 

Meath 

Ardagh 

Clogher 

Deny 

Down  and  Connor 

Dromore 

Kilmore 

Raphoe 

Dublin 


Straits  Settlement!' 


Kildare  and  Leighlin 

Ferns 

Ossory 

Cashel 

Cloyne 

Cork 


Kerry 

KiUaloe 

Limerick 

Waterford  and  Lis- 

more 

Tuam 

Achonry 

Clonfert 

Elphin 


Killala. 
Rome.  . 


Wellington. 
Dunedin... 
Lisbon .... 


Aberdeen .  . 
Glasgow. .  . 
Salamanca. 
Valladolid. 

Malacca. . . 


Boston 

Chicago 

Cincinnati.  . . 
Milwaukee. . . 
New  Orleans . 
New  York  .  .  . 

Philadelphia,' 
St.  JjimiH 


San  Francisco . 

Brooklyn 

Buffalo 


Cleveland. 
Columb<ji) . 


Name 


St.  Patrick's  Ecclesiastical  College .  . 

St.  Columba's  Seminarj-  and  Foreign 
Missionary  College 

Sacred  Heart  Missionary  College .  .  . 

.American  College  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception 

Holy  Heart  Theological  Seminary. . . 

Preparatory  Seminary  of  Ste.  Th6rfee 

S6minaire  de  Th^ologie 

S6minaire  de  Philosophie 

Grand  Seminary 

Seminary  of  Quebec  (Holy  Family) 

Junior  Seminary 

Seminary  (little) 

Leonianum,  for  native  students. . .  . 

St.  Edmund's  College 

St.    Joseph's   College    for   Foreign 

Missions 

.  Mary's  Seminary 

St.  Cuthbert's  College 

St.  Joseph's  Seminary 

St.  Edward's  College 

St.  Joseph's  Diocesan  College 

St.  John's  Diocesan  Seminary 

St.  Joseph's  Central  Seminary 

St.  Patrick's  College 

St.  Finian's  College 

St.  Mel's  College 

St.  Macarten's  College 

St.  Columb's  College 

St.  Malachy's  Collegs 

St.  Colman's  Seminary 

St.  Patrick's  College 

St.  Eunan's  College 

St.  Patrick's  College 

.4.11  Hallows  Missionary  College. . .  . 

Holy  Cro,ss  College 

St.  Patrick's  College 

St.  Peter's  College 

St.  Kieran's  College 

St.  Patrick's  College 

St.  Colman's  College 

St.  Finbarr's  College 

St.  Joseph's  Apostolical  College  for 
African  Foreign  Missions 

St.  Brendan's  College 

St.  Flannan's  College 

St.  Munchin's  College 

)  St.  John's  College 

I  Mount  Melleray  Seminary 

St.  Jariath's  College 

St.  Nathy's  College 

St.  Joseph's  College 

College  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion  


St.  Muredach's  College 

College  Canadien 

English  College  and  Collegio  Beda. . 

Irish  College 

Scots  College 

St.  Patrick's  College 

Holy  Cross  College 

SS.  Peter  and  Paul's  College  (Eng- 
lish)   

St.  Mary's  College 

St.  Peter's  College 

Irish  College 

St.  Alban's  College  (English) 

Scots  College 

General  College  for  Native  Clergy. . 


St.  Mary's  Seminary 

Mount  St.  Mary's  Seminary 

St.  Charles's  College 

St.  John's  Seminary 

Cathedral  College 

Mount  St.  Mary's  Seminary 

St.  Francis's  Seminary 

St.  .Joseph's  Seminary 

.St.  Joseph's  Seminary 

Cath.-rlniirolleKO 

St.  f 'li;irl<"<  Horromeo 

Tli<-  KrTirick  Seminary 

St.  LouiM   I'r'paratory Seminary. 

St.  Patrick's  Seminary 

St.  John's  Seminary 

Seminary  of  Our  Lady  of  Angels 

St.  Bonaventure's  Seminary 

St.  Mary's  Seminary 

Joscphinum 


Springwood . 
Ivensington. 


Louvain .... 

Halifax 

Ste.  Th^r^e. 
Montreal .  .  . 
Montreal .  .  . 

Ottawa 

Quebec 

St.  Boniface . 
St.  Albert .  .  . 

Kandy 

Ware 


In  charge  of 


Diocesan  priests. 


Diocesan  priests 

Sacred  Heart  Fathers 


Diocesan  priests.  . 
Eudist  Fathers ... 
Diocesan  priests.  . 
Sulpician  Fathers. 
Sulpician  Fathers . , 
Obi.  Mary  Immac . 
Diocesan  priests.  .  . 

Obi.  Mary  Immac . 
Belgian  Jesuits .  .  .  . 
Diocesan  priests.  .  , 


Mill  Hill 

Oscott 

Ushaw 

Leeds 

Everton 

WalthewPark. 

Wonersh 1       " 

Puttempaly [Discalc.  Carm. 

Armagh iVincentians. . . 

Mullingar Diocesan  priests . 

Longford 

Monaghan .  .  . 

Derry 

Belfast 

Newry 

Cullies 

Letterkenny. , 
Maynooth . . . 
Drumcondra . 

Clonliffe 

Carlow 

Wexford 

Kilkenny.  .  .  . 

Thurles 

Fermoy 

Cork 


Limerick 

Waterford 

Cappoquin. ... 

Tuam 

Ballaghadereen . 
Ballinasloe. ... 


Sligo.  .. 
Ballina. 
Rome.  . 


Vincentians 

Diocesan  priests . 


Killarney . 


Cistercians 

Diocesan  priests. 


Sulpicians ...... 

Diocesan  priests . 


Wellington . 
Mossgiel . .  . 


Lisbon 

Blairs 

New  Kilpatrick. 

Salamanca 

Valladolid 


Pulo  Penang . 


Baltimore. .  . 
Emmitsburg. 
EllicottCity. 

Boston 

Chicago.  .  .  . 
Cedar  Point . 
Milwaukee. . 
St.  Benedict. 
Dunwoodie. . 
New  York... 
Philadelphia. 
St.  Louis 


Marist  Fathers. . 
Diocesan  priests . 


Paris    Soc.     Foreign 

Missions 

Sulpicians 

Diocesan  priests.  ... 

Sulpicians 

Diocesan  priests 


Benedictine.s.  .  . . 
Diocesan  priests . 


Vincentians 


Menio  Park Sulpicians 

Brooklyn Vincentians 

Niagara  Falls. .  .  .  j         "         

Allegany Franciscans 

Cleveland | Diocesan  priests. 

Columbus (  "  " 


SEMINARY 


701 


SEMINARY 


Country 

Diocese 

Name 

Place 

In  charge  of 

4 

2;S 

United  States 

Detroit 

Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius's  Seminary 
St.  Joseph's  Preparatory  Senainary. . 
St.  Thomas's  Seminarj- 

Orchard  Lake.... 
Grand  Rapids .  .  . 
Hartford 

St.  Meinrad 

St.Meinrad 

Kansas  City 

South  Orange.... 

Diocesan  priests 

Benedictines 

Diocesan  priests! '.'.'.'. 

Benedictines..  .'.'.'.'.'. 
Diocesan  priests 

Obi.  Mary  Immac 

Benedictines 

T 
P 
P 

T 
P 
P 

T 

P 
T 
T 

104 

■97 

71 
100 
18 

Grand  Rapids 

Hartford 

"           "       

Indianapolis 

Kansas  City 

Newark 

St.    Meinrad's   Ecclesiastical   Sem. 
(Polish) 

"           " 

St.  Meinrad's  College 

::     ::  

St.  John's  Catholic  Seminary 

Immaculate  Conception  Theological 

44 

St.  Vincent's  Seminary  (Seton  Hall) . 

Rochester 

Rochester 

San  Antonio 

Belmont 

233 
80 

San  Antonio 

North  Carolina 

San  Antonio  Theological  Seminary. . 

17 

C.  Obligation  of  Seminary  Training.  —  A  stu- 
dent could  obtain  all  the  knowledge  necessary  for  a 
priest  by  following  classes  in  a  college  and  lectures  in  a 
university,  without  living  in  the  seminary;  but  since 
the  Council  of  Trent,  the  sovereign  pontiffs  and  the 
bishops  have  constantly  endeavoured  to  have  candi- 
dates for  the  priesthood  .spend  some  time  in  a  semin- 
ary so  as  to  acquire,  along  with  knowledge,  habits  of 
piety  and  self-di.scipline.  They  have  felt  that  the 
purpose  of  the  Tridentine  Decree  would  be  defeated 
if  residence  in  the  seminary  were  left  to  the  option  of 
the  students.  It  is  the  desire  of  the  Holy  See,  based 
on  the  Council  of  Trent  and  repeatedly  expressed,  es- 
pecially by  Leo  XIII  and  Pius  X,  that  future  priests 
be  trained  from  early  years  apart  from  lay  students. 
The  same  idea  is  enforced  by  the  third  Plenary  Coun- 
cil of  Baltimore,  when  it  declares  that  the  custom 
which  obtains  in  some  parts  of  the  country  of  having 
aspirants  to  the  priesthood  take  their  classical  course 
in  a  mixed  college  is  not  in  perfect  harmony  with  the 
mind  of  the  Church,  and  when  it  urges  the  foundation 
of  a  preparatory  seminary  in  every  diocese  or  at  least 
in  every  province  (nos.  139,  153).  Where  this  decree 
cannot  be  carried  out,  colleges  receiving  young  men 
who  study  for  the  priesthood  mu.st  strictly  observe 
the  regulations  prescribed  for  preparatory  seminaries, 
relating  to  discipline,  religious  in.struction,  and  the 
programme  of  studies  (ibid.,  no.  153).  With  still 
greater  insistence  does  the  Church  demand  residence 
in  a  seminary  from  the  students  of  theology,  even  if 
they  follow  the  lectures  of  a  Catholic  university. 
Thus  Pius  X  has  ordered  all  ecclesiastical  students  in 
Rome  to  live  in  one  of  the  colleges  established  for 
them;  a  similar  instru(;tion  has  been  issued  for  the 
ecclesiastical  students  at  Fribourg.  The  Council  of 
Baltimore  required  all  aspirants  to  the  priesthood  to 
go  through  the  six  years  of  training  prescribed  for  all 
American  seminaries  (no.  155).  The  bishop  can  dis- 
pense in  rare  cases,  and  for  grave  reasons. 

D.  External  Government  of  Scmiunries. — All  mat- 
ters referring  to  seminaries  are  under  the  supreme 
direction  of  the  Consistorial  Congregation  in  Rome. 
Diocesan  seminaries  are  controlled  by  the  bishop, 
who  appoints  and  removes  professors,  determines 
in  detail  the  regulations  to  be  followed,  and  watches 
over  the  temporal  administration,  studies,  disci- 
pline, and  piety.  Nothing  of  importance  can  be 
done  without  his  advice  and  consent;  to  him  belongs 
the  final  decision  on  the  admission  and  dismissal  of 
students,  as  well  as  on  their  call  to  orders.  In  pro- 
vincial or  interdiocesan  seminaries  this  power  is  vested 
in  the  board  of  interested  bi.shops.  For  diocesan 
seminaries,  the  bishop  is  bound  by  the  common  law 
of  the  Church  to  seek,  though  not  bound  to  follow,  in 
matters  of  temporal  administration  the  advice  of  a 
commission  composed  of  two  canons  of  the  cathedral 
(one  cho.sen  by  himself,  the  other  by  the  chapter)  and 
of  two  other  priests  of  the  episcopal  city,  one  chosen 
also  by  the  bishop,  the  other  by  the  clergy.     For 


spiritual  matters  the  advice  of  two  canons  chosen  by 
the  bishop  is  likewise  necessary.  In  the  United  States 
the  bishop  must  have  in  the  management  of  his  semin- 
ary at  least  one  adviser  for  spiritual  matters,  and  an- 
other for  temporal  matters;  both  are  chosen  by 
himself  with  the  advice  of  the  diocesan  consultors 
(Council  of  Baltimore,  no.  180). 

Although  no  te.xt  of  ecclesiastical  law  forbids  the 
bishop  to  entrust  the  direction  of  his  seminary  to  a  re- 
ligious order  or  congregation,  this  cannot  be  done 
without  the  approval  of  the  Holy  See;  for  the  bishop 
has  no  power  to  give  up  for  himself  and  his  successors 
the  right  to  appoint  the  rector  and  teachers;  neither 
can  he  set  aside  the  law  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  re- 
quiring the  advice  of  consultors  in  the  management  of 
the  seminaries,  while  religious  congregations  in  taking 
charge  of  a  seminary  assume  the  appointment  of  the 
faculty,  and  in  governing  it  do  not  admit  the  inter- 
ference of  a  diocesan  commission.  Se\eral  religious 
orders  or  societies,  however  (Eudists,  Lazarists,  Ma- 
rists,  Oratorians,  Sulpicians),  have  a  general  permission 
from  the  Holy  See  to  accept  the  seminaries  entrusted 
to  them.  A  contract  between  the  bishop  and  the 
society  determines  the  conditions  under  which  the 
seminary  is  accepted  and  must  be  governed  (Council 
of  Baltimore,  no.  180). 

E.  Internal  Administration  of  Seminaries. — Two 
systems  prevail.  In  one  the  management  of  the 
seminary  is  in  the  hands  of  the  rector,  who  alone  under 
the  bi.shop  governs  the  seminary,  calls  to  orders,  ad- 
mits and  dismisses  the  students;  a  treasurer  has  full 
charge  of  temporal  matters,  while  to  a  spiritual  di- 
rector is  entrusted  the  formation  of  the  students  in 
piety.     The  professors  are  merely  teachers. 

In  the  other  system,  all  the  professors  have  a  share 
in  the  administration  of  the  seminary;  and  all  im- 
portant matters  are  decided  by  a  vote  of  the  faculty. 
The  professors  are  spiritual  directors  and  confessors 
of  the  students.  Of  course,  they  have  no  voice  in  the 
faculty  meetings  when  one  of  their  penitents  is  con- 
cerned. A  Decree  of  the  Holy  Office  (5  July,  1899) 
forbids  superiors  of  seminaries  and  colleges  in  Rome 
to  hear  the  confessions  of  their  students.  With  the 
special  organization  of  those  colleges,  such  a  practice 
could  easily  interfere  with  the  liberty  which  the 
Church  assures  to  all  in  the  sacred  tribunal.  Although 
this  decree  has  not  been  officially  extended  beyond 
those  colleges,  its  spirit  should  be  observed  in  others 
similarly  organized. 

F.  Admission  and  Dismissal  of  Students. — "Let 
those  be  received",  says  the  Council  of  Trent, 
"who  having  been  born  in  lawful  wedlock,  have  at 
least  attained  their  twelfth  year,  are  able  to  read  and 
write  passably,  and  whose  naturally  good  di.sposition 
gives  token  that  they  will  always  continue  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Church. "  It  is  the  wish  of  the  council  that 
the  children  of  the  poor  should  be  preferred.  To-day 
an  ordinary  grammar  school  instruction  is  required 
for  admission  into  the  preparatory  seminaries.     As 


SEMINARY 


702 


SEMINARY 


regards  vocation,  all  that  can  be  expected  is  not  in- 
deed certainty,  but  p^obabilit5^  Still,  preparatory 
seminaries  must  be  maintained  in  their  proper  spirit, 
and  receive  only  candidates  for  the  priesthood. 
Parents  and  parish  priests  are  urged  to  encourage  and 
to  help  boys  who  by  their  intelligence  and  piety  give 
hope  that  the^'  are  called  to  the  priesthood  (Council 
of  Baltimore,  no.  130).  No  one  should  be  admitted 
to  a  theological  seminary  unless  he  has  completed  a 
six-year  collegiate  course,  and  passed  a  successful  ex- 
amination (ibid.,  nos.  145,  152).  A  student  from  an- 
other diocese  cannot  be  received  without  first  obtain- 
ing information  from  his  bishop.  If  it  appears  that 
he  was  dismissed  from  the  seminary  (as  unfit  for  the 
priesthood)  he  should  not  be  admitted  at  all  (Con- 
gregation of  the  Council,  22  Dec,  1905).  Dismissal 
from  the  seminary  means  no  more  than  that  the  stu- 
dent is  not  considered  fit  for  the  priesthood;  it  does  not 
necessarily  reflect  on  his  character  as  a  Christian  lay- 
man. 

G.  Intellectual  Training. — In  the  preparatory  sem- 
inary the  aspirant  to  the  priesthood  follows  the 
ordinary  academic  and  collegiate  course  for  six  years; 
he  studies  Christian  doctrine,  Latin  and  Greek,  Eng- 
lish and  at  least  one  other  modern  language,  rhetoric 
and  elocution,  history  and  geography,  mathematics 
and  natural  sciences,  Gregorian  Chant  and  book- 
keeping (Council  of  Baltimore,  nos.  145, 151).  Catho- 
lic colleges  with  a  course  of  eight  years,  four  years 
academic  and  four  years  collegiate,  teach  philosophy 
and  science  in  the  junior  and  senior  years;  but  as  a  rule 
this  is  not  accepted  by  seminaries  as  the  equivalent  of 
two  years  of  philosophy.  The  Council  of  Baltimore 
requires  ecclesiastical  students  to  spend  six  years  in 
the  theological  seminary.  There  they  receive  a  spe- 
cial moral  training  which  cannot  be  given  in  a  mixed 
college,  and  they  are  taught  philosophy  with  a  view  to 
the  study  of  theology.  In  the  theological  seminary 
two  years  are  devoted  to  the  study  of  philosophy. 
Scripture,  Church  history,  and  natural  sciences  in  their 
relation  to  religion.  During  the  last  four  years  the 
course  of  study  includes  Holy  Scripture,  with  Greek 
and  Hebrew,  apologetics,  dogmatic,  moral,  and  pa.s- 
toral  theology',  Church  history,  and,  in  some  institu- 
tions, hturgy  and  canon  law.  The  courses  given  in 
these  various  branches  have  a  twofold  purpose:  to 
equip  every  student  with  the  knowledge  necessary 
for  the  discharge  of  the  ordinary  functions  of  the  min- 
veXxy;  and  to  give  brighter  students  the  foundation  of 
more  scientific  work,  to  be  pursued  in  a  university. 
The  seminary  trains  general  practitioners,  the  univer- 
sity forms  specialists;  the  seminary  gives  the  elements 
of  all  ecclesiastical  science,  the  university  provides  a 
thorough  treatment  of  some  special  questions.  In 
Rome  ecclesiastical  students  from  various  colleges  fol- 
low a  course  of  lectures  at  the  Gregorian  University, 
the  Dominican  College,  the  Proj)aganda,  or  the  Ro- 
man Seminary;  these  are  KUpplernciited  by  repeti- 
tions in  the  colleges  (see  Ro.man  Colleges).  There 
are  likewise  ecclesiastical  students  preparing  for  the 
priesthood  who  follow  the  courses  of  theology  in  the 
Universities  of  Louvain  and  Fribourg,  and  in  the 
theological  faculties  of  the  German  universities.  In 
the  Catholic  University  at  Washington  there  is  only  a 
post-graduate  course  of  sacred  sciences. 

The  vast  majority  of  the  clergy  in  nearly  all  coun- 
tries receive  their  education  in  seminaries,  and  only 
at  the  end  of  the  regular  course  are  some  of  the  best 
gifted  8(mt  to  a  Catholic  university  to  pursue  higher 
studies,  which  lea<i  to  the  degrees  of  licentiate  and 
doctor.  I>ef)  XIII  and  Pius  X,  in  their  letters  to 
bishops  in  various  parts  of  the  world  and  in  their 
Decrffes  rc;garding  wjminaries,  insist  that  ecclesiastical 
studira  be  in  harmony  with  the  needs  of  our  times,  but 
free  from  all  dangerous  novelties,  especially  from 
the  errors  condemned  under  the  name  of  Modernism. 
Various  means  have  been  taken  to  secure  the  per- 


fect orthodoxj'  of  both  the  professors  and  the 
students. 

H.  Moral  and  Spiritual  Training. — Unlike  most 
of  the  professional  schools  (law,  medicine  etc.) 
which  give  only  knowledge,  the  seminary  aims  at 
training  the  will.  Like  West  Point  and  the  Naval 
Academy  it  subjects  the  student  to  a  system  of  dis- 
cipline by  which  he  may  gradually  acquire  habits 
becoming  his  profession.  In  a  priest,  holiness  of  life 
is  not  less  essential  than  professional  science.  In 
order  to  discharge  with  success  the  functions  of  his 
ministry,  he  must  be  a  gentleman,  a  true  Christian, 
and  moreover  capable  of  bearing  the  special  obliga- 
tions of  the  priesthood.  "In  order  to  restore  in  the 
world  the  reign  of  Jesus  Christ",  writes  Pius  X  (5 
May,  1904),  "nothing  is  as  necessary-  as  the  holiness 
of  the  clergy. "  Hence,  in  his  first  Encychcal  he  warns 
the  bishops  that  their  first  care,  to  which  every  other 
must  yield,  ought  to  be  "to  form  Christ  in  those  who 
are  to  forni  Christ  in  others"  (3  Oct.,  1903). 

Seminarians  are  to  learn  the  sacerdotal  virtues  first 
of  all  by  the  example  of  their  teachers.  Hence  the 
sovereign  pontiffs  and  various  councils  frequently 
insist  on  the  quaUfications  of  those  who  are  chosen  to 
train  priests.  They  should  be  "  con.spicuous  for 
ability,  learning,  piety,  seriousness  of  hfe.  They 
should  devote  their  life  to  study,  bear  cheerfully  the 
burden  of  seminary  rule  and  of  a  busy  life;  by  word 
and  example  teach  the  students  the  observance  of 
seminar^'  discipline,  humility,  unworldliness,  love  of 
work  and  retirement,  and  fidelity  to  prayer"  (Council 
of  Baltimore,  no.  159).  Another  powerful  means  of 
training  seminarians  in  Christian  virtue  is  the  semi- 
nary discipline.  The  student  is  separated  from  the 
world  and  subjected  to  a  rule  of  life  which,  leaving 
nothing  to  caprice,  determines  what  he  has  to  do  at 
every  moment  of  the  day.  Classes,  studies,  exer- 
cises of  piety  follow  one  another  at  regular  intervals, 
and  punctual  attendance  is  expected  of  all.  Fidelity 
to  seminary  rules,  extending  over  several  years, 
prompted  by  a  sense  of  duty,  and  inspired  by  the  love 
of  God,  cannot  fail  to  produce  habits  of  regularity, 
self-control,  and  self-sacrifice. 

Instructions  on  Christian  perfection,  on  the  dignity 
and  duties  of  the  priesthood  are  daily  given  in 
spiritual  conferences  and  readings.  These  are  supple- 
mented by  retreats,  which  take  place  in  the  beginning 
of  the  year  and  before  ordinat  ions,  and  by  private  con- 
sultations of  each  student  with  his  spiritual  director. 
Even  more  efficacious  than  instruction  and  discipline 
is  the  direct  intercourse  of  the  soul  with  God  in  prayer, 
meditation,  and  the  reception  of  the  sacraments. 
Nowhere,  perhaps,  has  the  Decree  of  Pius  X  on  fre- 
quent communion  produced  more  abundant  fruit  than 
in  seminaries.  The  students  gladly  avail  themselves 
of  the  special  encouragement  given  to  them  to  receive 
Our  Lord  daily.  By  this  close  communion  with  our 
great  High  Priest,  even  more  than  by  their  wiUing 
acceptance  of  all  the  restraints  of  seminary  life,  they 
gradually  become  worthy  of  the  mission  conferred 
upon  them  by  ordination.  Thus  the  seminary  be- 
comes a  nursery  of  faithful  representatives  of  Our  Lord 
for  the  salvation  of  men;  they  go  forth,  the  hght  of  the 
world  and  the  salt  of  the  earth. 

History  fully  bears  out  the  words  of  the  learned 
historian  and  great  bishop,  Hefele:  "If  the  Cathohc 
world  has  had  for  the  last  three  hundred  years  a  more 
learned,  a  more  moral,  a  more  pious  clergy  than  that 
which  existed  in  almost  ever>'  country  at  the  time  of 
the  so-called  Reformation,  and  whose  tepidity  and 
faithlessness  contributed  largely  to  the  growth  of  the 
schism,  it  is  wholly  due  to  this  decree  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  and  to  it  we  in  this  age  owe  our  thanks" 
("Tubinger  Quartalschrift",  no.  1,  p.  24). 

1.  Special  treatisoB: — PoCan,  De  Seminario  Clerieorum 
(Tournai,  1874);  Themistor,  BiMuna  und  Erzie.huna  der  Geist- 
lichen  (Cologne,   1884);    Fr.  tr.,  L' Initruclion  et  I'Education  du 


SEMIPELAGIANISM 


703 


SEMIPELAGIANISM 


Clerje  (Treves,  1884) ;  Siebengartner,  Schriften  und  Einrichl- 
ungen  zur  Bildung  der  Geistlichen  (Freiburg,  1902);  Michel- 
ETTi,  De  Regimine  Ecclesiastico,  I  (1909),  ii;  Idem,  De  Jnsti- 
tutione  ClericoTum  in  Sacris  Seminariis  (s.  d.);  Idem,  De 
Ratione  Studiorum  in  Sacris  Seminariis;  Idem,  De  Ratione 
Pietatis  in  Sacris  Seminariis;  Idem,  De  Ratione  Disciplinoe  in 
Sacris  Seminariis;  Idem,  De  Rectore  Seminariorum  clericalium 
Idem,  De  Moderatore  Spiritus  Seminariorum  clericalium;  Brusch- 
ELLi,  Su  lo  Stato  dei  Seminari  delle  minori  diocesi  d'  Italia  (Rome, 
1905) ;  Falcone,  Per  la  Riforma  dei  Seminari  in  Italia  (Rome, 
1906) ;  Icard,  Traditions  de  la  Compagnie  de  St-Sulpice  pour  la 
Direction  des  Grands  Seminaires  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1891);  Hogan, 
Clerical  Studies  (Boston,  1898);  Smith,  Our  Seminaries  (New 
York,  1896),  new  ed.  under  the  title  The  Training  of  a  Priest 
(1908). 

II.  Hbtorj'  of  ecclesiastical  education: — Thoma.ssin,  Andenne 
et  Nouvelle  Discipline  de  VEglise  (Bar-le-Duc,  1864);  Theiner, 
Histoire  des  Institutions  d'Educaiimi  Ecclesiastique  (Paris,  1841); 
Marcault,  Essai  Historique  sur  I'Education  des  Clercs  (Paris 
1904);  McCaffrey,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  II  (Dublin  and  St.  Louis,  1909),  ii;  see  also  Lives 
cf  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  St.  Bartholomew  of  the  Martyrs,  St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul,  Father  Olier,  St.  John  Baptist  de  Rossi  Snead-Cox, 
Life  of  Cardinal  Vaughan  (London,  1910),  I,  iv,  II,  ii. 

III.  General  laws  of  the  Church  on  seminaries;  (a)  Sources: — 
Decret.  Cone.  Trid.,  Sess.  XXIII,  cap.  xviii,  De  Ref.;  Ada  Leonis 
XIII  (Rome,  1905);  Acta  Pii  X  in  Acta  S.  Sedis  and  since  1909 
in  Acta  apud  Apost.  Sedem. 

(b)  Treatises: — Wernz,  Jus  Decretalium,  vol.  Ill,  tit.  Ill,  5; 
Bargiluat,  Pralectiones  Juris  Canonici  (2oth  ed.,  Paris,  1909), 
vol.  I,  tract.  Ill,  cap.  i;  Idem,  De  Institutione  clericorum  (Paris 
1908) ;  Gignac,  Compendium  Juris  Canonici  (Quebec,  1903),  vol. 
II,  tit.  V,  c.  ii. 

IV.  American  seminaries: — Decreta  Concilii  Bait.,  II,  tit.  Ill, 
c.  vii;  Decreta  Concilii  Bait.,  Ill,  tit.  V;  Shea,  History  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States,  ll-lV;  St.  Mary's  Seminary, 
Memorial  Volume  (Baltimore,  1891) ;  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Theological  Seminary  (Philadelphia,  1891);  Howlett, 
St.  Thomas's  Seminary  (Bardstown)  (St.  Louis,  1906);  Souvenir 
of  the  Golden  Jubilee  of  St.  Francis's  Seminary  (Milwaukee,  1906); 
Souvenir  of  the  Blessing  of  the  Corner  Stone  of  St.  Joseph's  Seminary 
(New  York,  1891);  A  History  of  the  Mountain  (Mount  St.  Mary's 
1911) ;  Brann,  History  of  the  American  College,  Rome  (New  York, 
1910);  Cataio(7ues  of  various  seminaries;  American  Ecclesiastical 
Review,  where  may  be  found  the  Acts  of  the  Holy  See,  historical 
sketches  of  some  seminaries,  and  articles  on  intellectual  and  moral 
training  of  seminarians;  Proceedings  of  the  Cath.  Educ.  Associa- 
tion (Columbus,  1904 — );  see  American  College,  The,  at 
Lodvain;  American  College,  The,  in  Rome;  and  other  special 
articles. 

A.   Vl^BAN. 

Semipelagianism,  a  doctrine  of  grace  advocated 
by  monk.s  of  iSouthcrn  Gaul  at  and  around  Marseilles 
after  428.  It  aimed  at  a  compromise  between  the 
two  extremes  of  Pelagianism  and  Augustinism,  and 
was  condemned  as  heresy  at  the  (Ecumenical  Council 
of  Orange  in  529  after  disputes  extending  over  more 
than  a  hundred  years.  The  name  Semipelagian- 
ism. was  unknown  both  in  Christian  antiquity  and 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages;  during  these  periods  it 
was  customary  to  designate  the  views  of  the  Massi- 
lians  simply  as  the  "rehcs  of  the  Pelagians"  (re- 
liquice  Pelagianorum),  an  expression  found  already 
in  St.  Augustine  (Ep.  ccxxv,  n.  7,  in  P.  L.,  XXXIII, 
1006).  The  most  recent  investigations  show  that  the 
word  was  coined  between  1590  and  IGOO  in  connexion 
with  Molina's  doctrine  of  grace,  in  which  the  oppo- 
nents of  this  theologian  believed  they  saw  a  close 
resemblance  to  the  heresy  of  the  monks  of  Marseilles 
(cf.  "Revue  des  sciences  philos.  et  th^ol.",  1907,  pp. 
506  sqq.).  After  this  confusion  had  been  ex-posed  as 
an  error,  the  term  Semipelagianism  was  retained  in 
learned  circles  as  an  apt  designation  for  the  early 
heresy  only. 

I.  Origin  of  Semipelagianism  (a.d.  420-30). — 
In  opposition  to  Pelagianism,  it  was  maintained  at 
the  General  Council  of  Carthage  in  418  as  aprinciple 
of  faith  that  Christian  grace  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  the  correct  knowledge  and  performance  of  good, 
and  that  perfect  sinlessness  is  impossible  on  earth 
even  for  the  justified.  Since  these  declarations  coin- 
cided only  with  a  portion  of  St.  Augustine's  doctrine 
of  grace,  the  anti- Pelagians  could  without  reproof 
continue  their  opposition  to  other  points  in  the 
teaching  of  the  African  Doctor.  This  opposition 
Augustine  was  soon  to  encounter  in  his  immediate 
neighbourhood.  In  420  he  found  himself  compelled 
to  direct  to  a  certain  Vitalis  of  Carthage,  who  was  an 
opponent  of  Pelagius  and  recognized  the  Synod  of 


Carthage  (418),  paternal  instructions  concerning 
the  necessity  of  grace  at  the  very  beginning  of  the 
assent  of  the  will  in  faith  and  concerning  the  absolute 
gratuity  of  grace  (Ep.  ccxvii  in  P.  L.,  XXXIII,  978 
sqq.).  As  is  clear  from  the  tenor  of  this  writing, 
Vitalis  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  beginning  of  faith 
springs  from  the  free  will  of  nature,  and  that  the 
essence  of  "prevenient  grace"  consists  in  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Christian  doctrine  of  salvation.  On  the 
basis  of  such  faith  man,  as  Vitalis  held,  attains  justi- 
fication before  God.  This  view  was  entirely  "Semi- 
pelagian".  To  controvert  it,  Augustine  pointed 
out  that  the  grace  preceding  faith  mu.st  be  an  interior 
enlightenment  and  strengthening,  and  that  the 
preaching  of  the  Word  of  God  could  not,  una.ssisted, 
accomplish  this;  consequently  the  implanting  of 
grace  in  the  soul  by  God  is  necessary  as  a  preliminary 
condition  for  the  production  of  real'faith,  since  other- 
wise the  customary  prayer  of  the  Church  for  the 
grace  of  conversion  for  unbelievers  would  be  super- 
fluous. Augu.stine  also  introduces  his  view  of  an 
absolute  predestination  of  the  elect,  without  however 
especially  emphasizing  it,  by  remarking:  "Cum  tam 
multi  salvi  non  fiant,  non  quia  ipsi,  sed  quia  Deus 
nonvult"  (Since  so  many  are  not  saved,  not  because 
they  themselves  do  not  will  it,  but  because  God  does 
not  will  it).  Vitalis  seems  to  have  acquiesced  and 
to  have  disclaimed  the  "error  of  Pelagius". 

The  second  dispute,  which  broke  out  within  the 
walls  of  the  African  monastery  of  Hadrumetum  in 
424,  was  not  so  easily  settled.  A  monk  named  Florus, 
a  friend  of  St.  Augustine,  had  while  on  a  journey 
sent  to  his  fellow-monks  a  copy  of  the  long  epistle 
which  Augu.stine  had  addres.sed  in  418  to  the  Roman 
priest,  afterwards  Pope  Sixtus  III  (Ep.  cxciv  in  P.  L., 
XXXIII,  874  sqq.).  In  this  epistle  all  merit  before 
the  reception  of  grace  was  denied,  faith  represented 
as  the  most  gratuitous  gift  of  God,  and  absolute 
predestination  to  grace  and  glory  defended.  Aroused 
to  great  anger  by  this  letter,  "more  than  five  monks" 
inflamed  their  companions  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
tumult  seemed  destined  to  overwhelm  the  good  abbot, 
Valentinus.  On  his  return,  Florus  was  loaded  with 
the  most  violent  reproaches  for  sending  such  a  pre- 
sent, and  he  and  the  majority,  who  were  followers  of 
Augustine,  were  accused  of  maintaining  that  free  will 
was  no  longer  of  any  account,  that  on  the  last  day 
all  would  not  be  judged  according  to  their  works, 
and  that  monastic  discipline  and  correction  {correp- 
tio)  were  valueless.  Informed  of  the  outbreak  of 
this  unrest  by  two  young  monks,  Cresconius  and 
Felix,  Augustine  sent  to  the  monastery  in  426  or  427 
the  work,  "Dc  gratia  et  libero  arbitrio"  (P.  L., 
XLIV,  881  sqq.),  in  which  he  maintains  that  the 
efficacy  of  Divine  grace  impairs  neither  the  freedom 
of  the  human  will  nor  the  meritoriousness  of  good 
works,  but  that  it  is  grace  which  causes  the  merits 
in  us.  The  work  exercised  a  calming  influence  on 
the  heated  spirits  of  Hadrumetum. 

Apprised  of  the  good  effect  of  this  book  by  Florus 
himself,  Augustine  dedicated  to  the  abbot  and  his 
monks  a  second  doctrinal  writing,  "De  correptione 
et  gratia"  (P.  L.,  XLIV,  915  sqq.),  in  which  he 
explains  in  the  clearest  fashion  his  views  upon  grace. 
He  informed  the  monks  that  correction  is  by  no  means 
superfluous,  since  it  is  the  means  by  which  God  works. 
As  for  the  freedom  to  sin,  it  is  in  reality  not  freedom, 
but  slavery  of  the  will.  True  freedom  of  the  will  is 
that  effected  by  grace,  since  it  makes  the  will  free 
from  the  slavery  of  sin.  Final  perseverance  is  likewise 
a  gift  of  grace,  inasmuch  as  he  to  whom  God  has 
granted  it  will  infallibly  persevere.  Thus,  the  num- 
ber of  those  predestined  to  heaven  from  eternity  is 
so  determined  and  certain,  that  "no  one  is  added  or 
subtracted".  This  second  work  seems  to  have  been 
also  received  approvingly  by  the  mollified  monks; 
not  so  by  subsequent  ages,  since  this  ominous  book, 


SEMIPELAGIANISM 


•04 


SEMIPELAGIANISM 


together  with  other  utterances,  has  given  occasion 
to  the  most  violent  controversies  concerning  the 
efficacy  of  grace  and  predestination.  All  advocates 
of  heretical  predestinarianism,  from  Lucidus  and 
Gottschalk  to  Calvin,  have  appealed  to  Augustine 
as  their  crown-witness,  while  Catholic  theologians 
see  in  Augustine's  teaching  at  most  only  a  predesti- 
nation to  glory,  with  which  the  later  "negative  repro- 
bation" to  hell  is  parallel.  Augustine  is  entirely 
free  from  Calvin's  idea  that  God  positively  predes- 
tined the  damned  to  hell  or  to  sin.  Many  historians 
of  dogma  (Harnack,  Loofs,  Rottmanner,  etc.)  have 
passed  a  somewhat  different  censure  on  the  work, 
maintaining  that  the  Doctor  of  Hippo,  his  rigorism 
increasing  with  his  age,  has  here  expressed  most 
clearlv  the  notion  of  "irresistible  grace"  {gratia 
irre^istibilis),  on  which  Jansenism  later  erected,  as 
is  known,  its  entire  heretical  system  of  grace.  As  the 
clearest  and  strongest  proof  of  this  contention,  the 
following  passage  (De  correptione  et  gratia,  xxxviii) 
is  cited:  "Subventum  est  igitur  infirmitati  volunta- 
tis humane,  ut  divina  gratia  indeclinabiliter  et  in- 
superabihter  ageretur  et  ideo,  quamvis  infirma,  non 
tamen  deficeret  neque  adversitate  aliqua  vinceretur. " 
Is  this  not  clearly  the  "inevitable  and  unconquerable 
grace"  of  Jansenism?  The  mere  analysis  of  the 
text  informs  us  better.  The  antithesis  and  the  posi- 
tion of  the  words  do  not  allow  us  to  refer  the  terms 
"inevitably  and  unconquerably"  to  the  grace  as  such, 
they  must' be  referred  to  the  "human  will"  which, 
in  spite  of  its  infirmity,  is,  by  grace,  made  "  unyield- 
ing and  unconquerable"  against  the  temptation  to 
sin.  Again  the  very  easily  misunderstood  term 
ageretur  is  not  to  be  explained  as  "  coercion  against 
one's  will"  but  as  "infallible  guidance",  which  does 
not  exclude  the  continuation  of  freedom  of  will  (cf. 
Mausbach,  "Die  Ethik  des  hi.  Augustins",  II,  Frei- 
burg, 1909,  p.  35). 

The  monks  of  Southern  Gaul,  who  dweh  m  peace 
at  Marseilles  and  on  the  neighbouring  island  of 
Lerinum  (Lerins),  read  the  above-cited  and  other 
passages  of  Augustine  with  other  and  more  critical 
eyes  than  the  monks  at  Hadrumetum.  Abbot  John 
Cassian  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Victor  at  Marseilles, 
a  celebrated  and  holy  man,  was,  together  with  his 
fellow-monks,  especially  repelled  by  the  arguments 
of  St.  Augustine.  The  Ma.ssilians,  as  they  were 
called,  were  known  throughout  the  Christian  world 
as  holy  and  virtuous  men,  conspicuous  for  their 
learning  and  asceticism.  They  had  heartily  ac- 
quiesced in  the  condemnation  of  Pelagianism  by  the 
Synod  of  Carthage  (418)  and  the  "Tractoria"  of  Pope 
Zosimus  (418),  and  also  in  the  doctrines  of  original 
sin  and  grace.  They  were,  however,  convinced  that 
Augustine  in  his  teaching  concerning  the  necessity 
and  gratuity  especially  of  prevenient  grace  {gratia 
jmcceflens  seu  prceveniens)  far  over.shot  the  mark. 
Cassian  had  a  little  earlier  expressed  his  views  con- 
cerning the  relation  of  grace  and  freedom  in  his  "Con- 
ferences" (Collatio  xxiv  in  P.  L.,  XLIX,  477  sqq.). 
As  a  man  of  Eastern  training  and  a  trusted  disciple 
of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  he  had  taught  that  the 
free  will  was  to  be  accorded  somewhat  more  initiative 
than  he  was  accustomed  to  find  in  the  writings  of 
Augustine.  With  unmistakable  reference  to  Hippo, 
he  had  endeavoured  in  his  thirteenth  conference  to 
demonstrate  from  Biblical  examples  that  God  fre- 
quently awaits  the  good  impulses  of  the  natural  will 
before  corning  to  its  tt-ssistance  with  His  supernatural 
grace;  while  the  grace  often  preceded  the  will,  as  in 
the  ca.se  of  Matthew  and  Peter,  on  the  other  hand  the 
will  frequently  preceded  the  grace,  as  in  the  case  of 
Zacchajus  and  the  Good  Thief  on  the  cross.  This 
view  was  no  longer  Augustinian;  it  was  really  "half 
PHagianism".  To  such  a  man  and  his  adherents, 
among  whom  the  monk  Hilarius  (alreafly  appointed 
Biahop  of  Aries  in  428)  was  conspicuous,  the  last 


writings  from  Africa  must  have  appeared  a  masked 
reproof  and  a  downright  contradiction. 

Thus,  from  being  half  friendly,  the  Massihans 
developed  into  determined  opponents  of  Augustine. 
Testimony  as  to  this  change  of  feeling  is  supphed  by 
two  non-partisan  laymen.  Prosper  of  Aquitaine  and  a 
certain  Hilarius,  both  of  whom  in  their  enthusiasm 
for  the  newly-blossoming  monastic  life  voluntarily 
shared  in  the  daily  duties  of  the  monks.  In  two  dis- 
tinct writings  (St.  Augustine,  Epp.  ccxxv-xxvi  in 
P.  L.,  XXXIII,  1002-12)  they  gave  Augustine  a 
strictly  matter-of-fact  report  of  the  theological  views 
of  the  Massilians.  They  sketched  in  the  main  the 
following  picture,  which  we  complete  from  other 
sources:  (1)  In  distinguishing  between  the  beginning 
of  faith  {iiiitinm  fidei)  and  the  increase  of  faith 
{augwcntum  fidci),  one  may  refer  the  former  to  the 
power  of  the  free  will,  while  the  faith  itself  and  its 
increase  is  absolutely  dependent  upon  God;  (2)  the 
gratuity  of  grace  is  to  be  maintained  against  Pelagius 
in  so  far  as  every  strictly  natural  merit  is  excluded; 
this,  however,  does  not  prevent  nature  and  its  works 
from  having  a  certain  claim  to  grace;  (3)  as  regards 
final  perseverance  in  particular,  it  must  not  be  re- 
garded as  a  special  gift  of  grace,  since  the  justified 
man  may  of  his  own  strength  persevere  to  the  end; 
(4)  the  granting  or  withholding  of  baptismal  grace 
in  the  case  of  children  depends  on  the  Divine  pre- 
science of  their  future  conditioned  merits  or  misdeeds. 
This  fourth  statement,  which  is  of  a  highly  absurd 
nature,  has  never  been  condemned  as  heresy;  the 
three  other  propositions  contain  the  whole  essence 
of  Semipelagianism. 

The  aged  Augustine  gathered  all  his  remaining 
strength  to  prevent  the  revival  of  Pelagianism  which 
had  then  been  hardly  overcome.  He  addressed 
(428  or  429)  to  Prosper  and  Hilarius  the  two  works 
"De  prajdestinatione  sanctorum"  (P.  L.,  XLIV,  959 
sqq.)  and  "De  dono  perseverantiic "  (P.  L.,  XLIV, 
993  sqq.).  In  refuting  their  errors,  Augustine  treats 
his  opponents  as  erring  friends,  not  as  heretics,  and 
humbly  adds  that,  before  his  episcopal  consecration 
(about  396),  he  himself  had  been  caught  in  a  "simi- 
lar error",  until  a  passage  in  the  writings  of  St.  Paul 
(I  Cor.,  iv,  7)  had  opened  his  eyes,  "thinking  that  the 
faith,  by  which  we  believe  in  God,  is  not  the  gift  of 
God,  but  is  in  us  of  ourselves,  and  that  through  it 
we  obtain  the  gifts  whereby  we  may  live  temperately, 
justly,  and  piously  in  this  world"  (De  praidest. 
sanct.,  iii,  7).  The  Massilians,  however,  remained  un- 
appeased,  the  last  writings  of  Augustine  making  no 
impression  upon  them.  Offended  at  this  obstinacy, 
Prosper  believed  the  time  had  arrived  for  public 
polemics.  He  first  described  the  new  state  of  the 
question  in  a  letter  to  a  certain  Rufinus  (Prosper 
Aquit.,  "Ep.  ad  Rufinum  de  gratia  et  libero  arbitrio", 
in  P.  L.,  XLI,  77  sciq.),  lashed  in  a  poem  of  some 
thousand  hexameters  (Hepi  d-xapl^Tiav,  "hoc  est 
de  ingratis",  in  P.  L.,  LI,  91  sqq.)  the  ingratitude 
of  the  "enemies  of  grace",  and  directed  against  an 
unnamed  assailant — perhaps  Cassian  himself — his 
"Epigrammata  in  obtrectatorem  Augustini"  (P.  L., 
XLI,  149  sqq.),  written  in  elegiacs.  At  the  time  of 
the  composition  of  this  poem  (429-30),  Augustine 
was  still  alive. 

II.  The  Culmination  of  Semipelagianism  (430- 
519).— On  29  Aug.,  430,  while  the  Vandals  were 
besieging  his  episcopal  city,  St.  Augustine  died. 
As  his  sole  champions,  he  left  his  disciples.  Prosper 
and  Hilarius,  on  the  scene  of  conflict  in  Southern 
Gaul.  Prosi)cr,  rightly  known  as  his  "best  di.sciple", 
alone  engaged  in  writing,  and,  immersed  as  he  was 
in  the  rich  and  almost  inexhaustilJc;  mind  of  the 
greatest  of  all  the  Doctors  of  the  Church,  he  subse- 
quently devoted  the  utmost  pains  to  soften  down 
with  noble  tact  the  roughness  and  abruptness  of  many 
of  his  master's  propositions.     Filled  with  the  con- 


SEMIPELAGIANISM 


705 


SEMIPELAGIANISM 


viction  that  thoy  could  not  successfully  engage  such 
learned  and  respected  opponents,  Prohper  and  Hilary 
journeyed  to  Rome  about  431  to  urge  Pope  Celestine 
I  to  take  official  steps  against  the  Semipelagians. 
Without  issuing  any  definitive  decision,  the  pope 
contented  himself  with  an  exhortation  to  the  bishops 
of  Gaul  (P.  L.,  L,  528  sqq.),  protecting  the  memory  of 
Augustine  from  calumniation  and  imposing  silence 
on  the  innovators.  On  his  return  Prosper  could 
claim  henceforth  to  be  engaging  in  the  conflict  "in 
virtue  of  the  authority  of  the  Apostolic  See"  (cf. 
P.  L.,  LI,  17S:  "ex  auctoritate  apostolicae  sedis). 
His  war  was  "pro  Augustino",  and  in  every  direc- 
tion he  fought  on  his  behalf.  Thus,  about  431-32, 
he  repelled  the  "calumnies  of  the  Gauls"  against 
Augustine  in  his  " Responsiones  ad  capitula  objec- 
tionum  Gallorum"  (P.  L.,  LI,  155  sqq.),  defended 
temperately  in  his  "Responsiones  ad  capitula  objec- 
tionum  Vincentianarum"  (P.  L.,  LI,  177  sqq.),  the 
Augustinian  teaching  concerning  predestination,  and 
finally,  in  his  "Responsiones  ad  excerpta  Genuen- 
sium"  (P.  L.,  LI,  187  sqq.),  explained  the  sense  of 
excerpts  which  two  priests  of  Genoa  had  collected 
from  the  writings  of  Augustine  concerning  predes- 
tination, and  had  forwarded  to  Prosper  for  inter- 
pretation. About  433  (434)  he  even  ventured  to 
attack  Cassian  himself,  the  soul  and  head  of  the  whole 
movement,  in  his  book,  "De  gratia  et  libero  arbitrio 
contra  Collatorem"  (P.  L.,  LI,  213  sqq.).  The 
already  delicate  situation  was  thereby  embittered, 
notwithstanding  the  friendly  concluding  sentences 
of  the  work.  Of  Hilary,  Prosper's  friend,  we  hear 
nothing  more.  Prosper  himself  must  have  regarded 
the  fight  as  hopeless  for  the  time  being,  since  in  434 
— according  to  Loofs;  other  historians  give  the  year 
440 — he  shook  the  dust  of  Gaul  from  his  feet  and  left 
the  land  to  its  fate.  Settling  at  Rome  in  the  papal 
chancery,  he  took  no  further  part  directly  in  the 
controversy,  although  even  here  he  never  wearied 
propagating  Augustine's  doctrine  concerning  grace, 
publishing  several  treatises  to  spread  and  defend  it. 
The  Massilians  now  took  the  field,  confident  of  vic- 
tory. One  of  their  greatest  leaders,  the  celebrated 
Vincent  of  I^rins,  under  the  pseudon\'m  of  Peregrinus 
made  in  434  concealed  attacks  on  Augustine  in  his 
classical  and  otherwise  excellent  work,  "Common- 
itorium  pro  catholics  fidei  veritate"  (P.  L.,  L,  637 
sqq)j  and  in  individual  passages  frankly  espoused 
Semipolagianism.  This  booklet  should  probably  be 
regarded  as  simply  a  "polemical  treatise  against 
Augustine". 

That  Semipelagianism  remained  the  prevailing 
tendency  in  Gaul  during  the  following  period,  is 
proved  by  Arnobius  the  Younger,  so  called  in  contrast 
to  Arnobius  the  Polder  of  Sicca  (about  303).  A  Gaul 
by  birth,  and  skilled  in  exegesis,  Arnobius  wrote 
about  460  extensive  explanations  of  the  Psalms 
("Commentarii  in  Psalmos"  in  P.  L.,  LIII,  327 
sqq.)  with  a  tendency  towards  allegorizing  and  open 
tilts  at  Augustine's  doctrine  of  grace.  Of  his  per- 
sonal life  nothing  is  known  to  us.  Certain  works  from 
other  pens  have  been  wrongly  ascribed  to  him. 
Thus,  the  collection  of  scholia  ("Adnotationes  ad 
quisdam  evangeliorum  loca"  in  P.  L.,  LIII,  569 
sqq.),  formerly  attributed  to  him,  must  be  referred 
to  the  pre-Constantine  period,  as  B.  Grundl  has 
recently  proved  (cf.  "Theol.  Quartalschr.",  Tiibingen, 
1897,  .5.55  sqq.).  Likewise,  the  work  "Conflictus 
Arnobii  catholici  cum  Serapione  ^gyptio"  (P.  L., 
LIII,  239  sqq.)  cannot  have  been  wTitten  by  our 
Arnobius,  inasmuch  as  it  is  entirely  Augustinian  in 
spirit.  When  Biiumer  wished  to  assign  the  author- 
ship to  Faustus  of  Riez  ("Katholik",  II,  Mainz, 
1887,  pp.  398  sqq.),  he  overlooked  the  fact  that 
Faustus  also  was  a  Semipelagian  (see  below),  and 
that,  in  any  case,  so  dilettante  a  writing  as  the  above 
could  not  be  ascribed  to  the  learned  Bishop  of  Riez. 
XIII.— 45 


The  true  author  is  to  be  sought  in  Italy,  not  in  Gaul. 
His  chief  object  is  to  prove  against  Monophysitism, 
in  the  form  of  a  disputation,  the  agreement  in  faith 
between  Rome  and  the  Greek  champions  of  Ortho- 
doxy, Athanasius  and  Cyril  of  Alexandria.  Natu- 
rally Arnobius  overcomes  the  Egyptian  Serapion. 
One  can  therefore  scarcely  err  in  regarding  the 
"Cathohc  Arnobius"  as  an  obscure  monk  living  in 
Rome.  Until  recent  times  the  authorship  of  the 
work  called  the  "Liber  prajdestinatus "  was  also 
commonly  ascribed  to  our  Arnobius.  The  sub-title 
reads:  " Praedestinatorum  hsresis  et  libri  S.  Augus- 
tino temere  adscripti  refutatio"  (P.  L.,  LIII,  587 
sqq.).  Dating  from  the  fifth  century  and  divided 
into  three  parts,  this  work,  which  was  first  publi-shed 
by  J.  Sirmond  in  1643,  attempts  under  the  mask  of 
ecclesiastical  authority  to  refute  Augustine's  doctrine 
of  grace  together  with  the  heretical  Predcstinarian- 
ism  of  pseudo-Augustine.  As  the  third  part  is  not 
merely  Semipelagianism  but  undisguised  Pelagianism, 
von  Schubert  has  of  late  rightly  concluded  ("Der 
sog.  Pra?destinatus,  ein  Beitrag  zur  Gesch.  des  Pel- 
agianismus",  Leipzig,  1903)  that  the  author  wrote 
about  440  in  Italy,  perhaps  at  Rome  itself,  and  was 
one  of  the  associates  of  Julian  of  Eclanum  (for  further 
particulars  see  Predestinari.\nism). 

The  most  important  representative  of  Semi- 
pelagianism after  Cassian  was  undoubtedly  the 
celebrated  Bishop  Faustus  of  Riez.  When  the  Gallic 
priest  Lucidus  had  drawn  on  himself,  on  account  of 
his  heretical  predestinationism,  the  condemnation  of 
two  synods  (Aries,  473;  Lyons,  474),  Faustus  was 
commissioned  by  the  assembled  bishops  to  write  a 
scientific  refutation  of  the  condemned  heresy;  hence 
his  work,  "De  gratia  hbri  11"   (P.  L.,  LVllI,  783 


sqq.).  Agreeing  neither  with  the  "pestifer  doctor 
Pelagius"  nor  with  the  "error  prsedestinationis"  of 
Lucidus,    he   resolutely   adopted   the   standpoint   of 


John  Cassian.  Like  him,  he  denied  the  nc(;(\ssity 
of  prevenient  grace  at  the  beginning  of  justification, 
and  compares  the  will  to  a  "small  hook"  (quaedam 
voluntatis  ansula)  which  reaches  out  and  seizes  grace. 
Of  predestination  to  heaven  and  final  perseverance 
as  a  "special  grace"  {gratia  specialis,  personalis) 
he  will  not  hear.  That  he  sincerely  believed  that 
by  these  propositions  he  was  condemning  not  a  dogma 
of  the  Church,  but  the  false  private  views  of  St. 
Augustine,  is  as  certain  in  his  case  as  in  that  of  his 
predecessors  Cassian  and  Hilary  of  Aries  (see  above). 
Consequently,  their  objectively  reprehensible  but 
subjectively  excusable  action  has  not  prevented 
France  from  honouring  these  three  men  as  saints 
even  to  this  day.  The  later  Massilians  were  as 
little  conscious  as  the  earlier  that  they  had  strayed 
from  the  straight  line  of  orthodoxy,  and  the  in- 
fallible authority  of  the  Church  had  not  yet  given  a 
deci-sion. 

One  should,  however,  speak  only  of  a  predomi- 
nance, and  not  of  a  supremacy,  of  Semipelagianism 
at  this  period.  In  proof  of  this  statement  we  may 
cite  two  anonymous  writings,  which  appeared  most 
probably  in  Gaul  itself.  About  430  an  unknown 
writer,  recognized  by  Pope  Gelasius  as  "probatus 
ecclesiae  magister",  composed  the  epoch-making 
work,  "De  vocatione  omnium  gentium"  (P.  L.,  LI, 
647  sqq.).  It  is  an  honest  and  skilful  attempt  to* 
soften  down  the  contradictions  and  to  facilitate  the 
passage  from  Semipelagianism  to  a  moderate  Augus- 
tinism.  To  harmonize  the  universality  of  the  will  of 
redemption  with  restricted  predestination,  the  anony- 
mous author  distinguishes  between  the  general  pro- 
vision of  grace  {benignitas  generalis)  which  excludes 
no  one,  and  the  special  care  of  God  (gratia  specialis), 
which  is  given  only  to  the  elect.  As  suggestions 
towards  this  distinction  are  already  found  in  St. 
Augustine,  we  may  say  that  this  work  stands  on 
Augustinian  ground  (cf.  Loofs,  "Dogmengesch.",  4th 


SEMITES 


706 


SEMITES 


ed.,  Leipzig,  1906,  p.  391).  Another  anonymous 
writing  dating  from  the  middle  of  the  fifth  centm*}' 
reckoned  among  the  works  of  Augustine,  and  editea 
by  the  Academy  of  Vienna,  bears  the  title:  "Hj^pom- 
nesticon  contra  Pelagianos  et  Coelestianos "  (Corpus 
scriptor.  ccclesiast.  latin.,  X,  1611  sqq.).  It  contains 
a  refutation  of  Seinipelagiaiiism,  as  it  condemns  the 
foundation  of  predestination  on  the  "faith  foreseen" 
b}'  God  {fides  prcei'isa).  But  it  also  shaiply  chal- 
lenges the  irresistibility  of  grace  and  predestination 
to  hell.  .\s  the  ground  for  eternal  damnation  the 
Divine  foresight  of  sin  is  given,  although  the  author 
cannot  help  seeing  that  eternal  punishment  as  the 
consequence  of  sin  is  settled  from  all  eternity.  A 
third  work  deserves  special  attention,  inasmuch  as 
it  reflects  the  views  of  Rome  towards  the  end  of  the 
fifth  centurj^;  it  is  entitled:  "Indiculus  seu  prajteri- 
torum  Sedis  Apostolicae  episcoporum  auctoritates" 
(in  Denzinger-Bannwart,  "Enchiridion",  Freiburg, 
190S,  nn.  129-42),  and  emphasizes  in  twelve  chapters 
the  powerlessness  of  man  to  raise  himself,  the  abso- 
lute necessity  of  grace  for  all  salutary  works,  and 
the  special  grace-character  of  final  perseverance. 
The  "deeper  and  more  difficult  questions"  concern- 
ing grace,  as  they  emerged  in  the  course  of  the  dis- 
cussion, were  passed  over  as  superfluous.  The  Augus- 
tinian  standpoint  of  the  compiler  is  as  unmistakable 
as  the  anti-Semipelagian  tendency  of  the  whole  work. 
Regarded  in  earlier  times  and  to  some  e.xtent  even 
to-day  as  a  papal  instruction  sent  by  Celestine  I  to 
the  bishops  of  Gaul  together  with  the  document 
mentioned  above,  this  appendix,  or  "indiculus", 
is  now  considered  unauthentic  and  its  origin  referred 
to  the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  It  is  certain  that 
about  A.D.  500  this  work  was  recognized  as  the  official 
expression  of  the  views  of  the  Apostolic  See. 

III.  Decline  and  End  of  Semipelagianism  (519-30). 
— Not  at  Rome  or  in  Gaul,  but  after  a  roundabout 
passage  through  Constantinople,  the  Semipelagian 
strife  was  to  break  out  with  new  violence.  It  hap- 
pened in  this  wi.se:  In  519,  Scythian  monks  under 
Johannes  Maxentius  who  was  versed  in  Latin  litera- 
ture, appeared  at  Constantinople  with  the  intention 
of  having  inserted  in  the  symbol  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451)  the  Christological  formula,  "  Unus 
de  8.  Trinitate  in  came  crucifixus  est",  in  view  of  the 
Theopaschite  quarrel,  which  was  then  raging.  In 
this  clause  the  fanatical  monks  saw  the  "standard 
of  orthodoxy",  and  regarded  the  solemn  reception 
of  the  same  into  the  symbol  as  the  most  efficacious 
means  of  overthrowing  Monophysitism.  With  their 
untimely  proposition  they  importuned  even  the 
papal  legates,  who  were  entrusted  with  the  negotia- 
tions for  the  re-establishment  of  official  relations 
between  Rome  and  Byzantium.  When  Bishop 
Possessor  from  Africa  approached  the  hesitating 
legates  with  quotations  from  the  works  of  the  recent- 
ly-decea.sed  Faustus  of  Riez,  Maxentius  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  denounce  Posses.sor  and  his  abettors  curtly 
as  "partisans  of  Pelagius"  (sectatores  Pelagii;  cf. 
Maxentius,  "Ep.  ad  Icgatos"  in  P.  G.,  LXXXVI, 
85).  Thus  the  question  of  the  orthodoxy  of  Faustus 
suddenly  arose,  and  simultaneously  that  of  Semipe- 
lagianism in  general;  henceforth,  the  conflict  never 
abated  until  its  final  settlement.  As  no  decision 
could  be  reached  without  the  concurrence  of  Rome, 
Maxentius  started  for  Rome  in  June,  519,  with 
several  fellow-monks  to  lay  their  petition  bfifore  Pope 
Hormisdas.  During  their  fourteen  months'  residence 
at  Rome  they  left  no  means  untried  to  induce  the 
pope  to  recognize  the  Christological  formula  and  to 
condemn  Faustus.  Hormisdas,  however,  refused  to 
yield  to  either  request.  On  the  contrary,  in  a  reply 
to  Bishop  Possessor  of  20  Aug.,  520,  he  complains 
bitterly  of  the  tactless  and  fanatical  conduct  of  the 
Scythian  monks  at  Rome  (cf.  A.  Thiel,  "Epistolse 
Romanor.   Pontif.   genuinae",   I,    Braunsberg,    1868, 


929).  As  for  Faustus,  Hormisdas  declares  in  the 
same  letter  that  his  works  certamly  contain  much 
that  is  distorted  {iricongrua)  and  is,  moreover,  not 
included  among  the  recognized  writings  of  the  Fathers. 
The  sound  doctrine  on  grace  and  freedom  could  be 
taken  from  the  writings  of  St.  Augustine. 

This  evasive  answer  of  the  pope,  showing  no  in- 
clination to  meet  their  wishes,  was  far  from  pleasing 
to  Maxentius  and  his  companions.  Turning  elsewhere 
for  support  ^laxentius  formed  a  league  of  the  African 
bishops,  who,  in  consequence  of  the  Vandal  perse- 
cution of  the  CathoHcs  under  King  Thrasamund 
(496-523),  were  hving  in  e.xile  on  the  Island  of  Sar- 
dinia. Fulgentius  of  Ruspe,  the  most  learned  of 
the  exiles,  inquired  into  the  matter  on  behalf  of  his 
fellow-bishops.  In  a  long  epistle  (Fulgentius,  Ep. 
xvii,  "De  incamatione  et  gratia",  in  P.  L.,  LXV,  451 
sqq.),  he  gratified  the  Scythian  monks  by  approving 
the  orthodoxy  of  the  Christological  formula  and  the 
condemnation  of  Faustus  of  Riez.  Unfortunately 
his  polemical  work  in  seven  books  against  Faustus 
is  lost,  but  in  his  numerous  writings,  which  he  com- 
posed partly  during  his  exile  in  Sardinia  and  partly 
after  his  return  to  Africa,  there  breathes  a  spirit  so 
truly  Augustinian  that  he  has  been  rightly  called 
the  "epitomized  Augustine".  The  blow  dealt  to 
Faustus  had  its  effect  both  in  Gaul  and  at  Rome. 
Bishop  Ca?sarius  of  Aries,  although  a  pupil  of  L6rins, 
subscribed  to  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  grace, 
and  his  views  were  shared  by  many  of  the  Galhc 
episcopate.  Other  bishops  were  indeed  still  inclined 
towards  Semipelagianism.  At  a  Synod  of  Valence 
(528  or  529)  Caesarius  was  attacked  on  account  of 
his  teaching,  but  was  able  to  reply  effectively.  Hav- 
ing been  assured  of  the  "authority  and  support  of 
the  Apostolic  See",  he  summoned  on  3  July,  529, 
the  sharers  of  his  views  to  the  Second  Synod  of 
Orange,  which  condemned  Semipelagianism  as 
heresy.  In  twenty-five  canons  the  entire  power- 
lessness of  nature  for  good,  the  absolute  necessity  of 
prevenicnt  grace  for  salutary  acts,  especially  for  the 
beginning  of  faith,  the  absolute  gratuity  of  the  first 
grace  and  of  final  perseverance,  were  defined,  while 
in  the  epilogue  the  predestination  of  the  will  to  evil 
was  branded  as  heresy  (cf.  Denzinger-Bannwart, 
nn.  174-200).  As  Pope  Boniface  II  solemnly  rati- 
fied the  decrees  in  the  following  year  (530),  the  Synod 
of  Orange  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  oecumenical 
council.  It  was  the  final  triumph  of  the  dead  Augus- 
tine, the  "Doctor of  Grace". 

SuAREz,  Proleg.  de  gratia,  V,  v,  sqq.;  Electherius  (Livinus 
Meyer),  De  PeUigianis  el  Semipelag.  erroribus  (Antwerp,  1705); 
Geffken,  UixtoTia  semipelagianismi  (Gottingen,  1826) ;  Wiooerb, 
Gesch.  des  Pelagianismus  (Hamburg,  1835);  Koch,  Der  hi. 
Faustus  V.  Riez  (.Stuttgart,  1893) ;  Arnold,  Cdsarius  von  Arelate 
(Leipzig,  1894) ;  Hoch,  Die  Lehre  des  Joh.  Cassian  von  Natur  u. 
Gnade  (Freiburg,  1895);  Sublet,  Le  semipSlagianisme  des  origines 
dans  ses  rapports  avec  Augustin,  le  ptlagianisme  et  I'iglise  (Namur, 
1897);  WoRTER,  Beitrage  zur  Dogmengesch.  des  Semipelagianismm 
(Paderborn,  1898);  Idem,  Zur  Dogmengesch.  des  Semipelagianis- 
■mus  (MUnster,  1900);  Hefele-Leclercq,  Hist,  des  conciles,  II 
(Paria,  1908);  Tixeront,  Hist,  des  dogmes,  II  (2nd  ed.,  Paris, 
1909);  Harnack,  Dogmengesch.,  Ill  (4th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1910). 
On  questions  of  literary  history  see  Bardenhewer,  Patrologxe 
(3rd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1910),  passim,  tr.  Shahan  (St.  Louis,  1908); 
on  tlie  Middle  Ages  cf.  Minoeb,  Die  Gnadenlehre  des  Duns  Scoliu 
auf  ihren  angeblichen  Pelagianismus  u.  Semipelag.  gepriift  (MUn- 
ster,  1900);  on  the  internal  development  of  Augustine's  teaching 
consult  Weinand,  Die  Goltesidee  der  Grundzug  der  Weltanschauung 
des  hi.  A'ugustinus  (Paderborn,  1910). 

J.   POHLE. 

Semites. — The  term  Semites  is  applied  to  a  group 
of  peoples  closelv  related  in  language,  whose  habitat 
is  Asia  and  ])artly  Africa.  The  expression  is  derived 
from  the  Biblical  table  of  nations  (Gen.,  x),  in  which 
most  of  these  peoples  are  recorded  as  descendants  of 
Noah's  son  Sem.  The  term  Semite  was  proposed  at 
first  for  the  languages  related  to  the  Hebrew  by  Lud- 
wig  Schlozer,  in  Eichhorn's  "Repertorium",  vol.  VIII 
(Leipzig,  1781),  p.  161.  Through  Eichhorn  the  name 
then  came  into  general  usage  (cf.  his  "Einleitung  in 


SEMITES 


707 


SEMITES 


das  Alte  Testament"  (Leipzig,  1787),  I,  p.  45.  In  his 
"Gesch.  der  neuen  Sprachenkunde",  pt.  I  (Gottin- 
gen,  1807)  it  had  akeady  become  a  fixed  technical 
term.  Since  then  the  name  has  been  generally 
adopted,  except  that  modern  science  uses  it  in  a  some- 
what wider  sense  to  include  all  those  peoples  who  are 
either  demonstrably  of  Semitic  origin,  or  who  appear 
in  history  as  completely  Semitized. 

Classification. — In  historic  times  all  Western  Asia 
(see  below),  with  the  exception  of  the  peninsula  of 
Asia  Minor,  was  Semitic.  From  the  philological  point 
of  view  the  Semitic  peoples  are  divided  into  four  chief 
groups:  Babylonian- Assyrian  Semites  (East  Semites), 
Chanaanitic  Semites  (West  Semites),  Aramaic  Semites 
(North  Semites),  and  Arabian  Semites  (South  Se- 
mites). The  last-named  group  is  divided  into  North 
and  South  Arabians,  of  which  last  the  Abyssinians 
are  a  branch.  The  first  three  groups  are  usually 
termed  North  Semites,  in  contrast  to  the  Arabian 
group,  or  South  Semites.  But  the  classification  of  the 
Babylonian  with  the  Aramaic  and  Chanaanitic  Se- 
mites is  not  permissible  from  the  philological  point  of 
view. 

Territory. — The  great  mountain-chains  which  begin 
at  the  Syro-Cilician  boundary,  and  then  curving  to- 
wards the  south-west  extend  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  sepa- 
rate on  the  north  and  east  the  territory  of  the  Semites 
from  that  of  the  other  peoples  of  Western  Asia.  It 
includes  the  Syro-Arabian  plain  with  the  civilized 
countries  extending  to  the  east  and  west  and  the 
Arabian  Peninsula  which  joins  it  on  the  south.  The 
lowlands  to  the  east  are  formed  by  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Tigris,  and  include  the  homes  of  two  very  ancient 
civilizations,  in  the  north  the  rather  undulating  Meso- 
potamia, in  the  south  the  low  Babylonian  plain;  the 
land  extending  to  the  west  from  the  lower  Euphrates 
is  called  Chaldea.  These  are  the  territories  of  the 
East  Semitic  tribes  and  states.  On  the  west  lies 
Northern  Syria,  then  the  Lebanon  Mountains  with  the 
intervening  Coelo-Syria,  the  oasis  of  Damascus,  the 
seat  of  an  ancient  culture,  the  Hauran,  and  in  the 
the  midst  of  the  desert  the  oasis  of  Palmyra  (Tadmor). 
These  territories  were  at  a  later  period  occupied  prin- 
cipally by  Aramaic  tribes.  The  territory  on  the  coast 
extending  westwards  from  Lebanon,  and  Palestine, 
which  joins  it  on  the  south,  are  the  principal  seats  of 
the  Chanaanitic  Semites.  The  mountainous  country  to 
the  east  of  Arabia  and  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  extend- 
ing to  the  west  of  Arabia,  belong  to  Arabia  proper,  the 
territory  of  the  South  Semites. 

Original  Home. — The  tribes  which  inhabited  these 
territories,  and  to  some  extent  still  inhabit  them, 
show  in  language,  traits,  and  character  a  sharply 
characterized  individuality  which  separates  them  dis- 
tinctly from  other  peoples.  Their  languages  are 
closely  related  to  one  another,  not  being  almost  inde- 
pendent branches  of  language,  like  the  great  groups 
of  Indo-Germanic  languages,  but  rather  dialects  of  a 
single  linguistic  group.  Physically,  also,  the  Semitic 
type  is  a  uniform  one.  In  its  purest  form  it  is  found 
in  Arabia.  Here  also  the  phonetics  and  partly  also 
the  grammatical  structure  of  the  Semitic  language,  are 
most  purely,  as  the  vocabulary  is  most  completely, 
preserved.  From  these  as  well  as  from  other  circum- 
cumstances  the  conclusion  has  been  drawn  that  Arabia 
should  be  considered  the  original  home  of  the  Semitic 
peoples.  All  the  racial  peculiarities  of  the  Semites 
are  best  explained  from  the  character  of  a  desert 
people.  All  Semites  settled  in  civilized  lands  are, 
therefore,  to  be  considered  offshoots  of  the  desert 
tribes,  which  were  detached  one  after  the  other  from 
the  parent  stem.  This  pressing  forward  towards 
civilized  lands  was  a  continuous  movement,  often 
in  a  slow  development  lasting  through  centuries, 
but  often  also  in  mighty  and  sudden  invasions, 
the  last  of  which  appears  in  that  of  the  Arabs  of  Is- 
lam.    The  further  question  as  to  how  the  original  an- 


cestors of  the  Semites  came  to  Arabia,  is  for  the  pres- 
ent beyond  historical  knowledge. 

East  Semites. — The  first  emigrants  from  Arabia 
who  succeeded  in  acquiring  new  landed  possessions 
were  the  Semitic  Babylonians.  In  Babylonia  the  in- 
vaders proceeded  to  adopt  the  highly-developed  civ- 
ilization of  an  ancient  non-Semitic  people,  the  Sume- 
rians,  and  with  it  the  cuneiform  alphabet,  which  the 
latter  had  invented.  When  this  invasion  occurred  is 
not  known;  but  that  it  was  accomplished  in  several 
stages,  and  after  temporary  settlements  on  the  bor- 
ders, is  unquestionable.  By  3000  b.  c.  the  dominion 
of  the  Semites  in  Babylonia  was  an  accomplished 
fact. 

Ethnologically  considered,  the  Babylonians  are  a 
mixed  people,  composed  partly  of  the  Sumerian  and 
the  most  ancient  Semitic  emigrants,  partly  also  of  the 
continuously  invading  West  Semites,  and  further- 
more of  Kassites  and  other  people,  all  of  whom  were 
amalgamated.  The  principal  seat  of  the  Semitic  ele- 
ment was  in  the  north,  in  the  land  of  Accad,  while  in 
the  south  the  Sumerians  were  most  numerous.  Un- 
der Sargon  and  Naram-Sin  was  completed  the  amal- 
gamation of  the  Sumerian  and  the  Accadian  (Semitic) 
civilization,  which  in  the  age  of  Hammurabi  appears 
as  an  accomplished  fact.  The  mighty  expansion  of 
the  kingdom  to  the  Mediterranean  naturally  resulted 
in  the  wide  extension  of  the  Sumerian-Accadian  civili- 
zation, and  for  a  millennium  and  a  half  Babel  was  the 
intellectual  centre  of  Western  Asia.  As  is  proved  by 
the  Tel-el-Amarna  letters,  the  Babylonian  language 
and  script  were  known  in  Western  Asia  as  well  as  in 
Egj^pt  and  C>T)rus,  at  least  at  the  courts  of  the  rulers. 
At  an  early  period  the  Semites  must  have  invaded  the 
mountainous  territory  to  the  east  of  Babylonia.  Not 
until  about  2300  b.  c.  do  we  find  a  foreign  element  in 
Elam.  Before  this  time,  according  to  inscriptions 
which  have  been  found,  Babylonian  Semites  lived 
there. 

On  the  Accadian  border  dwelt  the  Semitic  tribes  of 
Mesopotamia,  which  are  included  under  the  general 
term  Subari.  The  centre  of  this  region  is  desert,  but 
on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  Chaboras,  and  Tigris 
are  strips  of  land  capable  of  cultivation,  upon  which  at 
an  early  period  Semitic  settlements  were  established, 
for  the  most  part  probably  under  local  dynasties.  The 
Subari  include  also  the  Ass>Tians,  who  founded  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Tigris  between  the  mouths  of 
the  two  Zab  rivers  a  city  which  bore  the  same  name  as 
the  race  and  its  god.  All  these  tribes  and  states  were 
under  the  influence  of  Babylonia  and  its  civilization, 
and  Babylonian-Semitic  was  their  official  and  literary 
language.  But  while  in  Babylonia  the  Semitic  ele- 
ment was  amalgamated  with  different  strata  of  the 
original  population,  in  Mesopotamia  the  Semitic  type 
was  more  purely  preserved. 

Briefly  recapitulating  the  political  history  of  the 
Eastern  Semites,  we  may  distinguish  four  periods. 
The  first  includes  essentially  the  fortunes  of  the  an- 
cient Babylonian  realm;  the  second  witnesses  the  pre- 
dominance of  Assur,  involved  in  constant  struggles 
with  Babylonia,  which  still  maintained  its  inde- 
pendence. During  the  third  period  Assur,  after  the 
overthrow  of  Babylonia,  achieves  the  summit  of  its 
power ;  this  is  followed,  after  the  destruction  of  Nineveh, 
by  the  short  prosperity  of  the  new  Babylonian  King- 
dom under  the  rule  of  the  Chaldeans.  This  power, 
and  with  it  the  entire  dominion  of  the  Semites  in 
south-western  Asia,  was  overthrown  by  the  Persians. 
Chanaanitic  Semites. — This  designation  was  chosen 
because  the  races  belonging  to  this  group  can  best  be 
studied  in  the  land  of  Chanaan.  They  represent  a 
second  wave  of  emigration  into  civilized  territory. 
About  the  middle  of  the  third  millennium  before  Christ 
they  were  a  race  of  nomads  in  a  state  of  transition  to 
settled  life,  whose  invasions  were  directed  against  the 
East  as  well  as  the  West.     About  this  time  there  con- 


SEMITES 


708 


SEMITES 


stantly  appear  in  Babj-lonia  the  names  of  gods,  rulers, 
and  other  persons  of  a  distinctly  Chanaanitic  char- 
acter. To  these  belongs  the  so-called  first  Babylo- 
nian dynasty,  the  most  celebrated  representative  of 
which  is  Hammurabi.  Its  rule  probably  denotes  the 
high  tide  of  that  new  invasion  of  Babylonia,  which  also 
strongly  influenced  AssjTia.  In  time  the  new  stratum 
was  absorbed  by  the  existing  population,  and  thereby 
became  a  part  of  Babylonian  Semitism.  Through 
the  same  invasion  the  civilized  territory  of  the  West 
received  a  new  population,  and  even  Egypt  was  af- 
fected. For  the  Hyksos  (shepherd  kings)  are  in  the 
main  only  the  last  offshoot  of  that  Chanaanitic  inva- 
sion, and  in  their  rulers  we  see  a  similar  phenomenon 
as  that  of  the  Chanaanitic  dynasty  of  Babylonia.  As 
regards  the  Semites  in  Chanaan  itself,  the  earliest 
wave  of  the  invasion,  which  in  consequence  of  subse- 
quent pressure  was  ultimately  pushed  forward  to  the 
coast,  is  known  to  us  under  the  name  of  the  Pha?ni- 
cians.  A  picture  of  the  conditions  of  the  races  and 
principalities  of  Palestine  in  the  fifteenth  century  b.  c. 
is  given  in  the  Tel-el-Amarna  letters.  In  them  we 
find  a  scries  of  Chanaanitic  glosses,  which  show  that 
even  at  that  time  the  most  important  of  those  char- 
acteristic peculiarities  had  been  developed,  which 
gave  their  distinctive  character  to  the  best  known 
Chanaanitic  dialects,  the  Phoenician  and  the  Hebrew. 
Further  examples  of  Chanaanitic  language  of  the  sec- 
ond millennium,  especially  as  regards  the  vocabulary, 
are  the  Semitic  glosses  in  the  Egyptian. 

To  the  Chanaanitic  races  settled  in  Palestine  belong 
also  the  Hebrew  immigrants  under  Abraham,  from 
whom  again  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites  sepa- 
rated. A  people  closely  related  to  the  Hebrews 
were  also  the  Edomites  in  the  Seir  mountains,  who 
later  appear  under  the  name  of  Idumseans  in  Southern 
Judea.  These  mountains  had  before  them  been  set- 
tled by  the  Horites  who  were  partly  expelled,  partly 
ab.sorbed  by  the  Edomites.  A  last  wave  of  the  immi- 
gration into  Chanaan  are  the  Israelites,  descendants 
of  the  Hebrews,  who  after  centuries  of  residence  in 
Egypt,  and  after  forty  years  of  nomadic  life  in  the 
desert,  returned  to  the  land  of  their  fathers,  of  which 
they  took  possession  after  long  and  weary  struggles. 
That  the  influence  of  Chanaanitic  Semitism  extended 
far  into  the  North  is  proved  by  the  two  Zendsirli  in- 
scriptions: the  so-called  Hadad  inscription  of  the 
ninth  century,  and  the  Panammu  inscription  of  the 
eighth  century,  the  language  of  which  shows  a  Cha- 
naanitic character  with  Aramaic  intermixture.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  so-called  building  inscription  of 
Bir-Iiokcb,  dating  from  the  last  third  of  the  eighth 
century,  Ls  purely  Aramaic — a  proof  that  the  Ara- 
maization  of  Northern  Syria  was  in  full  progress. 

Aramaic  Semites. — These  represent  a  third  wave  of 
Semitic  immigration.  In  cuneiform  inscriptions  dat- 
ing from  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  B.  c. 
they  are  mentioned  as  Ahlami.  Their  expansion 
probably  took  place  within  the  fifteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries  b.  c.  from  the  plain  between  the 
mouth  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  mountains  of  Edom. 
As  early  as  the  reign  of  Salmanasar  I  (1300)  they  had 
pressed  far  into  Mesopotamia  and  become  a  public 
scourge,  in  consequence  of  which  the  stream  of  immi- 
gration could  not  longer  be  restrained.  During  the 
ii(-w  expansion  of  Assyrian  power  under  Tiglath-Pi- 
leser  I  (1118-1003  B.C.) his  reports  enumerate  victories 
over  the  Aramaans.  Their  further  advance  into  the 
territory  of  the  Euphrates  and  towards  Syria  took 
place  about  1 1(K>-10()0  b.  c.  liy  the  ninth  century  all 
SjTia  was  Aramaicized;  many  small  states  were 
formed,  prinr;ij)ally  successors  of  the  Hittitc  King- 
dom. The  most  important  Arama-an  principality 
was  that  of  Damascus,  which  was  destroyed  by  Tig- 
lath-Pileser  III  in  732.  In  like  manner  the  remain- 
ing Aramaic  statf^s  succumbed.  A  new  rebellion  was 
Buppressed  by  Sargon,  and  with  this  the  rule  of  the 


Aramaeans  in  S>Tia  ended.  In  the  meanwhile,  the 
Aramaean  element  in  Mesopotamia  was  constantly 
growing  stronger.  At  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury we  hear  of  a  number  of  small  Aramaic  states  or 
Bedouin  territories  there.  They  were  subdued  under 
Assurnasirpal  (Asshur-nasir-pal)  III  (884-860),  and 
the  independence  of  their  princes  was  destroyed  by 
his  successor  Salmanasar  (Shalmaneser)  II.  Never- 
theless, the  immigration  continued.  In  the  struggles 
of  Assyria  the  Aramaeans  of  Mesopotamia  always 
made  common  cause  with  its  enemies,  and  even  under 
Assurbanipal  they  were  allied  with  his  opponents. 
From  this  time  we  hear  nothing  more  of  them.  They 
were  probably  absorbed  by  the  remaining  population. 

Their  language  alone,  which  the  Aramaeans  in  con- 
sequence of  their  numerical  superiority  forced  upon 
these  countries,  survived  in  the  sphere  of  the  North 
Semitic  civilization,  and  was  not  obliterated  until 
the  Islam's  conquest.  The  potent  Arabic  displaced 
the  Aramaic  dialects  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
remnants.  Since  the  second  half  of  the  eighth 
century  the  use  of  Aramaic  as  a  language  of  inter- 
course can  be  proved  in  Assj^ia.  and  about  the 
same  time  it  certainly  prevailed  in  Babylonia  among 
the  commercial  classes  of  the  population.  In  the 
West  also  their  language  extended  in  a  southerly  di- 
rection as  far  as  Northern  Arabia.  For  Aramaic  had 
become  the  general  language  of  commerce,  which  the 
Semitic  peoples  of  Western  Asia  found  themselves 
compelled  to  adopt  in  their  commercial,  cultural,  and 
political  relations.  The  Aramaic  elements  of  the 
population  were  absorbed  by  the  other  peoples  of  the 
existing  civilized  lands.  They  developed  a  distinct 
nationality  in  Damascus.  In  Mesopotamia  itself,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Edessa,  Mardin,  and  Nisibis, 
Aramaic  individuality  was  long  preserved.  But  the 
culture  of  this  country  was  afterwards  strongly  per- 
meated by  Hellenism.  One  of  the  last  political  for- 
mations of  the  Aramaeans  is  found  in  Palmyra,  which 
in  the  first  century  b.  c.  became  the  centre  of  a  flour- 
ishing state  under  Arabian  princes.  It  flourished  un- 
til the  ambitious  design  of  Odenathus  and  Zenobia  to 
play  the  leading  part  in  the  East  caused  its  destruction 
by  the  Romans.  A  small  fragment  of  Aramaic-speak- 
ing population  may  be  still  found  in  Ma'lula  and  two 
other  villages  of  the  Anti-Lebanon.  So-called  New 
Syrian  dialects,  descendants  of  the  East  Aramaic,  are 
spoken  in  Tur '  Abdin  in  Mesopotamia,  to  the  east  and 
north  of  Mosul,  and  in  the  neighbouring  mountains  of 
Kurdistan,  as  well  as  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Urmia. 
Of  these  Aramaic-speaking  Christians  a  part  lives  on 
what  was  clearly  ancient  Aramaic  territory;  but  for 
those  on  Lake  Urmia  we  must  assume  a  later  immi- 
gration. Nestorian  bishops  of  Urmia  are  mentioned 
as  early  as  a.  d.  1111. 

Arabic-Abyssinian  Seinilcs. — (a)  Arabs,  the  most 
powerful  branch  of  the  Semitic  group  of  peoples,  are 
indigenous  to  Central  and  Northern  Arabia,  where 
even  to-day  the  original  character  is  most  purely  pre- 
served. At  an  early  period  they  pressed  forward  into 
the  neighbouring  territories,  partly  to  the  North  and 
partly  to  the  South.  In  accordance  with  linguistic 
differences  they  are  divided  into  North  and  South 
Arabians.  Northern  Arabia  is  comiinscd  partly  of 
plains  and  deserts,  and  is,  therefore,  generally  speak- 
ing, the  home  of  wandering  tribes  of  Bedouins.  The 
South,  on  the  other  hand,  is  fertih;  and  suitable  for  a 
settled  population.  For  this  reason  we  find  here  at 
an  early  date  political  organizations,  and  the  sites  of 
ruins  and  inscriptions  l)ear  witness  to  the  liigli  cul- 
ture which  once  pnn'ailcd.  The  natural  richness  of 
the  country  and  its  favourable  situation  on  the  sea- 
coast  made  the  South  Arabians  at  an  early  period  an 
important  commercial  people.  In  the  fertile  low- 
lands of  the  South  Arabian  Djof  the  Kingdom  of 
Ma'in  (Mina^ans)  flourished.  It  is  generally  dated 
as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  second  millennium  before 


SEMITIC 


709 


SEMITIC 


Christ,  although  for  the  present  it  is  better  to  main- 
tain a  somewhat  sceptical  attitude  as  regards  this 
hypothesis.  At  all  events,  the  Minseans,  at  an  early- 
period,  probably  avoiding  the  desert  by  a  journey 
along  the  eastern  coast,  emigrated  from  North-east- 
em  Arabia.  To  the  south  and  south-east  of  the  Mi- 
naeans  were  the  Katabans  and  the  Hadramotites,  who 
were  cognate  in  language  and  who  stood  in  active 
commercial  relations  with  Ma'in,  under  whose  po- 
litical protectorate  they  seem  to  have  lived.  The 
spirit  of  enterprise  of  this  kingdom  is  shown  by  the 
foundation  of  a  commercial  (!olony  in  the  north-west- 
ern part  of  the  peninsula  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Gulf  of  Akabah,  viz.,  Ma'in-Mussran  (Mizraimitic, 
Egypt  Ma'in).  The  downfall  of  the  Ma'in  kingdom 
was,  according  to  the  usual  assumption,  connected 
with  the  rise  of  the  Sabaean  kingdom.  The  Saba;ans 
had  likewise  emigrated  from  the  North,  and  in  con- 
stant struggles  had  gradually  spread  their  dominion 
over  almost  all  Southern  Arabia.  Their  capital  was 
Ma'rib.  Their  numerous  monuments  and  inscrip- 
tions extend  from  about  700  b.  c.  until  almost  the 
time  of  Mohammed.  At  the  height  of  its  power,  Saba 
received  a  heavy  blow  by  the  loss  of  the  monopoly  of 
the  carrying  trade  between  India  and  the  northern 
regions,  when  the  Ptolemies  entered  into  direct  trade 
relations  with  India.  Still  the  Sabaean  Kingdom 
maintained  itself,  with  varying  fortune,  until  about 
A.  D.  300.  After  its  fall  the  once  powerful  Yeman 
was  constantly  under  foreign  domination,  at  last  un- 
der Persian.  Ultimately,  Southern  Arabia  was  drawn 
into  the  circle  of  Islam.  Its  characteristic  language 
was  replaced  by  the  Northern  Arabic,  and  in  only  a 
few  localities  of  the  southern  coast  are  remnants  of  it 
to  be  found:  the  so-called  Mahri  in  Mahraland  and 
the  Socotri  on  the  Island  of  Socotra. 

Northern  Arabia  had  in  the  meanwhile  followed  its 
own  path.  To  the  east  of  Mussran  to  far  into  the 
Syrian  desert  we  hear  of  the  activity  of  the  Aribi  (at 
first  in  the  ninth  century  b.  c),  from  whom  the  entire 
peninsula  finally  received  its  name.  Assurbanibal, 
especially,  boasts  of  important  victories  over  them  in 
his  struggles  with  them  for  the  mastery  of  Edom, 
Moab,  and  the  Hauran  (c.  GoO).  Some  of  the  tribes 
possessed  the  germs  of  political  organization,  as  is 
shown  in  their  government  by  kings  and  even 
queens.  While  these  ancient  Aribi  for  the  most  part 
constituted  nomadic  tribes,  certain  of  their  descend- 
ants became  settled  and  achieved  a  high  culture. 
Thus,  about  n.  c.  200  we  h(nir  of  the  realm  of  the 
Nabata'ans  in  the  former  territory  of  tlu!  Edomites. 
From  their  clilT-town  of  Pctra  they  gradually  sjjread 
their  dominion  over  North-western  Arabia,  Moab,  the 
Hauran,  and  temporarily  even  over  Damascus.  Their 
prosperity  was  chiefly  due  to  their  carrying  trade  be- 
tween Southern  Arabia  and  Mediterranean  lands. 
The  language  of  their  inscriptions  and  coins  is  Ara- 
maic, but  the  names  inscribed  upon  them  are  Arabic. 
In  A.  D.  106  the  Nabata>an  Kingdom  became  a  Ro- 
man province.  Its  annexation  caused  the  prosperity 
of  the  above-mentioned  Palmyra,  whose  aristocracy 
and  dynasty  were  likewise  descended  from  the  Aribi. 
Subsequent  to  these  many  other  small  Arabian  prin- 
cipalities developed  on  the  boundary  between  civilized 
lands  and  the  desert;  but  they  were  for  the  most  j)art 
of  short  duration.  Of  greatest  importance  were  two 
which  stood  respectively  under  the  protection  of  the 
Byzantine  Empire  and  the  Persian  Kingdom  as  buffer 
states  of  those  great  powers  against  the  sons  of  the 
desert:  the  realm  of  the  Ghassanites  in  the  Hauran, 
and  that  of  the  Lahmites,  the  centre  of  which  was 
Hira,  to  the  south  of  Babylon. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  sixth  century  a.  d.,  when 
Southern  Arabia  had  outlived  its  political  existence, 
Northern  Arabia  had  not  yet  found  a  way  to  political 
union,  and  the  entire  peninsula  threatened  to  become  a 
battle-ground  of  Persian  and  Byzantine  interests.     In 


one  district  alone,  the  centre  of  which  was  Mecca,  did 
pure  Arabism  maintain  an  independent  position.  In 
this  city,  a.  d.  570,  Mohammed  was  born,  the  man 
who  was  destined  to  put  into  motion  the  last  and 
most  permanent  of  the  movements  which  issued  from 
Arabia.  And  so  in  the  seventh  century  another  evo- 
lution of  Semitism  took  place,  which  in  the  victorious 
power  of  its  attack  and  in  its  mighty  expansion  sur- 
passed all  that  had  gone  before;  the  offshoots  of 
which  pressed  forward  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  into 
Europe  itself. 

(b)  Ahyssinians. — At  an  early  epoch  South  Ara- 
bian tribes  emigrated  to  the  opposite  African  coast, 
where  Sabaean  trade  colonies  had  probably  existed  for 
a  long  time.  As  early  as  the  first  century  a.  d.  we 
find  in  the  north  of  the  Abyssinian  mountain-lands  the 
Semitic  realm  of  Aksum.  The  conquerors  brought 
with  them  South  Arabian  letters  and  language,  which 
in  their  new  home  gradually  attained  an  individual 
character.  From  this  language,  the  Ge'ez,  wrongly 
called  Ethiopian,  two  daughter-languages  are  de- 
scended, Tigre  and  Tigrina.  The  confusion  of  this 
kingdom  with  Ethiopia  probably  owes  its  origin  to  the 
fact  that  the  Semite  emigrants  adopted  this  name 
from  the  Graeco-Egyptian  sailors,  at  a  time  when  the 
Kingdom  of  Meroe  was  still  in  some  repute.  And  so 
they  called  their  kingdom  Yt6yop6ya.  From  Aksum 
as  a  base  they  gradually  extended  their  dominion  over 
all  Abyssinia,  the  northern  population  of  which  to- 
day shows  a  purer  Semitic  type,  while  the  southern  is 
strongly  mixed  with  Hamitic  elements.  At  an  early 
date  the  south  must  have  been  settled  by  Semites, 
who  spoke  a  language  related  to  Ge'ez,  which  was 
afterwards  to  a  great  extent  influenced  by  the  lan- 
guages of  the  native  population,  particularly  by  the 
Agau  dialects.  A  descendant  of  this  language  is  the 
Amharic,  the  present  language  of  intercourse  in  Abys- 
sinia itself  and  far  beyond  its  boundaries. 

See  the  articles  on  the  separate  titles  treated  above;  also 
Maspero,  Histoire  ancienne  des  peuples  de  V Orient  classique 
(189.3);  Meyer,  Gesch.  des  Altertums,  I  (1909),  extending  to  the 
sixteenth  century  b.  c;  Barton,  Sketch  of  Semitic  Origins  (New 
York,  1902). 

F.    SCHTJHLEIN. 

Semitic  Epigraphy  is  a  new  science,  dating  only 
from  Iho  past  fifty  years.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  cciitury  European  scholars  sought  in  vain 
to  deciplier  two  Pulmyran  inscriptions  which  had  been 
discovered  at  Rome.  At  the  end  of  the  century  Swin- 
ton  in  England  and  the  Abbe  Barthelemy  in  France 
succeeded  in  reconstructing  the  alphabet  with  the 
assistance  of  thirteen  new  bilingual  texts  copied  at 
Palmyra  by  Wood.  Thenceforth  it  was  evident  of 
what  assistance  inscriptions  would  be  to  the  philologi- 
cal and  historical  knowledge  of  the  ancient  Orient. 
They  are,  moreover,  of  great  utility  in  Biblical  criticism. 
The  true  founder  of  this  science  was  W.  Gesenius,  who 
collected  and  commentated  all  the  Phoenician  inscrip- 
tions then  known  in  his  remarkable  work"ScripturaD 
linguaeque  Phoenicia)  monumenta"  (Leipzig,  1837). 
Since  then  attention  has  been  devoted  to  the  research 
of  epigraphical  monuments  and  the  most  eminent 
Orientalists  are  successfully  applying  themselves  to 
deciphering  and  explaining  them.  In  1867  the  Acade- 
mic des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres  of  Paris  under- 
took the  publication  of  a  "Corpus  inscriptionum 
semiticarum",  in  which  the  monuments  should  be 
collected,  translated,  and  reproduced  in  facsimile  by  the 
most  perfect  processes.  The  publication,  made  with 
all  desirable  care,  is  regularly  continued,  despite  the  ' 
enormous  expenses  it  involves.  To  afford  an  idea  of 
Semitic  epigraphy  we  shall  follow  the  plan  adopted  in 
this  work,  which  does  not  treat  of  the  numerous  in- 
scriptions in  cuneiform  characters,  these  falling  within 
the  province  of  the  Assyriologist.  We  shall  begin 
with  the  branches  which  belong  to  the  group  of  North 
Semitic  languages. 
I.    Phcenician  Inscriptions. — These  are  numerous 


SEMITIC 


710 


SEMITIC 


and  important,  since  on  the  one  hand  this  great  nation 
of  navigators  has  not  left  us  any  other  monuments  of 
its  language,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  alphabet  of 
these  inscriptions  is  the  prototype  of  all  the  Semitic, 
Greek,  and  Latin  alphabets. 

A. — The  Phoenician  inscriptions  properly  so-called, 
i.  e.  those  found  in  Phoenicia,  are  neither  the  most 
numerous  nor  the  most  ancient.  The  longest,  such 
as  that  of  the  sarcophagus  of  King  Eshmunazar  (at 
the  Louvre)  and  those  of  the  foundations  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Eshmiln  at  Sidon,  date  only  from  the  Ptolemaic 
period.  The  stela  of  Jchumelek,  King  of  Gebal  (Bib- 
los),  now  at  Paris,  dates  from  the  fourth  or  fifth  cen- 
tury of  our  era.  Anotlier,  found  at  Hassanbeyli, 
dates  from  the  seventh  or  eighth  century.  Several 
seals  and  carved  stones  are  also  of  great  antiquity;  but 
the  oldest  of  all  inscriptions  is  a  mutilated  bronze  tab- 
let (now  in  the  Louvre),  discovered  in  1877  in  the  Is- 
land of  Cj'prus  and  which  bears  a  dedication  to  the 
god  Baal  of  Lebanon ;  it  belongs  to  at  least  the  ninth 
century  b.  c. 

The"  different  colonies  founded  by  the  Phoenicians 
have  furnished  several  hundreds  of  inscriptions,  dis- 
covered in  Cyprus,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Malta,  etc.  Most 
of  them  are  older  than  those  of  Phoenicia;  that  of  Nola 
(Sardinia)  dates  from  the  eighth  century.  They  are 
generally  funeral  or  religious  texts,  except  those  of 
Cyprus,  which  furnish  historical  documents. 

B.  Punic  Inscriptions. — This  name  is  given  to 
numerous  Phoenician  inscriptions  found  in  North 
Africa  and  especially  in  the  ruins  of  Carthage.  They 
are  more  than  3000  in  number.  If  we  except  several 
hundred  consisting  of  religious  texts  (temple  dedica- 
tions, tariffs  for  sacrifices,  etc.)  or  epitaphs  of  great 
persons  (suffetes,  priests,  etc.)  all  the  others  are  votive 
offerings  to  the  goddess  Tanit  or  god  Baal-Hammon, 
and  give  no  information  save  the  name  of  tlie  one 
offering  the  little  stone  stela  on  which  the  dedication 
is  inscribed. 

C.  Neo-punic  Inscriptions. — These  are  distin- 
guished by  the  more  cursive  form  of  the  writing  and 
also  by  the  language:  they  are  of  greater  philological 
interest,  some  of  the  letters  performing  the  office  of 
vowels.  Their  contents  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
other  document:  historical  inscriptions  (such  as  that 
of  Micipsa),  dedications  of  monuments,  epitaphs,  vo- 
tive offerings,  and  religious  consecrations.  They  are 
derived  for  the  most  part  from  the  vicinity  of  Con- 
stantine  and  from  Tunis,  some  are  from  Sardinia  and 
Sicily.  About  200  are  known,  belonging  to  the  period 
between  the  fall  of  Carthage  and  the  end  of  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  era. 

II.  Aramaic  Inscriptions. — A.  Ancient  Aramaic. 
— The  most  ancient  monuments  of  western  Aramaic 
which  have  reached  us  are  a  small  number  of  lapidary 
inscriptions.  The  most  important  come  from  North- 
em  Syria;  these  are:  the  inscription  of  Iladad  (eighth 
century,  thirty-four  lines),  those  of  Panamu  (twenty- 
three  fines)  and  of  Barekub  (twenty  fines),  kings  of 
Sam'al,  contemporaries  of  Thfglathj)halasar  III;  they 
were  discovered  at  Zingerli  and  are  in  the  Berlin  Mu- 
Roum.  Two  stc'lif!  found  at  Nerab  in  ISOl  are  now  in 
the  Ijouvre;  in  1908  a  mutilated  stela  (thirty-five  fines) 
erfctcd  by  Zakir,  King  of  Hamath,  a  contemporary  of 
.loas,  King  of  Israel  (r-ighth  century),  was  discovered. 
Inscriptions  of  the  fourtli  and  fifth  centuries  B.  c.  have 
been  disfiovered  in  Cilicia  and  Syria.  Those  of  Ara- 
bi.ssfjH  in  Cappadocia  belong  only  to  the  second  cen- 
inry.  The  great  stela  of  the  Louvre  found  at  Teima 
in  Arabia  has  twenty-three  fines  of  writing;  it  belongs 
to  the  fifth  century.  Other  inscriptions,  most  of  them 
in  the  British  Museum,  are  of  Egyptian  origin;  that 
found  at  Sakkara  dates  from  482,  another  found  at 
As.souan,  from  458.  Besides  these  large  monuments 
there  is  a  series  of  smaller  ones,  surh  as  cylinders, 
weights,  soals,  several  of  which  arc  contemporary  with 
the  oldest  inscriptionB. 


B.  Papyrus  and  Ostraka. — Directly  connected  with 
inscriptions  through  language  and  period  are  the  Ara- 
maic texts  written  on  papj^rus  and  discovered  in 
Egypt.  Nearly  all  of  them  proceed  from  the  Jewish 
military  colony  estabfished  in  the  Island  of  Elephan- 
tine (Philoe).  Four  large  sheets  in  the  Museum  of 
Cairo,  found  in  1904,  contain  about  240  lines  of  writ- 
ing, well  preserved.  The  documents  (sale,  gift,  re- 
lease, marriage  contract,  etc.)  proceed  from  the  same 
Jewish  family  and  are  dated  (471-411  b.  c).  Other 
leaves,  in  greater  number  but  less  complete,  belong  to 
the  Museum  of  Berlin  and  have  just  been  published 
(1911)  by  M.  Sachau.  The  first  three  concerning  the 
worship  and  the  sanctuary  of  Jahweh  at  Elephantine 
are  of  great  interest  to  Biblical  study.  There  are  be- 
sides letters,  accounts,  lists  of  colonists,  and  what 
would  not  be  looked  for,  fragments  of  the  history  of 
the  sage  Ahikar  and  a  partial  translation  of  the  cele- 
brated inscription  of  Darius,  graven  in  cuneiform 
characters  on  the  rocks  of  Behistoum  in  Persia.  Ele- 
phantine has  furnished  also  a  large  number  of  frag- 
ments of  pottery,  commonly  called  ostraka,  bearing  in- 
scriptions in  ink,  of  the  same  date  as  the  papyri. 
Several  hundred  are  preserved  in  the  collection  of  the 
"Corpus  I.  S."  at  Paris.  Thanks  to  afi  these  docu- 
ments we  are  at  present  able  to  form  a  more  or  less 
exact  idea  of  the  Aramaic  language  in  the  period  prior 
to  the  Scriptural  Books  of  Esdras  and  Daniel. 

C.  Nabatean  Inscriptions. — Those  hitherto  discov- 
ered are  about  400  in  number,  apart  from  the  Sinaitic 
inscriptions.  Most  of  them  have  been  found  at  Bos- 
tra  and  in  the  neighbouring  regions,  at  Petra,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Nabatean  kingdom,  even  in  Arabia,  at 
Teima  and  especially  at  Hegra  and  its  neighbourhood. 
But  the  Nabateans,  like  all  merchant  peoples,  left 
traces  outside  their  own  country,  and  inscriptions 
have  been  found  in  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  and  in  Italy  at 
Pozzuoli  and  Rome,  where  their  colony  had  a  temple. 
The  rocks  of  Sinai  bear  numerous  and  celebrated  in- 
scriptions, which  the  tradition  of  the  Alexandrine 
Jews,  as  reported  by  Cosmas  Indicoplcustes,  regarded 
as  Hebrew  and  as  dating  from  the  tune  of  Moses. 
Forster  in  his  famous  books  published  at  London 
(1851,  1856)  endeavoured  to  exi)lain  tliem  in  this  sense 
and  his  ridiculously  audacious  attempt  was  repeated 
by  Sharpe  ("Hebrew  Inscriptions  from  Mount  Si- 
nai", London,  1875).  As  early  as  1840  F.  Beer  had 
established  that  they  were  Nabatean  inscriptions, 
which  is  undoubtedly  true.  Some  of  them  are  dated, 
the  oldest  from  the  year  150  of  our  era,  the  most  re- 
cent from  252;  all  the  others  date  from  about  these  two 
years.  As  a  general  rule  they  consist  only  of  projjcr 
names  accompanied  by  a  religious  formula.  Aliout 
2000  of  tliem  have  been  published  in  the  "Corpus". 
With  the  aid  of  inscriptions  and  coins  it  has  been  pos- 
sible to  reconstruct  an  almost  uninterrupted  series  of 
the  kings  of  Nabatene,  from  Obodas  I  (90  B.  c.)  to 
Maliku  III  (a.  d.  106,  the  date  of  the  Roman  con- 
quest). 

D.  Palmyran  Inscriptions. — The  oldest  is  dated 
from  the  year  9  b.  c,  the  most  recent  from  a.  d.  271, 
the  others  range  themselves  in  the  intervening  space 
of  time.  Al)out  500  are  known  to  us.  Many  are 
bilingual,  Greek  and  Palmyran.  The  longest  and 
most  curious  (at  the  Hermitage!  Museum,  St.  Peters- 
burgh)  is  a  customs  tariff  drawn  up  in  Greek  and 
Palmyran  and  promulgated  by  the  local  Senate  in  l.'}7. 
The  others  arc:  honorary  inscri])lions  carved  on  tlie 
base  of  statues  erected  in  honour  of  princes  and  tlic 
leaders  of  caravans  who  had  successfully  conducted 
great  commercial  expeditions;  religious  inscriptions: 
dedications  of  temples,  columns,  votive  altars,  etc.; 
very  numerous  funeral  inscriptions  carved  on  the 
doors  of  tombs  or  beside  the  bust  of  the  dead 
carved  in  relief.  Many  of  these  monuments,  discov- 
ered at  Palmyra  itself,  are  now  scattcrerl  throughoutthe 
mustiums  of  Europe  and  America.    As  a  whole  they 


SEMITIC 


711 


SEMITIC 


furnish  very  valuable  information  concerning  the 
religion,  histoty,  and  civilization  of  the  Palmyrans. 
Inscriptions  have  also  been  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
Palmyra  or  in  distant  countries  whither  the  Palmyr- 
ans went  either  for  commerce  or  as  archers  in  the 
Roman  armies.  This  explains  the  presence  of 
Palmyran  inscriptions  in  Egj'pt,  Algeria,  Rome, 
Hungary,  and  England. 

E.  Syriac  Inscriplions. — Few  belonging  to  the 
pagan  period  remain.  The  oldest  is  probably  that 
of  a  queen  (Helen  of  Adiabene,  first  century),  carved 
on  a  sarcophagus  in  the  Louvre,  discovered  at  Jeru- 
salem in  the  so-called  Tomb  of  the  Kings.  The  others 
come  for  the  most  part  from  Edessa  or  its  environs. 
Some  funeral  inscriptions  are  in  mosaic  and  accom- 
pany portraits  of  the  dead.  Those  of  the  Christian 
period,  recovered  throughout  Syria  and  Mesopo- 
tamia, consist  chiefly  of  dedications  of  churches  or 
convents,  and  of  epitaphs.  One  of  the  most  interest- 
ing dedications  (in  the  Museum  of  Brussels)  comes 
from  Zebed,  south-east  of  Aleppo;  it  is  trilingual, 
Syriac,  Greek,  and  Arabic.  Hundreds  of  funeral 
inscriptions  have  been  discovered  in  the  Nestorian 
cemeteries  of  Semirjetschie,  north  of  Kashgar;  they 
are  mingled  with  Turkish  and  Mongolian  names  and 
date  from  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
The  most  celebrated  Syriac  inscription  is  that  of  the 
stela  of  Si-ngan-fou,  the  authenticity  of  which  no  one 
now  dreams  of  contesting.  It  is  dated  7S1,  and  recalls 
the  introduction  into  China  of  Christianity,  at  that 
time  veiy  flourishing.  The  inscriptions  on  the  coins 
of  the  kings  of  Edessa  make  it  possible  to  fix  the 
chronology  of  these  princes. 

F.  Matidaite  Inscriptions. — The  oldest  and  longest 
(278  lines)  is  on  a  leaden  tablet  preserved  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum;  the  others  (about  50)  are  engraved  or 
painted  in  ink  on  large  terra-cotta  vessels,  found 
chiefly  at  Khouabir  in  Lower  Babylonia.  All  these 
inscriptions  consist  of  incantation  formulae  against 
evil  spirits.  They  date  from  the  period  of  the  Sassanid 
Kings. 

III.  Hebrew  Inscriptions.  A. — Those  which  are 
of  real  philological  or  historical  interest  for  their  con- 
tents or  antiquity  are  but  few  in  number.  The 
inscriptions  found  in  the  Jewish  catacombs  of  Rome 
and  Venoza,  Italy  (fourth — fifth  century  of  our  era), 
and  those  carved  on  tablets  found  in  Babylonia  (same 
period)  are  of  only  secondarj'  interest.  Much  more 
important  are  those  which  have  b(!en  collected  in 
Palestine,  among  which  are  several  dedications  of 
synagogues  of  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era, 
dedications  of  tombs  somewhar  prior  to  our  era, 
epitaphs  graven  on  small  stone  coffers,  called  os.suaries* 
which  mostly  belong  to  the  first  century  of  our  era. 
Lapidary  inscriptions  have  been  found  at  Gezer, 
one  fixing  the  limits  of  the  city,  the  other  containing 
a  fragment  of  a  calendar  which  may  date  from  the 
ninth  century  b.  c;  it  was  discovered  in  1908.  There 
have  been  found  about  a  hundred  archaic  signets 
belonging  to  the  period  of  the  Kings  of  Juda  and 
Israel.  But  the  two  most  celebrated  Hebrew  inscrip- 
tions are  that  of  the  aqueduct  of  Siloe  at  Jerusalem 
and  the  famous  stela  of  the  Moabite  King  Mesa, 
found  at  Dhiban  beyond  the  Jordan.  The  inscrip- 
tion of  Siloe,  discovered  in  1880  and  later  taken  to 
Constantinople,  was  graven  on  the  rock  to  commem- 
orate the  opening  of  the  subterranean  aqueduct  which 
King  Ezechias  (720-691)  had  constructed  in  order  to 
bring  the  waters  of  the  fountain  into  the  city.  The 
stela  of  King  Mesa  relates  how  this  prince,  a  tributary 
of  Israel,  made  himself  independent  during  the  reign 
of  Ahab  (875-853).  From  a  palaeographic  and  his- 
torical standpoint  this  inscription  (now  at  the 
Louvre)  is  the  most  valuable  monument  of  Semitic 
epigraphy. 

B.  Samaritan  Inscriptions. — These  are  few  in  num- 
ber and  of  more  or  less  recent  date;  they  have  been 


discovered  in  Palestine  and  Damascus.  Save  that  in 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Bologna,  which 
remains  an  enigma,  they  consist  of  quotations  from 
the  Pentateuch. 

The  next  section  of  this  article  will  deal  with 
inscriptions  which  belong  to  the  South  Semitic 
languages. 

I.  HiMYARiTE  Inscriptions.  A. — MineanandSa- 
bean  Inscriptions.- — The  generic  term  Himyarite  desig- 
nates the  proto-Arabic  monumental  inscriptions  which 
have  been  discovered,  especially  in  the  past  half- 
century,  in  the  south  of  the  Arabian  peninsula.  The 
Mineans  and  Sabeans  are  the  tribes  whose  dialect  seems 
to  have  predominated.  The  appearance  of  the  writings 
remotely  derived  from  the  Phoenician,  the  large  num- 
ber of  documents  (2000  inscriptions  and  400  coins), 
the  length  of  the  texts  (often  twenty  to  thirty  lines), 
and  especially  the  unwonted  abundance  of  historical 
details  endow  this  epigraphy  with  a  special  and  long 
unsuspected  character.  It  supplements  the  deficient 
information  of  ancient  authors  and  enables  us  to 
reach  a  more  or  less  exact  knowledge  of  the  social  con- 
dition and  religion  of  the  tribes  which  occupied  these 
regions  during  the  two  or  three  centuries  prior  to  the 
Islamite  movement.  There  have  already  been  recov- 
ered the  names  of  more  than  fifty  kings  or  princes  of 
these  tribes. 

B.  Lihyanite  Inscriptions. — Specimens  of  an  alpha- 
bet, derived  from  the  Himyarite  but  more  cursive, 
are  found  in  numerous  graffiti  on  rocks  or  single 
stones  throughout  the  Arabian  peninsula.  They 
emanate  from  nomadic  tribes  who  wrote  their  names 
at  different  migrations.  These  inscriptions  are  called 
Tamudean  or  Lihyanite  from  the  names  of  their 
authors. 

C.  Safaidic  Inscriptions. — These  derive  their  name 
from  the  Saffi,  a  desert  and  volcanic  region  north-east 
of  Bosra,  where  they  abound  (more  than  a  thousand). 
Their  origin  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  above,  but  the 
alphabet  is  slightly  different.  They  arc  short  graffiti 
similar  to  the  Nabatean  in.scriptions  of  Sinai.  They 
seem  to  have  been  written  in  the  second  to  fourth 
century  of  our  era,  like  the  Lihyanite  inscriptions. 

D.  Ethiojnan  Inscriptions. — These  are  still  fewer 
in  number  and  all  posterior  to  the  conversion  of 
Ethiopia  to  Christianity.  The  royal  inscriptions 
found  at  Aksum  (fifth-sixth  centurjO  contain  valuable 
historical  details.  The  writing  is  similar  to  that  still 
in  use,  a  derivative  of  the  Himyarite. 

II.  Arabic  Inscriptions. — These  are  very  numer- 
ous, but  the  most  recent  are  of  little  interest.  The  most 
ancient,  however,  are  a  most  useful  conribution  to 
history.  The  oldest  (found  at  Nemara  in  the  Hauran, 
now  at  the  Louvre)  is  written  in  Nabatean  characters. 
It  dates  from  a.  d.  328.  There  are  a  few  of  the  period 
prior  to  Islam.  Those  which  were  written  in  the  first 
centuries  of  the  Mussulman  invasion  are  in  monu- 
mental letters  called  Cufic  (from  the  name  of  the 
town  of  Cufa  in  Babylonia).  They  have  been  found 
on  the  mosques,  tombs,  public  buildings,  various 
articles  of  furniture,  dishes,  lamps,  swords,  etc. 
Arabic  letters  and  inscriptions  are  often  intertwined 
so  as  to  form  decorative  motifs,  which  makes  reading 
of  them  difficult.  It  will  be  readily  perceived  that  a 
collection  of  the  numerous  inscriptions  on  the  monu- 
ments erected  by  the  Arabs  in  the  conquered  countries 
would  be  of  great  ser\'ice  in  arranging  or  com- 
pleting the  details  of  their  history;  hence  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions  has  decided  to  add  this  collection 
to  the  "Corpus",  which  was  at  first  intended  to 
comprise  only  the  texts  prior  to  Islam. 

An  almost  complete  bibliography  down  to  1898  (1234  articles) 
for  North  Semitic  epigraphy  will  be  found  in  Lidzbarrki, 
Handbuch.     There   ia   no  similar   work   for   the   South   Semitic 

epigraphy.     Corpus  inacriptionum  semiticarum  (Paris,  1881 ) ; 

Chwolson,  Corpus  inscrip.  hebr.  (St.  Petersburg,  1882);  Reper- 
toire d' epigraphie  semitique  (Paris,  1901 ) ;  Voou^,  Syrie centrale 

(Pans,  1868);  Cowley,  Aramaic  papyri  (I.ondon,  1906) ;  S.\ch.\tj, 
Papyrus  und   Ostraka   (Berlin,    1911);   Littmann,   Semitic   In- 


SEMMELWEIS 


712 


SENA 


scriptions  (New  York,  1904);  Pognon,  Inscriptions  simitiques 
(Paris,  1907);  Chwolson.  GrSbinschriften  aus  Semirjelschie 
(St.  Petersburg,  1886);  Heller,  Die  nestorianische  Denkmal 
ru  Si-ngan-fu  (Budapest.  1897);  Pognon,  Coupes  mandaltes 
de  Khoiiabir  (Paris,  1S99);  Littmann,  Zamudenische  Inschr. 
(Berlin,  1904);  Dussand,  Voyage  au  SafA  (Paris,  1901):  MOller, 
Epigraphische  Denkm&ler  aus  Arabien  (Vienna,  1889);  Idem, 
Epigraph.  Denkmdler  aus  Abessinien  (Vienna,   1894) ;  Van  Ber- 

CHEM,  Corpus  inscrip.  arabicarum  (Paris,  1894— ).  For  the  study 

of  the  inscriptions,  see  Lidzbarski,  Handbuch  der  nordsemiti- 
schen  Epigraphik  (Weimar,  1898),  an  excellent  manual;  Idem, 
AUsemiiische  Teite  (Giessen,  1907);  Cooke,  North-Semitic  In- 
scriptions (Oxford,  1903);  Clermont-Ganneau,  Etudes  d'archeol. 
or.  (Paris,  1S95) ;  Recueil  d'archiol.  or,  I-VIII  (Paris,  1880-1911); 
Lidzbarski,  Ephemeris  fUr  semit.  Epigraphik,  I-III  (Gics.sen, 
1901-11), 

B.  Chabot. 

Semmelweis,  Ignaz  Philipp,  physician  and  dis- 
co^•crer  of  the  cause  of  puerperal  fever,  b.  at  Of  en 
(Buda),  1  July,  1818;  d.  at  Vienna,  13  August,  1865. 
The  son  of  a  German  merchant,  he  became  a  medical 
Btudent  at  \'ienna  in  1837,  and  after  he  had  taken  a 
philosophical  course  at  Pesth,  continued  his  medical 
studies  there,  obtaining  his  degree  in  medicine  at 
Vienna  on  21  April,  1844,  as  obstetrician  on  1  August, 
1844,  and  as  surgeon  on  30  November,  1845.  On  27 
February,  1846,  he  was  made  assistant  at  the  first 
obstetrical  clinic  of  Vienna,  and  on  10  October,  1850, 
lecturer  on  obstetrics.  A  few  days  after  this  appoint- 
ment, for  reasons  unknown,  he  removed  to  Pesth 
where  he  was  made  head  physician  at  the  hospital  of 
St.  Roch  on  20  March,  1851,  and  on  18  July,  1852,  was 
appointed  regular  professor  of  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical obstetrics.  Early  in  1865  the  first  signs  of 
mental  trouble  appeared,  and  on  31  July  he  was  taken 
to  the  public  insane  avsylum  near  Vienna  where  he  died 
from  blood-poi.soning.  At  the  end  of  May,  1847, 
Semmelweis  made  the  a.ssertion  that  the  terrible  en- 
demic at  the  \'ienna  hospital  among  lying-in  women  was 
caused  by  infection  from  the  examining  physicians, 
who  had  previously  made  pathological  dissections,  or 
who  had  come  into  contact  with  dead  bodies  without 
thorough  cleansing  afterwards.  After  Semmelweis 
had  introduced  the  practice  of  washing  the  hands  with 
a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  before  the  examination 
of  Ijnng-in  women,  the  mortality  sank  from  18  per 
cent  to  2-45  per  cent.  He  also  soon  formed  the 
opinion  that  not  only  infection  from  septic  virus 
caused  puerperal  fever  but  that  it  also  came  from 
other  cau.ses  of  putridity.  His  dislike  of  public 
speaking  or  of  writing  was  probably  the  cau.se  why 
the  recognition  he  deserved  was  so  long  in  coming  and 
why  his  views  were  misunderstood.  Alany  scholars, 
among  them  the  doctors  of  the  Academy  of  Paris  and 
even  Rudolph  Virchow  at  Berlin,  regarded  him  un- 
favourably. The  petty  persecution  and  malice  of 
his  opponents  excited  in  Semmelweis  a  sensitiveness 
that  increased  from  year  to  year.  The  first  account 
of  his  di.scovery  was  published  by  Professor  Ferdi- 
nand Hebra  in  December,  1847,  in  the  journal  of  the 
Imperial  and  Royal  Society  of  Physicians  of  Vienna 
(December,  1847),  followed  by  a  supplementary 
statement  from  the  same  physician  in  April,  1848. 
In  October,  1849,  Professor  Josef  Skoda  delivered  an 
address  upon  the  same  subject  in  the  Imperial  and 
Royal  Academy  of  Sciences.  Unfortunat<'ly,  Semmel- 
weis had  neglected  to  correct  the  papers  of  th(!se 
friends  of  his,  and  thus  failed  to  make  known 
their  mistakes,  so  that  the  inference  might  be  drawn 
that  only  infection  from  septic  virus  caused  puerperal 
fever.  It  was  not  until  15  May,  1850,  tlial  SemDiel- 
weifl  cx)uld  bring  himself  to  give  a  lecture  ui)ori  his 
discovery  before  the  Society  of  Physicians;  this  £id- 
dress  was  followed  by  a  second  on  1 8  June,  1850.  The 
medical  pr<«s  noticed  these  lectures  only  in  a  very 
unsatisfactory  manner.  In  1861  he  published  his 
work:  "Die  Aetiologie,  der  Begriflf  und  die  Prophy- 
laxis des  Kindbettfiebers"  (Vienna),  in  which  he 
bitterly  attacked  his  supposed  and  real  opponents. 
It  was  not  until  after  his  death  that  Semmelweis 


found  full  recognition  as  the  predecessor  of  Lister  and 
the  pioneer  in  antiseptic  treatment.  Besides  the 
above  he  wrote:  "Zwei  offene  Brief e  an  Dr.  Josef 
Spath  und  Hofrat  Dr.  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Scanzoni" 
(Pesth,  1861);  "Zwei  offene  Brief e  an  Dr.  Eduard 
Kaspar  Jakob  von  Siebold  und  Hofrat  Dr.  Fr.  W. 
Scanzoni"  (Pesth,  1861);  "Offener  Brief  an  samtliche 
Professoren  der  Geburtshiefc"  (Of en,  1862). 

Hecjar,  Ignaz  Philipp  Semmelweis  (Freiburg,  1862);  Grosse, 
Ignaz  Philipp  Semmelu-eis  (Leipzig  and  Vienna,  1898);  SchOrer 
VON  Waldheim,  I(inaz  Philipp  Semmelweis  (Vienna,  1905). 

Leopold  Senfelder. 


Admiral   Raphael   Semmes,  C'.S.X. 


Raphael,  naval  officer,  b.  in  Charles 
Countv,  Marvland,  U.  S.  A.,  27  September,  1809; 
d.  at  Point  Clear,  Alabama,  26  August,  1877.  His 
family  were  descendants  from  one  of  the  original 
Catliolic  colonists  of  Maryland,  from  which  state  lie 
was  ai)pointed  a 
midshipman  in  the 
U.S.  Navy  1  April, 
1826.  He  served 
until  1832,  when 
Ik;  was  given  leave 
of  absence  extend- 
ing until  July, 
1835, during  which 
time  he  studied 
law  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  practice. 
Rejoining  the 
navy,  he  ser\'ed 
with  distinction, 
attaining  the  rank 
of  commander, 
until  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War, 
when  he  resigned 
and  cast  his  lot 
with  the  seceding  state  of  Alabama,  of  which  he 
became  a  citizen  in  1841.  He  was  appointed  com- 
mander in  the  Confederate  States  Navy,  25  March, 
1861;  Captain,  21  August,  1862;  Rear-Admiral,  10 
February,  1865;  and  retired  to  civil  life  after  the  sur- 
render of  the  forces  under  General  J.  E.  Johnston  at 
Greensboro,  North  Carolina,  26  April,  1865.  As 
commander  of  the  Confederate  privateer  Sumter  he 
destroyed,  during  six  months  in  1861,  eighteen  ships, 
and  the  next  year,  taking  command  of  tlie  Alabama, 
he  began  the  famous  cruise  during  whicli  he  captured 
sixty-nine  vessels  and  inflicted  a  l)low  on  the  sea- 
carrying  trade  of  the  Tnifed  States  from  which  it  has 
not  yet  recovered.  After  the  Alabama  was  sunk  off 
the  French  coast  by  the  Kear.sarge,  19  June,  1864,  he 
escaped  to  England,  whence  he  later  returned  to 
Virginia  and  was  engaged  in  the  defences  about  Rich- 
mond. At  the  end  of  the  war  he  went  to  his  home  in 
Mobile,  Alabama,  and  o])ened  a  law  office.  He  also 
edited  a  paper,  and  for  a  time  was  a  professor  in  the 
Louisiana  Military  Institut(^  His  destruction  of  the 
mercantile  marine  during  his  cruise  in  the  privateer 
Alabama  so  embittered  northern  public  opinion 
against  him  that,  althougli  he  was  pardoned  with 
oth(T  prominent  Confederate  leaders  under  the 
amnesty  proclamation  of  President  Johnson,  his 
I)olitical  disabilities  were  never  removed.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Service  Afloat  and  Ashore  During  the 
Mexican  War"  (1851);  "The  Campaign  of  (Jeneral 
Scott  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico"  (1852);  "The  Crui.se 
of  the  Alabama  and  Sumter"  (1864);  and  "Memoirs 
of  Services  Afloat  during  the  War  between  the 
States"  (1869). 

FuREY  in    U.  S.  Hist.  Soc.  Records  and  Studies  (New  York, 
1911);   Morning  Star  (New  Orleans),  files;   Nat.  Cyclo.  Am.  Biog., 

8.  V. 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Sofia,  Balthahau,  Indian  missionary  and  philolo- 
gist, b.  at  Barcelona,  Spain,  about  1590;   d.  at  Gua- 


SENAN 


713 


SENANQUE 


rambar^,  Paraguay,  19  July,  1614.  He  entered  the 
Jesuit  novitiate  at  Tarragona,  Aragon,  in  1608. 
Before  completing  his  studies  he  volunteered  for 
the  Guarani  missions  of  Paraguay,  and  sailed  from 
Lisbon  in  company  with  the  veteran  missionary'. 
Father  Juan  Romero,  in  1610,  continuing  his  studies 
on  the  voyage.  The  rest  of  his  hfe  was  spent  at  the 
Guarani  mission  to-mi  of  Guarambare  or  with  the 
uncivilized  cognate  tribe  of  Itatines,  whose  language 
he  studied  and  reduced  to  dictionary  form.  He  was 
distinguished  and  beloved  among  the  Indians  for 
his  virtues  and  for  his  courage  in  defen.se  of  the 
natives  against  the  slave-dealers,  declining  offered 
preferment  at  Sante  Fe  in  order  to  remain  with  his 
mission  work.  After  mini.stering  without  fear  to  the 
sick  throughout  a  contagious  epidemic,  he  was  him- 
self seized  by  a  fever,  for  which  no  medicine  could  be 
procured,  and  succumbed  to  it  after  intense  suffering. 
His  remains  were  afterwards  taken  up  and  reinterred 
at  the  Jesuit  college  at  Asunci6n. 

LozANO,  Hist,  de  la.  Comp.  de  J.  en  Paraguay,  II   (Madrid, 

1754-5).  James  Mooney. 

Senan,  Saint,  bishop  and  confessor,  b.  at  Magh 
Lacha,  Kilrush,  Co.  Clare,  c.  488;  d.  1  March,  560, 
his  parents  being  Ercan  and  Comgella.  His  birth 
was  prophetically  announced  by  St.  Patrick  on  his 
visit  to  the  Hy  Fidhgent  (Co.  Limerick),  and  as  a  boy 
he  was  placed  under  the  guidance  of  a  saintly  abbot 
called  Cassidan,  finishing  his  studies  under  St. 
Naul,  at  Kilmanagh,  Co.  Kilkenny.  He  commenced 
his  mi.ssionary  career  by  founding  a  church  near 
Enniscorthy,  in  .510  for  512),  and  the  parish  is  still 
known  as  Templcshannon  {Teampul  Senain).  He 
then  visited  Menevia,  Rome,  and  Tours,  and  returned 
to  Ireland  in  .520.  Having  founded  churches  at 
Inniscarra  (Co.  Cork),  at  Inisluinghe,  at  Deer  Island, 
Inismore,  and  Mutton  Islanrl.  he  finally  settled 
at  Iniscathay,  or  Scattery  Island,  Co.  Clare.  He  was 
visited  by  St.  Ciaran  and  St.  Brendan,  and  other 
holy  men,  who  had  heard  of  his  sanctity  and  miracles. 
Scattery  Island  became  not  only  a  famous  abbey 
but  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  with  St.  Senan  as  its  first 
bishop.  This  event  may  be  dated  as  about  the  year 
535  or  540,  and  St.  Senan's  jurLsdiction  extended  over 
the  existing  Baronies  of  Moyarta  and  Clonderalaw  in 
Thomond.  the  Barony  of  Connelo  in  Limerick,  and  a 
small  portion  of  Kerry  from  the  Feal  to  the  Atlantic. 
The  legend  of  "St.  Senanus  and  the  Lady",  as  told 
in  Tom  Moore's  IjTic,  is  founded  on  the  fact  that  no 
woman  was  allowed  to  enter  Scattery  Island;  not 
even  St.  Cannera  was  permitted  to  land  there,  yet 
St.  Senan  founded  two  convents  for  nuns,  and  was 
actually  on  a  visit  to  one  of  them  when  he  died. 
He  was  buried  in  the  abbey  church  of  Iniscathay  on 
8  March,  on  which  day  his  feast  is  observed.  The 
Diocese  of  Inniscathy  continued  till  the  year  1189, 
when  it  was  suppressed.  It  was,  however,  restored 
by  Pope  Innocent  VI,  and  continued  as  a  separate 
see  under  Bishop  Thomas  (13.58-68) .  In  1378  its  pos- 
sessions were  divided,  and  the  island  remained  a  portion 
of  Killaloe,  being  subsequently  merged  into  the  parish 
of  Kilrush.  One  of  the  earliest  references  to  the  Round 
Tower  of  Inniscathay  is  in  the  Irish  life  of  St.  Senan. 

CoLGAN,  Acta  Sand.  Hib.  (Louvain,  1645);  Archdall,  Mon. 
Hib.  (new  ed.,  Dublin,  187.3);  O'Hanlon,  Lives  of  the  Irish 
Saints,  IV  (Dublin,  s.  d.) ;  Frost,  Hist,  of  Co.  Clare  (Dublin, 
1893);    Begley,  Diocese  of  Limerick  (Dublin,   1906). 

W.  H.  Grattax-Flood. 

Senan,  Josfi  Francisco  de  Paula,  b.  at  Barcelona, 
Spain,  3  March,  1760;  d.  at  Mi-ssion  San  Buena- 
ventura on  24  Aug.,  1823;  entered  the  Franciscan 
Order  in  1774.  In  1784  he  was  incorporated  in  the 
missionarj'-  college  of  San  Fernando  in  the  City  of 
Mexico,  and  in  1787  sent  to  California.  He  was  there 
assigned  to  the  Mission  of  San  Carlos  and  remained 
until  1795,  when  he  retired  to  Mexico  and  reported 
the  missionary  conditions  in  the  territory  to  the  vice- 


roy. In  1798  he  returned  to  California,  and  was  sta- 
tioned at  Mission  San  Buenaventura  until  his  death. 
From  July,  1812,  till  the  end  of  1815  Senan  held  the 
office  of  presidente  of  the  missions.  In  October,  1819,  he 
was  reappointed  and  continued  in  office  until  he  died. 
As  presidente  he  was  also  vicar  forane  to  the  Bishop  of 
Sonora  for  Upper  California.  A  month  before  his 
death  he  moreover  received  the  appointment  of 
vice-commissary  prefect.  Senan  was  familiar  with 
the  language  of  the  Indians,  and  his  reports  and 
mission  entries  are  distinguished  by  their  exact- 
ness and  beauty  of  penmanship.  Though  a  very 
zealous  missionary,  Senan  loved  a  retired  life.  He 
disliked  to  hold  office  or  give  orders;  for  this  reason 
he  wa,s  sometimes  nicknamed  Padre  Calma.  The 
commLssary-general  of  the  Indies  directed  him  to 
write  a  history  of  the  missions,  and  Senan  in  1819 
promised  to  comply;  but  he  left  no  papers  on  the 
subject.  His  remains  were  interred  in  the  church  of 
San  Buenaventura  Mission. 

Santa  Barbara  Archives;  Mission  Records  of  San  Buenaventura; 
Engelhardt,  The  Franciscans  in  California  (Harbor  Springs, 
Mich.,  1897);  Bancroft,  California,  II  (San  Francisco,  1886); 
Mission.'i  and  Missionaries  of  California,  II  (San  Francisco,  1912). 

Zephyrin  Engelhardt. 

Senanque,  Cistercian  monastery  and  cradle  of  the 
modern  Cistercians  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
situated  on  the  rivulet  Scnancolc,  Diocese  of  Avignon, 
was  founded,  with  the  concurrence  of  St.  Bernard,  by 
Alfant,  Bishop  of  Cavaillon,  and  RajTnond  Berenger 
II,  Count  of  Provence.  The  original  community  came 
from  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Mazan,  in  1148,  under 
Peter,  their  first  abbot.  In  the  beginning  their 
poverty  was  extreme,  until  the  Lords  of  Simiane  be- 
came their  benefactors,  and  built,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  neighbouring  nobility,  a  spacious  monastery, 
according  to  the  rule  of  Citeaux.  The  attraction  of 
St.  Bernard's  name  drew  numerous  postulants  to  the 
new  foundation,  so  that  in  a  short  time  the  commu- 
nity numbered  more  than  one  hundred  members, 
enabling  them,  in  1152,  to  found  the  monastery  of 
Charnbons,  in  the  Diocese  of  Viviers.  Little  by  little, 
however,  it  suffered  the  fate  of  so  many  abbeys  of 
those  times,  and  weakened  in  fervour  and  numbers; 
after  it  had  been  governed  by  thirty  regular  abbots, 
it  fell  in  commendam  in  1509;  having,  at  that  time, 
not  more  than  a  dozen  members.  When  suppressed 
by  the  Revolution,  1791,  there  was  but  one  monk 
remaining  of  the  whole  community. 

In  1854  Abbe  Barnouin,  of  the  Diocese  of  Avignon, 
bought  the  abbey,  which  was  in  a  state  of  perfect 
preservation,  and  established  a  community  there.  The 
object  of  the  founder  was  to  institute  a  medium  regime 
more  severe  than  the  common,  but  less  strict  than  the 
Reform  of  La  Trappe.  After  a  short  time  in  the 
Novitiate  of  Sta.  Croce  in  Gerusalemme  (Rome), 
having  obtained  approbation  for  his  monastery.  Abbe 
Barnouin  was  professed  in  1857,  taking  the  name  of 
"  Mary  Bernard".  A  new  decree,  in  1867,  erected  the 
house  into  a  particular  congregation  affiliated  to  the 
Cistercians  of  the  Common  Observance,  under  the 
title  ''Congregation  of  the  Cistercians  of  the  Immac- 
ulate Conception  of  X.  D.  de  Senanque",  with  a  vicar- 
general,  elected  for  six  years,  at  their  head.  Dom  M. 
Bernard,  the  founder,  first  filled  this  office  (1868). 
After  establishing  several  other  subordinate  monas- 
teries, he  began  the  restoration  of  the  celebrated 
Abbey  of  Lerins,  and  was  authorized  to  make  his 
residence  there.  His  .successors  followed  him  in  this, 
until  compelled  by  the  persecutions  of  1902,  to  leave 
the  country,  transferring  the  community  to  N.  D.  du 
Suffrage,  Province  of  Lerida,  Spain,  where  they  are 
now  established. 

Manriqce,  Annates  Cistercienses  (Lyons,  1642-59);  Joxgeli- 
Nus,  Notilia  abbatiarum  ordinis  cisterciensis  (Cologne,  1640); 
Gallia  Christiana,  I;  Besse,  Abbayes  el  prieures  de  I'ancienne 
France  (Paris,  1909) ;  Moyne,  L'abbaye  de  Senanque  (.\vignon, 
1857);  L'ile  et  l'abbaye  de  Lerins  (Lerins,  1895),  by  a  monk  of 


SENECA 


714 


SENEFELDER 


L^rins;  Moris,  UAhhaye  de  Lirins  (Paris,  1909);  Redon,  Le 
Retme.  Dom  Marie  Bernard,  fondateur  et  premier  ticaire  gen.  des 
Cisterciens  de  Sinanque  (L6rins,  1904) ;  Capelle,  Le  Pkre  Jean, 
Abbe  de  Fontfroide  (Paris,  1903) ;  Catalogue  personarum  religiosa- 
rum  s.  ordinis  cisterciensis  (Rome,  1906). 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 

Seneca  Indians,  the  westernmost  and  largest  of 
the  five  tribes  of  the  celebrated  Iroquois  Confederacy 
of  central  and  western  New  York,  being  nearly  equal 
in  population  to  all  the  other  four  together.  This 
preponderance,  however  was  due  largely  to  the 
wholesale  incor- 
poration of  cap- 
tives in  the  early 
tribal  wars,  as 
indicated  by  the 
fact  that  in  the 
ancient  council  of 
the  confederacy 
the  Seneca  were 
represented  by 
only  eight  of  the 
fifty  chiefs.  They 
called  themselves 
Dj  10  710  ndowanen- 
roHon,  "People  of 
the  Great  Moun- 
tain", approxi- 
mated by  the 
French  as  Tsonon- 
touan,  from  their 
principal  village  of 
Red  Jacket  that  name,  prob- 

From  a  Painting  by  Weir,  1828  ably      near      the 

present  Naples  in  Ontario  County.  The  name  Seneca, 
by  which  they  were  commonly  known  to  the  English, 
is,  according  to  Hewitt,  our  best  authority,  a  cor- 
rupted form  of  an  Algonquian  term  originally  applied 
to  the  Oneida,  and  signifying  "  [people  of]  the  place  of 
the  stone". 

The  Seneca  held  the  western  frontier  or  "door" 
of  the  confederacy,  their  original  territory  lying 
between  Seneca  Lake  and  Genesee  River,  with  four 
principal  villages.  By  conquest  and  absorption  of 
the  Neutrals  in  1651  and  the  Erie  in  1656  they  ac- 
quired possession  of  the  country  westward  to  Niagara 
River  and  Lake  Erie  and  correspondingly  increased 
their  own  strength.  In  1656  one  of  their  four  towns 
was  made  up  entirely  of  captives.  More  than  a 
century  later  they  had  some  thirty  villages,  including 
several  on  the  upper  Allegany.  They  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  all  the  tribal  and  colonial  wars  waged 
by  the  confederacy  up  to  the  close  of  the  Revolution, 
taking  sides  like  the  other  allied  tribes  almost  uni- 
formly for  the  English,  first  against  the  French  and 
later  against  the  Americans.  The  single  exception 
was  in  1763  when  they  suddenly  rose  against  the 
English  troops  newly  established  in  their  territory, 
surprising  and  destroying  two  entire  dcfacliments. 
Their  country  was  wasted  in  1687  by  l)enf)nvillf' 
and  again  in  1779  by  the  American  (Jencral  SuUivan, 
who  destroyed  nearly  every  village,  cornfield,  ancl 
orchard  in  their  country,  thus  rompelling  them  to 
pearie.  As  a  tribe  they  did  not  fly  to  Canafla,  !is 
did  the  Mohawk  and  Cayuga  in  the' English  alliance, 
but  remained  in  their  own  country,  where  they  still 
reside  on  three  reservations,  Allegany,  Cattaraugus, 
and  Tonawanda,  with  a  total  population  of  2735. 
About  220  more  are,  with  others  of  the  Six  Nations, 
on  the  Grand  River  in  Canada,  while  another  380 
of  a  mixed  band,  formerly  resident  in  Ohio  and 
known  a«  "Seneca  of  Sandusky",  are  now  settled 
in  north-eastern  Oklahoma.  The.se  la.st  appear  to 
be  roally  the  descendants  of  early  captives  incor- 
[jorated  by  the  Seneca.  The  Seneca  proportion 
among  the  4000  or  more  Catholic  Iroquois  of  the 
mission   colonies  of  Caughnawaga,   St.    Regis,    and 


Lake  of  Two  Mountains,  in  Canada  and  northern 
New  York,  cannot  be  estimated,  but  is  probably 
relatively  less  than  that  of  the  other  tribes. 

The  Seneca  came  later  under  Catholic  influence 
than  the  other  Iroquois.  The  first  converts  of  their 
tribe  were  instructed  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Menard 
and  Chaumonot,  wliile  on  a  journey  to  the  Iro- 
quois country  in  1654.  Two  years  later,  on  their 
own  invitation,  leather  Chaumonot  visited  their 
countrj'  and  was  well  received,  organizing  a  tempo- 
rary mission  among  the  nvmierous  Christian  Huron 
captives.  In  1663  a  Seneca  chief  was  baptized  at 
Montreal,  and  shortly  aftem-ards  the  tribe,  which 
had  been  for  several  years  at  war  with  the  French, 
asked  for  peace  and  missionary  teachers.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1668,  Father  Jacques  Fremin  dedicated  the 
first  mission  chapel  among  the  Seneca  under  the 
invocation  of  St.  Michael,  at  Gandougarae  (Kana- 
garo).  In  the  next  year  P\ather  Julien  Gamier  es- 
tablished Conception  mission  at  Gandachiragou 
and  began  a  dictionary  of  the  language.  In  1670 
a  third  mission,  dedicated  to  St.  James,  was  begun 
by  Father  Pierre  RaffeLx  in  another  town  of  the 
tribe.  For  a  few  years  the  missions  flourished,  in 
spite  of  more  or  less  dangerous  opposition  from  the 
heathen  party,  until  the  increasing  drunkenness 
of  the  Iroquois  towns  and  growing  hostility  towards 
the  French  (which  latter  was  instigated  by  the 
English  colonial  Government)  led  to  the  determina- 
tion to  draw  off  the  Christian  Iroquois  from  the  rest 
and  colonize  them  in  new  mission  towns  along  the 
St.  LaA\Tence.  As  a  result,  several  Christian  Iroquois 
colonies  were  establi.shed,  the  earliest  and  most 
important  being  that  now  known  as  Caughnawaga, 
originally  founded  at  Laprairie  in  1669.  Very  few 
Christians  were  thus  left  among  the  confederates, 
but  the  missionaries  remained  among  the  Seneca 
until  the  eve  of  another  general  Iroquois  war,  in  1683, 
when  they  were  ordered  out  by  the  hostiles.  The 
leading  event  of  this  war  was  Denonville's  invasion 
of  the  Seneca  covmtry  in  1687. 

No  Catholic  work  was  subsequently  attempted  in 
the  tribe,  with  the  exception  of  a  visit,  in  1751,  by 
the  Sulpician  Father  Picquet,  who  drew  off  a  number 
to  his  mission  at  Ogdensburg.  The  few  Seneca  on 
the  Six  Nations  reserve  in  Ontario  are  under  Flpisco- 
palian  influence.  The  Christian  portion  of  those  in 
New  York  are  chiefly  of  the  Congregational  denomi- 
nation, princij)ally  owing  to  the  devoted  efforts  of  the 
Reverend  Asher  Wright,  who  luhoured  among  tliem 
over  forty  years  (1831-75)  until  his  death,  mastering 
the  language,  in  which  he  published  a  number  of  re- 
ligious and  etlucational  works.  The  body  of  the  tribe 
is  still  attached  to  its  primitive  paganism.  A  few  of 
those  in  Oklahoma  are  connected  with  the  Catholic 
mission  of  St.  Mary's  at  Quapaw. 

See  bibiioRraphy  under  Iroquois,  particularly  Jesuit  Relation* 
and  .Shea,  History  of  the  Catholic  Alissiojis. 

James  Moonet. 

Senefelder,  Aloys,  principally  known  as  the  in- 
ventor of  lithography,  b.  at  Prague,  6  Nov.,  1771;  d. 
at  Munich,  26  February,  1834.  His  father,  an  actor 
at  the  Royal  Theatre  of  Munich,  was  playing  at 
Prague  at  the  t  line  of  t he  birth  of  his  .son.  The  young 
Sencfclilcr  studicfl  at  Munich,  and  received  a  scholar- 
ship of  120  florins  a  year  for  his  diligence,  which 
enabled  him  to  study  jurispruflence  at  Ingolstadt. 
The  death  of  his  father'in  1791  forcer!  him  to  cease 
his  studies  in  order  to  help  support  his  mother  anrl 
a  family  of  eight  sisters  and  brothers.  After  at t  emy)t- 
ing  to  become  an  actor,  he  took  up  dramatic;  writing, 
at  which  he  was  at  first  fairly  successful.  Hecause  of 
diflTiculty  in  finding  a  publisher,  he  tried  to  devise 
means  for  printing  his  productions  himself,  and  began 
a  series  of  experiments  with  etching  and  copper-plates 
until  he  discovered,  in  1796,  that  Kilheim  lime-stone 
could  be  used  for  the  purpose.    He  soon  found  that 


SENEGAMBIA 


715 


SENEGAMBIA 


etching  was  not  necessary,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
grease  and  water  do  not  mix.  By  his  method  the 
marking  is  done  upon  the  stone  with  a  greasy  composi- 
tion of  soap,  wax,  and  lamp-black,  and  then  the  plate 
is  washed  over  with  water,  which  soaks  into  the  un- 
marked parts  of 
the  stone.  The 
printing  ink  is 
then  applied  and 
adheres  only  to 
the  marked 
places,  while  the 
water  protects  the 
rest  of  the  plate; 
a  number  of  im- 
pressions can  then 
be  obtained.  This 
process  he  called 
"  chemical "  print- 
ing. The  numer- 
ous improvements 
and  developments 
of  the  art  made 
by  him  were  re- 
warded in  later 
years  by  the  gold 
medal  of  the 
"Society    of    En- 


Aloys  Senefelder 


couragement"  of  England,  the  highest  medal  of  the 
"  Polytechnische  Verein  fiir  Baiern  ",  the  gold  honorary 
medal  of  the  order  for  Civilverdienst  of  the  Bavarian 
Crown,  and  various  other  prizes. 

In  spite  of  great  financial  difficulties,  continued  dis- 
couragement, and  repeated  disappointments,  he  re- 
mained unselfishly  devoted  to  high  ideals.  In  his 
autobiography  (introduction  to  "Lehrbuch")  he 
expresses  the  desire  that  his  invention  "may  bring  to 
mankind  manifold  benefits  and  may  tend  to  raise  it 
upon  a  nobler  plane,  but  may  never  be  misused  for  an 
evil  purpose.  May  the  Almighty  grant  this!  Then 
blessed  be  the  hour  in  which  I  made  my  invention!" 
His  principal  publication  was  "  Vollstiindiges  Lehr- 
buch der  Steindruckerei"  (Munich  and  \'ienna,  1818). 
This  was  translated  into  French  (Paris,  1819),  English 
(London,  1819),  and  Italian  (Naples,  1824). 

Engklm.\n.\-,  Lithographie  (I/cipzig,  184.3);  Nagler,  Aloys 
Senefelder  and  Simon  Schmidt  als  Rivalen  (Munich.  1862); 
ScHLOTKE,  Senefelder  Album  (Hamburg,  1871);  Pfeilschmidt, 
Aloys  Senefelder  (Dresden,  1877) ;  Richmond,  Grammar  of  Lithog- 
raphy (London,  1885);  Koi.i.AyD,  Allg.  Deutsche  Biogr.,  XXXIV 
(Leipzig,  1892),  8-23;  Pennell,  Lithography  and  Lithographers 
(London,  1900) ;  Cumminqs,  Handbook  of  Lithography  (New  York, 
1904). 

William  Fox. 

Senegambia,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Senegam- 
Bi^),  to  which  is  joined  the  Prefecture  Apostolic 
OF  Senegal  (Sbnegalensis),  both  in  French  West 
Africa.  A  trading  settlement  established  in  this  region 
in  the  fourteenth  century  by  the  Norman  Jehan  Pru- 
naut  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  troubles  of  the  Hun- 
dred Years'  War.  Portuguese  caravels  first  appeared 
off  Gambia  and  Sierra  Leone  in  1432,  and  in  1446  oc- 
curred the  first  sale  of  the  natives  of  these  regions  in 
the  public  market  of  Lagos,  Portugal.  So  great  were 
the  profits  of  the  traffic  thus  inaugurated  that  the 
English  were  determined  to  share  them  and  in  1558 
the  Royal  Chartered  Company  was  organized,  the 
major  share  of  the  gains  going  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 
The  Dutch  followed  in  1617.  Then  the  French  under 
Cousin  renewed  their  commercial  relations  with  the 
country,  but  they  also  planted  the  Cross  in  the  terri- 
tory of  which  they  took  possession  and  erected  a 
chapel.  In  1637  the  recently-founded  Congregation 
of  Propaganda  sent  a  company  of  Norman  Capuchins 
to  "Old  Guinea",  others  soon  following,  but  the 
Dutch  poisoned  one  of  the  missionaries  and  expelled 
the  others.  War  broke  out  between  France  and  Hol- 
land in  1672,  and  Admiral  d'Estr^es  captured  all  the 


trading-posts  of  Senegal.  The  Dominicans  thereupon 
entered  the  country  under  French  protection  and  in 
1686  the  Franciscan  Observants  also  began  mission 
work  there.  Temporal  affairs  especially  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  devout  Andr6  Briie,  head  of  the  Com- 
pany of  Senegal,  were  admirably  administered  at  this 
period,  but  the  religious  welfare  of  the  natives  was 
wholly  neglected.  In  1758  the  towns  of  St.  Louis  and 
Goree  were  captured  by  the  British,  Goree  alone  be- 
ing restored  to  France  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1763, 
in  which  year  Senegal  was  made  a  prefecture  Apos- 
tolic. 

Despite  the  promises  made  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment on  the  occasion  of  the  treaty,  the  Catholics  of 
St.  Louis  were  hindered  in  the  practice  of  their  re- 
ligion. Although  they  were  allowed  to  assemble,  the 
British  governor  would  not  permit  them  to  have  either 
church  or  priest.  Pere  Bertout,  a  member  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Holy  Ghost,  to  whose  initiative  after 
the  Revolutionary  period  was  due  the  re-establish- 
ment of  his  order  and  to  whom  Propaganda  confided 
the  religious  interests  of  numerous  French  colonies, 
was,  in  April,  1778,  shipwrecked  off  the  African  coast, 
with  his  companion,  Pere  de  Glicourt.  They  were 
taken  captive  by  Moors  and  carried  to  St.  Louis,  where 
the  governor  reluctantly  ransomed  them,  and  for  a  time 
they  were  able  to  labour  zealously  and  with  success 
among  the  Catholic  population.  i3ut  they  were  soon 
despatched  to  Goree,  whence  they  returned  to  France, 
and  sought  an  immediate  audience  with  the  Minister 
of  Marine,  in  which  they  described  the  disabilities  of 
the  Catholics  of  St.  Louis.  The  result  was  the  send- 
ing of  a  French  fleet  under  the  command  of  Comte  du 
Vaudreuil  and  on  28  January,  1779,  the  PVench  Pro- 
tectorate was  restored;  Pere  de  Ghcourt  returned  as 
Prefect  Apostolic  of  Senegal,  making  his  residence  at 
St.  Louis,  while  his  companion  Pere  S6veno  went  to 
Gor6e.  Despite  the  favourable  auspices  under  which 
it  was  now  placed,  the  mission  had  to  pass  through 
many  years  of  hardships,  owing  to  poverty,  disputes 
between  the  prefects  Apostolic  and  the  governors,  and 
mistakes  in  the  ecclesiastical  administration.  Al- 
though in  1821,  under  the  administration  of  Mgr  Bara- 
dere,  the  construction  of  the  churches  of  Gor6e  and  St. 
Louis  was  favourably  begun,  in  1822  there  was  not  a 
priest  in  Senegal.  But  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of 
Cluny  had  arrived  in  1819  and  in  1822,  their  foundress. 
Mere  Javouhey,  went  in  person  to  establish  a  house  at 
Gor6e.  In  1841  the  Brothers  of  Plocrmel  were  sent 
to  the  Mission.  On  the  appointment  of  Pere  Jacob 
Libermann  to  the  post  of  prefect  Apostohc,  a  radical 
change  took  place,  not  only  in  the  reorganization  of 
the  colonial  clergy  but  also  in  the  intercourse  between 
the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  powers,  while  the  move- 
ment was  inaugurated  for  the  emancipation  and 
moral  regeneration  of  the  slaves.  When  the  emanci- 
pation decree  of  the  provisional  Government  was  pub- 
fished,  27  April,  1848,  9800  slaves  and  550  engages 
were  freed  in  St.  Louis  and  Gor6e  alone  and  were  as- 
sembled by  the  vice-prefect  Apostolic  for  a  solemn 
Te  Deum. 

In  accordance  with  the  plan  of  reorganization  re- 
commended by  Pere  Libermann  the  Vicariate  Apos- 
tolic of  the  Two  Guineas  and  Senegambia  was  erected 
22  Sept.,  1846,  consisting  of  the  territory  between  the 
Prefecture  of  Senegal  and  the  Diocese  of  Loanda. 
The  religious  service  of  the  country  was  confided  to 
the  Fathers  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
the  first  titular  being  Mgr  Benoit  Truffct,  who 
reached  Goree,  9  April,  1847.  He  died  on  19  Novem- 
ber following,  and  was  succeeded  by  Pere  Bessieux  who 
proceeded  to  Gaboon,  which  he  had  already  evangel- 
ized, leaving  his  coadjutor,  Mgr  Kobes,  at  Dakar,  since 
1895  the  official  seat  of  the  Government  of  French 
West  Africa.  Mgr  Kobes  may  be  considered  the  real 
founder  of  the  Mission  of  Senegambia,  becoming  vi- 
car ApostoHc  when  in  1863  it  was  separated  from  the 


SENLIS 


716 


SENS 


Two  Guineas.  He  increased  the  establishments  of  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  and  invited  to  Dakar  the  Sisters 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  founded  at  Castres  in 
1836  bv  Mere  Marie  de  Villeneuve.  Encouraged  by 
him,  Pire  Barbier  founded  at  Dakar  (24  May,  1858) 
the  Daughters  of  the  Holy  Heart  of  Mary,  composed 
of  native  women,  who  have  rendered  inestimable  ser- 
vices among  Europeans  as  well  as  among  their  o^ti 
race.  A  seminary  for  nati\'e  clergy  was  inaugurated 
and  is  now  situated  at  Ngasobil.  Mgr  Kobes  made 
an  energetic  attempt  to  establish  the  cotton  industry 
among  the  natives,  but  a  series  of  locust  plagues 
caused  it  to  be  abandoned.  Mgr  Kobes  died  11  Oct., 
1872,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mgr  Duret,  who  had  been 
Prefect  Apostolic  of  Senegal  and  now  united  both  ju- 
risdictions. At  his  death  (29  Dec,  1875)  he  was 
succeeded  by  Mgr.  Dubain  (1876-83),  who  fixed  his 
residence  at  Dakar,  which  has  since  remained  the  resi- 
dence of  the  vicars  Apostolic.  Chief  among  his  mis- 
sion foundations  was  that  at  the  ancient  trading-jjost 
of  Rufisque  (1878).  His  succe.ssors  were  Mgr  Riehl 
(1884-86),  Mgr  Picarda  (1887-89),  Mgr  Barthel 
(1889-99),  Mgr  Buleon  (1899-1900),  Mgr  Kune- 
mann  (1900-08).  The  present  vicar  Apostolic  is  Mgr 
Jalabert,  titular  Bishop  of  Telepe. 

In  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Senegambia  there  are 
5,000,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  19,000  are  Catholics, 
2740  of  this  number  belonging  to  Senegal.  There  are 
39  European  jjriests,  6  native  priests,  53  brothers, 
106  sisters,  16  churches  or  chapels  and  15  stations,  24 
schools  for  boys,  16  schools  for  girls,  4  agricultural  so- 
cieties, 15  dispensaries,  7  hospitals  or  infirmaries.  In 
Senegal  there  are  churches  at  St.  Louis  and  Goree,  and 
50  stations  where  the  natives  are  taught.  Civilly, 
Senegal  forms  a  separate  colony  while  Senegambia  be- 
longs to  that  of  Upper  Senegambia  and  the  Niger, 
formed  8  April,  1904,  by  the  Anglo-French  conven- 
tion. 

BoiLAT,  Esquisses  sinegalaises  (Paris,  1853);  Pitka,  Vie  du  P. 
Libermann  (Paris,  1855) ;  A.  Barth£l£my,  Guide  du  voyageur  dans 
la  Senegambie  franQaiae  (Bordeaux,  1S8.3);  Delaplace,  Vie  de  la 
Rev.  Mire  Javouhey  (Paris,  1886);  Bulletin  de  la  Cong,  du  Saint 
Esprit  (Paris) ;  Faidherbe,  Senegal  et  Soudan  (Paris,  1883) ;  Le 
Roy  in  Piglet,  Missions  Catholiques  (Paris,  1902) ; Missiones  Cath- 
olics fRome,  1907);  Battandieb,  Ann.  pont.  (Paris,  1911). 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 
Senlis.     See  Beauvais,  Diocese  of. 
Sennacherib.    See  Assyria. 
Sennen,  Saint.    See  Abdon  and  Sennen,  Saints. 

Sens,  Archdiocese  of  (Senones;,  comprises  the 
Department  of  the  Yonne.  It  was  suppres.sed  by  the 
Concordat  of  1802  which  annexed  to  the  Diocese  of 
Troyes  the  Dioceses  of  Sens  and  Auxerre  and  by  a 
somewhat  complex  combination  gave  the  title  of 
Bishop  of  Auxerre  to  the  bishops  of  Troyes,  and  the 
purely  honorary  title  of  Archbishop  of  Sens  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  otherwise  deprived  of  all  real 
jurisdiction  over  Sens.  The  Concordat  of  1817  re- 
established the  Archdiocese  of  Sens  and  the  Diocese  of 
Auxerre,  but  this  arrangement  did  not  last.  The  law 
of  July,  1821,  the  pontifical  Brief  of  4  Sept.,  1821, 
the  royal  ordinance  of  19  October,  1821,  suppres.scd 
the  Diocese  of  Auxerre  and  gave  to  the  Archdiocese 
of  Sens  as  territory  all  the  Department  of  the  Yonne, 
and  as  suffragan  the  Dioceses  of  Troyes,  Nevcrs,  and 
Moulins.  A  papal  Brief  of  3  June,  1823,  gave  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Sens  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Auxerre. 

I.  DiocEBE  of  Senh. — The  history  of  the  reli- 
gious beginnings  of  the  Church  of  Sens  dates  from  Sts. 
Savinian  and  Potcntian,  and  through  some  connect- 
ing legends  also  has  to  do  with  the  Dioceses  of 
Chartres,  Troyes,  and  OH6an8.  Gregory  of  Tours  is 
silent  with  regard  to  Sts.  Savinian  and  Potentian, 
the  founders  of  the  See  of  Sens;  the  Hieronymian 
Martyrology,  which  was  revised  somewhat  before 
600  at  Auxerre  or  Autun,  ignores  them.     The  cities 


of  Chartres  and  Troyes  have  nothing  relative  to 
these  saints  in  their  local  liturgy  prior  to  the  twelfth 
centurj',  and  that  of  Orleans  nothing  prior  to  the 
fifteenth,  which  recalls  the  preaching  of  Altinus, 
Eodaldus,  and  Serotinus,  the  companions  of  Sts. 
Sa^^nian  and  Potentian.  Previous  to  the  ninth 
century  there  was  in  the  cemetery  near  the  monastery 
of  Pierre  le  Vif  at  Sens  a  group  of  tombs  among  which 
have  been  recognized  those  of  the  first  bishops  of 
Sens.  In  847  the  solemn  transfer  of  their  bodies  to 
the  church  of  St-Picrre  le  Vif  originated  great  popular 
devotion  towards  Sts.  Savinian  and  Potentian.  In 
848  Wandelbert  of  Prum  named  them  the  first 
patrons  of  the  church  of  Sens.  Ado,  in  his  martyrol- 
ogy published  shortly  afterwards,  speaks  of  them  as 
envoj's  of  the  Ajiostlcs  and  as  martyrs.  The  martyrol- 
ogy of  Usuardus,  about  875,  indicates  them  as  en- 
voys of  the  "Roman  pontiff"  and  as  martyrs.  In 
the  middle  of  the  tenth  centurj^  the  relics  of  these  two 
saints  were  hidden  in  a  subt(>rranean  vault  of  the 
Abbey  of  St-Pierre  le  Vif  to  escape  the  pillage  of  the 
Hungarians,  but  in  1031  they  were  placed  in  a  beau- 
tiful reliquary  executed  by  the  monk  Odoranne. 
This  monk,  in  a  chronicle  published  about  1045, 
speaks  of  Altinus,  Eodaldus,  and  Serotinus  as  the 
apostolic  companions  of  Savinian  and  Potentian, 
but  does  not  regard  them  as  having  been  sent  by 
St.  Peter. 

In  a  document  which,  according  to  the  Abb6 
Bouvier,  dates  from  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  or 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh,  but  which,  according 
to  Mgr  Duchesne  was  written  in  1046  and  1079  under 
the  inspiration  of  Gerbert,  Abbot  of  St-Pierre  le 
Vif,  is  developed  for  the  first  time  a  vast  legend 
which  traces  to  Sts.  Savinian  and  Potentian  and  their 
companions  the  evangelization  of  the  churches  of 
Orleans,  Chartres,  and  Troyes;  this  document  Mgr 
Duchesne  calls  the  Gerbertine  legend.  After  some 
uncertainties  and  hesitations  this  legend  became  defi- 
fiitely  fi.\ed  in  the  chronicle  of  Clarius,  compiled 
about  1120.  It  is  possible  that  the  Christian  Faith 
was  preached  at  Sens  in  the  second  century,  but  we 
know  from  Sidonius  Apollinaris  that  in  475  the 
Church  of  Sens  had  its  thirteenth  bishop,  and  the  list 
of  bishops  does  not  permit  the  sui)i)()sition  that  the 
episcopal  see  existed  prior  to  the  second  half  of  the 
third  century  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourth.  Among 
the  bishops  of  Sens  in  the  fourth  centmy  may  be 
mentioned:  St.  Severinus,  present  at  the  Council 
of  Sardica  in  344;  St.  Ursicinus  (356-87),  exiled  to 
Phrygia  under  Constantius  through  the  influence  of 
the  Arians,  visited  by  St.  Hilary  on  his  return  to 
Sens  after  three  years  of  exile,  and  who  about  386 
founded  at  Sens  the  monastery  of  Sts.  Gervasius  and 
Protasius.  In  the  fifth  century:  St.  Ambrose  (d. 
about  460);  St.  Agrcrcius  (Agrice),  bishop  about 
475;  St.  Heraclius  (487-515),  foimder  of  the  monas- 
tery of  St.  John  the  Evangelist  at  Sens.  In  the  sixth 
century:  St.  Paul  (515-25);  St.  Leo  (530-41),  who 
sent  St.  Aspais  to  evangelize  Melun;  St.  Arthemius, 
present  at  the  councils  of  581  and  585,  who  admitted 
to  public  i)enance  tlu;  Spaniard,  St.  Bond,  and  of  a 
criminal  made  a  holy  hermit. 

In  the  scvcntli  ccntm-y :  St.  Lupus  (Lou  or  Leu),  b. 
about  573,  bishop  approximately  between  609  and 
62fJ,  son  of  Blessed  Jietto,  of  the  royal  house  of 
Burgundy,  and  of  Ste-Austregilde,  founder  of  tin; 
monastery  of  Ste-Colombe  and  perhaps  also  of  the 
monastery  of  Ferrieres  in  the  Gatinais,  which  some 
historians,  trusting  to  an  apocrj'phal  charter,  be- 
lieved to  have  been  founded  under  Clovis;  he  secured 
from  the  king  authorization  to  coin  money  in  his 
diocese;  St.  Annobertus  (about  639) ;  St.  Gondelber- 
tus  (about  642-3),  whose  episcopate  is  only  proved 
by  the  traditions  of  the  Vosgian  monastery  of  Senones, 
which  traditions  date  from  the  eleventh  century; 
St.  Amoul  (654-7);  St,  Emmon  (658-75),  who  about 


SENS 


717 


SENS 


the  end  of  668  received  the  monk  Hadrian,  sent  to 
England  with  Archbishop  Theodore:  perhaps  St. 
Ame  (about  676),  exiled  to  P^ronne  by  Ebroin,  and 
whose  name  is  suppressed  by  Mgr  Duchesne  as  having 
been  interpolated  in  the  episcopal  Usts  in  the  tenth 
century;  St.  Vulfran  (692-5),  a  monk  of  Fontenelle, 
who  soon  left  the  See  of  Sens  to  evangelize  Frisia 
and  died  at  Fontenelle  before  704;  St.  Gerie,  bishop 
about  696.  In  the  eighth  century:  St.  Ebbo,  at 
first  Abbot  of  St-Pierre  le  Vif,  bishop  before  711,  and 
who  in  731  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  people 
to  compel  the  Saracens  to  raise  the  siege  of  Sens; 
and  his  successor  St.  Merulf. 

In  the  ninth  century  great  bishops  occupied  the 
See  of  Sens:  Magnus,  former  chaplain  of  Charle- 
magne, bishop  before  802,  author  of  a  sort  of  hand- 
book of  legislation  of  which  he  made  use  when  he 
journeyed  as  missus  dominicus,  or  roj^al  agent  for 
Charlemagne,  died  after  817;  Jeremias,  ambassador 
at  Rome  of  Louis  the  Pious  in  the  affair  of  the 
Iconoclasts,  died  in  828;  St.  Alderic  (829-36),  former 
Abbot  of  Ferrieres,  and  consecrated  Abbot  of  St. 
Maur  des  Fosses  at  Paris  in  832;  Venilon  (837-65) 
anointed  Charles  the  Bald,  6  June,  843,  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  Orleans,  to  the  detriment  of  the  privileges 
of  the  See  of  Reims;  his  chorepiscopus,  or  auxiliary 
bishop,  was  Audrade,  author  of  numerous  theolog- 
ical writings,  among  others  of  the  poem  "De  Fonte 
Vitie"  dedicated  to  Hincmar,  and  of  the  "Book  of 
Revelations",  by  which  he  sought  to  put  an  end  to 
the  divisions  between  the  sons  of  Louis  the  Pious. 
In  859  Charles  the  Bald  accused  Venilon  before  the 
Council  of  Savonnieres  of  having  betrayed  him;  the 
matter  righted  itself,  but  opinion  continued  to  hold 
Venilon  guilty  and  the  name  of  the  traitor  Ganelon, 
which  occurs  in  the  "Chanson  de  Roland"  is  but  a 
popular  corruption  of  the  name  Venilon.  Anse- 
gisus  (871-83),  at  the  death  of  Louis  II,  Emperor  of 
Italy,  negotiated  at  Rome  for  Charles  the  Bald  and 
brought  thence  the  letter  of  John  VIII  inviting 
Charles  to  come  and  receive  the  imperial  crov\Ti. 
He  himself  was  named  by  John  VIII  primate  of  the 
Gauls  and  Germania  and  vicar  of  the  Holy  See  for 
France  and  Germany,  and  at  the  Council  of  Ponthion 
was  solemnly  installed  above  the  other  metropolitans 
despite  the  opposition  of  Hincmar;  in  880  he  anointed 
Louis  III  and  Carloman  in  the  abbey  of  Ferrieres. 
It  was  doubtless  in  the  time  of  Ansegisus,  while  the 
See  of  Sens  exercised  a  real  primacy,  that  a  cleric 
of  his  church  compiled  the  historical  work  known  as 
the  "Ecclesiastical  Annals  of  Sens"  or  "Gestes  des 
Archeveques  de  Sens",  an  attempt  to  write  the  his- 
tory of  the  first  two  French  dynasties. 

Vaultier  (887-923)  anointed  King  Eudes  in  888, 
King  Robert  in  July,  922,  and  King  Raoul,  13  July, 
923,  in  the  Church  of  St-Medard  at  Soissons;  he 
doubtless  inherited  from  his  uncle  Vaultier,  Bishop 
of  Orleans,  a  superb  Sacramentary  composed  between 
855  and  873  for  the  Abbey  of  St-Amand  at  Puelle. 
This  Sacramentary,  which  he  gave  to  the  church  of 
Sens,  forms  one  of  the  most  curious  monuments  of 
Carlovingian  art  and  is  now  in  the  library  of  Stock- 
holm. Among  the  bishops  of  Sens  may  also  be  men- 
tioned: St.  Anastasius  (967-76);  Sevinus  (976-99), 
who  presided  at  the  Council  of  St-Basle  and  brought 
upon  himself  the  disfavour  of  Hugh  Capet  by  his 
opposition  to  the  deposition  of  Arnoul;  Gelduinus 
(1032-49),  deposed  for  simony  by  Leo  IX  at  the 
Council  of  Reims.  The  second  half  of  the  eleventh 
century  was  fatal  to  the  Diocese  of  Sens.  Under  the 
episcopate  of  Richerius  (1062-96),  Urban  II  with- 
drew primatial  authority  from  the  See  of  Sens  to 
confer  it  on  that  of  Lyons,  and  Richerius  died  with- 
out having  accepted  this  decision;  his  successor 
Daimbert  (1098-1122)  was  consecrated  at  Rome  in 
March,  1098,  only  after  having  given  assurance  that 
he  recognized  the  primacy  of  Lyons.     Bishop  Henri 


Sanglier  (1122-42),  caused  the  condemnation  by  a 
council  in  1140  of  certain  propositions  of  Abelard. 
The  see  regained  great  prestige  under  Hugues  de  Toucy 
(1142-68),  who  at  Orleans  in  1152  crowned  Constance, 
wife  of  King  Louis  VII,  despite  the  protests  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Reims,  and  under  whose  episcopate 
Alexander  III,  driven  from  Rome,  installed  the 
pontifical  Court  at  Sens  for  eighteen  months  after 
having  taken  the  advice  of  the  bishops. 

Among  later  bishops  of  Sens  were:  Guillaume  aux 
Blanches  Mains  (1168-76),  son  of  Thibaud  IV,  Count 
of  Champagne,  uncle  of  PhiUp  Augustus,  and  first 
cousin  of  Henry  II,  who  in  1172  in  the  name  of 
Alexander  III  placed  the  Kingdom  of  England  under 


The  Cathedral,  Sens 

an  interdict  and  in  1176  became  Archbishop  of  Reims; 
Michael  of  Corbeil  (1194-9),  who  combated  the 
Manichajan  sect  of  "Pubhcans";  Peter  of  Corbeil 
(1200-22),  who  had  been  professor  of  theology  of 
Innocent  III;  Pierre  Roger  (1329-30),  later  Clement 
VI;  Guillaume  de  Brosse  (1330-8),  who  erected  at 
one  of  the  doorways  of  the  cathedral  of  Sens  an 
equestrian  statue  of  Phihp  VI  of  Valois,  to  perpetuate 
the  remembrance  of  the  victory  won  by  the  clergy  over 
the  pretentions  of  the  legist  Pierre  de  Cugnieres; 
Guillaume  de  Melun  (1344-75),  who  together  with 
King  John  II  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  English  at 
the  battle  of  Poitiers  in  1356;  Guy  de  Roye  (1385- 
90);  Henri  de  Savoisy  (1418-22),  who  at  Troyes  in 
1420  blessed  the  marriage  of  Henry  VI  of  England 
with  Catherine  of  France;  Etienne  Tristan  de  Salazar 
(1475-1519),  who  concluded  the  first  treaty  of  al- 
liance between  France  and  the  Swiss;  Antoine 
Duprat  (q.  v.)  1.525-35,  made  cardinal  in  1527; 
Louis  de  Bourbon  Vendome  (1535-57),  cardinal  from 
1517;  Jean  Bertrandi  (1557-60),  cardinal  in  1559; 
Louis  de  Lorraine  (1560-2),  Cardinal  de  Guise  from 
1553;  Nicolas  de  Relieve  (1562-92),  cardinal  from 
1570;  Jacques;  Davy,  Cardinal  du  Perron  (1606-18); 
Lancet  de  Gergy  (1730-53),  first  biographer  of 
Mane  Alacoque  and  member  of  the  French  Academy; 
Paul  d' Albert  (1753-88),  Cardinal  de  Luynes  after 
1756  and  member  of  the  French  Academy;  Lom(5nie 
de   Brienne    (1788-93),    minister    of    Louis    XVI, 


SENS 


718 


SENS 


cardinal  in  1788,  and  who  during  the  Revolution 
swore  to  the  ci\-il  constitution  of  the  clergy  but  re- 
fused to  consecrate  the  first  constitutional  bishops, 
returned  to  the  pope  his  cardinal's  hat,  refused  to 
become  constitutional  Bishop  of  Toulouse,  was  twice 
imprisoned  bj-  the  Jacobins  of  Sens  and  died  in  prison 
of  apoplexy-;  Anne,  Cardinal  de  la  Fare  (1S21-9), 
cardinal  in  1S23;  Victor  Fehx  Bernadou  (1867-91), 
cardinal  in  1SS6. 

The  Archdiocese  of  Sens,  which  perhaps  became  a 
metropolitan  see  at  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century, 
until  1622  numbered  seven  suffragans:  Chartres, 
Auxerre,  INIeaux,  Paris,  Orleans,  Nevers,  and  Troyes; 
the  Diocese  of  Betlileem  at  Clamecy  (see  Nevers) 
was  also  dependent  on  the  metropolitan  See  of  Sens. 
In  1622  Paris  having  been  raised  to  a  metropolitan 
see,  the  Sees  of  Chartres,  Orleans,  and  Meaux  were 
separated  from  the  Archdiocese  of  Sens.  As  indem- 
nity the  abbey  of  Mont  Saint-Martin  in  the  Diocese 
of  Cambrai  was  united  (1668)  to  the  archiepiscopal 
revenue. 

II.  Diocese  of  Auxerre. — The  "Gestes  des 
^veques  d'Auxerre",  written  about  875  by  the  canons 
Rainogala  and  Alagus,  and  continued  later  down  to 
1278,  gives  a  list  of  bishops  which,  save  for  one  detail, 
Mgr  Duchesne  regards  as  accurate;  but  the  chrono- 
logical data  of  the  "Gestes"  seem  to  him  very  arbi- 
trary' for  the  period  prior  to  the  seventh  century.  No 
other  church  of  France  glories  in  a  similar  list  of 
bishops  honoured  as  saints;  already  in  the  Middle 
Ages  this  multiplicity  of  saints  was  remarkable.  St. 
Peregrinus  (Pelerin)  was  the  founder  of  the  see; 
according  to  the  legend,  he  was  sent  by  Sixtus  II  and 
was  martyred  under  Diocletian  in  303  or  304. 

After  him  are  mentioned  without  the  possibility  of 
certainly  fixing  their  dates:  St.  Marcelhanus,  St. 
Valerianus,  St.  Helladius,  St.  Amator  (d.  418),  who  had 
been  ordained  deacon  and  tonsured  by  St.  Helladius 
and  who  thus  affords  the  earliest  example  of  ecclesias- 
tical tonsure  mentioned  in  the  religious  history  of 
France;  the  illustrious  St.  Germain  d'Auxerre  (q.  v.; 
418-48);  St.  EUadius;  St.  Fraternus;  St.  Censurius, 
to  whom  about  475  the  priest  Constantius  sent  the 
Life  of  St.  Germain;  St.  Ursus;  St.  Theodosius,  who 
assisted  in  511  at  the  Council  of  Orldans;  St.  Gre- 
gorius;  St.  Optatus;  St.  Droctoaldus;  St.  Eleu- 
therius,  who  assisted  at  four  Councils  of  Orleans  be- 
tween 533  and  549;  St.  Romanus;  St.  Actherius;  St. 
Aunacharius  (Aunaire;  573-605),  uncle  of  St.  Lupus, 
Archbishop  of  Sens;  St.  Desiderius  (Didier);  St. 
Palladius,  who  assisted  at  several  councils  in  627, 
650,  and  654;  St.  Vigilius,  who  was  assassinated  about 
684,  doubtless  at  the  instigation  of  Gilmer,  son  of 
Waraton,  mayor  of  the  palace;  St.  Tetricius  (692- 
707);  Venerable  Aidulf  (perhaps  751-66);  Venerable 
Maurin  (perhaps  766-94);  Blessed  Aaron  (perhaps 
794-807);  Blessed  Angelelmus  (807-28);  St.  Heri- 
baldus  (829-57),  first  chaplain  of  Louis  the  Pious,  and 
several  times  given  ambassadorial  charges;  St.  Abbo 
(857-69);  Bles.sed  Chri.stian  (860-71);  Ven.  Wibaldus 
(879-87),  Ven.  Herifridus  (Herfroy;  887-909);  St. 
G6ran  (909-14);  St.  Betto  (933-61);  Ven.  Guy  (933- 
961) ;  Bl.  John  (997-998) ;  Ven.  Humbaud  (109.5-1 1 14), 
drowned  on  the  way  to  Jerusalem;  St.  Hugues  de 
Montaigu  (1116-1136),  a  friend  of  St.  Bernard;  Bl. 
Hugura  de  M^.on  (1137-51),  Abbot  of  Pontigny, 
often  chargerl  by  Evigene  III  with  adjusting  differences 
and  re-<istabli.sliing  order  in  monasteries;  Ven.  Alanus 
(1152-67),  author  of  a  life  of  St.  Bernard;  Ven. 
Guillaume  de  Toucy  (1167-81),  the  first  French 
bishop  who  went  to  Rome  to  acknowledge  the  au- 
thority of  Alexander  III. 

Among  later  bishops  may  be  mentioned:  Hugues 
de  Noyers  (1183-1206),  known  as  the  "hammer  of 
heretics"  for  the  vigour  with  which  he  sought  out 
in  hie  diocese  the  sects  of  the  Albigenses  and  the 
"Caputids";  Guillaume  de  Scignelay  (1207-20),  who 


took  part  in  the  war  against  the  Albigenses  and  in 
1220  became  Archbishop  of  Paris;  Ven.  Bernard  de 
SuUy  (1234-44);  Guy  de  Mello  (1247-70),  who  was 
Apostolic  delegate  in  the  crusade  of  Charles  of  Anjou 
against  Manfred;  Pierre  de  Mornay  (1296-1306), 
who  negotiated  between  Boniface  VIII  and  Philippe 
le  Bel  and  in  1304  became  chancellor  of  France; 
Pierre  de  Cros  (1349-51), cardinal  in  1350;  Philippe 
deLenoncourt  (1560-62),  cardinal  in  1586;  Philibert 
Babou  de  la  Bourdaisiere  (1562-70),  cardinal  in  1561; 
the  Hellenist  Jacques  Amyot  (1571-93),  translator 
of  the  works  of  Plutarch  and  Diodorus  Siculus,  tutor 
of  Charles  IX,  grand  almoner  of  Charles  IX  and 
Henry  III;  Charles  de  Caylus  (1704-54),  who  made 
his  diocese  a  centre  of  Jansenism  and  whose  works  in 
four  volumes  were  condemned  by  Rome  in  1754.  The 
Cathedral  of  St-Etienne  of  Sens,  founded  in  972  and 
rebuilt  under  Louis  VII  and  Philip  Augustus,  is  re- 
garded by  several  archseologists  as  the  most  ancient 
of  pointed  style  churches.  When  in  1241  the  Domin- 
icans brought  to  Sens  the  Crown  of  Thorns  which  St. 
Louis  had  obtained  from  Baldwin  II,  the  king  went 
at  the  head  of  a  procession  to  within  five  leagues  of 
Sens,  took  the  relic,  and  with  his  brother  Robert 
entered  the  city  barefoot  and  deposited  the  relic  in 
the  metropolitan  church  until  the  Sainte  Chapelle 
of  Paris  was  built  to  receive  it.  The  cathedral  of 
Auxerre,  completed  in  1178,  contains  numerous 
sculptures  in  the  Byzantine  style. 

The  Dioceses  of  Sens  and  Auxerre  contained  illus- 
trious Abbeys;  for  that  of  Ferrieres,  located  in  a 
region  which  now  depends  on  the  Diocese  of  Orleans, 
see  Ferrieres.  Tha  Abbey  of  St-Pierre  le  Vif  dates 
from  the  sixth  century,  but  M.  Maurice  Prou  has 
proved  that  the  diploma  of  Clovis  and  the  testament  of 
"Queen"  Theodechilde,  in  the  archives  of  the  monas- 
tery, lack  authenticity.  The  Theodechilde  who  founded 
the  monastery  was  not  the  daughter  of  Clovis  but 
his  granddaughter,  the  daughter  of  Thierry  first  king 
of  Austrasia.  The  schools  instituted  by  Rainard,  Abbot 
of  St-Pierre  le  Vif,  were  celebrated  during  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  The  Abbey  of  St.  Columba,  the  great  primi- 
tive saint  of  the  City  of  Lyons,  was  founded  about  590. 
Her  "Passion"  dates  beyond  doubt  from  the  end  of 
the  sixth  century,  in  the  time  of  Bishop  St.  Loup,  who 
translated  the  relics  of  St.  Columba  to  the  monastery 
church.  It  is  probable  that  her  martyrdom  took  place 
in  the  time  of  Aurelian.  Her  cultus  was  widespread, 
extending  to  Rimini,  Barcelona,  and  Cordova.  The 
Acts  of  the  martyrdom  of  Sts.  Sanctian,  Augustine, 
and  Beata,  companions  of  St.  Columba,  seem  to  date 
from  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  or  the  beginning 
of  the  ninth  century.  In  the  Abbey  of  St.  Columba, 
whose  third  church  was  consecrated  26  April,  1164, 
by  Alexander  III,  were  buried  Raoul,  King  of  France, 
and  Richard,  Duke  of  Burgundy.  The  Abbey  of  St- 
Germain  d'Auxerre,  founded  in  422  by  the  bishop 
St.  Germain,  in  honour  of  St.  Maurice,  took  the  name 
of  St.  Germain  when  it  was  rebuilt  by  Queen  Clotilde 
about  500.  In  850  Abbot  Conrad,  brother-in-law  of 
Louis  the  Pious,  had  crypts  built  in  the  monastery 
in  which  were  deposited  many  bodies  of  saints.  Urban 
V  was  Abbot  of  St-Germain  before  becoming  pope; 
King  Charles  VI  of  France  did  not  disdain  the  honour 
of  seeing  his  name  inscribed  among  those  of  the 
monks.  The  crypts  were  ravaged  by  the  Calvinists 
in  1567.  The  abbey  followed  the  Benedictine  rule; 
it  was  twice  reformed,  from  995-9  by  St.  Mayeul  of 
Cluny  and  his  disciple  Heldric,  and  in  1029  by  the 
Benedictines  of  St-Maur. 

The  Abbey  of  St-Edmond  of  Pontigny,  the  second 
daughter  of  Clteaux,  was  founded  in  1114  by  Thibaud 
IV  the  Great,  Count  of  Champagne.  Hugh,  Count  of 
M&con,  one  of  the  first  thirty  companions  of  St. 
Bernard,  was  the  first  abbot.  Louis  VII,  King  of 
France,  was  its  benefactor.  St.  Thomas  k  Becket 
took  refuge  at  Pontigny  before  seeking  shelter  at 


SENS 


719 


SENS 


St.  Columba's  at  Sens.  In  the  thirteenth  century 
Stephen  Langton  and  later  St.  Edmund,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  also  found  refuge  at  Pontigny.  The 
Benedictine  Abbey  of  St-Michel  at  Tonnerre  was 
founded  about  800  on  the  site  of  a  hermitage  dating 
from  the  time  of  Clovis  I;  it  was  restored  about  980 
by  Milo,  Count  of  Tonnerre.  In  the  fifteenth  century 
Cardinal  Alanus,  legate  of  CaHistus  III,  numbered  it 
among  the  twelve  most  illustrious  abbeys  of  Gaul. 
The  arrondissement  of  Avallon,  now  in  the  Diocese 
of  Sens,  and  formerly  dependent  on  the  Diocese  of 
Autun,  possesses  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Vezelay. 
It  was  founded  about  860  under  the  protection  of 
Christ  and  the  Blessed  Virgin  by  Gerard,  Count  of 
Roussillon  and  his  wife,  Bertha;  Gerard  declared  the 
territory  free  and  dependent  only  on  the  pope.  Nich- 
olas I  in  867  and  Charles  the  Bald  in  868  confirmed 
the  donation.  Eudes,  the  first  abbot,  offered  hospi- 
tality to  John  VIII,  who  in  879  consecrated  the  first 
church  of  the  monastery.  The  Norman  invasions 
laid  waste  the  monastery,  but  it  was  restored  under 
Abbot  Geoffrey,  installed  in  1037.  Under  this  abbot 
the  cultus  of  St.  Magdalen  appeared  for  the  first  time 
at  Vezelay;  a  letter  of  Leo  IX  (10.50)  shows  that  the 
name  of  St.  Magdalen  was  part  of  the  official  title  of 
the  abbey.  Mgr  Duchesne  has  shown  that  the  monks 
of  Vezelay,  at  this  date,  constructed  a  first  account 
according  to  which  the  tombs  of  Sts.  Maximinus  and 
Magdalen,  at  St-Maximin  in  Provence,  had  been 
opened  and  their  bodies  removed  to  Vezelay;  shortly 
afterwards  a  second  account  relates  that  there  was 
taken  away  only  the  body  of  St.  Magdalen.  For  two 
centuries  the  account  of  the  monks  of  V6zelay  was 
accepted;  Bulls  of  Lucius  III,  Urban  III,  and  Clem- 
ent III  confirmed  the  statement  that  they  po.ssessed 
the  body  of  St.  .Magflalen.  The  tomb  of  the  saint 
was  visited  in  the  twelfth  century  by  a  host  of  illus- 
trious pilgrims;  "All  France",  wTi'tes  Hugh  of  Poitiers, 
"seems  to  go  to  the  solemnities  of  the  Magdalen." 

In  1096  Abbot  Artaud,  who  was  later  assassinated, 
had  begun  the  construction  of  the  Basilica  of  the 
Madeleine,  which  was  dedicated  in  1104  by  Paschal 
II;  his  successor,  Renaud  de  Semur,  later  Arch- 
bishop of  Lyons,  completed  it,  raised  it  from  its  ruins 
after  the  great  fire  of  July,  1120,  and  also  built  the 
abbatial  ch&teau.  Alberic,  a  monk  of  Cluny,  named 
abbot  by  Innocent  II,  built  in  front  of  the  portal  the 
narthex,  or  church  of  the  catechumens,  the  door- 
ways of  which  have  marvellously  wrought  archivolts 
and  which  was  blessed  by  Innocent  II  in  1132  during 
his  sojourn  at  Vezelay;  he  died  a  cardinal  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Ostia.  Under  Abbot  Pontius  of  Mont- 
boisier  (d.  1161),  a  former  monk  of  Cluny,  Vezelay 
emancipated  itself  from  Cluniac  nile,  declared  its 
autonomy  as  against  the  claims  of  the  bishops  of  Autun, 
and  victoriously  resisted  the  encroachments  of  the 
counts  of  Nevers.  The  second  crusade  was  preached 
in  1146  by  St.  Bernard  in  the  abbatial  chateau  amid 
such  enthusiasm  that  the  assistants  tore  their  gar- 
ments to  make  crosses  and  distribute  them  to  the 
crowd.  Guillaume  IV  of  Nevers  sought  to  be  re- 
venged on  the  monks  of  Vezelay,  and  his  provost, 
L6thard,  defying  excommunication,  forced  the  monks 
to  take  flight,  but  in  1166  Louis  arranged  a  peace  be- 
tween the  Comte  de  Nevers  and  Abbot  Guillaume 
de  Mello.  On  Pentecost,  1166,  St.  Thomas  k  Becket 
from  the  pulpit  of  Vezelay  pronounced  excommunica- 
tion against  the  clerics  who,  to  gratify  King  Henry  II 
of  England,  had  violated  the  rights  of  the  Church. 
Louis  VII  came  himself  to  Vezelay  at  Epiphany,  1167, 
to  celebrate  the  reconciliation  between  the  monks  of 
Vezelay  and  Count  Guillaume  IV,  and  in  expiation 
of  his  crimes  Guillaume  IV  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land 
where  he  died  in  116S. 

Under  the  rule  of  Abbot  Girard  d'Arcy  (1171-96), 
Philip  Augustus  and  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  met  at 
Vezelay   in    July,    1190,    to    arrange   for   the    third 


crusade.  In  place  of  the  Romanesque  apse  burnt  in 
1165,  Girard  had  built  the  choir  to-day  admired  as 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  Burgundian 
architecture  and  falsely  attributed  to  Abbot  Hugh,  his 
successor.  St.  Louis  came  to  Vezelay  in  1267  for  a 
solemn  feast  organized  by  the  monks  for  the  recog- 
nition of  the  rehcs  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  and  at  which 
Simon  de  Brion,  the  future  Martin  IV,  represented 
the  Holy  See  as  legate;  St.  Louis  returned  here  in 
1270  on  his  way  to  the  crusade.  This  benevolence 
of  the  kings  of  P'rance  and  the  constant  menace  which 
the  abbey  endured  from  the  counts  of  Nevers  led 
the  monks  of  Vezelay  and  the  pope  to  accept  the  act 
whereby  Phihp  the  Bold  in  1280  declared  himself 
protector  and  guardian  of  the  Abbey.  Hugues  de 
Maison-Comte,  who  became  abbot  in  1352  and  was 
taken  prisoner  with  John  II  of  France  at  the  battle 
of  Poitiers,  occupied  himself  after  two  years  of  cap- 
tivity in  England  with  fortifying  the  monastery 
against  an  English  attack;  he  rendered  it  impreg- 
nable and  in  gratitude  Charles  V  made  him  a  member 
of  the  royal  council.  The  claims  put  forth  by  the 
Dominicans  of  Provence,  beginning  in  1279,  that  they 
possessed  the  body  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  injured 
the  prestige  of  Vezelay  during  the  fourteenth  and  fif- 
teenth centuries.  In  1538  a  Bull  of  secularization 
sought  from  Paul  III  by  Francis  I  and  the  monks  them- 
selves transformed  the  abbey  into  a  simple  collegiate 
church.  Odet  de  Chatillon,  brother  of  Coligny  and 
Abbot  of  Vezelay,  subsequently  became  a  Calvinist. 
The  Huguenot  masters  of  Vezelay  converted  the 
Madeleine  into  a  storehouse  and  stable  and  burned  the 
relics.  During  the  Revolution  the  ancient  monastery 
builflings  were  sold  at  auction.  In  1876  the  future 
Cardinal  Bernadou,  Archbishop  of  Sens,  determined 
to  restore  the  i)ilgrimage  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  at 
Vezelay  and  brought  thither  a  relic  of  the  saint 
which  Martin  IV  had  given  to  the  Chapter  of  Sens 
in  1281. 

A  certain  number  of  saints  are  honoured  with  a 
special  cultus  or  are  connected  with  the  history  of  the 
diocese:  St.  Jovinian,  martyr,  lector  of  the  church  of 
Auxerre  (third  century);  Sts.  Sanctian,  Augustine, 
Felix,  Aubert,  and  Beata,  Spaniards,  martyred  at 
Sens;  St.  Sidronius  (Sidroine),  possibly  martyred 
under  Aurelian,  whose  martyrdom  is  considered  by 
the  Bollandists  as  very  doubtful;  St.  Justus,  martyr, 
b.  at  Auxerre  about  the  end  of  the  third  century; 
Sts.  Magnentia  and  Maxima,  virgins  consecrated  by 
St.  Germain  (fifth  centur>');  St.  Mamertinus,  Abbot 
of  St-Germain  (fifty  century);  the  priest  St.  Marien 
(sixth  century);  St.  Romain,  d.  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sixth  century  in  the  monastery,  which  he  founded 
in  Auxerre,  and  in  which  St.  Mauriis  learned  through 
a  vision  of  the  death  of  St.  Benedict;  St.  Severin, 
d.  at  Chateau  Landon,  Diocese  of  Sens  (506);  St, 
Eligius  (588-659),  who  administered  the  monastery 
of  St.  Columba  before  becoming  Bishop  of  Noyon; 
St.  Mathurin,  a  priest  of  Sens,  d.  688;  St.  Patemus, 
a  Benedictine,  native  of  Coutances,  monk  at  St- 
Pierre  le  Vif,  and  assassinated  at  Sergines  (eighth 
century);  St.  Robert,  Abbot  of  Tonnerre,  founder  of 
the  Abbey,  of  Molesmes  and  of  the  Order  of  Citeaux 
(1018-1110);  St.  Thierry,  Bishop  of  Orleans,  reared 
at  the  monastery  of  St-Pierre  le  Vif,  and  d.  in  1027 
at  Tonnerre;  Bl.  Alpaide,  of  Tonnerre  (end  of  twelfth 
century);  St.  Guillaume,  Archbishop  of  Bourges, 
previously  a  monk  at  Pontigny  (d.  in  1209).  Jean 
Lebeuf  (1687-1760),  who  in  1743  wTote  the  "  Memoires 
contenant  I'histoire  ecclesiastique  et  civile  d'  Aux- 
erre", was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 

The  chief  pilgrimages  of  the  Diocese  of  Sens  are: 
Notre  Dame  de  Belle\aie  at  Tronchoy;  Notre  Dame 
de  Champrond  at  Vinneuf ;  the  tomb  of  St.  Columba 
at  Sens;  the  altar  of  Sts.  Savinian  and  Potentian 
at  Sens,  which  according  to  legend  is  the  stone  on 
which  St.  Savinian  fell.     Before  the  application  of 


SENS 


720 


SEPT-FONS 


the  Associations'  Law  of  1901,  there  were  in  the 
Diocese  of  Sens:  Augustiniansof  the  Assumption;  Laz- 
arists;  Oblates  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales;  Missionaries  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  and  of  the  Immacuhite  Heart 
of  Mar\-,  founded  in  1843  by  Fr.  Muard  (1809-54), 
with  mother-house  at  Fontigny;  and  Benedictines  of 
the  Sa<'red  Heart  of  Jesus  and  of  the  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Marj-  founded  at  "La  Pierre  qui  Vire"  by 
the  same  Fr.  Aluard.  Two  congregations  of  women 
originated  in  the  diocese:  the  Sisters  of  Providence 
founded  in  1818  with  mother-house  at  Sens;  the 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Childhood  founded  in  1838  by 
Abbe  Grapinet  with  mother-house  at  Ste-Colombe. 
At  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  religious 
congregations  directed  in  the  Diocese  of  Sens:  53 
infant  schools,  4  orphanages  for  boys,  8  orphanages 
for  girls,  2  workrooms,  2  organizations  of  rescue, 
5  houses  of  religious  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their 
homes,  16  hospitals  or  imfirmaries.  In  1905  (end 
of  the  period  of  the  Concordat)  the  diocese  numbered 
334,656  inhabitants,  49  parishes,  440  filial  churches, 
and  4  \'icariates  remunerated  by  the  State. 

Gallui  Chrif^linna  (nom),  XII  (1770),  1-107,  instr.  1-98;  Fis- 
QCET,  France  Pontificate:  Sens  et  Auierre  (Paris,  1866);  Du- 
CHESN-E,  Pastes  episcopaux,  II,  389—418,  427-46;  MtMAiN, 
L'Apostolat  de  Saint  Savinien  (Paris,  1888);  Blondel,  L'Apostol- 
icUe  de  Veglise  de  Sens  (Sens,  1902) ;  Boitv'ier,  Histoire  de  I'eglise 
de  Vancien  archidiockse  de  Sens,  I  (Paris,  1906);  Qcesvers  and 
Steik.  Inscriptions  de  Vancien  diocise  de  Sens  (Paris,  1904) ;  Long- 
NON,  PouilUsde  la  province  de  Sens  (Paris,  1904) ;  Vaudin,  La  cathe- 
draie  de  Sens'  (Paris,  1882) ;  Julliot,  Armorial  des  archeviques  de 
Sens  (Sens,  1862);  Aspikall,  Les  Scales  episcopales  monastiques 
dTancienne  province  de  Sens  (Paris,  1904);  Ch:6re8T,  Etudes  his- 
lorigues  sur  Vezelay  (Auxerre,  1868) ;  Gally,  Vezelay  monasliqxie 
(Tonnerre.  1888). 

Georges  Goyaxj. 

Sens,  CocTNCiLS  of. — A  number  of  councils  were 
held  at  Sens.  The  first,  about  600  or  601,  in  conform- 
ity with  the  instructions  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great, 
especially  advised  warfare  against  simony.  St. 
Columbanus  refused  to  attend  it  because  the  question 
of  the  date  of  Easter,  which  was  to  be  dealt  with, 
was  dividing  P'ranks  and  Bretons.  A  series  of  coun- 
cils, most  of  them  concerned  with  the  privileges  of  the 
Abbev  of  St.  Pierre-le-Vif,  were  held  in  657,  669  or 
670,  846,  850,  852,  8.53,  862,  980,  986,  996,  1048,  1071, 
and  1080.  The  council  of  1140,  according  to  the 
terms  of  the  letter  Issued  by  Archbishop  Henri  Sang- 
lier,  seems  to  have  had  no  object  but  to  impart  solem- 
nity to  the  exposition  of  the  rehcs  with  which  he 
enriched  the  cathedral;  but  the  chief  work  of  this 
council,  which  included  representatives  from  the 
Provinces  of  Sens  and  Reims,  and  at  which  St.  Bernard 
a.ssi.sted,  was  the  condemnation  of  Abelard's  doctrine. 
The  latter  having  declared  that  he  appealed  from  the 
council  to  Rome,  the  bishops  of  both  provinces,  in  two 
letters  to  Innocent  II,  insisted  that  the  condemnation 
be  confirmed.  Dr.  Martin  Deutsch  has  placed  this 
council  in  1141,  but  the  Abbe  Vacandard  has  proved 
by  the  letter  from  Peter  the  Venerable  to  H61oise,  by 
the  "Continuatio  Pra-monstrateneis",  the  "Continu- 
atio  Valcellensis",  and  the  list  of  the  priors  of  Clair- 
vaux,  that  the  date  1140,  given  by  Baronius,  is 
correct.  The  council  of  1198  was  concerned  with  the 
Manichsan  sect  of  Poplicani,  spread  throughout 
Nivemais,  to  which  the  dean  of  Nevers  and  the  Abbot 
of  St-Martin  de  Nevers  were  said  to  have  belonged. 
.After  the  council  Innocent  III  chargofl  his  legate, 
Pfter  of  Capua,  ancl  Eudes  de  Sully,  Bi.shop  of 
Paris,  with  an  investigation.  Councils  were  also  held 
in  1216, 1224  (for  the  condemnation  of  abook  by  Scotus 
Kriugena),  1239,  1252,  1253,  1269,  1280,  1315,  1320, 
1460,  1485;   most  of  them  for  disciplinary  measures. 

(i'lVrKK,  QurU/urx  nuitH  Kur  la  date  et  I'ohjrt  du  premier  ronrile  de 
SeiiM  in  liullHir,  <lr  la  KonHl;  nrrhMoQiqne  de  Senn  (1S77) ;  DF.VTHctt, 
l)ie  Synrttle.  ton  SfnK  I l.',l  u.  die  Vernrleilnng  Ahdlardn.  eine  kirrh- 
enge.Kch.  Untfmurhiina  fBcrlin.  IHHO);  VAfANDAKo,  La  date  du 
eonrile  df.  Seni,  1 1 .',0  in  Rerue  den  qtxeidionH  hixloriqueH,  L  (Paris, 
1891).  235-45. 

Georoeb  Gotau. 


Sentence  (L.  scntentia,  judgment),  in  canon  law 
the  decision  of  the  court  upon  any  issue  brought  be- 
fore it.  A  sentence  is  definitive  or  interlocutory. 
It  is  definitive  or  final,  when  it  defines  the  principal 
question  in  controversy.  A  definitive  sentence  is 
absolutory,  if  it  acquits  the  accused;  condemnatory, 
if  it  declares  him  guilty;  declaratory,  if  it  assert  that 
the  accused  committed  a  crime,'  the  penaltj-  of 
which  is  incurred  ipso  facto.  An  interlocuton,-  sen- 
tence is  pronounced  during  the  course  of  a  trial  to 
settle  some  incidental  point  arising.  It  is  of  two 
kinds:  merely  interlocutory;  or  having  the  force  of 
a  definitive  sentence,  affecting  the  main  cause  at 
issue,  e.  g.,  a  declaration  that  the  court  is  incom- 
petent. A  final  sentence  must  be  definitive,  uncon- 
ditional, given  by  the  judge  in  court,  in  the  presence 
of  the  parties  concerned  or  their  agents,  in  writing 
or  dictated  to  the  clerk  to  be  inserted  in  the  minutes 
of  the  trial;  it  must  be  in  keeping  with  the  charge  or 
complaint,  stating,  if  condemnatory,  the  sanction  of 
law  for  the  punishment  imposed  and  once  pronounced, 
it  cannot  be  revoked  by  the  same  court.  Inter- 
locutor>^  sentences  are  given  without  special  formali- 
ties, and  if  merelj'  interlocutory  may  be  revoked  by 
the  judge  who  issues  them.     (See  Appeals.) 

Decrelah.  II,  27;  Commentaries  on  same;  Taunton,  The  Law 
of  the  Church,  a.  v.;   Droste-Messmer,  Canonical  Procedure,  etc. 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Sept-Fons,  Notre-Dame  de  Saint-Lieu,  in  the 
Diocese  of  Moulins  in  France,  was  founded  (1132) 
by  Guichard  and  Guillaume  de  Bourbon,  of  the  family 
de  Bourbon-Lancy,  which  gave  kings  to  France, 
Italy,  and  Spain;  this  gave  rise  to  the  name  "Royal 
Abbey".  Thanks  to  the  liberality  of  the  founders, 
and  to  the  energy  of  the  abbot  and  community,  the 
church  was  soon  completed  and  dedicated  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin;  the  monastery,  with  all  the  regular 
structures  prescribed  by  the  rule,  was  completed  at 
the  same  time.  After  exliibiting  generosity  at  the 
beginning,  their  founders  and  friends  seem  to  have 
neglected  them,  for  the  monks  found  the  burden  of 
poverty  so  heavy,  that  they  were  even  compelled  to 
sell  parts  of  the  lands  to  supply  the  necessities  of  life. 
Until  the  Reform  of  1663,  the  number  of  religious 
never  exceeded  15.  They  were  much  encouraged, 
in  their  early  days  of  trial,  by  a  visit  of  St  Bernard 
(1 138).  At  first  the  monastery  was  only  known  under 
the  name  of  "Notre-Dame  de  Saint-Lieu";  it  was 
only  after  a  century  that  "Sept-Fons"  was  added,  de- 
rived either  from  seven  fountains  or  from  seven 
canals  leading  water  to,  the  Abbey.  Adrian  III 
took  the  monastery  under  his  protection  in  1158; 
and  Alexander  III  ratified  the  foundation  by  Bull 
in  1164. 

After  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  in- 
cessant wars  did  not  spare  the  abbey;  frequently  the 
religious  were  forced  to  leave  it  and  see  it  despoiled 
of  its  goods,  and  its  buildings  demolished.  Inevitably, 
under  such  circumstaiices,  relaxation  entered  the 
monastery.  In  1656  Ivustaciie  de  Beaufort,  at  the 
age  of  20  years,  wjis  made  abbot.  For  the  first  seven 
years  there  was  no  improvement;  but  after  that  time 
he  resolved  on  a  complete  change.  His  religious — 
there  were  then  but  four — refusing  to  accept  the  new 
rule,  were  each  granted  a  pension  and  flismissed. 
It  was  not  long  before  a  number  of  novices  presented 
themselves  for  admission.  They  were  sent  to  La 
Trappe,  to  make  th(>ir  novitiate  under  the  Abbot  de 
Ranci'".  Dorn  Eu.stache  also  visited  the  celebrated 
reformer  for  counsel  and  advice,  in  1667.  After  this, 
with  the  royal  aid,  Sept-Fons  was  rebuilt  on  a  gr.inder 
scale  and  pro.sperity  continued  until  the  mon.istery 
W!i8  confiscated  at  the  Revolution,  1791.  In  1845, 
when  the  Trappists  of  the  Abbaye  du  Card  were  obligee! 
to  abandon  their  monastery,  their  Abbot,  Dom 
Stanislaus,  purchased  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Abbey 


SEPTIMIUS 


721 


SEPTUAGESIMA 


of  Sept-Fons,  removed  his  community  thither,  and 
rebuilt  the  church  and  regular  structures.  In  1847 
he  was  elected  vicar-general  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  Ancient  Reform  of  Our  Lady  of  La  Trappe, 
which  followed  the  constitutions  of  the  Abbot  de 
,  Ranc6.  In  1892,  when  the  three  congregations  were 
united  in  one  order,  the  then  Abbot  of  Sept-Fons, 
Dom  Sebastian  Wyart,  was  elected  first  abbot- 
general,  and,  a  little  later.  Abbot  of  Citeaux.  Its 
most  noted  foundations  are  N.  -D.  de  la  Consola- 
tion near  Peking,  China,  and  N.  -D.  de  Maristella 
Kstado  de  S.  Paulo,  Brazil. 

Sept-Fons,  ou  les  Trappistes  de  N.  D.  de  Saint  Lieu  (Moulins, 
1816) ;  La  Trappe,  by  a  Sept-Fona  Trappist  (Paris,  1870) ;  Sept- 
Fons,  impressions  et  souvenirs  par  un  ami  de  ce  monasthe  (Dijon, 
1895);  Maupertuy,  Histoire  de  la  reforme  de  VAbbaye  de  Sept- 
Fons  (Paris,  1702);  Manriqoe,  Annates  cisterciences  (Lyons, 
1642);  Gallia  Christiana,  lY ;  Hvohes,  Annates  d'Aiguebelle  {Ya.\- 
ence,  1863) ;  Tallon,  Notices  sur  les  monastkres  de  I'ordre  de  la 
Trappe  (Paris,  1855);  Ppannenschmidt,  Illustrierte  Gesch.  drr 
Trappislen  (Paderborn,  1873) ;  Urbain,  Mimoires  manuscrits  sur 
N.  D.  du  Gard  et  N.  D.  de  Sept-Fons  (1910);  Decretum  apos- 
tolicum  quo  instituta:  sunt  du(B  congregationes  B.  M.  de  Trappa  in 
Gallia  (1847). 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 

Septimius  Severus,  founder  of  the  African  dynasty 
of  Roman  emperf)rs,  b.  at  Leptis  Magna  in  Africa,  11 
April,  146;  d.  at  York,  England,  4  February,  211. 
Severus  came  from  a  family  that  had  become  Roman 
citizens.  In  his  career  as  an  official  at  Home  and  in 
the  provinces  he  had  been  favoured  by  the  Emperor 
Marcus  Aurclius.  In  the  reign  of  Commodus  he  was 
appointed  legate  of  the  fourth  legion  on  the  Euphrates; 
this  gave  him  the  opportunity  to  become  acquainted 
with  affairs  in  the  J]ast.  He  married  Julia  Domna,  a 
member  of  a  priestly  family  of  Emesa,  who  was  the 
mother  of  Caracalla  and  Geta.  When  the  Emperor 
Pertinax  was  killed  by  the  mutinous  .soldiers  at  Rome, 
Severus,  who  was  then  governor  of  Upper  Pannonia, 
was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Carnuntium  by  the  legions 
on  the  Danube.  The  fact  that  the  leaders  of  the 
troops  in  the  eastern  and  western  parts  of  the  empire 
were  at  once  ready  to  follow  him  is  evidence  that 
Severus  himself  had  shared  in  the  conspiracy  against 
the  dead  emperor.  Severus  had  clear  political  vision, 
still  he  cared  nothing  for  the  interests  of  Rome  and 
Italy.  He  nourished  within  himself  the  Punic  hatred 
of  the  Roman  spirit  and  instinct  and  furthered  the 
provincials  in  every  way.  He  was  revengeful  and 
cruel  towards  his  opponents,  and  was  influenced  by  a 
blindly  superstitious  belief  in  his  destiny  as  written 
in  the  stars.  With  iron  will  he  laboured  to  reorganize 
the  Roman  Empire  on  the  model  of  an  Oriental  des- 
potism. The  troops  in  the  East  had  proclaimed  as 
emperor  the  capable  governor  of  Syria,  Pescennius 
Niger;  the  legions  in  Britain,  the  governor  Clodius 
Albinus.  On  the  other  hand  the  soldiers  in  Italy  and 
the  senators  came  over  to  the  side  of  Severus;  Julian  us, 
the  prefect  of  the  Pretorian  Guard,  was  executed. 
Severus  rested  his  power  mainly  upon  the  legions  of 
barbarian  troops;  he  immortalized  them  upon  the 
coinage,  granted  them,  besides  large  gifts  of  money 
and  the  right  of  marriage,  a  great  number  of  privileges 
in  the  military  and  civil  service,  so  that  gradually  the 
races  living  on  the  borders  were  able  to  force  Rome  to 
do  their  will.  The  Pretorian  Guard  was  made  into  a 
troop  of  picked  men  from  the  provinces;  in  the  first 
years  of  the  emperor's  reign  their  commander  was  the 
shrewd  Caius  Fulvius  Plautianus,  who  exerted  a  great 
influence  over  Severus.  After  making  careful  prep- 
aration for  the  decisive  struggle,  and  having  .secured 
his  opponent  in  Britain  by  the  bestowal  of  the  title 
of  Ca?sar,  Severus  entered  upon  a  campaign  against 
his  dangerous  rival  Niger.  He  defeated  Niger's  sub- 
ordinate Ascellius  iEmilius  at  Cyzicus  and  Niger  him- 
self at  Issus.  He  then  advanced  into  Mesopotamia, 
established  the  new  Province  of  Osrhoene  and  the  new 
legion  called  the  Parthian.  He  divided  several  old 
provinces  into  smaller  administrative  districts.  After 
XIII.— 46 


this,  while  at  Antioch,  he  declared  war  against  Albinus 
and  returned  to  Europe  by  forced  marches.  In  197 
the  decisive  battle  was  fought  with  Albinus  near 
Lyons  in  Gaul.  Albinus  had  under  him  the  legions 
of  Britain,  Gaul,  Germany,  and  Spain,  yet  in  spite  of 
severe  losses  Severus  was  the  conqueror.  Albinus 
was  killed,  his  adherents  were  utterly  destroyed  in  a 
bloody  civil  war,  and  their  property  was  confiscated 
for  the  emperor.  The  common  soldiers  received  the 
right  of  entering  the  Senate  and  the  equestrian  order. 
For  the  greater  security  of  the  imperial  power  the 
Parthian  legion  was  garrisoned  upon  Mount  Alba 
near  Rome.  Severus  went  to  Asia  a  second  time, 
traversed  the  countries  on  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
strengthened  the  Roman  supremacy,  and  gave  the 
natives  equal  rights  with  the  Italians.  He  then  went 
to  Egypt  where  he  granted  the  city  of  Alexandria  the 
privilege  of  self-government.  During  the  reign  of 
Severus  the  fifth  persecution  of  the  Christians  broke 
out.  He  forbade  conversion  to  Judaism  and  to 
Christianity.  The  persecution  raged  especially  in 
Syria  and  Africa.  In  203  Saints  Perpetua  and  Felici- 
tas  and  their  companions  suffered  martyrdom  at  Car- 
thage. The  emperor  returned  to  Rome  for  the  cele- 
bration of  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign,  erected  the 
triumphal  arch  that  still  exists,  and  strengthened  his 
hold  on  his  hordes  of  mercenaries  by  constant  gifts 
of  money  and  the  bestowal  of  favours  detrimental  to 
military  discipline.  The  Senate  was  replaced  by  the 
Consistorium  principis,  one  of  the  members  of  which 
was  the  celebrated  jurist  Papinian.  Although  he  had 
suffered  for  years  from  rheumatic  gout,  Severus  went 
to  Britain,  where  trouble  had  broken  out,  in  order  to 
give  occupation  to  his  sons,  who  were  at  deadly  en- 
mity with  each  other.  He  restored  Hadrian's  Wall, 
and  strengthened  again  the  Roman  power  in  Britain. 

Schiller,  Gesch.  der  rom.  Kaiserzeit,  I  (Gotha,  1883) ;  Reville, 
La  religion  A  Rome  sous  les  Sevkres  (Paris,  1886) ;  Neumann,  Der 
riimische  Staat  und  die  allgemeine  Kirche,  I  (Leipzig,  1890);  db 
Cavalieri,  La  Passio  SS.  Perpetuae  et  Felicitatis  (Rome,  1896); 
vo.N  Do.maszewski,  Gesch.  der  rOmischen  Kaiser  (Leipzig,  1909); 
DnRUY,  Hill,  of  Rome,  tr.  Ripley  (Boston,  1894). 

Karl  Hoebkr. 

Septuagesima  (Lat.  septuagesima,  the  seventieth) 
is  the  ninth  Sunday  before  Easter,  the  third  before 
Lent,  known  among  the  Greeks  as  "  Sunday  of  the 
Prodigal "  from  the  Gospel,  Luke,  xv,  which  they  read 
on  this  day,  called  also  Domim'ca  Circumdederunt  hy 
the  Latins,  from  the  first  word  of  the  Introit  of  the 
Mass.  In  liturgical  literature  the  name  "Septuages- 
ima" occurs  for  the  first  time  in  the  Gelasian  Sacra- 
mentary.  Why  the  day  (or  the  week,  or  the  period) 
has  the  name  Septuagesima,  and  the  next  Sunday 
Sexagesima,  etc.,  is  a  matter  of  dispute  among  writers. 
It  is  certainly  not  the  seventieth  day  before  Easter, 
still  less  is  the  next  Sunday  the  sixtieth,  fiftieth, 
etc.  Amularius,  "De  eccl.  off.",  I,  i,  would  make 
the  Septuagesima  mystically  represent  the  Baby- 
lonian Captivity  of  seventy  years,  would  have  it 
begin  with  this  Sunday  on  which  the  Sacramentaries 
and  Antiphonaries  give  the  Introit  "Circumdederunt 
me  undique"  and  end  with  the  Saturday  after  Easter, 
when  the  Church  sings  "Eduxit  Dominus  populum 
suum."  Perhaps  the  word  is  only  one  of  a  numerical 
series:  Quadragesima,  Quinquagesima,  etc.  Again, 
it  may  simj^Iy  denote  the  earliest  day  on  which  some 
Christians  began  the  forty  days  of  Lent,  excluding 
Thursday,  Saturday,  and  Sunday  from  the  observance 
of  the  fast. 

Septuagesima  is  to-day  inaugurated  in  the  Roman 
Martyrology  by  the  words:  "Septuagesima  Sunday, 
on  which  the  canticle  of  the  Lord,  Alleluja,  ceases 
to  be  said".  On  the  Saturday  preceding,  the  Roman 
Breviary  notes  that  after  the  "Benedicamus"  of 
Vespers  two  Alleluias  are  to  be  added,  that  thence- 
forth it  is  to  be  omitted  till  Easter,  and  in  its  place 
"Laus  tibi  Dominc"  is  to  be  said  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Office.     Formerly  the  farewell  to  the  Alleluia 


SEPTUAQINT 


722 


SEPTUAQINT 


was  quite  solemn.  In  an  Antiphonary  of  the  Church 
of  St.  Cornelius  at  Compiegne  we  find  two  special 
antiphons.  Spain  had  a  short  Office  consisting  of  a 
h^^un,  chapter,  antiphon,  and  sequence.  Missals 
in  Germany  up  to  the  fifteenth  century  had  a  beau- 
tiful sequence.  In  French  churches  they  sang  the 
hymn  "Alleluia,  dulce  carmen"  (Gueranger,  IV,  14) 
which  was  well-known  among  the  Anglo-Saxons 
(Rock,  IV,  69).  The  "Te  Deum"  is  not  recited  at 
Matins,  except  on  feasts.  The  lessons  of  the  first 
Nocturn  are  taken  from  Genesis,  relating  the  fall  and 
subsequent  misery  of  man  and  thus  giving  a  fit  prep- 
aration for  the  Lenten  season.  In  the  Mass  of 
Sunday  and  ferias  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  is  entirely 
omitted.  In  all  Masses  a  Tract  is  added  to  the 
Gradual. 

Rock,  The  Church  of  Our  Fathers  (London,  1904);  American 
Bed.  Rer..  II,  161;  Cistercienser  Chronik  (1S96),  18;  Bixterim, 
Denkwurdigkeiten,  V,  2,  46;  GrnfiR.VNGER,  Annee  lilurgique  (Paris, 
1870;  tr.  London);  Du  Caxge,  Glossarium;  Nilles,  Kal.  Man. 
tdriusque  eccl.,  II  (Innsbruck,  1897),   13. 

Francis  Mershman. 

Septuagint  Version,  the  first  translation  of  the 
Hebrew  Old  Testament,  made  into  popular  Greek 
before  the  Christian  era.  This  article  will  treat  of: 
I.  Its  Importance;  II.  Its  Origin:  A.  According  to 
tradition;  B.  According  to  the  commonly  accepted  view; 
III.  Its  subsequent  history,  recensions,  manu- 
scripts, AND  editions;  IV.  Its  critical  value; 
Language. 

I.  Historical  Importance  of  the  Septuagint. 
— The  importance  of  the  Septuagint  Version  is  shown 
by  the  following  considerations:  A.  The  Septuagint 
is  the  most  ancient  translation  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  consequentl}^  is  invaluable  to  critics  for  under- 
standing and  correcting  the  Hebrew  text,  the  latter, 
Buch  as  it  has  come  down  to  us,  being  the  text  estab- 
lished by  the  Massoretes  in  the  sixth  century  a.  d. 
Many  textual  corruptions,  additions,  omissions,  or 
transpositions  must  have  crept  into  the  Hebrew  text 
between  the  third  and  second  centuries  B.C.  and  the 
sixth  and  seventh  centuries  of  our  era;  the  MSS.  there- 
fore which  the  Seventy  had  at  their  disposal,  may  in 
places  have  been  better  than  the  Massoretic  MSS. 
B.  The  Septuagint  Version  accepted  first  by  the 
Alexandrian  Jews,  and  afterwards  by  all  the  Greek- 
speaking  countries,  helped  to  spread  among  the 
Gentiles  the  idea  and  the  ex-pectation  of  the  Messias, 
and  to  introduce  into  Greek  the  theological  terminol- 
ogy and  concepts  that  made  it  a  most  suitable  instru- 
ment for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ. 

C.  The  Jews  made  use  of  it  long  before  the  Christian 
Era,  and  in  the  time  of  Christ  it  was  recognized  as  a 
legitimate  text,  and  was  employed  in  Palestine  even 
by  the  rabbis.  ITie  Apostles  and  Evangelists  utilized 
it  alsf)  and  borrowed  Old  Testament  citations  from  it, 
especially  in  regard  to  the  prophecies.  The  Fathers 
and  the  other  ecclesiastical  writers  of  the  early  Church 
drew  upon  it,  either  directly,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Greek  Fathers,  or  indirectly,  like  the  Latin  Fathers 
and  writers  and  others  who  employed  Latin,  Syriac, 
Ethiopian,  Arabic  and  Gothic  versions.  It  was  held 
in  high  esteem  by  all,  some  even  believed  it  inspired. 
Con.sequentiy,  a  knowledge  of  the  Septuagint  helps 
to  a  perfect  understanding  of  these  literatures. 

D.  At  the  present  time,  the  Sej)tiiagint  is  the 
official  text  in  the  Greek  Church,  and  the  ancient 
Latin  Versions  used  in  the  Western  Church  were  made 
from  it;  the  earliest  Iranslalion  adopted  in  the  Latin 
Church,  the  Vetus  Itala,  was  directly  from  the 
Septuagint:  the  meanings  adopted  in  it,  the  Greek 
names  and  words  empjloyed  (such  as:  Genesis,  Exodus, 
Iveviticus,  Numbers  ('Api^/nof],  Deuteronomy),  and, 
finally,  the  pronunciation  given  to  the  Hebrew  text, 
passfii  very  frequently  into  the  Itala,  and  from  it,  at 
times,  into  the  Vulgate,  which  not  rarely  gives  signs 
of  the  influence  of  the  Vetus  Itala;  this  is  especially 


so  in  the  Psalms,  the  Vulgate  translation  being  merely 
the  Vetus  Itala  corrected  by  St.  Jerome  according  to 
the  hexaplar  text  of  the  Septuagint. 

II.  Origin  of  the  Septuagint. — A.  According  to 
Tradition.  The  Septuagint  Version  is  first  mentioned 
in  a  letter  of  Aristeas  to  his  brother  Philocrates. 
Here,  in  substance,  is  what  we  read  of  the  origin  of 
the  version.  Ptolemy  II  Philadelphus,  King  of 
Egypt  (284-47)  had  recently  established  a  valuable 
library  at  Alexandria.  He  was  persuaded  by  Demet- 
rius of  Phalarus,  chief  librarian,  to  enrich  it  with  a 
copy  of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Jews.  To  win  the 
good  graces  of  this  people,  Ptolemy,  by  the  advice  of 
Aristeas,  an  officer  of  the  royal  guard,  an  Egyptian  by 
birth  and  a  pagan  by  religion,  emancipated  100,000 
slaves  in  different  parts  of  his  kingdom.  He  then  sent 
delegates,  among  whom  was  Aristeas,  to  Jerusalem  to 
ask  Eleazar,  the  Jewish  high-priest,  to  provide  him 
with  a  copy  of  the  Law,  and  Jews  capable  of  trans- 
lating it  into  Greek.  The  embassy  was  successful:  a 
richly  ornamented  copy  of  the  Law  was  sent  to  him 
and  seventy-two  Israelites,  six  from  each  tribe,  were 
deputed  to  go  to  Egypt  and  carry  out  the  wish  of  the 
king.  They  were  received  with  great  honour  and 
during  seven  days  astonished  cverj'one  by  the  wisdom 
they  displayed  in  answering  seventj'-two  questions 
which  they  were  asked;  then  they  were  led  into  the 
soUtary  island  of  Pharos,  where  they  began  their 
work,  translating  the  Law,  helping  one  another  and 
comparing  their  translations  in  proportion  as  they 
finished  them.  At  the  end  of  seventy-two  days  their 
work  was  completed.  The  translation  was  read  in 
presence  of  the  Jewish  priests,  princes,  and  people  as- 
sembled at  Alexandria,  who  all  recognized  and  praised 
its  perfect  conformity  with  the  Hebrew  original.  The 
king  was  greatly  pleased  with  the  work  and  had  it 
placed  in  the  library. 

Despite  its  legendary  character,  Aristeas'  account 
gained  credence;  Aristobulus  (170-50),  in  a  passage 
preserved  by  Eusebius,  sa.ys  that  "through  the  efforts 
of  Demetrius  of  Phalerus  a  complete  translation  of  the 
Jewish  legislation  was  executed  in  the  days  of  Ptol- 
emy"; Aristeas's  story  is  repeated  almost  verbatim 
by  Flavins  Josephus  (Ant.  Jud.,  XII,  ii),  and  sub- 
stantially, with  the  omission  of  Aristeas'  name,  by 
Philo  of  Alexandria  (De  vita  Moysis,  II,  vi).  The 
letter  and  the  story  were  accepted  as  genuine  by 
many  Fathers  and  ecclesiastical  writers  till  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century;  other  details  serving  to 
emphasize  the  extraordinary  origin  of  the  version  were 
added  to  Aristeas's  account :  The  seventy-two  inter- 
preters were  inspired  by  God  (Tertullian,  St.  Augus- 
tine, the  author  of  the  "Cohortatio  ad  Grajcos" 
[Justin?!,  and  others);  in  translating  they  did  not  con- 
sult with  one  anotlier,  they  had  even  been  shut  up  in 
separate  cells,  cither  singly,  or  in  pairs,  and  their 
translations  when  compared  were  found  to  agree  en- 
tirely both  as  to  the  sense  and  the  expressions  em- 
ployed with  the  original  text  and  with  each  other 
(Cohortatio  ad  Grajcos,  St.  Irenajus,  St.  Clement  of 
Alexandria).  St.  Jerome  rejected  the  story  of  the 
cells  as  fabulous  and  untrue  ("Pra!f.  in  Pentateuch- 
um";  "Adv.  Rufinum",  IIj  xxv),  likewise  the  alleged 
inspiration  of  the  Septuagmt.  Finally  the  seventy- 
two  interpreters  translated,  not  only  the  five  books 
of  the  Pentateuch,  but  the  entire  Hebrew  Old  Testa- 
ment. The  authenticity  of  the  letter,  called  in 
question  first  by  Louis  Vivfts  (1492-1540),  professor 
at  Louvain  (Ad  S.  Augu.st.  Civ.  Dei,  XVIII,  xlii), 
then  by  Jos.  Scaliger  (d.  1009),  and  especially  by  H. 
Hody  (d.  1705)  and  Dupin  (d.  1719)  is  now  univer- 
sally denied. 

Criticism. — (1)  The  letter  of  Aristeas  is  certainly 
apocryphal.  The  writer,  who  calls  himself  Aristeas 
and  says  he  is  a  Greek  ana  a  pagan,  shows  by  his  whole 
work  that  he  is  a  pious,  zealous  Jew:  he  recognizes  the 
God  of  the  Jews  as  the  one  true  God;  he  declares  that 


SEPTUAGINT 


723 


SEPTUAGINT 


God  is  the  author  of  the  Mosaic  law;  he  is  an  enthu- 
siastic admirer  of  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  the  Jewish 
land  and  people,  and  its  holy  laws  and  learned  men. 

(2)  The  account  as  given  in  the  letter  must  be  re- 
garded as  fabulous  and  legendarj',  at  least  in  several 
parts.  Some  of  the  details,  such  as  the  official  inter- 
vention of  the  king  and  the  high  priest,  the  number 
of  the  seventy-two  translators,  the  seventy-two  ques- 
tions they  had  to  answer,  the  seventy-two  days  they 
took  for  their  work,  are  clearly  arbitrary  assertions; 
it  is  difficult,  moreover,  to  admit  that  the  Alexandrian 
Jews  adopted  for  their  public  worship  a  translation  of 
the  Law,  made  at  the  request  of  a  pagan  king;  lastly, 
the  very  language  of  the  Septuagint  Version  betrays 
in  places  a  rather  imperfect  knowledge  both  of  Hebrew 
and  of  the  topography  of  Palestine,  and  corresponds 
more  closely  with  the  vulgar  idiom  used  at  Alexandria. 
Yet  it  is  not  certain  that  everything  contained  m  the 
letter  is  legendary,  and  scholars  ask  if  there  is  not  a 
historic  foundation  underneath  the  legendary  details. 
Indeed  it  is  likely — as  appears  from  the  peculiar  char- 
acter of  the  language,  as  well  as  from  what  we  know 
of  the  origin  and  history  of  the  version — that  the 
Pentateuch  was  translated  at  Alexandria.  It  seems 
true  also  that  it  dates  from  the  time  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  and  therefore  from  the  middle  of  the 
third  century  B.  c.  For  if,  as  is  commonly  believed, 
Aristeas's  letter  was  written  about  200  b.c,  fifty  years 
after  the  death  of  Philadelphus,  and  with  a  view  to 
increase  the  authority  of  the  Greek  version  of  the  Law, 
would  it  have  been  accepted  so  easily  and  spread 
broadcast,  if  it  had  l)('en  fict  itious,  and  if  the  time  of 
the  composition  did  not  correspond  with  the  reality? 
Moreover,  it  is  possible  tluit  Ptolemy  had  something 
to  do  with  the  prei):iratioii  or  pul)lishing  of  the  trans- 
lation, though  how  and  why  cannot  be  determined 
now.  Was  it  for  the  purpose  of  enriching  his  library 
as  Pseudo-Aristeas  states?  This  is  possible,  but  it 
is  not  proved,  while,  as  will  be  shown  below,  we  can 
very  well  account  for  the  origin  of  the  version  inde- 
pendently of  the  king. 

(3)  The  few  details  which  during  the  course  of  ages 
have  been  added  to  Aristeas's  account  cannot  be  ac- 
cepted; such  are  the  story  of  the  cells  (St.  Jerome 
explicitly  rejected  this) ;  the  inspiration  of  the  trans- 
lators, an  opinion  certainly  based  on  the  legend  of  the 
cells;  the  number  of  the  translators,  seventy-two  (see 
below);  the  assertion  that  all  the  Hebrew  books  were 
translated  at  the  same  time.  Aristeas  speaks  of  the 
translation  of  the  Law  {vSfj.os),  of  the  legislation 
(vofiodeffia),  of  the  books  of  the  legislator;  now  these 
expressions,  especially  the  last  two,  certainly  mean  the 
Pentateuch,  exclusive  of  the  other  Old-Testament 
books:  and  St.  Jerome  (Comment,  in  Mich.)  say.s: 
"Josephus  writes,  and  the  Hebrews  inform  us,  that 
only  the  five  books  of  Moses  were  translated  by  them 
(seventy-two),  and  given  to  King  Ptolemy."  Be- 
sides, the  versions  of  the  various  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  differ  so  much  in  vocabulary,  style,  form, 
and  character,  sometimes  free  and  sometimes  ex- 
tremely hteral,  that  they  could  not  be  the  work  of  the 
same  translators.  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  these 
divergencies  the  name  of  Septuagint  Version  is  uni- 
versally given  to  the  entire  coUection  of  the  Old 
Testament  books  in  the  Greek  Bible  adopted  by  the 
Eastern  Church. 

B.  Origin  according  to  the  commonly  accepted  view. — 
As  to  the  Pentateuch  the  following  view  seems  plau- 
sible, and  is  now  commonly  accepted  in  its  broad  lines: 
The  Jews  in  the  last  two  centuries  b.  c.  were  so  nu- 
merous in  Egypt,  especially  at  Alexandria,  that 
at  a  certain  time  they  formed  two-fifths  of  the  entire 
population.  Little  by  little  most  of  them  ceased  to 
use  and  even  forgot  the  Hebrew  language  in  great  part, 
and  there  was  a  danger  of  their  forgetting  the  Law. 
Consequently  it  became  customary  to  interpret  in 
I  Greek  the  Law  which  was  read  in  the  synagogues,  and 


it  was  quite  natural  that,  after  a  time,  some  men 
zealous  for  the  Law  should  have  undertaken  to  compile 
a  Greek  Translation  of  the  Pentateuch.  This  hap- 
pened about  the  middle  of  the  third  century  B.C. 
As  to  the  other  Hebrew  books — the  prophetical  and 
historical — it  was  natural  that  the  Alexandrian  Jews, 
making  use  of  the  translated  Pentateuch  in  their 
liturgical  reunions,  should  desire  to  read  the  remain- 
ing books  also  and  hence  should  gradually  have  trans- 
lated all  of  them  into  Greek,  which  had  become  their 
maternal  language;  this  would  be  so  much  the  more 
likely  as  their  knowledge  of  Hebrew  was  diminishing 
daily.  It  is  not  possible  to  determine  accurately  the 
precise  time  or  the  occasions  on  which  these  different 
translations  were  made;  but  it  is  certain  that  the  Law, 
the  Prophets,  and  at  least  part  of  the  other  books,  that 
is,  the  hagiographies,  existed  in  Greek  before  the  year 
130  B.C.,  as  appears  from  the  prologue  of  Ecclesiasti- 
cus,  which  does  not  date  later  than  that  j  ear.  It  is 
difficult  also  to  say  where  the  various  translations  were 
made,  the  data  being  so  scanty.  Judging  by  the 
Egyptian  words  and  expressions  occurring  in  the  ver- 
sion, most  of  the  books  must  have  been  translated  in 
Egypt  and  most  likely  at  Alexandria;  Esther  however 
was  translated  at  Jerusalem  (XI,  i). 

Who  were  the  translators  and  how  many?  Is  there 
any  foundation  for  their  number,  seventy  or  seventy- 
two,  as  given  in  the  legendary  account  (Brassac- 
Vigouroux,  n.  105)?  It  seems  impo.ssible  to  decide 
definitively;  the  Talmudists  tell  us  that  the  Penta- 
teuch was  translated  by  five  interpreters  (Sopherim, 
c.  i.).  History  gives  us  no  details;  but  an  examination 
of  the  text  shows  that  in  general  the  authors  were  not 
Palestinian  Jews  called  to  Egypt;  and  differences  of 
terminology,  method,  etc.  prove  clearly  that  the  trans- 
lators were  not  the  same  for  the  different  books.  It  is 
impossible  also  to  say  whether  the  work  was  carried  out 
officially  or  was  merely  a  private  undertaking,  as  seems 
to  have  been  the  case  with  Ecclesiasticus;  but  the 
different  books  when  translated  were  soon  put  to- 
gether— the  author  of  Ecclesiasticus  knew  the  col- 
lection— and  were  received  as  official  by  the  Greek- 
speaking  Jews. 

III.  Subsequent  History. — Recensions. — The 
Greek  version,  known  as  the  Septuagint,  welcomed  by 
the  Alexandrian  Jews,  spread  quickly  throughout  the 
countries  in  which  Greek  was  spoken;  it  was  utilized 
by  different  writers,  and  supplanted  the  original  text 
in  hturgical  services.  Philo  of  Alexandria  used  it  in 
his  writings  and  looked  on  the  translators  as  inspired 
Prophets;  it  was  finally  received  even  by  the  Jews  of 
Palestine,  and  was  employed  notably  by  Josephus, 
the  Palestinian  Jewish  historian.  We  know  also  that 
the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  made  use  of  it, 
borrowing  from  it  most  of  their  citations;  it  became 
the  Old  Testament  of  the  Church  and  was  so  highly 
esteemed  by  the  early  Christians  that  several  writers 
and  Fathers  declared  it  to  be  inspired.  The  Chris- 
tians had  recourse  to  it  constantly  in  their  controver- 
sies with  the  Jews,  who  soon  recognized  its  imperfec- 
tions, and  finally  rejected  it  in  favour  of  the  Hebrew 
text  or  of  more  literal  translations  (Aquila,  Theodo- 
tion). 

Critical  corrections  of  Origen,  Lucian,  and  Hesych- 
ius. — On  account  of  its  diffusion  among  the  hellenizing 
Jews  and  early  Christians,  copies  of  the  Septuagint 
were  multiplied;  and  as  might  be  expected,  many 
changes,  deliberate  as  well  as  involuntary,  crept  in. 
The  necessity  of  restoring  the  text  as  far  as  possible 
to  its  pristine  purity  was  felt.  The  following  is  a 
brief  account  of  the  attempted  corrections: — 

A.  Origen  reproduced  the  Septuagint  text  in  the 
fifth  column  of  his  Hexapla;  marking  with  obeli  the 
texts  that  occurred  in  the  Septuagint  without  being 
in  the  original;  adding  according  to  Theodotion's  ver- 
sion, and  distinguishing  with  asterisks  and  metobeli 
the  texts  of  the  original  which  were  not  in  the  Septua- 


SEPTUAGINT 


724 


SEPTUAGINT 


gint;  adopting  from  the  variants  of  the  Greek  Version 
the  texts  which  were  closest  to  the  Hebrew;  and, 
finally,  transposing  the  text  where  the  order  of  the 
Septuagint  did  not  correspond  with  the  Hebrew 
order.  His  recension,  copied  b)^  Pamphilus  and 
Eusebius,  is  called  the  hexaplar,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  version  previously  employed  and  which  is 
called  the  common,  vulgate,  koivt^,  or  ante-hexaplar. 
It  was  adopted  in  Palestine.  B.  St.  Lucien,  priest  of 
Antioch  and  martyr,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century,  pubhshed  an  edition  corrected  in  accordance 
with  the  Hebrew;  this  retained  the  name  of  koiv-^, 
vulgate  edition,  and  is  sometimes  called  AovKiavis, 
after  its  author.  In  the  time  of  St.  Jerome  it  was  in 
use  at  Constantinople  and  Antioch.  C.  Finally, 
Hesychius,  an  Egyptian  bishop,  published  about  the 
same  time,  a  new  recension,  employed  chiefly  in 
Egypt. 

Mayiuscripls. — "The  three  most  celebrated  MSS. 
of  the  Septuagint  known  are  the  Vatican,  "Codex 
Vaticanus"  (fom-th  century) ;  the  Alexandrian,  "Codex 
Alexandrinus "  (fifth  century),  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  London;  and  that  of  Sinai,  "Codex  Sinaiti- 
cus"  (fourth  century),  found  by  Tischendorf  in  the 
convent  of  Saint  Catherine,  on  IMount  Sinai,  in  1844 
and  1849,  now  in  part  at  Leipzig  and  in  part  at  St. 
Petersburg;  they  are  all  TATitten  in  uncials.  The 
"Codex  Vaticanus"  is  the  purest  of  the  three;  it 
generally  gives  the  more  ancient  text,  while  the 
"Codex  Alexamh-inus"  borrows  much  from  the 
hexaplar  te.xt  and  is  changed  according  to  the  Mas- 
soretic  text  (The  "Codex  Vaticanus"  is  referred  to 
by  the  letter  B;  the  "Codex  Alexandrinus"  by  the 
letter  A,  and  the  "Codex  Sinaiticus"  by  the  first  letter 
of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  N  or  bj^  S).  The  Bibliotheque 
Nationale  in  Paris  possesses  also  an  important  pa- 
limpsest MS.  of  the  Septuagint,  the  "Codex  Ephraemi 
rescriptus"  (designated  by  the  letter  C),  and  two 
RLSS.  of  less  value  (64  and  118),  in  cursives,  one  be- 
longing to  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century  and  the 
other  to  the  thirteenth  (Bacuez  and  Vigouroux, 
12th  ed.,  n.  109). 

Printed  Editions. — All  the  printed  editions  of  the 
Septuagint  are  derived  from  the  three  recensions  men- 
tioned above.  A.  The  editio  princeps  is  the  Com- 
plutensian  or  that  of  Alcald.  It  was  from  Origen's 
hexaplar  text;  printed  in  1.514-18,  it  was  not  pub- 
h.shed  till  it  appeared  in  the  Polyglot  of  Cardinal 
Ximenes  in  1520.  B.  The  Aldine  edition  (begun  by 
Aldus  Manucius)  appeared  at  Venice  in  1518.  The 
text  is  purer  than  that  of  the  Complutensian  edition, 
and  is  closer  to  Codex  B.  The  editor  says  he  collated 
ancient  MSS.  but  does  not  specify  them.  It  has  been 
reprinted  several  times.  C.  The  mosl  important  edi- 
tion is  the  Roman  or  Sixtine,  which  reproduces  the 
"Codex  Vaticanus"  almost  exclusively.  It  was  pub- 
lisliC'd  under  the  direction  of  Cardinal  Caraffa,  with 
the  help  of  various  savants,  in  1586,  by  the  authority 
of  Sixtus  V,  to  assist  the  revisers  who  were  preparing 
the  Latin  Vulgate  edition  ordered  by  the  Council  of 
Trent.  It  has  become  the  textus  receptus  of  the  Greek 
Old  Testament  and  has  had  many  new  editions,  such 
as  that  of  Holmes  and  Pearsons  (Oxford,  1798-1827), 
the  seven  editions  of  Tischendorf,  which  appeared  at 
Leipzig  between  1850  and  1887,  the  last  two  published 
after  the  death  of  the  author  and  revised  by  Nestle, 
the  four  editions  of  Swete  (Cambridge,  1887-95, 
1901,  1909j,  etc.  D.  Grabe's  edition  was  published 
at  Oxford,  from  1707  to  1720,  and  reproduced,  but 
imperfectly,  the  "Codex  Alexandrinus"  of  London. 
For  partial  editions,  see  Vigouroux,  "Diet,  de  la 
Bible",  1643  sqq. 

IV.  Critical  Value.— The  Septuagint  Version, 
while  giving  exactly  as  to  the  form  and  substance 
the  true  sense  of  the  Sacred  Books,  differs  neverthe- 
less considerably  from  our  present  Hebrew  text. 
These  discrepancies,  however,  are  not  of  great  im- 


portance and  are  only  matters  of  interpretation. 
They  may  be  thus  classified:  Some  result  from  the 
translators  having  had  at  their  disposal  Hebrew 
recensions  difl'ering  from  those  which  were  known  to 
the  Massoretes;  sometimes  the  texts  varied,  at  others 
the  texts  were  ideut  ical,  hut  they  were  read  in  different 
order.  Other  discrepancies  are  due  to  tlie  translators 
personally;  not  to  speak  of  the  iniluence  exerted  on 
their  work  by  their  methods  of  interpretation,  the 
inherent  difficulties  of  the  work,  then-  greater  or  less 
knowledge  of  Greek  and  Hebrew,  they  now  and  then 
translated  differently  from  the  Massoretes,  because 
they  read  the  texts  differently;  that  was  natural,  for, 
Hebrew  being  wTitten  in  square  characters,  and  certain 
consonants  being  very  similar  in  form,  it  was  easy  to 
confound  them  occasionally  and  so  give  an  erroneous 
translation;  moreover,  their  Hebrew  text  b(nng 
written  without  any  spacing  between  the  ^•al•iou3 
words,  they  could  easily  make  a  mistake  in  the 
separation  of  the  words;  finally,  as  the  Hebrew  text 
at  their  disposal  contained  no  v(jw(4s,  they  might 
supply  different  vowels  from  those  used  later  by  the 
Massoretes.  Again,  we  must  not  think  that  we  have 
at  present  the  Greek  text  exactly  as  it  was  written 
by  the  translators;  the  frequent  transcriptions  during 
the  early  centuries,  as  well  as  the  corrections  and  edi- 
tions of  Origen,  Lucian,  and  Hesychius  impaired  the 
purity  of  the  text:  voluntarily  or  involuntarily  the 
copyists  allowed  many  textual  corruptions,  transposi- 
tions, additions,  and  omissions  to  creep  into  the  prim- 
itive text  of  the  Sei)tuagint.  In  particular  we  may 
note  the  addition  of  jjarallcl  passages,  explanatory 
notes,  or  double  translations  caused  by  marginal 
notes.  On  this  consult  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  art.  cit.,  and 
Swete,  "An  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament  in 
Greek". 

Language. — Everyone  admits  that  the  Septuagint 
Version  was  made  in  popular  Greek,  the  KOLvij 
SidXeKTos.  But  is  the  Greek  of  the  Old  Testament 
a  special  idiom?  Many  authorities  assert  that  it  is, 
though  they  disagree  as  to  its  real  character.  The 
"Diet,  de  la  Bible",  s.  v.  Grcc  bibliquc,  asserts  that 
it  was  "  the  hebraicizing  Greek  spoken  by  the  Jewish 
community  at  Alexandria",  the  popular  Greek  of 
Alexandria  "with  a  very  large  admixture  of  Hebra- 
icisms".  The  same  dictionary,  s.  v.  Septante,  men- 
tions the  more  recent  opinion  of  Deissmann  that  the 
Greek  of  the  Septuagint  is  merely  the  ordinary 
vernacular  Greek,  the  pure  Koi.vr}  of  the  time.  Deiss- 
mann bases  his  theory  on  the  perfect  resemblance  of 
the   language   of   the   Septuagint   and   that   of    the 

Eapyri  and  the  inscriptions  of  the  same  age;  he 
elieves  that  the  syntactical  i)eculiarities  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint, which  at  first  sight  sei^n  to  favour  the  theory 
of  a  special  language,  a  hebrai('izing  Greek,  are 
sufficiently  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  Septuagint 
is  a  Greek  translation  of  Hebrew  books. 

HoDY,  De  bibliorum  lextihus  originalihus,  versionibrm  nrcpcia 
el  lalina  vulgata  (Oxford,  1705);  Chubton,  On  the  influence  of  the 
Septuagint  upon  the  Progress  of  Christianity  (Cambridge,  1801); 
CoKNELY,  Hist,  et  crit.  introductio  in  V.  T.  libros  sacros,  I  (Paris, 
1885);  Idem,  Ifist.  et  crit.  introd.  in  V.  T.  lib.  sacros  compendium 
(Paris,  1900);  Thochon,  La  Sainte  Bible;  introd.  giniralr  (ruris, 
1886);  Lamy,  Introd.  in  sacram  scripturam  (Mechlin,  1880-1887); 
Robertson  Smith,  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church  (2nd  ed., 
1892) ;  LoiBY,  I/isl.  crit.  du  texte  et  des  versions  de  la  Bible  in 
Enseignement  biblique  (Paris,  1893);  Klostermann,  Analecta 
zur  Septuaginla  (Leipzig,  1895);  Deissmann,  Neue  BibeUtudien. 
Sprachgeschichtliche  BeitrUge  zumeist  aus  den  Papyri  und  Inach- 
riftemur  Erkldrung  des  neuen  Testaments  (Marburg,  1897);  Idem, 
H ellenislisches  Griechisch  in  Realencyclopddie  fur  protestantische 
Theologie  und  Kirche  (3rd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1899);  Schuher,  Gesch. 
des  judischen  Volkes  im  Zeitalter  Jesu  Christi  (3rd  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1898);  Swete,  An  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament  in  Greek 
(Cambridge,  1900);  Vigouroux,  Manuel  biblique  (12th  ed., 
Paris,  1906). 

For  the  letter  of  Pscudo-Aristeas,  see  Thackeray,  The  letter 
of  Aristeas,  an  Appendix  to  an  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament 
(Cambridge,  1900);  We.ndland,  Ariste(c  ad  Philocratem  epistola 
cum  ca-leris  de  origine  versionis  Septuaginla  interpretum  leslimoniia 
(Leipzig,  1900). 

For  the  complete  edition  of  the  Septuagint,  see  Vercellonb, 
Vetua  el  Novum   TealamerUum  ex  antiquiaaimo  codice    Valicano 


SEPULCHRE 


725 


SEPAPHIM 


(Rome,  1857);  Tischendorf,  Vetus  Testamenlum  grace  juxta 
Septuaginta  Interpretes  .  .  .  7th  ed.  revised  and  completed 
by  Nestle  (Leipzig,  1887) ;  Swete,  The  Old  Testament  in  Greek, 
according  to  the  Septuagint  (4th  ed.  Cambridge,  1909). 

A.  Vander  Heeren. 
Sepulchre,  The  Holy.  See  Holy  Sepulchre. 
Sequence.     See  Prose. 

Serajevo  (Seraium),  Archdiocese  of,  in  Bosnia. 
The  healthy  growth  of  the  Church  in  Bosnia  was 
blighted  and  stunted  by  Arianism  and  the  disturb- 
ances caused  by  the  wandering  of  the  nations.  Irre- 
parable, however,  was  the  damage  inflicted  by  the 
Oriental  Schism.  To  this  day  forty-three  per  cent 
of  the  population  are  Greek  Orthodox,  calling  them- 
selves Servians,  and  their  religion  and  language 
Servian.  From  the  earliest  times  the  Church  of 
Christ  opposed  the  Bogomiles,  a  branch  of  the 
Manicha;ans,  who,  varying  as  to  time  and  place,  dress 
and  nomenclature,  are  well  nigh  a  historical  puzzle. 
They  have  been  called  Paulicians,  Phundaites,  Encra- 
tites,  Marcionites,  Christopolites,  and,  after  a  certain 
Bulgarian  priest,  Bogomiles.  They  were  very  numer- 
ous in  Bosnia,  as  is  i)roven  by  the  great  number  of 
Bogomile  graves.  From  1292  onwards  the  Franciscan 
monks  co-operated  with  the  secular  clergy  in  attend- 
ing to  the  needs  of  the  faithful. 

When  in  1463  Stephan  Tomasevid,  the  last  native 
sovereign  of  Bosnia,  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Turks 
and  decapitated,  there  were  many  Catholics  who,  in 
order  to  save  their  possessions,  renounced  their  faith 
and  became  Mohammedans  (now  known  as  "Begs")- 
Nearly  all  the  Bogomiles  became  Mohammedans  at 
the  same  time,  and  the  few  who  remained  true  to  their 
faith  were  degraded  to  the  position  of  "rayahs",  i.  e. 
serfs  possessing  no  civil  rights.  The  Catholic  Church 
of  Bosnia  suffered  the  most  severe  of  hardships  during 
the  succeeding  four  centuries.  The  faithful  lost  their 
possessions,  and  might  not,  without  the  Sultan's  per- 
mission, build  themselves  even  a  hut,  nuich  less  a 
church.  From  1683  onwards,  repeatecl  inhuman  op- 
pressions drove  them  frequently  to  have  recourse  to 
arms,  but  each  time  only  to  make  their  position  worse 
than  before.  The  Franciscan  PViars  alone  saved  the 
Church  in  Bosnia.  They  disguised  themselves  as 
Turks  and  were  addressed  by  the  Catholics  as  ujaci 
(uncle).  Often  they  were  compelled  to  hold  services 
and  to  bury  their  dead  at  night  in  the  woods  and 
caves.  They  lived  in  the  direst  poverty  and  very 
many  of  them  became  martyrs.  The  old  people  in- 
structed the  younger  generation  during  the  winter 
months  in  the  catechism,  and  during  Lent  the  Fran- 
ciscans examined  the  pupils.  Nearly  all  Catholics 
in  Bosnia  bore  a  cross  tattooed  on  breast  or  hand. 

The  subjection  of  the  Bosnian  people  to  the  House 
of  Habsburg  marks  the  beginning  of  its  growth  in  reli- 
gion and  in  culture.  In  1878  the  European  powers 
charged  Austria-Hungary  with  the  military  govern- 
ment of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  and  in  1908  these 
two  countries  were  declared  part  of  the  empire.  In 
1881  His  Apostolic  Majesty  formed  the  ecclesiastical 
province  of  Serajevo,  and  appointed  as  archbishop 
J.  Stadler,  professor  of  theology  at  Agram.  Native 
Franciscans  were  elevated  to  the  sees  of  Mostar  and 
Banjalika.  The  Society  of  Jesus  took  over  and  has 
retained  charge  of  the  seminary  for  priests  in  Serajevo, 
which  supplies  the  entire  province,  and  in  Travnik 
conducts  a  seminary  for  boj-s,  the  gymnasium  of 
which  is  frequented  by  pupils  of  all  religions.  The 
Franciscans  maintain  two  schools  of  six  classes  each 
for  the  preparation  of  the  young  postulants  of  the 
order,  while  the  Sisters  of  Charity  conduct  32  Catholic 
primary  schools. 

The  Archdiocese  of  Serajevo  has  180,000  Catholics, 
with  50  priests  and  110  friars. 

KLAtJ,  Oesch.  Bosniens  von  den  dlte.iten  Leiten  bis  zum  Verfalle 
des  KOnigreichee,  Germ.  tr.  Bojnicic  (Leipzig,  1885);  Straus, 
Bosnien,  Land  und  Leute  (Vienna,  1864);    Nikaschinoviusch, 


Bosnienunddie  Herzegovina  unterder  Verwaltung  der  Osterr.  ungar. 
Monarchic,  1,  (Berhn,  1901);  Puntigan,  Unsere  Zukunft  in 
Bosnien  (CJraz  and  Vienna,  1909). 

Colestin  Wolfsgruber. 

Seraphia,  Saint.    See  Sabina,  Saint. 

Seraphic  Doctor.    See  Bonaventure,  Saint. 

Seraphic  Order.    See  Friars  Minor,  Order  op. 

Seraphim. — The  name,  a  Hebrew  masculine  plural 
form,  designates  a  special  class  of  heavenly  attendants 
of  Yahweh's  court.  In  Holy  Writ  these  angelic  beings 
are  distinctly  mentioned  only  in  Isaias's  description 
of  his  call  to  the  prophetical  office  (Isa.,  vi,  2sqq.). 
In  a  vision  of  deep  spiritual  import,  granted  him  in 
the  Temple,  Isaias  beheld  the  invisible  realities  sym- 
bolized by  the  outward  forms  of  Yahweh's  dwelling 
place,  of  its  altar,  its  ministers,  etc.  While  he  stood 
gazing  before  the  priest's  court,  there  arose  before  him 
an  august  vision  of  Yahweh  sitting  on  the  throne  of 
His  glory.  On  each  side  of  the  throne  stood  myster- 
ious fiuanliaiis,  each  su[)plied  with  six  wings:  two  to 
bear  thcin  u]),  tw<j  veiling  their  faces,  and  two  cover- 
ing tlieir  feet,  now  naked,  as  became  priestly  service 
in  the  presence  of  the  Almighty.  His  highest  servants, 
they  were  there  to  minister  to  Him  and  proclaim  His 
glory,  each  calling  to  the  other:  "Holy,  holy,  holy, 
Yahweh  of  hosts;  all  the  earth  is  full  of  His  glory." 
These  were  seraphim,  one  of  whom  flew  towards  Isaias 
having  in  his  hand  a  live  coal  which  he  had  taken 
from  the  altar,  and  with  which  he  touched  and  purified 
the  Prophet's  lips,  that  henceforth  these  might  be 
consecrated  to  the  utterances  of  inspiration.  Such, 
in  substance,  is  Isaias's  symbolical  vision  from  which 
may  be  inferred  all  that  Sacred  Scripture  discloses 
concerning  the  seraphim.  Although  described  under 
a  human  form,  with  faces,  hands,  and  feet  (Is.,  vi, 
2,  6),  they  are  undoubtedly  existing  spiritual  beings 
corresponding  to  their  name,  and  not  mere  symbolic 
representations  as  is  often  asserted  by  advanced 
Protestant  scholars.  Their  number  is  considerable, 
as  they  ai)i)ear  around  the  heavenly  throne  in  a  double 
choir  aiul  the  volume  of  their  chorus  is  such  that  the 
sound  shakes  the  foundations  of  the  palace.  They  are 
distinct  from  the  cherubim  who  carry  or  veil  God,  and 
show  the  presence  of  His  glory  in  the  earthly  sanc- 
tuary, whilst  the  seraphim  stand  before  God  as  minis- 
tering servants  in  the  heavenly  court.  Their  name 
too,  seraphim,  distinguishes  them  from  the  cherubim, 
although  it  is  confessedly  difficult  to  obtain  from  the 
single  Scriptural  passage  wherein  these  beings  are 
mentioned  a  clear  conception  of  its  precise  meaning. 
The  name  is  oftentimes  derived  from  the  Hebrew  verb 
sardph  ("to  consume  with  fire"),  and  this  etymology 
is  very  probable  because  of  its  accordance  with  Isa., 
vi,  6,  where  one  of  the  seraphim  is  represented  as 
carrying  celestial  fire  from  the  altar  to  purify  the 
Prophet's  lips.  Many  scholars  prefer  to  derive  it  from 
the  Hebrew  noun  saraph,  "a  fiery  and  flying  serpent", 
spoken  of  in  Num.,  xxi,  6;  Isa.,  xiv,  29,  and  the  brazen 
image  of  which  stood  in  the  Temple  in  Isaias's  time 
(IV  Kings,  xviii,  4);  but  it  is  plain  that  no  trace  of 
such  serpentine  form  appears  in  Isaias's  description 
of  the  seraphim.  Still  less  probable  are  the  views 
propounded  of  late  by  certain  critics  and  connecting 
the  Biblical  seraphim  with  the  Babylonian  Sharrapu, 
a  name  for  Nergal,  the  fire-god,  or  with  the  Egyptian 
griffins  (seref)  which  are  placed  at  Beni-Hassan  as 
guardians  of  graves.  The  seraphim  are  mentioned  at 
least  twice  in  the  Book  of  Enoch  (Ixi,  10;  Ixxi,  7), 
together  with  and  distinctly  from  the  cherubim.  In 
Christian  theology,  the  seraphim  occupy  with  the 
cherubim  the  highest  rank  in  the  celestial  hierarchy 
(see  Cherubim),  while  in  the  liturgy  (Te  Deum; 
Preface  of  the  Mass)  they  are  represented  as  repeat- 
ing the  Trisagion  exactly  as  in  Isa.,  vi. 

Commentaries  on  Isaias:    Knabenbauer  (Paris,    1887) ;   De- 
LITZ8CH  (tr.  Edinburgh,  1890) ;  Ddhu  (Gottingen,  1892) ;  Skin- 


SERAPHIN 


726 


SERENA 


NER  (Cambridge,  1896);  Marti  (Tubingen,  1900);  Condamin 
(Paris,  1905).  Theolog>'  of  the  Old  Testament:  Oehler  (tr. 
New  York,  1883);  Dillmann-Kittel  (Leipzig,  1895);  Schultz 
(tr.  Edinburgh,  1898). 

Francis  E.  Gigot. 

Seraphin  of  Montegranaro,  Saint,  b.  at 
Montegranaro,  1540;  d.  at  Ascoli,  12  Oct.,  1604. 
He  was  born  of  a  poor,  pious  family,  and  in  his  youth 
was  employed  as  a  shepherd,  an  occupation  which 
gave  him  much  leisure  for  prayer  and  other  pious 
exercises.  Upon  the  death  of  his  parents  he  was  sub- 
jected to  harsh  and  cruel  treatment  by  his  eldest 
brother.  At  the  age  of  sixteen,  Seraphin  entered  the 
Order  of  Friars  Minor  Capuchin.  He  was  distin- 
guished from  the  first  by  his  humihty,  mortification, 
and  obedience  as  well  as  charity,  which  towards  the 
poor  knew  no  bounds.  He  had  a  special  devotion  to 
the  Blessed  Eucharist  and  to  Our  Lady.  Seraphin 
was  endowed  with  the  gift  of  reading  the  secrets  of 
hearts,  and  with  that  of  miracles  and  prophecy. 
Although  unlettered,  his  advice  was  sought  by  secular 
and  ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  and  was  a  fruitful  source 
of  virtue  to  souls.  His  tomb  is  in  the  convent 
at  Ascoli.  He  was  canonized  by  Clement  XIII, 
16  July,  1767.  His  feast  is  celebrated  in  the  Fran- 
ciscan Order  on  12  October. 

Clary,  Lives  of  the  Saitils  and  Blessed  of  the  Three  Orders  of  St. 
Francis,  III  (Taunton,  1886),  292-96;  Acta  SS.,  Oct.,  VI,  128-60; 
Lechner,  Leben  der  Heiligen  axis  dem  Kapuzinerorden,  I  (1863), 
229-72;  Svampa,  Vita  di  S.  Serafino  da  Montegranaro  Laico  Cap- 
puccino (Bologna,  1904). 

Ferdinand  Heckmann. 

Seraphina  Sforza,  Blessed,  b.  at  Urbino  about 
1434;  d.  at  Pesaro,  8  Sept.,  1478.  Her  parents  were 
Guido  Antonio  of  Montefeltro,  Count  of  Urbino,  and 
Cattarina  Colonna.  She  was  brought  up  at  Rome  by 
her  maternal  uncle,  Martin  V.  In  1448  Serajjhina 
married  Alexander  Sforza,  Lord  of  Pesaro.  Ten  years 
afterwards  her  hu.sband  gave  himself  up  to  a  dissolute 
life.  All  the  efforts  of  Seraphina  to  reform  him  were 
in  vain.  Instead,  he  heaped  insults  and  ill-treatment 
upon  her,  and  even  attempted  her  life,  and  finally 
forced  her  to  enter  the  convent  of  the  Poor  Clares  at 
Pesaro.  Her  life  there  was  one  of  incessant  prayer 
especially  for  the  conversion  of  her  husband,  which 
was  finally  granted.  In  1475  Seraphina  was  elected 
abbess  of  the  monastery  at  Pesaro.  Her  body,  ex- 
humed some  years  after  her  death,  was  found  incor- 
rupt, and  is  preserved  in  the  cathedral  at  Pesaro.  She 
was  beatified  by  Benedict  XIV  in  1754,  and  her  feast 
is  kept  on  9  September  throughout  the  Franciscan 
Order. 

Clary,  Lives  of  the  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the  Three  Orders  of  St. 
Francis,  III  (Taunton,  1886),  114-20;  Acta  SS..  Sept.,  Ill  312- 
25;  Wadding,  Ann.  Min.,  XIV,  209-13;  Lives  of  Bl.  Seraphina 
were  written  by  Alegiani  (2nd  ed.,  Pesaro,  1855) ;  Gallccci  (3rd 
ed.,  Rome,  1724);  Felicianegli  (Pistoia,  1903). 

Ferdinand  Heckmann. 

Serapion,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Thmuis  in  Lower 
Eg37jt,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  after  362.  His 
parents  were  Christian  and  he  was  educated  among 
the  clergy  of  Alexandria,  probably  under  the  direc- 
tion of  St.  Athanasius,  who  always  held  him  in 
high  esteem.  After  presiding  over  a  monastery  for 
some  years,  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Thmuis 
some  time  before  343,  for  in  that  year  he  attendtid  the 
Council  of  Sardica  as  a  defender  of  the  Nicene  Faith. 
In  3.'j5  St.  Athanasius  sent  him  and  four  other 
Egyjjtian  bishops  on  an  embassy  to  Emperor  Con- 
stantius  (337-61)  that  they  might  plead  on  his  behalf 
and  refute  the  charges  which  the  Arians  had  brought 
against  him.  Serapion  was  deprived  of  his  see  in 
3.59  by  George,  the  anti-Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  and 
Bent  into  exile,  hence  the  title  "Confessor"  conferred 
upon  him  by  St.  Jerome  and  the  Ploman  Martyrology 
(21  March).  Between  the  years  358-62  St.  Athana- 
sius afldre.s.sffi  to  him  a  letter  on  the  death  of  Arius 
(P.  G.,  XXV,  685-90;  and  four  dogmatic  epistles, 


of  which  one  was  on  the  Son  of  God  and  three  on  the 
Holy  Ghost  (P.  G.,  XXVI,  529-676).  Serapion  was 
a  man  of  great  purity  of  life  and  extraordinary  elo- 
quence. St.  Jerome  calls  him  a  "scholasticus",  or 
scholar,  and  says  that  he  wrote  a  treatise  against  the 
Manichaeans,  another  on  the  titles  of  the  Psalms,  and 
many  useful  letters  to  different  parties.  The  work 
on  the  Psalms  is  lost ;  the  treatise  on  the  Manichaeans 
was  published  from  the  editio  princeps  of  Basnage 
(1725)  by  Migne  (P.  G.  XL,  599-924)  and,  with 
the  addition  of  a  newly-discovered  fragment,  by 
Brinkmann  (Berliner  Sitzungsberichte,  1894,  pp. 
479-91).  Of  his  letters  there  remain:  one  to  a  cer- 
tain bishop  Eudoxios,  otherwise  unknown  (P.  G. 
XL,  923-925) ;  a  letter  to  the  solitaries  of  Alexandria 
on  the  dignity  of  the  religious  life  (ibid.,  925-42);  a 
fragment  of  his  twentj^-third  letter  (Pitra,  "Analecta 
sacra",  II,  p.  xl);  three  fragments  extant  only  in 
Syriac  (Pitra,  op.  cit.,  IV,  214-5),  and  a  letter  on  the 
Father  and  the  Son,  first  published  in  1898  by  Wob- 
bermin  from  MS.  149  of  the  Convent  of  Laura  on 
Mount  Athos  (Texte  und  Untersuchungen,  XVII, 
new  series  II,  fasc.  3b).  From  the  same  MS.  Wob- 
bermin  published  (ibid.)  the  Greek  text  of  a  "eucholo- 
gion"  of  which  Serapion  is  considered  to  be  the  author 
or  redactor.  Though  some  attribute  the  discovery 
of  this  work  to  Wobbermin  its  text  had  already  been 
published  in  1894  by  Dmitrijewski  in  the  periodical, 
"  Trudy  ",  of  the  ecclesiastical  academy  of  Kiew  and  by 
Paulov  in  the  xP<"'"^o  ^v^amva  (from  the  same  MS.?). 
This  euchologion  contains  thirty  prayers,  eighteen 
of  which  refer  to  the  Mass,  seven  to  baptism  and 
confirmation,  three  to  Holy  orders,  two  to  the  anoint- 
ing of  the  sick,  and  one  to  the  burial  of  the  dead. 
These  prayers  were  arranged  in  their  proper  liturgical 
order  by  Brightman,  and  in  this  order  they  were  pub- 
lished (text  and  Lat.  tr.)  by  Funk  in  his  "Didascalia" 
under  the  title  "Sacramentarium  Scrapionis".  They 
have  been  translated  into  English  by  Wordsworth 
in  his  work,  "Bishop  Serapion's  Prayer  Book".  This 
euchologion  is  a  most  important  document  for  the 
history  of  the  Egyptian  liturgy  in  the  fom-th  century. 

SozoMEN,  P.  G.,  LXVII,  1371;  St.  .Iero.me,  De  uir.  i//.,  xcix; 
TiLLEMONT,  Memoires  ,VIII  (Venice,  1732);  Quatremere,  M^m. 
sur  VEgyple  (Paris,  1811);  Brinkmann  in  Berliner  Sitzungsbe- 
richte (1894);  WoBBERMi.N  in  Tezte  und  Untersuchungen,  XVII, 
n.  s.  II,  fasc.  3b  (Leipzig,  1898);  Brightman,  Journal  of  Theol. 
Studies  (London,  1900);  Drews  in  Zeits.  fur  Kirchengesch. 
(Gotha,  1900);  Batiffol,  La  litlSrature  grecque  (Paris,  1901); 
Baumbtark  in  Rdmische  Quartalschrift  (Rome,  1904);  Funk, 
Didascalia  et  Constitutiones  apostolorum  (Paderborn,  190.5);  Du- 
chesne, Lea  origines  du  cuUe chretien  (4th  ed.,  Paris,  1908) ;  Wordb- 
WORTH,  Bishop  Serapion's  Prayer-Book  (London,  1910). 

A.  A.  Vaschauje. 

Serapion,  Bishop  of  Antioch  (190-211),  is  known 
principally  through  his  theological  writings.  Of  these 
Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  V,  19)  mentions  a  private  letter 
addressed  to  Caricus  and  Pontius  against  the  Montan- 
ist  heresy ;  a  treatise  addressed  to  a  certain  Domninus, 
who  in  time  of  persecution  abandoned  Christianity 
for  the  error  of  "Jewish  will-worship"  (Hist,  eccl.,  VI, 
12);  a  work  on  the  Docetic  Gospel  attributed  to  St. 
Peter,  in  which  the  Christian  community  of  Rhossus  in 
Syria  is  warned  of  the  erroneous  character  of  this 
Gospel.  These  were  the  only  works  of  Serapion  with 
which  Easebius  was  acquainted,  but  he  says  it  is  prob- 
able that  others  were  extant  in  his  time.  He  gives 
two  short  extracts  from  the  first  and  third. 

Jerome,  De  Viris  III.,  c.  31 ;  Socrates,  //.  E.,  Ill,  7;  Routh, 
Reliquia:  sacrce,  447-62;  Harnack,  Chronologie,  II,  Vi'2;  Acta  SS., 
XIII  Oct.,  248-52. 

Patrick  J.  Healy. 

Serena,  La,  Diocese  of  (de  Serena,  Sereno- 
politana),  embracing  Atacama  and  Coquimbo 
provinces  (Chile),  suffragan  of  Santiago,  erected  1 
JuW,  1840.  The  boundaries  of  the  diocese  were 
definitively  established  on  26  March,  1844;  on  5 
June,  1844,  the  first  bishop,  Jos6  Agustin  de  la 
Sierra,  waa  installed.     Mgr.  Jara,  fifth  bishop,  waa 


SERGEANT 


727 


SERGIOPOLIS 


appointed  on  31  Aug.,  1909.  The  diocesan  territory 
exceeds  60,000  sq.  miles,  with  a  population  (Catholic) 
of  about  250,000.  There  are  64  secular,  35  regular 
priests;  30  parishes;  145  churches  and  chapels. 
The  town  of  La  Serena,  with  about  20,000  inhabitants, 
has  20  churches  (including  an  imposing  cathedral, 
erected  1844-60);  boasts  a  seminary  with  160 
students;  affords  good  educational  facilities — 
notably  in  technical  branches;  and  supports  hospitals, 
an  orphan  asylum,  lazaretto,  and  foundling  home. 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  of  the 
Congregation  of  Picpus  are  active. 

Ann.  Pont.  Calk.  (1910);  La  Provincia  Eclesidslica  Chilena 
Ereccion  de  sus  Obispados  y  Division  en  Parroquias  (Freiburg, 
1895),  xi,  xviii,  201,  xx,  267  sqq.,  and  passim;  Gerarchia  Cattolica 
(Rome,  1910);  Werner,  Orbis  Terrarum  Caiholicus  (Freiburg, 
1890). 

P.  J.  MacAuley. 

Sergeant,  John,  b.  at  Barrow-upon-Humber,  Lin- 
colnshire, in  1623;  d.  in  1710,  not,  as  Dodd  asserts,  in 
1707  (MS.  "Obituary  of  the  Old  Chapter").  He 
was  son  of  William  Sergeant,  a  yeoman,  and  was  edu- 
cated as  an  Anglican  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
graduating  in  1642-3.  Being  appointed  secretary  to 
Bishop  Morton  of  Durham,  he  was  em{)lo}-ed  in  patris- 
tic and  historical  researches  which  resulted  in  his  con- 
version. He  then  went  to  the  English  College,  Lis- 
bon, where  he  studied  theology  and  was  ordained 
priest  (24  Feb.,  1650).  He  taught  humanities  till 
1652,  when  he  became  procurator  and  prefect  of 
studies.  In  1653  he  was  recalled  to  the  English  mis- 
sion, where  he  made  many  converts ;  but  the  year  fol- 
lowing he  returned  to  Lisbon  to  resume  his  former 
offices  and  to  teach  philosophy.  In  1655  the  chapter, 
recognizing  his  unusual  ability,  elected  him  a  canon 
and  appointed  him  secretary.  For  the  next  twenty 
years  he  was  actively  engaged  in  controversy  with 
Stillingfleet,  Tillotson,  and  other  Anglican  divines, 
also  with  the  CathoUc  theologians  who  opposed  the 
views  of  Thomas  Blacklow.  At  the  time  of  the  Gates 
Plot  he  entered  into  communication  with  the  Privy 
Council,  which  greatly  scandalized  the  Catholics,  but 
some  of  the  incidents  which  happened  suggest  that  his 
mind  was  unbalanced  at  the  time.  He  avoided  arrest 
by  passing  as  a  physician  under  the  names  of  Dodd, 
Holland,  and  Smith.  His  peculiar  temperament, 
which  always  made  him  cUfhcult  to  work  with,  in- 
creased in  his  later  years,  and  he  fell  into  a  state  of 
nervous  irritation,  saying  and  writing  things  which 
caused  great  offence  and  pain,  even  to  his  friends. 
He  was  a  voluminous  writer,  lea\'ing  over  fifty  works, 
either  published  or  in  MS.  His  chief  writings  are: 
"Schism  Disarm'd"  (Paris,  1655);  "Schism  Dis- 
patcht"  (1657);  "VintUcation  of  Benedict  XII. 's 
Bull"  (Paris,  1659);  "Reflections  upon  the  Oath  of 
Supremacy  and  Allegiance"  (1661);  "Statera  Ap- 
pensa"  (London,  1661);  "Tradidi  Vobis"  (London, 
1662);  "Sure-Footing  in  Christianity"  (London, 
1665),  a  system  of  controversy,  for  which  he  was  at- 
tacked by  Peter  Talbot,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  and  in 
defence  of  which  Sergeant  wrote  several  pamphlets; 
"Solid  Grounds  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Faith" 
(1666);  "Faith  Vindicated"  (Louvain,  1667);  "Rea- 
son against  Raillery"  (1672);  "Error  Non-plust" 
(1673);  "Methodus  Compendiosa"  (Paris,  1674); 
"Clypeus  Septemplex"  (Paris.  1677),  a  defence  of  his 
o^vn  teaching;  a  series  of  "Catholic  Letters"  in  reply 
to  StilUngfleet  (London,  1687-8);  "Method  to  Sci- 
ence" (London,  1696);  a  series  of  works  against  Car- 
tesian philosophy,  "Ideae  Cartesiana;"  (London, 
1698);  "Non  Ultra"  (London,  1698);  "Raillery  de- 
feated by  Calm  Reason"  (London,  1699);  "Abstract 
of  the  Transactions  relating  to  the  English  Secular 
Clergy"  (London,  1706);  other  pamphlets  relating  to 
the  chapter,  some  of  which,  with  replies  thereto, 
were  suppressed  by  the  orders  of  the  chapter.  There 
is  an  original  painting  at  the  English  College,  Lisbon. 

Kirk,  Literary  Life  of  the  Rev.  John  Sergeant,  written  by  Ser- 


geant himself  in  1700,  and  printed  in  The  Catholicon  (1816); 
Dodd,  Church  History,  III  (Brussels  vere  Wolverhampton,  1739- 
42);  Wood,  Athena;  Oxonienses  (London,  1813-20);  Butler, 
Memoirs  of  English  Catholics  (London,  1819);  Gillow,  Bibl. 
Did.  Eng.  Cath.  s.  v. ;  Croft,  Kirk's  Historical  Account  of  Lisbon 
College  (London,  1902) ;   Cooper,  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  a.  v. 

Edwin  Bxtrton. 

Sergeant,  Richard,  Venerable,  EngUsh  martyr, 
executed  at  Tyburn,  20  April,  1586.  He  was  prob- 
ably a  younger  son  of  Thomas  Sergeant  of  Stone, 
Gloucestershire,  by  Katherine,  daughter  of  John  Trye 
of  Hard  wick.  He  took  his  degree  at  Oxford  (20  Feb., 
1570-1),  and  arrived  at  the  English  College,  Reims, 
on  25  July,  1581.  He  was  ordained  subdeacon  at 
Reims  (4  April,  1582),  deacon  at  Soissons  (9  June, 
1582),  and  priest  at  Laon  (7  April,  1583).  He  said 
his  first  Mass  on  21  April,  and  left  for  England  on  10 
September.  He  was  indicted  at  the  Old  Bailey  (17 
April,  1586)  as  Richard  Lea  alias  Longe.  With  him 
was  condemned  and  suffered  Venerable  William  Thom- 
son, a  native  of  Blackburn,  Lancashire,  who  arrived 
at  the  Enghsh  College,  Reims,  on  28  May,  1583,  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  the  Reims  cathedral  (31  March, 
1583-4).  Thomson  was  arrested  in  the  house  of  Roger 
Line,  husband  of  the  mart>T  Anne  Line  (q.  ■■.'.),  in 
Bishopsgate  Ht.  Without,  while  saying  Mars.  Both 
were  executed  merely  for  being  priests  and  coming 
into  the  realm. 

Challoner,  Missionary  Priests,  I  (London,  1878),  nos.  32,  33; 
Knox,  Douay  Diaries  (London,  1878);  Foster,  Alumni  Oxoni- 
enses (Oxford,  1892);  Harleian  Soc.  Publ,  xxi  (London,  1885), 
258;  Pollen,  English  Martyrs  1.584-1603  in  Cath.  Rec.  Soc. 
(London,  1908),  129;  Cath.  Rec.  Soc,  II  (London,  1906),  249,  255, 

2'i-  John  B.  Wainewright. 

Sergiopolis,  a  titular  see  in  Augusta  Euphratensis, 
suffragan  of  Hierapolis.  Under  its  native  name 
Rhcsapha,  it  figures  in  Ptolemy,  V,  xiv,  19;  as 
Risapa  in  the  "Tabula  Peutinger.";  as  Rosafa  in  the 
"Notitia  dignitatum"  (edited  by  Bocking,  p.  88),  the 
latter  locates  in  it  the  eqidles  promoti  iyidigena;,  i.  e. 
the  natives  promoted  to  Roman  Knighthood.  This 
name  signifies  in  Arabic  causeway,  paved  or  flagged 
road,  and  a  milliary  mentioned  by  Sterrett  (Corpus 
inscript.  latin..  Ill,  6719)  who  calls  the  town  Strata 
Diocletiana.  Procopius  also  (De  bello  pers.,  II,  i,  6) 
speaks  of  a  region  called  Strata  (see  Clermont- 
Ganneau,  "La  voie  romaine  de  Palmyre  a  Resapha" 
and  "Resapha  et  la  Strata  Diocletiana"  in  "Recueil 
d'archeol.  orientale",  IV,  69-74,  112).  It  is  com- 
monly admitted  that  Resapha  is  identical  with  the 
Reseph  (IV  Kings,  xix,  12;  Is.,  xxxvii,  12)  which  the 
envoys  of  Sennac^herib  to  King  Ezechias  mentioned 
as  having  recently  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
Assyrians;  the  name  occurs  also  several  times  in  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions  under  the  forms  Rasaappa, 
Rasappa,  or  Rasapi,  and  a  certain  number  of  its 
Assyrian  governors  from  839  to  737  b.  c.  are  known. 
The  town  was  then  an  important  commercial  centre 
[Schrader,  "  Keihnschrif ten  und  Geschichtsforschung" 
(Giessen,  1878),  167,  199].  At  Rosapha  in  the  reign 
of  Maximian  the  soldier  Sergius,  after  whom  the  town 
was  officially  named,  was  martyred  on  7  Oct. ;  Rosapha 
contained  a  Roman  fortress  at  that  time.  Its  first 
bishop  was  appointed  shortly  after  431  by  John  of 
Antioch,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  Metropoli- 
tan of  Hierapolis,  on  whom  that  church  had  till  then 
depended,  for  he  had,  he  declared  spent  three  hun- 
dred pounds  of  gold  on  it  (Mansi,  "Concil.  collectio", 
V,  915,  943).  A  httle  later  Marianus  of  Rhosapha 
assisted  at  the  Council  of  Antioch  (Mansi,  op.  cit., 
VII,  325).  The  metropolis  of  Sergiopolis  with  five 
suffragan  sees  figures  in  the  "Notitia  episcopatuum " 
of  Antioch  in  the  sixth  century  ("Echosd'Orient",  X, 
145).  It  had  obtained  this  title  from  Emperor  Anas- 
tasius  I  (491-518),  according  to  a  contemporary 
(Cramer,  "Anecdota",  11,  12,  109);  at  the  fifth 
general  council  (553)  Abraham  signed  as  metropoli- 
tan (Mansi,  op.  cit.,  IX,  390).    The  favours  of  Anas- 


SERGinS 


728 


SERGinS 


tasius  obtained  for  the  tow-n  the  name  of  Anastasiopo- 
lis,  which  it  still  retained  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventh  century  (Gelzer,  "Georgii  Cyprii  Descriptio 
orbis  romani",  45).  We  may  mention  also  Bishop 
Candidus,  who,  at  the  time  of  the  siege  of  the  town  by 
8hah  Chosroes,  (543),  ransomed  1200  captives  for  two 
hundred  pounds  of  gold  (Procopius,  "De  bello  pers." 
II,  5,  20),  and  the  metropolitan  Simeon  in  1093 
("Echos  d'Orient",  III,  23S);  this  proves  that 
Christianity  continued  to  exist  even  under  Mussul- 
man domination.  Procopius  ("De  ajdificiis",  II, 
ix),  describes  at  length  the  ramparts  and  buildings 
erected  there  by  Justinian.  The  walls  of  Resapha 
which  are  still  well  preserved  are  o\-er  1600  feet  in 
length  and  about  1000  feet  in  width;  round  or  square 
towers  were  erected  about  every  hundred  feet; 
there  are  also  ruins  of  a  church  with  three  apses. 

Halifax,  .4;i  extract  of  the  Jounuih  of  two  voyages  . . .  of  Aleppo 
to  Tadmor  in  Philosophical  Transactions,  XIX  (Oxford,  1G95),  lO'J. 
150-2;  Le  Quiex,  Oriens  christianics,  II,  951;  Waddington, 
Inscriptions  de  Grice  et  d'Asie  Mineure,  609;  Analecta  hollandiana, 
XIV,  373-95;  Fillion  in  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.  Reseph;  Chapot 
in  Bulletin  de  correspondance  hellenique,  XXVII,  280-91;  Idem, 
Lafrontiere  de  I'Euphrate  (Paris.  1907),  328-332. 

S.  Vailhe. 

Sergius  and  Bacchus,  martyrs,  d.  in  the  Diocle- 
tian j)ersecution  in  Ca'le-Syria  about  303.  Their 
martyrdom  is  well  authenticated  by  the  earliest  mar- 
tyrologies  and  by  the  early  veneration  paid  them,  as 
well  as  by  such  historians  as  Theodoret.  They  were 
officers  of  the  troops  on  the  frontier,  Sergius  being 
primicerius,  and  Bacchus  secundarius.  According  to 
the  legend,  they  were  high  in  the  esteem  of  the  CiBsar 
Maximianus  on  account  of  their  bravery,  but  this  fa- 
vour was  turned  into  hate  when  they  acknowledged 
their  Christian  faith.  When  examined  under  torture 
they  were  beaten  so  severely  with  thongs  that  Bacchus 
died  under  the  blows.  Sergius,  though,  had  much 
more  suffering  to  endure;  among  other  tortures,  as  the 
legend  relates,  he  had  to  run  eighteen  miles  in  shoes 
which  were  covered  on  the  soles  'svith  .sharp-pointed 
nails  that  pierced  through  to  the  foot.  He  was  finally 
beheaded.  The  burial-place  of  Sergius  and  Bacchus 
was  pointed  out  in  the  citj^  of  Resaph;  in  honour  of 
Sergius  the  Emperor  Justinian  changed  the  name  of 
the  city  to  Sergiopolis  and  made  it  the  see  of  an  arch- 
diocese. Justinian  also  built  churches  in  honour  of 
Sergius  at  Constantinople  and  Acre;  the  one  at  Con- 
Btantinople,  now  a  mosque,  is  a  great  work  of  Byzan- 
tine art.  In  the  East,  Sergius  and  Bacchus  were  uni- 
versally honoured.  Since  the  seventh  century  they 
have  a  celebrated  church  at  Rome.  Christian  art  rep- 
resents the  two  saints  as  soldiers  in  military  garb  with 
branches  of  palm  in  their  hands.  Their  feast  is  ob- 
served on  7  October.  The  Church  calendar  gives  the 
two  saints  Marcellus  and  Apuleius  on  the  same  day  as 
Sergius  and  Bacchus.  They  are  said  to  have  been 
converted  to  Christianity  by  the  miracles  of  St.  Peter. 
According  to  the  "MartjTologium  Romanum",  they  . 
suffered  martyrdom  soon  after  the  deaths  of  Sts.  Peter 
and  I'aul  and  were  buried  near  Rome.  Their  exist- 
ing Acts  are  not  genuin('  and  agree  to  a  great  extent 
with  those  of  Sts.  Xereus  and  Achilleus.  The  vener- 
ation of  the  two  saints  is  very  old.  .\  mass  is  assigned 
tf)  them  in  the  "Sacramentarium"  of  Pope  Gelasius. 

AnnhrM  liolhin/lumn.  X\\  (1895),  .'J7.3-:}95;  AcXa  SS..  Oct- 
ober, III,  H'.i:i-H:i;  Bihliothern  hadioqraphira  Intinn.  (Brussfls, 
1898-19fX)).  1102:  Bihliotheca  hndioamphira  tiTa-cn  (2nd  od., 
Brussels,  HK>9),  229-30;  cf.  for  MarpflliiH  and  Apulnius  :  Acta 
88..  October,  III,  826-32;   Bibliotheea  hnniopr.  Int..  7H0. 

Klembns  Loffler. 

Sergius  I,  Saint,  Pope  r687-701),  date  of  birth 
unknown;  consecrated  probably  on  15  Dec,  687;  d.  8 
Sept .,  701 .  While  Pope  Conon  lay  dying,  the  archdea- 
con Pascal  offered  the  exarch  a  large  sum  to  bring 
about  his  election  as  his  successor.  Through  the  ex- 
arch's influence  the  archdeacon  was  accordingly  elected 
by  a  number  of  people;  about  the  same  time  another 


faction  elected  the  archpriest  Theodore.  The  mass  of 
clergy  and  people,  however,  set  them  both  aside  and 
chose  S(  rgius,  who  was  duly  consecrated.  Sergius,  the 
son  of  Tiberius,  was  a  native  of  Antioch;  he  was 
educated  in  Sicily,  and  ordained  by  Leo  II.  The 
new  pope  had  numerous  relations  with  England  and 
the  English.  He  received  Caedwalla,  King  of  the 
West  Saxons,  and  baptized  him  (689);  and,  as  he 
died  in  Rome,  caused  him  to  be  buried  in  St.  Peter's. 
He  ordered  St.  Wilfrid  to  be  restored  to  his  see, 
greatly  favoured  St.  Aldlielm,  Abbot  of  Malmesbury, 
and  is  credited  with  endeavouring  to  secure  the  Vener- 
able Bedc  as  his  adviser.  Finally  he  consecrated  the 
Englishman  Wilhbrord  bishop,  and  sent  him  to  preach 
Christianity  to  the  Frisians.  The  cruel  Emperor 
Justinian  wanted  him  to  sign  the  decrees  of  the  so- 
called  Quinisext  or  Trullan  Council  of  692,  in  which  the 
Greeks  allowed  priests  and  deacons  to  keep  the  wives 
they  had  married  before  their  ordination,  and  which 
aimed  at  placing  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinonle  on 
a  level  with  the  Poi)e  of  Rome.  When  Sergius  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  this  synod,  the  emperor  sent 
an  officer  to  bring  him  to  Constantinople.  But  the 
people  protected  the  pope,  and  Justinian  himself  was 
soon  afterwards  depo.sed  (695).  Sergius  succeeded 
in  extinguishing  the  last  remnants  of  the  Schism  of 
the  Three  Chapters  in  Aquileia.  He  repaired  and 
adorned  many  basilicas,  added  the  Agnus  Dei  to 
the  Mass,  and  instituted  processions  to  various 
churches. 

Liber  Pontificalis,  ed.  Duchesne,  I  (Paris,  1886),  371  sqq.; 
Hefele,  Hist,  of  the  Councils,  V  (tr.,  Edinburgh,  1894),  221  sqq.; 
Bede,  Hist,  eccles.,  V;  Paulus  Diaconus,  De  gest.  Latifjob.,  VI; 
HoDQKiN,  Italy  and  Her  Invaders,  VI  (Oxford,  1895),  352  sqq.; 
Mann,  Lives  of  the  Popes,  I  (London,  1902),  ii,  77  sqq. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Sergius  II,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  conse- 
crated in  844,  apparently  in  January;  d.  27  Jan., 
847.  He  was  of  noble  birth,  and  belonged  to  a 
family  which  gave  two  other  popes  to  the  Church. 
Educated  in  the  schola  cantor uiii,  he  was  patron- 
ized by  several  popes,  and  was  ordained  Cardinal- 
priest  of  the  Church  of  Sts.  Martin  and  Sylves- 
ter by  Paschal.  Under  Gregory  IV,  whom  he 
succeeded,  he  became  archpriest.  At  a  preliminary 
meeting  to  designate  a  successor  to  Gregorj',  the 
name  of  Sergius  was  accepted  by  the  majority;  but  a 
mob  endeavoured  by  force  to  place  a  deacon,  John, 
upon  the  pontifical  throne.  He  was,  however, 
shut  up  in  a  monastery,  and  Sergius  was  duly  con- 
secrated. From  one  obviously  very  partial  edition 
of  the  "Liber  Pontificalis"  it  would  ajjpear  that 
Sergius,  owing  to  devotion  to  the  pleasures  of  the 
table,  had  no  taste  for  business,  and  entrust(;d  the 
management  of  affairs  to  his  brother  Benedict; 
and  that,  owing  to  attacks  of  gout,  he  was  helpless 
in  body  and  irritable  in  mind.  His  brother  usurped 
all  power,  and  made  the  getting  of  money  his  one 
concern.  As  all  this  is  in  sharp  contrast  with  the 
character  given  to  Sergius  by  the  other  editions  of 
the  "Liber  Pontificalis",  there  can  be  no  doubt  about 
its  gross  exaggeration.  As  Sergius  was,  after  a  disputed 
election,  consecrated  without  any  reference  to  the 
Emperor  I^thaire,  the  latter  was  indignant,  and  sent 
his  son  Louis  with  an  army  to  examine  into  the  valid- 
ity of  the  election.  But  Sergius  succeeded  in  pacify- 
ing Louis,  whom  he  crowned  king,  but  to  whom  he 
would  not  take  an  oath  of  fealty.  He  also  made  the 
king's  adviser,  Drogo,  Bishop  of  Metz,  his  legate  for 
France  and  Germany  (844).  Before  he  died  he  wit- 
nessed a  terrible  raid  of  the  Saracens  on  the  Homan 
territory  (846),  which  nearly  resulted  in  the  (iapture 
of  the  City.  Despite  the  resistance  of  i\w.  schnUr  of 
the  foreigners  at  Rome,  the  pirates  sacked  the 
basilicas  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Patil,  and  were  only 
prevented  by  its  strong  walls  from  plundering  Rome 
Itself.    Churches,  aqueducts,  and  the  Lateran  Basilica 


SERGIUS 


729 


SEROUX 


were  improved  by  Sergius,  who,  on  his  death,  was 
buried  in  St.  Peter's. 

Liber  Pontificalis,  ed.  Duchesne,  II,  86  sqq.;  various  annals  in 
Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script.,  I;  the  Letters  of  Hincmar  of  Reims  in 
F.  L.,  I,  126,  and  of  Sergios  himself  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Epp., 
V,  58.3;  Duchesne,  The  Beginnings  of  the  Temporal  Sovereignty  of 
the  Popes  (London,  1908),  1.38  .sqq.;  Mann,  Lives  of  the  Popes  in 
the  early  Middle  Ages,  II  (London,  1906),  232  sqq. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Sergius  III,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  con- 
secrated 29  Jan.,  904;  d.  14  April,  911.  He  was 
a  Roman  of  noble  birth  and  the  son  of  Benedict. 
He  became  a  strong  upholder  of  the  party  opposed 
to  Pope  Formosus;  as  this  party  was  not  ultimately 
successful,  the  writings  of  its  supporters,  if  they  ever 
existed,  have  perished.  Hence,  unfortunately,  most 
of  our  knowledge  of  Sergius  is  derived  from  his  op- 
ponents. Thus  it  is  by  an  enemy  that  we  are  told 
that  Sergius  was  made  Bishop  of  Caere  by  Formosus 
in  order  that  he  might  never  become  Bishop  of  Rome. 
However,  he  seems  to  have  ceased  to  act  as  a  bishop 
after  the  death  of  Formosus,  and  was  put  forward .  as 
a  candidate  for  the  papacy  in  898.  Failing  to  secure 
election,  he  retired,  apparently  to  Alberic,  Count  of 
Spoleto.  Disgusted  at  the  violent  usurpation  of  the 
papal  throne  by  Christopher,  the  Romans  threw  him 
into  prison,  and  invited  Sergius  to  take  his  place. 
Sergius  at  once  declared  the  ordinations  conferred  by 
Formosus  null;  but  that  he  ])ut  his  two  predecessors 
to  death,  and  by  illicit  relations  with  Marozia  had 
a  son,  who  was  afterwards  John  XI,  must  be  regarded 
as  highly  doubtful.  These  assertions  are  only  made 
by  bitter  or  ill-informed  adversaries,  and  are  incon- 
sistent with  what  is  said  of  him  by  respectable  con- 
temporaries. He  protected  Archbishop  John  of 
Ravenna  against  the  Count  of  Istria,  and  confirmed 
the  establishment  of  a  number  of  new  sees  in  Eng- 
land. Because  he  opposed  the  errors  of  the  Greeks, 
they  struck  his  name  from  the  diptychs,  but  he 
showed  his  good  scn.se  in  (L'claring  valid  the  fourth 
marriage  of  the  Greek  emperor,  Leo  VI.  Sergius 
completely  restored  the  Lateran  Basilica,  but  he  was 
buried  in  St.  Peter's. 

Liber  Pontif..  II,  236;  Letters  of  Sergius  in  P.  L..  CXXXI;  Letters 
of  St.  Nicholas  I,  the  Mystic  in  L.\.bbe,  Condi.,  IX,  1246  sqq.; 
Fedele,  Ricerche  per  la  storia  di  Roma  e  del  papato  nel  secolo  X 
in  Archivio  Rom.  di  storia  pat.  (1910),  177  sqq.;  Mann,  Lives 
of  the  Popes  in  the  early  Middle  Ages,  IV  (St.  Louis,  1910),  119  sqq. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Sergius  IV,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  con- 
secrated about  31  July,  1009;  d.  12  May,  1012. 
Peter  Pig's  Snout  {Bucca  Porci)  was  the  son  of  Peter 
the  shoemaker,  of  the  ninth  region  of  Rome  {Pino), 
and  before  he  became  Sergius  IV  had  been  bishop  of 
Albano  (1004-9).  He  checked  the  power  of  the  Pa- 
tricius,  John  Crescentius,  who  dominated  Rome  by 
strengthening  the  party  in  favour  of  the  Germans. 
Little  is  known  of  the  doings  of  Sergius  except  that  by 
grants  of  privilege,  the  papyrus  originals  of  some  of 
which  still  exist,  he  exempted  several  monasteries 
from  episcopal  jurisdiction.  Though  his  own  teni- 
poral  power  was  small,  various  nobles  placed  their 
lands  under  his  protection.  He  showed  himself  a 
great  friend  of  the  poor  in  a  time  of  famine,  and  was 
buried  in  the  Lateran  Bascilica. 

Liber  Pontificalis,  II,  267;  Letters,  Privileges  of  Sergius,  in 
P.  L.,  CXXXIX;  Mann,  Lives  of  the  Popes  in  the  early  Middle 
Ages,  V  (St.  Louis,  1910),  142  sq. 

Horace  Mann. 

Sergius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  See 
Monothelitism  and  Monothelites. 

Seripando,  Girolamo,  Italian  theologian  and  car- 
dinal, b.  at  Troja  (Apulia),  6  May,  1493;  d.  at  Trent. 
17  March,  1563.  He  was  of  noble  birth,  and  intended 
by  his  parents  for  the  legal  profession.  After  their 
death,  however,  and  at  the  age  of  fourteen  he  entered 
the  Augustinian  Order,  at  Viterbo,  where  he  joined 


the  study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  to  that  of  philosophy 
and  theology.  After  a  short  stay  in  Rome,  whither 
he  had  been  called  by  his  superior  general,  he  was  ap- 
pointed lecturer  at  Siena  (1515),  professor  of  theology 
at  Bologna  (1517),  and  vicar-general  (1532),  which 
last  charge  he  filled  with  great  credit  for  two  years. 
He  won  such  reputation  for  eloquence  by  his  dis- 
com'ses  in  the  principal  cities  of  Italy,  that  the 
Emperor  Charles  V  often  made  it  a  point  to  be 
present  at  his  sermons.  Elected  superior  general  in 
1539,  he  governed  for  twelve  years,  with  singular  pru- 
dence, zeal,  and  piety.  He  attended  (1546)  the  ses- 
sions of  the  Council  of  Trent,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  zeal  for  the  purity  of  the  text  of  Holy 
Writ,  and  also  by  his  peculiar  views  concerning  orig- 
inal sin  and  justification.  Paul  III  sent  him  as  his  le- 
gate to  the  emperor  and  to  the  King  of  France,  after 
which  mission  he  was  offered  the  Bishopric  of  Aquila. 
Seripando  not  only  declined  this  dignity,  but  even  re- 
signed his  charge  of  superior  general  (1551),  and  with- 
drew into  a  small  convent,  from  the  retirement  of 
which  he  was  called  (1553)  on  a  mission  from  the  city 
of  Naples  to  Charles  V.  Upon  completion  he  was  ap- 
pointed Archbishop  of  Salerno.  He  proved  a  zealous 
and  efficient  pastor.  A  few  years  later  (1561)  Pius  IV 
made  him  cardinal  and  second  legate  of  the  Holy  See 
at  the  Council  of  Trent.  Upon  the  death  of  Cardinal 
Gonzaga,  he  became  first  president  of  the  same  Coun- 
cil. Seripando  was  an  elegant  and  prolific  writer,  and 
a  vigorous  controversialist,  rather  than  an  orator. 
Tlie  following  are  his  principal  published  works: 
"Novse  constitutiones  ordinis  S.  Augustini"  (Venice, 
1549);  "Oratio  in  funere  Caroli  V  imperatoris"  (Na- 
ples, 1559);  "Prediche  sopra  il  simbolo  degli  Apostoli, 
etc."  (Venice,  1567);  " Commentarius  in  D.  Pauli 
epistolam  ad  Galatas"  (Venice,  1569);  "Commen- 
taria  in  D.  Pauli  epistolas  ad  Romanos  et  ad  Gala- 
tas" (Naples,  1601);  "De  arte  orandi"  (Lyons, 
1670);  and  several  of  his  letters,  included  by  Lago- 
marsini  in  "Poggiani  epist.  et  orationes"  (Rome, 
1762). 

Ellies  Dupin,  Hist,  del'iglise  (Paris,  1703);  Ratnald-Mansi, 
Annal.  eccl.  (Lucca,  1735-6);  Ossinger,  Bihl.  August.  (Ingoi- 
stadt,  1768).  „  t.     /-. 

Francis  E.  Gigot. 
Sermon.    See  Homiletics. 

Seroux  d'Agincourt,  Jean -Baptiste- Louis - 
George,  b.  at  Beauvais,  5  April,  1730;  d.  at  Rome,  24 
September,  1814.  He  was  a  descendant  of  the  counts 
of  Namur.  He  entered  the  French  cavalry  while  a 
young  man,  but  soon  resigned  in  order  to  devote  him- 
self to  his  family.  Louis  XV  appointed  him  collector 
of  the  taxes.  A  disciple  of  Count  de  Caylus,  the 
archajologist,  in  1777  he  visited  England,  Belgium, 
Holland,  and  a  part  of  Germany;  in  1778  he  went  to 
Italy,  where  he  devoted  himself  particularly  to  the 
study  of  the  Catacombs  of  Rome.  He  formed  the 
plan  of  imitating  for  Christian  art  the  work  which 
Winkelmann  had  done  for  ancient  art,  and  of  studying 
Christian  art  from  its  antiquity  up  to  the  Renaissance. 
This  task,  in  which  Louis  XVI  was  also  interested, 
was  far  from  being  finished  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
During  the  Revolution,  d'Agincourt's  property  had 
been  confiscated;  however,  during  the  Empire,  the 
sale  of  his  work  brought  the  distinguished  archaeolo- 
gist once  more  into  comfortable  circumstances. 
D'Agincourt  lacked  Winkelmann's  critical  acumen. 
The  reproductions  published  in  his  "Histoire  de 
I'art"  are  imperfect  and  at  times  even  altered.  He 
took  the  paintings  from  the  walls  of  the  Catacombs 
and  in  this  way  often  caused  their  destruction.  His 
work  is  entitled:  "Histoire  de  I'art  par  les  monu- 
ments, depuis  sa  decadence  au  IV^^e  siecle  jusqu'  k 
son  renouvellement  au  XVI^e"  (Paris,  1825). 

Lecleecq,  Manuel  d'archeologie  chretienne,  I  (Paris,  1907),  15 
sqq. 

R.  Maere. 


SERPIERI 


730 


SERRA 


Serpieri,  Alessandro,  b.  at  S.  Giovanni  in  Marig- 
nano,  near  Rimini,  31  Oct.,  1823;  d.  at  Fiesole,  22 
Feb.,  1S85.  His  early  education  was  received  at 
Rimini  from  the  brothers  Speranza,  priests.  His  classi- 
cal studies  he  made  at  the  College  of  the  Scolopians 
at  Urbino,  of  which  tlic  distinguished  Latin  scholar. 
Father  Angelo  Bonuccelh,  was  the  rector.  He  entered 
their  novitiate  at  Florence,  30  Nov.,  1S38.  From 
1840-43  he  studied  philosophy  and  the  exact  sciences 
at  the  Ximenian  College  and  obser\'ator}',  whose  rec- 
tor, the  able  astronomer  and  geodete.  Father  Gio- 
vanni Inghirami,  was  at  the  same  time  professor  of 
higher  mathematics  and  astronomy.  Serpieri  was 
only  twenty  years  old  when  he  was  appointed  in- 
structor in  mathematics  and  philosophy  at  the  col- 
lege of  Siena.  Here  he  became  known  as  a  model 
teacher  on  account  of  his  lucid  style  of  exposition,  his 
eloquence,  and  his  affable  manners.  In  Nov.,  1846, 
his  superior  appointed  him  professor  of  philosophy 
and  phj-sics  at  the  college  of  Urbino,  while  two  months 
later  the  Papal  Government  called  him  also  to  the 
chair  of  physics  in  the  university  of  the  same  city. 
On  27  Aug.,  1848,  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  in  Nov., 
1857,  he  became  rector  of  the  college.  He  continued 
in  this  position  and  acted  at  the  same  time  as  pro- 
fessor until  1884,  when  the  municipal  authorities  no- 
tified him  of  the  impending  secularization  of  education, 
both  in  the  primarj-  schools  and  in  the  colleges,  invit- 
ing him  however  to  remain  as  professor.  This  unjust 
decree  caused  him  and  his  colleagues  to  give  up  their 
positions  at  the  college.  The  sorrow  caused  by  this 
event  had  an  almost  fatal  effect  upon  his  health,  which 
had  not  been  good  for  some  time.  Appointed  to  the 
rectorship  of  the  Collegio  della  Badia  Fiesolana,  he 
died  in  the  following  year  after  a  short  illness. 

Serpieri's  chief  merits  as  an  astronomer  lay  in  the 
observation  of  shooting  stars.  His  first  treatise  on 
this  subject  dates  from  1847  in  the  "  Annali  di  fisica  e 
chimica"  of  Maiocchi.  In  August,  1850,  he  discov- 
ered that  the  August  meteors  originate  in  a  radiant 
not  far  removed  from  7  Persei  (hence  "  Perseids  ",  Ann. 
di  Tortolino,  1850).  In  the  same  year  he  established 
an  observatory  at  Urbino,  and  thereafter  published 
regularly  in  his  monthly  bulletin  the  results  of  his  me- 
teoric observations.  These  were  of  great  assistance 
to  Schiaparelli  in  the  formulation  of  his  theory  on  the 
shooting  stars.  Serpieri  himself  expressed  some  in- 
teresting views  on  this  subject  in  his  bulletin  in  1867. 
Urged  by  Father  Secchi,  he  went  to  Rcggio  in  Cala- 
bria to  observe  the  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  in  1870,  and 
to  ascertain  with  exactness  the  northern  limit  of  the 
zone  of  totality.  The  coronal  streamers  of  the  sun 
ob.servable  during  the  eclipse  he  declared  to  be  sun 
auroras  caused  by  the  electrical  influence  of  the  earth 
and  other  planets  on  the  sun  (Rendic,  1st.  Lomb., 
1871).  When  Schiaparelli  called  his  attention  to  the 
magnificent  work  by  the  American,  George  Jones, 
comprising  328  drawings  of  the  zodiacal  light  as  ob- 
served at  different  times  and  from  different  places 
(published  at  Washington  at  the  expense  of  the  Gov- 
ernment), he  at  once  submitted  it  to  a  searching 
analysis.  This  led  him  to  his  theory,  in  which  he  ex- 
plains this  phenomenon  as  light  of  the  earth  produced 
and  maintained  in  the  at  rnosphere  by  special  solar  radi- 
ations ("La  luce  zodiarulf  ntudiata  nelle  osserv.  di  G. 
Jones", 1.38 pp.  in  "  Mem.  Soc.  Spettr.  Ital. ",  1876-81). 

Serpieri's  greatest  achievements  are  in  the  field  of 
seismology.  His  study  of  the  earthquake  of  12 
March,  1873,  is,  in  the  opinion  of  de  Rossi,  a  model  of 
scientific  analysis.  In  this  he  was  the  first  to  intro- 
duce the  concept  of  tlie  seismic  ra<^iiant.  The  so- 
called  premonition  on  the  part  of  animals  he  explains 
by  the  hjTJothesis  of  a  preceding  electrical  disturb- 
ance. His  master-work  is  his  study  on  the  earth- 
quake of  17  and  18  March,  1875,  which  caused 
great  devastation  in  his  home  city  and  in  other 
places.     In  this  study  he  embodies  240  documents 


coming  from  100  different  places,  and  in  it  his  theory 
of  radiants  is  proved  in  a  striking  manner.  He  also 
wrote  two  memoranda  on  the  terrible  catastrophe  of 
Casamicciola.  His  complete  seismological  studies, 
for  which  he  received  the  gold  medal  at  the  General 
Italian  Exposition  at  Turin  (1884),  were  republished 
in  1889  by  P.  G.  Ciiovanozzi.  Among  his  works  on 
physics  must  be  mentioned:  a  study  on  the  pendulum 
of  Foucault  (Ann.  Tortolini,  1851);  a  treatise  on  the 
simultaneous  transmission  of  opposing  electric  cur- 
rents in  the  same  wire  (Corr.  sc.  di  Roma,  1855),  a 
lecture  on  the  unity  of  natural  forces  (La  forza  e  le 
sue  trasformazioni,  ISOS).  His  work  on  the  electric 
potential  ("11  potenziale  elettrico",  171  pp.,  Milan, 
1882),  is  noted  for  its  system,  clearness,  and  concise- 
ness. It  has  been  translated  into  German  by  Reich- 
enbach  (Vienna,  1884).  His  last  work,  on  absolute 
measures  ("Le  misure  assolute",  etc.,  Klilan,  1884), 
gives  in  condensed  form  the  principal  theories  on 
physics,  in  particular  of  electric  currents.  It  has 
been  translated  into  French  by  Gauthier-Villars  (1886) 
and  into  German  (Vienna,  1885). 

GiovANOzzi,  Della  Vita  e  degli  Scritti  di  Alessandro  Serpieri 
delte  Scuole  Pie  (Florence,  1887),  134  pp.;  Alessandro  Serpieri, 
D.S.P.,  Scritti  sismologici  nuovamente  raccoUi  e  pubblicati  da  G. 
Gioranozzi,  Direttore  dell'  Osservatorio  Ximeniano  (Florence, 
1888-89);    Poggendorff,  Biogr.  litt.  Uandwh.,  iii,  1898,  s.  v. 

J.  Stein. 

Serra,  JuNipERO,  b.  at  Petra,  Island  of  Majorca, 
24  Nov.,  1713;  d.  at  Monterey,  California,  28  Aug., 
1784.  On  14  Sept.,  1730,  he  entered  the  Franciscan 
Order.  For  his  proficiency  in  studies  he  was  ap- 
pointed lector  of  philosophy  before  his  ordination 
to  the  priesthood.  Later  he  received  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Theology  from  the  Lullian  University 
at  Palma,  where  he  also  occupied  the  Duns 
Scotus  chair  of  philosophy  until  he  joined  the  mis- 
sionary college  of  San  Fernando,  Mexico  (1749). 
While  travelling  on  foot  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  capi- 
tal, he  injured  his  leg  in  such  a  way  that  he  suffered 
from  it  throughout  his  life,  though  he  continued  to 
make  his  journeys  on  foot  whenever  possible.  At  his 
own  request  he  was  assigned  to  the  Sierra  Gorda  In- 
dian Missions  some  thirty  leagues  north  of  Quer6taro. 
He  served  there  for  nine  years,  part  of  the  time  as 
superior,  learned  the  language  of  the  Pame  Indians, 
and  translated  the  catechism  into  their  language. 
Recalled  to  Mexico,  he  became  famous  as  a  most  fer- 
vent and  effective  preacher  of  missions.  His  zeal  fre- 
quently led  him  to  em])loy  extraordinary  means  in 
order  to  move  the  people  to  penance.  He  would 
pound  his  breast  with  a  stone  while  in  the  pulpit, 
scourge  himself,  or  apply  a  lighted  torch  to  his  bare 
chest.  In  1767  he  was  appointed  superior  of  a  band 
of  fifteen  Franciscans  for  the  Indian  Missions  of 
Lower  California.  Early  in  1769  he  accompanied 
Portold's  land  expedition  to  Ui)i)er  California.  On 
the  way  (14  May)  he  established  the  Mi.ssion  San 
Fernando  de  Velicatd,  Lower  California.  He  ar- 
rived at  San  Diego  on  1  July,  and  on  16  July  founded 
the  first  of  the  twenty-on(!  California  missions  which 
accomplished  the  conversions  of  all  the  natives  on  the 
coast  as  far  as  Sonoma  in  the  north.  Those  estab- 
lished by  Father  Serra  or  during  his  administration 
were  San  Carlos  (3  June,  1770);  San  Antonio  (14 
July,  1771);  San  Gabriel  (8  Sept.,  1771);  San  Luis 
Obispo  (1  Sept.,  1772);  San  Francisco  de  Asis  (8  Oct., 
1776);  San  Juan  Capistrano  (1  Nov.,  1776);  Santa 
Clara  (12  Jan.,  1777);  San  Buenaventura  (31  March, 
1782).  He  was  also  present  at  the  founding  of  the 
presidio  of  Santa  Barbara  (21  April,  1782),  and  was 
prevented  from  locating  the  mission  there  at  the  time 
only  through  the  animosity  of  fJovernor  Phiiipe  de 
Neve.  Difficulties  with  Pedro  Fages,  the  military 
commander,  compelled  Father  Serra  in  1773  to  lay 
the  ca.se  before  Viceroy  Bucareli.  At  th(!  capital  of 
Mexico,  by  order  of  the  viceroy,  he  drew  up  his 


SERRAE 


731 


SERVANTS 


"Representaci6n"  in  thirty-two  articles.  Every- 
thing save  two  minor  points  was  decided  in  his  fa- 
vour; he  then  returned  to  California,  late  in  1774. 
In  1778  he  received  the  faculty  to  administer  the 
Sacrament  of  Confirmation.  After  he  had  exercised 
his  privilege  for  a  year,  Governor  Neve  directed  him  to 
suspend  administering  the  sacrament  until  he  could 
present  the  papal  Brief.  For  nearly  two  years  Father 
Serra  refrained,  and  then  Viceroy  Majorga  gave  in- 
structions to  the  effect  that  Father  Serra  was  within 
his  rights.  During  the  remaining  three  years  of  his 
life  he  once  more  visited  the  missions  from  San  Diego 
to  San  Francisco,  six  hundred  miles,  in  order  to  con- 
firm all  who  had  been  baptized.  He  suffered  in- 
tensely from  his  crippled  leg  and  from  his  chest,  yet 
he  would  use  no  remedies.  He  confirmed  5309  per- 
sons, who,  with  but  few  exceptions,  were  Indians  con- 
verted during  the  fourteen  years  from  1770.  Besides 
extraordinary  fortitude,  his  most  conspicuous  virtues 
were  insatiable  zeal,  love  of  mortification,  self-denial, 
and  absolute  confidence  in  God.  His  executive  abil- 
ity has  been  especially  noticed  by  non-Catholic 
writers.  The  esteem  in  which  his  memory  is  held 
by  all  classes  in  California  may  be  gathered  from 
the  fact  that  Mrs.  Stanford,  not  a  Catholic,  had  a 
granite  monument  erected  to  him  at  Monterey.  A 
bronze  statue  of  heroic  size  represents  him  as  the 
apostolic  preacher  in  Golden  Gate  Park,  San  Fran- 
cisco. In  1884  the  Legislature  of  California  passed  a 
concurrent  resolution  making  29  August  of  that  year, 
the  centennial  of  Father  Serra's  burial,  a  legal  holiday. 
Of  his  writings  many  letters  and  other  documents  are 
extant.  The  principal  ones  are  his  "Diario"  of  the 
journey  from  Loreto  to  San  Diego,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  "Out  West"  (March  to  June,  1902),  and  the 
"  Representaci6n  "  before  mentioned. 

Palou,  Nolicias  de  la  Nueia  California  (San  Francisco,  1774) ; 
Idem,  Relacion  histdrica  de  la  tida  y  apostdlicas  tareaa  del 
Ven.  P.  Fr.  Junlpero  Serra  (Mexico  City,  1787);  Santa  Barbara 
Mission  Archives;  San  Carlos  Mission  Records;  Engelhardt, 
Missions  and  Missionaries  of  California,  I  (San  Francisco,  1908); 
II  (1912);  Idem,  Franciscans  in  California  (Harbor  Springs, 
Mich.,  1897);  Bancroft,  History  of  California,  I  (.San  Francisco, 
1886);  Gleeson,  Catholic  Church  in  California,  II  (San  Fran- 
cisco, 1871);  HiTTELL,  History  of  California,  I  (San  Francisco, 
1885);   James,  In  and  Out  of  the  Missions  (New  York,  1905). 

Zephyrin  Engelhardt. 

Serrae,  titular  metropolitan  see  in  Macedonia, 
more  correctly  Serrhae,  is  called  Siris  by  Herodotus 
(VIII,  115),  Sirae  by  Titus  Livius  (XLV,  iv).  Inscrip- 
tions show  the  official  spelling  to  have  been  Sirrha  or 
Sirrhae;  the  form  Serrhae  prevailed  during  the 
Byzantine  period  (Hierocles,  639,  10;  Stephanius 
Byzantius,  s.  v.).  The  city,  now  called  in  Turkish 
"Seres",  is  in  Eastern  Macedonia,  about  forty-three 
miles  north-east  of  Salonica  in  the  j)lain  of  Strv-mon, 
on  the  last  outposts  of  the  mountains  which  bound 
it  on  the  north-east.  On  his  return  to  the  Hellespont, 
Xerxes  left  some  of  his  sick  followers  at  Serrae,  and 
here  also  P.  ^milius  Paulus,  after  his  victory  at 
Pydna,  received  a  deputation  from  Perseus.  The  city 
possessed  great  strategic  importance  under  the 
Byzantine  Empire  in  the  wars  against  the  Servians 
and  Bulgars.  It  was  captured  by  the  latter  in  1206 
and  recaptured  by  the  Emperor  John  Dukas  in  1245. 
Later  the  Servian,  Krai  Stephen  Du.shan,  captured 
it  in  turn,  was  crowned  there  in  1345,  established  a 
Court  on  the  model  of  that  of  Byzantium,  and  married 
the  daughter  of  Andronicus  II.  In  1373  it  was  cap)- 
tured  by  a  Greek  apostate  in  the  service  of  Sultan 
Murad  I.  In  1396,  while  Sigismund  of  Hungary  was 
preparing  to  attack  the  Ottoman  Empire,  the  Sultan 
Bayazet  had  his  camp  at  Seres,  where  he  assembled 
his  Christian  allies  shortly  before  the  Battle  of  Nicop- 
olis.  Serds  is  now  the  capital  of  a  sanjak  in  the 
vilayet  of  Salonica.  It  has  about  30,000  inhabitants, 
of  whom  13,000  are  Turks  and  the  same  number 
Greeks.  It  carries  on  a  brisk  trade  in  textile  and 
agricultural  products.    At  first  Serrae  was  a  suffragan 


of  Thessalonica,  remaining  so  probably  until  the 
eighth  century,  when  Eastern  lllyricum  was  removed 
from  Roman  jurisdiction  and  attached  to  the  Patri- 
archate of  Constantinople.  It  figures  in  the  "Notitiae 
episcopatuum "  as  an  autocephalous  archdiocese  as 
early  as  the  tenth  century;  at  the  end  of  the  next 
century  it  had  become  a  metropolitan  see  without 
suffragans,  and  such  is  still  its  status  for  the  Greeks. 
Le  Quien  (Oriens  Christ.,  II,  87)  gives  a  list  of  fourteen 
bishops,  but  a  much  more  complete  list  is  given  in 
Papageorgiou's  article  cited  in  the  bibliography.  The 
oldest  of  these  bishops  is  Maximianus  or  Ma.ximus, 
present  at  the  Latrocinium  of  Ephesus  (449)  and  at 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451).  A  gap  intervenes 
till  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  when  Leontius 
assisted  at  a  council  of  Constantinople.  Among  the 
other  titulars  was  Nicetas,  formerly  a  deacon  of  St. 
Sophia,  Con.stantinople,  and  eventually  Metropohtan 
of  Heraclea  (Pontus),  at  the  end  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. He  was  a  prolific  writer  [see  Krumbacher, 
"Gesch.  der  byzant.  Litt."  (Munich,  1897),  137  sqq., 
211  sqq.,  215  sqq.,  587,  etc.].  Under  Michael  Palaeo- 
logus,  a  metropolitan  of  Serrae  whose  name  is  un- 
known was  among  the  advocates  of  union  with  Rome. 
In  1491  Manasses  became  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
under  the  name  of  Maximus.  Eubel,  "Hierarchia 
catholica  medii  sevi",  I,  473,  mentions  two  Latin 
metropolitans:  Amulphus  in  1225  and  Pontius  in  1358. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  s.  v.  Siris;  Boutyras, 
Diet,  of  Hist,  and  Geogr.  (in  Greek),  VII,  479;  Leake,  Northern 
Greece,  III,  200-210;  Demitsas,  Macedonica  (Athens,  1874),  575- 
587;  ToMASCHEK,  Zur  Kunde  der  Hdmus-Halbinsel  (Vienna, 
1887),  83;  Papageorgiou  in  Byzantinische  Zeilschrift,  III  (Mu- 
nich, 1894),  225-329.  g.   PiixRiDES. 

Servants  of  Mary.    See  Servites,  Order  of. 

Servants  of    the    Most   Blessed    Sacrament, 

CoxGREGATiox  OF  THE,  an  onicr  of  nuns,  founded 
by  the  Venerable  Picrre-Juli(>n  Eymard  (q.  v.)  in 
1858,  assisted  by  Mother  Margaret  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  with  the  authorization  of  Mgr  Morlot, 
Archbishop  of  Paris.  A  Decree  of  Pius  IX  (21  July, 
1871)  canonically  erected  it  into  a  religious  con- 
gregation, and  on  8  May,  1885,  Leo  XIII  approved 
the  constitutions.  The  aim  of  the  society  is  to 
render  "before  all  else  solemn  and  perpetual  adora- 
tion to  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  abiding  perpetually 
in  the  Most  Blessed  Sacrament  of  the  Altar  for  the 
love  of  men".  "The  Congregation  of  the  Servants 
of  the  Most  Blessed  Sacrament  devote  themselves 
with  all  their  souls  and  all  their  strength  to  propagate 
this  same  worship  of  adoration  and  love  in  the  world, 
especially  by  means  of  'The  People's  Eucharistic 
League'  in  the  way  that  was  erected  by  a  Rescript 
of  August  2,  1872  (Bishops  and  Regulars),  by  Re- 
treats of  Adoration,  and  the  work  of  the  worship  of 
Jesus  Christ";  that  is,  by  work  for  poor  churches,  as 
well  as  by  catechetical  instruction  to  children  and  to 
poor  or  ignorant  adults.  Each  sister  is  required  to 
make  three  adorations  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  of 
which  two  are  in  the  day  and  one  at  night.  The 
Divine  Office  is  said  in  choir.  The  community  is 
contem.plative  and  cloistered.  The  mother-house 
is  at  Angers,  France.  The  congregation  has  houses 
at  Lyons  (France),  founded  29  June,  1874;  Paris, 
founded  1  May,  1876;  Binche  (Belgium),  founded 
17  November,  1894.  In  October,  1903,  at  the  request 
of  Mgr  Labrecque,  Bishop  of  Chicoutimi,  a  house  was 
estabUshed  at  Chicoutimi  on  the  banks  of  the 
Saguenay.  The  first  exposition  took  place  on  22 
October,  1903,  in  the  chapel  of  the  Sisters  of  Good 
Counsel,  who  for  several  months  extended  hospi- 
tality to  the  newly-arrived  community.  On  25 
March,  1906,  it  took  possession  of  a  new  convent  and 
on  18  June,  1909,  the  chapel  of  the  Eucharistic 
Heart  of  Jesus  was  consecrated.  Canada  has  now 
its  novitiate.  The  community  numbers  thirteen 
professed  of  the  perpetual  vows,  and  fifteen  novices. 


SERVETUS 


732 


SERVIA 


Tenaillon,  he  Rit.  Pire  Pierre- Julien  Eymard;  Documents  sur 
sa  Tie  et  ses  tertus  (Rome,  1899).  A.    LeTELLIER. 

Servetus,  Michael.    See  CAL\aN,  John. 

Servia,  a  European  kingdom  in  the  north-western 
part  of  the  Balkan  peninsula. 

I.  History. — The  gi-eater  part  of  the  territorj^  of 
the  present  Kingdom  of  Servia  belonged,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Christian  era,  to  the  Roman  Province  of 
Sloesia,  the  western  part  to  the  Province  of  Dalmatia. 
Under  Roman  supremacy  a  number  of  cities  arose 
along  the  Danube  and  the  Morava,  and  the  country' 
attained  to  a  considerable  height  of  economic  pros- 
perit}^  and  intellectual  development.  Christianity 
found  entrance  into  the  Roman  districts  of  the  Bal- 
kan Peninsula  at  an  early  date  and  suffered  but  little 
in  this  region  from  the  persecutions  of  the  emperors. 
MartjTs  are  not  mentioned  until  the  reign  of  Diocle- 
tian, when  several  suflfercd  death  for  Christ  at  Singi- 
dunum  (Belgrade).  During  the  migrations  the  coun- 
try' was  traversed  in  succession  by  Ostrogoths,  Huns, 
and  Lxjmbards.  In  550  it  was  conquered  by  the  Em- 
peror Justinian,  head  of  the  Eastern  Empire.  Soon 
after  this,  the  Avars  fell  upon  the  land,  devastating 
and  burning  wherever  thej^  went,  and  turned  the 
region  into  a  wilderness.  In  the  seventh  century  the 
forefathers  of  the  present  Serbs,  a  tribe  of  the  south- 
ern Slavs,  migrated  into  the  country,  which  received 
from  them  the  name  of  Serbia.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  and  well  into  modem  times  the  term  included 
not  only  the  present  Servia,  but  also  Bosnia,  Herze- 
govina, Montenegro,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Mace- 
donia and  Albania.  In  the  early  centuries  of  their 
histor^^  the  poUtical  cohesion  of  the  Serbs  was  shght; 
the  political  organization  was  based  upon  the  family- 
clan,  the  sadruga.  The  sadruga  was  composed  of 
about  fifty  or  sixty  persons,  who  bore  a  common  name 
and  obeyed  an  elder  who  was  the  representative  of  the 
clan  in  dealings  with  outsiders  or  with  the  gods.  All 
members  of  the  clan  had  the  same  rights  and  were  en- 
titled to  a  share  of  the  common  possessions.  Several 
such  family-clans  formed  a  tribe  whose  affairs  were 
managed  by  a  council  of  the  family  elders.  At  the 
head  of  the  tribe  was  a  Zupan,  elected  by  the  ciders  of 
the  families.  The  religion  of  the  Serbs  was  a  natural 
religion.  They  worshipped  their  gods  in  the  open  air 
and  accompanied  their  sacrifices  with  singing.  They 
had  neither  images,  temples,  nor  priests.  In  common 
with  all  Slavs  they  believed  in  a  life  after  death. 

At  various  times  during  the  first  centuries  of  their 
history  they  were  obliged  to  acknowledge  the  su- 
premacy either  of  the  Eastern  Empire  or  of  the  Bul- 
garians. For  short  periods  also  they  were  able  to 
maintain  their  independence.  They  accepted  Latin 
Christianity  in  the  eighth  century,  during  the  period 
of  Bulgarian  suzerainty.  Until  the  union  of  Servia 
with  the  Greek  Orthodox  Chur(;h,  the  Servian  Church 
was  under  the  control  of  the  Latin  Archbishop  oi 
Spalato  and,  later,  the  Latin  Archbishop  of  v\ntivari. 
After  the  death  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Bulgarian 
princes,  Symeon  (927),  the  Servian  Zupan  Ceslaw 
was  able,  for  the  first  time,  to  unite  several  Servian 
tribra  against  Peter,  the  weak  ruler  of  the  Bulgarians. 
However,  the  destruction  of  the  Bulgarian  kingdom 
by  Basil  II,  Bulgaroktonos,  the  Byzantine  emperor 
(976-1025),  re-<'Hlablished  Byzantine  supremacy  over 
the  whole  Balkan  Peninsula.  Although  the  oppres- 
sive sway  of  the  Ea.stf-rn  P^mpire  led  to  repeal efl  re- 
volts of  the  Serbs,  the  supremacy  of  Constantinople 
continued  until  tlie  twelfth  cr-ntun'-  For  a  time  in- 
deed the  Grand  Zui-ari  .Michael  (1050-80)  was  able  to 
maintain  his  indejiendence;  he  even  received  the  title 
of  king  from  Pope  Gregory  VII.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tur>'  the  family  of  the  Nemanyich,to  whom  the  union 
of  the  Serbs  is  due,  became  prominent  in  Servian  hi.s- 
tory.  Urosch,  who  was  Zupan  of  Rassa  from  about 
1120,  entered  into  friendly  relations  with  the  Hun- 


garian king,  Bela  II.  His  son,  Stephen  I,  Nemanya 
(1159-95),  conquered  the  chiefs  of  the  other  Servian 
tribes,  with  the  exception  of  those  in  Bosnia,  and  thus 
founded  a  united  hereditary  and  independent  state. 
He  accomplished  this  with  the  aid  of  the  Eastern  Em- 
peror, Manuel  I,  to  w4iom  he  swore  fealtj-  in  return  for 
recognition  as  grand  Zupan.  Free  from  his  oath  after 
the  death  of  Manuel  I  (1180),  he  seized  for  himself 
those  portions  of  Servian  territory  which  belonged  di- 
rectly to  the  Eastern  Empire. 

Stephen  I,  Nemanja,  who  was  a  Catholic,  main- 
tained amicable  relations  with  the  popes  in  ecclesias- 
tico-political  affairs,  especially  with  Pope  Innocent 
III.  He  received  the  latter's  legates  and  letters  in  a 
friendly  manner  and  repeatedly  assured  the  pope  of 
his  attachment.  His  brother  Vlkan,  as  lord  of  Anti- 
vari  and  Cattaro,  was  also  closely  connected  with  the 
Catholic  Church.  Nevertheless,  the  Greek  Orthodox 
Church  grew  constantty  stronger  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  coimtry,  although  in  this  era  a  sharp  distinction 
between  the  Churches  of  the  Eastern  and  ^^■cstern 
Empires  had  not  yet  appeared.  In  1196  Stephen  ab- 
dicated in  favour  of  his  eldest  son  and  retired  to  the 
monastery  of  Chilandar,  which  he  had  founded  on 
Mount  Athos.  Here  he  died  in  1199  or  1200.  The 
work  of  the  father  was  continued  during  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  son,  Stephen  II  (1196-1228),  who  had  re- 
ceived an  excellent  Byzantine  education  and  was  a 
skilful  diplomatist.  In  church  affairs  he,  like  his 
father,  maintained  good  relations  with  the  popes. 
The  sixth  canon  of  the  Servian  Council  of  Dioclea 
(1199)  formally  declared  that  the  Servian  Church  re- 
garded the  Roman  Church  as  the  mother  and  ruler  of 
all  the  Churches.  During  the  Fourth  Crusade,  which 
ended  in  the  establishment  of  the  Latin  Empire  of 
Constantinople,  Stephen  II  had  the  skill  to  maintain 
himself  against  all  his  neighbours  and  to  use  the  fa- 
vourable opportunity  for  increasing  his  power.  Like 
the  Bulgarian  Kalojan,  he  asked  Innocent  III  to  grant 
him  the  title  of  king  and  to  send  a  legate  to  Servia. 
However,  the  opposition  of  the  Hvmgarian  king,  Em- 
merich, prevented  the  carrj'ing  out  of  this  plan,  to 
which  Pope  Innocent  had  given  his  consent.  Ste- 
phen finally  obtained  the  royal  crown  in  1217  from 
Honorius  III,  probably  through  the  aid  of  Venice, 
which,  since  the  Fourth  Crusade  had  become  a  neigh- 
bour of  Servia.  In  order  to  make  his  kingdom  auton- 
omous in  religious  matters  he  appointed  his  brother 
Sabas,  who  had  been  a  monk  at  Mount  Athos,  Met- 
ropolitan of  Servia,  and  organized  the  dioceses  of  the 
Servian  Church  in  co-operation  with  this  new  metro- 
politan. 

Stephen  II  had  four  sons  and  was  succeeded  by  one 
of  them,  Stephen  Radoslav  (1228-;U).  Tliis  king  wa« 
the  son-in-law  of  the  lOmperor  Theodore  the  E])irote, 
and  as  such  regarded  himself  as  a  Greek.  He  was  so 
incompetent,  that-  he  was  overthrown  and  bani.shed  by 
the  nobility.  His  brother  Stephen  Vladislav  (1234- 
124:j)  could  not  maintain  his  power  in  the  confusion 
caused  by  the  incursion  of  the  Mongols  into  the  Bal- 
kan Peninsula,  and  was  obliged  to  resign  the  throne  to 
a  more  vigorous  brother  and  content  himself  with  the 
empty  title  of  king.  Stephen  Urosch  I  the  Great 
(1243-76)  was  victorious  in  a  war  with  the  city  of 
Ragusa,  the  bishop  of  which  was  obliged,  in  1254,  to 
renounce  all  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  over  Servian 
territory.  He  was  also  successful,  in  league  with  the 
Latin  Empire  of  Constantinople,  in  a  campaign 
against  the  Greek  Empire  of  Nica-a,  but  failed  in  an 
attack  upon  Hungaiy.  After  the  fall  of  the  Latin 
Empire  the  relations  between  the  i)apacy  anrl  Servia 
grew  graihially  less  intimate;  although  married  to  a 
Catholic  Frenchwoman,  Helena,  Stephen  Urosch  per- 
mitted both  his  sons  to  be  brought  up  in  the  Greek 
Orthodox  religion.  Of  these  sons  Stephen  Dragutin, 
who  drove  his  father  from  the  throne,  soon  gave  up 
the  government  to  his  younger  brother  Stephen  Mi- 


SERVIA 


733 


SERVIA 


lutin  (1282-1321),  while  retaining  for  himself  the  title 
of  king.  The  separation  from  Rome  was  completed 
during  the  reigns  of  these  two  princes  and  has  con- 
tinued from  that  period  until  the  present  day,  al- 
though several  popes  have  exerted  themselves  to  re- 
establish the  union,  e.  g.  Nicholas  IV  (1288),  Benedict 
XI  (1303),  and  Clement  V  (1308). 

Stephen  Milutin  conquered  several  provinces  of  the 
Byzantine  Empire,  and  advanced  victoriously  as  far 
as  Mount  Athos,  besides  receiving  Bosnia,  without 
striking  a  blow,  as  the  dowry  of  his  wife,  a  daughter  of 
the  Hungarian  king,  Stephen  V.  During  his  reign 
and  that  of  his  son  Stephen  IV,  Urosch  (1320-31), 
Servia  gained  a  European  reputation  and  was  the 
leading  power  of  Eastern  Europe.  The  son  carried 
on  a  successful  war  against  the  revived  Bulgarian 
kingdom  and  broke  its  power  forever.  Stephen  IV, 
Urosch,  was  willing,  in  1323,  to  unite  with  Rome  and 
abandon  the  schism  in  order  to  secure  the  aid  of 
Western  Europe  against  the  claims  to  the  throne  of 
his  half-brother  Vladislav;  but  this  union  with  Rome 
was  only  of  short  duration.  As  in  the  latter  years  of 
his  reign  he  showed  a  preference  for  the  son  of  a 
second  marriage,  his  eldest  son  Stephen  Duschan  rose 
against  him  and  threw  him  into  a  prison,  where  he  was 
soon  killed,  Stephen  Duschan  being  probably  an  ac- 
complice in  his  death.  The  constant  aim  of  this,  the 
greatest  of  all  the  rulers  of  Servia  (1331-55),  was  to 
establish  a  Greater  Servia,  which  should  unite  all  the 
peoples  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  to  conquer  Constan- 
tinople, and  to  win  for  himself  the  crown  of  a  new 
Oriental  empire  with  its  centre  at  Constantinople. 
Taking  advantage  of  the  civil  war  in  the  Eastern 
Empire  he  was  able,  in  1336-40  and  in  1345,  to  con- 
quer Albania,  Macedonia,  Epirus,  and  Thcssaly,  and 
undertook  thirteen  campaigns  again.st  Constanti- 
nople in  which  he  advanced  as  far  as  the  imperial 
capital  itself.  In  1346  he  was  crowned  at  Skopje  as 
"Tsar  of  the  Serbs  and  Greeks";  this  is  translated  in 
Latin  documents  as  "  Imperator  Rasciie  et  Romaniie". 
At  the  same  time,  in  a  Servian  synod,  he  had  the  Ser- 
vian Archbishop  of  Ipck  created  an  independent 
"Metropolitan  of  the  Serbs  and  Greeks",  notwith- 
standing the  anathema  of  the  Church  of  Constanti- 
nople. The  new  head  of  the  Servian  Church  had 
twenty  metropolitans  and  bishops  under  him. 

Stephen  Duschan's  reign  has  been  called  the 
Golden  Age  of  Servia,  because  he  gave  the  country  a 
better  administration  and  judicial  system,  sought  to 
improve  education,  mining,  commerce,  etc.,  and,  in 
1349,  issucnl  a  code  of  laws,  an  important  monument 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Servia.  He  was  very  host  ile  to  tlie 
Catholic  Church.  Article  6  of  his  code  punished  with 
death  any  Servian  who  adhered  to  the  "Latin  her- 
esy", or  any  Latin  ecclesiastic  who  sought  to  make 
proselytes.  Yet  he  repeatedly  entered  into  relations 
with  the  pope  in  order  to  gain  aid  from  Western 
Europe  against  the  constantly  increasing  danger  of 
Turkish  invasion,  and  held  out  the  prospect  of  union 
with  the  Latin  Church.  The  great  kingdom  he  had 
created  soon  fell  to  pieces  during  the  reign  of  his  weak 
son,  Urosch  V  (1355-71).  Vlka.sin,  a  Servian  noble, 
rose  against  Urosch  as  a  rival  and  gained  almost  the 
entire  country  for  his  cause;  the  strength  of  the  king- 
dom was  frittered  away  by  internal  disorders  and  civil 
wars,  and  thus  the  way  was  prei)arofi  for  the  Turks. 
Vlkasin  lost  both  the  throne  and  liis  life  at  the  battle 
on  the  Maritza  River  (26  Septeniljer,  1371).  in  which 
he  took  part  as  an  ally  of  the  Eastern  Empire.  Two 
mf)nths  later,  Urosch  V  also  died,  and  with  his  death 
the  Nemanyich  dynasty  became  extinct.  The  nobles 
disputed  over  a  successor;  Lazar  Gobljanovitch,  one  of 
the  most  prominent,  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Bul- 
garians, Albanians,  and  Bosniains,  and  defeated  a  vice- 
roy of  the  Turkish  Sultan,  Annn-ath  I.  However,  the 
Serbs  suffered  a  severe  defeat  on  15  June,  1389,  in  the 
terrible  battle  on  the  Plain  of  Kossovo  (the  Plain  of 


the  Blackbirds).  Lazar  and  a  large  number  of  the 
most  distinguished  Serbs  were  taken  prisoners  and 
were  beheaded  during  the  night  after  the  battle.  The 
land  was  defenceless  against  the  Turks,  and  Servian 
independence  was  in  abeyance  for  four  hundred  years. 
Amurath's  successor,  Bajazet,  divided  the  country 
between  a  son  and  a  son-in-law  of  Lazar,  both  of 
whom  were  obliged  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Turks  and  to 
take  part  in  the  Turkish  mihtary  expeditions.  In 
1459  ^lohammed  II  put  an  end  to  the  sovereignty  of 
these  two  rulers.  Servia  was  formally  incorporated 
into  the  Turkish  Empire  and  was  divided  into  pasha- 
lics.  Many  Servian  families  were  destroyed,  many 
others  fled  to  Hungary,  some  200,000  persons  were 
dragged  away  as  slaves.  The  Servian  Patriarchate  of 
Ipek  was  also  suppressed,  and  the  Servian  Cliurch  was 
placed  under  the  control  of  the  Gni-co-Hulgarian 
Patriarchate  of  Schrida.  In  1557  the  Patriarchate  of 
Ipek  was  re-established,  and  remained  independent 
until  its  second  suppression  in  1766. 

For  more  than  two  hundred  years  the  name  of  Ser- 
via almost  entirely  disappeared  from  history.  How- 
ever, the  Turks  maintained  only  a  military  occupa- 
tion of  the  country;  they  wrung  large  sums  of  money 
from  the  people,  and  took  large  numbers  of  young  men 
to  be  trained  as  Janizaries.  But  they  did  not  claim 
any  land  for  themselves,  and  thus  the  Serbs  under  the 
Turkish  yoke  were  able  to  preserve  their  language, 
customs,  religion,  and  the  memory  of  the  heroic  age 
of  their  countr\'  until  the  hour  of  deliverance.  The 
folk-songs,  which  celebrated  the  exploits  of  their 
most  famous  heroes,  did  much  to  preserve  the  national 
consciousness  during  the  worst  periods  of  oppression, 
by  keeping  before  the  people  the  recollection  of 
Servia's  history  and  past  greatness.  The  first  hope 
of  deliverance  from  the  Turkish  yoke  came  from  Aus- 
tria which,  under  Charles  of  Lorraine,  repeatedly  de- 
feated the  Turks  in  the  years  1684-86  and  took  pos- 
session of  several  provinces.  When,  in  1690,  the  Em- 
peror Leopold  I  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  that 
he  would  protect  the  religion  and  the  political  rights  of 
all  Slavonic  peoples  on  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and 
called  upon  them  to  rise  against  the  Turks,  about 
36,000  Servian  and  Albanian  families,  led  by  their 
patriarch,  emigrated  from  Servaa.  After  Leopold  had 
given  them  the  desired  guarantees  they  crossed  the 
Save  and  settled  in  Slavonia,  in  Syrmia,  and  in  some 
of  the  Hungarian  cities,  where  their  descendants  now 
form  a  considerable  portion  of  the  population.  Their 
rights  have  always  been  protected  by  the  emperor,  and 
the  see  of  a  Servian  patriarch  was  established  at  Carlo- 
wit  z.  The  victories  of  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy  forced 
Turkey  to  surrender  all  of  Servia  to  Austria  by  the 
Treaty  of  Passarowitz  (1718).  But  the  Austrian 
Government  was  not  able  to  win  the  sympathy  of  its 
new  subjects,  and,  after  the  unsuccessful  war  of 
Charles  VI  against  Turkey  (1738-39),  Servia  was  re- 
troceded  to  that  power. 

Although  the  Serbs  themselves  had  contributed 
largely  to  the  restoration  of  the  Turkish  supremacy, 
their  loyalty  was  ill  repaid  by  the  cruelties  of  the 
Janizary  revolt.  At  the  request  of  the  Greek  Ortho- 
dox Church,  the  Patriarchate  of  Ipek  was  again  sup- 
pressed, in  1766,  and  the  Ser\-ian  Church  was  placed 
directly  under  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who 
sent  as  bishops  to  Servaa  almost  exchisively  men  of 
Greek  nationality,  who  were  hostile  to  Servian  efforts 
for  liberty.  During  the  war  against  Turkey  carried 
on  by  Joseph  II  and  Catherine  11,  in  the  years  1788- 
1790,  the  Serbs  rose  in  favour  of  Austria.  In  1804 
a  general  revolt  was  provoked  by  the  atrocities  of  the 
Janizaries.  The  head  of  the  rebellion  was  George 
Petrowitch,  who  was  also  called  Karagcorge  (Black 
George).  A  series  of  victories  delivered  the  country 
from  the  Turkish  soldiers,  and  in  1807  even  Belgrade 
was  taken.  The  people,  however,  were  not  sufficiently 
supported  by  Russia,  and  could  not  obtain  complete 


SERVIA 


734 


SERVIA 


freedom.  By  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest,  in  1812,  the 
Serbs  were  guaranteed  complete  amnesty  and  granted 
a  measure  of  internal  self-administration,  but  were 
obliged  to  remain  under  Turkish  suzerainty.  As  the 
Turks  did  not  keep  their  promises  a  new  revolt  broke 
out  in  1815,  the  leader  of  which  was  Milosch  Obreno- 
vitch,  Karageorge  having  been  assassinated.  On  6 
November,  1817,  Milosch  was  proclaimed  Prince  of 
Ser\-ia  at  Belgrade  by  an  assembly  of  Servian  nobles 
and  ecclesiastics,  and  was  recognized  bv  the  Porte  in 
1820.  By  the  Peace  of  Adrianople  (1829),  Ser\'ia  re- 
ceived the  right  to  elect  its  own  princes,  the  right  of 
self-administration,  in  short  internal  autonomy,  but 
was  obhged  to  pledge  itseK  to  pay  a  fixed  yearly 
tribute  to  the  Porte.  The  Treaty  of  Akerman  (1826) 
and  the  Peace  of  Adrianople  (1829)  also  granted  the 
people  of  Ser\-ia  freedom  of  worship  and  the  right  to 
elect  their  bishops.  In  1832  a  concordat  was  made 
with  the  Greek  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  which 
regulated  the  relation  of  the  Servian  to  the  Greek 
Orthodox  Church;  the  Archbishop  of  Belgrade  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Metropolitan  of  Servia,  and  was 
henceforth  to  be  elected  without  the  participation  of 
the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople;  the  election,  how- 
ever, must  be  announced  to,  and  confirmed  by,  the 
patriarch,  who  had  the  privilege  of  confirming  it  and 
consecrating  the  new  metropohtan.  In  1830  Milosch 
was  recognized  by  the  Porte  as  hereditary  prince;  in 
1834  the  Turkish  miUtary  occupation  of  Servia  was 
limited  to  Belgrade. 

Influenced  by  Russia,  Milosch  ruled  as  an  abso- 
lute prince  without  calhng  any  national  assembly;  he 
seized  commercial  monopolies  for  his  owm  benefit,  and 
in  this  way  so  irritated  the  people  that  in  1835  a  re- 
volt broke  out.  He  was  finally  obliged  to  grant  a  con- 
stitution, which,  however,  the  Turkish  Government 
replaced,  in  1838,  by  the  Organic  Statute  (UsUiv). 
This  statute,  replacing  the  National  Assembly  with  a 
senate  provided  with  ex-tensive  powers,  satisfied 
neither  the  people  nor  the  prince.  Milosch  swore  to 
observ-e  the  Organic  Statute,  but  did  not  keep  his 
oath  and,  after  a  fresh  uprising,  in  1839,  abdicated  in 
favour  of  his  eldest  son  Milan  I.  Milan  died  in  three 
months  and  was  followed  by  his  incapable  and  tyran- 
nical brother  Michael,  who,  in  1842,  was  forced  by  hi.s 
opponents  to  abdicate,  and  then  fled  to  Austria.  A 
national  assembly  convoked  11  September,  1842, 
elected  the  son  of  Karageorge,  Alexander  Karageorge- 
vitch.  Prince  of  Servia.  He  was  confirmed  by  the 
Bultan,  but  only  with  the  title  oi  Beschbeg  (overlord). 
In  his  homo  policy  he  followed  Austria  and,  influenced 
by  Metternich,  his  government  was  rigidly  conserva^ 
tive,  which  made  him  unpopular  among  the  Serbs  and 
in  Russia.  When,  in  1858,  the  Senate  wished  to  force 
him  to  retire,  he  sought  protection  with  the  Turkish 
garrison  at  Belgrafle.  Then!Ui)on  the  National  As- 
sembly (Skypfifttina)  deposed  him  as  a  fugitive,  and 
called  to  the  throne  Milosch  Obrenovitch,  now  eighty 
years  old,  who  had  abdicated  in  1839.  Milosch  was 
followed,  in  1860,  by  his  son  Michael,  who  had  been 
forced  to  abdicate  in  1842.  Under  him  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  army  was  carried  out,  notwithstanding 
complaints  from  the  Porte,  and  the  efforts  of  the  Serbs 
to  become  entirely  independent  of  Turkey  became 
constantly  more  evident.  Urged  by  Austria,  the 
Turks,  in  1867,  withdrew  their  last  garrison,  that  of 
Belgrade,  from  the  country,  in  order  io  allay  the  na^ 
tional  excitement.  Notwithstanding  the  success  that 
had  been  attained,  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
the  niling  prince,  who  was  kilUd  on  20  Junf,  1868,  in 
the  park  of  Toyjschider.  Tlic;  Skuy)sli1ina  then  chose 
as  prince  the  sole  surviving  rnernb*T  of  the  Obreno- 
vitch family,  Milan  II,  then  a  student  in  Paris. 

During  Milan's  minority  a  new  constitution  was 
granted  to  the  country  by  the  regent  Ristitch. 
When,  in  September,  1874,  the  Christians  of  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  rose  against  the  Turkish  yoke,  and 


the  revolt  constantly  spread,  Milan  believed  the  occa- 
sion favourable  to  gain  the  independence  of  the  coun- 
try', while  augmenting  it  with  Bosnia,  Herzegovina, 
and  Old  Servia,  thus  founding  a  Great  Servia.  In 
July,  1876,  he  began  war  against  the  Turks,  without 
being  able  to  gain  any  success  in  battle.  Neverthe- 
less, when  war  broke  out  between  Turkey  and  Russia 
in  1878,  he  joined  Russia,  and  the  Servian  army  in 
Bulgaria  captured  several  places  which  the  Turks 
were  on  the  point  of  abandoning.  In  the  Peace  of  San 
Stefano,  Servia  gained  not  only  the  recognition  of  its 
complete  independence,  but  also  considerable  addi- 
tions to  its  territory,  which  was  still  further  increased 
by  the  Congress  of  Berlin.  In  return  it  was  obliged 
to  grant  unconditional  equality  to  all  denominations 
and  assume  a  part  of  the  Turkish  national  debt.  On 
21  August,  1878,  the  independence  of  the  country  was 
formally  proclaimed.  One  of  Milan's  first  acts  v/as  to 
obtain  for  the  Servian  Church  complete  indepen'^ence 
from  the  Greek  Church  and  its  release  from  the  obliga- 
tions it  had  assumed  in  1832.  In  1879  he  compelled 
the  Greek  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  Joachim  III, 
to  recognize  the  Servian  Church  as  independent  and 
self-governing,  and  to  renounce  all  rights  over  it. 
Since  then  the  relations  between  the  two  Churches 
have  been  friendly.  On  6  March,  1882,  Milan  as- 
sumed the  title  of  king.  In  1884,  to  increase  his  ter- 
ritories, thinking  to  exploit  the  embarrassment  of  Bul- 
garia, which  after  the  annexation  of  Eastern  Rumelia 
was  threatened  by  the  Turks  and  deserted  by  Russia, 
he  declared  war  on  that  principalitj%  although  ill  pre- 
pared for  it.  Led  by  their  courageous  ruler,  Alex- 
ander of  Battenberg,  the  Bulgarians  gained  a  brilliant 
victory  over  the  Serbs  at  Slivnitza,  and  only  the  inter- 
ference of  Austria,  which  hastily  sent  Count  Kheven- 
hiiller  to  the  Bulgarian  head-quarters  and  checked 
Prince  Alexander,  saved  Servia. 

In  his  home  policy,  too,  Milan  sheltered  himself  un- 
der the  protection  of  Austria  and  opposed  his  own  peo- 
ple. The  Serbs,  greatly  embittered  by  the  Austrian 
occupation  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  became  more 
and  more  favourable  to  the  Radical  and  Russophile 
party,  while  the  king's  position  was  rendered  increas- 
ingly difficult  by  tlie  agitation  of  political  party  lead- 
ers who  were  under  Russian  influence,  and  the  bad 
financial  management  of  his  cabinets.  At  last  Mi- 
lan's quarrels  with  his  wife  Natalie,  the  daughter 
of  a  Russian  colonel,  led  to  the  dissolution  of  the 
marriage  by  the  metropolitan.  When  the  Liberal 
party,  which  had  been  the  support  of  Milan  and  Ris- 
titch, was  defeated  in  the  elections  of  1888,  and  the 
Radicals  forced  a  new  and  more  democratic  constitu- 
tion, Milan  abdicated,  6  March,  1889,  in  favour  of  his 
only  son  Alexander,  a  minor,  and  then  left  the  country. 
In  1892  he  gave  up  his  Servian  citizenship.  The  sorely 
distracted  country  had  still  less  internal  i)oa(^e  during 
Alexander's  reign.  The  regency  during  his  minority 
was  carried  on  mainly  by  Ristitch.  In  1S93  the  im- 
pulsive king,  altliough  only  sixteen  years  old,  declared 
himself  of  age,  and  forced  the  regency  to  retire.  Alex- 
ander recalled  his  father  from  Paris  to  help  him 
against  the  Radicals  and  tlie  menace  of  anarchy. 
Milan  returned  to  Belgrade,  21  January,  1894,  at  once 
assumed  control  of  the  administration,  did  away  with 
the  democratic  Constitution  of  1889  by  a  coup  d'ctnt. 
restored  that  of  1869,  and  limited  the  constitutional 
liberties  and  the  suffrage.  In  1897  he  also  assumed 
supreme  control  of  the  army. 

However,  the  friendly  relations  between  father  and 
son  were  ruptured  in  1900  by  the  marriage  of  Alex- 
ander, who  was  mentally  somewhat  abnormal,  with  a 
widow  of  ill  repute  named  DragaMaschin.  Milan 
broke  off  all  connexion  with  his  son  and  left  the  coun- 
try for  good  (d.  at  Vienna,  11  Ffibruary,  1901).  After 
that,  Alexander  ruled  despotically,  contrary  to  the 
Constitution.  By  two  political  strategems  a  new  con- 
stitution was  forced  on  the  country  in  1901,  but  was 


SERVIA 


735 


SERVIA 


set  aside  after  two  years.  The  king  lost  whatever 
sympathy  was  still  felt  for  him  on  account  of  the  un- 
dignified manner  in  which  the  queen,  in  1901,  deceived 
the  country  into  expecting  an  heir  to  the  throne. 
When  at  last  the  queen  formed  a  plan  to  have  one  of 
her  brothers,  Lieutenant  Nikodem  Lunjevitza,  who 
was  hated  in  the  army,  made  heir  to  the  throne,  a  re- 
volt broke  out.  In  the  night  of  10-11  June,  1903,  a 
number  of  officers,  who  had  formed  a  conspiracy  under 
the  leadership  of  Colonel  Mischitch,  entered  the  pal- 
ace and  murdered  the  king  and  queen,  the  queen's  two 
brothers,  and  three  ministers.  The  following  day  the 
army  proclaimed  Peter  Karageorgevitch,  son  of  the 
former  Prince  Alexander  Karageorgevitch,  king,  and 
the  National  Assembly  confirmed  the  choice  on  1.5 
June,  after  restoring  the  Constitution  of  1889. 

Even  under  the  new  dynasty  the  country  has  not 
yet  (1911)  found  peace  and  economic  development. 
Peter's  position  was  from  the  beginning  made  more 
difficult  by  the  fact  that  he  was  rightly  regarded  as  an 
accessory  to  the  murder  of  his  predecessor,  and  was, 
moreover,  completely  controlled  by  the  assassins  dur- 
ing the  early  years  of  his  reign.  These  murderers 
claimed  the  chief  positions  in  the  army  and  the  civil 
service;  on  account  of  his  connexion  with  them 
Peter's  administration  was  only  recognized  by  the 
Powers  after  the  lapse  of  some  time,  the  last  power  to 
recognize  him  being  Great  Britain  (1906).  The  coun- 
try was  kept  in  disorder  by  the  constant  struggles  be- 
tween political  parties,  while  cabinet  changes  and  dis- 
solutions of  the  Chamber  followed  in  rapid  succession. 
In  foreign  affairs,  Servia  was  soon  involved  in  an  eco- 
nomic and  poUtical  dispute  with  Austria-Hungarj-, 
with  which  it  carried  on  its  main  export  trade.  When 
Servia  formed  a  customs  union  with  Bulgaria,  in  1906, 
a  customs  war  with  Austria-Hungary  began,  which  in- 
flicted severe  damage  on  the  economic  life  of  the  coun- 
try. Relations  with  Austria-Hungary  were  still  fur- 
ther strained  by  the  zealous  agitation  for  a  Great 
Servia  carried  on  among  the  related  peoples  of  Mon- 
tenegro, Macedonia,  Bosnia,  and  even  Croatia.  In 
October,  1908,  Austria  completed  the  annexation  of 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina;  this  brought  the  anti-Aus- 
trian feeling  in  Servia  to  fever-heat,  as  the  Serbs  be- 
lieved they  had  a  moral  claim  on  these  countries  in- 
habited by  related  peoples.  The  Servian  Govern- 
ment, in  a  note  addressed  to  thesignatory  Powers,  pro- 
tested against  what  it  alleged  to  be  an  infringement  of 
the  Treaty  of  Berlin  of  1878.  It  also  formed  an  alliance 
with  Montenegro,  called  out  the  reserves,  and  set 
about  raising  a  war  loan.  Servia  was  openly  sup- 
ported by  Russia,  and  secretly  encouraged  by  Great 
Britain.  It  demanded  from  Austria-Hungary  the 
cession  of  a  strip  of  territory  to  connect  Servia,  by 
way  of  the  Sandjak  of  Novi  Bazar  and  Bosnia,  with 
Montenegro  and  the  Adriatic;  it  also  demanded  the 
autonomy  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  under  the  su- 
pervision of  the  European  Powers. 

In  the  spring  of  1909  war  seemed  inevitable.  How- 
ever, the  stand  taken  by  Germany,  which  declared 
itself  ready  to  support  Austria-Hungary  with  arms  if 
the  latter  were  attacked  by  Russia  in  a  war  with  Ser- 
via, led  Russia  to  change  its  position  and  forced 
Servia  to  yield.  Servia  was  obliged  to  acknowledge 
formally  the  annexation  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina, 
to  renounce  economic  and  territorial  compensation, 
and  to  express  the  desire  to  renew  friendly  relations 
with  the  dual  monarchy.  At  the  same  time  the 
Crown  Prince  George  was  obhged  to  renounce  his  right 
to  the  succession  in  favour  of  his  brother  Alexander. 
George  had  had  a  large  share  in  urging  a  war  and  was 
greatly  disliked  by  the  Serbs  on  account  of  his  wild 
behaviour,  his  extravagance,  and  brutal  conduct. 
Since  then  the  relations  between  Servia  and  Austria- 
Hungary  have  become  more  friendly,  and  the  cus- 
toms war  was  settled  in  the  early  part  of  1911  by  a 
commercial  treaty. 


II.  Actual  Conditions. — Servia  has  an  area  of 
18,650  square  miles;  on  31  December,  1900,  the  popu- 
lation was  2,492,882.  Of  this  number  2,331,107  were 
by  language  Serbs,  89,873  Rumanians,  7494  Germans, 
2151  Albanians,  1956  Magyars.  Divided  by  religions, 
2,460,515  belonged  to  the  Serbo-Orthodox  Church, 
10,423  were  Roman  Cathohcs,  1399  Protestants,  3056 
Turkish  Mohammedans,  11,689  Mohammedan  Gyp- 
sies, while  71  belonged  to  various  other  religions.  At 
the  beginning  of  1910  the  population  was  estimated  at 
2,855,660.  According  to  the  Constitution  of  2  Janu- 
ary, 1889,  Servia  is  a  constitutional  monarch}^,  heredi- 
tary by  primogeniture  in  the  male  line  in  the  Kara- 
georgevitch family.  The  king  shares  the  legislative 
power  with  a  national  assembly,  the  Skupshtina;  this 
consists  of  160  deputies  elected  for  four  years.  The 
right  of  suffrage  is  exercised  by  every  Servian  citizen 
who  is  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  pays  a  national 
tax  of  at  least  15  pence,  as  well  as  all  members  of 
sadrugas  who  have  reached  their  majority,  irrespect- 
ive of  taxation.  Those  voters  are  eligible  as  depu- 
ties who  are  thirty  years  old  and  pay  an  annual  state 
tax  of  30  pence.  A  "Great  Skupshtina",  consisting 
of  twice  the  ordinary  number  of  deputies,  is  elected  for 
certain  special  occasions,  as  for  making  changes  in 
the  Constitution,  electing  a  king  when  there  is  no  heir 
to  the  throne,  etc. 

The  national  rehgion  of  Servia  is  that  of  the  Ortho- 
dox Greek  Church.  All  denominations  permitted  by 
the  Government  enjoy  complete  freedom  and  protec- 
tion, so  far  as  their  exercise  does  not  contravene  morals 
and  public  order.  However,  all  attempts  to  influ- 
ence the  members  of  the  State  Church  to  adopt  other 
creeds  are  forbidden.  All  church  organizations  are 
under  tlie  supervision  of  the  Ministry  of  Worship  and 
Education,  which  also  watches  the  correspondence  of 
all  Servian  with  foreign  ecclesiastical  authorities.  The 
control  of  the  Orthodox  Church  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
synod  consisting  of  the  five  bishops  of  the  country 
under  the  presidency  of  the  metropolitan,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Belgrade.  This  synod  elects  all  the  bishops, 
issues  all  the  edicts  for  the  guidance  of  the  Church, 
and  has  a  share  in  drawing  up  all  laws  referring  to  the 
Church  and  clergy.  The  metropolitan  is  elected  by  a 
special  synod  consisting  of  the  active  bishops,  all 
archimandrites  and  arch-priests  of  the  subdivisions  of 
Servia,  the  head  of  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  of  St. 
Saba,  and  several  lay  adherents  of  the  Orthodox 
Church.  The  choice  of  this  synod  requires  the  con- 
firmation of  the  king.  In  1907  there  were  750 
churches  and  chapels,  54  monasteries,  1042  priests, 
and  98  monks.  The  Orthodox  Church  is  supported 
partly  by  the  revenues  of  the  church  lands,  partly  by 
additional  sums  granted  by  the  State.  The  value  of 
the  church  lands  is  nearly  345  million  marks;  that  of 
the  monastery  lands  makes  an  additional  250  miUion 
marks. 

Since  1848  the  Cathohc  Serbs,  who  are  in  large  part 
subjects  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy,  have 
been  under  the  spiritual  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of 
Diakovo,  in  Slavonia.  Although  freedom  of  religion 
was  constitutionally  guaranteed  by  the  Congress  of 
Berlin,  the  position  of  the  Cathohc  Church  is  a  dis- 
advantageous one,  as  the  Orthodox  clergy  put  various 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  parochial  work.  In  the 
course  of  the  nineteenth  century  negotiations  were 
several  times  begun  for  the  erection  of  a  Latin  bishop- 
ric in  Servia.  Bishop  Strossmayer,  of  Diakovo,  es- 
pecially, tried  repeatedly  to  attain  this  end,  but  all 
efforts  were  in  vain.  In  1890  the  Holy  See  gave  its 
consent  to  the  erection  of  a  bishopric  for  Servia,  but 
the  movement  has  failed  on  account  of  the  opposition 
of  the  Servian  Government  and  other  difficulties. 
There  are  only  three  parochial  stations  for  the  Catho- 
lics of  Servia,  and  the  expenses  of  these  are  largely 
borne  by  the  Austro-Hungarian  Government.  The 
title  of  Catholic  Primate  of  Servia  is  borne  by  the 


SERVITES 


736 


SERVITES 


Archbishop  of  Antivari,  who,  since  March,  1911,  has 
been  Father  Matthew  Cardun  of  the  Dahnatian 
province  of  the  Franciscans. 

N'ovAKOviTCH,  Serbische  Bibliographic  17^1-1867  (Belgrade, 
1S69)  (in  the  Servian  language);  Jovanovitck,  An  English  Bib- 
liography on  the  Xew  Eastern  Question  (Belgrade,  1909);  Gopce- 
vic,  Serbien  und  die  Serben  (Leipzig,  1888) ;  Tcma,  Serbien  (Han- 
over, 1894) ;  De  Gubernatis,  La  Serbie  et  les  Serbes  (Paris,  1898) ; 
CoQtJELLE,  Le  Royaume  de  Serbie  (Paris,  1901);  Lazard  and 
HoGGE,  La  Serbie  d'aujourJ'hui  (Gembloux,  1900);  Hogge,  La 
Serbie  de  nos  jours  (Brussels,  1901);  Cvijic,  Siedlungen  der  serbia- 
chen  Lander  (6  vols.,  Belgrade,  1902-09)  (in  the  Servian  lan- 
guage); Davelut,  La  Serbie  (Brussels,  1907);  Mijatovitch,  Ser- 
ria  and  the  Servians  (London,  1908);  Stead,  Servia  by  the  Ser- 
vians (London,  1909);  Kaxitz,  Das  K6nigreich  Serbien  und  das 
serbische  Volk  ton  der  Romerzeit  bis  zur  Gegenwart  (two  vols., 
Leipzig,  1904-09);  Laz.uiovich-Hrebelianovitch,  The  Servian 
People  (New  York,  1910);  von  Radic,  Die  Verfassung  der  ortho- 
dox-serbischen  und  rumdnischen  Partikularkirchen  (1880).  Con- 
cerning the  historj-  of  the  countrj-,  cf.  Hilferding,  Geschichte 
der  Serben  und  Bulgaren  (2  pts.,  Bautzen,  1856-64) ;  von  KAt>- 
L.4.T,  Geschichte  der  Serben  (2  vols.,  Budapest  and  Leipzig,  1877- 
1885);  R.1XKE,  Serbian  und  die  Tiirkei  imneumehnlen  Jahrhundert 
(Leipzig,  1879);  Mij.vtovitch,  History  of  Modern  Servia  (Lon- 
don, 1872);  CuNiBERTi,  Serbia  e  la  dinastia  Obrenovic,  1804-93 
(Turin,  1893);  Yakschitch,  L' Europe  et  la  resurrection  de  la  Ser- 
bie (Paris,  1907);  Gavrilovic,  Miloch  Obrenovitch  (Belgrade, 
1908)  (in  French);  Barre,  La  tragedie  serbe  (Paris,  1906);  Geor- 
gevic.  Das  Ende  der  Obrenovic  (Leipzig,  1905) ;  Idem,  Die  ser- 
bische Frage  (Leipzig,  1908) ;  von  Kallay,  Geschichte  des  ser- 
bischen  Aufstands  1807-10  (Vienna,  1910);  Jikecek,  Geschichte  der 
Serben  (Gotha,  1911)  (vol.  I  extends  to  1371,  and  the  work  con- 
tains a  bibliography  of  Servia). 

Joseph  Lins. 

Servites,  Order  of  (Servants  of  Mary),  is  the 
fifth  mendicant  order,  the  objects  of  which  are  the 
sanctification  of  its  members,  preaching  the  Gospel, 
and  the  propagation  of  devotion  to  the  Mother  of 
God,  with  special  reference  to  her  sorrows.  In  this 
article  we  shall  consider:  (1)  the  foundation  and 
history  of  the  order;  (2)  devotions  and  manner  of 
life;  (3)  affiUated  associations;  (4)  Servites  of  dis- 
tinction. 

Foundation  and  History. — To  the  city  of  Flor- 
ence belongs  the  glory  of  gi%'ing  to  the  Church  the 
seven  youths  who  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  order: 
Buonfiglio  dei  Monaldi  (Bonfilius),  Giovanni  di 
Buonagiunta  (Bonajuncta),  Bartolomeo  degli  Amidei 
(Amideus),  Ricovero  dei  I.,ipi)i-Ugguccioni  (Hugh), 
Benedetto  dell'  Antella  (Munettu.s),  Gherardino  di 
Sostegno  (Sosteneus),  and  Alessio  de'  Falconieri 
(.Alexius);  they  belonged  to  seven  patrician  families 
of  that  city,  and  had  early  formed  a  confraternity  of 
laymen,  known  as  the  Laudesi,  or  Praisers  of  Mary. 
While  engaged  in  the  exercises  of  the  confraternity 
on  the  feast  of  the  Assumption,  1233,  the  Blessed 
Virgin  appeared  to  them,  advised  them  to  withdraw 
from  the  world  and  devote  themselves  entirely  to 
eternal  things.  They  obeyed,  and  established  them- 
selves close  to  the  convent  of  the  Friars  Minor  at 
La  Camarzia,  a  suburb  of  Florence.  Desiring  stricter 
seclusion  than  that  offered  at  La  Camarzia,  they 
withflrew  to  Monte  Senario,  eleven  miles  north  of 
Florencxi.  Here  the  Blessed  Virgin  again  appeared 
to  them,  conferred  on  them  a  hlnck  habit,  instructed 
them  to  follow  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine  and  to 
found  the  order  of  her  servants  (15  April,  1240). 
The  brethren  elected  a  superior,  took  the  vows  of 
obedience,  chastity,  and  poverty,  and  admitted 
as.sociates. 

In  1243,  Peter  of  Verona  (St.  Peter  Martyr), 
Inquisitor-General  of  Italy,  recommended  the  new 
foundation  to  the  pope,  but  it  was  not  until  13  March, 
1249,  that  the  first  official  approval  of  the  order  was 
obtained  from  Cardinal  Raniero  Capocci,  papal 
legate  in  Tuscany.  About  this  time  St.  Bonfilius 
obtained  permission  to  found  the  first  branch  of 
the  order  at  Cafaggio  outside  the  walls  of  Florence. 
Two  years  later  (2  Oct.,  12.51)  Innocent  IV  appointed 
Cardmal  Guglielmo  Fieschi  first  protector  of  the 
order.  The  next  pope,  Alexander  IV,  favoured  a 
plan  for  the  amalgamation  of  all  institutes  following 
the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,     This  waa  accomplished 


in  March,  1256,  and  about  the  same  time  a  Rescript 
was  issued  confirming  the  Order  of  the  Servites 
as  a  separate  body  with  power  to  elect  a  general. 
Four  years  later  a  general  chapter  was  convened  at 
which  the  order  was  divided  into  two  provinces, 
Tuscany  and  Umbria,  the  former  of  wliich  St.  Manet- 
tus  directed,  while  the  latter  was  given  into  the 
care  of  St.  Sostene.  Within  five  years  two  new  po- 
vinces  were  atlded,  namelj^  Romagna  and  Lombardy. 
.-Vfter  St.  Philip  Benizi  was  elected  general  (5  June, 
1267)  the  order,  which  had  long  been  the  object  of 
unjust  attack  from  jealous  enemies,  entered  into  the 
crisis  of  its  existence.  The  Second  Council  of  Lyons 
in  1274  put  into  execution  the  ordinance  of  the 
Fourth  Lateran  Council,  forbidding  the  foundation 
of  new  religious  orders,  and  absolutely  suppressed 
all  mendicant  institutions  not  yet  approved  by  the 
Holy  See.  The  aggressors  renewed  their  assaults, 
and  in  the  year  1276  Innocent  V  in  a  letter  to  St. 
Philip  declared  the  order  suppressed.  St.  PhiHp 
proceeded  to  Rome,  but  before  his  arrival  there 
Innocent  V  had  died.  His  successor  lived  but  five 
weeks.  Finally  John  XXI,  on  the  favourable  opin- 
ion of  three  consistorial  advocates,  decided  that  the 
order  should  continue  as  before.  The  former  dangers 
reappeared  under  Martin  IV  (1281),  and  though 
other  popes  continued  to  favour  the  order,  it  was  not 
definitively  ajiproved  until  Benedict  IX  issued  the 
Bull,  "Diim  levamus"  (11  Feb.,  1304).  Of  the 
seven  founders,  St.  Alexis  alone  hved  to  see  their 
foundation  raised  to  the  dignity  of  an  order.  He 
died   in    1310. 

We  must  here  make  mention  of  St.  Peregrine  Laziosi 
(Latiosi),  whose  sanctity  of  life  did  much  towards 
increasing  the  repute  of  the  Servite  Order  in  Italy. 
Born  at  Forli  in  1265,  the  son  of  a  Ghibelline  leader. 
Peregrine,  in  his  youth,  bitterly  hated  the  Church. 
He  insulted  and  struck  Saint  Philip  Benizi,  who,  at 
the  request  of  Martin  V,  had  gone  to  preach  peace 
to  the  Forlivese.  Peregrine's  generous  nature  was 
immediately  aroused  by  the  mildness  with  which 
St.  Philip  received  the  attack,  and  he  begged 
the  saint's  forgiveness.  In  1283  he  was  received 
into  the  order,  and  so  great  was  his  humility  it  was 
only  after  much  persuasion  he  consented  to  be  or- 
dained a  priest.  He  founded  a  monastery  in  his 
native  city,  where  he  devoted  all  his  energies  to  the 
restoration  of  peace.  His  humility  and  patience  were 
so  great  that  he  was  called  by  his  people  a  second  Job. 
He  died  in  1345.  His  body  remains  incorrupt  to 
the  present  day.  He  was  canonized  by  Benedict 
XIII  in  1726,  and  his  feast  is  celebrated  on  30  April. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  new 
foundation  was  its  wonderful  growth.  Even  in  the 
thirteenth  century  there  were  houses  of  the  order  in 
Germany,  France,  and  Spain.  Early  in  the  four- 
teenth century  tiu*  order  had  more  than  on(!  hundred 
convents  including  branch  houses  in  Hungary,  Bohe- 
mia, Austria,  Poland,  and  Belgium;  there  were  al,so 
mi.ssions  in  Crete  and  India.  The  disturbances 
during  the  Reformation  caused  the  loss  of  many 
Servite  convents  in  Germany,  but  in  the  South  of 
France  the  order  met  with  much  success.  The  Con- 
vent of  Santa  Maria  in  Via  (1563)  was  the  second  house 
of  the  order  established  in  Rome;  San  Marcello  had 
been  founded  in  1369.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  order  sustained  lo.sses  and  confi.scations  from 
which  it  has  scarcely  yet  recovered.  The  flourishing 
Province  of  Narbonne  was  almost  totally  destroyed 
by  the  plague  which  swept  Marseilles  in  1720.  In 
1783  the  Servites  were  expelled  from  Prague  and  in 
1785  Joseph  II  desecrated  the  shrine  of  Maria  Wald- 
rast.  Ten  monasteries  were  suppressed  in  Spain  in 
1835.  A  new  foundation  was  made  at  Brussels  in 
1891,  and  at  Rome  the  College  of  St.  Alexis  waa 
opened  in  1895.  At  this  i)eriod  the  order  wiis  in- 
troduced into  England    and  America  chiefly  through 


SERVUS 


737 


SESSA-AURUNCA 


the  efforts  of  Fathers  Bosio  and  Morini.  The  latter, 
having  gone  to  London  (1864)  as  director  of  the 
affihated  Sisters  of  Compassion,  obtained  charge  of 
a  parish  from  Archbishop  Manning  in  1867.  His 
work  prospered:  besides  St.  Mary's  Priory  at  London, 
convents  were  opened  at  Bognor  (1882)  and  Begbroke 
(1886).  In  1870  Fathers  Morini,  Ventura,  Giribaldi, 
and  Brother  Joseph  Camera,  at  the  request  of  Rt. 
Rev.  Bishop  Melcher  of  Green  Bay,  took  up  amission 
in  America,  at  Neenah,  Wisconsin.  Father  Morini 
founded  at  Chicago  (1874)  the  monastery  of  Our 
Lady  of  Sorrows.  A  novitiate  was  opened  at  Gran- 
ville, Wisconsin,  in  1892.  The  American  province, 
formally  estabUshed  in  1908,  embraces  convents  in 
the  dioceses  of  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Milwaukee,  Su- 
perior, and  Denver.  In  1910  the  order  numbered 
700  members  in  62  monasteries,  of  which  36  were  in 
Italy,  17  in  Austria-Hungary,  4  in  England,  4  in 
North  America,  1  in  Brussels. 

Devotions:  Manner  of  Life. — In  common  with 
all  reUgious  orders  strictly  so  called,  the  Servites 
make  solemn  profession  of  the  three  vows  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience.  The  particu- 
lar object  of  the  order  is  to  sanctify  first  its  own 
members,  and  then  all  men  through  devotion  to  the 
Mother  of  God,  especially  in  her  desolation  during 
the  Pas.sion  of  her  Divine  Son.  The  Servites  give 
missions,  have  the  care  of  souls,  or  teach  in  higher 
institutions  of  learning.  The  Rosary  of  the  Seven 
Dolours  is  one  of  their  devotions,  as  is  also  the  Via 
Matris.  The  fasts  of  the  order  are  Advent,  Lent, 
and  the  vigils  of  certain  feasts.  All  offices  in  the 
order  are  elective  and  continue  for  three  years, 
except  that  of  general  and  a.ssist ant-generals  which 
are  for  six  years.  The  canonized  Servite  saints  are: 
St.  Philip  Bciiizi  (f(!ast  23  Aug.  ),  St.  Peregrine  Latiosi 
(30  April),  St.  Juliana  Falconieri  (19  June),  and  the 
Seven   Holy   Founders   (12   Feb.). 

Affiliated  Associations. — Connected  with  the 
first  order  of  men  are  the  cloistered  nuns  of  the  second 
order,  which  originated  with  converts  of  St.  Philip 
Benizi.  These  sisters  have  convents  in  Spain,  Italy, 
England,  The  Tyrol,  and  Germany.  The  Mantellate,  a 
third  order  of  women  founded  by  St.  Juliana  (see  Mary, 
Servants  of),  have  houses  in  Italy,  France,  Spain, 
England,  and  Canada.  In  the  United  States  they 
are  to  be  found  in  the  dioceses  of  Sioux  City  and  Bel- 
ville.  There  is  also  a  third  order  for  seculars,  as  well 
as  a  confraternity  of  the  Seven  Dolours,  branches  of 
which  may  be  crcctcKl  in  any  church. 

Servites  of  Distinction. — A  few  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished members  are  here  grouped  under  the  heading 
of  that  particular  subject  to  which  they  were  especially 
devoted ;  the  dates  are  those  of  their  death.  Ten  mem- 
bers have  been  canonized  and  several  beatified.  Sacred 
Scripture. — Angelus  Torsani  (1.562?);  Felicianus  Capi- 
toni  (1577),  who  wrote  an  explanation  of  all  the  pass- 
ages misinterpreted  by  Luther;  Jerome  Quaini  (1583) ; 
Angelus  Montursius  (1600),  commentary  in  ,5  vols.; 
James Tavanti  (1607),  whose  "Ager  Dominicus"  com- 
prises 25  vols.;  Juhus  Anthony  Roboredo  (1728). 
Theology. — Laurence  Opimus  (1380),  "Commentar- 
ium  in  Magistrum  Sententiarum";  Ambrose  Spiera 
(14.54)  ;  Marian  Salvini  (1476)  ;  Jerome  Amidei 
(1543);  Laurence  Mazzocchi  (1560);  Gherardus  Baldi 
(1660),  who  was  styled  by  his  contemporaries 
"eminens  inter  thcologos";  Amideus  Chiroli  (1700?), 
celebrated  for  his  "Lumina  fidei  divinae";  Juhus 
Arrighetti  (1705);  CaUixtus  Lodigerius  (1710); 
Gerard  Capassi  (1737),  who  was  by  Benedict  XIV 
called  the  most  learned  man  of  his  day;  Mark  Struggl 
(1761);  Caesar  Sguanin  (1769).  Canon  Law. — Paul 
Attavanti  (1499),  "Breviarium  totius  juris  canonici"; 
Dominic  Brancaccini  (1689),  "De  jure  doctoratus"; 
PaulCanciani  (1795?),  "Barbarorum  leges  antiquae"; 
Theodore  Rupprecht,  eighteenth-centurv  jurist;  Bon- 
fihus  Mura  (1SS2),  prefect  of  the  Sapienza  before  1870. 
XIII.— 47 


Philosophy  and  Matfiematics. — Urbanus  Averroista, 
commentator  of  Averroes;  Andrew  Zaini  (1423);  Paul 
Albertini  (1475),  better  known  as  Paolo  Veneto ;  Philip 
Mucagatta  (1511);  John  Baptist  Drusiani  (1656), 
the  "Italian  Archimedes";  Benedict  Canali  (1745); 
Raymond  Adami  (1792);  Angelus  Ventura  (1738). 
History  and  Hagioqraphy. — James  Philip  Landrofilo 
(1528);  Octavian  Bagatti  (1566);  Raphael  Maffei 
(1577);  Archangelus  Giani  (1623);  Philip  Ferrari 
(1626);  Archangelus  Garbi  (1722);  Placidus  Bonfrizi- 
eri  (1732);  Joseph  Damiani  (1842);  Austin  M.  Morini 
(1910).  Fine  Arts. — Alexander  Melhno  (1554)  choir- 
master at  the  Vatican ;  Ehas  Zoto,  John  Philip  Dreyer 
(1772);  Paul  Bonfichi,  who  received  a  pension  from 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  for  his  musical  compositions; 
Ambrose  of  Racconigi,  Cornehus  Candidus,  Jilis  of 
Milan,  Germanus  Sardus,  poets;  Arsenius  Mascagni 
and  Gabriel  Mattel,  painters;  Angelus  Montursius 
(1563),  architect  and  sculptor,  among  whose  works  are 
the  Neptune  of  Messina,  the  arm  of  Laocoon  in  the 
Vatican,  and  the  Angels  on  the  Ponte  Sant'  Angelo. 

Mon.  ord.  Serv.  (Brussels,  1897) ;  Gianni-Garbi,  Annates  ord, 
serv.  (Lucca,  1725);  Poccianti,  Chronicon  ord.  serv.  (Florence, 
1557) ;  Sporr,  Lebensbilder  aus  den  Serm'ten-Orden  (Innsbruck, 
1892);  Soulier,  Storia  dei  sette  xanti  fondatori  (Rome,  1888); 
Idem,  Vie  de  S.  Philippe  Benizi  (Paris,  1886);  Lbpicier,  Sainte 
Julienne  Falconieri  (Brussels,  1907) ;  Ledoctx,  Hist,  dei  sept 
saints  fondateurs  (Paris,  1888);  Dourche,  Roses  el  marguerites 
(Brussels,  1905).  PaTICK  J.    GriFFIN. 

Servus  servorum  Dei,  (servant  of  the  ser- 
vants OF  God),  a  title  given  by  the  popes  to  them- 
selves in  documents  of  note.  Gregory  the  Great  waa 
the  first  to  use  it  extensively,  and  he  was  imitated  by 
his  successors,  though  not  invariably  till  the  ninth 
century.  John  the  Deacon  states  (P.  L.,  LXXV,  87) 
that  Gregory  assumed  this  title  as  a  lesson  in  humility 
to  John  the  Faster.  Prior  to  the  controversy  with 
John  (595),  addressing  St.  Leander  in  April,  591, 
Gregory  employed  this  phrase,  and  even  as  early  as 
587,  according  to  Ewald  ("N-eues  Archiv  fiir  altere 
deutsche  Geschichtskunde",  III,  545,  a.  1878),  while 
still  a  deacon.  A  Bull  of  570  begins:  "Joannes  (III) 
Episcopus,  servus  servorum  Dei".  Bishops  actuated 
by  humility,  e.  g.  St.  Boniface  [Jaffe,  "Monum. 
Mogun."  in  "Biblioth.  Rer.  Germ.",  Ill  (Berlin, 
1866),  157,  177  etc.),  and  the  archbishops  of  Bene- 
vento;  or  by  pride,  e.  g.  the  archbishops  of  Ravenna 
as  late  as  1122  [Muratori,  "Antiq.  Ital.",  V  (Milan 
1741),  177;  "Dissertazioni",  II,  dis.scr.  36];  and  even 
civil  rulers,  e.  g.  Alphonsus  II,  King  of  Spain  (b. 
830),  and  Emperor  Henry  III  (b.  1017),  applied  the 
term  to  themselves.  Since  the  twelfth  century  it 
is  used  exclusively  by  the  pope.  (See  Bulls  and 
Briefs.) 

Du  Canoe,  Glossarium  med.  et  inf.  lat. 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Sessa-Aurunca,  Diocese  of  (Suessana),  in 
Campania,  Province  of  Caserta  (Southern  Italy). 
The  city  is  situated  on  a  hill  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile 
plain,  and  possesses  a  large  and  beautiful  cathedral, 
built  in  1113.  A  city  of  the  Aurunci,  it  became  a 
Roman  colony  313  b.c.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
poet  Lucilius  and  of  the  philosopher  Agostino  Nifo. 
Local  legend  relates  that  the  Faith  was  preached  in 
Suessa  (the  Latin  name  of  the  city)  by  St.  Peter  him- 
self. The  inhabitants  venerate  as  patron  saint  their 
Bishop,  St.  Castus,  a  martyr  at  the  end  of  the  third 
century.  There  still  remain  ruins  of  the  ancient 
basilica  dedicated  to  him,  with  which  catacombs  are 
still  connected  (cf.  "  Nuovo  Bullettino  d' Archeologia 
Cristiana",  1897,  p.  140).  The  first  bishop  of  cer- 
tain date  was  Fortunatus  (499);  but  until  the  end  of 
the  tenth  century  the  names  of  the  bishops  are  un- 
known. Of  the  others  we  mention:  Erveo  (1171), 
who  rendered  great  services  to  the  city;  Pandulfo 
(1224),  who  donated  the  pulpit,  adorned  with  mosaics, 
in  the  cathedral;   Giovanni  (1259),  who  embellished 


SESTINI 


738 


SETEBO 


the  cathedral;  Angelo  Geraldini  (1462),  a  learned 
humanist;  Galeazzo  Florimonte  (1552),  who  played 
an  important  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  Holy  See  under 
Paul  III  and  Julius  III,  and  published  various 
works;  Giovanni  Placidi  (1566),  founder  of  the  semi- 
nary; Ulisse  Gherardini  (1624),  who  restored  the 
cathedral  and  the  episcopal  residence;  Francesco  Gra- 
nata  (1759),  who  promoted  study  in  the  seminary,  and 
■RTote  various  historical  works.  Later  bishops  were: 
Pietro  de  Felice  (1797),  who  was  cast  into  prison  by 
the  revolutionists;  Ferdinando  Girardi  (1848),  exiled 
in  1860.  The  diocese  is  sufifragan  of  Capua ;  it  contains 
42  parishes  with  56,750  souls  and  90  secular  clergy. 

C.*.PPELLETTi,  Le  Chiese  d'  Italia,  XX;  Diamark,  Mcmorie 
atorico-criiiche  della  Chiesa  di  Sessa  Aurunca  (Naples,   1906). 

U.  Benigni. 

Sestini,  Benedict,  astronomer,  mathematician, 
b.  at  Florence,  Italy,  20  March,  1816;  d.  at  Frederick, 
RIaryland,  17  Jan.,  1890.  He  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  at  Rome  on  30  Oct.,  1836,  and  studied  at  the 
Roman  College  where  he  followed  the  courses  of 
Father  Caraffa,  the  distinguished  profe.ssor  of  math- 
ematics; endowed  with  mathematical  ability,  supple- 
mented by  keen  sight  and  skill  as  a  draughtsman,  he 
was  appointed  assistant  to  Father  De  Vico,  director 
of  the  Roman  Observatory.  He  was  ordained  in 
1844,  and  filled  the  chair  of  higher  mathematics  at 
the  Roman  College,  when  the  Revolution  of  1848 
caused  his  precipitate  flight  from  Rome;  coming  to 
America  he  lived  at  Georgetown  College,  except  for 
a  few  years,  until  1869.  He  was  stationed  at  Wood- 
stock, Maryland,  at  the  opening  of  the  scholasticate, 
and  remained  there  until  1884.  On  account  of  faihng 
health,  he  was  transferred  in  1885  to  the  novitiate, 
Frederick,  Maryland,  where  paralysis  terminated  his 
career.  In  astronomy,  his  principal  work  is  his 
"Catalogue  of  Star-Colors",  pubUshed  in  his  "Mem- 
oirs of  the  Roman  College",  1845  and  1847.  The 
second  memoir  includes  the  first,  and  forms  the  entire 
catalogue,  except  the  twelve  celestial  charts  that  ac- 
companied the  first.  The  Revolution  broke  out  at 
Rome  when  the  second  memoir  was  in  the  printer's 
hands,  and  prevented  the  completion  of  the  work. 
The  colour  catalogue  is  important  for  two  reasons: 
it  is  the  first  general  review  of  the  heavens  for  star- 
colouis,  embodying  the  entire  B.  A.  C.  Catalogue, 
from  the  North  Pole  to  30  degrees  south  of  the  Equa- 
tor; then,  as  the  observations  are  now  about  seventy 
years  old  (having  been  made  from  1844  to  1846),  the 
"Catalogue"  will  be  invaluable  for  deciding  the 
question  whether  there  are  stars  variable  in  colour. 
For  these  reasons  it  has  been  republished,  with  notes, 
at  the  Vatican  Observatory,  as  No.  Ill  Publications, 
1911.  It  is  remarkable  how  few  are  the  errors  of 
identification,  in  view  of  the  then  existing  difficultiee, 
and  how  closely  S<-stini's  general  scale  of  colours 
agrees  with  that  of  the  Potsdam  catalogue. 

At  Georgeto\vn  Ob.servatory,  in  1850,  Sestini  made 
a  w;ries  of  sunspot  drawings,  which  were  engraved 
and  published  (44  plates)  as  "Appendix  A"  of  the 
Naval  Observatory  volume  for  1847,  printed  in  1853. 
His  last  scientific  work  as  an  astronomer  was  the  ob- 
servation of  the  total  eclipse  of  29  July,  1878,  at 
Denver,  Colorado.  A  sketch  of  the  corona  as  it  ap- 
peared to  him  was  published  in  the  "Catholic  Quar- 
terly Review".  From  his  arrival  at  Georgetown 
(1848)  imtil  his  retirement  from  Woodstock  (1884)  he 
harl  befin  almost  constantly  engaged  in  teaching 
mathematics  to  the  Jf^suit  scholastics,  and  he  pub- 
lishr-d  a  series  of  textbooks  on  aigr-hra,  geometry  and 
trigonometry,  analytical  geometry,  infinitesimal  anal- 
ysis. These  were  works  of  sterling  merit,  but  they 
never  became  popular  with  students  or  teachers; 
their  severe  analytic  method  was  repellent  to  practical 
American  taste;  he  harl  no  sympathy  with  commercial 
mathematics,  and  furthermore  the  make-up  of  the 


books  was  not  as  attractive  as  the  ordinary  high- 
school  and  college  textbooks.  He  wrote  treatises  on 
natural  science  for  tlie  use  of  his  pupils;  some  of  these 
were  hthographed  and  others  were  privatelj"  printed 
at  Woodstock:  "Theoretical  Mechanics"  in  1873; 
"Animal  Physics"  in  1874;  "Principles  of  Cosmog- 
raphy" in  1878.  He  founded  the  American  "Mes- 
senger of  the  Sacred  Heart"  in  1866,  and  retained 
editorial  control  of  it  until  1885;  during  these  years  he 
was  also  head  director  of  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer 
in  the  United  St ates.  He  was  an  indefat igable  worker 
and  had  many  difficulties  to  contend  with  in  launching 
and  sustaining  the  "Messenger",  and  in  directing  the 
League  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  but  he  was  supported  in 
this  labour  of  love  by  his  cheerful  disposition  and 
ardent  zeal  for  the  glory  of  God.  It  was  pleasantly 
said  of  him  that  he  had  two  passions — one  for  pure 
mathematics,  and  the  other  for  the  pure  CathoUc 
religion. 

SoMMERVOGEL,  BMiothique  de  la  C.  de  J.,  VII,  1159;  Woodstock 
Lei.ter.i,  XIX,  259;  XXX,  99;  Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  new 
series,  V  (1890),  161,  343,  435,  486. 

E.  I.  Devitt. 

Setebo  Indians,  a  considerable  tribe  of  Panoan 
hnguistic  stock  formerly  centering  about  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Manoa  with  the  Ucayali  River,  Loreto 
pro^•ince,  north-eastern  Peru,  and  now  engaged  as 
boatmen,  rubber  gatherers,  etc.,  along  the  whole  ex- 
tent of  the  latter  river  to,  or  below,  its  junction  with 
the  Maranon.  They  speak  the  same  language  as 
their  neighbours  the  Pano,  Conibo,  and  Sipibo,  whom 
they  resembled  in  their  primitive  custom  and  beUef  as 
now  in  their  more  civilized  condition.  The  first  en- 
try of  the  upper  Ucayali  country  was  made  early  in 
the  seventeenth  century  by  gold,  hunters  from  Peru, 
whose  treatment  of  the  wild  tribes  had  the  effect  of 
rendering  the  Indians  bitterly  hostile  towards  the 
Spaniards.  In  1657,  however,  the  Franciscan  P'ather 
Alonzo  Caballero  with  two  other  priests  and  three 
lay  brothers,  passing  through  the  countiy  of  the  can- 
nibal Cashibo,  reached  the  Setebo  on  the  Ucayali. 
After  a  year  or  more  of  pati<'nt  effort  they  succeeded 
in  gathering  a  part  of  tlie  tribe  into  two  mission  vil- 
lages. These  had  but  a  brief  existence;  they  were  at- 
tacked and  destroyed  by  the  more  powerful  Sipibo, 
hereditary  enemies  of  the  Setebo,  the  five  religious  in 
charge  and  many  of  the  neophytes  being  killed.  In 
1661  a  second  attempt  was  made  under  Father  Lo- 
renzo Tineo,  with  several  other  Franciscans,  attended 
by  an  escort  of  soldiers  and  two  hundred  Christian 
Indians  from  Central  Peru.  Two  missions  were  es- 
tablished, but  only  to  meet  the  fate  of  the  first  at  the 
hands  of  the  cannibal  tribes,  the  missionaries  retiring 
to  the  Huallaga  with  a  pari  of  their  neoj^hyte  flock. 
Other  attempts  at  establishment  on  the  ITcayali 
within  the  next  forty  years  were  frustrated  by  hostile 
attacks  and  by  smallpox  epidemics,  i)articularly  a 
great  smallpox  visitation  which  desolated  the  whole 
region  in  1670.  Within  this  period  eight  missionaries 
were  slain  in  the  Setebo  country,  one  of  them,  Father 
Jeronimo  de  los  Rios,  being  devoured  by  cannibals  in 
1704.  In  1736  the  Setebo  were  still  further  decimated 
in  a  bloody  engagement  with  their  inveterate  enemies, 
the  Sipibo. 

In  1760  another  Franciscan  mission  entry  into  the 
S(!t(!bo  territory  was  made  by  Fathers  Francisco  de 
San  JosC;  and  Miguel  de  Salcedo,  accompanied  by 
about  one  hundred  Christian  Indians,  and,  as  inter- 
preter, a  young  girl  of  the  tribe  who  liad  been  taken 
prisoner  in  a  previous  exjx'dition  and  who  was  bap- 
tized under  the  name  of  .Ana  Rosa.  Through  her 
good  offices  they  came  to  a  friendly  arrangement  with 
the  chi(!f  of  one  band,  and  on  his  invitation  estab- 
lished a  mission  chapel  in  his  village  under  the  name 
of  San  Francisco  de  Manoa.  They  were  greatly 
pleased  to  find  that  the  Indians  still  retained  a  deep 
reverence  for  the  cross,  which  they  had  set  up  in  front 


SETHIANS 


739 


SETON 


of  their  houses  and  in  their  fields,  and  retained  also  a 
few  words  of  Spanish  greeting  as  heirlooms  of  earlier 
missions.  In  1764  P'ather  Frezneda  bravely  ventured 
among  the  Sipibo  and  succeeded  in  bringing  about  a 
peace  between  the  two  tribes,  as  the  result  of  which 
both  the  Sipibo  and  the  Conibo  accepted  missionaries. 
The  work  grew  and  flourished.  Four  missions  had 
been  established  and  more  priests  were  on  the  way, 
when,  without  warning  or  any  later  explanation,  the 
three  savage  tribes  in  August,  1766,  murdered  all  but 
one  or  two  of  the  missionaries,  slaughtered  the  Chris- 
tian converts,  and  thus  in  a  few  days  wiped  out  the 
work  of  years.  The  Setebo  missions  were  not  re- 
newed, but  on  the  establishment  of  Sarayacd  (q.  v.) 
by  Father  Girbal  in  1791,  numbers  of  the  tribe  were 
attracted  to  that  settlement,  where  in  due  course  they 
became  civilized  and  christianized.     See  also  Sipibo. 

Raimondi,  El  Peru,  II  (Lima,  1876),  book  I,  Hist,  de  la  Geo- 
grafla  del  Peru;  Herndon,  Exploration  of  the  Amazon  (Washing- 
ton, 1854);  Markham,  Tribes  in  the  Valley  of  the  Amazon  in 
Jour.  Anthrop.  Institute,  XXIV  (London,  189.5) ;  Ordinaire, 
Les  sauvages  du  Perou  in  Revue  d'Ethnographie,  VI  (Paris,  1887), 
no.  4;    Smyth  and  Lowe,  Journey  from  Lima  to  Pard  (London, 

issG).  James  Mooney. 

Sethians.  See  Gnosticism,  subtitle  The  Syrian 
School. 

Seton,  Elizabeth  Ann,  foundress  and  first  superior 
of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  in  the  United  States,  b.  in 
New  York  City,  28  Aug.,  1774,  of  non-Catholic 
parents  of  high  position;  d.  at  Emmitsburg,  Mary- 
land, 4  Jan.,  1821.  Her  father,  Dr.  Richard  Bayley 
(b.  Connecticut  and  educated  in  England),  was  the 
first  professor  of  anatomy  at  Columbia  College  and 
eminent  for  his  work  as  health  officer  of  the  Port  of 
New  York.  Her  mother,  Catherine  Charlton, 
daughter  of  an  Anglican  minister  of  Staten  Island, 
N.  Y.,  died  when  Elizabeth  was  three  years  old,  leav- 
ing two  other  young  daughters.  The  father  married 
again,  and  among  the  (ihildren  of  this  second  marriage 
was  Guy  Carlcton  Bayley,  whose  convert  son,  James 
Roosevelt  Bayley,  became  Archbishop  of  Baltimore. 
Elizabeth  always  showed  groat  affection  for  her  step- 
mother, who  was  a  tlevout  Anglican,  and  for  her  step- 
brothers and  sisters.  Her  education  was  chiefly  con- 
ducted by  her  father,  a  brilliant  man  of  great  natural 
virtue,  who  trained  her  to  self-restraint  as  well  as  in 
intellectual  pursuits.  She  read  industriously,  her 
notebooks  indicating  a  special  interest  in  religious  and 
historical  subjects.  She  was  very  religious,  wore  a 
smaU  crucifix  around  her  neck,  and  took  great  delight 
in  reading  the  Scriptures,  especially  the  Psalms,  a 
practice  she  retained  until  her  death. 

She  was  married  on  25  Jan.,  1794,  in  St.  Paul's 
Church,  New  York,  to  William  Magee  Seton,  of  that 
city,  by  Bishop  Prevoost.  In  her  sister-in-law,  Re- 
becca Seton,  .she  found  the  "friend  of  her  soul",  and  ius 
they  went  about  on  missions  of  mercy  they  were  called 
the ' '  Protestant  Sisters  of  Charity ' ' .  Business  troubles 
culminated  on  the  death  of  her  father-in-law  in  1798. 
Elizabeth  and  her  husband  presided  over  the  large 
orphaned  family;  she  shared  his  financial  anxieties, 
aiding  him  with  her  sound  judgment.  Dr.  Bayley's 
death  in  1801  was  a  great  trial  to  his  favourite  child. 
In  her  anxiety  for  his  salvation  she  had  offered  to 
God,  during  his  fatal  illness,  the  fife  of  her  infant 
daughter  Catherine.  Catherine's  life  was  spared, 
however;  she  died  at  the  age  of  ninety,  as  Mother 
Catherine  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  New  York.  In 
1803  Mr.  Seton's  health  required  a  sea  voyage;  he 
started  with  his  wife  and  eldest  daughter  for  Leg- 
horn, where  the  Filicchi  Brothers,  business  friends  of 
the  Seton  firm,  resided.  The  other  children,  William, 
Richard,  Rebecca,  and  Catherine,  were  left  to  the 
care  of  Rebecca  Seton. 

From  a  journal  which  Mrs.  Seton  kept  during  her 
travels  we  learn  of  her  heroic  effort  to  sustain  the  droop- 
ing spirits  of  her  husband  during  the  voyage,  followed 
by  a  long  detention  in  quarantine,  and  until  his  death 


LuZMJhTH    ^1   I 

iTom  a  I'ortrait  made  m  .Ni 


York,  1796 


at  Pisa  (27  Dec,  1803).  She  and  her  daughter  re- 
mained for  some  time  with  the  Filicchi  families. 
While  with  the.se  Catholic  families  and  in  the  churches 
of  Italy  Mrs.  Seton  first  began  to  see  the  beauty  of 
the  Cathohc  Faith.  Delayed  by  her  daughter's  ill- 
ness and  then  by  her  own,  she  sailed  for  home  accom- 
panied by  Antonio  Filicchi,  and  reached  New  York 
on  3  June,  1804.  Her  sister-in-law,  Rebecca,  died  in 
July.  A  time  of  great  spiritual  perplexity  began  for  Mrs. 
Seton,  whose  prayer  was,  "  If  I  am  right  Thy  grace  im- 
part still  in  the  right  to  stay.  If  I  am  WTong  Oh,  teach 
my  heart  to  find  the  better  way."  Mr.  Hobart  (after- 
wards an  Anglican  bishop) ,  who  had  great  influence  over 
her,  used  every  effort  to  di-ssuade  her  from  joining  the 
CathoUc  Church,  while  Mr.  FiUcchi  presented  the 
claims  of  the  true  religion  and  arranged  a  correspondence 
between  Ehzabeth 
and  Bishop  Chev- 
erus.  Through  ^Ir 
Filicchi  she  also 
wrote  to  Bishop 
Carroll.  EHzibcth 
meanwhile  addid 
f  a  s  ti  n  g  to  Ik  r 
prayers  for  light 
The  result  w  a>- 
that  on  Ash  \\  ed 
nesday,  14  Man  h, 
1805,  she  was  re- 
ceived into  the 
Church  by  Fath(T 
Matthew  O'Bru  n 
in  St.  Peter's 
Church,  Ban  1 1\ 
St.,  New  "^  ork 
On  25  March  she 
made  her  first 
Communion  ^ith 
extraordinary  fer- 
vour; even  the  faint  shadow  of  this  sacrament  in 
the  Protestant  Church  had  had  such  an  attraction 
for  her  that  she  used  to  hasten  from  one  church 
to  another  to  receive  it  twice  each  Sunday.  She 
well  understood  the  storm  that  her  conversion 
would  raise  among  her  Protestant  relatives  and 
friends  at  the  time  she  most  needed  their  help. 
Little  of  her  husband's  fortune  was  left,  but  numerous 
relatives  would  have  provided  amply  for  her  and  her 
children  had  not  this  barrier  been  raised.  She  joined 
an  English  Catholic  gentleman  named  White,  who, 
with  his  wife,  was  opening  a  school  for  boys  in  the 
suburbs  of  New  York,  but  the  widely  circulated  report 
that  this  was  a  proselytizing  scheme  forced  the  school 
to  clo.se. 

A  few  faithful  friends  arranged  for  Mrs.  Seton  to 
open  a  boarding-house  for  some  of  the  boys  of  a 
Protestant  school  taught  by  the  curate  of  St.  Mark's. 
In  January,  1806,  Cecilia  Seton,  Elizabeth's  young 
sister-in-law,  became  very  ill  and  begged  to  see  the  os- 
tracized convert;  Mrs.  Seton  was  sent  for,  and  became 
a  constant  visitor.  Cecilia  told  her  that  she  desired 
to  become  a  Catholic.  When  Cecilia's  decision  was 
kno■^v^^  threats  were  made  to  have  Mrs.  Seton  expelled 
from  the  state  by  the  Legislature.  On  her  recovery 
Cecilia  fled  to  Elizabeth  for  refuge  and  was  received 
into  the  Church.  She  returned  to  her  brother's  family 
on  his  wife's  death.  Mrs.  Seton's  boarding-house  for 
boys  had  to  be  given  up.  Her  sons  had  been  sent  by 
the  Filicchis  to  Georgetown  College.  She  hoped  to 
find  a  refuge  in  some  convent  in  Canada,  where  her 
teaching  would  support  her  three  daughters.  Bi.shop 
Carroll  did  not  approve,  .so  she  relinquished  this  plan. 
Father  Dubourg,  S.S.,  from  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  Bal- 
timore, met  her  in  New  York,  and  suggested  opening 
in  Baltimore  a  school  for  girls.  After  a  long  delay  and 
many  privations,  she  and  her  daughters  reached  Balti- 
more on  Corpus  Christi,  1808.  Her  boys  were  brought 


SETON 


740 


SETON 


there  to  St.  Mary's  College,  and  she  opened  a  school 
next  to  the  Chapel  of  St.  Mary's  Seminary  and  was 
delighted  with  the  opportunities  for  the  practice  of 
her  rehgion,  for  it  was  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty 
she  was  able  to  get  to  daily  Mass  and  Communion  in 
New  York.  The  convent  life  for  which  she  had  longed 
ever  since  her  stay  in  Italy  now  seemed  less  imprac- 
ticable. Her  hfe  was  that  of  a  rehgious,  and  her 
quaint  costume  was  fashioned  after  one  worn  by 
certain  nuns  in  Italy.  Cecilia  Conway  of  Phila- 
delphia, who  had  contemplated  going  to  Europe  to 
fulfill  her  rehgious  vocation,  joined  her;  soon  other 
postulants  arrived,  while  the  httle  school  had  all  the 
pupils  it  could  accommodate. 

Mr.  Cooper,  a  Virginian  convert  and  seminarian, 
offered  S10,000  to  found  an  institution  for  teaching 
poor  children.  A  farm  was  bought  half  a  mile  from 
the  village  of  Emmitsburg  and  two  miles  from  Mt.  St. 
Mary's  CoUege.  Meanwhile  Cecilia  Seton  and  her 
sister  Harriet  came  to  ISIrs.  Seton  in  Baltimore.  As 
a  preliminary  to  the  formation  of  the  new  communitj', 
Mrs.  Seton  took  vows  privately  before  Archbi.shop 
Carroll  and  her  daughter  Anna.  In  June,  1808,  the 
community  was  transferred  to  Emmitsburg  to  take 
charge  of  the  new  institution.  The  great  fervour  and 
mortification  of  Mother  Seton,  imitated  by  her  sis- 
ters, made  the  many  hardships  of  their  situation 
seem  hght.  In  Dec,  1809,  Harriet  Seton,  who  was 
received  into  the  Church  at  Emmitsburg,  died  there, 
and  CeciUa  in  Apr.,  1810.  Bishop  Flaget  was  commis- 
sioned in  1810  by  the  communitj"^  to  obtain  in  France 
the  rules  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul.  Three  of  these  sisters  were  to  be  sent  to 
train  the  young  community  in  the  spirit  of  St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul,  but  Napoleon  forbade  them  to  leave 
France.  The  letter  announcing  their  coming  is  extant 
at  Emmitsburg.  The  rule,  however,  with  some  mod- 
ifications, was  approved  by  Archbishop  CarroU  in 
Jan.,  1812,  and  adopted.  Against  her  will,  and  despite 
the  fact  that  she  had  also  to  care  for  her  children, 
Mrs.  Seton  wa-s  elected  superior.  Many  joined  the 
community;  Mother  Seton's  daughter,  Anna,  died 
during  her  novitiate  (12  March,  1812),  but  had  been 
permitted  to  pronounce  her  vows  on  her  death-bed. 
Mother  Seton  and  the  eighteen  sisters  made  their 
vows  on  19  July,  1813.  The  fathers  superior  of  the  com- 
munity were  the  Sulpicians,  Fathers  Dubourg,  David, 
and  Dubois.  Father  Dubois  held  the  post  for  fifteen 
years  and  laboured  to  impress  on  the  community  the 
spirit  of  St.  Vincent's  Sisters  of  Charity,  forty  of  whom 
he  had  had  under  his  care  in  France.  The  fervour 
of  the  community  won  admiration  everywhere.  The 
Bchool  for  the  daughters  of  the  well-to-do  pros- 
pered, as  it  continues  to  do  (1912),  and  enabled 
the  sisters  to  do  much  work  among  the  poor.  In 
1814  the  sisters  were  given  charge  of  an  orphan 
a.sylum  in  Philadelphia;  in  1817  they  were  sent  to 
New  York.  The  previous  year  (ISKi)  Mother  Seton's 
daughter,  Rebecca,  after  long  suffering,  died  at  Em- 
mitsburg; her  son  Richard,  who  waK  placed  with  the 
Filicchi  firm  in  Italy,  died  a  few  years  after  his 
mother.  William,  the  eldest,  joined  the  riiitcd  States 
Navy  and  died  in  18G8.  The  most  (iistiiiguishcd  of 
his  children  arc  Most.  Rev.  Robert  Seton,  Arclibishop 
of  Hehopolis  (author  of  a  memoir  of  his  grandmother, 
"Roman  Essays",  and  many  contributions  to  the 
"American  Cathohc  Quarterly"  and  other  reviews), 
and  William  Seton  (q.  v.). 

Mother  Seton  had  great  facility  in  writing.  Besides 
the  translation  of  many  ascetical  French  works  (in- 
cluding the  life  of  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  of  Mile. 
Le  Oras)  for  her  community  she  has  left  copious 
diarir^s  and  correspondence  that  show  a  soul  all  on 
fire  with  the  love  f)f  God  and  zeal  for  souls.  Oeat 
spiritual  dewjlation  purified  her  soul  during  a  great 
portion  of  her  religious  life,  but  she  cheerfully  took 
the  royal  road  of  the  cross.    For  several  years  the 


saintly  bishop  (then  Father)  Bruti  was  her  di- 
rector. The  third  time  she  was  elected  mother 
(1819)  she  protested  that  it  was  the  election 
of  the  dead,  but  she  lived  for  two  years,  suffering 
finally  from  a  pulmonary  affection.  Her  perfect  sin- 
cerity and  great  charm  aided  her  wonderfully  in  her 
work  of  sanctifying  souls.  In  ISSO  Cardinal  Gibbons 
(then  Archbishop)  urged  that  steps  be  taken  towards 
her  canonization.  The  results  of  the  official  inquiries 
in  the  cause  of  Mother  Seton,  held  in  Baltimore  during 
several  j-ears,  were  brought  to  Rome  by  special 
messenger,  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  postulator 
of  the  cau.se  on  7  June,  1911. 

Her  cause  is  entrusted  to  the  Priests  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Mission,  whose  superior  general  in  Paris 
is  also  superior  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  with  which 
the  Emmit.sburg  community  was  incorporated  in 
1850,  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  greater  number  of 
the  sisters  (at  the  suggestion  of  Archbishop  Hughes) 
of  the  New  York  houses  in  1846.  This  union  had  been 
contemplated  for  some  time,  but  the  need  of  a  stronger 
bond  at  Emmitsburg,  showm  by  the  New  York  separa- 
tion, hastened  it.  It  was  effected  with  the  loss  of  only 
the  Cincinnati  community  of  six  sisters.  With  the 
Newark  and  Halifax  offshoots  of  the  New  York  com- 
munity' and  the  Greenburg  foundation  from  Cincinnati, 
the  sisters  originating  from  Mother  Seton's  foundation 
number  (1911)  about  6000.  The  original  Emmitsburg 
community  now  wearing  the  cornette  and  observing 
the  rule  just  as  St.  Vincent  gave  it,  naturally  sur- 
passes any  of  the  others  in  number.  It  is  found  in 
about  thirt}^  dioceses  in  the  United  States,  and  forms 
a  part  of  the  worldwide  sisterhood,  whilst  the  others 
are  rather  diocesan  communities. 

13  vols,  of  letters,  diaries,  and  rlocnmeiits  by  Mother  Seton 
as  well  as  information  concerning  her,  are  in  the  archives  of  the 
mother-house  at  Emmitsburg,  Maryland;  Robert  Seton, 
Memoirs,  Letter  and  Journal  of  Elizabeth  Seton  (2  vols.,  New  York, 
1869);  Barberey,  Elizabeth  Seton  (6th  ed.,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1892); 
White,  Life  of  Mrs.  Eliza  A.  Seton  (10th  ed..  New  York,  1904); 
Sadlier,  Elizabeth  Seton,  Foundress  of  the  Amer.  Sisters  of  Charily 
(New  York,    1905);  Belloc,   Historic  Nuns  (2nd  ed.,   London, 

1911)-  B.  Randolph. 

Seton,  William,  author,  b.  in  New  York,  28  Jan., 
183');  d.  there,  15  Mar.,  1905.  His  father  was  William 
Seton,  cai)tain  in  the  U.  S.  Navy,  son  of  Elizabeth 
Ann  Seton  (q.  v.),  his  mother  was  Emily  Prime. 
Burke's  Peerage  (1900)  recognized  him  as  the  head 
of  the  Seton  family  of  Parbroath,  senior  cadets  of  the 
earls  of  Winton  in  Scotland.  He  was  educated  at 
St.  John's  College,  Fordham,  at  Mt.  St.  Mary's, 
Emmittshurg,  Md.,  and  at  the  University  of  Bonn. 
He  travelled  extensively  abroad  before  entering  a 
law  office  in  New  York.  Soon  after  his  admission  to 
the  bar  he  answered  Lincoln's  first  call  for  troops  in 
1861.  Disabled  for  a  time  by  two  wounds  received 
in  the  Battle  of  Antietam,  where  he  fought  as  (!ai)tain 
of  the  Forty-first  New  York  Volunteers,  French's 
Division,  Sumner's  Corps,  he  returned  to  liis  fatlier's 
home,  Cragdoii,  Westchester  Co.,  New  York,  but  went 
back  to  the  front  to  \h'  captain  of  the  IGtii  Artillery 
in  Grant's  campaign  against  Ri(;hmond.  After  the 
war  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  literature,  i)ublish- 
ing  two  historical  novels,  "RomaiuH'  of  the  Charter 
Oak"  (1870)  and  "Pride  of  Lexington"  (1871): 
"The  Pioneer",  a  poem  (1874);  "Rachel's  Fate 
(1882);  "The  Shamrock  Gone  West",  and  "Moira", 
(1884).  About  1886  he  went  to  Europe  for  serious 
study  in  palaeontology,  psychology,  etc.,  and  there- 
after usually  spent  the  greater  part  of  each  year  in 
France  in  such  pursuits.  His  forte  was  presenting 
scientific  matters  in  attractive  English.  He  issued 
a  brief  work,  "A  Glimpse  of  Organic  Life,  Past  and 
Present"  (1897).  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  of 
scientific  articles  to  tiie  "Catholic  World".  "The 
Ituilding  of  the  Mountain",  a  novel,  was  in  the 
press  at  the  time  of  his  death.  His  Alma  Mater,  Mt. 
St.  Mary's,  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  in 


SETTIGNANO 


741 


SEVEN 


1890.  He  outlived  by  ten  years  his  wife  Sarah  Red- 
wood Parrish,  a  Philadelphian  convert  from  the 
Society  of  Friends.  Their  only  child  William  died  in 
infancy.  He  did  much  charitable  work,  especially 
in  obtaining  employment  for  the  poor.  He  is  buried 
with  the  Setons  at  Mt.  St.  Mary's,  Emmitsburg, 
Maryland. 

Seton,  An  Old  Family  (New  York,  1889),  3.59-61;  Living 
Catholic  Men  of  Science  in  Catholic  World,  LXVI  (New  York, 
1898);  Lamb's  Encycl.  of  American  Biography;  Appletons' 
Cycl.  of  American  Biography.  3_    RANDOLPH. 

Settignano,  Desiderio  da,  b.  at  Settignano,  Tus- 
cany, 1428;  d.  at  Florence,  1463.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  son  of  a  stone-cutter  and  was  admitted  to  the 
association  of  "Maestri  di  Pietra"  (stone  -  workers) 
in  1453.  He  studied  under  Donatello,  from  whom  no 
doubt  he  acquired 
the  characteristics 
of  fineness,  joy- 
fulness,  elegance, 
and  distinction 
which  cause  his 
work  to  be  often 
confused  with  his 
miister's.  In  spite 
of  his  brief  life  his 
name  ranks  among 
those  of  the  great 
artists  of  his  day. 
His  chief  produc- 
t  i  o  n  s  are :  th(; 
architectural 
tomb  covered 
with  fine  sculp- 
ture of  Carlo 
Marsuppini,  sec- 
retary of  the  re- 
l)ublic,  in  the 
C  h  u  r  c  h  of  Sta 
Croce;  a  marble 
tal)(>rnacle  at  San 
Lorenzo  with  a 
charming  stand- 
ing figure  of  the 
Child  Jesus  ;  a 
\'ery  interesting 
bust  of  Marietta 
Strozzi    in    the 


Bust  or  a.\   Unknown  Girl 

Desiderio  da  Settignano,  Museo  Naz- 

ionaie,  Florence 


Strozzi  Palace;  a  graceful  relief  of  the  Madonna  and 
Infant  on  the  corner  of  the  Palazzo  Panciatichi; 
portrait  bust  of  a  young  girl  in  the  Bargello;  the 
wooden  statue  of  the  Magdalen  over  her  altar  in  the 
Church  of  Sta  Trinity  (finished  by  Benedetto  da  Ma- 
jano) ;  and  a  bust  in  the  Palazzo  Pubblico  at  Forli. 
Besides  these,  mention  should  be  made  of  a  number  of 
works  attribut(Ml  to  Desiderio  by  some  authorities 
and  by  others  to  Donatello  or  his  school — a  Pieta  in 
San  Lorenzo,  Florence;  a  Beatrice  d'Este  in  the 
Louvre;  a  Virgin  and  Child  in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  London;  a  portrait  bust  of  a  young  woman 
in  the  Mu.seum,  Berhn;  the  "Child  Laughing"  in  the 
Benda  Collection,  Vienna;  and  the  well-known  relief 
of  Sta  Cecilia  in  the  collection  of  Lord  ^^■emyss,  Lon- 
don. 

Perkins,  Tuscan  Sculptors  (London,  1886);  Cicognara,  Sloria 
detla  scultura  (Venice,  1853) ;  Bode,  Denkmdler  der  Renaisaance- 
Sculplur  Toscanan  (Munich,  1905). 

M.  L.  Handley. 

Seven- Branch  Candlestick,  one  of  the  three  chief 
furnishings  of  the  Holy  of  the  Tabernacle  and  the 
Temple  (Ex.,  xxv,  31-40;  xxxvii,  17-24).  In  reality 
it  was  an  elaborate  lampst  and,  set  on  the  south  side  of 
t lie  Holy  Place  so  as  to  fa('(>  \hv  loaves  of  proposit ion. 
It  was  beaten  out  of  finest  gold.  A  central  shaft,  to- 
p:o(lier  with  three  i)airs  of  bra.nches  curving  upward 
frf)in  out  the  shaft ,  all  exquisitely  ornamented  and  sur- 
mounted with  stands,  held  in  a  line  the  seven  golden 


lamps  that  gave  light  to  the  sanctuary.  The  priests 
dressed  the  lamps  in  the  morning  and  set  them  on  the 
lampstand  in  the  evening  (Ex.,  xxx,  7,  8).  All  night 
long  the  seven  lamps  were  kept  burning  (Ex.,  xxvii, 
20,  21;  Lev.  .xxiv,  3;  I  Kings,  iii,  3).  As  for  the  day, 
Josephus  (Antiq.  Jud.,  Ill,  viii,  3)  tells  us  that  three 
lamps  were  lighted.  Levites  of  the  family  of  Caath 
cared  for  the  golden  lampstand  on  the  march  (Num., 
iii,  31).  It  was  among  the  spoils  brought  by  Vespa- 
sian and  Titus  to  grace  their  triumph  at  Rome,  and 
may  be  seen  sculptured  upon  the  Arch  of  Titus. 

Walter  Drum. 


See  Felicitas,   Saint;   Sym- 


Seven   Brothers. 

phrosa.  Saint. 

Seven  Churches,  The.    See  Rome. 

Seven  Churches  of  Asia.    See  Apocalypse. 

Seven  Deacons,  the  seven  men  elected  by  the 
whole  company  of  the  original  Christian  community 
at  Jerusalem  and  ordained  by  the  Apostles,  their 
office  being  chiefly  to  look  after  the  poor  and  the 
common  agape.  The  number  of  believers  at  Jeru- 
salem had  grown  very  rapidly,  and  complaints  had 
been  made  that  the  poor  widows  of  Hellenistic  Jews 
were  neglected.  The  Apostles,  not  desiring  to  be 
drawn  away  from  preaching  and  the  higher  spiritual 
ministry  to  care  for  material  things,  proposed  to  the 
believers  to  transfer  such  duties  to  suitable  men,  and 
following  this  suggestion  the  "Seven"  were  appointed 
(Acts,  vi,  1-6).  This  was  the  first  separation  of  an 
ecclesiastical,  hierarchical  office  from  the  Apostolate 
in  which  up  to  then  the  ecclesiastico-religious  power 
had  been  concentrated.  The  "seven  men"  were  "full 
of  the  Holy  Ghost"  and  therefore  able  partially  to 
r(>present  the  Apostles  in  more  important  matters 
referring  to  the  spiritual  life,  as  is  seen  in  the  case  of 
St.  Stephen  (q.  v.)  at  Jerusalem,  of  St.  Philip  in 
Samaria,  and  elsewhere.  Nothing  further  is  known 
of  several  of  the  seven  deacons,  namely  Nicanor, 
Timon,  and  Parmenas.  Philiy),  who  is  called  the 
"Evangelist",  preached  with  much  success  in  Sam- 
aria (Acts,  viii,  5  sq.),  so  that  the  two  Apostles  Peter 
and  John  went  there  later  to  bestow  the  Holy  Ghost 
on  those  whom  he  had  bai)tized.  He  also  baptized 
the  eunuch  of  the  (^ueen  of  the  Ethiopians  (Acts,  viii, 
2()  sqq.).  According  to  the  further  testimony  of  the 
Book  of  the  Acts  (xxi,  S  sqq.)  he  lived  later  with  his 
prophetically  gifted  daughters  at  Cajsarea.  His  feast 
is  observed  on  6  June,  by  the  Greek  Church  on  11 
Oct()b(ir.  In  later  narratives  Prochorus  is  said  to  be 
one  of  the  seventy  disciples  chosen  by  Christ;  it  is 
related  that  he  went  to  Asia  Minor  as  a  missionary 
and  became  Bishop  of  Ni(;omedia.  The  apocryphal 
Acts  of  John  were  wrongly  ascribed  to  him  [cf.  Lip- 
sius,  "Apokryphc  Apostelgeschichten  und  Apostellc- 
genden",  I  (Brunswick,  1883),  355  sqq.] 

In  the  second  half  of  the  second  century  a  curious 
tradit  ion  appeared  respecting  Nicholas.  Irenajus  and 
the  ant i-her(>ti(^al  writers  of  the  early  Church  who  fol- 
low him  r<>fer  the  name  of  the  Nicolaitans — a  dissolute, 
immoral  sect  that  are  opposed,  as  early  as  the  Apoc- 
alypse of  John,  to  that  of  Nicholas  and  trace  the  sect 
back  to  him  (Irena;us,  "Adv.  hajr.",  I,  xxvi,  3;  III, 
xi,  1).  Clement  relates  as  a  popular  report  (Stro- 
mat.,  II,  xx)  that  Nicholas  was  reproved  by  the 
Apostles  on  account  of  his  jealousy  of  his  beautiful 
wife.  On  this  he  set  her  free  and  left  it  open  for  any 
one  to  marry  her,  saying  that  the  flesh  should  be  mal- 
treated. His  followers  took  this  to  mean  that  it  was 
necessary  to  yield  to  the  lusts  of  the  flesh  (cf.  the 
Philosophumena,  VII,  36).  This  narrative  points 
to  a  similar  tradition,  such  as  is  found  in  Irena^us 
respecting  the  Nicolaitans.  How  far  the  tradition  is 
historical  cannot  now  ho  determined,  perhaps  the 
Nicolaitans  themselves  falsely  ascribed  their  origin 
to  t he  Deacon  Nicholas  [cf .  Wohlenberg,  "Nikolas  von 


SEVEN 


742 


SEVERINUS 


Antiochen  und  die  Nikolaiten"  in  the  "Neue  kirchl. 
Zeitschrift"  (1895),  923  sqq.]. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Seven  Founders.    See  Servites,  Order  of. 

Seven   Gifts    of   the  Holy  Ghost.    See   Holy 

Ghost. 

Seven  Robbers  (Septem  Latrones),  martyrs  on 
the  Island  of  Corcyra  (Corfu)  in  the  second  century. 
Their  names  are  Saturninus,  Insischolus,  Faustianus, 
Januarius,  Marsahus,  Euphrasius,  and  Mammius. 
The  Greek  mcnologies  inform  u.s  that  Sts.  Jason  and 
Sosipater,  who  had  been  instructed  in  the  Christian 
religion  by  the  Apostles  or  by  Christ  Himself,  came  to 
the  Island  of  Corcyra  to  preach  the  Gospel  of  Christ. 
After  making  numerous  conversions  they  were  cast 
into  a  dungeon  where  the  above-named  seven  rob- 
bers were  imprisoned.  They  succeeded  in  converting 
the  robbers  who  were  then  taken  outside  the  citj^  and 
martyred  by  being  cast  into  caldrons  that  were  filled 
vriXh  seething  oil  and  pitch.  Some  Greek  menologies 
mention  them  (m  27,  others  on  29,  April.  In  the  Ro- 
man martjTology  they  are  commemorated  on  29 
April. 

Ada   SS.,  April,  III,  620;    Menology  of  Emperor  Basilius  II, 

2"  April.  Michael  Ott. 

Seven  Sleepers.  See  Ephesus,  The  Seven  Sleep- 
ers OF. 

Seven  Virg^ins  of  Anc3n'a,  Saint.  See  Theoda- 
Tus  OF  Ancvra,  Saint. 

Severian,  Bishop  of  Gabala  in  Syria,  flourished  in 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  Concerning  his  life 
before  his  episcopal  consecration  nothing  has  come 
down  to  us.  He  was  regarded  by  his  contemporaries 
as  a  good  preacher,  and  was  known  as  the  author  of 
Biblical  commentaries  and  sermons:  "Vir  in  divinis 
Scripturis  eruditus  ct  in  homiliis  declamator  admir- 
abilis  fuit"  (Gennadius,  "De  script,  ecdes.",  xxi,  in 
P.  L.,  LVIII,  1073).  Posterity  has  preserved  his 
name  on  account  of  the  prominent  but  regrettable 
role  which  he  played  in  the  deposition  and  banish- 
ment of  St.  John  Chrysostom.  Incited  by  the  great 
oratorical  and  financial  success  attained  in  Constan- 
tinople by  his  fellow-Syrian,  Antiochus,  Bishop  of 
Ptolemais,  Severian  came  to  the  capital  about  400, 
pro\nded  with  a  series  of  Greek  sermons.  Invited  by 
Chrv'sostom  to  preach,  he  succeeded,  in  spite  of  his 
strong  Syrian  accent,  in  winning  the  approval  of  his 
hearers  fScjzomen,  "Hist  eccl.",  VIII,  x).  Owing  to 
the  strained  relations  between  Chrysostom  and  the 
Empress  Eudoxia,  Severian  had  to  declare  for  one 
of  the  parties,  and,  since  he  allowed  himself  to  be 
swayed  by  personal  interests,  his  choice  was  soon 
made.  Nevertheless,  the  unsuspecting  Chrysostom, 
when  ecclesiastical  affairs  necessitated  a  journey 
into  the  Provnnce  of  Asia  in  401,  appointed  his  guest 
his  reprfiscntative  for  liturgical  functions.  Severian 
took  advantage  of  Chrysostom's  ab.sence  and  was 
Krx)n  engaged  in  opr^n  conflict  with  Serapion,  arch- 
deacon and  axiministratx)r  of  the  e<;clesiastical  prop- 
erty and  the  episcopal  palace,  who  remained  true 
to  Chr>'8ostom.  The  resulting  scandal  and  general 
excit<;ment  were  so  gn-at  that  on  his  return  (401) 
Chrysfjstfjm  request<!d  Severian  U)  return  again  to 
his  dioc(«f!  (Socrates,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VI,  xi;  the  longer 
version,  ibid,  in  P.  G.,  LXVII,  731).  Eudoxia  now 
int^-rfered  persfjnally,  and  at  her  n^qucst  Chry.sostom 
allowed  S<!verian  to  return  to  Ojnstantinople.  In 
this  plafre  Chrysostom  ch-livered  in  Severian's  jjresence 
an  fwldress  U)  the  peonle  (P.  G.,  LII,  423  sqq.; 
Severian's  answer,  ibid.,  42.5  sqq.;  cf.  Socrates, 
"Ilist.  ecfl.",  VI,  xi;   Sozomen,  VIII,  x). 

The  jK-ace  thus  efTectcfi  was  not  lasting.  Severian 
comrwriffd  anew  his  intrigues,  and  at  the  Synod  of 
the  Oak  was  one  of  ChrysoHtom's  most  active  oppo- 


nents. He  also  signed  the  lampoon  against  Chrysos- 
tom which  Theophilus  of  Alexandria  (q.  v.)  sent  to 
Pope  Innocent  (Palladius,  "Dialogus",  III,  in  P.  G., 
XL VI I,  14).  He  even  ventured  to  proclaim  to  the 
people  from  the  pulpit  this  success  of  his  party  im- 
mediately after  the  first  banishment  of  Chrysostom, 
and  to  proclaim  the  removal  of  the  archbishop  a  just 
punishment  for  his  pride.  Rapid  flight  alone  saved 
him  from  violence  at  the  hands  of  the  enraged  pop- 
ulace (Sozomen,  VIII,  xviii).  Shortly  after  Chrysos- 
tom's return  from  his  first  exile,  we  find  Severian  with 
Acacius  of  Bercea  and  Antiochus  of  Ptolemais  at  the 
head  of  the  party  opposed  to  the  archbishop.  It 
was  this  party  which  on  the  night  of  Easter  Sunday, 
404,  incited  the  attack  on  the  catechumens  and  clerics 
of  Chrysostom,  and  finally  approached  the  emjieror 
directly  to  procure  the  final  banishment  of  their  hated 
opponent  (Palladius,  III,  IX,  loc.  cit.,  14,  31  sqq.). 
On  the  death  of  Flavian  (404),  the  friend  of  Chry.sos- 
tom, this  same  triumvirate  proceeded  to  Antioch, 
and,  in  defiance  of  justice  and  right,  consecrated  in  an 
underhanded  fashion  Porphyrins  (Chr}^sostom's  op- 
ponent) liishop  of  Antioch  ("Palladius,  XVI,  loc.  cit., 
54).  Thus  ends  Severian's  role  in  church  history. 
Of  the  later  period  of  his  hfe  and  activity,  as  little 
is  known  as  concerning  the  first  period.  According 
to  Gennadius  (loc.  cit.)  he  died  during  the  reign  of 
Theodosius  II  (408-50). 

Writings. — (1)  Sermons. — Of  these  the  following 
are  extant:  "Orationes  sex  in  mundi  creationem" 
(P.  G.,  LVI,  429-500);  "Oratio  de  serpente,  quem 
Moyses  in  cruce  suspendit"  (ibid.,  500-516);  "In 
illud  Abraham  dictum:  Pone  manum  tuam  sub  femur 
meum.  Gen.,  xxiv,  2"  (ibid.,  553-64);  "De  ficu 
arefacta"  (ibid.,  LIX,  585-90);  "Contra  Juda-os" 
(ibid.,  LXI,  793-802;  cf.  LXV,  29  sqq.);  "De 
sigillis  librorum"  (ibid.,  LXIII,  531-44);  "In  Dei 
apparitionem"  (ibid.,  LXV,  26);  "De  pace"  (ibid., 
LII,  425-28),  completed  by  A.  Papadopulos, 'AvdXe/cTa 
lepo(To\viuTiKT}s  ffraxvoXoyias,  I  (St.  Petersburg,  1891), 
1.5-26;  "De  nativitate  Christi",  edited  under  Chry- 
sostom's name  bv  Savile,  VII,  307,  but  attributed  by 
Theodoret  (Eranistes,  III,  in  P.  G.,  LXIII,  308)  to 
Severian;  fifteen  homihes  in  an  Old  Armenian  tran- 
slation, edited  by  J.  B.  Aucher,  "Severiani  .  .  . 
homilia?  nunc  primum  edita?  ex  antiqua  versione 
armena  in  latinum  sermonem  translata>"  (Venice, 
1827),  of  which  no.  7  is  the  homily  "In  .'\l)rahae 
dictum:  Gen.,  xxiv,  2",  no.  13  "De  ficu  arefacta", 
and  no.  10  the  homily  of  St.  Basil  on  Baptism  (P.  G., 
XXXI,  423-44).  The  Codex  Ambrosianus  of  Milan, 
c.  77  sup.  (VII-VIII  sa;c.)  contains  eighty-eight 
"sermones  sancti  Severiani";  the  "  Homilarium 
Lacensc"  (Berlin  Cod.  lat.  341)  has  addresses  of  Peter 
Chrysologus  under  the  name  of  "Severianus  epis- 
copus".  (2)  The  commentaries  of  Severian  are  all 
lost;  he  had  composed  such  on  Genesis,  Exodus, 
DeukTonomy,  Job,  the  Epi.stles  to  the  Romans,  the 
(Jalatians,  I  Corinthians,  II  Thessalonians,  and  the 
Colossians  (cf.  Cosmas  Indicopleustes,  "Topog- 
raphica  christ.",  I,  vi,  x,  in  P.  G.,  LXXXVIII,  373, 
417;  Gennadius,  "De  script,  eccles.",  xxi). 

LuDWio,  Der  hi.  Jnh.  Chrytioxlomu»  in  neinem  VerhMlniss  zum 
bl/zantin.  Hof  (Braunsberg,  188.3),  51  sqq.;  Tii.lemont,  MS- 
moires,  XI  (1700),  170-77,  587-89;  Fabriciu«-Haki-eh,  Biblio- 
theai  grwea,  X,  507-11. 

Chrys.  Baur. 
Severians.    See  Encratites. 
Severinus,  Saint.    See  Austro-Hunqarian  Mon- 

AKfUV,  'I"hK. 

Severinus,  Pope.  The  date  of  his  birtli  is  not 
known,  lie  w:is  consecrated  seemingly  on  28  May. 
640,  and  died  2  Aug.,  640.  Severinus,  a  Roman  and 
the  son  of  Abienus,  w.as  elected  <as  usual  on  the  third 
day  after  the  death  of  his  j)r(!dec(^ssor,  and  envoys 
were  at  once  sent  to  Constantinople  to  obtain  the 


SEVERUS 


743 


s£vign£ 


confirmation  of  his  election  (Oct.,  G38).  But  the 
emperor,  instead  of  granting  the  confirmation,  or- 
dered Severinus  to  sign  his  Ecthesis,  a  MonotheHte 
profession  of  faith.  This  the  pope-elect  refused  to 
do,  and  the  Exarch  Isaac,  in  order  to  force  him  to 
compliance,  plundered  the  Lateran  Palace.  All  was 
in  vain ;  Severinus  stood  firm.  Meanwhile  his  envoys 
at  Constantinople,  though  refusing  to  sign  any  hereti- 
cal documents  and  deprecating  violence  in  matters  of 
faith,  behaved  with  groat  tact,  and  finally  secured  the 
imperial  confirmation.  Hence,  after  a  vacancy  of 
over  a  year  and  seven  months,  the  See  of  Peter  was 
again  filled,  and  its  new  occupant  proceeded  at  once 
to  declare  that  as  in  Christ  there  were  two  natures 
so  also  were  there  in  Him  two  wills  and  two  natural 
operations.  During  his  brief  reign  he  built  the  apse 
of  old  St.  Peter's  in  which  church  he  was  buried. 

Liber  Pontificalis,  ed.  Duchesne,  I  (Paris,  1886),  328  sq.;  the 
works  of  St.  Maximus,  in  P.  G.,  XC,  XCI;  Mann,  Lives  of  the 
Popes  in  the  Early  Middle  Ages,  I  (London,  1906),  346  sqq. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Severus,  Alexander,  Roman  emperor,  b.  at  Acco 
in  Palestine,  208;  murdered  by  his  mutinous  soldiers 
at  Sicula  on  the  Rhine,  235  (SickUngen  near  Mainz). 
He  was  the  son  of  Genessius  Marcianus  and  Julia 
Mamma;a,  and  was  knowTi  in  youth  as  Alexianus. 
When  Elagabalus,  his  cousin  and  father  by  adop- 
tion, was  murdered  in  222,  Alexander  succeeded  to  the 
imperial  throne.  His  education  had  been  carefully 
conducted  by  Mammaja  at  Antioch,  whither  she  in- 
vited, some  time  between  218  and  228,  the  great  Chris- 
tian teacher,  Origen.  Eusebius  relates  (Hist,  eccl., 
VI,  xxi-xxviii)  that  she  was  "a very  religious  woman", 
and  that  Origen  remained  some  time  with  her,  in- 
structing her  in  all  that  could  serve  to  glorify  the 
Lord  and  confirm  His  Divine  teachings.  It  does  not, 
however,  follow  that  she  was  a  Christian.  Her  son 
Alexander  was  certainly  very  favourable  to  the  Chris- 
tians. His  historian,  Lampridius,  tells  us  several  in- 
teresting details  concerning  this  emperor's  respect  for 
the  new  rehgion.  He  placed  in  his  private  oratory 
{lararium)  images  of  Abraham  and  Christ  before  those 
of  other  renowned  persons,  like  Orpheus  and  Apollo- 
nius  of  Tyana  (Vita  Alex.,  x.xix);  he  tolerated  the  free 
exercise  of  the  Christian  faith  ("Christianos  esse  pas- 
sus  est",  ibid.,  xxii) ;  he  recommended  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  imperial  governors  the  prudence  and  solici- 
tude of  the  Christians  in  the  selection  of  their  bishops 
(ibid.,  xlv);  he  caused  to  be  adjudged  to  them  (ibid., 
xlix)  a  building  site  at  Rome  that  the  tavern-keepers 
(cauponarii)  claimed,  on  the  principle  that  it  was  bet- 
ter that  God  should  be  in  some  way  honoured  there 
than  that  the  site  shovild  revert  to  such  uses;  he 
caused  the  famous  words  of  Christ  (Luke,  vi,  31): 
"And  as  you  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do 
you  also  to  them  in  like  manner"  to  be  engraved  on 
the  walls  of  the  palace  of  the  Caesars;  he  even  cher- 
ished the  idea  of  building  a  temple  to  Our  Lord,  but 
refrained  when  it  was  said  to  him  that  very  soon  all  the 
other  divinities  would  cease  to  be  honoured  (ibid. ,  xliii) . 

In  spite  of  these  signs  of  imperial  goodwill,  the 
Christians  continued  to  suffer,  even  in  this  mild 
reign.  Some  writers  think  that  it  was  then  that  St. 
Cecilia  died  for  the  Christian  faith.  His  principal 
jurisconsult,  Ulpian,  is  said  by  Lactantius  (Inst.  Div., 
V,  ii)  to  have  codified,  in  his  work  on  the  duties  of  a 
proconsul  (De  officio  proconsulis),  all  anti-Christian 
imperial  legislation (resmpto  prmcipu7n),  in  order  that 
the  magistrates  might  more  easily  apply  the  common 
law  {ut  doceret  quibus  oportel  eos  poenis  affici  qui  se  cul- 
tores  Dei  confiterentur) .  Fragments  of  this  cruel  code, 
from  the  seventh  of  the  (ten)  lost  books  of  Ulpian  on 
the  proconsular  office  may  yet  be  seen  in  the  "Di- 
gests" (I,  tit.  xvi;  xvii,  tit.  II,  3;  xvliii,  tit.  IV,  1,  and 
tit.  xiii,  6).  The  surname  "Severus",  no  less  than  the 
manner  in  which  both  he  and  Mammsea  met  their 
death,  indicate  the  temper  of  his  administration.     He 


sought  to  establish  at  Rome  good  order  and  moral 
decency  in  public  and  private  life,  and  made  some  use 
of  his  power  as  censor  morum  by  nominating  twelve 
officials  (cwratores  urhis)  for  the  execution  of  his  wise 
dispositions.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  the 
prevailing  religious  "syncretism"  or  eclecticism,  es- 
tablished at  Rome  by  his  predecessor  Elagabalus  as 
the  peculiar  contribution  of  this  remarkable  Syro- 
Roman  family  to  the  slow  but  certain  transformation 
of  the  great  pagan  Empire  into  a  mighty  instrument  of 
Divine  Providence  for  the  healing  of  the  moral  ills  that 
were  then  reaching  fullness.  All  historians  agree  as  to 
his  life,  and  the  moral  elevation  of  his  public  and  pri- 
vate principles;  Christian  historians  are  usually  of 
opinion  that  these  elements  of  virtue  were  owing  to  the 
education  he  received  under  the  direction  of  Origen. 

Lampridius,  Vita  Alexandri  in  Script.  Hist.  Aug.;  Tille- 
MONT,  Hist,  des  empereur.-i  romains.  III  (Paris,  1740),  475;  Gib- 
bon, Decline  and  Full  uf  thr  Unman  Empire,  I;  Schiller,  Gesch. 
d.  rom.  Kaiserziit  f  St  ui  t  -uri ,  isso) ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Ro- 
rmin  Bioijr.,  a.  v.;  Himii.i:,  Rrligion  a  Rome  sous  les  Severes 
(Pans,  1886);  Ai.i.ahu,  Hist,  de.t  persecutions  pendant  la  premiere 
moitie  du  III  siicle  (Paris,  1886) ;  Troplong.  De  I'influence  du 
Christianisme  sur  le  droit  civil  des  romains  (Paris,  1842;    1902). 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 
Severus  of  Antioch.     See  Eutychianism;   Mo- 

NOPHYSITES  AND  MoXOPHYSITISM. 

Severus  Sanctus  Endelechus,  Christian  rhe- 
torican  and  poet  of  the  fourth  century.  It  is  possible 
that  his  true  name  was  Endelechius  and  that  he 
adopted  the  other  names  after  his  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity. In  the  MSS.  of  the  "Metamorphoses"  of 
Apuleius,  the  subscription  of  the  corrector  and  re- 
visor,  Sallustius,  declares  him  the  pupil  at  Rome  in 
395  of  the  rhetorician  Endelechius  in  the  forum  of 
Mars  (which  is  the  forum  of  Augustus) :  "in  foro  Mar- 
tis  controversiam  declamans  oratori  Endelechio". 
This  rhetorician  is  certainly  identical  with  the  poet. 
He  was  probably  of  Gallic  origin.  He  was  a  friend  of 
St.  Paulinus  of  Nola,  who  dedicated  to  him  his  pane- 
gyric of  Theodosius  and  even  owed  to  him  the  idea 
of  this  work.  We  are  in  possession  of  Endelecihius's 
"  De  morte  boum  ",  an  idyl  in  thirty-three  Asclepedian 
strophes,  in  which  the  shepherd  Bucolus  explains  to 
his  companion  ^Egon  that  he  is  sad  because  his  flock 
are  dying  of  contagion.  Tityrus  enters  leading  his 
flock  which  remains  healthy  amid  the  epidemic.  He 
explains  that  this  miracle  is  due  to  the  Sign  of  the 
Cross  made  on  the  forehead  of  the  animals,  whereupon 
Mgon  and  Bucolus  decide  to  become  Christians.  This 
httle  poem  is  chiefly  interesting  because  it  shows  the 
resistance  of  paganism  in  the  country  and  the  means 
by  which  Christian  preaching  sought  to  overcome  it. 
It  was  discovered  in  an  unknown  MS.  and  published  by 
P.  Pithou  in  1586.  Riese  reprinted  it  in  the  "An- 
thologia  Latina"  (2nd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1906,  n.  893). 

Teuffel,  Gesch.  der  romischen  Literatur  (Leipzig,  1890) ,  §448, 
I;  Bahdenhewer,  Patrologie,  §73,  5;  Ebebt,  Gesch.  der  Literatur 
des  Mittelalters,  I,  314;  Manitius,  Gesch.  der  christlich-lateinischen 
Lit.  (Stuttgart,  1891),  258.  PauL   LeJAY. 

Sevigne,  Marie  de  Rabutin-Chantal,  Madame 
DE,  writer,  b.  at  Paris,  6  Feb.,  1626;  d.  at  Grignan, 
18  April,  1696.  She  was  the  granddaughter  of  St. 
Jane  Frances  de  Chantal.  Her  father  tlied  the  year 
after  she  was  born,  her  mother  in  1632.  She  was 
placed  under  the  guardianship  of  her  maternal  uncle, 
the  Abbe  de  Coulanges,  who  placed  her  education  in 
charge  of  Messrs.  Menage  and  Chapelain,  who  taught 
her  Latin,  Italian,  and  Spanish.  At  eighteen  she 
married  the  Marquess  Henri  de  Sevigne,  who  did  not 
make  her  very  happy,  and  who  was  slain  in  a  duel 
after  seven  years  of  marriage.  She  had  a  daughter 
(1646)  and  a  son  (1648).  In  1669  her  daughter 
married  the  Count  de  Grignan,  who  was  afterwards 
Governor  of  Provence.  The  Countess  de  Grignan 
went  to  rejoin  her  husband  in  1671,  which  was  a  great 
sorrow  to  her  mother.  It  may  be  .said  that  her  love 
for  her  daughter  filled  Mme  de  S(5vigne's  life.  On  four 
occasions  Mme  de  Grignan  returned  to  the  north  (1674, 


SEVILLE 


744 


SEVILLE 


1676,  1677,  and  16S0),  and  three  times  her  mother 
went  to  visit  her  in  the  south  (1672,  1690,  and  1694). 
From  this  last  visit  she  was  not  to  return.  Stricken 
at  the  bedside  of  her  sick  daughter — although  this 
was  disputed  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century 
— she  died  at  Grignan  at  the  age  of  seventy. 

As  soon  as  she  became  a  widow  Mme  de  Sevigne, 
without  favouring  them,  found  numerous  aspirants 
to  her  hand,  among  them  Turenne,  the  Prince  de 
Conti,  and  her  cousin,  Bussy-Rabutin.  She  lived 
mostlv  at  court,  visiting  her  friends  Mme  de  La 
Faj-ette,  Mme  de  Larochefoucauld,  Mme  de  Pom- 
ponne  etc.  As  early  as  1677  she  went  to  reside  at  the 
Hotel  Carnavalet,  of  which  she  remained  the  lessee 
until  her  death,  but  she  often  stayed  at  Livry 
(Seine  et  Oise)  or  at  the  ChAteau 
des  Rochers  (Ille-et-Vilaine  < . 
But  wherever  she  was,  tlv 
memory  of  her  daughter  was 
with  her.  Her  maternal  love  is 
unparalleled.  Arnaud  d'Andilly 
reproaches  the  Marchioness  with 
loving  "as  a  lovely  pagan"  her 
whom  Bussy-Rabutin  calls  "the 
prettiest  girl  in  France".  As  a 
matter  of  fact  this  absorbing  and 
somewhat  impassioned  affection 
caused  her  much  suffering  owanp 
to  the  enforced  separations,  but 
unhke  vulgar  passions,  it  was 
never  egotistical.  Naturally  it  in- 
spired the  correspondence  of  tho 
Marchioness,  but  this  corre- 
spondence is  also  a  picture  of 
the  lovely  period  at  which  it  was 
written,  or  rather  it  is  an  eloquent 
echo  of  what  was  said  and  thouglit 
at  the  court  and  in  the  distinguishe<  1 
world  frequented  by  its  author. 
Her  style  is  marked  by  natural- 
ne.ss,  movement,  and  humour,  dis- 
playing a  constant  creation  of 
words,  not  with  regard  to  new 
terms,  but  the  placing  of  the  old,  and  tlie  uses  tu  wlmli 
they  were  put.  The  author  manifests  her  gaiety,  her 
natural  disposition  to  look  on  the  best  side  of  things, 
while  her  irony  and  wit,  though  sometimes  light, 
are  always  healthy.  Exuberant  and  independent  in 
speech,  Mme  de  Sevigne  was  always  dignified  in 
conduct,  with  serious  tastes  beneath  her  worldly 
manner.  Sincerely  religious,  she  had  a  special  devo- 
tion to  Divine  Providence.  She  displayed  this  devo- 
tion to  her  la.st  hour  in  a  manner  which  impres.sed  the 
Count  de  Grignan.  "She  faced  death",  he  says,  "with 
astonishing  firmness  and  submission". 

Georges  Bertrin. 

Seville,  Archdiocese  of  (Hispalensis),  in 
Spain,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Badajoz;  on  the 
east  by  Cordova  and  Malaga,  on  the  south  by  Cadiz, 
on  the  west  by  Portugal.  It  comprises  portions  of 
the  civil  provinces  of  Seville,  Cadiz,  Cordova,  Iluelva, 
and  Malaga.  Its  episcopal  city  has  a  population  of 
some  144,(K)0.  Its  suffragans  are  Badajoz,  Ca<liz  and 
C<'Uta,  the  Canaries,  Cordova,  and  ^rcneriffe. 

In  Roman  times  Seville  was  the  capital  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Bajtica,  and  the  origin  of  the  diocese  goes  back 
to  Apostohc  times,  or  at  least  to  the  first  century  of 
our  era.  St.  Gerontius,  Bishop  of  Italica  (about  i^our 
miles  from  Hispalis  or  Seville),  preached  in  Bietica  in 
Apostolic  times,  and  without  doubt  must  have  left  a 
pastor  of  its  own  to  Seville.  It  is  certain  that  in  303, 
when  Sts.  Justa  and  Rufina,  the  potters,  suffered 
martyrdom  for  refusing  to  adore  the  idol  Salambo 


logue  of  the  ancient  prelates  of  Seville  preserved  in 
the  "Codex  Emilianensis",  a  manuscript  of  the 
year  1000,  now  in  the  Escorial.  When  Constantine 
brought  peace  to  the  Church  Evodius  was  Bishop  of 
Seville;  he  set  himself  to  rebuild  the  ruined  churches, 
among  them  he  appears  to  have  built  the  church  of 
San  Vicente,  perhaps  the  first  cathedral  of  Seville. 
In  the  time  of  Bishoj)  Sempronius  Seville  was  con- 
sidered the  metropolis  of  Ba'tica;  and  Glaucius  was 
bi.shop  when  the  barbarians  invaded  Spain.  Mar- 
cianus  was  bishoj)  in  428,  when  Gunderic  wished 
to  seize  the  treasures  of  the  Church  of  San  Vicente; 
Sabinus  II  was  dispossessed  of  his  see  by  Rechila 
the  Suevian  (441)  and  recovered  it  in  461.  Zeno 
(472-486)  was  appointed  vicar  Apostolic  by  Pope 
Simplicius,  and  Pope  Hormisdas 
gave  the  same  chaige  to  Bishop 
Sallustius  (510-22)  in  the  provinces 
of  Baetica  and  Lusitania.  But  the 
see  was  rendered  illustrious 
above  all  by  the  holy  brothers 
Sts.  Leander  and  Isidore.  The 
former  of  these  contributed  to  the 
conversion  of  St.  Hermengild  and 
Recared,  and  presided  at  the  Third 
Council  of  Toledo  (.589),  while  the 
latter  presided  at  the  Fourth  Coun- 
cil of  Toledo  and  was  the  teacher  of 
medieval  Sjmin.  A  very  different 
kind  of  celebrity  was  attained  by 
Archbishop  Oppas,  who  usurped 
the  See  of  Toledo  and  conspired 
with  his  nephews,  the  sons  of 
"\^  itiza,  against  Don  Rodrigo, 
contributing  bj'  his  treason  to  the 
disaster  of  Guadalete  and  the 
downfall  of  the  Visigothic  power. 
During  that  period  two  provincial 
councils  of  Ba'tica  were  held  at 
Seville:  the  first,  in  the  reign  of 
Recared,  in  590,  assembled  in  the 
cathedral  to  urge  the  execution  of 
the  mandates  of  the  Third  Council 
of  luledu;  the  .second,  in  November,  690,  in  the 
reign  of  Sisebut,  was  convoked  and  presided  over 
by  St.  Isidore,  to  promote  ecclesiastical  discipUne. 
The  succession  of  the  bishops  of  Seville  continued 
after  the  Mohammedan  conquest,  Nonnitus  being 
elected  on  the  death  of  Oppas.  The  last  Mozarabic 
bLshop  was  Clement,  elected  two  years  before  the  in- 
vasion of  the  Almohades  (1144).  The  Catholic  reli- 
gion was  confined  to  the  parish  Church  of  S.  lld(»- 
fonso,  until  the  restoration  following  the  reconquest 
of  the  city  by  St .  I'crdinand.  After  a  siege  of  fifteen 
months,  the  holy  king  look  the  city  on  23  Nov.,  1248; 
and  the  Bi.shop  of  Cordova,  Gutierre  de  Olea,  purified 
the  great  mosque  and  prepared  it  for  Divine  worship 
on  22  December.  The  king  deposited  in  the  new 
cathedral  two  famous  images  of  the  Bles.sed  Virgin: 
"Our  Lady  of  the  Kings",  an  ivory  statue  to  which  a 
miraculous  origin  was  attributed,  and  which  St.  Fer- 
dinand always  carried  with  him  in  battle  on  his  saddle- 
bow; and  the  silver  image,  "Our  Lady  of  the  See". 
The  king's  .son  Philip  was  ajjpoinfcd  Archbishop  of 
Seville,  wliilc  he  was  given  as  coadjulor  the  Dominican 
liainmiido  de  Losada,  Bisliop  of  Segovia,  wlio  became 
arclibishoj)  five  years  later,  on  tlie  abdication  of  the 
infanta.  In  addition  to  the  catlKHhaJ  eliai)ter,  another 
community  of  clerics  was  formed  to  sing  the  Divine 
Office  in  the  Chapel  Royal  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Kings 
(Nuestra  Senora  de  los  Reyes)  about  1252.  Most  of 
the  other  mosques  of  the  city  were  converted  into 
churches,  only  St  a.  Maria  la  Blanca,  St  a.  Cruz,  and  S. 
Bartolom6  being  left  to  the  Jews  for  synagogues.    The 


there  was  a  Bishop  of  Seville,  Sabinus,  who  assistea  cathedral  originated  in  the  great  mosque  which  was 
at  the  Ojuncil  of  Ilibcris  (287).  Before  that  time  the  work  of  the  emirs  who  built  the  Aljama  mosque, 
Marcellus  had  been  bishop,  as  appears  from  a  cata-     rebuilt  in   1171   by   the  Ahnohadcmir,   Yusuf-ben- 


SEVILLE 


745 


SEVILLE 


Yacub.  The  famous  tower  called  the  Giralda  is  due 
to  Almanzor.  In  order  to  secure  the  liturgical  orien- 
tation, when  the  mosque  was  converted  into  a  cathe- 
dral, its  width  was  made  the  length  of  the  new  church; 
and  it  was  divided  into  two  parts,  the  lesser  part,  on 
the  cast,  being  separated  from  the  rest  by  a  balustrade 
and  gi-ating,  to  form  the  chapel  royal. 

This  cathedral  having  become  too  small  for  Seville, 
the  chapter  resolved  in  1401  to  rebuild  it  on  so  vast  a 
scale  that  [)osterity  should  deem  it  the  work  of  mad- 
men. Only  the  Giralda  and  the  Court  of  Oranges 
were  left  as  they  were.  The  work  was  commenced  in 
1403  and  finished  in  December,  1506.  The  dome  was 
as  high  as  the  lower  part  of  the  Giralda;  it  fell  in,  how- 
ever, in  1511,  and  was  restored  by  Juan  Gil  de  Mon- 


by  Danchart  in  1482  and  is  the  largest  in  Spain.  In 
the  sacristy  beyond  it  are  preserved  the  "Alphonsine 
Tables"  {Tablas  Alfonsinas),  a  reliquary  left  by  the 
Wise  King.  The  splendid  stalls  of  the  choir  are  the 
work  of  Nufro  Sdnchez,  who  wrought  them  in  1475. 
The  Plateresque  screen  which  closes  the  front  of  the 
sanctuary  was  designed  by  Sancho  Munoz  in  1510. 
The  chapel  of  S.  Antonio  holds  Murillo's  famous 
picture  of  the  saint's  ecstasy  and  the  Infant  Jesus 
descending  into  his  arms.  The  chapel  royal  contains 
the  tombs  of  St.  Ferdinand,  Alfonso  the  Wise,  and 
Beatrix,  consort  of  the  latter,  while  in  the  pantheon, 
behind  the  sanctuary,  lie  the  remains  of  Pedro  I,  his 
son  Juan,  the  Infante  Fadrique,  Alfonso  XI,  and  other 
princes. 


tanon  in  1517.  The  principal  facade,  which  looks  to 
the  east,  extends  the  whole  width  of  the  building,  and 
is  as  high  as  the  naves,  to  which  its  five  divisions  corre- 
spond. The  decoration  of  the  upper  part,  including 
the  rose  window,  are  eighteenth-century  work.  The 
plan  of  the  building  is  a  rectangle,  380  by  250  feet,  the 
chapel  royal  projecting  an  additional  62  feet  to  the 
east.  It  is  roofed  with  seventy  ogival  vaults,  sup- 
ported by  thirty-two  gigantic  columns.  In  the  win- 
dows above  the  door  of  the  bell-tower  is  preserved  the 
original  design  of  the  Giralda,  which,  it  is  said,  was 
constructed  by  Gcver,  to  whom  are  attributed  the 
invention  of  algebra,  and  the  origin  of  the  name  (Al- 
Geber).  Where  the  bell-chamber  now  is  there  stood 
another  rectangular  mass,  surmounted  with  four 
enormous  balls,  or  apples,  of  bronze.  In  the  interior 
is  an  enormous  spike  which  serves  as  an  axis,  from 
which  thirty-five  sloping  planes  radiate.  In  1568 
Fcrndn  Ruiz,  by  order  of  the  chapter,  added  ninety- 
two  feet  to  the  height  of  the  tower,  giving  it  its 
present  form,  and  setting  up  the  giraldillo,  gyrating 
statue  of  Faith,  which  serves  as  a  wind-vane.  This 
statue,  cast  by  Bartolomc  Morel,  measures  over  13 
feet  in  height  and  weighs  2S  quintals  (about  2840  lb.). 
The  magnificent  rcrcdos  of  the  high  altar  was  designed 


After  the  cathedral,  the  Alcazar  is  the  most  note- 
worthy building  in  Seville.  No  other  Mussulman 
building  in  Spain  has  been  so  well  preserved.  Inhab- 
ited for  a  time  by  the  Abbatid,  Almoravid,  and  AI- 
mohad  kings,  its  embattled  enclosure  became  the 
dwelling  of  St.  Ferdinand,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Pedro 
the  Cruel  (1353-64),  who  employed  Granadans  and 
Mohammedan  subjects  of  his  own  (mudejares)  as  its 
architects.  Its  principal  entrance,  with  Arab  fagade, 
is  in  the  Plaza  de  la  Monteria,  once  occupied  by  the 
dwellings  of  the  hunters  (monteros)  of  Espinosa.  The 
principal  features  of  the  Alcazar  are  the  Court  of  the 
Ladies,  brilliantly  restored  by  Carlos  I,  with  its  fifty- 
two  uniform  columns  of  white  marble  supporting 
interlaced  arches,  and  its  gallery  of  precious  ara- 
besques; and  the  Hall  of  Ambassadors,  which,  with 
its  cupola,  dominates  the  rest  of  the  building,  and  the 
walls  of  which  are  covered  with  beautiful  azulrjos 
(glazed  tiles)  and  Arab  decorations.  The  University 
of  Seville  was  founded  by  Archdeacon  Rodrigo  Fer- 
nandez de  Santaella,  in  virtue  of  an  ordinance  of  the 
Catholic  Sovereigns  dated  22  Feb.,  1502,  and  two 
Bulls  of  Julius  II,  of  1505  and  1506.  It  could  not 
compete,  however,  with  the  powerful  institutions  of 
Salamanca  and  Alcald.     The  same  Archdeacon  San- 


SEVILLE 


746 


SEVILLE 


tacUa  founded  the  Colepio  Mayor,  or  "Great  College" 
called  the  Maese  Rodrigo.  Carlos  III  took  away  the 
general  studies  from  this  college,  ordering  them  to  be 
transferred,  in  1771,  to  the  professed  house  of  the 
Jesuits  expelled  by  him. 

Among  the  churches  of  Seville  those  worthy  of 
mention  are:  Santa  Ana  en  Triana,  thirteenth-century 
Gothic,  buUt  by  order  of  Alfonso  X;  S.  Andres,  which 
preserves  some  considerable  traces  of  the  mosque 
it  originally  was;  S.  Esteban,  with  its  inudejar  door 
and  paintings  by  Zuraran;  S.  Ildefonso,  perhaps  the 
oldest  church  in' Seville,  dating,  Uke  S.  Isidoro  and 
the  formerly  Mozarabic  church  of  S.  Juhan,  from 
the  Visigotluc  period.  S. Lorenzo  possesses  the  "Christ 
carrying  the  Cross" 
of  Jan  Martinez 
Montancs  which  is 
called  el  Gran  Poder 
(the  Great  Power). 
Other  churches  are 
the  Magdalena,  S. 
Marcos,  Sta.  Marina, 
S.  Martin,  S.  Nico- 
las, etc.  The  picture 
gallery  con  t  aiii8  more 
Aluriiios  than  any 
other  gallery  in  the 
world;  indeed,  to 
know  this  master  it  is 
necessar}'  to  visit 
Se\nlle.  The  archi- 
episcopal  palace  (sev- 
enteenth -century) 
has  a  fine  Platcresque 
doorway.  The  eccle- 
siastical seminary, 
fir.st  established  at 
San   Lucar  de   Bar- 

rameda,    in   1830,    in  Principal  Facade  of 

the    archiepiscopate 

of  Cardinal  Francisco  Javier  de  Cienfuegos  y  Jovella- 
nos,  was  tran.sferred  to  Seville  in  1848,  under  Arch- 
bishop Judas  Jose  Romo,  and  estabUshed  in  the  Plaza 
de  Maese  Rodrigo;  it  now  occupies  the  palace  of  San 
Tehno,  which  belongs  to  the  dukes  of  Montpensier. 
The  Archives  of  the  Indies,  preserved  in  Casa  Lonja, 
contain  immense  trea.sures  in  the  way  of  documents 
for  the  history  of  early  Spanish  missions  in  America 
and  Oceania.  Among  the  benevolent  institutions  are 
the  Hospital  of  Las  Cinco  Llagas  (or  La  Sangre),  that 
of  S.  L^zaro,  that  of  El  Cristo  de  los  Dolores,  etc. 

De  E8PINOSA,  Epincopotouios:  Anliyurtlades  de  Senlla;  Da  VILA, 
Tealro  de  las  Eglesias  de  Seville;  Florez,  Enpafla  Sagrada,  IX 
(3rd  ed.,  Madrid,  1860);  Madhazo,  Sevilla  in  Espafia,  sus 
monumentos  (Barcelona,  1884);  Valverde,  Gula  de  Espafia  y 
PoHugal  (Madrid,  1886) ;  Alderete,  Guia  ecclesidstica  de  Espafia 
(Madrid,  1888). 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Amado. 

Seville,  University  of. — In  the  middle  of  the 
thirtwnth  century  the  Dominicans,  in  order  to  pre- 
pare mi.ssionaries  for  work  among  the  Moors  and  Jews, 
organized  schools  for  the  teaching  of  Arabic,  Hebrew, 
and  Greek.  To  co-operate  in  this  work  and  to  en- 
hance the  prestige  of  Seville,  Alfonso  the  Wise  in  1254 
established  in  that  city  "general  schools"  {encuelas 
generalea)  of  Arabic  and  Latin.  Alexander  IV,  by 
Bull  of  21  June,  1260,  recognized  this  foundation  as  a 
generate  lilterarum  uludiurn  and  granted  its  members 
certain  dispensations  in  tlie  matter  of  residence. 
Later,  the  cathedral  chapter  establishfid  ecclesiastical 
studies  in  the  (Jollege  of  San  Miguel.  Rodrigo  de 
Santaello,  archdeacon  of  the  cathedral  and  c<nimion]y 
known  as  Mafise  Rodrigo,  began  the  construction  of 
a  building  for  a  university  in  1472;  in  1.502  the  Cath- 
olic Majesties  published  the  royal  decree  creating  the 
university,  and  in  1505  Julius  II  granted  the  Bull  of 
authorization;  in  ].5(W  the  college  of  Maese  Rodrigo 
was  finally  installed  in  its  own  building,  under,  the 


name  of  Santa  Maria  de  Jesiis,  but  its  courses  were 
not  opened  until  1516.  The  Catholic  Majesties  and 
the  pope  granted  the  power  to  confer  degrees  in  logic, 
philosophy,  theology,  and  canon  and  civil  law.  It 
should  be  noted  that  the  colegio  mayor  de  Maese 
Rodrigo  and  the  universit}'  proper,  although  housed  in 
the  same  building,  never  lost  their  several  identities, 
as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, the  university  was  moved  to  the  College  of  San 
Hermanegildo,  while  that  of  Maese  Rodrigo  remained 
independent,  although  languishing. 

The  influence  of  the  University  of  Seville,  from  the 
ecclesiastical  point  of  view,  though  not  equal  to  that  of 
the  Universities  of  Salamanca  and  of  Alcald,  was 
nevertheless  consid- 
erable. From  its 
lecture  halls  came 
Sebastiiin  Antonio 
de  Cortes,  Riquelme, 
Rioja,  Luis  Germdn 
y  Rimb6n,  founder 
of  the  Horatian 
Academy,  Juan  Sdn- 
chcz,  professor  of 
mathematics  at  San 
Tolmo,  Martin  Al- 
berto Carbajal,  Car- 
dinal Belluga,  Car- 
dinal Francisco  Solis 
Folch,  Marcelo  Doye 
y  Pelarte,  Bernardo 
deTorrijos, Francisco 
Aguilar  Ribon,  the 
Abate  Marc  hen  a, 
Albert  o  Lista,  and 
many  others  who 
shone  in  the  magis- 
tra(;y,  or  were  dis- 
THE  Alcazar,  Seville  tinguished    ecclesias- 

tics. The  influence 
of  the  University  of  Seville  on  the  development 
of  the  fine  arts,  was  very  great.  In  its  shadow 
the  school  of  the  famous  master  Juan  de 
Mablara  was  founded,  and  intellects  like  those  of 
Herrera  (q.  v.)  Arquij6,  and  many  others  were 
developed,  while  there  were  formed  literary  and 
artistic  clubs,  hke  that  of  Pacheco,  which  was  a 
school  for  both  painting  and  poetry.  During  the 
period  of  secularization  and  sequestration  (1845- 
57)  the  University  of  Seville  passed  into  the  control  of 
the  State  and  received  a  new  organization.  At  pres- 
ent it  cornprises  the  faculties  of  philosophy  and  let- 
ters, law,  sciences,  and  medicine,  with  an  enrolment 
(1910)  of  1100  students. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  royal  university  was  es- 
tabhshed,  there  was  developed  the  Universidad  de 
Mareanles  (university  of  sea-farers),  in  which  body  the 
Catholic  Majesties,  by  a  royal  decree  of  1503,  estab- 
lished the  Casa  de  Contratncidn  with  classes  of  i)ilots 
and  of  seamen,  and  courses  in  cosmography,  mathe- 
matics, military  tactics,  and  artillery.  This  estab- 
lishment was  of  incalculable  importance,  for  it  was 
there  that  the  expeditions  to  the  Indies  were  organ- 
ized, and  there  that  the  great  Spanish  sailors  were 
educated.  This  species  of  polytechnic  scliool,  which, 
according  to  Eden,  Bourn6,  and  Humboldt,  taught  a 
great  deal  to  Europ(>,  following  the  fortunes  of  Sjianish 
science,  fell  into  decay  in  tlie  seventeenth  century. 

De  la  Fuente,  IUhI.  de  las  univcrsidades  (IS87);  Ortiz  deZi';- 
NIOA,  Anales  eclesidslicos  y  aecularcs  de  Sevill/i  (1667);  de  la  Cua- 
URA  Y  Lidaja,  Hint,  del  colegio  mayor  de  Santo  Tomdn  de  Sevilla 
(1890);  de  AviS6n,  Sevillnna  medicina  (1419);  Caro,  Anligtic- 
dnden  de  Sevilla  (UKM);  Pkatohte,  Apunles  para  nnahiblioteca 
cientifica  esptiflola  (1H91);  Martinez  Villa,  Resefia  histurica  de  la 
universulad  de  SevilUi  y  descripridn  de  hu  iglrsia  (1886);  HazanaB 
DE  LA  RUA,  Maese  Rodrigo  {IU4-IMH)  (1909);  Padrino  y  HolIs, 
Memorias  literarias  de  la  Real  Academia  Sevillana  de  Buenos 
Letras  (1773). 

Teodoro  Rodriguez. 


SEXAGESIMA 


747 


SEXT 


Sezagesima  (Lat.  sexagesima,  sixtieth),  is  the  eighth 
Sunday  before  Easter  and  the  second  before  Lent. 
The  Ordo  Romanus,  Alcuin,  and  others  count  the 
Sexagesima  from  this  day  to  Wednesday  after  Easter. 
The  name  was  already  known  to  the  Fourth  Council 
of  Orleans  in  541.  For  the  Greeks  and  Slavs  it  is 
Dominica  Carnisprivii,  because  on  it  they  began,  at 
least  to  some  extent,  to  abstain  from  meat.  The 
Synaxarium  calls  it  Dominica  secundi  et  muneribus 
non  cornipti  adventus  Domini.  To  the  Latms  it  is 
also  known  as  "Exsurge"  from  the  beginning  of  the  In- 
troit.  The  slatio  was  at  Saint  Paul's  outside  the  walls 
of  Rome,  and  hence  the  oratio  calls  upon  the  doctor  of 
the  Gentiles.  The  Epistle  is  from  Paul,  II  Cor.,  xi 
and  xii  describing  his  suffering  and  labours  for  the 
Church.  The  Gospel  (Luke,  viii)  relates  the  falling  of 
the  seed  on  good  and  on  bad  ground,  while  the  Lessons 
of  the  first  Noctum  continue  the  history  of  man's 
iniquity,  and  speak  of  Noah  and  of  the  Deluge.  (See 
Septuagesima.) 

Butler,  The  Movable  Feasts  of  the  Catholic  Church  (New  York, 

8.  d.),  tr.  IV,  ii.  Francis  Mershman. 

Sexburga,  Saint,  d.  about  699.  Her  sisters,  Sts. 
Ethelburga  and  Saethrid,  were  both  Abbesses  of 
Faremontier  in  Brie,  St.  Withburga  was  a  nun  at 
Ely,  and  St.  Etheldreda  became  Abbess  of  Ely. 
Sexburga  was  the  daughter  of  Anna,  King  of  the 
East  Angles,  and  was  married  about  640  to  Earcon- 
bert,  King  of  Kent.  She  lived  with  her  husband  for 
twenty-four  years,  and  by  him  had  two  .sons,  Egbert 
and  Lothar,  both  successively  Kings  of  Kent,  and 
two  daughters,  both  of  whom  became  nuns  and  saints: 
St.  Earcongota,  a  nun  of  Faremontier,  and  St.  Ermen- 
hild,  who  married  \\'ulfhere.  King  of  Mercia,  and  after 
his  death  took  the  vf^il  and  became  Abbess  of  Ely. 
After  the  death  of  her  husband  in  664,  Sexburga 
founded  the  Abbey  of  Minster  in  Sheppey;  after  a 
few  years  there  she  removed  to  Ely,  and  placed  her- 
self under  her  sister  Etheldro'da,  then  abbess.  The 
"  Liber  Eliensis"  contains  the  farewell  speech  made  by 
Sexburga  to  her  nuns  at  Minster,  and  an  account  of 
her  reception  at  Ely.  St.  Etheldreda  died,  probably 
in  679,  and  Sexburga  was  elected  ablicss.  She  was 
still  alive  and  acting  as  abbess  in  69.'),  when  she  pre- 
sided at  the  translation  of  St.  Etheldreda's  relics  to 
a  new  shrine  she  had  erected  for  her  at  Ely,  which  in- 
cluded a  sarcophagus  of  wliite  marble  from  the  ruined 
city  of  Grantchester.  Sexburga  was  buried  at  Ely, 
near  her  sister  St.  Etheldreda,  and  her  feast  is  kept  on 
6  July.  There  are  several  lives  of  St.  Sexburga  ex- 
tant. The  one  printed  in  Capgrave,  "Nova  Leg- 
enda",  and  used  by  the  Bollandists  seems  to  be  taken 
from  the  Cotton  MS.  (Tib.  E.  1)  in  the  British 
Museum.  There  is  another  Latin  life  in  the  same 
collection  (Cotton  MS.,  Calig.  A.  8),  but  it  is  so 
damaged  by  fire  that  it  is  useless.  At  Lambeth  there 
are  fragments  of  an  Anglo-Saxon  life  (MS.  427). 

Bede,  Hist.  EccL,  iii,  c.  8;  IV,  cc.  19,  21 ;  Liber  Eliensis  in  Anglo. 
Chr.  Soc;  Acta  SS.,  July,  II,  346-9;  Montalembert,  Monks  of  the 
West,  ed.  Gasquet,  iv,  401;  Hardy,  Cat.  Mat.  in  R.  S.,  I,  360-2; 
BvTi.BR,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  QJu\y.  A.   S.    BaRNES. 

Sezt. — I.  Meaning,  Symbolism,  and  Origin. — The 
hora  sexta  of  the  Romans  corresponded  closely  with 
our  noon.  Among  the  Jews  it  was  already  re- 
garded, together  with  Terce  and  None,  as  an  hour 
most  favourable  to  prayer.  In  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles we  read  that  St.  Peter  went  up  to  the  higher  parts 
of  the  house  to  pray  (x,  9).  It  was  the  middle  of 
the  day,  also  the  usual  hour  of  rest,  and  in  consequence 
for  devout  men,  an  occasion  to  pray  to  God,  as  were 
the  morning  and  evening  hours.  The  Fathers  of  the 
Church  dwell  constantly  on  the  symbolism  of  this 
hour ;  their  teaching  is  merely  summarized  here: 
it  is  treated  at  length  in  Cardinal  Bona's  work  on 
psalmody  (ch.  viii).  Noon  is  the  hour  when  the  sun 
IS  at  its  full,  it  is  the  image  of  Divine  splendour, 
the  plenitude  of  God,  the  time  of  grace;  at  the  sixth 


hour  Abraham  received  the  tliree  angels,  the  image 
of  the  Trinity;  at  the  sixth  hour  Adam  and  Eve  ate 
the  fatal  apple.  We  should  pray  at  noon,  says  St. 
Ambrose,  because  that  is  the  time  when  the  Divine 
light  is  in  its  fulness  (In  Ps.  cxviii,  vers.  62).  Origen, 
St.  Augustine,  and  several  others  regard  this  hour 
as  favourable  to  prayer.  Lastly  and  above  all, 
it  was  the  hour  when  Christ  was  nailed  to  the  Cross; 
this  memory  excelling  all  the  others  left  a  still  visible 
trace  in  most  of  the  liturgy  of  this  houi-. 

All  these  mystic  reasons  and  traditions,  which 
indicate  the  sixth  hour  as  a  culminating  point  in  the 
day,  a  sort  of  pause  in  the  life  of  affairs,  the  hour  of 
repast,  could  not  but  exercise  an  influence  on  Chris- 
tians, inducing  them  to  choose  it  as  an  hour  of 
prayer.  As  early  as  the  third  century  the  hour  of 
Sext  was  considered  as  important  as  Terce  and  None 
as  an  hour  of  prayer.  Clement  of  Alexandria  speaks 
of  these  three  hours  of  prayer  ("Strom.",  VIII,  vii, 
P.  G.,  IX,  455),  as  does  Tertullian  ("De  orat.", 
xxiii-xv,  P.  L.,  I,  1191-93).  Long  previous  the 
"Didache"  had  spoken  of  the  sixth  hour  in  the  same 
manner  (Funk,  "Doctrina  XII  Apostolorum ", 
V,  XIV,  XV).  Origen,  the  "Canons  of  Hippolytus", 
and  St.  Cyprian  express  the  same  tradition  (cf. 
Baumer,  "Hist,  du  breviaire",  I,  68,  69,  73,  75,  186, 
etc.).  It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  custom  of 
prayer  at  the  sixth  hour  was  well-established  in  the 
third  century  and  even  in  the  second  century  or  at 
the  end  of  the  first.  But  probably  most  of  these 
texts  refer  to  private  prayer.  In  the  fourth  century 
the  hour  of  Sext  was  widely  established  as  a  canonical 
hour.  The  following  are  very  explicit  examples. 
In  his  rule  St.  Basil  made  the  sixth  hour  an  hour 
of  prayer  for  the  monks  ("Reguke  fusius  tractata;", 
P.  G.,  XXXI,  1013,  sq.,  1180),  Cassian  treats  it  as  an 
hour  of  ])rayer  gimcrally  recognized  in  his  monasteries 
(Instit.  C(rnob.,  Ill,  iii,  iv).  The  " De  virginitate " 
wrongly  attributed  to  St.  Athanasius,  but  in  any  case 
dating  from  the  fourth  century,  speaks  of  the  prayer 
of  Sext  as  do  also  the  "Apostolic  Constitutions", 
St.  Ephrem,  St.  Chrysostom  (for  the  texts  see  Bau- 
mer, op.  cit.,  I,  131,  145,  152,  etc.,  and  Leclercq,  in 
"  Diet,  d'arch.  chret.",  s.  v.  Breviaire).  But  this  does 
not  prove  that  the  observance  of  Sext,  any  more  than 
Prime,  Terce,  None,  or  even  the  other  hours,  was 
universal.  Discipline  on  this  point  varied  widely 
according  to  the  regions  and  Churches.  And  in 
fact  some  countries  may  be  mentioned  where  the  cus- 
tom was  introduced  only  later.  That  the  same 
variety  prevailed  in  the  formula}  of  prayer  is  shown 
in  the  following  paragraph. 

II.  Variety  of  Prayers  and  Formulae. — Despite  its 
antiquity  the  hour  of  Sext  never  had  the  importance 
of  those  of  Vigils,  Matins,  and  Vespers.  It  must  have 
been  of  short  duration.  The  oldest  testimonies 
mentioned  seem  to  refer  to  a  short  prayer  of  a  private 
nature.  In  the  fourth  and  the  following  centuries 
the  texts  which  speak  of  the  compositions  of  this 
Office  are  far  from  uniform.  Cassian  tells  us  that  in 
Palestine  three  psalms  were  recited  for  Sext,  as  also 
for  Terce  and  None  (Instit.,  Ill,  ii).  This  number 
was  adopted  by  the  Rules  of  St.  Benedict,  Colum- 
banus,  St.  Isidore,  St.  Fructuosus,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  by  the  Roman  Church.  However,  Cassian 
says  that  in  some  provinces  three  psalms  were  said 
at  Terce,  six  at  Sext,  and  nine  at  None.  Others 
recited  six  psalms  at  each  hour  and  this  custom  be- 
came general  among  the  Gauls  (cf.  Hefele-Leclercq, 
"Hist,  des  conciles",  III,  189-  Leclercq,  loc.  cit., 
1296,  1300;  Martene,  "De  antiq.  eccl.  ritibus",  III, 
20;  IV,  27).  In  Martene  will  be  found  the  proof 
of  variations  in  different  Churches  and  monasteries. 
With  regard  to  ancient  times  the  "  Pcrogrinatio 
Sylvia}",  tells  us  that  at  the  hour  of  Sext  all  assembled 
in  the  Anastasis  where  psalms  and  anthems  were 
recited  after  which  the  bishop  came  and  blessed  the 


SEXTON 


748 


SHAKESPEARE 


people  (cf.  Cabrol,  "Etude  sur  la  Peregrinatio", 
Paris,  1895,  45-46).  The  number  of  psalms  is  not 
stated.  In  the  sixth  century  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict 
gives  the  detailed  composition  of  this  Office.  We 
quote  it  here  because  it  is  almost  the  same  as  the 
Roman  Liturgy;  either  the  latter  borrowed  from 
St.  Benedict,  or  St.  Benedict  \va.s  inspired  by  the 
Roman  usage.  Se.xt,  like  Terce  and  None,  was 
comiJO.sed  at  nio.st  of  three  psalms,  of  which  the  choice 
was  fixeil,  the  Deus  in  adjutorium,  a  hjTim,  a  lesson 
(cai)itulum),  a  versicle,  the  Kyrie  Eleison,  and  the 
customary  concluding  prayer  and  dismissal  (xvii, 
cf.  xviii). 

In  the  Roman  liturgy  Sext  is  also  composed  of  the 
Deus  in  adjutorium,  a  hJ^nn,  tlaree  portions  of  Ps. 
cx\'iii,  the  lesson,  the  short  response,  the  versicle,  and 
the  prayer.  In  the  Greek  Church  Sext  is  composed 
like  the  other  lesser  hours  of  two  parts;  the  first 
includes  Pss.  liii,  liv,  xc,  with  invitatory,  tropes,  and 
conclusion.  The  second,  of  Mesarion  which  is  very 
similar  to  the  first,  consists  of  Pss.  Iv,  Ivi,  and  Ixix. 
In  the  modern  ^Vlozarabie  Office  Sext  consists  only 
of  Ps.  liii,  tliree  "octonaries"  of  Ps.  cxviii,  two  lessons, 
the  h>nnn,  the  supplication,  the  capitulum,  the 
Pater  Noster,  and  the  benediction. 

Beside  the  authors  mentioned  in  the  course  of  the  article  see 
DrcHESN-E,  Christian  Worxhip  (London,  1904),  448,  449,  450, 
492;  Bona,  De  divina  psalmodia,  viii,  de  sexta ;  Smith.  Did.  of 
Christ.  ArUiq..  s.  v.  OM<^e,  The  Divine;  Neale  and  Littledale, 
Comment,  on  the  Psalms,  I,  7,  .32,  34,  etc.;  Batiffol,  Hist,  du 
breviaire  romain,  3rd.  ed.  (Paris,  1911),  19-21. 

Fernaxd  Cabrol. 

Sexton  (Old  English  Sexestein,  sextein,  through  the 
French  sacri.'itain  from  Lat.  sacrisla),  one  who  guards 
the  church  edifice,  its  treasures,  vestments,  etc.,  and 
as  an  inferior  minister  attends  to  burials,  bell-ringings 
and  similar  offices  about  a  church.  In  ancient  times, 
the  duties  of  the  modern  sexton,  who  is  generally  a 
layman,  were  part  of  the  functions  of  the  clerical  order 
of  ostiariatus.  The  clerics  called  ostiarii  had  the 
keys  of  the  church  committed  to  them  and  were  re- 
sponsible for  the  guardianship  of  the  sacred  edifice, 
the  holy  vessels,  books,  and  vestments.  They 
opened  the  church  and  summoned  the  faithful  to  the 
Divine  Mysteries.  Others  of  them  were  specially  de- 
puted to  guard  the  bodies  and  shrines  of  the  martyrs. 
According  to  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIII,  cap. 
xvii,  De  Ref.),  the  sexton  or  sacristan  should  be  a 
cleric,  but  it  allowed  him  to  be  a  married  man,  pro- 
vided he  received  the  tonsure  and  wore  the  clerical 
dre.ss.  By  custom,  however,  these  conditions  have 
ceased  to  be  efTective,  and  at  present  the  office  is  usu- 
ally held  by  a  layman.  In  many  cathedral  churches, 
e.  g.  in  Austria  and  Germany,  the  title  of  .sacristan  or 
cnstos  is  still  held  by  a  priest,  who  is  genenilly  one  of 
the  dignitaries  of  the  cathedral  chapter,  and  has  su- 

Eervision  of  the  fabric  of  the  cathedral  and  of  the 
uildings  that  serve  for  the  residences  of  canons  and 
parochial  vicars.  This  official  has  special  charge  of 
the  cure  of  souls  and  sees  also  to  the  solemnizing  of  the 
great  church  festivals.  He  generally  has  an  assistant, 
whose  particular  duty  it  is  to  watch  over  the  perform- 
ance of  the  Divine  service  in  choir.  According  to  a  de- 
cision of  the  Roman  Rota,  the  sacristan  of  a  cathedral 
church  should  always  be  in  priest's  orders.  In  Rome 
the  offiw;  of  sacristan  in  the  Apostolic  palace  is  always 
committwl  to  a  member  of  the  Order  of  Hermits  of  St. 
Augustine,  by  a  Decree  of  Pope;  Alexander  VI.  The 
sacristan  of  the  conclave  for  the;  (ilection  of  a  new  pope 
has  all  the  privileges  of  the  conclavists. 

Ferrarih,  Bibl.  canonica,  VII  (Rome,  1891),  8.  v.,  Sacrigla. 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

SeychelleB  Islands.  See  Port  Victoria,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

Sezze.  See  Terracina,  Sezze  and  Piperno, 
Diocehe  of. 


Sfondrati,  Celestino,  Prince-abbot  of  St.  Gall 
and  cardinal,  b.  at  Milan,  10  January,  1G44;  d.  at 
Rome,  4  September,  169().  He  belonged  to  the  noble 
Milanese  family  of  the  Sfondrati,  of  which  Cardinals 
Francesco  and  Paolo  Sfondrati  and  Pope  Gregory 
XIV  were  members.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  was 
placed  in  the  school  at  Rorschach,  on  the  Bodensee, 
which  was  conducted  by  the  Benedictines  of  St. 
Gall,  and  on  20  April,  1000,  he  took  the  Benedictine 
habit  at  St.  Gall.  When  twenty-two  years  old  he 
already  tauglit  philosopliy  and  tlieology  at  Kemjjten, 
and,  after  liis  elevation  to  the  priesthood  (20  April, 
lOOSj,  lie  became  jirofessor  and  master  of  novices 
at  his  monastery.  From  1679  to  1082  he  taught 
canon  law  at  the  Benedictine  University  of  Salzburg. 
In  1082  he  returned  to  St.  Gall  to  take  charge  of  a 
small  country  church  near  Rorschach  for  a  .short 
time,  whereupon  Abbot  Gallus  appointed  him  his 
vicar-general.  In  1080  Pope  Innocent  XI  created 
him  Bi.shop  of  Novara,  a  dignity  which  he  acceijted 
only  with  reluctance.  He  was,  however,  jjrevcnted 
form  taking  pos.session  of  his  see  by  being  elected 
Prince-abbot  of  St.  Gall  on  17  April,  1687.  As  abbot 
he  set  an  examph;  of  great  piety  and  mortification 
to  his  monks,  and  watched  carefully  over  the  ob- 
servance of  monastic  discipline;  as  prince,  he  ruled 
mildly  and  rendered  him.self  dear  to  his  people  by  his 
great  charity,  which  he  had  a  .special  opjiortunity 
to  practise  during  the  famine  of  1()93.  His  learning 
and  piety,  as  well  as  his  able  literary  works  in  defence 
of  the  papal  authority  against  the  jjrincijjles  of  Gal- 
licanism,  induced  Pope  Innocent  XII  to  create  him 
cardinal-priest  on  12  December,  1095,  with  the  titular 
church  of  St.  Cajcilia  in  Trastevere.  But  he  had 
scarcely  reached  Rome  when  his  health  began  to  fail. 
He  died  nine  months  after  receiving  the  purple  and 
was  buried  in  his  titular  church.  His  chief  works  are: 
(1)  "Cursus  theologicus  in  gratiam  et  utilitatem 
Fratrum  Religiosorum "  (10  vols.,  St.  Gall,  1070), 
published  anonymously;  (2)  "Disputatio  juridica  de 
lege  in  praisumptione  fundata"  (Salzburg,  1081; 
2nd  ed.,  Salem,  1718),  a  moral  treatise  against  Prob- 
abilism;  (;3)  "Regale  .sacerdotium  Romano  Pontifici 
assertum"  (St.  Gall,  1084;  1093;  1749),  published 
under  the  pseudonym  of  Eugenius  Lombard  us,  an 
able  defence  of  the  papal  authority  and  privileges 
against  the  Four  Articles  of  the  Declaration  of  the 
French  Clergy  (1082);  (4)  "Cunsus  philosophicua 
monasterii  S.  Galli"  (3  vols.,  St.  Gall,  1680;  1095);  (5) 
"Gallia  vindicata"  (2  vols.,  St.  Gall,  1688;  1702), 
another  able  treatise  against  Gallicanism,  in  par- 
ticular again.st  Maimbourg;  (6)  "Legatio  Marchionis 
Lavardini  ejusque  cum  Innocentio  XI  dissidium" 
(1688),  a  short  treatise  concerning  the  right  of  asylum 
(les  franchises)  of  the  French  ambassadors  at  Rome; 
(7)  "Nepoti-smus  theologice  expensus"  (St.  Gall, 
1692);  (8)  "Innocentia  vindicata"  (St.  Gall,  1695; 
Graz,  1708),  an  attempt  to  prove  that  St.  Thomas 
held  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Concei)tion; 
(9)  "Nodus  pra?destinationis  ex  sac.  litteris  doctrina- 

3ue  SS.  Augustini  et  ThomaJ,  quantum  homini  licet, 
issolutus"  (Rome,  1097;  Cologne,  1705),  a  post- 
humous work  against  the  Jansenists,  in  whicli  the 
author  expounds  the  difficult  question  of  grace  and 
predestination  in  the  sen.se  of  Molina  and  the  Jesuits. 
It  called  forth  numerous  rejoinders  but  found  also  many 
defenders  [see  Dunand  in  "Revue  du  Clerg6  Fran- 
cais".  III  (Paris,  1895),  310-20]. 

Zieoelbaueu,  Jlixl.  T<i  lilerarirr  ord.  S.  Ren.,  Ill,  416-20; 
KdGER.Cdlistin  Sfondrati,  Knrdinal  und  Farstaht,(lH9C>)  ■,^ai-tler, 
CoUeclaneenhlaiter  zur  Gesch.  der  ehem.  Ben.  Universiiat  Satzhurg 
(Kempten,  1890),  237-4.'>.  MiCHAEL   OtT. 

Shakespeare,  The  Religion  of. — Of  both  Milton 
an<l  Shaki'spcare  it  was  stated  after  their  deaths,  upon 
Protestant  authority,  that  they  had  professed  Cathol- 
icism. In  Milton's  case  (though  the  allegation  was 
made  and  printed  in  the  lifetime  of  contemporaries, 


SHAKESPEARE 


749 


SHAKESPEARE 


and  though  it  pretended  to  rest  ujjon  the  testimony  of 
Judge  Christopher  Milton,  his  brother,  who  did  be- 
come a  CathoHc)  the  statement  is  certainly  untrue 
(see  The  Month,  Jan.,  1909,  pp.  1-13  and  92-93). 
This  emphasizes  the  need  of  caution — the  more  so  that 
Shakespeare  at  least  had  been  dead  more  than  sev- 
enty years  when  Archdeacon  R.  Davies  (d.  1708) 
wrote  in  his  supplementary  notes  to  the  biographical 
collections  of  the  Rev.  W.  Fulman  that  the  dramatist 
had  a  monument  at  Stratford,  adding  the  words:  "He 
dyed  a  Papyst".  Davies,  an  Anglican  clergyman, 
could  have  had  no  conceivable  motive  for  misrepre- 
senting the  matter  in  these  private  notes  and  as  he 
hved  in  the  neighbouring  county  of  Gloucestershire  he 
may  be  echoing  a  local  tradition.  To  this  must  be 
added  the  fact  that  independent  evidence  establishes  a 
strong  presumption  that  John  Shakespeare,  the  poet's 
father,  was  or  had  been  a  Catholic.  His  wife  Mary 
Arden,  the  poet's  mother,  undoubtedly  belonged  to  a 
family  that  remained  conspicuously  Catholic  through- 
out the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  John  Shakespeare  had 
held  municipal  office  in  Stratford-on-Avon  during 
Mary's  reign  at  a  time  when  it  seems  agreed  that 
Protestants  were  rigorously  excluded  from  such  posts. 
It  is  also  certain  that  in  1.592  John  Shakespeare  was 
presented  as  a  recusant,  though  classified  among  those 
"recusants  heretofore  presented  who  were  thought  to 
forbear  cioining  to  church  for  fear  of  pro(!ess  of  debt". 
Thougli  indications  are  not  lacking  that  John  Shakes- 
peare was  in  very  reduced  circumstances,  it  is  also 
quite  po.ssibIe  that  his  alleged  poverty  was  only  as- 
sumed to  cloak  his  conscientious  scruples. 

A  document,  supposed  to  have  been  found  about 
17.50  under  the  tiles  of  a  house  in  Stratford  which  had 
once  been  John  Shakespeare's,  professes  to  be  the 
spiritual  testament  of  the  said  John  Shakespeare,  and 
assuming  it  to  be  authentic  it  would  clearlj'  prove  him 
to  have  been  a  Catholic.  The  document,  which  was 
at  first  unhesitatingly  accepted  as  genuine  by  Ma- 
lone,  is  considered  by  most  modern  Shakespeare 
scholars  to  be  a  fabrication  of  J.  Jordan  who  sent  it  to 
Malone  (Lee,  "Life  of  William  Shakespeare",  Lon- 
don, 1908,  p.  302).  It  is  certainly  not  entirely  a  for- 
gery (see  The  Month,  Nov.,  1911),  and  it  produces  in 
part  a  form  of  spiritual  testament  attributed  to  St. 
Charles  Borromeo.  Moreover,  there  is  good  evidence 
that  a  paper  of  this  kind  was  really  found.  Such  tes- 
taments were  undoubtedly  common  among  Catholics 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  Jordan  had  no  particular 
motive  for  forging  a  very  long,  dreary,  and  tedious  pro- 
fession of  Catholicism,  only  remotely  connected  with 
the  poet;  and  although  it  has  been  said  that  John 
Shakespeare  could  not  wTitc  (Lee,  J.  W.  CJray,  and  C. 
C.  Stopes  maintain  the  contrary),  it  is  quite  conceiv- 
able that  a  priest  or  some  other  Catholic  friend 
drafted  the  document  for  him,  a  copy  of  which  was 
meant  to  be  laid  with  him  in  his  grave.  All  this  goes 
to  show  that  the  dramatist  in  his  youth  must  have 
been  brought  up  in  a  very  Catholic  atmosphere,  and 
indeed  the  history  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot  conspira- 
tors (the  Catesbys  lived  at  Bushwood  Park  in  Strat- 
ford parish)  shows  that  the  neighbourhood  was  re- 
garded as  quite  a  hotbed  of  recusancy. 

On  the  other  hand  many  serious  difficulties  stand  in 
the  way  of  believing  that  William  Shakespeare  could 
have  been  in  any  sense  a  staunch  adherent  of  the  old 
religion.  To  begin  with,  his  own  daughters  were  not 
only  baptized  in  the  parish  church  as  their  father  had 
been,  but  were  undoubtedly  brought  upas  Protestants, 
the  elder,  Mrs.  Hall,  being  aj)i);ir('iitly  rather  Puritan 
in  her  sympathies.  Again  Sliakcijeare  was  buried  in 
the  chancel  of  the  parish  church,  tliough  it  is  admitted 
that  no  argument  can  be  deduced  from  this  as  to  the 
creed  he  professed  (Lee,  op.  cit.,  p.  220).  More  sig- 
nificant are  such  facts  as  that  in  1608  he  stood  god- 
father to  a  child  of  Henry  Walker,  as  shown  by  the 
parish  register,  that  in  1614  he  entertained  a  preacher 


at  his  house  "the  New  Place",  the  expense  being  ap- 
parently borne  by  the  municipality,  that  he  was  very 
familiar  with  the  Bible  in  a  Protestant  version,  that  the 
various  legatees  and  executors  of  his  will  cannot  in  any 
way  be  identified  as  Cathohcs,  and  also  that  he  seems 
to  have  remained  on  terms  of  undiminished  intimacy 
with  Ben  Jonson,  despite  the  latter's  exceptionally 
di.sgraceful  apostasy  from  theCathohc  Faith,  which  he 
had  for  a  time  embraced.  To  these  considerations 
must  now  be  added  the  fact  recently  brought  to  light 
by  the  researches  of  Dr.  Wallace  of  Nebraska,  that 
Shakespeare  during  his  residence  in  London  lived  for 
at  least  six  years  (1598-1604)  at  the  house  of  Chris- 
topher Mountjoy,  a  refugee  French  Huguenot,  who 
maintained  close  relations  with  the  French  Protestant 
Church  in  London  (Harper's  Magazine,  March,  1910, 
pp.  489-510).  Taking  these  facts  in  connexion  with 
the  loose  morality  of  the  Sonnets,  of  Venus  and  Adonis, 
etc.  and  of  passages  in  the  play,  not  to  speak  of 
sundry  vague  hints  preserved  by  tradition  of  the 
poet's  rather  dissolute  morals,  the  conclusion  seems 
certain  that,  even  if  Shakespeare's  sympathies  were 
with  the  Catholics,  he  made  little  or  no  attempt  to  live 
up  to  his  convictions.  For  such  a  man  it  is  intrinsi- 
cally possible  and  even  likely  that,  fin(lin^^  himself  face 
to  face  with  death,  he  may  have  profited  by  the  happy 
incident  of  the  jjrcsence  of  some  priest  in  Stratford  to 
be  reconciled  with  the  Church  before  the  end  came. 
Thus  Archdeacon  Davies's  statement  that  "he  dyed  a 
Papyst"  is  by  no  means  incredible,  but  it  would  obvi- 
ously be  foolish  to  build  too  much  upon  an  unverifi- 
able  tradition  of  this  kind.  The  point  must  remain 
forever  uncertain. 

As  regards  the  interrial  evidence  of  the  plays  and 
poems,  no  fair  appreciation  of  the  arguments  advanced 
by  Simpson,  Bowden,  and  others  can  ignore  the  strong 
leaven  of  Catholic  feeling  conspicuous  in  the  works 
as  a  whole.  Detailed  discussion  would  be  impossi- 
ble here.  The  question  is  complicated  by  the  doubt 
whether  certain  more  Protestant  passages  have  any 
right  to  be  regarded  as  the  authentic  work  of  Shake- 
speare. For  example,  there  is  a  general  consensus  of 
opinion  that  the  greater  part  of  the  fifth  act  of 
"Henry  VIII"  is  not  his.  Similarly  in  "King  John" 
any  hasty  references  drawn  from  the  anti-papal  tone 
of  certain  speeches  must  be  discounted  by  a  compari- 
son between  the  impression  left  by  the  finished  play 
as  it  came  from  the  hands  of  the  dramatist  and  the 
virulent  prejudice  manifest  in  the  older  drama  of  "The 
Troublesome  Reign  of  King  John",  which  Shake- 
speare transformed.  On  the  other  hand  the  type  of 
such  characters  as  Friar  Lawrence  or  of  the  friar  in 
"Much  Ado  About  Nothing",  of  Henry  V,  of 
Katherine  of  Aragon,  and  of  others,  as  well  as  the 
whole  ethos  of  "Measure  for  Measure",  with  num- 
berless casual  allusions,  all  speak  eloquently  for  the 
Catholic  tone  of  the  poet's  mind  (see,  for  example,  the 
references  to  purgatory  and  the  last  sacraments  in 
"Hamlet",  Act  I,  sc.  5). 

Neither  can  any  serious  arguments  to  show  that 
Shakespeare  knew  nothing  of  Catholicism  be  drawn 
from  the  fact  that  in  "  Romeo  and  Juliet "  he  speaks  of 
"evening  Mass".  Simpson  and  others  have  quoted 
examples  of  the  practice  of  occasionally  saying  Mass 
in  the  afternoon,  one  of  the  places  where  this  was  wont 
to  happen  being  curiously  enough  Verona  itself,  the 
scene  of  the  play.  The  real  difficulty  against  Simp- 
son's thesis  comes  rather  from  the  doubt  whether 
Shakespeare  was  not  infected  with  the  atheism,  which, 
as  we  know  from  the  testimony  of  writers  as  opposite 
in  spirit  as  Thomas  Nashe  and  Father  Persons,  was 
rampant  in  the  more  cultured  society  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan age.  Such  a  doubting  or  sceptical  attitude  of 
mind,  as  multitudes  of  examples  prove  in  our  own  day, 
is  by  no  means  inconsistent  with  a  true  appreciation 
of  the  beauty  of  Catholicism,  and  even  apart  from  this 
it  would  surely  not  be  surprising  that  such  a  man  aa 


SHAMANISM 


750 


SHAMANISM 


Shakespeare  should  think  sympathetically  and  even 
tenderly  of  the  creed  in  which  his  father  and  mother 
had  been  brought  up,  a  creed  to  which  they  probably 
atliiered  at  least  in  their  hearts.  The  fact  in  any  case 
remains  that  the  number  of  Shakespearean  utterances 
expressive  of  a  fundamental  doubt  in  the  Divine 
economy  of  the  world  seems  to  go  beyond  the  require- 
ments of  his  dramatic  purpose  and  these  are  const  ant  ty 
put  into  the  mouths  of  characters  with  whom  the  poet 
is  evidently  in  s>  mpathy.  A  conspicuous  example  is 
the  speech  of  Prospero  in  "The  Tempest",  probably 
the  latest  of  the  plays,  ending  with  the  words: — 
"  We  are  such  stuff 

^\s  dreams  are  made  on,  and  our  little  life 

Is  rounded  with  a  sleep". 
\Miether  the  true  Shakespeare  speaks  here  no  one 
can  ever  tell,  but  even  if  it  were  so,  such  moods  pass 
and  are  not  irreconcilable  with  faith  in  God  when  the 
soul  is  thrown  back  upon  herself  by  the  near  advent  of 
suffering  or  death.  A  well-known  example  is  afforded 
by  the  case  of  Littre. 

The  most  serious  and  original  contribution  made  from  a 
Catholic  point  of  \'iew  to  the  question  of  Shakespeare's  religious 
opinions  is  by  Richard  Simpson  in  The  Rarnbler  (July,  1S5-1;  and 
March,  April,  and  May,  1S58).  A  volume  founded  on  the  mate- 
rials printed  and  manuscript  accumulated  by  Simpson  was  after- 
wards published  by  Father  H.  S.  Bowden,  The  Religion  of  Shake- 
speare (London,  1899).  In  the  present  writer's  judgment,  the 
evidence  in  favour  of  the  poet's  Catholicitj'  is  unduly  pressed  by 
both  of  these  investigators  and  the  difficulties  too  lightly  dismissed, 
but  on  the  other  hand  Simpson's  thesis  certainly  deserves  more 
careful  examination  than  it  has  usually  received,  even  from 
the  few  who  have  noticed  his  arguments,  for  example  from 
Canon  Beeching  in  vol.  X  of  the  Stratford  Totm  edition  of  the 
Works  of  Shakespeare  (Stratford,  1907). 

See  also:  Lilly,  Studies  in  Religion  and  Literature  (London. 
1904),  1-30:  Collins,  Studies  in  Shakespeare  (London,  1904); 
GiLDEA  in  Amer.  Cath.  Quart.  Rev.  (Philadelphia,  1900);  Baum- 
GARTNER  in  Kirchenlexikon  (Freiburg,  1899) ;  Hager,  Die  Grosse 
Shakespeares  (Freiburg,  1878);  Spanier,  Der  "Papist"  Shake- 
speare in  Hamlet  (Trier,  1890) ;  Raich,  Shakespeare's  Stellung  7.ur 
hot.  Kirche  (Mainz,  1884) ;  Carter,  Shakespeare  Puritanand Recus- 
ant (Edinburgh,  1897);  Downing,  God  in  Shakespeare  (London, 
1901);  Holland,  S/iaA-espeare's  [/nbt?ie/ (Boston,  1884) ;  Irwin, 
Shakespeare's  Religious  Belief  in  Overland  Monthly  (San  Francisco, 
Aug.  and  Sept.,  lS7r») ;  Pope,  Shakespeare  the  Great  Dramatic 
Demonstrator  of  Catholic  Faith  (Washington,  1902);  Robertson, 
Religion  of  Shakespeare  (London,  1877) ;  Schuler,  Shakespeare's 
Confession  in  Kalholische  Flugschriflen  (No.  1,31);  Wilkes, 
Shakespeare  from  an  American  Point  of  View  (New  York,  1877); 
Countermine,  The  Religious  Belief  of  Sliakespeare  (New  York, 
1906),  a  booklet  of  no  value;  Rio,  William  Shakespeare  (Paris, 
1864);  Mahon  in  Edinburgh  Review  (Jan.,  1866);  Thur.ston  in 
Month  (May,  1882;  Nov.,  1911);  Boswin,  The  Religion  of 
Shakespeare  (Trichinopoly,  1899);  Roffe,  Real  Religion  of 
Shakespeare  (London,  1872).  HERBERT   ThURSTON. 

Shamanism  (from  Shaman  or  Saman,  a  word  de- 
rived by  Bantzaroflf  from  Manchu  saman,  i.  e.,  an 
excited  or  raving  man,  by  van  Gennep  and  Keane  from 
»S'a?minaTungu8  word;  others  say  a  later  dialectic  form 
of  the  Sanskrit  sraman,  i.e.,  a  worker  or  toiler),  a  vague 
term  used  by  explorers  of  Siberia  in  the  eighteenth 
and  nineteenth  centuries  to  designate  not  a  specific 
religion  but  a  form  of  savage  magic  or  science,  by 
which  physical  nature  was  believed  to  be  brought 
under  the  control  of  man.  It  prevails  among  Tura- 
nian and  Mongolian  tribes  and  American  Indians,  and 
blends  with  their  varied  religious  beliefs  and  customs. 
Thus  the  Turanians  believe  the  shamans  were  a  class 
created  by  the  heaven-god  Tengri  to  struggle  for 
men's  good  against  the  evil  spirits.  The  Buddhist 
Mongols  call  Shamanism  shara-shcjuhhin,  i.  e.,  the 
black  faith,  the  Chinese  tjao-ten,  i.  e.,  dancing  before 
spirits.  The  shamans  are  variously  designated,  e.  g., 
by  Tatars  kam,  by  Samoyeds  (aryih,  by  Ostjaks 
ta/lih,  by  Buriates  hoe,  by  Yakut  Turks  oyun,  by 
American  Indians  medicine  men.  In  the  Bhagavata 
Purana  the  .Jains  are  called  shramans.  In  Persian- 
Hindu  the  term  "shaman"  means  an  idolater.  In 
Tibet  Shamanism  rejjresents  a  Buddhism  degenerated 
into  demonology.  Thus  the  Mongols  say  that  sha- 
mans are  closely  allied  with  Odokil,  or  Satan,  who 
will  not  injure  any  tribe  that  obeys  its  wizards. 

(I)  Shamanism  rests  for  its  basis  on  the  animistic 
view  of  nature.     Animism  (q.  v.)  teaches  that  primi- 


tive and  savage  man  views  the  world  as  pervaded  by 
spiritual  forces.  Fairies,  goblins,  ghosts,  and  demons 
hover  about  him  waking  or  sleeping:  they  are  the 
cause  of  his  mishaps,  losses,  pains.  ]\iountains, 
woods,  forests,  ri\ers,  lakes  are  conceived  to  possess 
spirits,  i.  e.,  the  iich-lchi  of  the  Yakuts,  and  to  be  liv- 
ing, thinking,  willing,  passionful  beings  like  himself. 
In  respect  to  these,  man  is  in  a  state  of  helplessness. 
The  shaman  by  appropriate  words  and  acts  uses  his 
power  to  shield  man  and  envelops  him  in  a  kind  of 
protective  armour  so  that  the  evil  spirits  become  in- 
active or  inoffensive.  His  role  is  that  of  antagonist 
to  the  spirits  and  of  guardian  to  ordinary  man.  The 
Esquimaux  beheve  all  the  affairs  of  life  are  under  the 
control  of  malignant  spirits  who  are  everywhere. 
These  minor  spirits  are  subject  to  the  great  .«pirit 
Tung-Ak,  yet  must  be  propitiated.  The  shaman 
alone  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  deal  with  Tung-Ak, 
though  not  superior  to  him.  Tung-Ak  is  a  name  for 
Death,  who  ever  seeks  to  harass  the  lives  of  people  that 
their  spirits  may  go  to  dwell  with  him.  Ellis  says  that 
spirits  far  from  friendly  compassed  the  hves  of  the 
Polynesian  islanders  on  every  side.  The  gods  of  the 
Maori  were  demons  thronging  like  mosquitos  and  ever 
watchful  to  inflict  evil;  their  designs  could  be  counter- 
acted only  by  powerful  spells  and  charms.  In  Kam- 
chatka every  corner  of  earth  and  heaven  was  believed 
to  be  full  of  spirits  more  dreaded  than  God.  The 
Navajo,  Ojibwas,  and  Dakotah  Indians  have  a 
multiplicity  of  spirits,  both  evil  and  good,  filling  all 
space,  which  can  be  communicated  with  only  after 
due  preparation  by  the  persons  who  have  power  to 
do  so,  i.  e.,  7nede  or  jossakeed. 

(2)  The  main  principle  of  Shamanism  is  the  at- 
tempt to  control  physical  nature.  Hence  the  term 
embraces  the  various  methods  by  which  the  spirits 
can  be  brought  near  or  driven  awaj'.  The  belief  that 
the  shaman  practises  this  magic  art  is  universal  among 
savages.  To  this  art  nothing  seems  impossible;  it 
intimately  affects  their  conduct  and  is  reflected  in 
their  myths.  In  some  cases  initiation  is  required. 
Thus  with  the  Navajo  and  Ojibwas  they  who  have 
successfully  passed  through  the  four  degrees  of  the 
medewin  are  called  niede,  and  are  considered  competent 
to  foresee  and  prophesy,  to  cure  disea.ses  and  to  pro- 
long life,  to  make  fetishes,  and  to  aid  others  in  attain- 
ing desires  not  to  be  realized  in  any  other  way.  They 
who  have  received  instruction  in  one  or  two  degrees 
usually  practise  a  specialty,  e.g.,  making  rain,  finding 
game,  curing  diseases.  For  this  women  are  eligible. 
Again  the  jossakeed,  or  jugglers,  form  a  distinct  class 
with  no  system  of  initiation,  e.g.,  an  individual  an- 
nounces himself  a  jos.sakeed  and  performs  feats  of 
magic  in  substantiation  of  his  claim.  Among  the 
Australians  the  birraark  were  supi)osed  to  be  initi- 
ated by  wandering  ghosts.  The  Dakotahs  believe  the 
medicine  men  to  be  wakanized  (from  wakan,  i.  e.,  god- 
man)  by  mystic  intercourse  with  supernatural  beings 
in  dreams  and  trances.  Their  bu.siness  was  to  discern 
future  events,  lead  on  the  war-path,  rai.se  the  storm, 
calm  the  tempest,  converse  with  thunder  and  light- 
ning as  with  familiar  friends.  Father  Le  Jeune 
writes  that  the  medicine  men  of  the  Iroquois  enjoyed 
all  the  at  t  ribut  es  of  Zeus.  Tiele  says  that  the  magical 
l)0wer  is  i)()ss('ssc(i  l)y  tlic  shaman  in  common  with  the 
higher  spirits  and  does  not  diff(T  from  theirs;  in  reli- 
gious observances  the  magician  priests  entirely  super- 
sede the  gods  and  as.sume  their  forms  (Science  of 
Religion,  II,  108). 

Most  commonly  the  shaman  is  a  man.  Among  the 
Yakuts,  the  Carib  tribes,  and  in  Northern  California 
there  are  female  as  well  as  male  shamans;  and  in  some 
cases,  e.  g.,  the  Yakuts,  male  shamans  have  to  assume 
women's  dress.  Every  Maori  warrior  is  a  shaman. 
In  Samoa  there  is  no  regular  caste,  but  in  other 
Polynesian  groups  the  shaman  is  the  exclusiv(^  privilege 
of  an  hereditary  class  of  nobles.     With  the  Yakuts  the 


SHAMANISM 


751 


SHAMMAI 


gift  of  shamanism  is  not  hereditary,  but  the  protect- 
ing spirit  of  a  shaman  who  dies  is  reincarnated  in 
some  member  of  the  same  family.  To  them  the  pro- 
tecting spirit  is  an  indispensable  attribute  of  the 
shaman.  They  believe  that  the  shaman  has  an 
dmagat,  i.  e.,  a  spirit-protector,  and  an  ie-kyla,  i.  e., 
image  of  an  animal  protector,  e  .g.,  totemism.  Hence 
the  shamans  are  graded  in  power  according  to  the 
ie-kyla,  e.  g.,  the  weakest  have  the  ie-kyla  of  a  dog,  the 
most  powerful  that  of  a  bull  or  an  eagle.  The  dmagat 
is  a  being  completely  different,  and  generally  is  the 
soul  of  a  dead  shaman.  Every  person  has  a  spirit- 
protector,  but  that  of  the  shaman  is  of  a  kind  apart. 
With  the  American  Indians  the  guardian  spirit,  from 
whom  the  novice  derives  aid,  is  more  generally  se- 
cured from  the  hosts  of  animal  spirits;  it  can  also  be 
obtained  from  the  local  spirits  or  spirits  of  natural 
phenomena,  from  the  ghosts  of  the  dead  or  from  the 
greater  deities. 

In  the  practice  of  his  art  the  Shaman  is  regarded  as: 
(a)  A  healer,  hence  the  term  "medicine  man",  and 
the  secret  medicine  societies  of  the  Seneca,  and  of 
other  American  tribes;  the  Alaskan  Tungaks  are 
principally  healers,  (b)  An  educator,  i.  e.,  the  keeper 
of  myth  and  tradition,  of  the  arts  of  writing  and 
divination;  he  is  the  repo.sitory  of  the  tribal  wisdom, 
(c)  A  civil  magistrate;  as  seers  possessing  secret 
knowledge  with  power  at  times  of  assuming  other 
shapes  and  of  empk)ying  the  souls  of  the  dead,  they 
are  credited  with  ability  to  detect  and  punish  crimes, 
e.  g.,  the  Angaput  wizards  among  the  Esquimaux. 
In  Siberia  every  tribe  has  its  chief  shaman  who  ar- 
ranges the  rites  and  takes  charge  of  the  idols;  under 
him  are  local  and  family  wizards  who  regulate  all  that 
concerns  birth,  marriage,  and  death,  and  consecrate 
dwellings  and  food,  (d)  A  war-chief;  thus  with  the 
Dakotahs  and  Cheyennes  the  head  war-chief  must  be 
a  medicine  man.  Hence  the  shaman  possesses  great  in- 
fluence and  in  many  cases  is  the  real  ruler  of  the  tribe. 

The  means  which  the  shaman  uses  are:  (a)  Sym- 
bolic magic,  on  the  principle  that  as.sociation  in 
thought  must  involve  similar  connexion  in  reality, 
e.  g.,  the  war  and  himting  dances  of  the  Red  Indians, 
placing  magical  fruit-shaped  stones  in  the  garden  to 
in.sure  a  good  crop,  to  bring  about  the  death  of  a 
person  by  making  an  image  of  him  and  then  destroying 
it  or  rubbing  red  paint  on  the  heart  of  the  figure  and 
thrusting  a  sharp  instrument  into  it.  (b)  Fasting 
with  solitude  and  very  generally  bodily  cleanness  and 
incantations  usually  in  some  ancient  or  unmeaning 
language  and  with  the  Yakuts  very  obscene.  Thus 
the  song  that  salved  wounds  was  known  to  the  Greeks, 
e.  g.,  the  Odyssey,  and  to  the  Finns,  e.  g.,  the  epic 
poem  Kalewala.  Among  the  Indo-Europeans  the 
incantations  are  known  as  mantras,  and  are  usually 
texts  from  the  Vedas  chanted  over  the  sick.  With 
the  New  Zealanders  they  are  called  karakias.  In 
ancient  Egypt,  according  to  Maspero,  the  gods  had 
to  obey  when  called  by  their  own  name.  At  Eleusis 
not  the  name  but  the  intonation  of  the  voice  of  the 
magician  produced  the  mysterious  results.  In  calling 
on  the  spirits  the  .shaman  imitates  the  various  sounds 
of  objects  in  nature  wherein  the  spirits  are  supposed 
to  reside,  e.  g.,  the  whispering  breeze,  the  whistling 
and  howling  storm,  the  growling  bear,  the  screeching 
owl.  (c)  Dances  and  contortions  with  use  of  rattle 
and  drum  and  a  distinctive  dress  decked  with  snakes, 
stripes  of  fur,  little  bells.  Among  the  Ojibwas  at  the 
sound  of  the  sacred  drum  every  one  rises  and  becomes 
inspired  because  the  Great  Spirit  is  then  present  in 
the  lodge.  The  frenzy  and  contortions  lead  to  an 
ecstatic  state  which  is  considered  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance. In  South  America  drugs  are  used  to  induce 
stupor.  The  spiritual  flight  in  search  of  information 
is  characteristic  of  the  Siberian  shaman;  it  is  rare  in 
America.  Vambery  cites  a  whole  series  of  shaman- 
istic  ceremonies,  e.  g.,  tambourines  and  fire-dances, 


practised  by  the  ancient  sak-uyzur.  Shaman  incanta- 
tions are  found  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  the 
Medes  at  Suze.  Sacrifices,  gifts  of  beads  and  tobacco, 
and  a  few  drops  of  the  novice's  blood  form  part  of 
these  rites  with  the  American  Indians,  (d)  Posses- 
sion; thus  in  Korea  the  pan-su  is  supposed  to  have 
power  over  the  spirits,  because  he  is  possessed  by  a 
more  powerful  demon  whose  strength  he  is  able  to 
wield.    This  is  also  the  behef  of  the  Yakuts. 

(3)  Shamanism  is  closely  akin  to  Fetishism,  and  at 
times  it  is  difficult  to  tell  whether  the  practices  in 
vogue  among  certain  peoples  should  be  referred  to  the 
one  or  to  the  other.  Both  spring  from  Animism ;  both 
are  systems  of  savage  magic  or  science  and  have  cer- 
tain rites  in  common.  Yet  the  differences  consist  in 
the  behef  that  in  Fetishism  the  magic  power  resides 
in  the  instrument  or  in  particular  substances  and 
passes  into  or  acts  upon  the  object,  whereas  in 
Shamanism  the  will-effort  of  the  magician  is  the 
efficient  factor  in  compelling  souls  or  spirits  or  gods 
to  do  his  will  or  in  preventing  them  from  doing  their 
own.  Hence  in  Fetishism  the  emphasis  is  laid  on  the 
thing,  altlioujili  fasting  and  incantations  may  be  em- 
ployed in  making  the  fetish;  in  Shamanism  the  prime 
factor  is  the  will  or  personality  of  the  magician,  al- 
though he  may  employ  the  like  means.  Therefore 
we  cannot  admit  the  statement  of  Peschel  who  refers 
to  Shamanism  everything  connected  with  magic  and 
ritual. 

Criticism. — (a)  The  reasons  which  prove  Anim- 
ism to  be  false  destroy  the  basis  on  which  Shamanism 
rests,  (b)  Shamanism  takes  for  granted  the  theory 
that  fear  is  the  origin  of  religion.  De  La  Saussaye  holds 
that  the  concept  of  God  cannot  arise  exclusively  from 
fear  producied  by  certain  biological  phenomena.  Rob- 
ertson Smith  teaches  that  from  the  earliest  times, 
religion,  distinct  from  magic  and  secrecy,  addresses 
itself  to  kindred  and  friendly  beings,  and  that  it 
is  not  with  a  vague  fear  of  unknown  powers  but  with 
a  loving  reverence  for  known  Gods  that  religion  in  the 
true  sense  of  the  word  began  (Rehgion  of  the  Semites, 
2nd  ed.,  p.  54).  Tiele  says  "worship  even  in  its  most 
primitive  form  always  contains  an  element  of  venera- 
tion" and  calls  sorcery  "a  disease  of  religion"  (Science 
of  Religion,  II,  136,  141).  (c)  Shamanism  is  not  a 
rehgion.  The  religious  priest  beseeches  the  favour  of 
the  gods;  the  shaman  is  believed  to  be  able  to  com- 
pel and  command  them  to  do  his  will.  Hence  de  La 
Saussaye  regards  Shamanism  not  as  a  name  for  a 
principal  form  of  rehgion  but  for  important  phe- 
nomena and  tendencies  of  Animism. 

D'Harlez,  La  religion  nationale  des  Tartares  orientaux  in 
Academie  royale  des  sciences,  des  lettres  et  des  beaux-arts  de  Bel- 
gique,  XL  (1887);  Ache  lis,  Abrissder  vergleichenden  Religionswis- 
senschaft  (Leipzig,  1904) ;  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture  (3rd  Amer. 
ed.,  New  York,  1889);  Frazer,  Golden  Bough  (London,  1900); 
Jesuit  Relations,  ed.  Thwaites  (Cleveland,  1896-1901);  Muller, 
Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Mythology  (London,  1897) ;  Lang, 
Myth  Ritual  and  Religion  (London,  1887) ;  Abercromby,  Pre- 
and  Proto-historic  Finns  (London,  1898);  Keane,  The  World's 
Peoples  (New  York,  1908);  Furlong,  The  Faiths  of  Man  (Lon- 
don, 1900) ;  SiEROSZEWSKi  in  Revue  de  I'hist.  des  religions,  XLVI; 
VAN  Gennep  in  Revue  de  I'hist.  des  religions,  XLVII;  Stadling 
in  Contemporary  Review  (Jan.  1901);  Dixon  in  Journal  of 
American  Folklore  (Jan.,  1908);  American  Anthropologist,  I,  IV. 

John  T.  Driscoll. 

Shammai  (cedled ha-Zekan,  "the  Elder  "),  a  famous 
Jewish  scribe  who  together  with  Hillel  made  up  the 
last  of  "the  pairs"  (z-Hgoth),  or,  as  they  are  sometimes 
erroneously  named,  "presidents  and  vice-presidents" 
of  the  Sanhedrim.  The  schools  of  Shammai  and 
Hillel  held  rival  sway,  according  to  Talmudic  tradi- 
tion (Shabbath  15a),  from  about  a  hundred  years 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (a.  d.  70).  Com- 
paratively little  is  known  about  either  of  the  great 
S(;ribes.  The  Mischna,  the  only  trustworthy  au- 
thority in  this  matter,  mentions  Shammai  in  only 
eight  passages  (Maaser  sheni,  II,  4,  9;  Orla,  II,  5; 
Eduyoth  I,  1-4,  10,  II;  Aboth,  I,  12,  15,  V,  17; 
Kelim,  XXII,  4j  Nidda,  I,  1).     He  was  the  very  op- 


SHANAHAN 


752 


SHAN-TUNG 


posite  of  Hillel  in  character  and  teaching.  Stern 
and  severe  in  living  the  law  to  the  letter,  he  was  strict 
to  an  extreme  in  legal  interpretation.  The  tale  tells 
that,  on  the  feast  of  the  Tabernacles,  his  daughter-in- 
law  gave  birth  to  a  child;  straightway  Shammai  had 
the  roof  broken  through  and  the  bed  covered  over 
with  boughs,  so  that  the  child  might  celebrate  the 
feast  in  an  improvised  sukka  (tent  or  booth)  and 
might  not  fail  of  keeping  the  law  of  Leviticus  (xxiii,  42). 
The  strictness  of  the  master  characterises  the  school 
of  Shammai  as  opposed  to  tiiat  of  Hillel.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  two  schools  had  regard  chiefly 
to  the  interpretation  of  the  first,  second,  third  and 
fifth  parts  of  the  "Mishna" — i.  e.  to  reUgious  dues, 
the  keeping  of  the  Sabbath  and  of  holy  days,  the  laws 
in  regard  to  marriage  and  purification.  The  law, 
for  example,  to  prepare  no  food  on  the  Sabbath  had  to 
be  observed  by  not  allowing  even  the  beast  to  toil; 
hence  it  was  argued  that  an  egg  laid  on  the  Sabbath 
might  not  be  eaten  (Eduyoth,  iv,  1).  Another  de- 
bate was  whether,  on  a  holy  day,  a  ladder  might  be 
borne  from  one  dove-cote  to  another  or  should  only 
be  ghded  from  hole  to  hole.  The  need  of  fringes  to  a 
Unen  night-dress  was  likewise  made  a  matter  of  dif- 
ference between  the  two  schools  (Eduyoth,  iv,  10). 
In  these  and  many  other  discussions  we  find  much 
straining  out  of  gnats  and  swallowing  of  camels 
(Matt.,  xxiii,  24),  much  pain  taken  to  push  the  Mosaic 
law  to  an  unbearable  extreme,  and  no  heed  given 
to  the  practical  reform  which  was  really  needed  in 
Jewish  morals.  It  was  the  method  of  the  school 
of  Shammai  rather  than  that  of  Hillel  which  Christ 
condemned.  On  this  account  non-Catholic  scholars 
generally  make  Him  out  to  have  belonged  to  the 
school  oi  Hillel.  This  opinion  has  been  shared  in  by 
a  few  Catholics  (Gigot,  "General  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  the  Holy  Scripture",  New  York,  1900, 
p.  422).  Most  Catholic  exegetes,  however,  refuse  to 
admit  that  Christ  belonged  to  any  of  the  fallible 
Jewish  schools  of  interpretation.  He  established 
His  own  school — to  wit,  the  infaUible  teaching  body 
to  which  He  gave  the  Old  Testament  to  have  amd  to 
keep  and  to  interpret  to  all  nations  without  error. 

ScHURER,  The  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ,  I  (Ed- 
inburgh, 1885),  361;  Gratz,  Geschichte  der  Juden,  III  (3rd  ed., 
Berlin,  1875),  671  (tr.  Pliiladelphia.  1873). 

Walter  Drum 
Shanahan,  JohnW.  SeeHARRisBURG,  Diocese  of. 

Shan-si,  Vicariate  Apcstolic  of  Northern. — 
The  Faith  was  carried  for  the  first  time  into  the 
Province  of  Shan-si,  Northern  China,  by  the  Jesuit 
and  Franciscan  Fathers  during  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. At  first  the  province  was  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  bishops  of  Peking;  in  1698  it  was 
erected,  with  the  Province  of  Shen-si,  a  vicariate 
Apostolic  by  Innocent  XII.  From  1762  to  1838  the 
two  Provinces  of  Hu-pe  and  Hu-nan  were  added  to 
the  same  vicariate.  On  17  June,  1890,  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  Shan-si  was  divided  into  two  mis- 
sions: Northern  and  Southern  Shan-si.  In  1900  the 
notorious  Yu-Hion  ordered  a  wholesale  massacre  of 
mLs.sionaries,  both  Catholic  and  Prot(!stant,  at  T'ai- 
yuan-fu.  Gregorio  Grassi,  vicar  Apostolic,  his  coad- 
jutor Franci-sco  Fogolla,  Fathers  Facchini,  Saccani, 
Theodoric  Balat,  Egide,  Brother  Andrew  Baur,  seven 
Franciscan  Sisters  of  Mary,  several  native  priests, 
and  many  Christians  were  massacred.  The  vica- 
riate Apostolic  has  6,000,000  inhabitants.  The  mis- 
sion is  entrusted  to  the  Franciscan  Fathers.  The 
present  vicar  Apostolic  is  the  Right  Rev.  Eugene 
Maasi,  who  resides  at  T'ai-yuan. 

In  1904  the  Catholic  community  numbered  :  11 
Eurojwan  Franciscan  Fathers;  14  nativ*;  priests;  14,- 
700  Catholics;  2.500  catechumens.  In  1910  there 
were:  1.5  European  Franciscan  Fathers;  16  native 
priests;  24  churches;  1.54  chapels;  269  stations;  2 
Beminaries,  with  33  students;  150  schools  for  boys,  with 


900  pupils;  20  schools  for  girls,  with  200  pupils;  1 
asylum  for  old  men,  with  118  inmates;  6  orphanages, 
with  609  inmates;  10  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Mary; 
18,200  Cathohcs;  7302  catechumens. 

Missioncs  Catholiccc  (Rome,  1907).     V.   H.    MONTANAR. 

Shan-si,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Southern, 
erected  in  1890;  there  are  about  6,000,000  inhabi- 
tants; the  mission  is  entrusted  to  the  Franciscan 
Fathers.  The  present  vicar  Apostolic  is  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Mgr.OdericTimmer,  titular  Bishop  of  Drusipare,  born 
IS  October,  1859,  consecrated  20  July,  1901.  He 
resides  at  Lu-an-fu.  In  1903  the  mission  numbered: 
21  European  Franciscan  Fathers;  5  native  priests; 
10,300  Catholics;  9,200  catechumens;  94  churches  and 
chapels.  In  1910  there  were:  24  European  Francis- 
can Fathers;  6  native  priests;  15,003  Catholics; 
9,230  catechumens;    183  churches  and  chapels 

Missiones  Catholicm  (Rome,  1907).    V.    H.    MoNTANAR. 

Shan-tung,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Eastern. 
— This  mission  was  separated  in  1894  from  Northern 
Shan-Tung  and  erected  into  a  vicariate  Apostolic.  It 
includes  the  three  civil  Prefectures  of  Yen-Chu-Fu, 
Lai-Chu-Fu,  and  Teng-Chu-Fu.  There  are  about 
10,000,000  inhabitants.  The  chmate  is  very  healthy. 
On  Nov.,  1897,  two  German  missionaries.  Fathers 
Francis  Xavier  Nies  and  Richard  Henle,  were  at- 
tacked and  massacred  in  the  village  of  Chang-Kia- 
Chwang.  This  double  murder  led  to  the  occupation 
of  Kiao-Chau  on  14  Nov.,  1897,  by  the  German  fleet. 
In  1899  the  territory  occupied  by  the  German  Gov- 
ernment was  separated  from  Eastern  Shan-Tung 
and  confided  to  the  mission  of  Southern  Shan-Tung. 
The  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Eastern  Shan-Tung  is  en- 
trusted to  the  Franciscan  Fathers.  The  actual  vicar 
Apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Caesarius  Schang,  titular 
Bishop  of  Vaga,  b.  3  July,  1835,  appointed  22  May, 
1894.  He  resides  at  Che-Fu.  In  1904  the  mission 
had:  16  European  Franciscan  Fathers;  3  native  priests; 
9400  Catholics;  10, .500 catechumens;  and  145  churches 
and  chapels.  In  1909  there  were:  17  European  Fran- 
ciscan Fathers;  2  European  secular  priests;  3  na- 
tive priests;  9900  Catholics;  11,700  catechumens;  13 
churches;  138  chapels;  350  stations;  1  seminary  with  5 
students;  1  preparatory  seminary,  with  27  students;  30 
schools  for  boys,  with  622  pupils;  24  schools  for  girls, 
with  435  pupils;  2  colleges  for  boys,  with  140  students; 
1  college  for  girls,  with  25  students;  2  industrial 
schools,  with  154  pupils;  3  hospitals;  3  orphanages, 
with  195  orphans;  30  sisters  of  the  Franciscan  Mis- 
sionaries of  Mary. 

Missiones  CatholiccE  (Rome,  1907).    V.    H.    MoNTANAR. 

Shan-tung,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Northern, 
erect (>(1  by  Gregory  XVI  in  1839.  The  first  vi(;ar 
Apostolic  was  Louis  de  Besi,  formerly  Pro-Vicar  of 
Hu-pe  and  Hu-nan.  This  vicariate  Apostolic  had  to 
undergo  many  wars  and  persecutions.  In  1885  it  was 
divided  into  Northern  and  Southern  Shan-tung;  in 
1894,  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Eastern  Shan-tung 
was  erected.  The  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Northern 
Shan-tung  enjoys  a  salubrious  and  temperate  climate; 
it  numbers  11,000,000  inhabitants,  and  is  entrusted  to 
the  Franciscan  Fathers.  The  present  vicar  Apostolic 
is  the  lit.  Rev.  Mgr.  Ephrem  Giesen,  titular  Bishop  of 
Paltus,  born  16  October,  1868,  consecratcni  8  July, 
1902.  He  resides  at  Tsi-nan-fu.  In  1904  the  mis- 
sion numbered:  11  iMiropeaii  Fnincisciiii  I'litliers;  IS 
native  priests;  1S,()()()  Catliolics;  i:',,9(){)  (■.•ili-ciiumens; 
and  134  churches  and  chapels.  In  1910  there  were: 
29  European  Franciscan  Fathers;  19  native  priests; 
28,000  Catholics;  20,000  catechumens;  187  churches 
and  chapels. 

Missiones  Catholica:  (Rome,  1907).     V.    H.    MoNTANAR. 

Shan-tung,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Southern. 
— On  2  Jan.,  1882,  the  then  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Shan- 
tung,   Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  D.  Cosi,  elected  as  pro-vicar 


SHARPS 


753 


SHEA 


Apostolic  for  the  southern  part  of  his  vicariate 
Father  John  Baptist  Anzer,  a  member  of  the  Steyl 
Seminary.  Father  Anzer  with  another  missionary  of 
the  same  seminary  went  to  this  part  of  the  mission, 
where  the  Cathohc  reUgion  had  been  scarcely  preached 
before.  Later,  other  missionaries  of  the  same  society 
came,  and  in  1886  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  South- 
ern Shan-tung  was  erected.  In  1898  Ihe  four  civil 
districts  of  Kiao-Chau,  Tsi-Me,  Kau-Mi,  and  Chu- 
chong,  belonging  to  the  German  Government,  were 
added.  The  climate  is  temperate,  and  there  are 
12,000,000  inhabitants.  The  mi.ssion  is  entrusted 
to  the  priests  of  the  Divine  W®rd  of  Steyl.  The  ac- 
tual vicar  Apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Augustine  Hen- 
ninghaus,  titular  Bishop  of  Hypa>pa,  appointed  7 
Aug.,  1904.  He  resides  at  Yen-Chu-Fu.  In  1904 
the  missionhad :  37  European  priests;  11  native  priests; 
26,300  Catholics;  40,400  catechumens;  and  130 
churches  and  chapels.  In  1908  there  were:  46  Euro- 
pean priests;  12  native  priests;  35,301  Catholics; 
39,838  catechumens;  131  churches  and  chapels;  1 
seminary,  with  6  students;  1  preparatory  seminary, 
with  50  students;  8  Chino-German  schools,  with  323 
students;  107  schools  for  catechumens,  with  1384  stu- 
dents; 2  schools  for  catechists,  with  194  students;  33 
Chinese  schools,  with  350  pupils;  1  college  for  Euro- 
pean girls,  with  51  students;  2  asylums  for  old  men, 
with  68  inmates;  1  hospital;  6  orphanages,  with  428 
orphans;  3  Marianist  Brothers;  12  sisters  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan Missionaries  of  Mary;  6  Servants  of  the  Holy 
Ghost. 

Missiones  CatholiccB  (Rome,  1907).    V.   H.   MONTANAR. 

Sharpe,  James  (alias  Pollard),  b.  at  York,  1577; 
d.  at  Lincoln,  1630.  Converted  when  young,  he 
made  his  priestly  studies  at  the  English  College, 
Valladolid,  was  ordained  in  1604,  and  returned  to 
England  in  160().  Here  a  singular  trial  awaited  him. 
Believing  that  he  might  assist  his  parents  to  the  Faith, 
he  visited  them  at  Evcriiigham,  but  was  insidiously 
kept  a  prisoner  at  home,  and  subjected  to  every  pos- 
sible pressure  to  induce  him  to  renounce  the  Faith. 
Disputations  and  entreaties  alternated  with  threats, 
the  use  of  violence,  and  constant  surveillance.  While 
his  mother  conjured  him  on  her  knees  to  yield,  his 
father  begged  the  authorities  rather  to  keep  him  close 
in  England,  than  to  let  him  go  into  exile.  But  the 
"Annals"  of  his  College  attest  that  Sharpe  was  a 
man  "  of  great  courage  and  learning  " .  His  constancy 
prevailed.  He  was  eventually  taken  to  the  arch- 
bishop's prison,  then  deported.  Having  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  (1608),  he  became  professor  of 
Scripture  at  Louvain  for  three  years,  after  which  he 
returned,  and  worked  on  the  English  mission  until 
his  death.  He  WTote  "The  Trial  of  Protestant 
Private  Spirit"   (s.  1.,   1630). 

Foley,  Records,  II  (1884),  618;  Blackfan,  Annates  collegii 
S.  Albani  Vallesoleti  (London,  1898);  More,  Hist.  prov.  angli- 
cancB  S.J.    (St.  Omers,  1660);     Gillow,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath., 

8-  V.  J.  H.  Pollen. 

Shea,  John  Dawson  Gilmary,  historian,  b.  in 
New  York,  22  July,  1824;  d.  at  Elizabeth,  New 
Jersey,  22  Feb.,  1892.  The  name  Gilmary  (Servant 
of  Mary)  was  assumed  at  a  late  period  of  his  life. 
Young  Shea  was  a  pupil  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity, 
and  a  graduate  of  the  Columbia  College  grammar 
school,  of  which  his  father  was  principal.  At  an  early 
age  he  became  a  clerk  in  a  Spanish  merchant's  office, 
where  he  learned  to  read  and  write  Spanish  fluently. 
When  only  fourteen  he  contributed  an  article  on 
the  soldier-cardinal  Albornoz  to  the  "Young  Peo- 
ple's Catholic  Magazine"  (1838).  Subsequently 
he  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1846.  In  the  following  year  he  entered  the  novi- 
tiate of  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Fordham,  New 
York,  and  remained  a  member  of  the  order  until  1852. 
As  a  Jesuit  he  was  associated  with  the  scholarly 
XIII.— 48 


.John  Gilmary  ."^hea 


Father  Martin,  S.J.,  Rector  of  St.  Mary's  College, 
Montreal,  under  whose  inspiration  was  developed  his 
natural  taste  for  literary  and  historical  studies. 
In  1852  he  left  the  Society,  and  presently  began  a 
systematic  study  of  the  early  Indian  missions  in 
America.  The  re- 
sults of  his  re- 
searches soon  ap- 
peared in  the  pages 
of  the  "United 
States  Catholic; 
Magazine",  pub- 
lished in  Baltimore. 
Shea's  first  note- 
worthy publication 
was  the  "Discov- 
ery and  Explora- 
tion of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  with 
the  original  narra- 
tives of  Marquette, 
Allouez,  Membre, 
Hennepin,  and 
Anastase  Douay" 
(1852).  The  "West- 
minster Review" 
described  it  as  "a 

most  valuable  and  interesting  volume"  (July, 
1853),  and  the  London  "Athenaeum"  (1853,  p.  132) 
also  spoke  highly  of  it.  In  1854  he  published 
the  "History  of  the  Catholic  Missions  among  the 
Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States,  1529-1854",  a 
work  of  much  labour  and  research.  In  the  "Cra- 
moi.sy  Series"  of  twenty-six  small  volumes,  he  in- 
itiated in  1857  the  republication  of  rare  and  valu- 
able pamphlets  touching  upon  the  voyages  of  early 
explorers  to  America.  In  1859  followed  "A  Biblio- 
graphical Account  of  Catholic  Bibles,  Testaments  and 
Other  Portions  of  Scripture",  translated  and  pub- 
li.shed  in  the  United  States;  he  also  edited  an  edition 
of  Challoner's  Bible.  In  1860  appeared  the  first  issue 
of  his  "Library  of  American  Linguistics",  a  series  of 
fifteen  volumes  of  grammars  and  dictionaries  of 
Indian  languages.  Besides  "The  Life  of  Pius  IX" 
(1877),  "The  Catholic  Churches  of  New  York  City" 
(1878),  "The  Hierarchy  of  the  Cathohc  Church  in 
the  United  States"  (1886),  Shea  compiled  many  school 
histories  and  text-books;  he  also  published  numerous 
translations  and  adaptations,  and  contributed  histor- 
ical articles  to  Justin  Winsor's  "History  of  America", 
the  "Catholic  World",  and  the  "U.  S.  Catholic 
Historical  Magazine",  of  which  he  was  the  founder 
and  first  editor.  He  also  edited  for  a  number  of  years 
Sadlier's  "Cathohc  Directory  and  Almanac".  The 
articles  on  the  Indians  in  the  "Encyclopedia  Britan- 
nica"  and  the  "American  Encyclopedia"  are  all 
from  his  pen,  and  he  was  looked  upon  as  the  best 
informed  man  in  America  on  everything  pertaining 
to  the  aborigines.  The  notes,  biographical  sketches, 
and  bibliographical  accounts  of  works  upon  aboriginal 
history  scattered  throughout  his  various  publications 
will  be  very  serviceable  for  future  historians.  The 
preparation  of  the  "History  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  the  United  States"  (4  vols.,  1886-92)  extended  over 
many  years  and  entailed  immense  labour.  He  was 
practically  a  pioneer  in  this  field,  as  the  very  sources 
of  information  had  to  be  unearthed.  This  work 
will  stand  as  a  monument  to  his  untiring  industry. 
Most  of  his  time  was  meanwhile  claimed  by  his 
position  as  literary  editor  of  Frank  Leslie's  secular 
publications.  In  1888  he  became  editor  of  the 
"Catholic  News",  in  which  position  he  continued  up 
to  the  time  of  his  death.  St.  Francis  Xavier's  College, 
Fordham  University,  and  Georgetown  conferred  on 
him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  in  recognition  of  his  work 
as  a  Catholic  historian,  and  the  University  of  Notre- 
Dame  awarded  him  the  first  Lcstare  Medal  (1883). 


SHEA 


754 


SHEIL 


Valette  in  Cath.  World,  LV,  55;  Historical  Records  and 
Studies  (1899),  130;  Wolff  in  Am.  Cath.  Quart.,  XVII.  411; 
Catholic  News  (New  York,  Feb.,   1892). 

Edward  P.  Spillane. 

Shea,  Sir  AAreROSE.  b.  in  Newfoundland,  17  Sept., 
1815;  d.  in  London,  30  July,  1905.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-two  he  embarked  successfully  in  journalism 
for  a  period  of  eight  years,  and  thereafter  devoted 
"In    1848    he    was 


himself 


mercantile    pursuits. 


elected  to  the 
House  of  Assem- 
bly of  Newfound- 
land and,  with 
the  exception  of  a 
short  period  in 
1869,  he  was  con- 
tinuously a  mem- 
ber until  1886. 
In  1855,  and 
again  in  1860,  he 
was  chosen  its 
speaker.  He 
successfully  ne- 
gotiated the 
admission  of  New- 
foundland into 
reciprocity  treaty 
arrangements  in 
1855;  was  an 
unofficial  member 
SiK  Ambrose  Shea,  K.C.M.G.  of    the    executive 

From  a  photograph  government 

1864-69;  and  went  as  delegate  from  Nevi^ound- 
land  to  the  Quebec  conference  on  confederation  in 
1864.  In  1883  he  was  appointed  commissioner  for 
Ne^\■foundland  to  the  International  Fisheries  Ex- 
hibition in  London,  and  hereafter  he  was  sent  to 
Washington,  where  he  succes.sfully  brought  the  State 
department  into  harmony  with  Canada  for  the  ex- 
tension of  the  Washington  Treaty,  1885.  For  dis- 
tinguished services  rendered,  he  was  honoured  with 
the  Knight  Cormnandership  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George  in  1883.  In  1887  he  was 
appointed  Governor  of  the  Bahama  Islands,  and  in 
that  position  achieved  signal  success  in  breathing 
new  life  and  activity  into  a  commercially  stagnant 
colony.  He  initiated  the  sisal  fibre  industry,  organ- 
ized a  public  bank,  laid  the  Bahamas-Florida  cable, 
and  fostered  commercial  enterprise  in  every  depart- 
ment of  the  colony's  industries,  and  by  his  prudent 
and  progressive  administration  built  up  a  lasting 
reputation  as  a  most  energetic  governor.  After  his 
retirement  in  1895  from  the  governorship  to  private 
life,  he  lived  the  last  years  of  his  active  and  successful 
career  in  London.  In  life  religion  was  to  Sir  Ambrose 
a  fact  as  real  as  were  his  duties  in  the  various  posi- 
tions of  responsibility  held  by  him,  and  his  fine  char- 
acter was  strengthened  and  balanced  by  an  ever- 
present  consciousness  of  deep  religious  responsibility. 
Chrysostom  Schreineh. 

Sheba  ('Seba;.    See  Saba  and  Sabeans. 

Shechem.    See  Sichem. 

Sheehan,  Richard  A.    See  Waterford,  Diocese 

OF. 

Shell,  Richard  Lalor,  dramatist,  prose  writer, 
and  rxjlitician,  b.  at  Drumdowny,  County  Kilkenny, 
Ireland,  17  Augiist,  1791;  d.  at  Florence,  Italy,  25 
May,  1S51.  His  father,  Edward  Shell,  who  had  been 
a  successful  merchant  at  Cadiz,  S[)ain,  n'turned  to  Ire- 
land and  purchaw'd  the  estate  of  Bellevue,  near  the 
city  of  Waterford.  Richard  received  his  early  educa- 
tion at  home  from  a  French  priest,  an  emigre.  When 
eleven  years  old  he  was  fM;nt  to  a  Catholic  schm^l  kept 
by  a  French  nobleman,  at  Kensington,  London,  and  a 
few  years  later  to  the  Jesuit  College  at  Stonyhurst,. 


in  Lancashire.  In  1807  he  entered  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  "with  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  classics, 
some  acquaintance  with  Italian  and  Spanish,  and  the 
power  of  reading  and  writing  French  ;is  if  it  were  his 
mother  tongue".  Graduating  in  1811,  he  went  to 
London  to  study  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  Irish 
Bar  in  1814.  Meantime,  pecuniary-  reverses  had  over- 
taken his  family,  and  he  could  not  look  to  his  father 
for  support.  Having  a  literary  bent,  he  turned  to 
dramatic  composition  and  produced  a  number  of 
plays  some  of  which  were  quite  successful,  the  most 
popular  being  "Adelaide",  "The  Apostate",  and 
"Evadne".  Financially  they  were  ver\'  successful. 
His  chief  fame,  however,  as  a  literary  man  came 
through  his  "Sketches  of  the  Irish  Bar" — a  series  of 
articles  contributed  to  the  "New  Monthly  Maga- 
zine", which  were  published  in  two  volumes  after  his 
death.  They  give  considerable  information  of  the 
leading  men  and  events  of  the  times. 

Early  in  life,  even  while  at  college,  he  had  become 
interested  in  politics.  The  Catholic  Board,  the  leaders 
of  public  opinion  in  Ireland,  were  divided  as  to  the  best 
policy  to  be  pursued  in  the  struggle  for  Catholic 
Emancipation.  Shell  sided  wath  those  who  were  in 
favour  of  conciliating  Protestant  opinion,  especially  in 
granting  the  king  a  veto  power  over  the  appointment 
of  the  Catholic  bishops.  But  O'Connell,  wearied  of 
the  old  method  of  petitioning  and  salaaming  which 
had  degraded  CathoUcs  in  their  own  esteem  and  had 
procured  from  their  rulers  nothing  but  contempt, 
favoured  more  active  measures.  O'Conncll's  method 
prevailed,  and  Sheil  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  it. 
After  a  few  years,  however,  convinced  that  nothing 
short  of  strenuous  agitation  would  succeed,  he  joined 
heartily  with  O'Connell  in  all  his  plans  for  Catholic 
Emancipation,  demanding  it  not  as  a  favour  but  as  a 
right.  In  the  Catholic  Association,  which  succeeded 
the  Catholic  Board  in  1823,  Sheil  was  next  to  O'Con- 
nell the  leading  power.  At  the  request  of  this  organi- 
zation he  drew  up  a  petition  to  Parliament  setting 
forth  the  manifold  abuses  of  justice  in  Ireland.  Early 
in  1825  he  went  with  several  others  to  London  to  pro- 
test against  the  contemplated  act  of  the  English  Gov- 
ernment of  suppressing  the  Catholic  Association  which 
had  enrolled  almost  all  Ireland  in  its  effective  plan 
of  campaign.  In 
1826  he  contrib- 
uted to"L'Etoile", 
a  French  period- 
ical, a  number  of 
articles  on  the 
condition  of  Ire- 
land. Written  in 
French  and  un- 
signed, they  were 
translated  and 
published  in  lead- 
ing periodicals  in 
England  and  on 
the  Continent ,  and 
accomplished  their 
purpose — to  gain 
a  hearing  for  Ire- 
land. 

That  Sheil  was 
fearless  and  had 
the  courage  of  his 
convictions  was 
manifestcfl  on  many  occasions,  especially  by  his 
scathing  denunciation  of  the  Duke  of  York,  by 
his  public  address  on  the  Irish  patriot  Theobald 
Wolfe  Tone,  and  by  his  boldly  coming  Ix-fore  the 
people  of  Kent,  E^ngland,  who  had  !i,sseiMb!<-d  at  Pe- 
nenden  Heath  to  protest  against  any  relaxat  ion  of  the 
laws  against  Catholics.  Though  his  re(|uest  for  a 
hearing  on  behalf  of  Catholic  Ireland  was  not  granted, 
his  speech,  which  was  already  in  press,  appeared  in  a 


Fror 


HicHAKD  Lalor  Sheil 

a  drawing  by  Cattcrson  Smith 


SHELDON 


755 


SHEN-SI 


London  newspaper  as  a  part  of  the  proceedings.  Of 
this  speech  Jeremy  Bentham,  the  philosopher,  said: 
"So  masterly  a  union  of  logic  and  of  rhetoric  scarcely 
have  I  ever  beheld".  In  the  historic  Clare  election  of 
1828  Sheil  took  a  leading  part.  Under  his  influence 
the  Catholic  Association  resolved  to  oppose  the  re-elec- 
tion of  Mr.  Vesey  Fitzgerald  because  he  had  taken 
office  in  the  anti-Catholic  Government  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington.  Finding  no  Protestant  candidate  to 
make  the  fight,  Sheil  conceived  the  bold  project  of 
having  O'Connell,  "the  uncrowned  king  of  Ireland", 
enter  the  contest,  though  he  knew  well  that  no 
Catholic  would  consent  to  take  the  anti-Catholic 
test  oath  required  of  members  of  Parhament.  But 
he  knew  also  that  an  election  meant  the  demand 
of  6,000,000  united  Irish  Catholics  for  justice — a  de- 
mand which  even  an  anti-Catholic  Parliament  and  an 
anti-Cathohc  king  would  probably  grant  for  fear  of 
a  general  uprising.  At  the  close  of  the  polling  when 
the  returns  showed  the  triumphant  election  of  the 
Liberator,  Shell  in  a  remarkable  address  to  the  land- 
lords assembled  pointed  out  the  folly  and  injustice  of 
wreaking  vengeance  on  their  tenants. 

The  Clare  election  brought  on  the  Cathohc  Relief 
Bill  of  1829  and  opened  to  Shell  a  career  in  Parliament 
where  for  eighteen  years  he  served  with  distinction, 
first  for  Melbourne  Port,  then  for  Tipperary,  and 
later  for  Dungarvan.  His  most  important  speeches 
in  the  House  of  Commons  were  on  "The  Church  of 
Ireland",  "Repeal  of  the  Union",  "Orange  Lodges", 
"Corn  Laws",  "Votes  by  Ballot",  and  "Income 
Tax".  In  spite  of  a  harsh  voice  and  other  natural 
defects,  he  became  a  leading  orator  in  a  Parliament 
noted  for  its  eloquence.  This  is  the  testimony  of  two 
experts  of  such  different  schools  as  Mr.  Gladstone  and 
Mr.  Disraeli.  His  speeches  were  always  well  pre- 
pared. He  was  very  resourceful  in  the  use  of  meta- 
phor and  antithesis  and  also  in  working  out  an  idea  to 
carry  great  weight,  as  in  his  famous  reply  to  Lord 
Lyndhurst's  accusation  that  the  Irish  were  "aliens  in 
blood,  and  aliens  in  religion".  After  some  hesitation, 
he  joined  his  old  friends  in  demanding  the  restoration 
of  the  Irish  Parliament,  but  the  crushing  defeat  of  the 
measure  in  1834  caused  him  to  look  upon  the  agitation 
for  repeal  as  a  "splendid  but  unattainable  fancy". 
From  this  time  on,  he  cast  his  lot  with  the  Whig 
party,  and  accepted  office  under  the  Government.  For 
this  he  has  been  severely  condemned  as  a  mere  office- 
seeker  who  thought  more  of  his  own  interests  than  of 
his  native  land.  Yet  he  acted  as  counsel  for  John 
O'Connell,  son  of  the  Liberator,  in  the  famous  state 
trials  of  1844,  and  often  spoke  in  behalf  of  Ireland. 
But  evidently  holding  office  moderated  his  zeal  as  a 
critic  of  the  Government  except  when  the  Tories  were 
in  power.  In  November,  1850,  Shell  accepted  the 
post  of  British  plenipotentiary  at  the  Court  of  Tus- 
cany, Italy,  where  he  died  six  months  later.  His 
body  was  conveyed  to  Ireland  and  buried  at  Long  Or- 
chard, County  Tipperary. 

McCuLLAGH,  Memoirs  of  Richard  Lalor  Sheil  (London,  1855) 
Webb,  Compendium  of  Irish  Biography  (Dublin,  1878),  s.  v. 
McCarthy,  A  History  of  our  own  Times  (London,  1880) 
D'Alton,  History  of  Ireland  (London,  1910);  Dunlop  in  Diet. 
Nat.  Biog.,  b.  v.  M.   J.    FLAHERTY. 

Sheldon,  Edward,  translator,  b.  at  Beoley,  23 
April,  1.599;  d.  in  London,  27  March,  1687.  He  was 
the  third  son  of  Edward  Sheldon  of  Beoley,  Worces- 
tershire, and  Elizabeth  Markham  his  wife.  He  studied 
at  Oxford  and  afterward  at  Gray's  Inn,  London, 
completing  his  education  by  a  foreign  tour.  Having 
married  Mary  (or  Margaret)  Wake,  daughter  of 
Lionel  Wake  of  Pedington,  Northamptonshire,  by 
whom  he  had  nine  sons  and  four  daughters,  he  led 
a  quiet  life  on  his  estate  at  Stratton,  Gloucestershire. 
In  1641,  being  molested  because  of  his  religion,  he 
removed  to  London  where  he  lived  in  retirement  till 
his  death.     He  translated  four  works  from  the  French : 


"The  Holy  Life  of  M.  De  Renty"  (1658);  "The  Rule 
of  Catholic  Faith",  by  Dr.  Veron  (1660);  "The 
Counsels  of  Wisdom",  by  Nicholas  Fouquet,  Mar- 
quis of  Belle  Isle  (1680);  and  "Christian  Thoughts 
for  Every  Day  of  the  Month"  (1680). 

Foley,  Records  Eng.  Prov.  S.J.,  V  (Sheldon  Pedigree).  8.50; 
Wood.  Athenw  Oxonienses,  ed.  Bliss  (London,  181.3-1820); 
DoDD,  Church  History,  III  (Brussels  vere  Wolverhampton,  1737- 
1742);  GiLLOw,  Bibl.  Did.  Eng.  Cath.,s.  v.:  Cooper  in  Diet. 
Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v.  EdWIN   BuRTON. 

Shelley,  Edward,  Venerable.  See  Leigh,  Rich- 
ard, Venerable. 

Shelley,  Richard,  English  confessor;  d.  in 
Marshalsea  prison,  London,  probably  in  February 
or  March,  1585-6.  Third  son  of  John  Shelley  of 
Michelgrove,  Clapham,  Sussex,  he  was  for  some  time 
abroad  in  attendance  on  his  uncle  Sir  Richard  Shelley, 
Knight  of  St.  John,  the  last  Grand  Prior  of  England. 
He  was  given  permission  to  return  to  England  in  May, 
1583,  which  he  did  shortly  afterwards.  Two  ac- 
counts are  e.xtant  of  the  petition  he  presented  on 
behalf  of  his  persecuted  fellow-Catholics.  One  is  by 
Peter  Penkevel,  who  was  his  servant  in  the  Mar- 
shalsea at  the  time  of  his  death.  This  is  printed  by 
Father  Pollen.  Peter  Penkevel  says  he  came  to 
London  about  1584,  when  Mr.  Robert  Bellamy  and 
others  were  prisoners  in  the  Marshalsea:  but  Robert 
Bellamy  was  not  committed  there  till  30  January, 
1585-6.  So  Penkevel  must  be  wrong  in  his  dates,  and 
all  that  he  knows  about  the  petition,  which  was  pre- 
sented (as  he  says,  to  the  queen)  nearly  a  year  pre- 
viously, is  mere  hearsay.  Strj-pe  on  the  other  hand 
seems  to  have  seen  the  petition,  and  according  to 
him  it  was  presented  to  Parliament.  The  only 
result  was  that  Richard  Shelley  was  sent  to  the 
Marshalsea,  15  March,  1584-5.  There  he  remained 
till  his  death,  which  probably  took  place  in  February 
or  March,  1585-6.  He  was  certainly  alive  and  in  the 
Marshalsea  in  October,  1585.  He  was  sick  when 
Peter  Penkevel  came  to  him,  and  "shortly  after  died, 
a  constant  confessor  in  the  said  prison". 

This  Richard  Shelley  must  be  distinguished  from 
the  Richard  Shelley  of  Findon,  Sussex,  and  All  Can- 
nings, Wilts  (second  son  of  Edward  Shelley  of  Warm- 
inghurst,  Sussex,  and  brother  of  Ven.  Edward  Shel- 
ley the  martyr) ,  who  was  committed  to  the  Marshalsea 
for  his  religion,  13  August,  1580.  Mass  was  said  in 
his  chamber  there  by  the  priest  William  Hartley,  24 
August,  1582.  He  was  still  there  8  April,  1584,  but 
was  liberated  soon  after.  He  was  again  in  prison  in 
1592. 

Strype,  Annals,  III  (Oxford,  1824),''i,  432-4;  Berry,  Sussex 
Genealogies  (London,  1830),  62;  Pollen,  Acts  of  the  English 
Martyrs  (London,  1891),  283;  Calendar  State  Papers  Domestic 
(1581-90).  231.  276.  JoHN   B.    WaINEWRIGHT. 

Shem.     See  Sem. 

Shen-si,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Northern. — 
In  1640  the  Christian  religion  was  preached  for  the  first 
time  in  the  Province  of  Shen-si.  It  was,  by  turns, 
looked  upon  with  favour  and  disfavour  by  the  em- 
perors of  China.  The  Province  of  Shen-si  belonged 
to  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Shan-si  until  1841.  By 
a  Decree  of  3  February,  1841,  it  was  erected  as  a  sepa- 
rate vicariate  Apostolic.  It  kept  the  Province  of 
Kan-su  and  Ku-Ku-Nor  until  1878.  In  1887,  by  a 
Decree  of  6  July,  the  province  was  divided  in  two 
vicariates  Apostolic,  Northern  and  Southern  Shen-si. 
The  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Northern  Shen-si  includes 
the  five  Prefectures  of  Si-ngan,  Feng-tsiang,  Tung- 
chu,  Yen-ngan  and  Ye-lin.  The  climate  is  healthful, 
but  very  cold  in  winter.  There  are  about  7,000,000 
inhabitants. 

The  mission  is  entrusted  to  the  Franciscan  Fathers. 
The  present  vicar  Apostolic  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Maurice 
Gabriel,  consecrated  in  1908.  He  resides  at  Si-ngan. 
In  1903  the  missions  numbered :  10  European  Fran- 
ciscan Fathers;   21  native  priests;   23,600  Catholics; 


SHEN-SI 


756 


SHERBROOKE 


2,500  catechumens;  IGO  churches  and  chapels.  In 
1910  there  were:  18  European  Franciscan  Fathers; 
28  native  priests;  25,116  Catholics;  4,627  catechu- 
mens; 203  churches  and  chapels.  On  ISIay,  1911,  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Northern  Shen-si  was  divided 
in  two  missions.  Northern  and  Central  Shen-si. 

Missioned  Catholica:  (Rome,  1907).    Y.    J-J.    MoNTAN.\B. 

Shen-si,  \'ic.\ri.\te  Apostolic  of  Southern. — 
The  southern  part  of  Shen-si  was  entrusted  in  1885 
to  the  Seminary'  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  established 
at  Rome  by  Pius  IX,  1874.  In  1887  this  section  was 
erecteii  jus  a  vicariate  Apostolic  including  two  civil 
prefectures,  Han-chung  and  Singan.  The  climate  is 
damp  and  change4ible.  There  are  about  5,000,000 
inhabitants.  The  present  vicar  Apostolic  is  the  Right 
Rev.  Mgr.  Pio  Giuspjjpe  Passerini,  titular  Bi.shop  of 
Achantus  (b.  7  January,  1866;  consecrated  in  1895). 
He  resides  at  Tcheng-kow.  In  1885  the  mission 
numbered:  2  European  missionaries,  3  native  priests, 
32  churches,  2  chapels,  7700  Catholics,  100  cate- 
fhumens,  2  schools  for  boys,  4  schools  for  girls,  1 
seminary,  with  9  students.  In  1910  there  were:  16 
European  priests,  2  native  priests,  50  churches,  23 
chapels,  11,489  Catholics,  6305  catechumens,  19 
schools  for  boys,  17  schools  for  girls,  1  seminary,  with 
20  students,  1  orphanage  for  boys,  with  74  inmates, 
1  orphanage  for  girls,  with  350  inmates. 

Missioiics  CalhoHca  (Rome,  1907).    V.   H.    MONTANAR. 

Shepherd,  John,  musical  composer,  b.  about 
1512;  d.  about  1563;  one  of  the  great  English  musi- 
cians who  rank  with  Tallis,  Whyte,  Taverner,  Far- 
rant.  Edwards,  and  Byrd.  He  was  educated  at  St. 
Paul's  music-school  under  Thomas  Mulliner,  and  was 
appointed  organist  and  master  of  the  choristers  of 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  in  1542,  which  position 
he  held,  with  a  short  intermission,  till  1547.  His 
attention  was  not  wholly  given  to  music,  at  this  date, 
for  he  obtained  a  fellowship  in  Magdalen  College 
in  1549,  retaining  it  for  two  years.  On  21  April, 
1554,  he  petitioned — as  a  student  of  music  for  twenty 
years — the  University  of  O.xford  for  the  Degree  of 
Mus.D.,  and  he  was  one  of  Queen  Mary's  Chapel 
Royal  from  1553  to  1558.  Among  the  New  Year's 
gifts  to  Queen  Mary,  on  1  January,  1557,  there  is 
an  entry  in  the  Chapel  Royal  books  that  "Shepherd 
of  the  Chapel  gave  three  Rolls  of  Songs".  He  was 
certainly  alive  in  1562,  but  there  is  no  record  of  him 
after  that  date,  from  which  it  is  concluded  that  he 
died,  or  resigned,  in  1563.  There  exist  numerous 
compositions — printed  as  well  as  MSS. — testifying 
to  Shepherd's  undoubted  powers.  His  "Esurien- 
tes"  for  five  voices,  to  be  found  in  Burney's  "General 
History  of  Music",  is  a  fair  specimen  of  sincere 
and  straightforward  \vriting.  In  the  Briti.sh  Museum 
there  are  some  of  his  ma.sses  and  motets,  all  for  four 
voices,  while  The  Royal  College  of  Music,  London, 
has  four  of  his  Latin  motets.  The  Music  School, 
Oxford,  pos.sesses  much  of  his  church  music,  including 
a  delightful  Magnificat.  Hawkins  has  printed  two 
of  his  pieces,  and  Morley  names  him  among  the  dis- 
tinguished musicians  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

BuRNEY,  General  Hixlory  of  Munc  (Ixjndon,  1776-89);  MoR- 
LET,  Inlrod.  to  Prarticall  Municke  (London,  l.'>97);  Walker,  Hist, 
of  MuKic  in  Enfjlnwl  (Oxford,  1907);  Grove,  Did.  of  Music  and 
Mi^icians  (London,  1904-10).    W.    H.    GrATTAN-FlOOD. 

Shepherd's  Crusade.  See  Pastoureaux,  Cru- 
sade OK  THE. 

Sherborne  Abbey,  Dorsetshire,  England,  founded 

in  998.  Sherborne  (scir-burne,  clear  brook)  was  origi- 
nally the  episcopal  seat  of  the  Bishop  of  Western 
Wessex,  having  been  establish(!d  a-s  such  by  St. 
Aldhelm  (705).  The  Benedictine  Rule  was  intro- 
duce<i  by  Bi.shop  Wulfsy  III,  who  also  governed  the 
monast<;ry  an  abb(jt,  the  monks  forming  his  chapter. 
The  office  of  abljot  was,  however,  separatexl  from  that 
of  bishop  by  Roger  of  Caen  (1122),  when  the  see  was 


removed  to  Sarum,  and  the  abbey  church  ceased  to 
hold  cathedral  rank.  The  original  Saxon  Church 
of  St.  Aldhelm  having  become  too  small.  Bishop 
Roger  r(»placed  it  by  a  larger  Norman  one,  and  this 
was  subsequently  so  rebuilt  and  altered,  that  it  is 
now  almost  entirely  perpendicular  in  style.  A 
Lady-chapel  was  added  in  tlie  thirteenth  century, 
and  later  on  a  great  restoration  wa.s  commenced  by 
Abbot  John  Branyng  (1415-1436),  and  continued  by 
his  succes.sor  William  Bradford.  A  parish  ('hurch 
had  previously  been  erected  at  the  west  end  of  the 
abbey  nave,  but  there  were  continual  quarrels  be- 
tween the  parishioners  and  the  monks,  because  this 
Church  of  All-Hallows  had  not  the  proper  status 
of  a  parish  church,  and  remained  the  property  of 
the  monastery.  Their  dififerences  led  to  serious 
disturbances  which  were  eventually  settled  through 
the  intervention  of  the  bishop.  A  great  fire  occurred 
in  1437,  said  to  have  been  caused  by  a  parishioner, 
and  this  may  perhaps  have  necessitated  more  rebuilding 
than  had  been  originally  contemplated.  At  the  dis- 
solution of  the  monastery  (1536)  the  abbey  and  its 
lands  were  bought  liy  Sir  John  Horsey,  Knight, 
from  whom  the  jiarishioners  purcha.sed  the  abbey 
church  for  the  sum  of  £300,  and  since  two  churches 
were  not  now  needed,  that  of  All-Hallows,  about 
which  there  had  been  .so  much  contention,  was  forth- 
with demolished.  The  conventual  buildings,  chiefly 
of  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries, 
were  handed  over  to  the  school,  which  had  existed 
there  since  705,  and  which  in  15.50  was  refounded, 
receiving  a  new  charter  from  Edward  VI.  These 
buildings  have  been  added  to  from  time  to  time, 
and  Sherborne  School  now  ranks  amongst  the  lead- 
ing public  schools  of  England.  The  abbey  church 
remains  the  parish  church  of  the  town,  having  been 
judiciously  restored  in  recent  years.  Though  Nor- 
man in  plan,  its  perpendicular  work  is  unusually 
fine,  and  the  fan-vaulting  of  the  choir  absolutely 
unrivalled. 

Tanner.  Nolitia  Monastica  (London,  1794);  Dugdale,  Monas- 
ticon  Anqlicanum  {hondon,  1817-30);  Wildman,  Short  Hixtory 
of  Sherborne  (Sherborne,  1902). 

G.  Cyprian  Alston. 

Sherbrooke  (Sherbrookiensis),  Diocese  of,  in 
the  Province  of  Quebec,  suflfragan  of  the  Archdioce-se 
of  Montreal,  erected  by  Pius  IX,  28  Aug.,  1874,  formed 
of  parts  of  the  Dioceses  of  Three  Rivers,  St.  Hya- 
cinthe,  and  Quebec,  and  including  that  part  of  the 
Province  of  Quebec  known  as  the  Eastern  Town.ships, 
renowned  for  the  fertility  of  their  soil,  for  their  indus- 
try, and  commerce.  At  present  it  compri.ses  74  par- 
ishes. Tlie  first  missionaries  who  visited  the  territory 
now  within  the  limits  of  the  Diocese  of  SluTbrooke  were 
Rev.  Jean  Raymbault  (1816-23),  Jolui  Holmes  (1823- 
27),  Michael  Power  (1827-31),  Hugh  Paislev  (1831- 
32),  Hubert  Robson  (1832-34).  The  last  three  died, 
martyrs  of  their  zeal,  attending  the  fever-stricken 
Irish  in  1847.  From  1S34  till  1S74  a  great  many  mis- 
sion.aries  laboured  wit  h  iiidefat  igahle  zeal  at  t  fiuliiig  the 
Catholic  population,  which  was  thinly  scattered  over 
this  immense  tract  of  land.  Roads  in  many  places 
were  unknown,  and  the  missionaries  had  to  travel  on 
horseback  or  on  foot,  through  dense  forests  infested 
with  wolves,  bears,  and  other  savage  animals. 

Bishops  of  Sherbrooke. — (1)  Antoine  Racine,  b. 
at  St.  Ambrose,  Quebec,  26  Jan.,  1822;  ordained 
priest  at  Quebec,  12  Sept.,  1844;  elected  Bishop  of 
Sherbrooke,  1  Sept.,  1874;  consecrated  by  Cardinal 
Tas(;h(Tcau,  18  Oct.,  1874;  governed  the  See  of  Sher- 
brooke (luring  nineteen  years;  d.  17  July,  1893.  The 
following  extract  from  his  funeral  oration,  delivered 
by  Mgr.  Bernard  O'Reilly,  gives  us  an  idea  of  the  pre- 
cepts this  good  bishop  fulfilled  in  his  (career:  "Yes, 
I  must  be  a  bishop  without  stain  or  blemish  in  mv 
whol(^  life;  a  man  adorned  with  every  virtue,  and  with 
all  tlie  graces  of  wisdom;   a  man  modest,  affable  and 


SHERIDAN 


757 


SHERWOOD 


of  the  most  perfect  moderation  in  his  lofty  dignity; 
a  man  who  is  an  enemy  to  contestation  and  trouble, 
an  angel  of  peace  and  conciliation;  a  man  who  is  a 
stranger  to  self-interest  and  generous  toward  the 
Church  and  the  poor;  a  man  full  of  the  knowledge  of 
Holy  Writ,  of  the  unction  of  the  Divine  Word  in  all 
his  pastoral  teaching;  a  man  solely  intent  on  sanc- 
tifying his  people,  on  rearing  a  clergy  of  model  priests 
by  giving  thetn  in  his  own  person  the  example  of  the 
most  edifying  zeal  and  of  a  shining  piety". 

(2)  Paul  S.  La  Rocque,  b.  at  Sainte  Marie  de  Mon- 
noir,  28  Oct.,  1846;  ordained  priest,  9  May,  1869; 
elected  Bishop  of  Sherbrooke,  6  Oct.,  1893;  conse- 
crated on  the  30  Nov.  of  the  same  year.  Bishop 
La  Rocque  has  continued  the  good  work  undertaken 
by  his  predecessor,  and  Sherbrooke  is  progressing 
wonderfully. 

Statistics. — When  the  diocese  was  erected,  in 
1874,  there  were  but  28  secular  priests  and  26  parishes 
with  resident  priests;  to-day  there  are  122  secular 
priests,  74  parishes,  and  8  missions.  The  Catholic 
population  in  1874  numbered  29,000;  now  it  is  8.5,000. 
In  1874  there  were  only  130  schools  with  an  attend- 
ance of  4000  pupils;  now  there  are  369  schools,  1 
college,  1  seminary,  12  academies,  and  9  boarding- 
schools,  with  an  attendance  of  16,000  pupils.  The 
Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  have  10  schools  in  the 
diocese.  In  all  the  principal  towns  there  are  convents 
wherein  young  girls  get  an  excellent  training.  The 
different  orders  of  nuns  who  have  hou.ses  in  the 
diocese  are  :  Congregation  de  Notre  Dame,  Soeurs 
de  la  Presentation,  Soeurs  de  rAs.somy)tion,  Soeurs 
des  SS.  Noms  de  Jesus-Marie,  Filles  de  la  Charite 
du  S.  C.  de  J6sus,  Soeurs  de  la  Charite,  Sceurs  du 
Precieux  Sang,  Soeurs  de  la  Sainte  Fainille,  whose 
mother-house  is  in  Sherbrooke.  The  Missionaires 
de  la  Salette  liave  charge  of  the  Sacred  Heart  Parish, 
Stanstead.  The  Redemptorist  Fathers  have  also 
taken  charge  of  a  parish,  and  in  the  future  their 
novitiate  will  be  in  Sherbrooke  instead  of  Montreal. 
The  Irish  Brothers  of  the  Presentation  are  oi)ening  a 
school  in  the  city  of  Sherbrooke  for  the  Englisli- 
speaking  children.  The  diocese  has  also  an  Old  Folks' 
Home,  an  Orphans'  Home,  and  a  hospital  second  to 
none  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada.     J.  C.  McGee. 

Sheridan,  Philip  Henry,  b.  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 
U.  S.  A.,  6  March,  1831;  d.  at  Nonquitt,  Mass., 
5  August,  1888.  His  family  were  among  the  Catholic 
pioneers  who 
moved  to  Somer- 
set, Ohio,  during 
his  boyhood;  he 
entered  the  U.  S. 
Military  Acad- 
emy in  1848  from 
that  state  and 
graduated  in 
18  5  3,  receiving 
the  rank  of 
brevet  second- 
lieutenant  of  in- 
fantry. In  the 
following  year  he 
was  sent  to  Texas 
and  there,  and  in 
Oregon,  served 
with  much  credit, 
settling  difficul- 
ties with  the  In- 
dians. At  the 
outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  he  was 
made  chief  Quar- 
termaster under  General  Halleck,  and  in  May,  1862, 
was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  Second  Michigan 
Volunteer    Cavalry.       Rapid    promotion    followed, 


that  of  brigadier-general  in  July,  and  the  command 
of  a  division  of  the  Army  of  the  Ohio  in  Septem- 
ber; in  the  operations  in  the  South-west,  during 
the  two  following  years,  he  greatly  distinguished 
himself.  Appointed  commander  of  all  the  cavalry 
of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  April,  1864,  he 
was  thereafter  one  of  General  Grant's  chief  i-e- 
liances  in  his  operations  in  Virginia  against  Lee. 
During  a  brief  absence  of  Sheridan  in  Washing- 
ton, General  Early  attacked  the  Union  Army  near 
Cedar  Creek,  19  October,  1864,  and  was  at  first  vic- 
torious. Sheridan  arrived  during  the  retreat,  rode 
at  full  speed  from  Winchester,  arrived  in  the  field, 
and  rallying  his  men,  converted  the  disaster  into  a 
complete  victory.  General  Grant  writing  of  this 
feat  said:  "Turning  what  bid  fair  to  be  a  disaster 
into  a  glorious  victory,  stamps  Sheridan  what  I  have 
always  thought  him,  one  of  the  ablest  of  generals". 
In  November,  1864,  his  commission  of  major-general 
in  the  regular  army  was  awarded  him.  His  raids 
during  the  early  part  of  186r),  to  destroy  the  railroads 
and  the  other  remaining  avenues  of  supply  to  Lee's 
army,  contributed  much  to  the  final  surrender  of  the 
Confederate  Army  at  Appomattox  in  April.  After 
the  war  Sheridan  was  appointed  to  command  the 
military  department  in  Louisiana,  Texas,  and  Mis- 
souri, and  during  1870-1,  at  the  period  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  trouble,  visited  Europe  where  he  was  re- 
ceived with  distinguished  consideration  at  the  head- 
quarters of  the  German  Army,  and  was  present  at 
several  important  battles  of  the  campaign.  He  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1869, 
succeeding  General  Sherman  as  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  in  1883,  and  shortly  before  his  death,  on 
1  June,  1888,  was  confirmed  as  general  of  the  army. 

Personal  Memoirs  of  P.  H.  Sheridan,  General  U.  S.  Army 
(New  York,  1888);  Culltjm,  Biog.  Register  of  the  Graduates, 
U.  S.  M.  A.,  West  Point  (New  York,  1868);  Appleton's  Annual 
Cyclopedia  for  1883  (New  York,  1889). 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Sherson,  Martin,  English  priest  and  confessor, 
one  of  the  Dilati  (see  English  Martyrs),  b.  1563; 
d.  1588.  A  native  of  Yorkshire,  he  matriculated  at 
Oxford  from  St.  John's  College  in  1575  at  the  age  of 
twelve,  becoming  "a  poor  scholar  of  George  Manner- 
ing  who  taught  Rhetoric  there";  arrived  at  the  Eng- 
lish College  at  Reims,  1  April,  1580;  was  confirmed 
by  Bishop  Goldwell,  11  June,  1580;  left  for  Rome,  20 
March;  and  entered  the  English  College,  8  May,  1581, 
aged  eighteen,  where  "through  an  over-zealous  appli- 
cation to  study  and  prayer  he  began  to  spit  blood  " .  He 
returned  to  Reims,  22  June,  1585;  and  was  ordained 
sub-deacon  in  the  chapel  of  the  Holy  Cross  in  Reims 
Cathedral,  21  Sept.  by  Mgr  Louis  de  Breze,  Bishop 
of  Meaux,  deacon  at  Laon,  14  March,  and  priest 
at  Laon,  5  April,  1586.  He  left  for  England,  16  June, 
and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Marshalsea  before  22 
December,  1586.  He  was  still  there  in  March, 
1587-8,  and  died  there  soon  after,  aged  twenty-five. 
Fr.  Morris  is  in  error  in  saying  he  died  in  February, 
1587-8,  aged  twenty-eight.  "He  was  a  young  man 
of  good  abilities  and  well  trained  in  piety  and  obe- 
dience. He  was  of  moderate  height,  had  a  slight 
beard,  a  pale,  oval  face,  and  a  rather  large  head." 

Pollen,  Acts  of  the  English  Martyrs  (London,  1891),  271; 
Morris,  Troubles  of  our  Catholic  Forefathers  (3rd  series,  London, 
1877),  36;  Knox,  Doxmy  Diaries  (London,  1878);  Foley, 
Records  Eng.  Prov.  S.J.,  VI  (London,  1875-83),  125,  147; 
Catholic  Record  Society  publications,  II,  V  (London,  1905 — )• 
Foster,  Alumni  Oxonienses. 

John  B.  Wainewright 

Sherwood,  William,  Bishop  of  Meath,  d.  at 
Dublin,  3  Dec,  1482.  He  was  an  English  ecclesiastic 
who  obtained  the  see  by  papal  provision  in  April, 
1460.  Of  his  earlier  life  nothing  is  known.  He  soon 
came  into  conflict  with  Thomas  Fitzgerald,  eighth 
Earl  of  Desmond,  who  was  deputy  to  George,  Duke 
of  Clarence.  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland.    The  ear,' 


SHEWBREAD 


758 


SHINTOISM 


accused  the  bishop  of  instigating  the  murder  of  some 
of  his  followers,  and  in  14G4  both  went  to  England  to 
lay  their  grievances  before  the  king.  Edward  IV 
upheld  the  earl,  who  was  supjiorted  by  the  Irish  jiar- 
liament,  and  acquitted  him  of  all  charges  of  disloyalty 
and  treasonable  relations  with  the  Irish  people.  But 
when  in  1467  he  was  disgraced,  and  succeeded  by  the 
Earl  of  Worcester,  Bishop  Sherwood  was  suspected 
of  leading  the  opposition,  which  finally  brought  the 
earl  to  the  scaffold.  Some  years  after  his  rival's 
death,  Sherwood  himself  was  apjiointed  deputy,  but 
his  own  rule  was  so  unpopular  that  in  1477  he  was 
removed  from  office,  having  governed  for  two  j'ears. 
He  held  the  Cliancellorship  of  Ireland  from  1475  to 
1481.    He  lies  buried  at  Newtown:!  Abbey  near  Trim. 

A7inals  of  the  Four  Masters  (Dublin,  1S4S-51);  Gilbert,  Vice- 
roys of  Inland  (Dublin,  18(35);  Kingsford  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog., 
Register  of  St.  Tho7nas  Abbey,  Dublin  (R.  S.  London,  1889)  gives 
text  of  an  agreement  between  Sherwood  and  the  abbey. 

Edwin  Burton. 
Shewbread.    See  Loaves  of  Proposition. 
Shields,  James,  militaiy  officer,  b.  in  Dungannon, 
County  Tyrone,  Ireland, '  12  Dec,   1810;  d.  at  Ot- 
tumwa,  Iowa,  1  June,   1879.     He  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  in  1826  where  he  at  once  proceeded  to 
studv  law  and  began  practising  at  Kaskaskia,  111.,  in 
1832.       He    was 
elected  to  the 
state    Legislature 
in    1836;    became 
state    auditor    in 
1839    and    judge 
of   the   state    su- 
preme    court     in 
1843.       He    was 
fulfilling  his  duties 
as     commissioner 
of  the  general 
land-office     when 
war  with   Mexico 
was  declared,  and 
he   was    commis- 
sioned   brigadier- 
general  by  Presi- 
dent Polk,  1  July, 
James  Shields  1846.       General 

From  a  portrait  photograph  Shields     served 

with  distinction  under  Taylor,  Wool,  and  Scott,  and 
gained  the  brevet  of  major-general  at  Cerro  Gordo, 
where  he  was  shot  through  the  lung.  He  was 
again  severely  wounded  at  Chapultepec,  and  was 
mustered  out  in  1848.  The  same  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  the  Territory  of  Oregon,  which 
office  he  soon  resigned  to  represent  Illinois  in  the 
United  States  Senate  as  a  demtjcrat.  After  the  ex- 
piration of  his  term  he  removed  to  Minnesota  and 
was  United  States  senator  from  that  state  from 
1858  to  1860,  when  he  removed  to  California.  On 
the  brfaking  out  of  the  Civil  War,  he  was  appointed 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  19  August,  1861.  He 
f<jught  gallantly  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  campaign, 
opening  hostihties  at  Winchester,  though  severely 
wounded  the  preceding  day  in  a  preliminary  engage- 
ment. While  in  command  at  Port  Republic  he  was 
decisively  beaten  by  General  Jackson  and  resigned  his 
commi.ssion,  28  March,  1863.  He  returned  to  Cali- 
fornia whence  he  removed  to  Carrollton,  Mo.,  when; 
he  continued  the  practice  of  law.  He  subsequently 
wrved  his  state  as  a  railroad  commissioner  and  was  a 
member  of  the  I^egislature  from  1874-79.  He  was 
UniU;d  States  senator  from  Missouri  at  the  time  of 
hi.s  death.  A  monument  was  erec-ted  to  him  in  St. 
Mar>''s  Cemetery  at  Carrollton,  which  was  unveiled 
by  Archbishop  Glennon  on  12  Nov.,  1910. 

Jarvis  Keiley. 
Shi-koku,  one  of  the  four  great  islands  of  Japan, 
has  an  area  of  7022  square  miles,  not  counting  the 


smaller  islands  which  depend  upon  it.  Its  popula- 
tion according  to  the  census  of  1909  was  3,199,500. 
The  name  Shi-koku  signifies  "Four  Kingdoms",  the 
island  having  been  divided,  from  ancient  times,  into 
the  foiu-  provinces  of:  Awa,  in  the  east;  Samdvi,  in  the 
north-east;  Tyo,  in  the  noi-th-west ;  and  Tosa,  in  the 
south.  In  1868  at  the  Restonition  of  Japan  the 
names  of  these  four  provinces,  as  of  all  others  in  the 
empire,  were  changed,  and  the  island  is  now  divided 
into  the  four  i)refectures  of:  Tokushima-Ken  (for- 
merly Awa),  Kagawa-Ken  (Sanuki),  Ehime-Ken 
(Tyo),  and  Ivochi-Ken  (Tosa).  The  proportion  of 
inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  for  the  island  is  176;  in 
the  Prefecture  of  Kagawa  it  rises  to  418,  a  higher  fig- 
ure than  in  any  other  prefecture  of  Japan.  The  cli- 
mate is  very  temperate  and  salubrious,  and  the  Prov- 
ince of  Tosa  is  the  only  one  in  the  empire  where  two 
crops  of  rice  are  grown  every  j^ear.  The  coimtry  is 
very  mountainous,  rising  at  some  points  to  3000  and 
4000  feet,  and  even  to  6480  feet  at  Tshizuchi-Yama  in 
the  Prefecture  of  Ehime,  which  is  the  highest  point  of 
the  island.  The  population  is  most  dense  on  the  sea- 
coast.  The  four  prefectures  have  many  good  schools, 
primary  and  secondary,  normal  schools  for  both  sexes, 
schools  of  art,  of  agriculture,  and  of  commerce;  but 
there  is  no  university,  the  public  libraries  are  very 
insignificant,  and  the  charitable  institutions  and  social 
organizations  are  embryonic  where  they  are  not  alto- 
gether wanting.  There  are  good  roads  but  no  rail- 
way, although  the  project  of  one  has  been  approved 
by  the  Government  for  about  ten  years  past.  Vari- 
ous fines  of  steamers,  making  the  passage  daily  in  six 
hours  or  little  more,  connect  all  the  provinces  of  Shi- 
koku  with  the  great  ports  of  Kobe  and  Osaka.  Shi- 
koku  is  the  territorial  district  of  the  eleventh  division 
of  the  army;  the  bulk  of  the  troops  are  quartered  at 
Marugame  and  Zentsuji  (Kagawa-Ken);  but  in  the 
three  other  provincial  cai)itals  there  is  a  regiment 
of  about  1500  men.  The  princii)al  cities  are:  Toku- 
shima  (Tokushima-Ken),  pop.  65,561;  Kochi  (Kochi 
Ken),  pop.  39,781;  Takamatsu  (Kagawa-Ken),  pop. 
43,489;  Matsuyama  (Ehime-Ken),  i)op.  42,338. 

Religion. — The  Prefecture-Apostolic  of  Shi-koku 
was  established  by  a  Decree  of  Pius  X,  28  Feb.,  1904, 
and  its  administration  given  to  the  Spanish  Domini- 
cans of  the  Province  of  Smo.  Rosario  de  Filipinas. 
Before  this  it  had  been  administered  by  the  Missions 
Etrangeres  of  Paris,  being  regarded  as  i^art  of  the 
Diocese  of  Osaka,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Mgr  Jules 
Chatron,  the  present  bishop.  The  evangelization  of 
the  island  began  in  1882,  when  Father  M.  Plessis,  in 
sj)ite  of  gr(>at  difficulties,  founded  in  the  city  of  Kochi 
the  first  chai^el,  under  the  invocation  of  the  Twenty- 
six  Martyrs  of  Japan.  In  1889  and  1898  were 
founded  the  residences  of  Matsuyama  and  Toku- 
shima.  l'hes(>  three  st  at  ions  were  all  that  the  Domini- 
cans found  when  they  took  charge  of  the  mission  in 
Oct.,  1904.  Since  1906  there  has  been  a  missionary 
resident  at  Uwajima,  a  city  of  15,000  inhabitants,  in 
Ehime-Ken;  and  since  1911  a  mi.ssion  has  been  es- 
tablished at  Takamatsu,  which  is  connected  with 
more  than  five  secondary  ports.  There  is  an  orphan- 
age for  boys,  and  the  confraternity  of  the  Most  Holy 
Rosary  is  established  at  Kochi.  The  official  resi- 
dence of  the  prefe(!t  Apostolic,  the  Very  Rev.  Jo.s<;  M„ 
Alvarez  (appointed  2  Oct.,  1904),  is  the  city  of  To- 
kushima.  The  statistics  of  the  mission  in  l')ll  were: 
Dominican  missionaries,  6;  Christ  iaiis,  3!) I;  baptisms, 
86;  communion.s,  889;  continiiations,  17;  marriages, 
4;  interments,  6.  The  inhabit  ants  of  Shi-koku  jjrofess 
various  forms  of  Buddhism;  some  fi'w  j)rof('ss  Siiinto- 
ism.  Both  of  these  creeds  are  constantly  falling  into 
decay,  and  as  it  is  very  difficult  to  introduce!  Christi- 
anity, religious  indifference  gains  ground  among  the 
youth  of  Japan. 

Jos6  M.  Alvarez. 

Shintoism.     See  Japan. 


SHIPS 


759 


SHREWSBURY 


Ships,  Baptism  of.    See  Baptism,  subtitle  XVII. 

Shire,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Shirenensis),  in 
Nyassaland  Protectorate,  Africa.  The  Nyassaland 
Protectorate,  formerly  known  as  British  Central 
Africa,  lies  between  9°  41'  and  17°  15'  S.  lat.,  and 
33°  and  36°  E.  long.  It  is  about  520  miles  long,  its 
width  varying  from  50  to  100  miles.  It  covers  an 
area  of  43,608  square  miles.  The  white  population 
is  at  most  600,  while  there  are  millions  of  blacks. 
Nyassaland  is  divided  into  thirteen  districts.  The 
mission  of  the  White  Fathers  evangelizes  the  five 
northern  districts  which  lie  west  of  Lake  Nyassa.  The 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Shire  is  composed  of  the  eight 
other  districts  lying  south  of  Lake  Nyassa.  The 
vicariate  hes  between  13°  30'  and  17°  15'  S.  lat.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  District  of  Angoniland 
and  Lake  Nyassa,  on  the  east,  south,  and  west  by 
Portuguese  East  Africa.  The  territory  hes  130  miles 
as  the  crow  flies  from  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  River  Shire  which  flows  through 
the  length  of  the  vicariate.  The  river  carries  to  the 
Zambezi  the  waters  of  Lake  Nyassa;  it  is  295  miles 
long,  245  miles  in  English  territory,  and  50  in  Por- 
tuguese territory. 

Propaganda  confided  to  the  missionaries  of  the 
Society  of  Mary,  founded  by  Bl.  Louis  Grignion  de 

IMontfort,  the  evangelization  of  the  territory  which 
now  forms  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Shire.  On  28 
June,  1901,  the  first  three  missionaries  arrived  at 
Blantyre  and  on  25  July  began  their  first  mission  in 
Angoniland.  The  mission  of  Shire  developed  rapidly, 
owing  doubtless  to  the  zeal  of  the  missionaries  but 
also  to  the  sympathy  of  the  numerous  population. 
In  1904  the  mission  was  made  a  prefecture  Apostolic 
and  one  of  the  missionaries.  Rev.  Father  Prezeau, 
former  missionary  of  the  Diocese  of  Kingston,  Canada, 
was  elected  the  first  prefect  ApostoHc.  Already  four 
stations  had  been  founded,  and  numerous  schools 
established  in  all  directions  spread  the  Christian 
doctrine.  The  results  were  satisfactory.  On  14 
April,  1908,  Pius  X  erected  the  prefecture  into  a 
vicariate  Apostolic  with  Mgr  Prezeau  as  the  first 
vicar.  Mgr  Prezeau  was  consecrated  at  Zanzibar, 
4  Oct.,  1908,  by  Mgr  Allgeyer  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  The  life  of  the  first  vicar  Apostolic 
was  of  short  duration ;  he  died  in  PVance  4  December, 

1910.  On  4  May,  1910,  one  of  the  missionaries  re- 
ceived from  Rome  the  notification  of  his  elevation  to 
the  dignity  of  vicar  ApostoHc.  Mgr  Auneau  was  con- 
secrated at  Chilubula,  Northern  Rhodesia,  by  Mgr 
Dupont  of  the  White  Fathers,  1  Nov.,  1910. 

At  present  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Shire  has  4 
missionary  stations  and  2  convents  of  the  Daughters  of 
Wisdom  founded  by  Bl.  Louis  Grignion  de  Montfort. 
The  staff  of  the  mission  is  composed  of  12  missionaries, 
9  nuns,  and  2  lay  brothers..  The  workers  are  few  for 
the  task  but  good  work  is  being  done.     From  1901  to 

1911,  2078  baptisms  were  administered,  1000  catechu- 
mens prepared.  The  70  schools  have  more  than  5200 
pupils.  By  means  of  schools  the  Protestant  sects 
spread  their  doctrines;  they  are  the  most  powerful 
means  of  propagation.  Within  the  vicariate  there  are 
7  Protestant  missions;  they  have  325  schools,  more 
than  11,606  pupils,  and  for  the  support  of  their 
schools  they  spend  more  than  £5173.  Schools  are 
also  the  most  powerful  means  of  action  for  Catholics; 
the  teachers  are  especially  trained  and  educated  for 
this  work,  the  schools  are  open  on  every  week  day, 
and  on  Sunday  prayers  are  taught  there.  Despite 
formidable  Protestant  competition  the  Catholic  re- 
ligion makes  progress,  and  by  degrees  its  doctrines  are 
made  known  to  the  people.  The  negroes  who  inhabit 
the  region  are  Angouis,  Yaos,  and  Angourous,  repre- 
senting three  different  tribes.     Jean  Mauie  Ryo. 

Shirwood,  William,  a  thirteenth-century  school- 
man, the  details  o£  whose  career  have  been  confounded 


with  those  concerning  William,  Archdeacon  of  Dur- 
ham, founder  of  University  College,  Oxford.  It  is 
certain  that  Shirwood  won  a  European  reputation  for 
scholarship,  being  described  by  Roger  Bacon  in  the 
preface  to  the  "Opus  tertium"  together  with  Albertus 
Magnus  as  the  most  celebrated  scholars  in  Christen- 
dom. Bacon  describes  Shu-wood  as  surpassing  Albert, 
and  as  being  without  a  peer  in  philosophy.  He  held 
the  prebend  of  Aile.sbury,  Lincohi,  in  1245  and  was 
treasurer  of  Lincoln  Cathedral  in  1258  and  1267. 
Pits,  following  Leland,  ascribes  to  him  incidents  from 
the  life  of  William  of  Durham  and  thus  assigns  his 
death  to  the  year  1249.  The  works  of  Shirwood  were 
"Super  Magistrum  sententiarum "  (4  books),  "Dis- 
tinctiones  Theologicae ",  and  "  Condones ".  Pits  adds 
"and  others  not  a  few". 

Pits,  De  illustribus  Anglim  scriptoribus  (Paria,  1623);  Le  Neve, 
Fasti  Eccl.  AnglicancB,  II  (Oxford,  1854),  88,  95;  Tanner,  Bibl. 
Brii-Hib.  (London,  1748) ;  Kingsford  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Shrewsbury,  Diocese  of  (Salopiensis),  one  of 
the  thirteen  English  dioceses  created  by  Apostolic 
Letter  of  Pius  IX  on  27  Sept.,  1850.  It  then  com- 
prised the  English  counties  of  Shropshire  and  Che- 
shire, and  the  Welsh  counties  of  Carnarvon,Fhnt, Den- 
bigh, Merioneth,  Montgomery,  and  Anglesey.  When 
on  4  March,  1895,  Leo  XIII  formed  the  Vicariate  of 
Wales,  these  Welsh  counties  were  separated  from  this 
diocese,  so  that  now  only  Shropshire  and  Cheshire  are 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Shrewsbury. 
Before  the  Reformation,  Cheshire  and  the  portion  of 
Shroi)shire  north  and  east  of  the  River  Severn  were 
under  the  Bishop  of  Coventry  and  Lichfield,  and  the 
rest  of  Shropshire  was  under  the  Bishop  of  Hereford. 
On  the  creation  of  the  Diocese  of  Chester  by  Henry 
VIII,  Cheshire  was  withdrawn  from  the  old  Diocese 
of  Coventry  and  Lichfield.  When  Pope  Innocent  XI 
in  1688  divided  P^ngland  into  four  vicariates,  Shrop- 
shire was  in  the  Midland,  and  Cheshire  in  the  North- 
ern District,  and  when  eight  vicariates  were  formed 
by  Gregory  XVI  in  1840,  Shropshire  was  part  of  the 
Central  District,  and  Cheshire  part  of  the  Lancashire 
District.  The  diocese  takes  its  name  from  Shrews- 
bur}',  the  county  towTi  of  Shropshire,  and  is  under  the 
patronage  of  Oiu-  Lady  Help  of  Christians,  and  St. 
Winefride.  The  latter  saint  was  chosen  because  her 
body  had  been  translated  from  Gwytherin,  in  Den- 
bighshire, to  Shrewsbury  in  1138,  and  deposited  with 
great  honour  and  solemnity  in  the  Benedictine  abbey 
founded  by  Roger,  Earl  of  Montgomery,  in  1083, 
where  it  remained  imtil  her  shrine  was  plundered  at 
the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries. 

The  first  bishop  of  the  diocese  was  James  Brown 
(1812-81),  president  of  Sedgeley  Park  School,  who 
was  consecrated  27  July,  1851.  Out  of  a  total  popu- 
lation of  1,082,617,  Cathohcs  numbered  about  20,000. 
There  were  30  churches  and  chapels  attended  by  resi- 
dent priests,  and  6  stations;  1  convent,  that  of  the 
Faithful  Companions  of  Jesus,  in  Birkenhead,  to 
which  was  attached  a  boarding-school  for  young  la- 
dies, and  also  a  small  day-school  for  poor  children. 
There  were  Jesuits  at  Holywell,  who  also  had  a  col- 
lege at  St.  Beuno's,  Flintshire,  and  a  Benedictine  at 
Acton  Burnell.  When  Dr.  Brown  celebrated  the  ju- 
bilee of  his  consecration,  the  secular  priests  had  in- 
creased to  66,  and  the  regulars  to  32.  Instead  of  one 
religious  house  of  men  and  one  of  women,  there  were 
now  four  of  men,  and  nine  of  women ;  and  many  ele- 
mentary schools  had  been  provided  for  the  needs  of 
Catholic  children.  In  1852  the  bitter  feeling  caused 
by  the  re-establishment  of  the  hierarchy  found  vent 
in  serious  riots  at  Stockport.  On  29  June  a  large 
mob  attacked  the  Church  of  Sts.  Philip  and  James; 
they  broke  the  windows  and  attempted  to  force  in  the 
doors,  but  before  they  could  et1"(>ct  an  ent  ranee.  Canon 
Randolph  Frith,  the  rector,  succeeded  in  removing 
the  Blessed  Saqrament,  and  secreting  It  with  the 


760 


SHRINES 


chalices,  etc.,  in  a  small  cupboard  in  the  side  chapel. 
He  was  compelled  to  flee  immediately  to  the  bell- 
tower,  and,  whilst  the  rabble  were  destroying  what- 
ever they  could  lay  their  hands  upon,  he  made  his  es- 
cape along  the  roof,  and  descended  by  the  spouting  at 
the  back  of  the  presbytery.  Much  of  the  church  fur- 
niture, with  vestments,  etc.,  was  piled  up  in  the  street 
antl  burned.  At  St.  Michael's,  the  Host  was  dese- 
crated, and  the  py.\  and  ciborium  carrieti  away. 

On  the  death  of  Dr.  Brown,  Riglit  Rev.  Etlmund 
Knight  (1827-1905),  who  was  au.xiliary  from  1S79, 
was  translated  to  this  see  25  April,  1882,  and,  on  his 
resignation  in  May,  1895,  was  succeeded  by  Right 
Rev.  John  Carroll  (1838-97),  who  had  been  coadjutor 
since  1893.  He  was  followed  by  Right  Rev.  Samuel 
\\'ebster  Allen  (1844-1908),  who  ruled  the  diocese 
from  1897  till  his  death  in  1908.  His  valuable  library 
on  Egyptology,  his  favourite  stud.y,  was  bequeathed 
to  the  new  Capuchin  foundation  at  Cowley  College, 
Oxford.  The  present  ruler  of  the  diocese,  1911,  is 
Right  Rev.  Hugh  Singleton  (b.  1851). 

The  CathoHc  population  of  the  diocese  is  now 
58,013,  Shropshire  contributing  under  3000,  partly 
on  account  of  agricultural  depression  and  the  conse- 
quent flocking  to  industrial  centres.  There  are  90 
clergj',  16  convents,  representatives  of  4  orders  of 
men,  8  secondary  schools  for  girls,  an  orphanage  and 
industrial  school  for  boys,  a  home  for  aged  poor,  a 
home  for  penitents,  and  soon  there  is  to  be  an  or- 
phanage erected  in  memory  of  Bishop  Knight.  At 
Oakwood  Hall,  Romiley,  a  house  of  retreats  for  work- 
ing-men has  been  opened  and  has  already  done  im- 
portant work;  and  at  New  Brighton,  the  nuns  of  Our 
Lady  of  the  Cenacle  have  opened  a  house  of  re- 
treats for  working-women  and  ladies.  Shropshire  is 
singularly  rich  in  archeological  interest,  its  pre-Ref- 
ormation  parish  churches,  the  noble  ruins  of  mon- 
asteries round  the  Wrekin,  the  Roman  city  of  Urico- 
nium  (Wroxeter),  the  lordly  castle  of  Ludlow,  giving 
the  county  a  place  apart  in  the  heart  of  the  antiquary. 
In  Shrew.sbury  itself,  where  once  Grey,  Black,  and 
Austin  Friars  and  the  Black  Monks  of  St.  Benedict 
had  foundations,  there  is  now  a  beautiful  little  cathe- 
dral, built  by  E.  Welby  Pugin.  Chester,  too,  with  its 
quaint  streets,  black  and  white  houses,  and  venerable 
cathedral  and  city  walls,  claims  the  visitor's  atten- 
tion. When  the  body  of  Daniel  O'Connell  was 
brought  back  from  Genoa,  it  rested  in  the  old  chapel 
in  Queen's  Street  on  its  way  to  Ireland. 

Diocesan  Archives;  MS.  History  of  Missions  of  the  Diocese; 
Catholic  Directories;  Transactions  of  Shropshire  Archeological 
Society;  BuTLZB,  Lives  of  the  Saints;  Maziere  Brady,  Annals  of 
the  Catholic  Hierarchy;  Gaibdner,  Hist,  of  the  English  Church  in 
the  16lh  Century  (London,  1904);  GlLLOW,  Bibl.  Die.  Eng.  Calh. 
(London,  1885).  JoSEPH   KeLLY. 

Shrines.    See  Pilgrimages. 

Shrines  of  Our  Lady  and  the  Saints  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland. — I.  Sanctuaries  of  Our 
Lady. — A.  EngUiwl. — (1)  Abingdon. — St.  Edward  the 
Martyr  and  St.  Dunstan,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
both  encouraged  pilgrimages  to  Our  Lady  of  Abing- 
don, causing  it  to  be  resorted  to  by  crowds  of  pious 
persons.  (2)  Canterbury. — At  the  east  end  of  St. 
Augustine's  monastery  was  an  oratory  of  Our  Lady 
built  by  King  Ethelbert  in  which  reposed  the  borlies 
of  many  saints.  The  old  Chronicler  informs  us  that 
"in  it  the  Queen  of  heaven  did  often  ap])ear;  in  it 
was  the  brightness  of  miracles  made  manifest;  in  it 
the  voices  of  angels,  and  the  melodious  strains  of  holy 
virgins  were  frequently  heard".  (3)  Caversham, 
Berks. — A  chapel  of  Our  Lady  in  the  church  of  the 
Austin  CfinonN  was  a  centre  of  great  devotion,  where 
rich  offerings  were  made  by  Countess  Isabel  of  War- 
wick, I^lizabeth  of  York,  queen-consort  of  Henry  V'll, 
and  by  Henry  VIII  in  his  youthful  days.  The  entire 
image  was  plated  with  silver.  (4)  Coventry. — A  cele- 
brated image  of  Our  Lady  was  here  greatly  venerated. 


With  it  are  a.s.sociated  the  glorious  names  of  Leofric, 
Earl  of  Mercia,  and  his  wife,  the  Countess  Godgifu 
(Godiva).  The  splendid  abbey  church  founded  by 
them  in  1043  surjiassed  all  others  in  the  land  in 
princely,  even  royal  magnificence.  It  was  spoken  of 
as  the  glory  of  England  and  contained  dazzling 
treasures.  On  her  death  Godgifu  sent  a  rich  chaplet 
of  precious  gems  to  be  hung  round  Our  Lady's  neck; 
no  description  of  this  image  has  reached  us.  The 
church  was  entirely  demolished  by  Henry  VIII.  (5) 
Ely. — In  the  ahl)ey  church  was  venerated  a  magnifi- 
cent image  of  Our  Lady  seated  on  a  throne  with  her 
Divine  Child  in  her  arms,  the  whole  marvellously 
wrought  in  silver  and  gold.  Hither  came  King  Canute 
on  the  feast  of  Our  Lady's  Purification  (1020  ?). 

(6)  Evesham. — The  name  of  this  renowned  sanctuary 
perpetuates  the  vi.sion  of  Our  Lady  to  a  poor  herdsman 
named  Eoves.  An  abbey  church  was  here  built  by 
Earl  Leofric  and  the  Countess  Godgifu  and  enriched 
with  a  splendid  image  of  Our  Lady  and  Child,  beauti- 
fully wrought  of  gold  and  silver.  At  once  it  became  an 
object  of  popular  devotion  and  attracted  numerous 
pilgrims.  (7)  Glastonbury  was  the  most  ancient  and 
venerable  sanctuary  of  Our  'Lady  in  England  (see 
Glastonbury  Abbey).  In  530  St.  David  of 
Menevia,  accompanied  by  seven  of  his  suffragan 
bishops,  came  to  Glastonbury,  invited  thither 
by  the  sanctity  of  the  place,  and  consecrated  a 
Chapel  of  Our  Lady  on  the  east  side  of  the  church. 
As  a  mark  of  his  devotion  to  the  Queen  of  Heaven,  he 
adorned  the  golden  superaltar  with  a  sapphire  of  in- 
estimable value,  known  as  the  Great  Sapphire  of 
Glastonbury.  The  Silver  Cha])el  of  Our  Lady  was 
stored  with  costly  gifts,  the  value  of  which,  at  our 
present  standard,  amounted  to  a  prodigious  sum. 
Among  the  Sa.xon  kings  who  came  hither  on  pilgrim- 
age may  be  mentioned  Ath(>lstan  and  Edgar  the 
Peaceable,  the  latter  laying  his  sceptre  on  the  Blessed 
Virgin's  altar  and  solemnly  placing  his  kingdom 
under  her  patronage.  (8)  Ipswich. — There  were  four 
churches  of  Our  Lady  in  Ipswich,  but  the  greatly 
renowned  miraculous  image  was  in  St.  Mary's  chapel, 
known  as  Our  Lady  of  Grace.  The  numerous  miracles 
wrought  there  were  proved  genuine  by  Blessed  Thomas 
More  in  one  of  his  works.  Cardinal  Wolsey  ordered 
a  yearly  pilgrimage  to  be  made  to  Our  Lady's  sanc- 
tuary by  the  students  of  the  college  he  had  founded 
at  Ipswich.  In  the  thirtieth  year  of  Henry  VIII 
this  image  was  conveyed  to  London  and  burnt  at 
Chelsea,  the  rich  offerings  and  jewels  going  to  the 
king's  treasury. 

(9)  Tewkesbury. — The  church,  founded  in  715  by 
two  Mercian  dukes,  Oddo  and  Doddo,  enshrined  within 
its  walls  a  statue  of  Our  Lady  tliiit  was  held  in  the 
greatest  veneration.  Isabella  Beauchamp,  Countess 
of  Warwick,  gave  a  chalice  and  other  valuable  presents 
to  this  sanctuary  in  1439.  The  statue  had  the  good 
fortune  to  escape  destruction  at  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  probably  owing  to  the  reluctance  of  the 
magistrates  to  arouse  the  indignation  of  the  populace, 
who  regarded  it  with  extraordinary  veneration.  In 
the  reign  of  James  I  a  Puritan  inhabitant  of  the  town 
got  possession  of  this  relic  of  the  old  religion,  and  to 
mark  his  contempt  for  it  caused  it  to  be  hollowed  out 
and  used  as  a  trough  for  swine.  Terrible  punishments 
overtook  him  and  all  the  members  of  his  family.  (10) 
Walsingham  was  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  English 
sanctuaries  of  Our  Lady.  So  great  was  the  ^•eneration 
in  which  it  was  held  that  it  was  called  the  "  Holy  Land 
of  Walsingham".  About  lOOl  a  little  chapel,  similar 
to  that  of  the  Holy  House  of  Nazareth  (not  yet  trans- 
lated to  Loreto)  and  dedicated  to  the  Annunciation, 
was  built  here  by  Rychold  (Recholdis)  de  Faverches, 
a  rich  widow,  in  consequence,  it  is  said,  of  an  injunc- 
tion received  from  Our  Lady.  Within  the  chapel  was 
a  wooden  image  of  the  Bles.sed  Virgin  and  Child. 
Pilgrims  flocked  from  all  parts  of  England  and  from 


SHRINES 


761 


SHRINES 


the  Continent  to  this  sanctuiiry,  and  its  priory  became 
one  of  the  richest  in  the  world.  Among  the  royal  and 
noble  pilgrims  were:  Henry  III,  who  came  in  1248; 
Edward  I  in  1272  (?)  and  1296;  Edward  II  in  1315;  his 
consort,  Isabella  of  France,  in  1332;  Edward  III  in 
1361;  Edward  IV  and  his  queen  in  1469;  Henry  VII 
in  1487;  Henry  VIII  in  1511,  walking  barefoot  from 
liarsham  Hall,  on  which  occasion  he  presented  Our 
Lady  with  a  necklace  of  great  value;  and  finally 
Queen  Catherine  of  Aragon  in  1514.  About  1.538  the 
venerated  image  was  brought  to  London  with  tliat 
of  Our  Lady  of  Ipswich,  and  both  were  publicly  burnt 
at  Chelsea  in  presence  of  Cromwell.  Fifteen  of  the 
canons  of  Walsingham  were  condemned  for  high 
treason;  five  were  executed.  AU  the  jewels  and 
treasures  left  by  the  piety  of  the  faithful  found  their 
way  into  Henry  VIII's  coffers. 

(11)  Worcester. — St.  Mary's  Minster  at  Worcester 
is  of  ancient  date,  and  pre-eminent  amongst  its  bene- 
factors were  Leofric  and  Godgifu,  Earl  and  Countess 
of  Mercia.  The  celebrated  image  of  Our  Lady  and 
the  Holy  Child  was  carved  of  wood  and  of  large  size; 
it  stood  over  the  high  altar  and  could  be  seen  from 
all  parts  of  the  church.  The  apostate  Bishop  Latimer, 
writing  to  Cromwell,  refers  to  this  statue  in  coarse 
terms,  and  expresses  a  hope  that  with  its  sisters  of 
Walsingham  and  Ipswich  it  may  be  burnt  in  Smith- 
field.  (12)  Lincoln. — Our  Lady  of  Lincoln  is  fre- 
quently mentioned  among  the  sanctuaries  which  were 
regarded  by  the  English  with  special  veneration.  In 
the  inventory  of  the  treasures  of  the  cathedral  aporo- 
priated  by  Henry  VIII,  there  is  mention  f,i  til  ,  at 
image  of  Our  Lady,  sitting  in  a  chair,  silver  and  gilt, 
having  a  crown  on  her  head,  silver  and  gilt,  set  with 
stones  and  pearls,  and  her  Child  sitting  on  her  knee 
with  one  crown  upon  His  head,  with  a  diadem  set 
with  pearls  and  stones,  having  a  ball  with  a  cross, 
silver  and  gilt,  in  His  left  hand  '  Of  St.  Hugh  of 
Lincoln  it  is  said  that  "for  the  glory  of  the  ever- 
Virgin  Mother  of  the  True  Light,  he  crowned  the 
lights  which  usually  burned  in  her  church  wilL  ■  host 
of  others".  Besides  the  above,  there  were  many  other 
remarkable  sanctuaries  of  Our  Lady  in  England,  to 
which  Catholic  pilgrims  resorted  before  the  unhappy 
days  of  the  Reformation. 

B.  Scotland. — (1)  Aberdeen. — Our  Lady  at  the 
Bridge  of  Dee,  described  as  Our  Lady  at  the  Brig,  ia 
mentioned  in  1459.  Near  to  the  chapel  was  a  well 
dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  where  miraculous 
favours  were  obtained.  In  the  cathedral  were  four 
altars  of  Our  Lady,  each  with  her  image,  one  being  of 
silver.  (2)  Edinburgh:  Our  Lady  of  Holyrood. — In 
the  Jesuit  Church  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Lauriston 
Street,  there  is  an  image  of  Our  Lady  and  Child, 
carved  in  wood,  which  formerly  was  in  Holyrood. 
For  many  years  it  was  in  the  possession  of  the  earls 
of  Aberdeen  and  subsequently  was  purchased  by  Mr. 
Edmund  Waterton,  who  presented  it  to  the  above 
church.  (3)  Haddington. — After  defeating  the  Scots 
at  Hahdon  Hill  in  1333  Edward  III  ravaged  the 
Lowlands,  and  part  of  his  navy  (says  the  chronicler 
of  1355)  "spoiled  the  Kirk  of  Our  Lady  of  Hadding- 
ton, and  returned  with  the  spoil  thereof  to  their 
ships".  But  the  sacrilege  did  not  go  unpunished,  for 
a  violent  north  wind  rose  and  hurled  the  ships  upon 
the  sands  and  rocks.  (4)  Musselburgh. — The  church, 
dedicated  to  Our  Lady  of  Loreto,  was  most  famous 
and  resorted  to  by  numerous  pilgrims,  whose  pietj' 
was  rewarded  with  miraculous  favours.  The  fury 
of  the  Calvinist  reformers  destroyed  the  sanctuary, 
and  in  1590  the  materials  were  used  in  building  the 
Tolbooth. 

C.  Ireland. — (1)  Dubhn. — A  statue  of  the  Virgin 
Mother  was  greatly  venerated  in  St.  Mary's  Abbey 
and  mention  is  made  of  it  by  Simmel  in  1487.  In  541 
the  abbey  was  destroyed,  its  property  sequestrated, 
and  the  image  partly  burnt.    Part  of  it,  however,  was 


saved  and  is  now  venerated  in  the  Carmelite  church. 
(2)  Muckross,  formerly  Irrelagh. — The  image  of  Our 
Lady  was  here  greatly  venerated.  When  the  English 
were  devastating  the  abbey  and  had  torn  down  and 
trampled  on  the  crucifix,  some  of  the  friars  carried  off 
the  image  of  Our  Lady  and  hid  it  at  the  foot  of  a  dead 
tree.  Soon  the  dead  tree  revived  and  leaves  sprouted 
in  abundance,  forming  a  shelter  to  the  concealed 
statue.  (3)  Navan. — ^In  the  abbey  church  was  an 
image  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  held  in  great  repute,  to 
which  people  from  all  parts  of  Ireland,  princes  and 
peasants,  rich  and  poor,  came  on  pilgrimage,  and  to 
which  was  attributed  miraculous  power.  (4)  Trim, 
the  most  celebrated  sanctuary  of  Our  Lady  in  Ireland, 
stood  in  the  abbey  of  the  canons  regular  of  St. 
Augustine.  Pilgrims  flocked  to  it  from  all  parts  of 
the  country  and  enriched  it  with  their  offerings. 
Many  and  great  miracles  are  said  to  have  been 
wrought  here.  The  image  of  Our  Lady  of  Trim 
shared  the  fate  of  Our  Lady  of  Walsingham,  being 
publicly  burnt  in  1539. 

OuMPPENBERG,  Atlas  MaHanus  (Munich,  1072);  Waterton, 
Pitiaa  MariatM  Britannica  (London,  1879);  Northcote,  Cele- 
brated Sanctuaries  of  the  Madonna  (London,  1868). 

II.  Shrines  of  the  Saints. — (1)  St.  Thomas  d 
Becket,  Archbi-shop  of  Canterbury,  was  martyred  in 
Canterbury  Cathedral  in  1170.  His  sacred  body,  at 
first  buried  in  the  lower  part  of  the  church,  was 
shortly  after  taken  up  and  laid  in  a  sumptuous  shrine 
in  the  east  end.  Innumerable  miracles  were  WTOUght 
at  his  tomb  and  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  England 
and  the  continent  flocked  thither  to  implore  his  aid. 
So  great  were  the  offerings  made  by  them  that  the 
church  abounded  with  mor(»  than  princely  riches.  The 
shrine  was  covered  with  j)lates  of  gold  and  enriched 
with  jewels,  rubies,  sapphires,  diamonds,  and  great 
oriental  pearls  (Morris,  "Life  of  St.  Thomas",  391). 
It  was  an  object  of  the  unceasing  veneration  of  all 
Christendom  until  the  well-known  sacrilegious  pro- 
fanation under  Henry  VIII.  (2)  St.  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor, d.  5  Jan.,  1066.  William  the  Conqueror,  who 
ascended  the  throne  in  October  of  the  same  year, 
caused  the  saint's  coffin  to  be  inclosed  in  a  rich  case 
of  gold  and  silver.  In  1102  the  body  was  found  to  be 
incorrupt,  the  limbs  flexible,  and  the  cloths  fresh  and 
clean;  several  remarkable  miracles  took  place  at  the 
tomb.  Two  years  after  canonization  (1161)  the 
saint's  body,  still  incorrupt,  was  solemnly  translated 
to  a  shrine  of  surpassing  magnificence,  which  was 
despoiled  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (3)  St.  Patrick, 
Apostle  of  Ireland,  (1.  493  at  Down  in  Ulster,  where  his 
body  was  found  in  a  church  of  his  name  in  1185.  It 
was  then  reverently  translated  to  a  shrine  prepared  in 
another  part  of  the  same  church.  On  St.  Patrick's 
Purgatory,  see  Pilgrimages. 

(4)  St.  Wulstan,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  and  one  of  the 
last  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  bishops,  d.  in  1095,  and  was 
canonized  in  1203.  His  venerable  remains,  clothed 
in  pontifical  vestments,  were  exposed  in  the  church 
for  three  days  to  satisfy  the  devotion  of  the  people, 
after  which  his  friend,  Robert,  Bishop  of  Hereford, 
to  whom  he  had  appeared  in  a  vision,  came  to  cele- 
brate his  obsequies.  His  tomb  in  Worcester  Cathedral 
was  for  centuries  a  centre  of  attraction  to  numerous 
pilgrims,  who.se  piety  was  rewarded  with  many 
miraculous  favours.  It  was  rifled  of  its  treasures  and 
despoiled  by  Henry  VIII  about  the  year  1539.  (5) 
St.  Gilbert  of  Sempringham. — At  the  time  of  his  death 
(4  Feb.,  1189)  many  persons  testified  that  they  saw 
marvellous  lights  flashing  from  the  sky,  indicating 
that  a  great  servant  of  God  was  quitting  this  world. 
He  was  buried  at  Sempringham  and  many  miracles 
were  reported  to  have  occurred  at  his  tomb.  (6) 
St.  Kentigern  of  Scotland  (d.  600)  spent  the  closing 
years  of  his  life  in  Glasgow,  where  he  was  visited  by 
St.  Columba  of  lona.  His  tomb  in  the  crypt  of  his 
titular    church    in    Glasgow    was    long    famous    for 


SHROUD 


762 


SHROUD 


miracles,  but  is  now  despoiled  of  ornament  and  left 
without  honour,  except  by  the  few  CathoUcs  who 
chance  to  visit  the  cathedral.  (7)  St.  Culhbert  of 
Lindisjarne,  see  Cuthbert,  Saint.  (8)  St.  Alban, 
protomartjr  of  England,  d.  304.  In  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine  the  Great  a  magnificent  church  was  erected 
on  the  place  of  his  martyrtlom,  where  his  tomb 
became  illustrious  for  miracles.  The  pagan  Saxons 
having  destroyed  this  edifice,  Offa,  King  of  the 
Mercians,  erected  another  in  793  with  a  great  abbey, 
which  became  the  head  of  the  Benedictine  communi- 
ties in  England.    (9)  St.  Swithin,  see  Swithin,  S.\int 

(10)  St.  Osmutid,  Bishop  of  Sahsbury,  d.  1099.  In 
14.57  his  remains  were  translated  from  Old  Sarum  to 
the  new  cathedral  in  modern  Salisbury,  and  there 
deposited  in  the  chapel  of  Our  Lady.  (11)  .S^.  Oswald, 
King  of  Xorthumbria,  was  slain  by  the  King  of  Mercia 
in  642.  His  mutUated  body  found  a  resting  place  in 
Bardney  Abbey,  Lincolnshire,  whence,  during  the 
Danish  invasion,  it  was  removed  to  Gloucester 
Cathedral.  See  Oswald,  Saint.  (12)  St.  Aidan, 
Bishop  of  Lindisfarne,  d.  651  within  a  tent  set  up 
for  him  by  the  wall  of  the  church  of  the  king's  villa 
at  Bamborough.  It  is  related  that  St.  Cuthbert, 
then  a  shepherd  boy  in  the  mountains,  saw  in  vision 
his  blessed  spirit  carried  by  angels  into  heaven.  He 
was  first  buried  in  the  cemetery  in  Lindisfarne,  but 
when  the  new  Chm"ch  of  St.  Peter  was  built  there,  his 
body  was  translated  to  it  and  deposited  on  the  right 
hand  of  the  altar.  A  portion  of  his  relics  was  after- 
wards taken  to  lona.  (13)  St.  Ninian,  Bishop  of 
Galloway. — His  tomb,  where  miracles  were  wrought, 
was  venerated  at  ^Miithorn  till  the  change  of  religion. 
(14)  St.  Thomas,  Bishop  of  Hereford. — The  narrative 
of  numerous  miracles  obtained  at  his  tomb  in  the 
cathedral  church  at  Hereford  filled  whole  volumes. 
A  large  rehc  is  preserved  at  Stonyhurst  College. 

(15)  St.  Wilfrid,  Bishop  of  York,  d.  709  at  Oundle 
in  Northamptonshire.  His  sacred  relics  were  carried 
to  Ripon  and  deposited  in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter, 
built  by  him.  In  the  time  of  the  Danish  wars  they 
were  translated  by  St.  Odo  to  Canterbury.  (16) 
St.  Wincfride,  virgin  and  martjT,  d.  600.  Her  holy 
death  took  place  at  Gwytherin  in  Wales,  whence  her 
body  was  translated  to  Shrewsbury  in  1138,  and  there 
deposited  in  the  church  of  the  Benedictine  Abbey. 
At  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  her  shrine  was 
plundered.  Her  miraculous  well  at  Holywell  is  the  only 
place  of  pilgrimage  in  Great  Britain  that  has  survived 
the  .shock  of  the  Reformation.  (17)  St.  Hugh,  Bishop 
of  Lincoln,  d.  1200,  in  London.  His  funeral  was  at- 
tended by  John  of  England,  William  of  Scotland,  who 
had  dearly  loved  the  saint,  three  archbishops,  fourteen 
bi.shops,  above  a  hundred  abbots,  and  a  great  number  of 
earls  and  barons  of  the  realm.  Many  anil  great  miracles 
took  place  at  his  tomb  in  Lincoln  Cathedral.  Eighty 
years  after  his  deposition  the  venerable  body,  found 
to  be  incorrupt,  was  translated  to  a  richer  shrine, 
which  was  plundered  by  Henry  VIII  some  centuries 
later.  (1 S  j  St.  Edmund. — This  holy  king  was  martyred 
by  the  Danes  in  870.  The  saint's  head,  which  had 
been  struck  off,  was  carried  by  the  infidels  into  a 
wood  and  thrown  into  a  brake;  of  bushes,  but  mirac- 
ulously found  by  a  pillar  of  light  and  deposited  with 
the  body  at  Haxon.  The  sacred  treasure  was  con- 
veyed to  St.  Edmundsbury,  where  the  church  of  tim- 
ber erected  over  it  was  replaced  in  1020  by  a  stately 
edifice  of  stone.  In  920,  for  fear  of  the  Danes,  the 
body  was  conveyed  to  London,  but  subsequently 
translated  again  Uy  St.  Edmundsbury.  The  abbey 
church  that  enshrined  his  remains  was  one  of  the 
richest  and  stateliest  in  England. 

Arta  SS.;  Bdtleb,  Lives  of  the  SairU»:  Stanton,  Menology  of 
Enatand  and  WaUs  (London,  1888).       P.   J.    CHANDLERY. 

Shroud,  The  Holy. — This  name  is  primarily  given 
to  a  relic  now  preserved  at  Turin,  for  which  the  claim 


is  made  that  it  is  the  actual  "clean  linen  cloth"  in 
which  Joseph  of  Arimathea  wrapped  the  body  of  Jesus 
Christ  (Matt.,  xxvii,  59).  This  relic  though  black- 
ened by  age  bears  the  faint  but.  distinct  impress  of  a 
human  form  both  back  and  front.  The  cloth  is  about 
13 J  2  feet  long  and  iH  feet  wide.  If  the  marks  we 
perceive  were  caused  by  a  human  body,  it  is  clear 
that  the  body  (sujjine)  was  laid  lengthwise  along  one 
half  of  the  shroud  while  the  other  half  was  doubled 
back  over  the  head  to  cover  the  whole  front  of  the 
body  from  the  face  to  the  feet.  The  arrangement  is 
well  illustrated  in  the  miniature  of  Giulio  Clovio, 
which  also  gives  a  good  representation  of  what  was 
seen  upon  the  shroud  about  the  year  1540.  The  cloth 
now  at  Turin  can  be  clearly  traced  back  to  Lirey  in 
the  Diocese  of  Troyes,  where  we  first  hear  of  it  about 
the  year  1360.  In  1453  it  was  at  Chamberj'  in  Savoy, 
and  there  in  1532  it  narrowly  escaped  being  consumed 
by  a  fire  which,  by  charring  the  corners  of  the  folds, 
has  left  a  uniform  series  of  marks  on  either  side  of  the 
image.  Since  1578  it  has  remained  at  Turin,  where  it 
is  now  only  exposed  for  veneration  at  long  intervals. 

That  the  authenticitj^  of  the  Shroud  of  Turin  is 
taken  for  granted  in  various  pronouncements  of  the 
Holy  See  cannot  be  disputed.  An  Office  and  Mass 
"de  Sancta  Sindone"  was  formally  approved  by  Ju- 
lius II  in  the  Bull  "Romanus  Pontifex"  of  25  April, 
1506,  in  the  course  of  which  the  pope  speaks  of  "that 
most  famous  shroud  {prceclarissima  sindon)  in  which 
our  Saviour  was  wrapped  when  He  lay  in  the  tomb  and 
which  is  now  honourably  and  devoutly  preserved  in  a 
silver  casket".  Moreover,  the  same  pontiff  speaks  of 
the  treatise  upon  the  Precious  Blood,  composed  by  his 
predecessor  Sixtus  IV,  in  which  Sixtus  states  that  in 
this  shroud  "men  may  look  upon  the  true  blood  and 
the  portrait  of  Jesus  Christ  Himself".  A  certain 
difficulty  was  caused  by  the  existence  elsewhere  of 
other  shrouds  similarly  impressed  with  the  figure  of 
Jesus  Christ  and  some  of  these  cloths,  notably  those 
of  Besangon,  Cadouin,  Champicgne,  Xabregas,  etc., 
also  claimed  to  be  the  authentic  linen  sindon  provided 
by  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  but  until  the  close  of  the  last 
century  no  great  attack  was  made  upon  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  Turin  reUc.  In  1898  when  the  shroud  was 
solemnly  exposed,  permission  was  given  to  photo- 
graph it  and  a  sensation  was  caused  by  the  discovery 
that  the  image  upon  the  linen  was  apparently  a  nega- 
tive— in  other  words  that  the  photographic  negative 
taken  from  this  offered  a  more  recognizable  picture  of 
a  human  face  than  the  cloth  itself  or  any  positive 
print.  In  the  photographic  negative  the  lights  and 
shadows  were  natural,  in  the  linen  or  the  print  they 
were  inverted.  Three  years  afterwards  Dr.  Paul 
Vignon  read  a  remarkable  paper  before  the  Acaddmie 
des  Sciences  in  which  he  maintained  that  the  impres- 
sion upon  the  shroud  was  a  "  vaporigraph  "  caused  by 
the  ammoniacal  emanations  radiating  from  the  sur- 
face of  Christ's  body  after  so  violent  a  death.  Such 
vapours,  as  he  professed  to  have;  j)roved  exjjeriment- 
ally,  were  capul)l('  of  ])n)(hiciiig  a  dec])  reddish  brown 
stain,  varying  in  intensity  with  the  distance,  upon  a 
cloth  impregnated  with  oil  and  aloes.  The  image  upon 
the  shroud  was  therefore  a  natural  negative  and  as 
such  completely  beyond  the  comprehension  or  the 
skill  of  any  medieval  forger. 

Plausible  as  this  contention  appeared,  a  most  seri- 
ous historical  difficulty  had  meanwhile  been  brought 
to  light.  Owing  mainly  to  the  researches  of  Canon 
Ulysse  Chevalier  a  series  of  documents  was  discovered 
which  clearly  proved  that  in  1389  the  Bisliop  of 
Troyes  appealed  to  Clement  VII,  the  Avignon  jjope 
then  recognized  in  France,  to  put  a  stop  to  the  scan- 
dals connected  with  th(!  shroud  preserved  at  Lirey. 
It  was,  the  bishop  declared,  the  work  of  an  artist 
who  some  years  before  had  confessed  to  having 
painted  it,  but  it  was  then  being  exhibited  by  the 
canons  of  Lirey  in  such  a  way  that  the  populace  be- 


SHROVETIDE 


763 


SHROVETIDE 


lievcd  that  it  was  the  authentic  shroud  of  Jesus 
Christ.  The  pope,  without  absolutely  prohibiting 
the  exhibition  of  the  shroud,  decided  after  full  exam- 
ination that  in  future  when  it  was  shown  to  the  people 
the  priest  should  declare  in  a  loud  voice  that  it  was  not 
the  real  shroud  of  Christ,  but  only  a  picture  made  to 
represent  it.  The  authenticity  of  the  documents  con- 
nected with  this  appeal  is  not  disputed.  Moreover, 
the  grave  suspicion  thus  thrown  upon  the  relic  is  im- 
mensely strengthened  by  the  fact  that  no  intelligible  ac- 
count, beyond  wild  conjecture,  can  be  given  of  the  pre- 
vious history  of  the  shroud  or  of  its  coming  to  Lirey. 
An  animated  controversy  followed  and  it  must  be 
admitted  that  though  the  immense  preponderance 
of  opinion  among  learned  Catholics  (see  the  state- 
ment by  P.  M.  Baumgarten  in  the  "Historisches 
Jahrbuch",  1903,  pp.  319-43)  was  adverse  to  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  relic,  still  the  violence  of  many  of  its 


The  Disciples  Preparing  Christ's  Body  for  Burial,  and 

Exact  Representation  op  the  Holy  SHRono 

Giulio  Clovio,  the  Royal  Gallery,  Turin 

assailants  prejudiced  their  own  cause.  In  particular 
the  suggestions  made  of  blundering  or  bad  faith  on  the 
part  of  those  who  photographed  the  shroud  were 
quite  without  excuse.  From  the  scientific  point  of 
view,  however,  the  difficulty  of  the  "negative"  im- 
pression on  the  cloth  is  not  so  serious  as  it  seems. 
This  shroud  like  the  others  was  probably  painted 
without  fraudulent  intent  to  aid  the  dramatic  setting 
of  the  Easter  Sequence: 

Die  nobis  Maria,  quid  vidisti  in  via 
Angelicos  testes,  sudarium  et  vestes. 
As  the  word  sudarium  suggested,  it  was  painted  to 
represent  the  impression  made  by  the  sweat  of 
Christ,  i.  e.  probably  in  a  yellowish  tint  upon  un- 
bleached linen,  the  marks  of  wounds  being  added  in 
brilliant  red.  This  yellow  stain  would  turn  brown  in 
the  course  of  centuries,  the  darkening  process  being 
aided  by  the  effects  of  fire  and  sun.  Thus,  the  lights 
of  the  original  picture  would  become  the  shadow  of 
the  image  as  we  now  see  it;  but  even  in  159S 
Paleotto's  reproduction  of  the  images  on  the  shroud 
is  printed  in  two  colours,  pale  yellow  and  red.  As  for 
the  good  proportions  and  aesthetic  effect,  two  things 
may  be  noted.  First,  that  it  is  highly  probable  that 
the  artist  used  a  model  to  determine  the  length  and 


position  of  the  limbs,  etc.;  the  representation  no 
doubt  was  made  exactly  life  size.  Secondly,  the  im- 
pressions are  only  known  to  us  in  photographs  so  re- 
duced, as  compared  with  the  original,  that  the  crude- 
nesses,  aided  by  the  softening  effects  of  time,  entirely 
disappear. 

Lastly,  the  difficulty  must  be  noticed  that  while  the 
witnesses  of  the  fifteenth  and  early  sixteenth  centuries 
speak  of  the  image  as  being  then  so  vivid  that  the 
blood  seemed  freshly  shed,  it  is  now  darkened  and 
hardly  recognizable  without  minute  attention.  On 
the  supposition  that  this  is  an  authentic  relic  dating 
from  the  year  a.  d.  30,  why  should  it  have  retained  its 
brilliance  through  countless  journeys  and  changes  of 
climate  for  fifteen  centuries,  and  then  in  four  centuries 
more  have  become  almost  invisible?  On  the  other 
hand  if  it  be  a  fabrication  of  the  fifteenth  century  this 
is  exactly  what  we  should  expect. 

Baumgarten  stated  in  1903  that  more  than  3.500  articles, 
books,  etc.,  had  at  that  time  been  written  upon  the  Holy  Shroud. 
The  most  important  is  Chevalier,  Etude  critique  sur  Vorigine 
du  saint  suaire  (Paris,  1900).  Some  useful  df tails  are  added  by 
M^LY,  Le  saint  suaire  de  Turin  est-il  aiilln  nlii/nr.'  (I'aris,  1902). 
Baumgarten  in  Historisches  Jahrbuch  (MutikIi,  1',)(i:1),  319-43, 
shows  that  the  preponderance  of  Cathnlic  oiiiniou  is  greatly 
against  the  authenticity  of  the  shroud.  See  also  Braun  in 
Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach,  LXIII  (1902),  249  sqq.  and  398  sqq.; 
Thurston  in  The  Month  (London,  Jan.  and  Feb.,  1903)  and  in 
Retiue  du  clergS  frangais  (15  Nov.  and  15  Dec.,  1902). 

In  favour  of  the  shroud  may  be  mentioned  Vionon,  Le  linceul 
du  Christ  (Paris,  1902),  also  in  English  translation;  Mackey  in 
Dublin  Review  (.Ian.,  1903);  DE  Johannis  in  Etudes  (Paris,  1902 
and  Nov.,  1910);  Loth,  La  photographie  du  s.  suaire  de  Turin, 
documents  nouveaux  et  concluants  (Paris,  1910),  the  promise  of 
"new  and  conclusive  documents"  is  by  no  means  justified; 
Garrold  in  The  Tablet,  CXVII  (1  and  8  April,  London,  1911), 
482-4,  522^.  Of  older  books  may  be  mentioned:  Paleotto, 
Explicatione  del  lenzuolo  (Bologna,  1598  and  1599);  Mallonius, 
Jesu  Christi  stigmata  sacrw  sindoni  impressa  (Venice,  1606); 
Chifflet,  De  linteis  sepulchralibus  (Antwerp,  1624). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Shrovetide  is  the  Enghsh  equivalent  of  what  is 
known  in  the  greater  part  of  Southern  Iilurope  as  the 
"Carnival",  a  word  which,  in  spite  of  wild  suggestions 
to  the  contrary,  is  undoubtedly  to  be  derived  from  the 
"taking  away  of  fle-sh"  {carnem  lemre)  which  marked 
the  beginning  of  Lent.  The  English  term  "shrove- 
tide"  (from  "to  shrive",  or  hear  confessions)  is  sufh- 
cieiilly  (■xi)l;une(l  by  a  sentence  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
"KcclCsiastical  Institutes"  translated  from  Theodul- 
phus  l)y  .\bl)()t  /Elfric  (q.  v.)  about  A.  D.  1000:  "In 
the  week  immediately  before  Lent  everyone  shall  go 
to  his  confessor  and  confess  his  deeds  and  the  con- 
fessor shall  so  shrive  him  as  he  then  may  hear  by  his 
deeds  what  he  is  to  do  [in  the  way  of  penance]".  In 
this  name  shrovetide  the  religious  idea  is  uppermost, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  the  German  Fnslnacht  (the  eve 
of  the  fast).  It  is  intelligible  enough  that  before  a 
long  period  of  deprivations  human  nature  should  al- 
low itself  some  exceptional  licence  in  the  way  of  frolic 
and  good  cheer.  No  appeal  to  vague  and  often  in- 
consistent traces  of  earlier  pagan  customs  seems  needed 
to  explain  the  general  observance  of  a  carnival  celebra- 
tion. The  only  clear  fact  which  does  not  seem  to  be 
adequately  accounted  for  is  the  widespread  tendency 
to  include  the  preceding  Thursday  (called  in  I'^rench 
Jeudi  gras  and  in  German /e</er  Doii/ursldg — just  as 
Shrove  Tuesday  is  respectively  called  Manli  (iras  and 
fetter  Dienstag)  with  the  Monday  and  Tuesday  which 
follow  Quinquagesima.  The  English  custom  of  eat- 
ing pancakes  was  undoubtedly  suggested  by  the  need 
of  using  up  the  eggs  and  fat  which  weic,  originally  at 
least,  prohibited  articles  of  diet  during  llic  forty  days 
of  Lent.  The  same  prohibition  is,  of  course, mainly 
responsible  for  the  association  of  eggs  with  t  h(>  Easter 
festival  at  the  other  end  of  Lent.  Although  the  ob- 
servance of  Shrovetide  in  England  never  ran  to  the 
wild  excesses  which  often  marked  this  period  of  licence 
in  southern  (ilimes,  still  various  sports  and  especially 
games  of  football  were  common  in  almost  all  parts  of 
the  country,  and  in  the  households  of  the  great  it  was 
customary  to  celebrate  the  evening  of  Shrove  Tucs- 


SHUSHAN 


764 


SHUSWAP 


day  by  the  performance  of  plays  and  masques.  One 
form  of  cruel  sport  peculiarly  prevalent  at  this  seiison 
was  the  throwing  at  cocks,  neither  does  it  seem  to  have 
been  confined  to  England.  The  festive  observance  of 
Shrovetide  had  become  far  too  much  a  part  of  the  hfe 
of  the  people  to  be  summarily  discarded  at  the  Re- 
formation. In  Dekker's  "Seven  Deadly  Sins  of  Lon- 
don", 1606,  we  read:  "they  presently,  like  prentices 
upon  Shrove-Tuesday,  take  the  game  into  their  own 
hands  and  do  what  they  hst";  and  we  learn  from 
contemporan,-  writers  that  the  day  was  almost  everj'- 
where  kept  as  a  holiday,  while  many  kinds  of  horse- 
play seem  to  have  been  tolerated  or  winked  at  in  the 
universities  and  public  schools. 

The  Church  repeatedly  made  efforts  to  check  the 
excesses  of  the  carnival,  especially  in  Italy.  During 
the  sixteenth  centmy  in  particular  a  special  form  of 
the  Forty  Hours  Prayer  was  instituted  in  many 
places  on  the  Monday  and  Tuesday  of  Shrovetide, 
partly  to  draw  the  people  away  from  these  dangerous 
occasions  of  sin,  partly  to  make  ex-piation  for  the  ex- 
cesses committed.  By  a  special  constitution  ad- 
dressed by  Benedict  XIV  to  the  archbishops  and 
bishops  of  the  Papal  States,  and  headed  "Super  Bac- 
chanalibus",  a  plenarj'  indulgence  was  granted  in 
1747  to  those  who  took  part  in  the  Ex-position  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  which  was  to  be  carried  out  daily 
for  three  days  during  the  carnival  season. 

NiLLES,  CAlendarium  Manuale  Utriusque  Ecctesi(F,  II  (Inns- 
bruck, 1897),  5.5-70:  Thurston,  Lent  and  Holy  Week  (London, 
1904),  110-48;  Idem  in  The  Month  (Feb.,  1912);  Rademacher  in 
Encyclopedia  of  Religion  and  Ethics,  s.  v.  Carnival,  can  only  be 
mentioned  to  caution  the  reader  against  the  unsupported  assump- 
tions upon  which  the  whole  treatment  of  the  subject  is  based. 

Herbert  Thurston. 
Shushan.    See  Susa. 

Shuswap  Indians  (properly  Su-khapmuh,  a  name 
of  unknown  origin  and  moaning),  a  tribe  of  Salishan 
hnguistic  stock,  the  most  important  of  that  group  in 
British  Columbia,  formerly  holding  a  large  territory- 
on  middle  and  upper  Thompson  River,  including 
Shuswap,  Adams,  and  Quesnel  Lakes.  On  the  south 
they  bordered  upon  the  Okanagan  and  Thompson 
River  Indians;  on  the  west,  the  Lillooct ;  on  the 
north,  the  Chilcotin;  and  on  the  east  extended  to  the 
main  divide  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  They  are  now 
gathered  upon  a  number  of  small  reservations  at- 
tached to  the  Kamloops-Okanagan  and  Williams 
Lake  agencies,  besides  a  small  detached  band  of  about 
six-ty  domiciliated  with  the  Kutenai  farther  to  tlu; 
south.  From  perhaps  .5000  souLs  a  century  ago  they 
have  been  reduced,  chiefly  by  smallpox,  to  about 
2200.  The  principal  bands  are  those  of  Kamloops, 
Adams  Lake,  Alkali  Lake,  Canoe  Creek,  Xeskainlith, 
Spaliumcheen,  and  Williams  Lake,  \\hat  liltlc  is 
known  of  the  early  histor>'  of  the  Shuswaj)  consists 
chiefly  of  a  record  of  unimportant  tribal  wars  and 
deaUngs  with  the  traders  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany, which  <^tablished  Fort  Thompson  at  Kamloops 
a-s  early  as  1810.  The  work  of  Christianization  and 
civilization  began  in  the  winter  of  1842-43  with  the 
visit  of  F'athcr  Modestc  Derners,  who  accompanied 
the  annual  Hudson  Bay  caravan  from  Fort  Vancouver 
on  the  Columbia  to  the  northern  posts,  and  spent 
Hf)me  time  both  going  and  returning  among  the  Shu- 
swap at  Williams  Lake,  preaching  and  instructing  in  a 
temporary  chapel  built  for  the  ]nir]xmi  by  the  In- 
dians. About  two  years  later  the  noted  Jesuit 
mi.ssionary,  Father  P.  J.  de  Smet,  and  his  fellow-la- 
bourers established  several  mi.ssions  in  British  Co- 
lumbia, including  one  among  the  Shuswap.  These 
wore  continued  until  about  1847,  when  more  prosing 
nocd  in  the  south  compelled  a  withdrawal,  and  for  some; 
years  t  he  Indians  saw  only  an  oc<;fusionaI  visit  ing  priest . 

In  1862  a  rush  of  American  miners  into  the  newly 
(liwovered  gold  mine^  in  the  Caribou  mountains  at 
the  head  of  Fraser  River  brought  with  it  a  terrible 
emallpox  visitation  by  which,  according  to  reliable  esti- 


mate, probably  one-half  the  Indians  of  British  Co- 
lumbia were  wiped  out  of  existence,  the  Shuswap  suf- 
fering in  the  same  proportion.  In  the  meantime  the 
Oblates  had  entered  the  province  and  in  1867  Father 
James  M.  McGuckin  of  that  order  established  the 
Saint  Joseph  Mission  on  Williams  Lake  for  the  Shu- 
swa])  and  adjacent  tribes,  giving  attention  also  to  the 
neighbouring  white  miners.     A  few  years  later  the 


< 


"^ 


U.  i.  Kamloops  WdiA/a,  Ma/11/ 


\i:>epoL  i'a.Aix. 
KoLvYi  Loops 

ta/r)6cs 
lalAa  ttikt 

'So/)  day ; 
pous  teA^ 


I&^  u/antj 
to  CLdpecc^ 


ij-'  t/cy    6e 


to  hit  c 


Men, 


IJKDi'fED  Facsimilk  ok  FiusT  Pa(;k  of  Kamloops  Wawa 
From  Filling's  Bibliography  of  the  Salishan  Languages 

mi.ssion  had  two  schools  in  operation  sen-^cd  by  six 
Oblate  fathers  and  lay  brothers  and  four  Sisters  of 
Saint  Anne.  Father  McGuckin  was  in  charge  until 
1  >S2  and  wius  succeeded  by  Fr.  A.  (!.  Moricf-,  noted 
for  his  ethnologic  and  j)hiI()logic  eontributions,  includ- 
in-:;  the  invention  of  the  Dene  Indian  svllabary.  An- 
oiher  distinguished  Ohhde  worker  at  "the  same  mis- 
sion Wiis  Fr.  John  M.  Le  Jeune,  editor  of  the  "  Kam- 
looi)s  Wawa",  published  simc  1S!I1  at  Kamloops,  in 
tlu!  Chinook  jargon,  in  a  shorthand  system  of  his  own 
invention. 

In  their  primitive  condition  the  Shuswap  were  with- 
out agriculture,  depending  for  subsi.stence  upon  hunt- 
ing, fishing,  and  the  gathering  of  wild  oats  and  berries. 
The  deer  was  the  principal  game  animal  and  each 
family  group  had  its  own  hereditary  hunting  gntund 
and  fishing  place.  The  salmon  wa,s  the  prineip.al  fish 
and  was  dried  in  large  quantities  as  the  chief  winter 
provision.  Aniong  roots  the  lily  and  the  f^amas 
ranked  first,  being  usually  roasted,  by  an  elaborate  pro- 
cess, in  large  covered  pits.     Considerable  ceremony  at- 


SIAM 


765 


SIAM 


tended  the  ripening  and  gathering  of  the  berries,  which 
were  crushed  and  dried  for  winter.  The  house  was 
the  semi-subterranean  circular  lodge,  built  of  logs 
and  covered  with  earth,  common  to  all  the  interior 
Salishan  tribes  of  British  Columbia.  The  temporary 
summer  lodge  was  of  poles  covered  with  mats  or  inter- 
woven branches.  As  in  other  tribes  the  sweat-house 
for  steam  baths  on  ceremonial  occasions  was  an  ad- 
junct of  every  camp.  The  ordinary  weapons  were  the 
bow,  lance,  stone  axe,  and  club.  Body  armour  of 
tough  hide  or  strips  of  wood  was  worn.  They  made 
no  pottery,  but  excelled  in  basket  making  and  the 
weaving  of  rush  mats.  Dug-out  canoes  of  cedar  were 
used  for  river  travel. 

The  tribal  organization  was  loose,  without  central 
authority.  Village  chiefs  were  hereditary,  and  the 
people  were  divided  into  "nobles",  commons,  and 
slaves,  the  last  being  prisoners  of  war  and  their  de- 
scendants, perhaps  purchased  from  some  other  tribe. 
There  were  no  clans  and  descent  was  paternal.  The 
"potlatch"  or  great  ceremonial  gift  distribution  was 
not  so  prominent  as  among  the  coast  tribes,  but  there 
were  elaborate  ceremonies  in  connexion  with  marriage, 
mourning  for  the  dead,  and  puberty  of  girls.  The 
dead  were  buried  in  a  sitting  jxjsition,  or  if  the  death 
occurred  far  from  home  the  body  was  burned  and  the 
bones  brought  back  for  burial.  Horses  and  dogs 
were  killed  at  the  grave,  and  the  slaves  of  the  dead 
man  were  buried  alive  with  the  body,  after  which  a 
funeral  feast  was  spread,  for  the  mourners,  above  the 
grave.  Women  were  isolated  at  the  menstrual  per- 
iod, and  twins,  being  held  uncanny,  were  secluded  to- 
gether with  the  mother  until  old  enough  to  walk. 
Their  religion  was  animism,  each  man  believing  him- 
self under  the  sp(>cial  protection  of  some  animal  spirit, 
which  had  appeared  to  him  in  visions  during  his 
puberty  vigil.  Most  of  their  important  myths  cen- 
tred about  the  coyote  as  the  great  transformer  and 
culture  hero. 

Heathenism  and  old  custom  are  now  extinct,  the 
entire  tribe  being  civilized  and  officially  reported 
Catholic,  with  the  excciition  of  one  band  of  forty-five 
attached  to  the  Aiiglicnn  Church.  In  addition  to  the 
flourishing  Oblate  mission  at  Williams  Lake,  another 
under  the  same  auspices  at  Kamloops  is  equally  suc- 
cessful. Besides  their  own  language,  they  use  the 
Chinook  jargon  for  intertribal  communication.  The 
official  report  (1908)  for  the  Williams  Lake  band  will 
answer  for  all:  "The  general  health  has  been  good. 
Their  dwellings  are  clean  and  premises  kept  in  a  good 
sanitary  condition.  Farming,  stock  raising,  teaming, 
hunting  and  fishing  are  the  principal  occupations. 
They  have  good  dwellings  and  stables,  a  number  of 
horses,  cattle  anfl  pigs.  They  are  well  supplied  with 
all  kinds  of  farm  iiiij)lenients.  Most  of  the  children 
have  attended  the  Williams  Lake  industrial  school. 
They  are  industrious  and  law-abiding  and  making 
good  progress.  A  few  are  fond  of  intoxicants  when 
they  can  procure  them.     As  a  rule  they  are  moral". 

Bancroft,  //i^■^■  Brit.  Columbia  (San  Francisco,  1857);  Boas, 
Sixth  Rept.  on  Northwestern  Tribes  of  Canada  in  Brit.  Ass.  Adzan. 
Sci.  (London,  1890):  Ann.  Rep.  Can.  Dept.  Ind.  Aff.  (Ottawa); 
Dawson,  Notes  on  the  Shuswap  in  Proc.  and  Trans.  Roy.  Soc. 
Canada,  IX,  ii  (Montreal,  1892);  Morick,  Catholic  Church  m 
Western  Canada  (2  vols.,  Toronto,  1910);  Pili.ing,  Bibliography 
of  the  Salishan  Languages,  Bulletin  Bur.  Am.  Eth.  (Washington, 
1893). 

James  Moonby. 

Siam,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. — Siam,  "the  land 
of  the  White  Elephant"  or  the  country  of  the  Muang 
Thai  (the  Free),  is  situated  in  the  south-eastern 
corner  of  Asia,  lying  between  4°  and  21°  north  lat. 
and  97°  and  106°  east  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Tong-king  and  the  southern  states  of 
Burma,  on  the  east  by  Annam  and  Cambodia,  on  the 
south  by  the  Gulf  of  Siam  and  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  thus  forms 
a  buffer  state  between  French  and  British  possessions. 


From  north  to  south  Siam  measures  in  length  some 
1130  and  in  breadth  some  508  miles,  covering  an  area 
of  some  242,580  square  miles,  about  the  size  of  Spain 
and  Portugal,  and  is  divided  into  41  provinces.  Its 
population  is  estimated  to  be  between  six  and  nine 
million  inhabitants,  of  whom  a  third  are  Siamese,  a 
quarter  Chinese  or  of  Chinese  descent,  whilst  the  rest 
is  made  up  of  Burmese,  Cambodians,  Laotines, 
Malays,  Pegus,  Tamils,  and  Europeans.  The  Sia- 
mese are  described  as  a  polite,  hospitable,  obliging, 
light-hearted,  pleasure  and  feast-loving  people,  as 
clever  gold  and  silversmiths,  possessing  great  taste 
for  art  and  skill  as  painters,  decorators,  and  carvers 
in  wood,  stone,  plaster,  and  mosaic.  They  are, 
however,  not  fond  of  work  nor  is  it  necessary  for  them 
to  be  so,  for  they  have  few  wants  for  housing  and  food, 
fire  and  clothing,  and  mother  earth  has  endowed  them 
with  a  perpetual  summer  and  a  fertile  soil,  yielding 
rich  harvests  of  rice  and  pepper,  whilst  the  mountains 
abound  in  teak  and  yellow  wood,  box  and  ebony, 
sapan  and  padoo.  The  chief  commerce  is  in  silk, 
which  is  carried  on  along  the  Menam  River  and  its 
numerous  affluents  and  canals.  The  state  religion 
is  Buddhism,  which,  according  to  the  earliest  annals, 
was  introduced  as  far  back  as  638.  With  perhaps 
t!:e  exception  of  Tibet,  there  is  no  country  in  the  East 
where  Buddhism  is  so  intensely  interwoven  with  the 
life  of  a  nation  from  the  king  to  the  lowest  subject, 
and  where  the  talapoins  or  bonzes  play  such  an  im- 
portant role  in  the  national  life,  so  that  every  male 
subject,  the  king  and  the  crown  prince  not  excepted, 
has  to  live  in  a  Buddhist  monastery  and  join  the  ranks 
of  the  talapoins  for  a  short  period.  Up  to  a  few  years 
ago  these  Buddhist  monasteries  were  the  only  es- 
tahlislunonts  for  education,  which  were  restricted  to 
the  male  population.  Though  Buddhism  is  the 
a(!knowledged  religion  of  the  state  and  towards  it 
the  Government  allows  some  .$20,000,000  yearly, 
all  other  religious  creeds  are  granted  full  liberty  of 
worship,  nor  does  any  one  incur  disabilities  on  account 
of  his  religious  beliefs.  The  king,  being  the  highest 
"supporter  of  the  doctrine",  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
religion  and  appoints  all  religious  dignitaries,  from 
the  four  Sotndet  Phra  Chow  Rajagana  (archpriests) 
downwards. 

Little  is  known  about  the  early  history  of  the  coun- 
try. It  was  first  called  Siam  by  the  Portuguese 
(1511)  and  other  nations  who  came  into  contact  v/ith 
it.  Before  Ayuthia  or  Yuthia  was  established  as  the 
capital  (1350),  the  country  was  divided  into  a  num- 
ber of  separate  principalities  bound  together  by  race, 
language,  religion,  and  customs.  A  continual  migra- 
tion from  the  north  to  the  south  took  place  till  in 
1350  a  branch  of  the  Thai  race  established  itself  at 
Ayuthia.  The  history  of  Siam  as  a  dominant  power 
begins  with  Phra-Chao  Utong  Somdetcsh  Pra  Rama 
Tibaudi  I  (1351-71)  and  it  was  ruled  by  thirty-four 
kings  (1351-1767)  belonging  to  three  different 
dynasties.  During  the  inroads  of  the  Burmese 
(1767-82),  Ayuthia  was  destroyed  and  the  new 
Siamese  capital  was  established  at  Bangkok,  "the 
Venice  of  the  East ".  As  early  as  151 1  the  Portuguese 
made  a  commercial  treaty  with  Siam  and  subse- 
quently the  Japanese,  the  Dutch,  and  the  British 
entered  into  commercial  relations  with  it.  But  the 
present  flourishing  commercial  condition  only  dates 
from  1851,  when  King  Mongkut  opened  Siam  to 
Europeans  and  to  European  trade,  favoured  European 
factories,  and  made  himself  acquainted  with  Western 
civilization.  After  his  death  in  1868,  his  eldest  son, 
Chulalongkorn  (d.  1910),  succeeded  as  the  fortieth 
ruler  of  Siam,  and  during  a  reign  of  forty-two  years 
shov/ed  himself  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  farseeing 
princes  who  ever  sat  on  an  Asiatic  throne,  a  king  of 
European  education  and  manners,  to  whose  energy 
and  initiative  Siam  owes  much  of  her  prosperity^, 
railways,  telegraphs,  army  (20,000  men),  navy  (37 


SIAM 


766 


SIAM 


ships,  15,000  men),  and  education  for  both  sexes. 
Siam  has  so  far  been  able  to  maintain  her  national 
independence,  owing  to  the  rivalry  of  England  and 
France.  The  latter  has  tried  ever  since  the  days  of 
Louis  XIV  to  obtain  a  footing  in  Siam  and  has  ac- 
tually gained  large  concessions  of  territory  bv  the 
treaties  of  1S91,  1S93,  1904,  and  1907,  nor  has' Eng- 
land lacked  her  share  (1909). 

The  first  historical  record  of  an  attempt  to  intro- 
duce Christianity  we  owe  to  John  Peter  Maffei  who 
states  that  about  1550  a  French  Franciscan,  Bonferre, 
hearing  of  the  great  kingdom  of  the  Peguans  and  the 
Siamese  in  the  East,  went  on  a  Portuguese  ship  from 
Goa  to  Cosme  (Peguan),  where  for  three  years  he 
preached  the  Gospel,  but  without  any  result.  In 
1552  St.  Francis  Xavier,  writing  from  Sancian  to  his 
friend  Diego  Pereira,  expressed  his  desire  to  go  to 
Siam,  but  his  death  on  2  December,  1552,  prevented 
him.  In  1553  several  Portuguese  ships  landed  in 
Siam,  and  at  the  request  of  the  king  three  hundred 
Portuguese  soldiers  entered  his  service.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  two  Dominicans,  Fathers  Hieronymus  of 
the  Cross  and  Sebastian  de  Cantu,  joined  them  as 
chaplains.  In  a  short  time  they  established  three 
parishes  at  Aj'iithia  with  some  fifteen  hundred  con- 
verted Siamese.  Both  missionaries,  however,  were 
murdered  bj'  the  pagans  (1569),  and  were  replaced  by 
Fathers  Lopez  Cardoso,  John  Madeira,  Alphonsus 
Ximenes,  Louis  Fonseca  (martyred  in  1600),  and  John 
Maldonatus  (d.  1598).  In  1606  the  Jesuit  Balthasar 
de  Sequeira  at  the  request  of  the  Portuguese  mer- 
chant Tristan  Golayo,  and  in  1624  Father  Julius 
Cesar  IMargico,  came  to  Ayuthia  and  gained  the  fa- 
vour of  the  king.  A  subsequent  persecution,  how- 
ever, stopped  the  propagation  of  the  Faith  and  no 
missionary  entered  till  Siam  was  made  a  vicariate 
ApostoUc  by  Alexander  VII  on  22  August,  1662. 
Soon  after,  Sigr  Pierre  de  la  Motte-Lambert,  Vicar- 
Apostohc  of  Cochin  China,  arrived  at  Ayuthia,  ac- 
companied by  Fathers  De  Bourges  and  Deydier.  In 
1664  he  was  joined  by  Mgr  Pallu,  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Tong  King.  Siam,  in  those  days  the  rendezvous  of 
all  commerical  enterprise  in  the  East,  gave  shelter  to 
several  hundred  Annamite  and  Japanese  Christians 
who  had  been  ex-pelled  or  lived  there  as  voluntary 
e.xiles  on  account  of  persecutions  at  home.  Some 
Portuguese  and  Spanish  Jesuits,  Franciscans,  and 
Augustinians  had  the  spiritual  care  of  their  country- 
men in  Siam.  Mgr  Pallu,  on  his  return  to  Rome 
(1665),  obtained  a  Brief  from  Clement  IX  (4  July, 
1669),  by  which  the  Vicariate  of  Siam  was  entrusted 
to  the  newly-founded  Society  of  Foreign  Missions  of 
Paris.  In  167.'i  Father  Laneau  was  consecrated  titu- 
lar Bishop  of  Metellopolis  and  first  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Siam,  and  ever  since  Siam  has  been  under  the  spiritual 
care  of  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions.  King  Phra- 
Xarai  (1657-83?)  gave  the  Catholic  missionaries  a 
hearty  welcome,  and  made  them  a  gift  of  land  for  a 
church,  a  mission-house,  and  a  seminary  (St.  Joseph's 
colony).  Through  the  influence  of  the  Greek  or 
Venetian,  Constantine  Phaulcon,  prime  minister  to 
King  Phra-Xarai,  the  latter  sent  a  diplomatic  em- 
bassy to  lyiuis  XIV  in  1684.  The  French  king  re- 
tumf'd  the  compliment  by  sending  M.  de  Chaumont, 
af;companied  by  some  Jesuits  under  Fathers  de  F'onte- 
nay  and  Tachard.  On  10  December,  1685,  King 
Phra-Narai  signed  a  treaty  at  IjOuvo  with  France, 
wherein  he  allowed  the  Catholic  missionaries  to 
preach  the  Gospel  throughout  Siam,  exempted  his 
Catholic  subjects  from  work  on  Sunday,  and  ap- 
pointed a  special  man<larin  to  scuttle  disputes  between 
Christians  anfl  pagans.  Hut  after  the  departure  of 
M.  dr-  Chaumont,  a  Siamese  mandarin,  Phra-phret- 
racha,  got  up  a  revolution,  the  j)rim<'  minister  was 
murdered,  King  Phra-Xarai  deposed,  Mgr  Laneau 
and  sfiveral  missionaries  were  taken  prisoners  and  ill- 
treated,  and  the  Christians  were  persecuted. 


When  in  1690  peace  and  order  were  restored.  Bishop 
Laneau  resumed  work  till  his  death  in  1696.  Kio  suc- 
cessor. Bishop  Louis  of  Cice  (1700-27),  was  able  to 
continue  it  in  peace.  But  after  his  death  the  rest  of 
the  century  is  but  the  history  of  persecutions  (those  of 
1729,  1755, 1764  are  the  most  notable),  either  by  local 
mandarins  or  Burmese  in^'aders,  though  the  kings  re- 
mained more  or  less  favourable  to  the  missionaries  and 
to  Bishops  Texier  de  Kerla^^  and  de  Loliere-Puycontat 
(1755).  During  the  inroads  of  tlie  Burmese  the  Sia- 
mese king  even  appealed  to  Bishop  Brigot  for  help 
against  the  common  foe,  who  sacked  and  burned  the 
Catholic  stations  and  colleges  and  imprisoned  both 
the  bishop  and  the  missionaries.  In  1769  Father 
Corre  resumed  the  missions  in  Siam  and  thus  paved 
the  way  for  the  new  vicar  ApostoHc,  Mgr  Lebon 
(1772-80).  But  a  fresh  persecution  in  1775  forced 
him  to  leave  the  kingdom,  and  both  his  successors. 
Bishops  Conde  and  Garnault,  were  unable  to  do  much. 
During  the  Burmese  wars  the  Christians  were  reduced 
from  12,000  to  1000,  while  Bishop  Florens  was  left  in 
charge  with  only  seven  native  pri(>sts.  It  was  only  in 
1826  and  1830  that  a  fresh  supply  of  European  mis- 
sionaries arrived,  among  them  Fathers  Bouchot, 
Barbe,  Bruguiere,  Vachal,  Grandjean,  Pallegoix, 
Courvezy,  etc.  In  1834  the  last  was  appointed  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Siam,  and  the  missions  began  to  revive. 
Under  him  Siam  numbered  6590  Catholics,  11  Euro- 
pean and  7  native  priests.  His  successor.  Bishop 
Pallegoix  (1840-62),  author  of  "Description  du  roy- 
aume  Thai  ou  Siam"  and  " Dictionnaire  siamois- 
latin-f  rangais-anglais "  (30,000  words),  was  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  vicars  Apostolic  of  Siam, 
the  best  Siamese  scholar,  and  a  missionary  among  the 
Laotines.  He  induced  Xapoleon  III  to  renew  the 
French  alliance  with  Siam  and  to  send  an  embassy 
under  M.  de  Montigny  to  Siam  in  1856.  On  8  July, 
1856,  King  Mongkut  signed  a  pohtical-commercial 
treaty  with  France,  by  which  the  privileges  granted 
to  the  Cathohc  missionaries  by  Phra-Narai  in  the 
seventeenth  century  were  renewed.  The  bishop  was 
highly  esteemed  by  the  king,  who  personally  assisted 
at  his  funeral  and  accepted  from  the  missionaries  as 
atokenof  friendship  the  bishop's  ring.  Thanks  to  the 
broad-mindedness  of  Kings  Mongkut  (1851-68)  and 
Chulalongkorn  (1868-1910),  the  Catholic  Church  in 
Siam  has  enjoyed  peace  under  Pallegoix's  successors, 
Bishops  Dupont  (1862-72)  and  Vey  (1875-1909). 
Owing  to  the  compUcations  between  France  and  Siam, 
in  1894,  the  missionaries  had  to  endure  the  ill-will  of 
local  mandarins,  though  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
promised  that  no  harm  would  be  done  to  the  mission- 
aries and  their  work  on  account  of  the  French  inva- 
sion. Though  the  mission  in  Laos,  commenced  in 
1876,  formally  opened  in  1883,  and  erected  into  a 
vicariate  Apostolic  on  4  May,  1899,  is  now  separated 
from  Siam,  the  Catholic  missions  have  mad(>  great 
progress  during  the  last  thirty-five  years.  While  in 
1875  there  were  in  Siam  11,000  Catholics,  17  Euro- 
pean and  7  nati\('  ])ri('s1s,  and  30  churches,  there  are 
now  (1911),  23,000  Catliolics,  42  European  and  13  na- 
tive priests,  3S  catechist-s,  50  (central  stations,  55 
churches  and  cliapels,  12  Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel,  103 
sisters  (Holy  Infant  Jesus,  St.  Paul  of  Chartres, 
Ivovers  of  the  Cross),  50  elementary  schools  with  over 
3000  pupils,  15  orphanages  with  314  inmates,  3  agri- 
cultural schools,  1  seminary  with  62  students,  1  col- 
lege with  400  boys,  and  a  pemionnat  with  220  girls, 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  Mgr  Ren6  Mary  Joseph 
Perros  dv.  Guewenh(nm,  titular  Bishop  of  Zaora, 
appointed  17  September,  1909. 

Caktbk,  The  Kinfidom  of  Siam  (Now  York  and  London,  1904); 
IIkmhk  WARTKtio.  .Siam  (Lnipzig,  1H99);  Pallbqoix,  Dencrip- 
tion  du  roi/aume  Thai  ou  Siam  (Bc-aune,  18.53);  Piollet,  Lea 
MinHiorm  Catholiques  franfaines  au  XIX'  sikcle,  II  (Paris,  8.  d.); 
Launay,  Hint.  GSnh-ale  de  la  Sociili  des  Miasions  Etrangiret 
(.3  vols.,  Paris.  1894). 

Matbrnus  Spitz. 


SIBBEL 


767 


SIBERIA 


Sibbel,  Joseph,  sculptor,  b.  at  Dulmen,  7  June, 
1850;  d.  in  New  York,  10  July,  1907.  As  a  boy  he 
evinced  the  inchnation  for  cutting  ornaments  and 
figures  from  wood,  which  attracted  the  attention  of 
his  teacher,  who  urged  the  parents  of  the  boy  to  send 
him  to  Miinster,  Westphaha.  At  the  estabhshment 
of  the  wood  carver,  Friedrich  A.  Ewertz,  Sibbel 
developed  a  genius  for  ecclesiastical  sculpture.  He 
spent  his  leisure  time  in  visiting  the  studio  of  the 
sculptor  Achterman,  where  he  acquired  the  art  of 
modelling  in  clay.  In  1S73  he  emigrated  to  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio.  Here  he  joined  several  other  artists 
from  the  same  workshop,  who  had  established  an 
atelier  for  ecclesiastical  sculpture,  mostly  in  wood. 
Wlien  this  enterprise  failed,  he  tried  his  hand  at 
secular  sculpture  with  a  certain  Rebisso.  When  this 
establishment  also  failed,  Sibbel  came  to  New  York, 
where  he  established  the  studio  from  which  issued  his 
many  works.  Here  the  difficult  task  confronted  him 
of  competing  with  the  mechanical  manufacture  of 
pseudo-art  with  which  the  churches  were  being  fiUed, 
and  which  gave  them  a  stereotyped  and  monotonous 
decoration.  To  emulate  foreign  ecclesiastical  decora- 
tion was  his  aim.  His  first  work  in  New  York  wa.s  a 
lectern,  cast  in  bronze,  for  the  Episcopal  Stewart 
Memorial  Cathedral  in  Garden  City,  Long  Island. 
Here  the  young  artist  broke  loose  from  the  ordinary 
form  by  placing  religious  groups  in  front  of  the  stand. 
Below  the  customary  eagle  with  spread  wings  he 
designed  an  upright  figiu-e  of  the  Saviour  blessing  a 
group  at  His  feet.  The  sermon  desk  proper  he 
adorned  with  a  symbolical  group  of  three  figures, 
typifying  youth,  maturity,  and  age,  listening  to  the 
word  of  God  from  above. 

It  was  not  until  he  furnished  for  the  cathedral  at 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  a  .series  of  alto-relievos,  prom- 
inent among  which  was  an  altar  picture  representing 
the  Child  Christ  disputing  with  the  Scribes  in  the 
temple,  that  the  Catholic  churches  began  to  appreciate 
him.  These  and  a  series  of  Stations  of  the  Cross  were 
cast  in  imitation  alabaster,  and  attracted  great 
attention.  Still  more  admirable  was  his  colossal 
statue  of  Archbishop  Feehan  of  Chicago.  His  works 
showed  complete  emancipation  from  the  convention- 
ahty  of  the  cloister-art  of  modern  times.  His  best- 
known  work  is  the  heroic  and  delicately  wrought 
statue  of  St.  Patrick  in  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New 
York.  Here  also  are  to  be  found  his  statues  of  St. 
Anselmo,  St.  Bernard  of  Clairvau.x,  St.  Alphonsus 
Liguori,  and  St.  Bonaventure. 

The  two  heroic  panels,  representing  "Our  Lady 
Comforter  of  the  Afflicted"  and  "The  Death  of  St. 
Joseph",  erected  in  the  Church  of  St.  Francis  Xavier 
at  St.  Louis,  are  of  unique  conception.  These  groups, 
each  twelve  feet  high  and  eight  feet  wide,  were  carvea 
from  one  block  weighing  nearly  nine  tons.  The  four 
heroic  statues  at  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Dunwoodie, 
New  York,  must  be  classed  as  the  final  step  in  his 
emancipation  from  conventionality.  These  figures 
represent  Father  .Jogues,  S.J.,  the  martj'red  apostle 
of  the  Mohawk  Iiuliaiis;  St.  Rose  of  Lima,  the  first 
canonized  saint  of  the  New  World;  St.  Turibius; 
and  Catherine  Tagawitha,  the  Indian  maiden,  and 
first  convert  of  the  Indian  race.  In  these  statues  the 
artist  ventured  on  a  new  path  in  religious  sculpture, 
portraying  typical  American  subjects.  Among  his 
latest  works  was  the  exterior  and  interior  statuary 
decoration  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  Pittsburg. 
Among  these  statues  are  represented  the  Apostles 
and  Doctors  of  the  Church,  executed  in  Indian  hme- 
stone.  In  the  conception  of  each  statue  there  is  ex- 
pressed a  new  idea.  Most  noteworthy  is  the  marble 
statue  representing  Purgatory.  Here  the  artist  repre- 
sents in  two  figures  a  very  complex  idea.  Out  of  the 
flames  of  torture  there  rises  a  female  figure,  symbolical 
of  a  liberated  soul  casting  off  the  veil  of  darkness  and 
beholding  the  hght  of  eternal  reward.    Below,  there 


appears  a  still  afflicted  soul,  represented  by  a  wan 
rnale  figure  imploring  intercession.  Characteristic  of 
Sibbel's  works  is  the  pleasing  tendency  toward  free- 
dom from  conventionality.  They  evince  originahty 
of  design,  though  still  in  accord  with  history  and 
tradition.  His  statues  are  pervaded  by  a  pleasing 
reahstic  spirit,  which  gives  to  the  dull  and  lifeless 
marble  a  form  that  appeals  to  the  heart  and  inspires 
devotion  and  prayer. 

Akmin  Sibbel. 

Siberia,  a  Russian  possession  in  Asia  forming  the 
northern  third  of  that  continent;  it  extends  from  the 
Ural  mountains  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  from  the 
coast  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  about  50°  north  latitude. 
It  has  an  area  of  4,786,730  square  miles  and  in  1897 
had  5,758,822  inhabitants.  Classified  according  to 
race  its  population  included:  4,659,423  Russians,  29,- 
177  Poles,  5424  Germans,  61,279  Finno-Ugrians 
(Mordvinians,  Ostiaks,  Syryenians,  etc.),  476,139 
Turko-Tatars  (Tatars,  Yakuts,  Kasakkirghizes), 
288,589  Buriats,  11,931  Samoyedes,  66,269  Tunguses, 
31,057  Pala;o-Asiatics,  or  Hyperboreans  (Yukaghirs, 
Tchuktchis,  Ghilyaks,  etc.),  41,112  Chinese,  25,966 
Koreans.  According  to  religion  the  population  was 
estimated  later  thus:  5,201,250  Orthodox  Greeks, 
227,720  Raskolniks,  32,530  Catholics,  13,370  Protes- 
tants, 30,550  Jews,  1,068,800  Mohammedans,  224,- 
000  Buddhists,  etc.     At  the  beginning  of  the  year 

1909  the  population  was  estimated  to  number  about 
7,878,500  persons.  For  purposes  of  administration 
Siberia  is  divided  into  four  governments  and  six 
departments. 

The  Siberian  Cathohcs  belong  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Mohileff;   according  to  the   Alohileff  year-book  for 

1910  they  number  almost  74,000.  They  aic  largely 
Poles  or  the  descendants  of  Poles  and  Put  liciiians  who 
were  banished  to  Siberia  on  account  of  tlieir  religion; 
this  was  especially  the  case  when  the  Emperor 
Nicholas  I  sought  in  1827-39  to  convert  the  tJniat 
Ruthenians  and  Lithuanians  by  force  to  the  Or- 
thodox Church,  and  when  thousands  of  Catholics 
and  several  hundred  priests  were  deported  to  Siberia 
after  the  Polish  revolt  of  1863.  Great  difficulties  are 
connected  with  the  pastoral  care  of  the  Catholics 
on  account  of  the  small  number  or  priests  and  the 
great  extent  of  territory  which  the  priests  must 
traverse.  Very  often  the  priests  are  obliged  to  lead 
a  real  nomad  life  in  order  to  be  able  to  visit  the  mem- 
bers of  their  flock  at  least  once  a  year.  When  a 
priest  leaves  his  presbytery  at  Easter  he  often  does 
not  return  from  his  pastoral  tour  until  Easter  of  the 
next  year.  The  priests  often  break  down  under  the 
burden  of  their  toil,  although  they  receive  relatively 
good  support  from  the  Government  which  grants  them 
600  roubles,  30  dessiatines  (81  acres)  of  land,  and 
refunds  the;  expenses  of  their  journeys.  On  account 
of  the  great  distances  a  canonical  visitation  of  the 
churches  of  Siberia  by  a  Catholic  bishop  was  not 
possible  until  in  1909,  when  Bishop  Johannes  Cieplak, 
coadjutor  of  Mohileff,  traversed  all  Siberia  and 
Saghalian.  In  addition  to  this  canonical  visitation 
interest  in  the  Church  among  Catholics  has  been 
greatly  quickened  by  the  missions  held  by  the 
Redemptorists  in  1908,  by  permission  of  the  Govern- 
ment, in  all  to^vns  where  there  were  Catholic  com- 
munities; Catholics  came  to  these  services  from  great 
distances.  An  actual  organization  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical administration  for  the  Catholics  of  Siberia  will 
only  be  possible  when  an  independent  diocese  is 
established  for  Siberia  with  its  see  at  Irkutsk  or 
Tomsk.  This  is  what  the  Holy  See  desires  to  do 
but  the  plan  will  probably  not  be  carried  out  soon 
on  account  of  the  attitude  of  the  Russian  Government 
towards  the  Catholic  Church.  During  the  seventh 
decade  of  the  last  century  the  Catholics  had  the  use 
of  only  five  churches  while  now  according  to  the 


SIBERIA 


768 


SIBERIA 


year-book  for  Mohileff  of  1910  there  are  in  Siberia, 
including  Omsk  that  geographically  belongs  to 
Siberia  but  is  assigned  by  the  Russian  government 
to  Central  Asia,  27  Catholic  priests,  73,800  Catho- 
lics, 7  parishes  with  a-s  many  parish  churches,  15 
(lej)endent  communit  ies,  and  2 1  chajjels.  The  parishes 
are:  Irkutsk,  Krassnoyarsk,  Omsk,  Tchita,  Tobolsk, 
Tomsk,  Vkwlivostok. 

History. — Siberia  does  not  appear  in  the  light  of  his- 
tory until  a  late  era.  When  and  whence  the  original 
inhabitants  migrated  to  their  present  homes  cannot  be 
definitely  ascertained.  While  the  peoples  near  the 
polar  circle  from  the  beginning  until  now  have  been 
tribes  barely  subsisting  by  hunting,  the  nomadic 
tribes  of  herdsmen  who  probably  emigrated  from  Cen- 
tral Asia  to  Siberia,  have  graduallj'  risen  to  a  some- 
what higher  level  of  civihzation.  In  some  tribes,  as 
the  Yakuts,  the  memory  of  the  migration  from  the 
south  still  exists.  During  the  great  migrations  from 
Central  Asia  the  tribes  hving  on  the  plateau  of  Asia 
were  generally  drawn  into  the  movement  and  became 
incorporated  into  the  empires  of  nomads  that  arose  in 
the  course  of  centuries.  The  tribes  in  north-western 
Siberia  also,  that  are  grouped  together  as  Ugrians, 
generally  shared  this  fate.  When  in  the  thirteenth 
century  the  Mongols  of  Central  Asia  advanced  as  con- 
querors towards  the  west  they  overthrew  the  peoples 
of  western  Siberia  also.  After  the  fall  of  the  Mongo- 
Han  empire  these  tribes  belonged  to  the  MongoUan 
Kingdom  of  Kiptchak  that  included  besides  western 
Siberia  the  lowlands  of  Eastern  Russia  and  the  step- 
pes as  far  as  the  Sea  of  Aral  and  the  Caspian.  West- 
ern Europe  came  first  into  connexion  with  the  Ugrian 
tribes  by  the  trade  in  skins  which  adventurous  mer- 
chants of  the  Russian  city  of  Novgorod  carried  on  as 
early  as  the  twelfth  century  with  the  tribes  east  of  the 
Ural  and  on  the  borders  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  These 
commercial  relations  led  to  the  estabUshment  of  per- 
manent agencies  in  western  Siberia  by  the  rnerchants 
of  Novgorod.  These  agencies  were  maintained  dur- 
ing the  domination  of  the  Mongols,  so  that  the  con- 
nexion of  western  Russia  with  the  Ugrians  was  not 
interrupted  even  then. 

At  the  fall  of  the  Kingdom  of  Kiptchak,  which  Ti- 
mur  brought  under  his  control,  the  leaders  of  the 
hordes  of  Nogaian  Tatars  began  to  found  small  prin- 
cipalities in  the  country  of  the  Ugrians.  The  most 
powerful  of  these  rulers  was  On,  living  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifteenth  century,  who  opposed  the  Nov- 
goroflians.  His  son  Taibuga  drove  tlie  Novgorodians 
entirely  from  the  country  and  founded  a  small  king- 
dom the  capital  of  which  was  near  the  present  Tyumen. 
Weakened  by  wars  with  the  neighbouring  tribes  of 
Ostiaks,  Voguls,  Kirghizes,  and  the  Mongolian  ruler 
of  Kazen,  this  kingdom  was  obliged  to  pay  tribute  in 
140.5  to  Ru.ssia,  which  had  now  made  its  appearance  as 
a  new  power  in  eastern  Europe.  The  Russian  grand 
duke,  Ivan  III  (1462-150.5),  who  had  coiujucrcd  Nov- 
gorod in  1478,  took  up  the  old  claims  of  this  commer- 
cial city  to  the  sovereignty  of  western  Siberia  and 
tKK)n  began  to  transform  them  into  reality.  In  1499 
th(!  territory  along  the  lower  course  of  the  River  Obi 
was  taken.  This  caused  the  Tatar  khan  to  transfer 
his  capital  from  Tyumen  to  the  Tobol  River,  where  he 
Vmilt  the  city  of  Isker  or  Sibir.  In  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  (about  1563)  a  Usbeke  called  Ko- 
ziim,  or  Kutchum,  seized  Sibir,  took  the  title  of  Em- 
peror of  Siberia,  and  soon  entered  on  a  plan  of  con- 
quest. He  advanced  across  the  Ural,  devastating 
and  plundering  as  he  went,  towards  Perm,  where  the 
Russian  family  of  StroganofT  had  brought  the  entire 
Siberian  trade  under  their  control  in  order  to  play 
off  one  enemy  against  the  other.  Stroganoff  took 
into  his  pay  the  (>jssacks  of  the  Volga,  who  had  re- 
peatedly ma/le  marauding  expeditions  towards  Perm. 
A  horde  of  about  70(X)  Cossacks  under  the  command 
of  the  Hetman  Yermak  and  in  the  pay  of  the  Stroganoff 


family,  umlertook  an  expedition  into  Siberia.  In  1580 
Yermak  carried  Tyumen  by  storm,  in  1581  he  ad- 
vanced to  the  mouth  of  the  Tobol  River,  and  in  Octo- 
ber of  that  year  completely  defeated  Kutchum's  armj' 
on  the  Tchuvachenberg  near  the  present  city  of  To- 
bolsk. On  26  October  Yermak  entered  the  city  of 
Sibir. 

As  Yermak  received  no  further  aid  either  from  the 
Stroganoff  family  or  from  the  Cossacks  still  living  on 
the  Volga,  he  turned  to  the  Russian  tsar,  Ivan  the  Ter- 
rible, and  did  homage  to  him  as  the  ruler  of  the  new 
Siberian  empire.  Yet  Russia  gave  him  very  little 
help,  and  after  a  time  Sibir  was  lost.  In  1584  Yer- 
mak himself  was  killed  in  an  ambush  that  the  Tatars 
had  set  for  him.  Soon,  however,  the  knowledge  that 
here  in  the  east  there  was  a  wide  field  for  conquest 
made  headway  in  Russia.  The  Russians  perceived, 
moreover,  that  this  country  gave  an  opportunity  to 
employ  usefully  the  restless  Cossacks,  and  the  con- 
quests in  Siberia  were  resumed.  In  1588  Sibir  was 
taken  again  and  in  1589  Kutchuk  Khan  who  had  ruled 
in  the  south  was  driven  to  the  northern  slope  of  Asia. 
In  order  to  give  permanence  to  the  conquest  of  the 
new  territory  large  numbers  of  Cossacks  and  soldiers 
of  the  body-guard  were  constantly  dispatched  to  Si- 
beria; these  advanced  along  the  large  rivers  towards 
the  east  and  estabhshed  permanent  settlements  as 
props  of  the  Russian  supremacy.  The  Government 
soon  began  also  to  establish  Russian  peasants  in  these 
regions.  As  early  as  1590  nearly  thirty  peasant  fam- 
ilies were  aided  to  migrate  to  Siberia;  in  1593  the  first 
exiles  were  deported  from  Uglitch  to  Siberia.  Slowly 
but  steadily  the  Russians  pushed  towards  the  east.  In 
1632  Yakutsk  on  the  Lena  was  founded;  in  1643  the 
first  Cossacks  advanced  to  the  upper  Amur  and  de- 
scended along  it  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  In  1644  the 
fortress  Nizhne-Kolymsk  was  built  where  the  Kolyma 
flows  into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  In  1652  Irkutsk  was 
founded  and  the  territory  around  Lake  Baikal  was 
brought  under  Russian  supremacy.  The  aboriginal 
tribes  with  which  the  Russians  came  into  contact  fre- 
quently fought  them  courageously,  opposing  espe- 
cially the  exactment  of  the  tribute  in  pelts,  but  their 
small  numbers  and  the  European  arms  of  the  Cos- 
sacks lead  to  their  defeat.  Along  with  their  care  for 
the  extension  and  security  of  the  boundaries  the  Rus- 
sians combined  care  for  the  economic  development  of 
the  newly-won  regions.  Whole  caravans  of  country 
people  and  women  intended  for  the  Cossacks  were  sent 
to  Siberia  at  government  expense  to  promote  agricul- 
ture and  to  accustom  the  Cossacks  to  a  settled  mode 
of  life;  this  was  accompanied  by  concessions  in  the 
payment  of  taxes.  The  migration  of  peasants  to  Si- 
beria was  encouraged  by  releasing  those  who  went 
from  the  yoke  of  serfdom.  Consequently  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighteenth  century,  there  were  already 
230, (KK)  Russians  in  Siberia.  In  1621  the  Siberian 
(■l)arcliy  was  established  for  the  religious  and  moral 
needs  of  the  settlers  and  for  missionary  work  among 
the  natives. 

The  Russians  came  into  contact  with  the  Chinese 
for  the  first  time  in  the  districts  along  the  Amur 
River.  Although  in  1689  the  Russians  were  forced  to 
restore  their  conquests  on  the  upper  Amur  to  the 
Chinese,  the  relations  between  the  two  powers  were, 
in  general,  friendly.  In  1728-9  the  two  countries 
made  the  first  settlement  of  their  boundaries.  To  pro- 
tect the  southern  border  against  the  incursions  of  the 
Kirghizes  and  Kalmucks  the  Russians  founded  many 
permanent  towns,  for  instance,  Petropaulovsk,  Omsk, 
Semipalatinsk,  and  other  places.  Thereafter,  the 
disturbances  on  the  border  gradually  ceased  and  the 
order  thus  established  permitted  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment to  take  up  the  scientific  exploration  of  the  enor- 
mous region,  the  greater  part  of  which  was  totally 
unknown.  The  most  important  of  these  scientific  ex- 
peditions was  the  journey  of  the  Danish  captain  Vitus- 


SIBOUR 


769 


SIBOUR 


Bering  during  the  years  1733-43,  in  which  distin- 
guished scholars  from  all  parts  of  Europe  took  part. 
Bering  himself  proved  the  connexion  of  the  Pacific  and 
Arctic  Oceans  by  Bering  Strait;  as  early  as  1648  the 
Cossack  Dejneff  had  discovered  this  strait  and  had  an- 
nounced his  discovery,  but  the  fact  had  been  forgot- 
ten. The  economic  development  of  the  country  was 
aided  by  the  discovery  in  1723  of  rich  mineral  treas- 
ures in  the  Altai  mountains.  From  1754  the  Russian 
Government  began  the  systematic  exiUng  of  convicts 
and  prisoners  of  war  to  Siberia,  where  they  were  partly 
settled  on  the  land  and  partly  employed  in  the  mines. 
The  colonizing  of  free  peasants  was  also  taken  up 
again  systematically.  Consequently  by  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  Russian  population  of  Siberia 
was  about  1,500,000  pensons. 

In  the  second  and  third  decades  of  the  nineteenth 
century  the  Russian  supremacy  over  the  nomadic  Kir- 
gliiz  tribes  living  on  the  south-western  steppes  was 
strengthened,  and  important  settlements  were  estab- 
lished (1824  Koktchtaff,  1829  Akmolinsk).  The  dis- 
covery in  1849  of  the  estuary  of  the  Amur  River  by  a 
Russian  ship  led  to  a  renewed  strengthening  of  the 
Russian  settlements  along  the  Amur;  this  impulse  waa 
powerfully  aided  by  the  desire  to  have  a  large  stretch 
of  coast  along  an  ocean.  In  1849  the  Russian  flag  was 
hoisted  without  opposition  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amur; 
in  1851  a  bay  near  the  coa.st  of  Korea  was  occupied, 
and  here  later  Vladivo.stok  was  built,  in  1854  a  fleet 
under  Count  Nikolai  Muravieff  Amurski  was  sent 
from  the  upper  Amur  to  its  mouth  and  the  post  of 
Nikolaievsk  was  more  strongly  fortified.  The  Chi- 
nese Government  indeed  made  a  complaint,  but  as 
it  could  not  venture  to  go  to  war  it  acknowledged, 
in  the  Treaty  of  Pekin,  2  November,  18G0,  Rus- 
sia's right  to  the  Amur  and  the  entire  basin  of 
the  Ussuri  River,  together  with  all  the  coast  down 
to  Korea.  As  by  the  founding  of  Vladivostok  a 
port  nearly  free  from  ice  was  secured,  Russian  ad- 
vance ceased  for  some  time.  In  the  interior  of 
Siberia  there  was  a  great  increase  of  the  coloniz- 
ing movement  in  the  nineteenth  century;  from  the 
thirties  on  especially  there  was  a  great  number  of 
exiles.  Numerous  Decembrists,  Lithuanians,  and 
Ruthenians,  who  had  opposed  the  forcible  union  with 
the  Orthodox  Chur(!h,  and  Poles  who  had  joined  in  the 
revolt,  were  banished  to  Siberia.  The  importance  of 
exile  as  a  factor  in  colonizing  was  le.s.sened  by  the  fact 
that  the  exiles  were  not  permitted  to  settle  on  inde- 
pendent estates  but  were  obliged  to  live  in  small  towns 
already  established.  Moreover  a  large  part  of  the 
exiles  were  exhausted  in  mind  and  body  by  their  pre- 
vious terrible  sufferings  in  the  Ru.ssian  i)risons  and  by 
the  long  and  severe  transportation  to  Siberia.  Con.se- 
quently  it  was  of  much  more  importance  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  country  that  a  constantly  increasing 
stream  of  free  peasants  migrated  from  the  most  widely 
differing  parts  of  Russia  to  Siberia,  especially  after 
the  suppression  of  serfdom  in  Russia  in  1861.  This 
migration  has  continued  in  undiminished  numbers  up 
to  the  present  time;  it  has  been  greatly  encouraged  by 
the  law  of  1889  by  which  every  Russian  emigrant  who 
has  received  the  permission  of  the  Government  to  go 
is  granted  15  dessialines  (401^  acres)  of  farming  land 
as  his  own  property,  besides  three  years  without  taxes 
and  nine  years  release  from  military  duty. 

While  the  European  population  has  rapidly  in- 
creased, the  native  population  has  con.stantly  de- 
clined. Among  the  causes  for  this  decline,  outside  of 
the  small  natural  increase  of  the  aborigines,  are  such 
diseases  as  small-pox  and  typhus  that  have  been  in- 
troduced by  Europeans,  the  injury  done  by  brandy, 
the  decline  of  the  chase,  and  the  steady  advance  of  the 
Ru.ssian  peasant.  The  construction  of  the  great  Si- 
berian railway,  which  was  begun  in  1891  and  com- 
pleted in  1904,  has  opened  immense  possibilities  for 
the  economic  development  of  the  country  and  has  en- 
XIII.— 49 


abled  Siberia  to  overcome  quickly  thf  injuries  caused 
by  the  defeat  of  Russia  in  the  war  against  Japan  dur- 
ing the  years  1904-5.  The  intellectual  life  of  Sib(>ria 
has  also  been  gradually  raised,  a  result  brought  about 
partly  by  the  large  number  of  educated  exiles.  A  fur- 
ther aid  has  been  the  establishment  of  a  university  at 
Tomsk  in  1888,  of  a  high-school  for  Eastern  Siberia  at 
Vladivostok  in  1899,  of  a  polytechnic  in  1900,  and  a 
high-school  for  women  in  1907,  both  the  last  named 
institutions  being  at  Tomsk.  The  very  decided  lim- 
itation of  the  exile  of  convicts  which  will  soon  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  revocation  of  the  law  of  e.xile,  will  con- 
tribute greatly  to  the  elevation  of  the  moral  level  of 
the  population  of  Siberia. 

De  Win-dt,  The  New  Siberia  (London,  1896) ;  Kennan,  Siberia 
and  the  Exile  System  (4th  ed.,  London,  1897);  Wirth,  Gesch. 
Sibiriens  utid  der  Mandschurei  (Munich,  1899);  Legras,  En 
Siberie  (Paris,  1899);  Lutschg,  Wegweiser  auf  der  Grossen 
Stbirischen  Eisenbahn  (Berlin,  1901) ;  Fraser,  The  Real  Siberia 
(London,  1902);  Zabel,  Durch  die  Mandschurei  und  Sibirien 
(Leipzig,  1902) ;  Beveridge,  The  Russian  Advance  (New  York. 
1903);  Wright,  Asiatic  Russia  (London,  1903);  Meschow, 
Sibirische  Bibliographie  (St.  Petersburg,  1903-4),  in  Russian; 
SwAYNE,  Through  the  Highlands  of  Siberia  (London,  1904); 
Deutsch,  Sixteen  Years  in  Siberia  (London,  1905);  Henning, 
Reiseberichte  Uber  Sibirien  von  Herberstein  bis  Ides  (1906); 
Semenow,  Russland,  XVI  (St.  Petersburg,  1907),  in  Russian; 
VON  Zepeu.n,  Der  feme  Osten  (Leipzig,  1908-9);  Paqdet, 
SUdsibirien  und  Nordwestmongolei  (Jena,  1909) ;  Taft,  Strange 
Siberia:  Along  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  (New  York,  1910); 
CuRTiN,  A  Journey  in  Southern  Siberia  (London,  1910) ;  A.vo.w- 
Mous,  Johann  Georg  Gmelin:  Der  Erforscher  Silnriens  (Munich, 

Joseph  Lins. 

Sibour,  MARiE-DomNiQUE-AuGUSTE,  b.  at  Saint- 
Paul-Trois-Chateaux  (Drome,  France),  4  August, 
1792;  d.  in  Paris,  3  January,  1857.  After  his  ordina- 
tion to  the  priesthood  at  Rome  in  1818,  he  was 
assigned  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Paris.  He  was  named 
canon  of  the  ca- 
thedral of  Nimes 
in  1822,  became 
favourably  known 
as  a  preacher,  and 
contributed  to 
"L'.\venir".  In 
1837,  during  a  va- 
cancy, he  was 
chosen  adminis- 
trator of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Nimes,  and 
two  years  later 
was  raised  to  the 
episcopal  See  of 
Digne.  His  ad- 
ministration was 
marked  by  his  en- 
couragement of  ec- 
clesiasticalstudies, 
a  practical  desire 
to  increase  the  im- 
portance    of    the 


MARIE-DoMTXIQUK-AtTGUSTE    SiBOTJR 


functions  exercised  by  his  cathedral  chapter,  and  a  faith- 
ful observance  of  canonical  forms  in  ecclesiastical  trials. 
The  same  principles  actuated  him  in  his  rule  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Paris,  to  which  he  was  called  largely 
because  of  his  prompt  adhesion  to  the  new  govern- 
ment after  the  Revolution  of  1848.  He  held  in  1849 
a  provincial  council  in  Paris,  and  in  1850  a  diocesan 
synod.  In  1853  he  officiated  at  the  marriage  of 
Napoleon  III,  who  had  named  him  senator  the  pre- 
vious year.  Although  in  his  answer  to  Pius  IX  he 
declared  the  definition  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
inopportune,  he  was  present  at  the  promulgation  of 
the  Decree  and  shortly  afterwards  solemnly  published 
it  in  his  own  diocese.  The  benevolent  co-operation 
of  the  imperial  government  enabled  him  to  provide 
for  the  needs  of  the  poor  churches  in  his  diocese  and 
to  organize  several  new  parishes.  He  also  aimed  at 
introducing  the  Roman  Rite  in  Paris  and  was  pro- 


SIBYLLINE 


770 


SICARD 


gressing  favourably  in  this  direction  when  he  was 
killed  by  an  interdicted  priest  named  Verger. 

L' episcopal  francais,  1S02-1905  (Paris,  1907),  215-16;  460-61, 
passim;  McCaffrey,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  I  (2nd  ed.,  Dublin,  1910),  63,  236,  241,  243-4. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Sibylline  Oracles  is  the  name  given  to  certain  col- 
lections of  supposed  prophecies,  emanating  from  the 
sibyls  or  divinely  inspired  seeresses,  which  were  widely 
circulated  in  antiquity.  The  derivation  and  meaning 
of  the  name  Sibyl  are  still  subjects  of  controversy 
among  antiquarians.  While  the  earlier  writers  (Eu- 
ripides, Aristophanes,  Plato)  refer  invariably  to  "the 
sibyl",  later  authors  speak  of  many  and  designate  the 
different  places  where  they  were  said  to  dwell.  Thus 
\'arro,  quoted  by  Lactantius  (Div.  Instit.,  L,  vi)  enu- 
merates ten  sibyls:  the  Persian,  the  Libyan,  the  Del- 
phian, the  Cimmerian,  the  Erj-thra^an,  the  Samarian, 
the  Cumaean,  and  those  of  the  Hellespont,  of  Phrygia, 
and  of  Tibur .  The  Sibyls  most  highly  venerated  in  Rome 
were  those  of  Cumae  and  Erj'thra?a.  In  pagan  times 
the  oracles  and  predictions  ascribed  to  the  sibyls  were 
carefully  collected  and  jealously  guarded  in  the  tem- 
ple of  Jupiter  Capitohnus,  and  were  consulted  only  in 
times  of  grave  crises.  Because  of  the  vogue  enjoyed 
by  these  heathen  oracles  and  because  of  the  influence 
they  had  in  shaping  the  religious  views  of  the  period, 
the  Hellenistic  Jews  in  Alexandria,  during  the  second 
centurj^  b.  c.  composed  verses  in  the  same  form,  at- 
tributing them  to  the  sibyls,  and  circulated  them 
among  the  pagans  as  a  means  of  diffusing  Judaistic 
doctrines  and  teaching.  This  custom  was  continued 
do\\Ti  into  Christian  times,  and  was  borrowed  by  some 
Christians  so  that  in  the  second  or  third  century,  a 
new  class  of  oracles  emanating  from  Christian  sources 
came  into  being.  Hence  the  Sibylline  Oracles  can  be 
classed  as  Pagan,  Jewish,  or  Christian.  In  many 
cases,  however,  the  Christians  merely  revised  or  inter- 
polated the  Jewish  documents,  and  thus  we  have  two 
classes  of  Christian  Oracles,  those  adopted  from  Jew- 
ish sources  and  those  entirely  written  by  Christians. 
Much  difficulty  is  experienced  in  determining  exactly 
how  much  of  what  remains  is  Christian  and  how  much 
Jewish.  Christianity  and  Judaism  coincided  on  so 
many  points  that  the  Christians  could  accept  without 
modification  much  that  had  come  from  Jewish  pens. 
It  seems  clear,  however,  that  the  Christian  Oracles 
and  those  revised  from  Jewish  sources  all  emanated 
from  the  same  circle  and  were  intended  to  aid  in  the 
diffusion  of  Christianity.  The  Sibyls  are  quoted  fre- 
cjuently  by  the  early  Fathers  and  Christian  writers, 
Justin,  Athenagoras,  Theophilus,  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, Lactantius,  Augustine  etc.  Through  the  de- 
cline and  disappearance  of  paganism,  how(^ver,  interest 
in  them  gradually  diminished  and  they  ceased  to  be 
widely  read  or  circulated,  though  they  were  known 
and  used  during  the  Middle  Ages  in  both  the  East  and 
the  West. 

Large  collections  of  these  Jewish  and  Christian 
oracles  are  still  in  existence.  In  l.')4,5XystusBetule- 
ius  (Sixtus  Birken)  published  an  edition  of  eight  books 
of  orackis  with  a  preface  dat  ing  from  perhaps  the  sixth 
century  a.  u.  At  the  beginning  of  the  last  century 
Cardinal  Mai  discovered  four  other  books,  which 
were  not  a  continuation  of  the  eight  previously 
printed,  but  an  independent  collection.  These  are 
numbered  XI,  XII,  XIII,  XIV,  in  later  editions. 
Alexandre  published  a  valuable  edition  with  a  Latin 
translation  (Paris,  1841-50),  and  a  new  and  revised 
edition  appeared  from  the  pen  of  Geffcken  (Leipzig, 
HK)2)  as  one  of  the;  volumes  in  the  Berlin  Corpus.  In 
a/ldition  to  the  books  already  enumerated  several 
fragments  of  orackjs  taken  from  the  works  of  The- 
ophilus and  Lactantius  are  printed  in  the  later 
editions. 

In  form  the  Pagan,  Christian,  and  Jewish  Oracles 
are  alike.     They  all  purport  to  be  the  work  of  the 


sibyls,  and  are  expressed  in  hexameter  verses  in  the 
so-called  Homeric  dialect.  The  contents  are  of  the 
most  varied  character  and  for  the  most  part  contain 
references  to  peoples,  kingdoms,  cities,  rulers,  tem- 
ples etc.  It  is  futile  to  attempt  to  find  any  order  in 
the  plan  which  governed  their  composition.  The 
perplexity  occasioned  by  the  frequent  change  of  theme 
can  perhaps  be  accounted  for  by  the  supposition  that 
they  circulated  privately,  as  the  Roman  Govern- 
ment tolerated  only  the  official  collection,  and  that 
their  present  arrangement  represents  the  caprice  of 
different  owners  or  collectors  who  brought  them  to- 
gether from  various  sources.  There  is  in  some  of  the 
books  a  general  theme,  which  can  be  followed  only 
with  difficulty.  Though  there  are  occasionally  verses 
which  are  truly  poetical  and  sublime,  the  general 
character  of  the  Sibylline  Oracles  is  mediocre.  The  or- 
der in  which  the  books  are  enumerated  does  not  rep- 
resent their  relative  antiquity,  nor  has  the  most 
searching  criticism  been  able  accurately  to  determine 
how  much  is  Christian  and  how  much  Jewish. 

Book  IV  is  generally  considered  to  embody  the  old- 
est portions  of  the  oracles,  and  while  many  of  the 
older  critics  saw  in  it  elements  which  were  considered 
to  be  Christian,  it  is  now  looked  on  as  completely  Jew- 
ish. Book  V  has  given  rise  to  many  divergent  opin- 
ions, some  claiming  it  as  Jewish,  others  as  the  work  of 
a  Christian  Jew,  and  others  as  being  largely  interpo- 
lated by  a  Christian.  It  contains  so  little  that  can 
be  considered  Christian  that  it  can  safely  be  set  down 
as  Jewish.  Books  VI  and  VII  are  admittedly  of 
Christian  origin.  Some  authors  (IMendelssohn,  Alex- 
andre, Geffcken)  describe  Book  VI  as  an  heretical 
hymn,  but  this  contention  has  no  evidence  in  its  fa- 
vour. It  dates  most  probably  from  the  third  cen- 
tury. Books  I  and  II  are  regarded  as  a  Christian 
revision  of  a  Jewish  original.  Book  VIII  offers  pecu- 
liar difficulties;  the  first  216  verses  are  most  likely 
the  work  of  a  second  century  Jew,  while  the  latter 
part  (verses  217-500)  beginning  with  an  acrostic  on 
the  symbolical  Christian  word  Icihus  is  undoubtedly 
Christian,  and  dates  most  probably  from  the  third 
century.  In  the  form  in  which  they  are  now  found 
the  other  four  books  are  probably  the  work  of  Chris- 
tian authors.  Books  XII  and  XIII  are  from  the 
same  pen,  XII  being  a  revision  of  a  Jewish  original. 
Book  XI  might  have  been  written  either  by  a  Chris- 
tian or  a  Jew  in  the  third  century,  and  Book  XIV  of 
the  same  doubtful  provenence  dates  from  the  fourth 
century.  The  general  conclusion  is  that  Books  VI, 
VII,  and  XIII  and  the  latter  part  of  Book  VIII  are 
wholly  Christian.  Books  I,  II,  XI,  XII,  XIII,  and 
XIV  received  their  present  form  from  a  Christian. 
The  peculiar  Christian  circle  in  which  these  composi- 
tions originated  cannot  be  determined,  neither  can  it 
be  asserted  what  motive  prompted  their  composition 
except  as  a  means  of  Christian  propaganda. 

Geffcken,  Komposilinn  u.  EnlKtehtinoaznl  der  Oracula  Sibyllina 
(Leipzig,  1902);  Harnack,  Gesch.  der  nltchri.it.  Lilt.  (Leipzig, 
1893),  I,  pt.  ii,  .581-89;  II,  pt.  ii,  184-89;  Bardenhewer, 
Geseh.  der  aUkirch.  Litl.,  II  (1902-3),  651,  656;  SchOrer,  Gesch. 
des  jud.  Volkes,  III  (Leipzig,  1910),  290  sqq. 

Patrick  J.  Healy. 

Sicard,  Bishop  of  Cremona  (Italy)  in  the  twelfth 
century,  a  member  of  one  of  the  principal  families 
of  that  city,  d.  1215.  After  having  pursued  his 
studies  in  different  cities,  he  was  made  subdeacon  by 
Lucius  III  in  1182,  after  which  he  returned  to  his 
native  city,  and  was  ordained  priest  by  Offredus, 
Bishop  of  Cremona,  whose  successor  he  became  in 
1185.  During  his  lifetime  he  was  entrusted  with 
many  important  missions  by  the  Holy  See,  and  en- 
joyed the  confidence  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  I. 
He  was  famed  as  an  historian,  canonist,  and  lilurgiol- 
ogist.  His  "Chronicon"  containing  a  summary  ac- 
count of  the  history  of  the  world  down  to  1213,  is 
valuable  because  of  the  light  it  throws  on  the  Crusade 


SICCA 


771 


SICHEM 


of  Frederick  I.  He  also  composed  an  important  work 
on  the  liturgy,  "Mitrale,  seu  de  officiis  ecclesiasticia 
eumma",  in  nine  books;  and  a  "Summa  Canonum", 
or  handbook  of  canon  law,  based  on  the  so-called 
' '  Decretum  Gelasianum ' ' . 

MiQNE,  P.  L.,  CCXIII;  MuRATORi,  Remm  Ital.  Script.,  VII; 
see  Wattenbach,  Deutschlands  Geschichtsquellen,  II,  315-27; 
KoMOROWSKi,  Sicard  Bischof  von  Cremona  (Konigsberg,  1881). 

Patrick  J.  Healy. 

Sicca  Veneria,  a  titular  see  in  Africa  Procon- 
sularis,  suffragan  of  Carthage.  Sicca  was  an  ancient 
important  town  in  the  kingdom  of  Numidia,  very 
probably  of  Phoenician  origin,  on  the  Bagradas,  on 
the  road  from  Carthage  to  Hippo  Regius  and  from 
Musti  to  Cirta.  It  got  its  name  from  a  celebrated 
temple  of  Venus.  It  was  to  Sicca,  after  the  first 
Punic  War,  that  the  Carthaginians  sent  the  Mer- 
cenaries whose  discontent  they  feared.  Included 
later  in  the  proconsulate  it  received  from  Augustus 
the  title  of  colony.  It  had  moreover  been  colonized 
by  the  Sittians  of  Cirta,  whence  the  name  Colonia 
Cirta  Nova  and  Colonia  Julia  Veneria  Cirta  Nova 
lulia;  it  is  sometimes  even  called  simply  Cirta. 
Arnobius  taught  rhetoric  there  under  Diocletian. 
Six  of  its  bishops  are  known :  Castus,  at  the  Council 
of  Carthage,  255;  Patritius  in  349;  Fortunatianus 
mentioned  in  407,  present  in  411  at  a  conference  of 
Carthage  and  spoken  of  by  St.  Augustine,  "Re- 
tractationes"  XLI;  Urbanus  in  418,  mentioned  in 
429  by  St.  Augustine,  "Epist."  ccxxix;  Paul  towards 
480;  Candidus  in  646.  The  town  commanding  the 
principal  natural  roads  leading  from  Algeria  to 
Tunis  preserved  a  great  strategic  importance  till 
the  French  occupation;  the  Arabs  called  it  Shikka 
Benar,  or  Shak  Banaria,  but  it  is  better  known  as 
Le  Kef  (rock).  It  is  the  chief  town  of  a  civil  "con- 
trole"  in  Tunis,  contains  6000  inhabitants,  and  is 
connected  with  Tunis  by  a  railroad.  Its  only  in- 
teresting monuments  are  two  mosques  and  the 
fortress.  Among  the  Roman  ruins  are  baths,  cis- 
terns, the  remains  of  a  temple  (of  Augustus?) ;  some 
of  the  inscriptions  discovered  are  Christian;  the 
most  curious  ruins  are  however  those  of  the  Basilica 
Kasr  el-Ghoul,  1^7 M  feet  by  52  feet  ending  in  an 
apse;  the  flooring  was  in  mosaics;  the  baptistery  of 
Dar  el-Djir;  a  monastery  below  Ain  Hadjima; 
and  especially  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter  of  Dar 
el-Kous,  of  which  the  narthex  is  at  present  used  as  a 
church:  it  measures  139^  feet  by  54^,  the  naves  are 
roofless,  but  the  apse  is  intact. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geog.  s.  v.;  Muller,  Notes 
d  Ptolemy,  ed.  Didot,  I,  646;  Toulotte,  Geog.  de  I'Afrique 
chrelienne.  Proconsulaire  (Rennes,  1892),  241-6;  Diehl, 
V Afrique  byzantine  (Paris,  1896),  passim. 

S.   P^TRIoilS. 

Sichem  (A.  V.  Shechem),  an  Israelite  city  in  the 
tribe  of  Ejjhraim,  the  first  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Israel.  Its  position  is  clearly  indicated  in  the  Bible: 
it  lay  north  of  Bethal  and  Silo,  on  the  high  road  going 
from  Jerusalem  to  the  northern  districts  (Judges, 
xxi,  19),  at  a  short  distance  from  Machmethath  (Jos., 
xvii,  7)  and  of  Dothain  (Gen.,  xxxvii,  12-17);  it  was 
in  the  hill-country  of  Ephraim  (Jos.,  xx,  7;  xxi,  21; 
IIIKings,  xii,  25;  I  Par.,  vi,  67;  yii,  28),  immediately 
below  Mount  Garizim  (Judges,  ix,  6-7).  These  in- 
dications are  completed  by  Josephus,  who  says  that 
the  city  lay  between  Mt.  Ebal  and  Alt.  Garizim,  and 
by  the  Medaba  map,  which  places  2ux^M,  also  called 
l,iKlfia  between  the  Tour  Gobel  (Ebal)  and  the  Tour 
Garizin  (Garizim).  We  may  therefore  admit  un- 
hesitatingly that  Sichem  stood  on  (St.  Jerome,  St. 
Epiphanius),  or  very  close  to  (Eusebius,  "Onomast.", 
Sux^m;  Medaba  map),  the  site  occupied  by  the  town 
of  Nabl^,  the  Neapolis,  or  Flavia  Neapolis  of  early 
Christian  ages. 

That  the  city  of  Sichem,  the  name  of  which  (Heb. 
shekem — shoulder,  saddle)  appears  to  have  been  sug- 


gested by  the  configuration  of  the  place,  existed  in  the 
time  of  Abraham  is  doubted  by  a  few  who  think  it 
is  referred  to  in  Gen.,  xii,  6,  by  anticipation;  but  there 
can  be  no  question  touching  its  existence  in  Jacob's 
time  (Gen.,  xxxiii,  18,  19);  it  is  certainly  mentioned 
in  the  El-Amama  letters  (letter  289),  and  is  probably 
the  Sakama  of  the  old  Egy-ptian  traveller  Mohar 
(fourteenth  century  b.  c;  Muller,  "  Asien  u.  Europ.", 
p.  394,  Leipzig,  1893).  Owing  to  its  central  position, 
no  less  than  to  the  presence  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
places  hallowed  by  the  memory  of  Abraham  (Gen., 
xii,  6,  7;  xxxiv,  5),  Jacob  (Gen.,  xxxiii,  18-19;  xxxiv, 
2,  etc.),  and  Joseph  (Jos.,  xxiv,  32),  the  city  was  des- 
tined to  play  an  important  part  in  the  history  of 
Israel.  There  it  was  that,  after  Gedeon's  death, 
Abimelech,  his  son  by  a  Sichemite  concubine,  was 
made  king  (Judges,  ix,  1-6);  but  the  city  having, 
three  years  later,  risen  in  rebellion,  Abimelech  took  it, 
utterly  destroyed  it,  and  burnt  the  temple  of  Baal- 
berith  where  the  people  had  fled  for  safety.  When  and 
by  whom  the  city  was  rebuilt  is  not  knowTi;  at  any 
rate,  Sichem  was  the  place  appointed,  after  Solomon's 
death,  for  the  meeting  of  the  people  of  Israel  and  the 
investiture  of  Roboam;  the  meeting  ended  in  the 
secession  of  the  ten  northern  tribes,  and  Sichem, 
fortified  by  Jeroboam,  became  for  a  while  the  capital 
of  the  new  kingdom  (III  Kings,  xii,  1;  xiv,  17;  II 
Par.,  X,  1).  When  the  kings  of  Israel  moved  first  to 
Thersa,  and  later  on  to  Samaria,  Sichem  lost  its  im- 
portance, and  we  do  not  hear  of  it  until  after  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem  (587  B.  c;  Jer.,  xii,  5).  The  events  con- 
nected with  the  restoration  were  to  bring  it  again 
into  prominence.  When,  on  his  second  visit  to  Jeru- 
salem, Nehemias  ex-pelled  the  grandson  of  the  high 
priest  Eliashib  (probably  the  Manasse  of  Josephus, 
"  Antiq.",  XI,  vii,  viii),  who  refused  to  separate  from 
his  alien  wife,  Sanaballat's  daughter,  and  with  him 
the  many  Jews,  priests  and  laymen,  who  sided  with 
the  rebel,  these  betook  themselves  to  Sichem;  a 
schismatic  temple  was  then  erected  on  Mount  Garizim 
and  thus  Sichem  became  the  "holy  city"  of  the 
Samaritans.  The  latter,  who  were  left  unmolested 
while  the  orthodox  Jews  were  chafing  under  the  heavy 
hand  of  Antiochus  IV  (Antiq.,  XII,  v,  5)  and  wel- 
comed with  open  arms  every  renegade  who  came  to 
them  from  Jerusalem  (Antiq.,  XI,  viii,  7),  fell  about 
128  B.  c.  before  John  Hyrcanus,  and  their  temple  was 
destroyed  ("Antiq.",  XIII,  ix,  1). 

From  that  time  on,  Sichem  shared  in  the  fate  of  the 
other  cities  of  Samaria:  with  these  it  was  annexed,  at 
the  time  of  the  deposition  of  Archelaus,  in  a.  d.  6, 
to  the  Roman  Province  of  Syria.  Some,  no  doubt, 
of  its  inhabitants  (whether  Sichar  of  John,  iv,  5,  is 
the  same  as  Sichem  or  a  place  near  the  latter  we  shall 
leave  here  undecided)  were  of  the  number  of  the 
"Samaritans"  who  believed  in  Jesus  when  He  tarried 
two  days  in  the  neighbourhood  (John,  iv),  and  the 
city  must  have  been  visited  by  the  Apostles  on  their 
way  from  Samaria  to  Jerusalem  (Acts,  viii,  25).  Of 
the  Samaritans  of  Sichem  not  a  few  rose  up  in  arms 
on  Mt.  Garizim  at  the  time  of  the  Galilean  rebeUion 
(a.  d.  67);  the  city  was  very  likely  destroyed  on  that 
occasionbyCerealis("Bell.  Jud.",  Ill,  vii,  32),  and  a 
few  years  after  a  new  city,  Flavia  Neapolis,  was  built 
by  Vespasian  a  short  distance  to  the  west  of  the  old 
one;  some  fifty  years  later  Hadrian  restored  the 
temple  on  Mt.  Garizim,  and  dedicated  it  to  Jupiter 
(Dion  Cass.,  xv,  12).  Neapohs,  like  Sichem,  had  very 
early  a  Christian  community  and  had  the  honour  to 
give  to  the  Church  her  first  apologi.st,  St.  Justin 
Martyr;  we  hear  even  of  bishops  of  Neapolis  (Labbe, 
"Cone",  I,  1475,  1488;  II,  325).  On  several  occa- 
sions the  Christians  suffered  greatly  from  the  Samar- 
itans, and  in  474  the  emperor,  to  avenge  an  unjust 
attack  of  the  sect,  deprived  the  latter  of  Mt.  Garizim 
and  gave  it  to  the  Christians  who  built  on  it  a  church 
dedicated    to    the    Blessed    Virgin    (Procop.,    "De 


SICILY 


772 


SICILY 


5pdif .",  V,  7).  Since  the  Mohammedan  conquest  (636) 
Christianity,  except  during  the  twelfth  century,  has 
practically  disappeared  from  Xablils,  which,  however, 
remains  the  headquarters  of  the  Samaritan  sect  (about 
150  members)  and  of  their  high  priest. 

Baedeker-Socin,  Handbook  for  Palestine  and  Syria  (4th 
English  ed.,  Leipzig,  1906);  Coxder,  Tent-work  in  Palestine 
(London,  ISSo),  ii,  14-42;  Idem,  Survey  of  Western  Pal.  Memoirs, 
II  (London,  1SS2),  160-8;  203-10;  Idem,  Palestine  (London, 
1889),  63-7;  Tristram,  The  Land  of  Israel  (London,  1865),  vii, 
159-62;  GuERiN,  Description  de  la  Palestine,  Samarie,  I  (Paris, 
1875),  370-423;  De  Saulcy,  Voyage  aulour  de  la  Mer  Morte,  II 
(Paris,  1S83),  411-26;  Idem,  Voyage  en  Terre  Sainte,  II  (Paris, 
1865),  244-53;  Hoelscher,  Remarks  on  Palestinian  Topography: 
Sichem  and  its  environs  in  Zeit.  des  DeiUsch.  Palaest.  Vereins, 
XXXIII  (1910).  nn.  1-3. 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 

Sicily,  the  largest  island  in  the  Mediterranean;  it  is 
triangular  in  shape  and  was  on  that  account  called 
Trinacria  by  the  ancients;  it  is  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  the  Strait  of  ]\Iessina,  rather  less  than  two 
miles  wide.  Its  area,  including  the  adjacent  islands,  is 
9935  square  miles.  The  northern  chain  of  moun- 
tains, running  from  Cape  Peloro  (Messina)  to  Lilibeo 
(Marsala),  is  only  a  continuation  of  the  Calabrian 
Appenines.  The  most  elevated  peaks  are  the  Pizzo 
dell'  Antenna  (6478  feet),  near  the  middle  of  the 
range,  and  Monte  S.  Salvatore  (6265  feeji;  the  re- 
mainder of  the  island  is  an  undulating  inclined  plain 
sloping  to  the  Ionian  and  Mediterranean  Seas. 
Near  the  middle  of  the  eastern  side  rises  the  majestic 
volcano  Etna,  still  active,  10,865  feet  high,  formed  by 
successive  eruptions  and  having  a  circumference  of 
87  miles  at  its  base;  it  is  covered  with  perpetual  snow; 
on  its  slopes  there  are  rich  pastures,  vineyards,  gar- 
dens, arable  lands,  and  forests;  and  vegetation  flour- 
ishes up  to  an  altitude  of  about  8200  feet.  The  chief 
SiciUan  rivers  are  the  Giarretta  faUing  into  the  sea 
near  Catania;  the  Anopo,  flowing  for  a  short  distance 
underground  and  emptying  into  the  sea  near  Syracuse; 
the  Salso;  the  Platani.  The  two  principal  lakes  are 
those  of  Lentini  and  Pergusa;  on  the  southern  coast 
there  are  verj'  many  lagoons  and  unhealthy  marshes. 
Among  the  adjacent  islands  are  the  Lipari  group 
(iEohan  Islands)  and  Ustica  in  the  Tyrrhenian  sea; 
the  Egadi  (P'avignana,  Marittimo,  Levanzo)  and  the 
Formiche  (Ants)  near  the  western  extremity;  Pan- 
telleria  (the  ancient  Corcyra)  between  Malta  and 
Tunisia.  The  northern  and  eastern  coasts  are  gen- 
erally steep,  and  the  adjacent  waters  deep;  the  south- 
ern is  shallow  and  has  many  sandbanks  (Pesci,  Por- 
celli.  State,  Madrepore).  Considering  the  size  of  the 
Island,  it  has  many  good  harbours:  Messina  is  the 
most  important  for  commerce;  Empedocle,  the  sul- 
phur-exporting centre;  Palermo,  for  oranges  and 
lemons;  Trapani,  wines.  Besides  these  there  are 
Syracuse,  Augusta,  Catania,  Milazzo,  Licata,  and 
Lipari.  The  climate  is  temperate,  the  mean  summer 
maximum  being  93.2°  Fahrenheit;  but  Sicily  suff'ers 
considerably  from  the  sirocco. 

The  wealth  of  the  country  ia  chiefly  dependent  on 
agriculture,  maritime  trade,  and  mining,  especially 
sulphur.  Though  in  antiquity  Sicily  was  the  granary 
of  Rome,  the  production  of  grain  (22,275,000  bushels) 
is  not  sufficient  fr)r  the  home  consumption,  a  fact  to  be 
explained  either  by  the  increase  of  population,  or  by 
the  system  of  large  estates,  or  by  the  primitive  meth- 
ods employed.  The  vintage  amounts  to  about  6,325,- 
000  bushels.  There  is  a  large  export  of  fruits,  includ- 
ing oranges  and  lemons,  and  of  carob  b(!ans.  Sicily 
produces  thr(;e-quarters  of  thf;  world's  sulphur:  in 
1905  it  amouted  to  3,(M9,864  tons,  of  which  1,629,- 
344  came  from  Caltanisctta,  and  1,039,(K)5  from  Cir- 
genti.  Among  the  other  mineral  pnxlucts  are:  anti- 
mony and  iignitf;  from  Messina  (61  and  70  tons); 
asphalt  from  Syracuse  (105,217  tons);  rock-salt  (12,- 
730  tons).  Fishing,  especially  tunny-fishing,  is  very 
profitable;  but  the  sponge  trade  is  decreasing  (1980 
tons  in  1899,  but  only  172  in  1909). 


At  the  census  of  1901  the  population  was  3,568,124, 
or  350  persons  to  the  square  mile;  allowing  for  a 
mean  increase  of  1.3  per  cent.,  the  island  probably 
contains  4,200,000  inhabitants  at  present  (1911).  The 
percentages  of  ilhterates  are  70.9,  under  21  years  of 
age,  and  73.2,  over  21  years,  so  that  Sicily  is  more 
backward  than  Sardinia,  Abruzzo,  and  the  Apulias. 
However,  this  is  not  due  to  a  great  lack  of  schools,  as 
there  are  4156  elementary  pubhc,  563  private,  and  310 
evening  schools;  4  training  colleges  for  teachers;  44 
royal  gymnasia  (2  pareggiali,  27  non  pareggiati) ;  14 
royal  lyceums  (2  pareggiati,  8  non  pareggiati) ;  34  tech- 
nical schools  besides  6  non  pareggiati;  7  technical  in- 
stitutes; 3  universities  (Palermo,  Messina,  Catania); 
and  1  conservatory  of  music  (Palermo).  Sicily  is  di- 
vided civilly  into  7  provinces,  with  24  circondarii,  179 
mandamienti,  and  357  communes.  It  has  5  arch- 
bishoprics and  12  bishoprics:  Catania,  without  any 
suffragans;  Monreale,  with  Caltamisetta  and  Gir- 
genti;  Palermo,  with  Cefalij,  Mazzara,  and  Trapani; 
Syracuse,  with  Caltagirone,  Notto,  Piazza  Armerina. 
The  Bishop  of  Acireale  and  the  Prelate  of  S.  Lucia  del 
Mela  are  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The 
parishes  in  Sicily  are  few  in  number  and  consequently 
very  large.  WhUe  in  the  Marches  and  ITmbria  the 
average  number  of  persons  in  a  j)arish  is  600,  in  the 
Sicilian  dioceses  it  is  7000  (9000  in  Syracuse  and  8000 
in  Palermo). 

History. — According  to  the  ancient  writers,  the 
first  inhabitants  of  Sicily  were  the  Sicani ;  later  there 
came  from  the  Itahan  peninsula  the  SicuU,  who,  how- 
ever, do  not  seem  to  have  been  of  the  same  race  or  to 
have  had  any  national  unity.  The  island  was  greatly 
frequented  by  Phoenician  merchants,  as  it  lay  in  their 
way  towards  Africa  and  Spain,  and  was  besides  a  cen- 
tre of  their  trade.  The  presence  of  these  traders  is  at- 
tested by  Phoenician  inscriptions  and  coins  as  well  as 
by  articles  of  Phoenician  trade.  The  names,  too,  of 
the  chief  towns  on  the  coast  are  of  Phoenician  origin. 
With  their  trade  they  introduced  the  worshij)  of  Mcl- 
kart  (Heracles)  and  Astarte,  especially  at  Mount 
Eryx  (Monte  S.  Giuhano).  While  the  Pha?nicians 
who  came  to  the  main  island  continued  as  foreigners, 
the  smaller  adjacent  islands — Lipari,  Egadi,  Malta, 
Cosura— became  thoroughly  Phoenician  in  popula- 
tion. The  Greeks  had  established  themselves  at 
some  of  the  ports  as  early  as  the  time  of  the  Trojan 
War.  Greek  colonization  really  began  in  735  b.  c, 
when  the  Athenian  Theocles  was  driven  thither  by  a 
tempest.  He  induced  the  Chalcidians  of  Eubea  to 
settle  at  Naxos  and  the  Dorians  to  found  a  new  Me- 
gara.  Ne.xt  year  the  Corinthians  expelled  the  Siculi 
from  the  island  of  Ortygia,  thus  establishing  the 
cradle  of  the  city  of  Syracuse.  In  five  years  the 
colonies  of  Leontini,  Catana,  Thapsos,  Megara,  and 
Hyblona  all  sprang  up  on  the  east  coast  of  tlu^  island, 
and  then  the  immigration  into  Sicily  seems  In  liave 
ceased  for  forty  years.  In  690  b.  c.  the  Hhodiaiis  and 
Cretans  founded  Gela,  on  the  river  of  that  name  (now 
the  Terranuova),  and  from  Gela  Acragas  (Girgenti) 
was  found(^d  in  582,  both  on  the  south-west  coast. 
At  the  point  nearest  to  the  peninsula  the  Cumani 
pirates  had  founded  Zancle  in  the  (>ighth  century,  and 
that  settlement  had  received  the  name  of  Messana  in 
729  from  Anaxilas,  the  tyrant  of  Reggio.  Himera,  on 
the  north  coast,  was  a  colony  of  Zancle  (648).  The 
Syracusans  founded  Acraj  (664),  Casmena^  (644),  Ca-. 
marina  (.599).  Selinus  arose  in  629,  Lipara  in  580. 
This  active  Greek  colonization  drove  the  Plia-nicians 
more  and  more  towards  the  west  of  the  island;  Moty(! 
Solveis  (Saluiito)  and  Panormus  (Palermo)  remained 
the  principal  (u-ntres  of  their  commerce.  The  Car- 
thaginians then  felt  the  necessity  of  obtaining  jjolitical 
power  over  the  island,  if  the  Ph(rnician  an<l  Punic 
trade  was  not  to  be  destroyed  by  the  Greeks.  They 
rejoiced  at  the  disunion  among  th(!  Greeks,  who — par- 
ticularly the  Dorians  and  lonians — had  brought  to  the 


SICILY 


773 


SICILY 


island  their  mutual  hatreds  and  jealousies.  More- 
over, in  the  principal  cities — such  as  Girgenti,  Mes- 
sina, Catania,  and  Syracuse,  the  democratic  and  aris- 
tocratic governments  had  given  way  to  the  rule  of 
tyrants,  which  resulted  in  frequent  conspiracies,  revo- 
lutions, and  temporary  alliances.  During  the  sixth 
century  B.C.  it  was  chiefly  Acragas,  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Phalaris  (570-555),  that  upheld  the  prestige 
of  Greece  against  Carthage.  In  480  b.  c,  Hamilcar, 
invited  by  Terillos,  tyrant  of  Himera,  who  had  been 
overthrown  by  Theron,  came  with  an  immense  army 
to  restore  Terillos,  and  later  to  subjugate  the  whole 
island.  But  Gelon,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  having  been 
called  on  for  aid,  inflicted  a  great  defeat  on  Hamilcar. 
That  victory — which  was  not  the  first  gained  by  Ge- 
lon over  the  Carthaginians — assured  to  Syracuse  the 
hegemony  of  the  Greek  cities  of  the  island.     Gelon's 


stirred  up  by  the  threats  of  the  Syracusans,  the  Car- 
thaginians again  sought  to  subdue  the  whole  island. 
In  406  came  the  turn  of  Acragas  the  richest  city  in  the 
island;  the  year  following  Gela  and  Camarina  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Carthaginians.  In  that  year,  how- 
ever, Dionysius,  having  become  master  of  Syracuse, 
made  peace  with  the  Carthaginians,  and  so  stopped 
their  victorious  march.  To  prepare  for  renewed  war 
with  them,  he  strengthened  and  extended  his  power 
by  taking  Catania,  Enna,  Na.xos,  and  Leontini.  In 
397  he  expelled  the  Carthaginians  from  Motye. 
Himilco,  the  Carthaginian  general,  then  attacked 
Syracuse,  which  seemed  to  prefer  the  gentle  sway  of 
the  Carthaginians  to  that  of  its  tyrant.  But  the 
stubbornness  of  the  Spartan  Pharacidas  and  a  pestil- 
ence gained  Dionysius  a  victory  (396)  and  supremacy 
over  the  Greek  portion  of  the  island.     An  attack  on 


HE  Harbour  of 
brother  Hiero  being  master  of  (k'la  and  married  to  the 
daughter  of  Thoon,  tyrant  of  Acragas,  Hiero  suc- 
ceeded him  and  defeated  the  Etruscans,  enemies  of 
the  Cumani  (474).  The  inhabitants  of  Catania  and 
Naxos  had  to  migrate  to  Leontini,  and  a  Doric  colony 
was  established  at  Catania.  But  soon  after  Hiero's 
death  (471)  his  brother  Thrasybulus  was  expelled; 
democracy  triumphed  at  Syracuse  and  the  other 
Greek  cities,  and  Greek  unity  was  at  an  end. 

Ducetius,  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Siculi,  who  were 
still  masters  of  the  interior,  then  conceived  the  hope  of 
uniting  his  race  and  expelling  all  the  foreigners  from 
Sicily.  He  succooded  in  taking  Catania  (451)  and 
defeated  the  Syracusans  who  had  come  to  the  aid  of 
Montyon ;  but  in  452  he  met  with  a  reverse  at  Normae, 
and  his  army  disbanded.  The  Siculi  made  no  further 
efforts.  The  old  rivalries  broke  out  among  the 
Greeks,  and  Athens  intervened  at  the  request  of 
Leontini  (427).  For  a  moment  the  Sicilian  Greeks 
recognized  the  danger  of  such  intervention.  At  the 
Congress  of  Gela  (424)  a  confederation  of  the  Sicilian 
cities  was  formed  for  defence  against  all  foreign  pow- 
ers. This  alliance  did  not  last  long.  The  dispute  be- 
tween Selinus  and  Egesta  (416),  and  the  aid  given  by 
Syracuse  to  the  former,  led  to  the  war  between  Athens 
and  Syracuse,  in  which  the  latter  appealed  to  Sparta 
for  help.  The  Syracusans  were  victorious  on  sea,  and 
the  Spartans  on  land  (413).  Egesta  then  called  upon 
the  Carthaginians,  and  Hannibal,  the  nephew  of 
Hamilcar,  destroyed  Selinus  and,  a  little  later,  Hi- 
mera   (409).     Encouraged   by   these   successes   and 


Palermo,   Sicily 
Messina   by   the   Carthaginian   Mago   was   repulsed 
(393). 

A  peace  having  been  concluded,  which  assured  each 
sid(>  its  own  territory,  Dionysius  thought  of  con- 
quering Italy.  Two  other  wars  (383,  defeat  of  Cro- 
nium;  368,  capture  of  Selinunte  and  Entella)  gave  the 
advantage  to  neither  party.  When  Timoleon  de- 
feated Dionysius  II  (343),  the  petty  tyrants  of  the 
various  cities  again  appealed  for  help  to  the  Cartha- 
ginians, who  were  again  defeated  at  Egesta  (342). 
When  Agathocles,  the  new  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  as- 
pired to  the  supremacy  of  the  island  he  had  to  fight 
the  Carthaginians  (312-306).  Finally,  however,  the 
latter  succeeded,  by  the  treaty  of  peace,  in  securing 
their  own  possessions  and  the  independence  of  the 
other  Greek  cities  in  the  island, — preventing  the 
union  of  the  Greeks,  among  whom  new  tyrants  arose, 
all  fighting  with  one  another.  This  led  to  the  inter- 
vention of  the  Carthaginians,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
on  the  other  of  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  then  at  war 
with  Rome  (281-75).  Pyrrhus  caused  the  siege  of 
Syracuse  to  be  raised,  stormed  Eryx  and  Panormus, 
and  cleared  the  enemy  out  of  the  whole  island,  with 
the  exception  of  Lilyba;um.  But  when  he  began  to 
appoint  governors  in  Sicily,  the  Sicilians  had  recourse 
again  to  the  Carthaginians  and  Pyrrhus  returned  to 
Italy  (279).  Meanwhile  a  military  republic  of  Cam- 
panian  mercenaries  had  been  formed  in  Messina,  and 
conquered  almost  the  entire  northern  coast.  Hiero  II 
of  Syracuse  attacked  these  (269).  Then  some  of  the 
Mamertines,  an  Italic  people,  appealed  for  aid  to 


SICILY 


774 


SICILY 


Rome,  while  others  called  upon  Carthage.  Both  an- 
swered the  appeal,  but  wished  to  act  alone.  In  264 
Api)ius  Claudius  landed  an  army  and  defeated  the 
Carthaginian  and  Syracusan  forces  which  had  united 
to  oppose  him.  Some  sixty-seven  cities  yielded  to  the 
Romans;  and  even  Hiero  became  their  tributary 
(263).  In  262  Girgenti,  then  the  centre  of  the  Car- 
thaginian mihtary  power  in  the  island,  was  captured. 
The  victories  of  Myh^  (260)  and  Panormus  (254),  and 
the  capture  of  the  Egadi  (241),  secured  to  Rome  the 
possession  of  the  island,  but  the  cities  which  volun- 
tarily surrendered  remained  federated. 

In  the  Second  Punic  War,  Syracuse  was  allied  with 
Hannibal,  but  was  retaken  by  Alarcellus  (212).  Sicily 
became  a  Roman  province  and  acquired  very  great 
importance  as  the  granary  of  Rome.  It  was  divided 
into  two  qua'storships,  Syracuse  and  Lilybaeum.  The 
latinizing  of  the  island  continued,  though  the  Greek 
element  never  entirely  disappeared,  so  that  in  the 
Byzantine  epoch  the  hellenization  of  Sicily  progressed 
easily.  In  proportion  as  the  pohtical  greatness  of  the 
Greek  cities  in  the  island  increased,  their  artistic  and 
literary  fame  diminished.  The  greed  and  cupidity  of 
the  praetors  and  other  Roman  officials  (Verres,  for  in- 
stance) impoverished  private  individuals  as  well  as 
the  temples.  The  land  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  few 
great  landholders,  who  cultivated  the  rich  soil  by  the 
labour  of  immense  bands  of  slaves.  These  slaves  re- 
belled in  135,  proclaiming  Eunus,  one  of  their  num- 
ber, king.  Eunus  defeated  the  Roman  army  several 
times,  but  in  133  he  was  vanquished  by  Rufilius  near 
Messina;  the  war  ended  with  the  capture  of  Tauro- 
menium  and  Enna  (132),  and  about  20,000  of  the  un- 
fortunate slaves  were  crucified.  A  second  furious  re- 
volt occurred  between  103  and  100  under  "King 
Trypho"  and  the  leadership  of  Athenio.  During  the 
last  triumvirate  Sicily  was  the  scene  of  a  war  between 
the  triumvirs  and  Sextus  Pompey,  who,  victorious  at 
first,  was  finally  defeated  by  Agrippa  in  the  naval  fight 
at  Myla;  (36  b.  c). 

Another  rebellion  of  the  slaves  took  place  under 
Valerian,  and  in  a.  d.  278  the  island  was  devastated 
by  a  Prankish  horde.  From  440  on  the  Vandals  re- 
peatedly devastated  the  island,  but  they  never  ob- 
tained complete  control  of  it.  In  476  they  abandoned 
it  to  Odoaccr  in  return  for  an  annual  tribute,  retaining, 
however,  the  region  about  Lilybaium  (Marsala). 
Theodoric  recaptured  Lilybaum  and  ceased  paying 
tribute.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Gothic  War  (535) 
Sicily  was  seized  by  Belisarius  for  the  Byzantines; 
Totiia  regained  it  (5.50),  but  not  for  long.  Mean- 
while Christianity  had  been  established  in  the  island. 
A  few  cities  boasted  of  having  been  evangelized  by  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul  or  by  the  immediate  disciples  of 
the  Apostles  (Catania,  Messina,  Palermo,  Girgenti, 
Taormina).  St.  Paul  stayed  three  days  at  Syracuse, 
without  St.  Luke's  making  any  mention  of  his  visiting 
the  brethren,  as  he  does  at  Puteoli.  That  St.  Paul 
preached  in  Sicily,  is  recorded  by  St.  Chrysostom. 
The  "Pra;destinatus"  mentions  bishops  of  Palermo 
and  Jyilybaeum  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  se(!ond  cen- 
tury; if  is  certain  that  in  the  latter  part  of  that  cen- 
tury Christianity  was  flourishing  in  the  island.  Pan- 
tieneus,  the  teacher  of  St.  Clement  of  Alexandria  and 
director  of  the  famous  Alexandrian  school  was  a  Sicil- 
ian; Clement  himself,  in  the  voyages  he  made  to  in- 
crease his  knowledge  of  Christianity,  visited  Sicily. 
From  the  letters  of  St.  Cyprian  we  h-arn  that  the 
Church  in  Sicily  was  in  frequent  relations  with  the 
Church  in  Rome  and  in  Carthage,  and  that  the  ques- 
tions discussed  at  those  centres  were  followed  with 
interest  in  the  island.  Through  the  efTf)rts  of  Hera- 
cleon,  the  Gnostics  made  some  progress  there.  Some 
Christians  were  martyred  at  Catania  (St.  Agatha,  St. 
Eunlus)  and  Syracuse  (St.  Lucy,  St.  Marcianus). 

Christian  cemeteries  have  been  diseovered  at  Ca- 
tania, Girgenti  (2),  Lcntini,  Marsala,  Mazzara,  Mes- 


sina, Palermo  (5),  Ragusa,  Selinunte,  Syracuse,  and 
its  environs  (Valley  of  the  Molinello,  Canicatti,  the 
Valleys  of  Priolo,  Pantalica,  S.  Alfano,  etc.).  Chris- 
tian inscriptions,  excepting  those  at  Syracuse,  are 
generally  in  Latin.  As  in  all  Italy  south  of  the  Po, 
the  bishops  of  Sicily  were  immediately  subject  to  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  by  whom  ordination  was  conferred, 
and  to  whom  a  visit  was  to  be  made  every  five  years 
at  least.  For  the  election  of  bishops,  at  least  in  the 
sixth  century,  the  pope  was  accustomed  to  appoint  a 
visitor,  who  was  charged  with  the  administration  dur- 
ing the  vacancy,  and  presided  at  the  election,  which 
was  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  pope,  when  the 
bishop-elect  presented  himself  for  ordination.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  Saracen  invasion  there  were 
the  following  sees:  Syracuse,  Palermo,  Cefalia,  Lily- 
baeum, Drepanum  (?),  Messina,  Lipari,  Girgenti, 
Taormina,  Catani,  Leontini,  Therma;  (Sciacca?),  Al- 
esa,  Cronion,  Camarina,  Tindari  (Patti),  Malta. 
Till  after  the  time  of  St.  Gregory,  and  probably  down 
to  the  eighth  century,  the  Roman  Rite  was  observed 
in  the  island,  and  the  liturgical  language  was  Latin. 
In  the  dogmatic  controversies,  the  Sicilian  bishops 
were  always  among  the  defenders  of  orthodoxy,  ex- 
cept that  in  the  fifth  century  Pelagianism  (through 
the  personal  efforts  of  Pelagius  and  Celestius)  and 
Arianism  (one  Maximinus  their  chief  was  aided  by  the 
Vandals)  obtained  a  foothold.  Ecclesiastical  affairs 
were  thrown  into  disorder  by  the  Vandal  incursions, 
as  is  shown  by  the  measures  which  Pope  Gelasius  was 
obliged  to  take.  St.  Leo  the  Great  introduced  into 
Sicily  the  obligation  of  celibacy  even  for  subdeacons. 

Sicily  was  of  great  importance  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  Roman  Church  on  account  of  the  great 
amount  of  ecclesiastical  property  there,  which  was 
divided  into  two  -patrimonia  {Paler mitanum  and  Syra- 
cusarum).  Each  palrimoniurn  had  a  rector,  with  in- 
ferior oflScers,  defensores,  notarii,  actionarii,  etc.  The 
rector  was  generally  a  subdeacon  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  and  was  empowered  to  intervene  in  the  eccle- 
siastical questions  of  the  various  dioceses.  The 
Churches  of  Milan  and  of  Melitene  in  Armenia  also 
had  property  in  the  island.  Monasticism  was  first 
introduced  into  Sicily  by  St.  Hilarion.  It  was 
greatly  increased  by  the  large  number  of  bishops  or 
monks  who  were  expelled  from  Africa  or  forced  to 
emigrate  to  escape  the  Vandal  persecution.  St.  Ben- 
edict sent  a  colony  of  his  monks  to  Messina,  under 
St.  Placidus;  the  monastery  was  destroyed  later  by 
pagan  (perhaps  Slavic)  pirates.  St.  Gregory  the 
Great  personally  founded  six  monasteries,  among 
them  that  of  St.  Hermes  at  Palermo.  The  lumiber  of 
monks  was  increased  by  the  bands  that  flocked  from 
Palestine,  Syria,  and  Egypt,  when  Islainisni  began  its 
triumphant  march,  and  the  Monothelites  and  Icono- 
clasts drove  them  from  the  Orient.  Thus  a  strong 
hellenizing  element,  which  was  certainly  encouraged 
by  the  Byzantine  Government,  settled  in  the  island: 
Greek  replaced  Latin  in  the  liturgy  in  many  of  the 
Churches.  Leo  the  Isaurian  (718-41)  afterwards  de- 
tached Sicily  and  Southern  Italy  from  the  metropoli- 
tan jurisdiction  of  Rome,  but  it  is  to  be  noted  that, 
100  years  later,  Nicholas  I  protested  against  this 
abuse.  In  the  ninth  century  Syracuse  was  raised  by 
the  Patriarch  of  Constantinojjle  to  the  rank  of  me- 
tropolis of  Sicilv  and  the  adjacent  islands. 

Concerning  the  state  of  the  Sicilian  Church  during 
the  Saracen  domination  we  have  no  information: 
not  the  name  of  a  single  bishop  is  known.  In  the 
eleventh  century  the  hierarchy  seems  to  liave  been 
extinct,  so  that  Cardinal  Humbertus  (later  of  Silva 
Candida)  was  appointed  by  Leo  IX  as  Bishop  of 
Sicily,  though  he  could  not  enter  the  island.  The 
Saracen  attempt  to  invade  Sicily  was  in  669,  after  the 
assassination  of  the  Emperor  Constans  II  at  Syra- 
cuse. The  Arabs  subsequently  made  several  de- 
scents and  raids  on  the  island,  "but  occupied  it  only 


SICILY 


775 


SICILY 


when  the  Sicilians  were  weary  of  the  Byzantine  mis- 
government.  About  820  the  patricus  Elpidius,  gov- 
ernor of  Sicily,  rebelled  against  the  Empress  Irene; 
but  he  was  defeated  before  the  arrival  of  the  Arabs 
whose  aid  he  had  asked,  and  who  in  S20  captured 
Palermo,  whence  they  were  afterwards  expelled  by 
pirates.  In  827,  again,  the  general,  Euphemius,  in- 
vited Ziadeth  Allah,  Prince  of  Kairowan,  to  come;  the 
latter  captured  Girgenti  the  same  year  and  then  pro- 
ceeded to  make  a  conquest  on  his  own  account.  The 
Byzantines  made  a  gallant  effort  to  repel  an  enemy  so 
much  superior  to  themselves.  Messina  was  taken  in 
831,  Palermo  in  832,  Syracuse  was  reduced  by  famine 
only  in  878,  Taormina  fell  in  902,  and  it  was  not  uniil 
941,  after  a  struggle  of  one  hundred  and  fourteen 
years,  that  the  Arabs  completed  the  conquest  of  the 
island. 

The  Arab  domination  was  a  benefit  to  Sicily  from 
the  point  of  view  of  material  piosperity.  To  a  cer- 
tain extent  liberty  was  enjoyed  by  the  Christian  pop- 
ulation. Only  those  found  in  arms  were  reduced  to 
slavery.  This  tolerance  was,  moreover,  indeed,  good 
policy  on  the  part  of  the  new  masters,  who,  after  the 
conquest,  became  independent  of  the  great  caliph. 
Agriculture  flourished,  new  plants  were  introduced 
from  Africa — the  quince  and  the  sugar-cane.  Archi- 
tecture was  encouraged  by  the  munificence  of  the 
princes  (Palermo  for  instance  had  three  hundred 
mosques) ;  Arabic  and  Greek  poets  sang  the  beauties 
and  the  happiness  of  the  island;  not  a  few  Arab 
writers  were  born  there.  The  Aglabiti,  and  the  fam- 
ily of  Ziadeth  were  succeeded,  in  909,  as  rulers  by  the 
Fatimidi,  who  were  in  their  turn  replaced,  in  948,  by 
the  Kebbidi.  The  island  was  divided  into  three  de- 
partments {valli):  Val  Demone  in  the  north-east; 
Val  Mazzara  in  the  north-west;  Val  di  Noto  in  the 
south;  a  division  that  was  maintained  later  by  the 
Normans.  In  a  census  taken  at  this  time  there  were 
in  the  island  1,590,665  Mussulmans,  1,217,033  Chris- 
tians, making  a  total  of  2,807,698  inhabitants.  The 
Byzantines  were  naturally  desirous  of  reconquering 
the  island,  but  the  emperors  of  the  West  coveted  it. 
Otho  II  had  been  negotiating  with  Venice  about  seiz- 
ing it;  Henry  II,  in  the  Treaty  of  Bamberg  (1020), 
I)r()mised  it  to  the  popes.  But  it  was  the  Normans 
who  obtained  it.  Discord  broke  out  in  the  Kebbidi 
family,  and  anarchy  resulted:  every  alcalde  and 
petty  captain  aspired  to  independence.  Encouraged 
by  these  conditions,  the  Emperor  Michael  IV  sent  the 
catapan  Leo  Opus  (1037)  with  a  fleet,  which,  after 
varying  fortunes,  was  forced  to  retire. 

In  the  following  year  he  sent  George  Maniakis  with 
an  army  which  contained  some  Normans  who  had 
chanced  to  be  at  Calabria.  Mensiiia  and  Syracuse 
were  taken,  and  the  Arabs  badly  d(>feated  near  Tro- 
ina.  But  Maniakis  offended  the  Normans;  they  re- 
turned to  the  peninsula,  and  then  began  their  con- 
quests there.  The  victories  of  Maniakis  continued 
until  1040,  but  their  fruits  were  lost  when  he  was  re- 
called. Meanwhile  the  Normans  had  formed  a  state 
on  the  peninsula.  Roger,  brother  of  Robert  Guis- 
card,  crossed  the  Strait  in  1060.  In  the  following 
year,  Becumen,  a  Saracen  noble,  asked  him  for  assist- 
ance. With  this  aid,  the  whole  Val  Demone  was  con- 
quered within  the  year.  If  progress  was  not  more 
rapid,  it  was  because  Roger  had  been  recalled  to 
Italy.  We  may  mention  the  siege  of  Troina  (1062), 
the  battle  of  Cerami  (1063),  of  Misilmeri  (1068),  the 
capture  of  Palermo  (1072),  which  had  been  attempted 
previously  by  the  Pisans  (1063),  the  defeat  of  the 
Saracens  at  Mazzara,  the  capture  of  Syracuse  (1086), 
Girgenti  (1087),  and  Noto  (1091).  In  thirty  years 
the  Normans  had  conquered  the  whole  island.  To  en- 
sure their  conquest  they  had  to  grant  religious  liberty 
to  the  Mohammedans,  whose  emigration  in  a  body 
would  have  been  a  great  blow  to  the  country.  Sicily 
became  subject  to  Roger,  who  assumed  the  title  of 


"Great  Count";  Robert  Guiscard,  who  had  aided 
him  in  the  conquest,  reserved  certain  rights  to  himself. 
Palermo  continued  to  be  tlie  capital.  The  pros- 
perity that  followed  the  coming  of  the  Arabs  con- 
tinued under  the  Normans,  and  later  under  the  Swa- 
bians.  Roger  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Roger  II, 
who  in  1127  on  the  death  of  William  II,  became  master 
of  all  the  Norman  territory  and  obtained  from  the 
a,ntipope  Anacletus  II  (1130)  the  title  of  King  of 
Sicily,  which  title  was  confirmed  by  Innocent  II. 

The  government  of  the  island  was  almost  always 
different  from  that  of  the  other  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
As  Robert  Guiscard  had  recognized  the  suzerainty  of 
the  Holy  See  over  Calabria  and  Aquileia,  paying  an 
annual  tribute,  so  Roger  II  recognized  it  over  Sicily 
and  paid  an  annual  tribute  of  600  schifali.  Costanza 
and  Innocent  III  fixed  the  tribute  for  the  whole  king- 
dom at  1000  aurei.  The  official  title  was  "the  King- 
dom of  the  Two  Sicihes",  thus  marking  the  distinc- 
tion between  Sicily  on  the  hither  side  and  Sicily  be- 
yond the  Faro  (the  Straits  of  Messina).  The  custom 
of  calling  the  south  of  Italy  Sicily  went  back  to  the 
time  of  the  Byzantine  governors,  who,  while  the  is- 
land was  under  Arab  domination  continued  to  be 
called  governors  of  Sicily.  The  Normans  therefore 
considered  that  there  were  two  Sicilies,  one  held  by  the 
Byzantines,  and  one  held  by  the  Arabs.  For  the 
Holy  See  the  high  sovereignty  over  that  kingdom  was 
necessarily  a  source  of  constant  trouble  and  war. 
(For  the  history  of  the  kingdom  down  to  the  Sicilian 
Vespers,  see  Naple.s).  The  admission  of  the  burgh- 
ers to  the  Sicilian  Parliament  by  Frederick  II,  in 
1241,  deserves  mention  here. 

Immediately  after  the  first  conquest  of  the  island 
the  Normans  re-established  the  dioceses,  and  in  all  of 
them  the  Latin-Gallican  Rite  was  adopted.  The  Nor- 
man kings,  moreover,  considered  ecclesiastical  affairs 
as  part  of  the  business  of  the  State,  and  this  caused 
incessant  difficulties  with  the  Holy  See,  which  was 
forced  to  make  many  concessions.  Thus,  Urban  II 
granted  to  Roger  I  the  right  of  putting  into  execu- 
tion the  orders  of  the  pontifical  legates.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  must  consider  as  apocryphal  the  document 
known  as  the  "Monarchia  Sicula",  containing  all  the 
ecclesiastical  rights  and  privileges  presumed  and  ex- 
ercised by  the  King  of  Sicily,  among  which,  in  par- 
ti(;ular,  is  the  legalio  sicula,  making  the  king  the  le- 
galus  natus  of  the  pope  in  that  kingdom,  whence  it 
followed  that  the  pope  could  not  have  any  other  le- 
gates in  Sicily.  The  privilege  granted  by  Urban  II 
(1098)  to  Roger,  confirmed  and  int(>rpn'ted  l)y  Pas- 
chal II  (1117),  declares  that  Roger  and  liis  Ihmi-s  held 
the  vicem  legati  (the  position  of  acting  in  place  of  a 
legate),  in  the  sense  that  what  the  pope  would  have 
done  or  ordered  through  a  legate  (quoe  peY  lecjatum 
acturi  sumus)  was  to  be  carried  into  effect  {exhibcri 
volumus)  by  the  king's  diligence  (per  vesirnm  indus- 
triam).  The  pope  certainly  contemplated  the  possi- 
bility of  sending  legates  into  Sicily.  This  was  the  in- 
terpretation put  by  Paschal  II  on  the  privilege.  The 
kings,  especially  the  Aragonese,  claimed  for  them- 
selves full  ecclesiastical  authority  in  the  Kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies,  excluding  the  right  of  the  Holy  See 
to  intervene.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  an  error  to 
deny  the  authenticity  of  the  privilege  itself  as  granted 
by  Urban  II  and  Paschal  II  (Baronius,  Orsi,  and 
others).  Philip  II  (1578)  sought  to  have  the  "Mo- 
narchia Sicula"  confirmed,  but  did  not  succeed,  not- 
withstanding which,  in  1579,  he  established  the  office 
of  the  "judex  monarchia?  siculse",  who  in  the  king's 
name,  exercised  all  the  rights  derived  from  the  priv- 
ilege of  the  Legation,  and  prohibited  appeals  to  Rome 
from  the  decisions  of  that  tribunal. 

The  disputes  with  the  Holy  See  became  exceedingly 
grave  when  Sicily  was  given  to  Amadeus  of  Savoy 
(1713) .  The  judex  monarchice  claimed  the  right  of  ab- 
solving from  censures  reserved  to  the  pope.     Clem- 


SIDON 


776 


SIDON 


ent  XI  (1715)  declared  the  "Monarchia"  at  an  end. 
But  Benedict  XIII  (172S)  thought  it  advisable  to 
come  to  an  agreement,  and  granted  the  king  the  right 
of  nominating  the  judge  of  the  Monarchy  (.always  an 
ecclesiastic),  who  in  that  way  became  a  delegate  of  the 
H0I3'  See  with  supreme  jurisdiction  in  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  But  the  causes  of  dissension  wei-e  not  re- 
moved. Pius  IX,  in  1S64,  abolished  the  tribunal  of 
the  Monarchy.  The  Italian  Government  protested, 
but,  in  the  Law  of  the  Guarantees  (art.  15),  it  ex- 
pressly renounced  all  claim  to  the  privilege.  The 
Sicilian  Vespers  resulted  in  once  more  separating  the 
island  from  the  kingdom,  which  was  then  held  b.v  the 
House  of  Anjou.  Peter  of  Aragon,  who  claimed  the 
right,  asheir  of  the  House  of  Swabia,  was  summoned  by 
the  Sicihans,  and  defended  the  island  against  the  Ange- 
vin fleet,  in  spite  of  the  excommunication  of  Martin 
IV.  His  son  James,  in  1291,  ceded  the  island  to  the 
pope,  who  wished  to  restore  it  to  the  Angevins,  but  the 
Sicihans,  in  the  Parliament  of  1296,  proclaimed 
James's  brother  Frederick  king.  This  caused  a  fresh 
war,  which  was  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Caltabellotta 
(1302),  by  which  Frederick  retained  the  title  of  King 
of  Trinacria,  but  only  for  his  life,  and  paid  in  return 
an  annual  tribute  of  3000  ounces  of  gold  to  the  Holy 
See.  Contrary  to  the  provisions  of  the  peace,  Fred- 
erick's son  Pietro  succeeded  (1337)  and,  after  him 
(1342),  his  five-year  old  son  Louis,  and  to  him  again 
(1355)  his  brother  Frederick  III,  then  thirteen  years  of 
age. 

Frederick  II  (Emperor  Frederick  II  and  Frederick 
I  of  Sicily)  had  restricted  his  own  authority  in  favour 
of  the  Parliament.  The  barons  profited  by  this  to 
form  four  great  divisions,  over  which  they  placed  four 
great  families,  the  Alagona,  Chiaramonti,  Palici,  and 
Ventimiglia,  whose  bloody  wars  desolated  Sicily. 
Roberto  and  Giovanna  of  Naples  tried  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  this  state  of  anarchy  to  recover  the  island, 
but  without  success.  In  1377  Frederick  III  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  only  daughter  Maria,  who  married 
(1392)  Martin,  son  of  Martin  of  Momblanco,  son  of 
Peter  IV  of  Aragon;  in  1409  the  kingdom  passed  by 
inheritance  to  the  elder  Martin,  and  thus  the  island 
was  united  to  the  Kingdom  of  Aragon  and  ruled  by  a 
viceroy.  The  attempt  of  Martin  II  to  break  the 
power  of  the  barons  gave  rise  to  the  idea  of  having  a 
national  king,  and  bo  one  Peralta  was  proclaimed  at 
Palermo.  But  Catania  and  Syracuse  would  have  no 
Palermitan  king;  Messina  submitted  spontaneously  to 
John  XXIII,  who  declared  the  Aragonese  line  de- 
posed. The  latter,  however,  took  advantage  of  the 
prevailing  discord:  in  1412  Ferdinand,  son  of  Mar- 
tin II,  was  acknf)wledged,  and  succeeded  in  curbing 
the  powers  of  tlie  Parliament.  His  son  Alfonso  I 
(1416-58)  united  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  (1442)  with 
Sicily.  On  his  death,  Sicily  was  given  to  John  of  Ara- 
gon, whose  son  Ferdinand  (1479-1516)  became  King 
of  Aragon  and  Castile  (and  of  Naples,  1503).  Sicily 
thus  became  a  distant  province  of  Spain.  There  were 
occasional  Sicilian  uprisings  and  conspiracies  against 
Spanish  rule:  at  Palermo,  in  1511,  there  was  a  second 
Sicilian  Vespers;  and  in  1517  the  whole  island  was 
thrown  into  cf)nfusion  by  the  conspiracy  of  Gian 
Lesca.  Then  followed  the  civil  war  between  the 
Luna  and  the  Porollo  (1.529),  the  attempt  of  the 
brothers  Imperatori  and  Marcantonio  Colonna  to 
conquer  the  island,  and  incursions  of  the  Turks. 

Morf  serious  were  the  revolts  at  Messina,  Palermo, 
and  othf-r  cities,  in  1647,  caused  by  famine.  At  Pa- 
lermo Francesco  Ventimiglia,  a  nobleman,  was  pro- 
claimed king,  and  one  Giuseppe  Alessi  cai)(ain  of  the 
people.  Alessi  met  with  the  same  fate  as  Masaniello 
at  Naples,  being  slain  by  the  populace  whose  idol  he 
had  been.  As  Messina,  alone  of  all  the  cities,  had  pre- 
served its  municipal  liberty:  the  attempt  to  destroy 
this  provoked  a  rising  (1674),  and  annexation  to 
France  was  proclaimed.     Louis  XIV  agreed  to  this 


arrangement,  but  in  1676  withdrew  his  troops  and 
warships  from  Messina.  In  1713,  by  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht,  Victor  Amadeus  II  was  made  King  of  Sicily, 
and  the  Sicilians  were  contented  with  independence. 
But  in  1718  war  broke  out  again;  Victor  Amadeus 
had  to  abandon  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  and  the  former 
was  given  to  Austria.  In  1736  it  was  again  united  to 
Naples.  The  reign  of  the  Bourbons  was  certainly  ad- 
vantageous to  the  island.  During  1  he  Partlienopean 
Repubhc  (1798),  and  the  reign  of  Joseph  Bonaparte 
and  Murat  (1806-15),  Sicily  was  the  asylum  of  the 
royal  family,  and  was  protected  by  the  British  fleet. 
At  that  time  (1812)  the  island  had  a  Constitution  like 
the  English  Constitution.  But,  on  being  restored  to 
the  Throne  of  Naples,  Ferdinand  IV  revoked  the 
Constitution,  which  indeed  had  not  been  very  accept- 
able to  the  people;  he  also  put  an  end  to  the  Parlia- 
ment and  all  the  laws  and  privileges  of  the  Sicilians, 
and  the  island  was  thus  put  on  the  same  footing  as  all 
the  other  provinces  of  the  kingdom  (Organic  Laws  of 
1817).     This  caused  great  discontent  in  Sicily. 

When  the  Revolution  of  1820  broke  out  at  Naples, 
the  Sicilians  expected  to  obtain  their  independence ; 
they  received  an  evasive  answer  which  diminished 
their  hopes.  General  Florestano  Pepe,  sent  into 
Sicily  by  the  Neapohtan  Parliament,  was  at  first  ex- 
cluded from  Palermo,  but  later  welcomed,  when  he  had 
given  promises  regarding  their  independence.  These 
promises  were  not  confirmed  by  the  Parliament, 
which,  to  punish  Palermo,  declared  Messina  the  capi- 
tal of  the  island;  widespread  disorders  followed,  which 
made  it  easy  for  12,000  Austrians  to  re-establish  the 
authority  of  Ferdinand  I  in  the  island.  The  disturb- 
ances did  not  cease  until  they  were  put  down  by  Gen- 
eral Del  Carretto.  In  1847  a  new  agitation  to  obtain 
complete  autonomy  for  Sicily,  with  its  own  Constitu- 
tion, sprang  up;  but  no  one  thought  of  Italian  unity. 
On  10  July,  1848,  Ferdinand©  Maria,  Duke  of  Genoa, 
was  proclaimed  King  of  Sicily,  but  he  refused  to  ac- 
cept the  throne.  Peace  having  been  restored  on  the 
Continent,  the  island  was  recovered  in  a  few  weeks 
(March  and  April,  1849).  Some  disturbances  (as  at 
Bentivenga,  1856)  were  crushed.  Meanwhile,  the 
idea  of  Italian  unity  had  spread  among  the  Liberals, 
while  the  populace  continued  to  look  forward  to 
Sicilian  independence.  In  1862  Garibaldi's  "Thou- 
sand" landed  in  Sicily  and  soon  won  the  island  for 
Victor  Emmanuel  II.  The  bright  hopes  of  inde- 
pendence and  prosperity,  however,  were  not  fulfilled; 
there  were  risings  against  the  Italian  Government 
(1807),  though  these  were  of  little  importance. 

Among  ecclesiastical  events  it  should  be  noted  that, 
in  the  general  re-organizati(m  (1818)  of  the  Church  in 
the  kingdom,  the  Dioceses  of  Caltagirone,  Nicosia, 
and  Piazza  Armerina  were  established;  in  1844  those 
of  Noto,  Trapani,  and  Caltanisetta  were  added,  and 
Syracuse  was  restored  to  metropolitan  rank. 

Chiksi,  Sirilia  illustraia  (Milan,  1892);  Battaglia,  L'erolu- 
zione  sociale  delta  Sicilia  (Palermo,  189.'));  Sladf.n,  In  Sicilu 
(London,  1901);  Pirro,  Sicilia  Sacra  (Palermo,  1733);  Lancia 
Di  Brolo,  Storia  delta  Chiesa  in  Sicilia  nei  primi  died  scroti 
del  cristianesimo  (Palermo,  2  vols.,  1884);  Scaduto,  Stalo  e 
Chiem,  nelle  due  Sicilie  (Palermo,  1887);  Strazzulla,  La 
Sicilia  Sacra  (Palermo,  1900);  Anon.,  Documenti  per  servire 
alia  storia  di  Sicilia  (Palermo,  1873 — );  Garufi,  /  documenti 
inediti  dell'  epoca  normanna  in  Sicilia  (Palermo,  1899);  Amari, 
/  muHulmani  in  Sicilia  (Florence,  1854-72);  Arctiivio  slorico 
sicitinnn  (Palermo,  1873 — );  Arch.  star,  per  la  Sic.  Orientate 
(Catania,  1904 — );  Mira,  Bihtioarnfia  sicitiana  (Palermo. 
187.';,  1881).— For  the  LeKatio  Simla,  see  Founo,  Storia  dell' 
Apost.  Lefinzione  annessa  nlla  ronitin  di  Siritin  (Palermo,  1808); 
8KNTIH,  Die  Monarchia  Sirnhi  (Freiburg,  ISdO);  Giannone, 
//  tribunate  delta  Monar.  di  Sirilia  (I{<>ine,  1S92);  FREEMAN, 
History  of  Sicily  from  the  Earliest  Times  (London,  1891—). 

U.  Benioni. 

Sidon,  the  seat  of  a  Melchite  and  a  Maronite  see 
in  Syria.  Sidon  is  the  oldest  city  of  the  Pho'iiicians, 
and  the  metropolis  of  the  great  colonial  empire  estab- 
lished by  this  people  (Strabo,  XVI,  i,  22).  It  is 
mentioned  in  the  ethnological  table  of  Genesis  (x,  19) ; 


SIDON 


777 


SIDON 


the  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Zabulon  reached  even  to 
the  gates  of  this  city  (Gen.,  xhx,  13),  but  the  Hebrews 
never  were  its  masters  (Jos.,  xi,  8;  xiii,  3,  6;  xix,  28; 
Judges,  i,  31;  iii,  3;  x,  12;  xviii,  7).  The  supremacy 
of  the  Sidonians  continued  until  about  1252  b.  c, 
when  the  Phihstines,  after  partly  destroying  Sidon, 
built  on  the  old  foundations  the  city  of  Dor,  above 
Jaffa.  The  Sidonians  fled  to  Tyre,  one  of  their 
colonies,  which  then  became  the  leading  city.  Sidon, 
called  the  mother  of  the  Phoenician  cities,  for  Tyre, 
Carthage,  Hippo  were  settled  by  emigrants  from  there, 
was  noted  for  its  bronze,  its  commerce,  navigation, 
knowledge  of  mathematics  and  astronomy;  it  is  men- 
tioned with  great  praise  by  Homer  (Iliad,  XXIII,  743; 
Odyssey,  XV,  425;  XIII,  285).  After  its  downfall 
it  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  but  nearly  always 
in  terms  of  censure  and  as  a  subject  of  reproach  (Joel, 
iii,  4,  5;  Jer.,  xxv,  22;  Ezech.,  xxxii,  30).  Queen 
Jezaoel,  wife  of  Achab,  was  the  daughter  of  a  king 
of  Sidon  (III  Kings,  xvi,  31),  for  the  city  for  a  long 
time  had  its  own  rulers,  although  we  find  the  inhabi- 
tants rendering  service  to  David  for  the  building  of  the 
temple  (I  Par.,  xxii,  4).  Sidon  was  taken  several 
times  by  the  Assyrian  kings,  to  whom  its  rulers  paid 
tribute;  finally  in  676,  when  its  name  was  changed  to 
Ir-Asaraddon,  and  its  inhabitants  were  killed,  or 
carried  captive  into  Assyria.  When  Babylon  suc- 
ceeded Nineveh  in  the  sovereignty  of  Asia  (606  B.C.), 
Sidon  allied  itself  with  Tyre  to  throw  off  this  yoke 
and  that  of  Egypt  (Ezech.,  xxvii,  8);  the  conqueror, 
Nabuchodonosor,  turned  his  wrath  on  Tyre,  and  Sidon 
took  advantage  of  this  to  recover  some  of  its  former 
glory.  It  was  a  willing  subject  of  the  Medes  and 
Persians  from  538  to  351  b.  c,  but,  having  revolted 
in  the  latter  year  against  Artaxerxes  Ochus,  it  was 
burned  by  its  iriha})itants,  40,000  of  whom  perished 
in  the  flames  (Diod.  Sic,  XVI,  xli-xlvi).  Finally  it 
passed  under  the  rule  of  the  Greeks,  sometimes  of 
the  Seleucides,  sometimes  of  the  Lagides,  thus  be- 
coming gradually  hellenized;  at  this  time  it  had  a 
school  of  philosophy.  Under  the  Romans  Sidon 
assumed  the  name  of  Nauarchis,  later  that  of  Colonia 
Augusta,  or  Metropolis,  and  had  its  own  coinage. 
This  period  begins  about  110  b.  c. 

Jesus  visited  the  countries  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  (Matt., 
XV,  21;  Mark,  vii,  31),  passing  through  Sidon  after 
healing  the  Syro-Phoenician  woman.  St.  Paul,  return- 
ing to  Rome  from  Ca'sarea,  stopped  with  his  friends 
at  Sidon,  where  there  were  .some  Christian  families 
(Acts,  xxvii,  3).  At  an  early  date  Sidon  became  a 
bishopric,  subject  to  the  Metropolitan  of  Tyre  and 
included  in  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch.  Theodore 
(present  at  the  Council  of  Nica^a,  325)  is  the  first 
bishop  of  whom  there  is  any  record ;  the  two  most  cele- 
brated are  Paul  ar-Raheb,  an  Arabic  writer  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  Euthymius,  founder  of  the 
Basilian  Order  of  St.  Saviour,  and  one  of  the  first 
organizers  of  the  Melchite  Catholic  Church,  about  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  For  others 
see  Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christ.",  II,  811-14.  Mention 
is  also  made  of  two  native  saints:  the  martyr  Zeno- 
bius,  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian  (Eusebius,  "Hist. 
eccl.",  VIII,  xiii,)  and  Serapion  (feast  21  March),  a 
legendary  personage.  A  great  synod  on  the  subject 
of  Monophysitism  was  held  at  Sidon  in  512.  The  city 
was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  Prankish  king, 
Baldwin  I,  in  1108,  and  was  captured  by  the  Crusad- 
ers in  1 1 1 1  after  a  long  siege  by  land  and  water.  From 
that  time  it  was  a  dependency  of  the  Latin  Kingdom 
of  Jerusalem.  In  1187  Sidon  surrendered  to  Saladin, 
who  destroyed  the  ramparts,  but  it  was  retaken  by 
the  Franks  in  1197,  and  held  by  them,  notwithstand- 
ing temporary  occupations  by  the  Arabs  and  Mongols, 
until  1291,  when  Sultan  El-Ashraft  threw  down  the 
walls.  In  1253  Saint  Louis  resided  there  for  several 
months,  and  the  Templars  held  possession  the  greater 
part  of  the  time.    During  the  Frankish  occupancy  it  ■ 


was  called  in  Latin  Sagitta,  and  in  French  Sagette, 
from  its  native  name,  Saida.  The  Latin  bishopric, 
suffragan  of  Tyre,  was  administered  by  the  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem,  and  not  by  that  of  Antioch,  as  formerly; 
it  was  already  in  existence  in  1131,  having  probably 
been  founded  some  years  previously.  Dating  from 
1291  it  was  only  a  titular  bishopric.  For  the  Latin 
bishops,  see  Du  Cange,  "Les  Families  d'Outre-Mer", 
805;  Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christ.",  Ill,  1319-24; 
Eubel,  "Hierarchia  cathohca  medii  sevi",  I,  473;  II, 
260;  III,  318. 

After  the  departure  of  the  Franks,  Sidon  was  a  city 
of  little  importance,  acting  as  a  port  for  Damascus; 
under  the  Druse  Ameer  Faklir-ed-Din  (1595-1634) 
many  Europeans,  especially  French,  being  attracted 
thereto,  it  became  very  prosperous.  Its  downfall 
began,  however,  when  Djezzar  Pasha  expelled  (1791) 
all  Europeans  from  the  pashalic,  and  settled  at  Saint 
Jean  d'Acre;  its  ruin  was  completed  by  the  com- 
mercial development  of  Beirut.  In  1837  it  suffered 
from  an  earthquake,  and  in  1840  from  a  bombardment 
by  European  fleets;  in  1860  nearly  1800  Christians 
were  massacred  in  its  district.  In  the  necropolis 
were  found  the  painted  sarcophagi,  said  to  be  of 
Alexander  and  the  Weepers,  now  at  the  museum  of 
Constantinople,  and  considered  the  most  beautiful  in 
the  world.  Saida  numbers  12,000  inhabitants,  of 
whom  1200  are  Melchite  Catholics,  1000  Maronites, 
250  Latins,  200  Protestants,  and  800  Jews;  the  re- 
mainder are  Moslems.  The  city,  located  in  the  midst 
of  gardens  and  thus  retaining  its  surname  of  "Flow- 
ery ",  forms  a  caza  of  the  vilayet  of  Beirut.  Although 
the  harbour  is  partly  blocked  by  sand,  its  commerce 
is  of  importance.  The  Maronite  diocese  numbers 
40,000  faithful,  200  priests,  and  100  churches.  The 
Melchite  dioc&se  numbers  18,550  faithful,  42  churches, 
50  priests,  and  36  schools.  The  religious  of  the  Basil- 
ian order  of  St-Saviour  have  their  mother-house  at 
Deir-el-Moukhalles;  they  possess  4  convents  in  this 
diocese  and  number  28  priests,  65  scholastics  and 
novices,  and  9  lay  brothers.  The  Basilian  Sisters 
number  30,  in  one  convent.  Protestants  have  made 
considerable  headway  in  this  diocese,  which  the  native 
Catholic  clergy  have  not  as  yet  been  able  to  counteract. 
The  Franciscans,  estabhshed  there  in  1827,  conduct 
the  Latin  parish  and  school  for  boys ;  the  Jesuits  have 
had  a  house  there  since  1855;  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  direct  the  dispensary  and  school  for  girls. 

Renan,  Mission  de  Phenicie  (Paris,  1864),  361-526;  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  a.  v.;  Gu^RIN,  Description  de  la 
Palestine,  GaliUe,  II,  488-506;  Cuinet,  Syrie,  Liban,  et  Palestine 
(Paris,  1896),  7(>-81;  Jullien,  La  nouvelle  mission  de  la  C.  de  J. 
en  Syrie,  I,  257-65;  Missiones  catholicx  (Rome,  1907),  782,  819; 
Annuaire  pontif.  cathol.  (Paris,  1911). 

S.  Vailh^. 

Sidon,  titular  metropolis  of  Pamphylia  Prima. 
Sidon,  situated  on  the  coast  of  Pamphylia,  was  a 
colony  of  Cuma;  in  ^Eolia.  Dating  from  the  tenth 
century  b.  c,  its  coinage  bore  the  head  of  Athena 
(Minerva),  the  patroness  of  the  city,  with  a  Pam- 
phylian  legend.  Its  people,  a  piratical  horde,  quickly 
forgot  their  own  language  to  adopt  that  of  the 
aborigines.  For  rendering  tribute  to  Alexander  they 
were  accorded  a  Macedonian  garrison.  A  commercial 
and  warlike  city,  with  a  powerful  navy,  it  was  in 
continual  rivalry  with  Aspendus.  In  its  waters  the 
fleet  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  commanded  by  Hannibal 
with  Sidonian  vessels  upon  the  right  wing,  was  beaten 
by  the  Rhodians.  From  that  time  Sidon  was  a 
rendezvous  of  pirates,  above  all,  a  notorious  slave 
market.  After  the  destruction  of  piracy  elsewhere 
Sidon  continued  to  derive  considerable  wealth  and 
profit  from  both  these  sources.  It  was  the  capital 
of  Pamphylia,  later  of  Pamphylia  Prima.  In  the 
tenth  century  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  called 
it  still  a  nest  of  pirates.  Its  downfall  was  complete 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  its  people  having  abandoned 


SIDONIUS 


778 


SIDYMA 


It  by  degrees,  owing  to  the  Turkish  invasions,  and 
lack  of  water.  At  present  the  deserted  ruins  are 
called  Eski  Adalia,  Old  Attalia,  in  the  sanjak  of  Adalia 
and  the  vilayet  of  Koniah.  They  consist  of  a 
temple,  basilica,  gymnasium,  aqueduct,  public  bath, 
theatre,  ramparts,  etc.  and  some  inscriptions.  Sidon 
is  mentioned  in  1  Machabees,  xv,  23,  among  the 
cities  and  countries  to  which  the  Roman  letter  pro- 
claiming their  alliance  with  the  Jews  was  sent. 
Christianity  was  early  introduced  into  Sidon.  St. 
Nestor,  martjT  in  251,  was  Bishop  of  Pergi,  not  of 
Sidon  as  Le  Quien  (Oriens  Christ.,  I,  995)  believed 
The  first  known  bishop  was  Epidaurus,  presiding  at 
the  Council  of  Ancyra,  314.  Others  are  John, 
fourth  eenturj-;  Eustathius,  381;  Amphilochius, 
426-45S,  who  played  an  important  part  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  time;  Conon,  536;  Peter,  553;  John, 
680-692;  Mark,  879;  Theodore,  1027-1028;  An- 
thimus,  present  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople 
where  Michael  Cerularius  completed  the  schism 
with  Rome,  1054;  John,  then  counsellor  to  the  Em- 
peror Michael  VH  Ducas,  presided  at  a  council  on 
the  worship  of  images,  1082;  Theodosius  and  his 
successor  Nicetas,  twelfth  century.  John,  present  at 
a  Council  of  Constantinople  1156.  The  "Notitia? 
Episcopatuum "  continued  to  mention  Sidon  as  a 
metropolis  of  Pamphylia  until  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. It  does  not  appear  in  the  "Notitia"  of  An- 
dronicus  III.  From  other  documents  we  learn  that 
in  1315  and  for  some  time  previous  to  that,  Sidon 
had  bishops  of  its  own — the  Bishop  of  Sinope  was 
called  to  the  position,  but  was  unable  to  leave  his 
own  diocese;  this  call  was  repeated  in  1338  and  1345. 
In  1397  the  diocese  was  united  with  that  of  Attalia; 
in  1400  the  Metropolitan  of  Perge  and  Attalia  was  at 
the  same  time  the  administrator  of  vSidon.  Since 
then,  the  city  has  disappeared  from  history. 

Sidon  was  the  home  of  Eustachius  of  Antioch 
(see  Eustathius),  of  the  philosopher  Troilus,  the 
master  of  Socrates,  himself  a  teacher;  of  the  cele- 
brated fifth-century  ecclesiastical  writer  Philip; 
of  the  famous  law>'er  Tribonianus   (sixth  century). 

Smith,  Diction,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geog.  (London,  1870), 
B.  v.;  ToMASCHEK,  Zur  historischen  Topographie  von  Kleinasien 
im  MUtelaller  (Vienna,  1891),  .59;  Alishan,  Sisseuan  (Venice, 
1899),  364;  Texier,  Asie  Mineure  (Paris,  1862),  721  sqq.; 
Lanckoronski,  Les  Mies  de  la  Pamphylie  et  de  la  Pisidie  (Paris, 
1890),  131  seq.;  Beaufort,  Karamania,  147  sqq.;  Fellows, 
Asia  Minor,  201;  Leake,  Asia  Minor,  195  sqq.;  Ramsay, 
Asia  Minor,  420  and  passim ;  Wachter,  Der  Verfall  des  Griechen- 
tuma  in  Kleinasien  im  XIV  Jahrhunderl  (Leipzig,  1903),  29  sqq. 

S.    P^TRIDfcs. 

Sidonius  ApoUinaris  (Caius  Sollius  Modestus 
Apollinaris  Sidonius),  Christian  author  and  Bishop 
of  Clermont,  b.  at  Lyons,  5  November,  about  430; 
d.  at  Clermont,  about  August,  480.  He  was  of  noble 
descent,  his  father  and  grandfather  being  Christians 
and  prefects  of  the  pretorium  of  the  Gauls.  About 
452  he  married  Papianilla,  daughter  of  Avitus,  who 
was  proclaimed  emperor  at  the  end  of  455,  and  who 
set  up  in  the  Forum  of  Trajan  a  statue  of  his  son-in- 
law.  Sidonius  wrote  a  panegyric  in  honour  of  his 
father  who  had  become  consul  on  1  Jan.,  456.  A  yea,r 
had  elapsed  before  Avitus  was  overthrown  by  Rici- 
mer  and  Majorian.  Sidonius  at  first  resisted,  then 
yielded  and  wrote  a  second  panegyric  on  the  occasion 
of  Majorian's  journey  to  Lyons  (458).  After  the  fall 
of  Majorian,  Sidonius  supported  Theodoric  II,  King  of 
the  Visigoths,  and  after  Theodoric's  assassination 
hoped  to  see  the  empire  arise  anew  during  the  con- 
sulate of  Anthemius.  He  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
eulogized  the  second  consulate  of  Anthemius  fl  Jan., 
468)  in  a  panegyric,  and  became  prefect  of  the  city. 
About  470  he  returned  to  Gaul,  where  contrary  to  his 
wishes  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  the  Arveni  (Clermont 
in  Auvergne).  He  had  been  chosen  as  the  only  one 
capable  of  maintaining  the  Roman  power  against  the 
attacks  of  Euric,  Theodoric's  successor.     With  the 


general  Ecdicius,  he  resisted  the  barbarian  army  up  to 
to  the  time  when  Clermont  fell,  abandoned  by  Rome 
(474).  He  was  for  some  time  a  prisoner  of  Euric,  and 
was  later  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  two  priests  of  his 
diocese.  He  finally  returned  to  Clermont,  where  he 
died  (Epist.,  IX,  xii). 

His  works  form  two  groups,  the  "Carmina"  and 
the  "  Epistulaj ".  The  poems  are  the  three  panegyrics 
with  their  appendixes;  two  epithalamia;  an  acknowl- 
edgment to  Faustus  of  Reji  (now  Riez),  a  eulogy  of 
Narbonne,  or  rather,  of  two  citizens  of  Narbonne;  a 
description  of  the  castle  {burgas)  of  Leontius,  etc. 
The  letters  have  been  divided  into  nine  books,  the  ap- 
proximate dates  of  which  are:  I,  469;  II,  472;  V-VII, 
474-475;  IX,  479.  Although  written  in  prose,  these 
letters  contain  several  metrical  pieces.  After  his  con- 
version to  Christianity,  Sidonius  ceased  to  write  pro- 
fane poetry.  The  poems  of  Sidonius  are  written  in  a 
fairly  pure  latinity.  The  prosody  is  correct,  but  the 
frequent  alliterations  and  the  use  of  short  verses  in 
lengthy  compositions  betray  the  poet  of  a  decadent 
period.  The  excessive  use  of  mythological  and  alle- 
gorical terms  and  the  elaboration  of  details  make  the 
reading  of  these  works  tiresome.  The  sources  of  his 
inspiration  are  usually  Statins  and  Claudian.  His 
defects  are  atoned  for  by  powerful  descriptions 
(sketches  of  barbarian  races,  landscapes,  details  of 
court  intrigues)  noticeable  particularly  in  his  letters, 
in  the  composition  of  which  he  took  as  models  Sj'm- 
machus  and  Pliny  the  Younger.  Most  of  them  are 
genuine  letters,  only  somewhat  retouched  before  their 
insertion  in  the  collection.  They  abound  more  in 
mannerisms  than  the  poems  and  contain  also  many 
archaic  words  and  expressions  borrowed  from  every 
period  of  the  Latin  language;  he  is  very  diffuse  and 
runs  to  antithesis  and  plays  upon  words.  He  fore- 
shadows the  artificial  diction  of  the  "Hisperica  Ta- 
mina",  only  the  artistic  skill  of  the  painter  and  the 
story-teller  makes  up  for  these  defects.  These  letters 
exhibit  a  highly  coloured  and  unique  picture  of  the 
times.  Sidonius  wished  to  unite  the  service  of  Christ 
and  that  of  the  Empire.  He  is  the  last  representative 
of  the  ancient  culture  in  Gaul.  By  his  works  as  well 
as  by  his  career,  he  strove  to  perpetuate  it  under  the 
aegis  of  Rome;  eventually  he  had  to  be  content  with 
saving  its  last  vestiges  under  a  barbarian  prince. 

The  writings  of  Sidonius  were  edited  by  Sirmond  (Paris,  1652) ; 
for  new  editions  see  Luetjohann  in  Mon.  Ger.  Hist.:  Aucl. 
antiq.,  VIII  (Berlin,  1887);  Mohr  in  Bihliotheca  Teubneriana 
(Leipzig).  For  an  exhaustive  bibliography  see  Chevalier, 
Repertoire;  Idem,  Bio-bibl.,  8.  v.;  Rooer,  L'enseignement  dea 
lettres  clasaiques  d'Anaone  d  Alcuin  (Paris,  1905),  60-88. 

Paul  Lejay. 

Sidyina,  a  titular  see  in  Lycia,  suffragan  of  Myra; 
mentioned  by  Ptolemy,  V,  3,  5;  PHny,  V,  28; 
Hierocles,  684,  15;  Stephanus  Byzantinus,  s.  v., 
Cedrenus  (ed.  Bonn)  344.  Near  the  sea  and  to  the 
west  of  Patara  it  was  built  on  the  southern  slope  of 
Cragus,  to  the  north-west  of  the  estuary  of  the 
Xanthus.  Its  history  is  unknown;  its  ruins,  wl\ich 
prove  it  to  have  been  an  unimportant  place,  are  near 
the  village  of  Doodoorgar,  in  the  vilayet  of  Koniah, 
and  consist  of  a  theatre,  agora,  temples,  tombs,  and 
some  in.scriptions.  Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christianus", 
I,  973,  mentions  three  of  its  bishops:  Hypatius,  who 
signed  the  letter  of  the  bishops  of  Lycia  to  the  Em- 
peror Leo,  458;  Zemarchus,  at  the  councils  of  Con- 
stantinople in  680  and  692;  Nicodemus,  at  Nica'a, 
787;  Eustathius,  present  at  the  Council  of  Seleucia, 
359,  was  bishop  both  of  Pinara  and  of  Sidyma  (see 
Le  Quien,  ibid.,  975).  The  see  is  mentioned  by  the 
Greek  "Notitiae  episcopatuum"  until  the  thirteenth 
century. 

Fellows,  Lycia,  151  seq.;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Geog.,  8.  v.;    Ramset,  i4«to  Minor,  425;   Texier,  Asie  mxneure, 

S.   PfiXEIDiJS. 


SIENA 


779 


SIENA 


Siena,  (Senensis)  Archdiocese  of,  in  Tuscany 
(Central  Italy).  The  city  is  situated  on  three  gently- 
swelling  hills.  The  Public  Library  was  donated  by 
Archdeacon  Bandini  (1663).  The  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts,  the  Museum  of  the  Cathedral,  and  the  different 
churches  of  the  city,  illustrate  almost  completely  the 
history  of  art  in  Siena;  in  no  other  city  had  art,  es- 
pecially painting,  a  more  local  character,  and  nowhere 
else  did  it  remain  so  conservative.  Gothic  archi- 
tecture produced  here  its  most  excellent  monuments, 
both  ecclesiastical  and  in  civic  buildings;  and  the 
Sienese  architects  laboured  beyond  the  confines  of 
their  state  (e.  g.  the  cathedral  of  Orvieto).  Sculp- 
ture received  its  first  impulse  from  Nicolo  and 
Giovanni  Pisani,  whose  Sienese  disciples  carved  the 
decorations  of  the  fagade  of  Orvieto  cathedral.  The 
most  renowned  sculptors  of  the  fifteenth  centurj' 
were  Jacopo  della  Querela  (1374-1438),  one  of  the 
pioneers  of  the  Renaissance;  Lorenzo  di  Pietro; 
Antonio  Federighi;  Francesco  di  Giorgio  (also  an 
architect);  Giacomo  Cozzarelli;  and  Lorenzo  Mari- 
ano. Sculpture  in  wood  is  represented  by  the 
brothers  Antonio  and  Giovanni  Barili,  Bartoloiuco 
Neroni,  and  others.  In  painting  Siena  possessed  in 
Duccio  an  artist  who  greatly  surpassed  his  con- 
temporary Cimabue  of  Florence,  both  for  grace  and 
in  accuracy  of  design.  Nevertheless,  art  developed 
and  was  perfected  in  Florence  more  rapidly  than  in 
Siena.  Simone  Martini  (1285-1344),  immortalized 
by  Petrarca,  and  a  citizen  of  Siena,  bears  com- 
parison with  Giotto.  Lippo  Memmi  (also  a  minia- 
turist), Pietro  and  Ambrogio  Lorenzetti,  imitated 
with  facility  the  grandiose  composition  of  the  school 
of  Giotto.  But  Bcrtolo  di  Fredi  (1330-141()j; 
Taddeo  de  Bartolo  (1360^1422);  and  the  fifteenth 
century  painters,  Domenico  di  Bartolo,  Sano  di 
Pietro,  Vecchietta,  Matteo,  and  Benvenuto  di 
Giovanni,  compared  with  the  Florentines,  seem  al- 
most medieval.  Siena  therefore  turned  anew  to 
Florentine,  Lombard,  or  Venetian  painters,  under 
whom  the  ancient  fame  of  the  city  revived,  especially 
in  the  works  of  Bernardino  Fungai,  Girolanio  della 
Pacchia,  and  others.  The  most  renowned  n'i)n'sciita- 
tives  of  the  Renais.sance  in  Siena  are  Balda.'^sare 
Peruzzi,  better  known  as  the  architect  of  the  Biisilica 
of  San  Pietro,  Giovanni  Antonio  Bazzi,  and  II 
Sodoma  (1477-1549),  a  rival  of  Raphael.  With 
Domenico  Beccafumi  (1486-1551)  begins  the 
decadence.  In  the  nineteenth  century  Paolo  Franchi 
founded  a  school  of  painters  closely  related  to  the 
"Nazarenes"  (a  group  of  German  painters  of  the 
early  nineteenth  century,  who  imitated  the  Italians 
of  the  fifteenth  and  early  sixteenth  centuries);  the 
chapel  of  the  Istituto  di  Santa  Teresa  gives  a  good 
idea  of  their  art. 

The  cathedral  of  Siena  is  said  to  occupy  the  site  of  a 
temi)le  of  Minerva.  The  present  building  was  begun 
in  the  early  thirteenth  century;  the  cupola  was 
finished  in  1464.  But  in  1339  it  was  decided  to  so 
enlarge  the  cathedral  that  the  area  then  occupied 
by  the  nave  should  form  the  transepts  of  the  new 
building.  In  fact  the  construction  of  the  longitudinal 
nave,  now  in  part  incorporated  in  the  Opera  del 
Duomo,  was  actually  commenced.  Though  the  pes- 
tilence of  1348  compelled  the  citizens  to  desist  from 
this  plan,  they  determined  to  complete  in  a  worthy 
manner  the  original  design.  As  it  stands  the  build- 
ing is  about  292  ft.  long  and  80  ft.  wide— 168  ft.  in 
the  transepts.  The  facade  is  decorated  with  bands 
of  red,  white,  and  black  marble,  tricuspidal,  and 
richly  adorned  with  sculptures  (restored  in  1869) 
and  with  mosaics  (renewed  in  1878).  In  the  interior 
the  pavement  is  of  admirable  marble  mosaic — 
the  work  of  masters  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
which  has  been  for  the  most  part  renewed.  The 
pulpit,  entirely  in  relief,  is  the  work  of  Nicol6  Pisano 
and  his  pupils;    the  high  altar  is  by  Petruzzi,  the 


bronze  tabernacle  by  Vecchietta,  and  the  carvings 
of  the  choir  by  the  brothers  Barili.  The  chapel  of 
San  Giovanni  contains  a  statue  of  the  saint  by 
Donatello,  besides  statues  by  other  sculptors,  and 
frescoes  by  Pinturicchio.  Scattered  through  the  in- 
terior of  the  cathedral  are  statues  of  Sienese  popes 
and  the  tombs  of  the  bishops  of  Siena.  The  library 
of  the  cathedral  possesses  ancient  choir-books  an/i 
other  manuscripts,  and  is  adorned  throughout  with 
frescoes  by  Pinturicchio  representing  scenes  from  the 
life  of  Pius  II— the  gift  of  Pius  III.  In  the  centre  of 
the  library  is  the  celebrated  group  of  the  Three 
Graces,   presented   by   Pius   II.     In  the  Opera  del 


Interior  of  the  Cathedral  op  Siena 
XII-XIV  Century 

Duomo  are  preserved  the  remains  of  the  exterior 
sculptures  and  of  the  pavement  of  the  cathedral, 
as  well  as  paintings  and  sacred  tapestries.  In  the 
Hospital  of  Sta  Maria  della  Scala  (thirteenth  cen- 
tury) the  church  and  the  ■pellegrinaro  (a  large 
sick  room)  with  frescoes  by  Donienico  di  Bartolo 
are  noteworthy;  San  Agostino possesses  pictures  and 
frescoes  by  Perugino,  Sodoma,  Matteo  di  Giovanni, 
and  others.  Beneath  the  choir  of  the  cathedral  is 
the  ancient  baptistery,  now  the  parish  Church  of  San 
Giovanni,  with  its  remarkable  font,  ornamented  with 
sculptures  by  Querela,  Donatello,  and  Ghiberti. 
In  Santa  Maria  del  Carmine  the  cloisters  and  the 
Chapel  of  the  Sacrament  are  particularly  interesting. 
The  Oratory  of  San  Bernardino  contains  works  of  the 
principal  Sienese  artists,  especially  of  Sodoma  and 
Beccafumi.  The  house  of  St.  Catherine  of  Siena 
(Benincasa)  has  been  transformed  into  a  number  of 
chapels,  which  centuries  have  vied  in  adorning.  San 
Domenico  (1293)  possesses  pictures  by  Sodoma, 
Fungai,  Vanni,  and  others,  and  a  tabernacle  by 
Benedetto  da  Maiano.  The  little  church  of  Fon- 
teguista  has  frescoes  by  Fungai,  Petruzzi,  and  Lorenzo 
di  Mariano.  Scattered  throughout  the  other  churches 
are  works  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 
Outside  of  the  city  is  the  Convento  dell'  Osservanza, 
with  majolicas  by  Andrea  della  Robbia  and  paintings 


SIENA 


780 


SIENA 


by  Sodoma,  Sano  di  Pietro,  Taddeo  Bartolo,  and 
others;  here  also  are  shovsTi  the  cell  of  St.  Bernardino 
of  Siena,  and  the  tomb  of  Pandolfo  Petrucci.  More 
distant  from  Siena  are  the  Certosa  di  Pontignano, 
the  Abbey  of  Sant'  Eugenio  (730),  and  the  monastery 
of  San  Galgano  (1201). 

Of  the  civic  buildings  we  mention  the  Palazzo 
PubbUco  (1289),  with  the  Torre  del  Mangia  (102 
metres),  at  the  foot  of  which  in  the  form  of  a  graceful 
loggia  is  the  Capella  di  Piazza  (1376-1460),  adorned 
with  frescoes  and  sculptures.  In  the  interior  of  the 
Palazzo  Pubblico,  the  halls  of  the  ground  and  first 
stories  (Sala  della  Pace,  del  Mappamondo,  di  Balia) 
are  decorated  with  frescoes  by  painters  named  above 
and  b}'  others;  the  frescoes  of  the  Sala  Vittorio 
Emanuele  are  modern  (Maccari  and  others).  In 
front  of  the  Palazzo  Pubblico  extends  the  great 
Piazza  del  Campo,  where  on  the  second  of  July  and 
the  fifteenth  of  August  of  each  year  are  held  the 
celebrated  races — Corse  del  Palio — which  by 
reason  of  the  gay 
medley  of  the 
riders  and  their 
historic  costumes 
attract  a  great 
number  of  strang- 
ers each  year. 
(Hey wood,  "Our 
Lady  of  August 
and  the  Palio", 
Siena,  1889).  The 
Fonte  Gaia  (Joy- 
ful Fountain)  in 
the  public  square 
is  the  work  of 
Jacopo  dellaQuer- 
cia.  Among  the 
private  palaces 
the  following  are 
of  note:  Span- 
nochi,  Casino  de' 
Nobili,  Tolomei, 
Buonsignori,  Pic- 
colomini  (the  last 
named  contains  the  public  archives).  The  Monte 
dei  Paschi  is  perhaps  the  oldest  of  all  non-charitable 
houses  of  credit.  It  was  founded  in  1.500,  and  was 
reorganized  in  16.54,  when  the  pastures  (paschi)  of 
the  Maremma,  from  which  it  derives  its  name,  were 
assigned  it  in  guise  of  securities. 

In  ancient  times  Saena,  an  Etruscan  city,  was  of  no 
great  importance,  hence  remains  of  the  Etruscan 
and  Roman  epochs  are  rare.  It  became  a  Roman 
colony  under  Augustus.  Under  the  Lombards  it  was 
the  seat  of  two  gastaldi  (magistrates),  one  a  judge, 
the  other  a  minister  of  finance.  Under  the  Carlo- 
vingians  it  was  made  a  country,  which  in  868  became 
hereditary  in  the  family  of  Vinigiso  Ranieri,  which 
soon  in  its  various  branches  divided  the  territory. 
The  power  of  the  bishop  increa.sed  in  consequence, 
so  that  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  he  was 
the  sole  ruler  of  the  city  and  the  surrounding  territory, 
though  he  recognized  the  over-lordship  of  the  mar- 
graves of  Tuscany.  At  the  death  of  Matilda  (the 
last  Countess  of  Tuscany,  1115)  a  municipal  govern- 
ment already  existed,  and  in  112.5  consuls  are 
first  mentioned.  Thenceforth  the  form  of  govern- 
ment changed  continuously.  In  the  beginning  there 
were  three  consuls,  later  there  were  twelve,  the 
office  being  restricted  to  members  of  noble  families. 
At  other  tim(«  a  dictator  was  named.  Through 
donations,  purcha-ses,  and  conquests,  particularly  from 
various  petty  lords  of  the  Maremma  ever  plotting 
against  Siena,  the  territory  of  the  republic  in- 
creased. In  its  expansion  Siena  naturally  conflicted 
with  Florence.  Thus  in  the  struggle  for  Poggibonzi 
(1141)   the    Sicncse   won,  but    were   conc|uered  by 


the  Florentines  in  1445.  The  rivalry  with  Flor- 
ence consequently  determined  the  politics  of  Siena, 
which  adhered  to  the  imperial  (Ghibelline)  party. 
Nevertheless  in  1194  the  Sienese  repulsed  the  army 
of  Henry  VI,  who  failed  to  recognize  the  privileges 
accorded  the  city  by  his  father.  This  victory  in- 
creased the  prestige  of  the  republic,  which  now  en- 
larged the  circuit  of  its  walls.  In  1197  it  joined 
the  League  of  San  Genesio.  In  1199  the  common 
people,  wishing  to  participate  in  the  government, 
secured  the  nomination  of  a  podesta  (chief  magis- 
trate) for  justice  and  war,  although  the  administra- 
tion remained  in  the  hands  of  the  consuls  of  the 
guilds.  A  new  change  occurred  in  1212,  in  which 
the  administration  passed  to  the  Provveditori 
(purveyors)  della  Biccherna,  while  the  consuls  were 
reduced  in  rank  to  simple  councillors.  In  conse- 
quence the  heads  of  government  changed  in  rapid 
succession:  the  Twenty-seven,  Twenty-four,  Seventy, 
Thirty-seven.  Meanwhile  at  the  battle  of  Monta- 
perto  (1260)  Siena,  at  the  head  of  the  Ghibellines  of 
Tuscany,  had  humiliated  the  hated  Florence.  But 
in  Siena  itself  the  Guelphs,  aided  by  Charles  of  Anjou, 
acquired  the  sovereignty  in  1277. 

The  offices  were  all  bestowed  upon  Guelphs,  who 
for  the  most  part  were  required  to  be  merchants. 
Meanwhile  the  petty  Ghibelline  lords  of  the  Maremma 
laid  waste  the  territory  of  the  republic,  despite  the 
mediation  of  Pope  Nicholas  III.  The  Guelph 
Government  of  the  "Fifteen",  instituted  in  1282, 
lasted  for  seventy  years.  During  this  period  oc- 
curred the  war  against  the  Bishop  of  Arezzo,  head  of 
the  Ghibellines,  who  was  conquered  at  Pieve  al 
Toppo.  Internal  discords  among  the  principal 
famiUes,  the  recurrence  in  Siena  of  the  conflicts  be- 
tween the  Bianchi  (whites)  and  Neri  (blacks),  for 
which  the  city  was  excommunicated  by  Clement  V, 
the  seditions  of  the  butchers,  doctors,  and  notaries, 
fomented  by  the  nobles  excluded  from  the  govern- 
ment, failed  to  displace  the  Guelph  merchants.  It 
required  the  Great  Pestilence  of  1348,  with  its  30,000 
victims  in  the  city,  and  the  advent  of  Emperor 
Charles  IV  to  effect  a  change  in  the  government. 
In  1355  the  nobles  and  the  common  people  rose  in 
revolt,  and  instituted  a  mixed  government  of  twelve 
plebeians  and  twelve  nobles  with  four  hundred  coun- 
cillors. But  this  lasted  only  a  short  time;  in  1368 
three  changes  were  effected,  and  the  whole  year  of 
1369  was  saddened  by  revolts  and  slaughter.  The 
arbitration  of  Florence  was  of  little  avail.  To  these 
tumults  and  constitutional  conspiracies  within  the 
city  was  added  (1387)  the  rebellion  of  Montepulciano, 
fomented  by  Florence.  A  war  with  Florence  arose 
in  consequence,  in  which  the  Sienese  had  as  an  ally 
Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti,  proclaimed  in  1399  lord  of 
Siena.  But  in  1404  they  deserted  Visconti,  made 
peace  with  Florence,  to  whom  Montepulciano  was 
abandoned,  and  constituted  a  new  government.  From 
1407-13  Siena  was  repeatedly  assaulted  by  King 
Ladislaus  of  Naples,  on  account  of  its  adhesion  to 
the  "  Conciliabulum "  of  Pisa.  In  1480,  (m  the 
accession  of  new  tumults  over  tlie  riglit  to  parti(upate 
in  the  government,  Pandolfo  Petrucci  accjuircd  the 
upper  hand,  and  in  14X7  instituted  a  new  and  ab- 
solute government.  Ca-sar  Borgia  secured  the  ex- 
pulsion of  Petrucci  from  Siena;  but  in  1503  the  latter 
returned,  assumed  the  title  of  Magnifico  (Majcenas 
of  the  Arts),  and  was  more  powerful  than  ever.  His 
son  Borghese  Petrucci,  who  succeeded  him  in  the 
signoria,  was  in  1516  expelled  by  order  of  Leo  X, 
who  intended  to  subject  Siena  to  the  Medici,  hence 
the  enmity  that  Cardinal  Alfonso  Petrucci  bore 
him.  Clement  VII  was  on  the  point  of  proclaiming 
the  Medici  as  rulers  when  the  victory  of  Pavia 
(1525)  and  succeeding  events  destroyed  his  hopes. 
The  Spanish  protectorate  proved  even  more  severe. 
Charles   V    wished   to   compel    the    Sienese    (1550) 


H 

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''9 

li^Hi 

t  g 


SIENA 


781 


SIENA 


to  construct  a  fortress  for  the  Spanish  garrison, 
whereupon  they  sought  the  aid  of  France,  which  sent 
a  garrison  of  its  own,  so  that  the  Spanish  and  Floren- 
tine troops  abandoned  the  city.  But  Cosimo  de' 
Medici  was  unwilling  to  relinquish  his  prey.  In- 
dignant because  the  command  of  the  garrison  had 
been  given  to  Pietro  Strozzi,  a  Florentine  rebel,  he 
invaded  the  territory  of  the  Republic  in  1554,  and 
after  several  successful  encounters,  laid  siege  to  the 
city,  which  surrendered,  17  April,  1555.  Montacino, 
Chiusi,  and  Grosseto  maintained  themselves  for  a 
few  years  longer,  but  in  1559,  under  the  terms  of  the 
Peace  of  Cambrai,  the  French  troops  departed.  Thus 
the  Medici  acquired  finally  the  large  territory  now 
divided  between  the  Provinces  of  Siena  and  Grosseto. 
Orbetello  alone  was  given  to  Spain.  The  Sienese 
soon  accommodated  themselves  to  the  new  regime, 
which   left  them   much  autonomy. 

Among  the  renowned  natives  of  Siena  were 
Alexander  III,  Pius  II,  Pius  III,  Alexander  VII; 
the  hermits  St.  Galgano  (1181)  and  St.  Giacomo 
(eleventh  century);  St.  Catarina  Benincasa,  St. 
Bernardino  Albizzeschi,  and  St.  Ambrogio  Sansedoni. 
The  heretics  Socinus  and  Ochino  were  born  at  Siena. 
As  first  apostle  of  the  Christian  faith,  Siena  venerates 
St.  Ansanus  who  suffered  martyrdom  under  Diocle- 
tian. Bishop  "Florianus  a  Sinna",  present  at  the 
Council  of  Rome  (313)  is  claimed  by  Siena  as  its  first 
bishop,  also  by  other  cities  of  Italy.  The  first  bishop 
of  certain  date  was  Eusebius  (465).  The  Lombard 
invasion  interrupted  the  episcopal  succe.ssion  in 
Siena;  it  was  restored  in  635  with  Bishop  Maurus, 
when  Rotharis  rebuilt  the  city.  In  713  commenced 
the  controversy  concerning  jurisdiction  over  certain 
lands  between  the  bishops  of  Siena  and  Arezzo, 
which  lasted  for  three  centuries  (712-1029).  The 
bishops  of  Siena  (Adeodatus  in  713,  Ausifredus  (752), 
Cantius  (853),  Lupis  (881),  Leo  (1029)  claimed  ec- 
clesiastical authority  over  all  territory  within  political 
limits  of  the  republic.  The  struggle  was  decided 
in  favour  of  Arezzo.  Other  Sienese  bishops  were 
Giovanni  (1058),  founder  of  the  monastery  of  Monte 
Cellese,  St.  Rodolfo  (1068),  Gualfredus  (10S3), 
author  and  poet;  Buonfiglio  (1215)  who  opposed  the 
heretical  Patarini  and  reformed  the  clergy;  Bernardo 
(1273)  brother  of  B.  Andrea  Gallerani,  founder  of  the 
hosjjital  and  brotherhood  of  the  Misericordia  (d.  1251 ) ; 
Ruggero  di  Casale,  O.P.  (1307),  a  learned  theologian 
active  against  the  Fraticelli,  who  in  1314  excommuni- 
cated tlie  entire  convent  of  Franciscans  at  Siena; 
Azzolino  Malavolti  (1357),  who  obtained  from 
Charles  IV  privileges  for  the  University.  In  1384 
the  canons  exercised  for  the  last  time  their  right  to 
elect  the  bi.shop,  the  election  not  being  confirmed. 
In  1407  Gregory  XII  residing  at  Rome  named  as 
bishop  his  nephew  Gabriele  Condulmer,  afterwards 
Eugene  IV.  Pius  II,  a  former  Bishop  of  Siena 
(1449),  made  the  see  an  archbishopric  in  1459.  The 
first  archbishop  was  Cardinal  Francesco  Nanni 
Todeschioi  Piccolomini  (afterwards  Pius  III),  suc- 
ceeded in  1503  by  his  nephew  Cardinal  Giovanni 
Todeschini.  Francesco  Brandini  held  the  see  from 
1529  to  1588;  Francesco  M.  Targui  (1597),  reformer 
and  friend  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  was  bishop  in  1597; 
Metello  Bichi  founded  the  seminary  in  1613.  Ales- 
sandro  Petrucci  (1615),  emulating  St.  Charles 
Borromeo,  was  active  in  reforming  the  convents  of 
women.  Leonardo  Marsili  (1684)  was  much  op- 
posed by  the  comune  and  by  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Tuscany.  Cardinal  Felice  Zondadari  (1795-1823) 
suffered  exile  in  France  in  1809;  Enrico  Bindi  (1871) 
was  a  man  of  letters.  The  suffragans  of  Siena  are 
Chiusi  and  Pienza,  Gros.seto,  Massa  Marittima, 
Sovana,  and  Pitigliano.  The  archdiocese  has  one 
hundred  and  fourteen  parishes,  two  hundred  and 
twenty  secular  and  seventy  regular  clergy,  with  85,000 
souls;  9  monasteries  for  men;  8  convents  for  women; 


4  houses  of  education  for  boys  and  5  for  girls.    There 
are  four  Catholic  periodicals. 

Siena,  Council  of  (1423). — It  was  decreed  in  the 
Council  of  Constance  that  five  years  later  another 
council  should  be  called.  In  fact  Martin  V  summoned 
it  for  Pavia,  where  it  was  inaugurated  on  23  April, 
1423.  The  general  session  had  not  yet  begun  when  the 
pestilence  broke  out  at  Pavia,  for  which  reason  the 
transfer  of  the  Council  to  Siena  was  decreed.  The 
procedure  of  the  Council  was  almost  identical  with 
that  at  Constance.  Certain  formalities  of  safe  con- 
duct issued  by  the  city  for  the  members  of  the  Coun- 
cil were  the  cause  of  friction  with  the  pope.  On 
the  eighth  of  November  four  decrees  were  pubUshed: 
against    the    Hussites   and   the  WycUfites;    against 


Church  of  m.  t 
Occupying  the  hou-o 

those  who  continued  the  schism  of  Benedict  XIII; 
on  the  postponement  of  the  negotiation  with  the 
Greek  schismatics,  and  on  greater  vigilance  against 
heresy.  Galilean  proposals  of  reform  were  produc- 
tive of  discord  with  the  French.  On  19  February, 
1424,  Basle  was  selected  as  the  place  of  the  nex-t 
Council.  On  20  February  the  dissolution  of  the 
Council  was  decreed,  but  the  Decree  was  not  pubHshed 
until  7  March.  The  French  would  have  preferred 
to  continue  the  Council  until  the  "reform"  of  the 
church  "in  capite  et  in  rnemhris"  (in  its  head  and  its 
members)  had  been  accomplished,  but  whether  to 
avoid  a  new  schism,  or  on  account  of  fear  of  the  pope 
(since  Siena  was  too  near  the  Papal  States),  they  de- 
parted. The  magistrates  of  Siena  took  care  not  to 
let  anyone  depart  until  he  had  paid  his  debts. 

Cappelletti,  Le  chiese  d' Italia;  Pecci,  Storia  del  vescovado 
della  citta  di  Siena  (Lucca,  1748);  Lusini,  II  capitolo  delta 
metropolitana  di  Siena  (Siena,  1893);  Idem,  Iconfini  storicidel  ves- 
covado di  Siena  (Siena,  1895);  Malavolti,  Historia  di  fatti  e  guerre 
de'  sanesi  dalV  origine  at  1555  (Venice,  1599);  Tomasius  in 
MuRATORi,  Rerum  italicarum,  XX;  Ricci,  Siena  in  Italia  artistica 
(Bergamo,  1905) ;  Richter,  Siena:  Beruhmte  Kunstst&tten  (Leip- 
zig, 1901);  MiLANEsi,  Documenti  per  la  storia  dell  arte  senete, 
III  (Siena,  1854-56);  Bulletino  della  Societd  di  Storia  Patria 
di  Siena.  \J,   BeNIGNI. 

University  of  Siena. — The  earliest  notices  of  an 
advanced  school  (of  grammar  and  medicine)  at  Siena 


SIENI 


782 


SIENI 


go  back  to  1241.  In  1246  the  Emperor  Frederick 
II  compelled  the  Sienese  students  at  Bologna  to 
abandon  that  citj',  which  was  hostile  to  him,  and  this 
fact  must  have  contributed  to  enlarge  the  school  of 
Siena,  which  then  had  celebrated  professors  of  law 
(Pepo),  of  grammar  (Magister  Tebaldus,  Hoannes 
IMordentis),  of  medicine  (Petrus  Yspanus).  In  1252 
the  institution  received  from  Pope  Innocent  IV  the 
usual  privileges  for  its  professors  and  students.  He 
granted  the  "University  of  Masters  and  Doctors  re- 
gent at  Siena  and  of  their  scholars  studying  in  the 
same"'  together  with  their  bedels  an  exemption  from 
certain  city  taxes,  and  appointed  the  bishop  as  their 
conservator.  In  1275  and  12S5  the  Commune  of  Si- 
ena, by  its  own  authority,  without  regard  either  to  the 
pope  or  to  the  emperor,  decided  to  enlarge  the  stu- 
dium  into  a  studium  generale.  Nevertheless,  it  re- 
mained incomplete;  but  tlirough  the  emigration  from 
Bologna  of  professors  and  students  in  1321  it  re- 
ceived an  unexpected  increase,  and  then  had  twenty- 
two  professors — seven  of  Roman  law,  five  of  canon 
law,  two  of  medicine,  two  of  philosophy,  one  of  no- 
tarial science,  the  others  of  grammar,  i.  e.,  of  literature 
and  the  interpretation  of  the  classics.  But  after  three 
years  a  great  number  of  the  professors  and  the  scholars 
departed,  either  because  peace  had  been  established 
at  Bologna,  or  because  Siena  could  not  obtain  from 
the  Holy  See  the  necessary  privileges  for  a  real  stu- 
diion  generale.  In  1.397,  however,  Siena  obtained  a 
Bull  from  Charles  IV,  which,  after  declaring  that  the 
studium  had  once  been  flourishing  but  had  now  sunk 
into  obscurity,  proceeds  to  confer  upon  it  de  novo  the 
privileges  of  a  studium  generale.  As  early  as  1386  we 
find  a  chair  for  the  interpretation  of  Dante.  In  1404 
Bishop  Marmille  instituted  the  Collegia  della  Sajnenza 
for  poor  students.  In  1408  Gregory  XII  confirmed 
the  privilege  granted  by  Charles  IV,  and  established 
a  faculty  of  theology. 

Among  the  professors  of  the  fourteenth  century 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  jurists,  Dino  del 
Garbo,  Neri  Pagliaresi,  Federico  Petrucci,  Pietro 
Ancharano,  Ubaldo  degli  Ubaldi,  Tomma.so  Corsini; 
the  physicians,  Ugo  Benzi  and  Riccardo  da  Parma 
(oculist) ;  the  grammarians,  Nofrio  and  Pietro  d'Ovile. 
Instruction  was  also  given  in  mathematics  and  in 
astrology,  in  which  latter  study  Guido  Bonatti  and 
Cecco  d'Ascoh  were  famous.  In  the  fifteenth  century 
the  following  professors  obtained  celebrity:  Nicolo  de 
Tude-schi  {il  Panormitano) ,  Francesco  Accolti,  and 
Mariano  Soccini  in  law;  Jacopo  da  Forli  and  Aless- 
andro  Sermoneta  in  medicine;  Francesco  Filelfo,  the 
thef>logian  Francesco  della  Rovere  (afterwards  Pope 
Sixtus  IV),  and  Ago.stino  Dati  in  literature.  It 
should  also  be  noted  that  Siena  was  conservative  in 
letters  as  well  as  in  art,  for  which  reason  Humanism 
was  not  able  to  obtain  a  foothold.  Among  the  i)ro- 
fe.s.sors  of  the  early  sixteenth  century  were  the  jurist 
Claudio  Tolomei,  and  the  humanists  Eurialo  Ascolano 
and  .lacopo  GrifToli. 

After  Siena  had  come  under  the  Medici,  these  princes 
u.sed  every  effort  to  promote  its  prosperity.  Among 
its  famous  jurists  were  Silvio  Spannocchi  and  Francesco 
Accarigi;  but  the  seventeenth  century  brought  also  at 
Siena  a  general  decline  of  studies.  Medicine  and  the 
natural  sciences  claim  renowned  devotees  at  Siena, 
such  as  the  Camaldole.se  Francesco  PifTeri,  the  math- 
ematician Teofilo  Gallaccini,  the  botanist  Pirro  Maria 
Gabrielli,  founder  of  the  Academia  Fisiocritica,  and 
particularly  should  be  mentioned  Michelangelo  Mori 
and  Ottavio  Nerucci,  the  mathematicians  Pistoi  and 
Bartaloni,  and  the  botanist  Bartalini.  Among  theolo- 
gians Sixtus  Sencnsis  was  renowned ;  the  first  professor 
of  church  hi.sU)ry  was  Domenico  Valentini  (1743). 
The  special  chairs  of  moral  theology  and  Holy  Scrip- 
ture were  founded  in  1775  and  1777.  Leopold  I  gave 
to  the  university  a  new  organization,  and  increased  the 
number  of  chairs.     The  French  occupation  caused  the 


closing  of  the  university,  which  was,  however,  re-es- 
tablished in  1814.  But  in  1840  political  reasons 
brought  about  the  suppression  of  the  faculties  of  ht- 
erature,  philosophy,  mathematics,  and  natural  sci- 
ence. And  thus  it  remained,  even  after  Tuscany  was 
annexed  to  Piedmont  in  1859,  in  which  year  the  theo- 
logical faculty  was  also  disbanded.  Among  the  more 
recent  professors  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
jurist  Francesco  Antonio  Mori,  the  political  economist 
Alberto  Rimieri  de'  Rocchi,  the  physician  Giacomo 
Barzellotti,  and  the  theologian  Luigo  de  Angelis. 

At  present,  the  university'  of  Siena  belongs  to  the  so- 
called  free  universities;  it  has  only  the  two  faculties  of 
law  and  medicine,  with  a  school  of  pharmacy.  In 
jurisprudence  there  are  19  chairs,  classified  as  15  or- 
dinary professors  and  5  docents;  in  medicine  24  chairs, 
with  22  professors  and  31  docents.  The  number  of 
students  enrolled  in  1910  was  255. 

Carpellini,  Sulla  origine  nazionale  e  popolnre  dede  UniversitA 
di  Stiidi  in  Italia  e  particolarmente  dell'  Universitd  di  Siena  (Si- 
ena, 1S61) ;  Zdekader,  Lo  Sltidio  di  Siena  7iel  Rinascimento 
(Milan,  1S94) ;  Denifle,  Die  Universit&ten  des  MittelaUers,  I 
(Berlin,  1885),  429;  Mariani,  Notizie  nelV  Universita  di  Siena 
(Siena,  1873) ;  Rashdall,  The  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  II  (Oxford,  1895). 

U.  Benigni. 

Sieni,  Cyril  (better  known  as  Cyeil  of  Bar- 
celona), missionary  bishop,  b.  in  Catalonia,  date 
of  birth  unknown;  d.  after  1799,  place  and  exact  date 
equally  uncertain.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Capuchin 
Order,  and  in  1772  was  sent  to  New  Orleans  as 
vicar-general  by  the  Bishop  of  Santiago,  Jos6  de 
Echeverria,  within  whose  jurisdiction  Louisiana  then 
was.  Ecclesiastical  and  religious  conditions  were  at 
that  time  very  unsatisfactory.  The  mission  was  in 
charge  of  some  Capuchins  who  were  not  always  models 
of  ecclesiastical  virtue;  their  superior,  Dagobert,  re- 
puted to  be  ignorant  and  corrupt,  had  aroused  against 
Cyril  the  opposition  both  of  Unzaga,  the  civil  gover- 
nor, and  the  people.  In  the  hope  that  a  responsible 
episcopal  authority  would  remove  these  obstacles, 
Father  Cyril  was  made  titular  Bishop  of  Tricali, 
and  auxihary  of  Santiago.  His  delegated  ecclesias- 
tical authority  extended  over  the  seventeen  parishes 
and  twenty-one  prie-sts  found  in  the  territory  now 
included  in  the  States  of  Louisiana,  Alabama, 
Florida,  and  those  bordering  on  the  western  bank 
of  the  Mississippi  as  far  as  the  Missouri.  In  1772 
he  sent  to  St.  Louis,  then  a  hamlet  of  about  two  hun- 
dred inhabitants,  its  second  pastor.  Father  Valentine. 
He  also  sent  resident  pastors  (17S1)  to  Pensacola  and 
St.  Augustine  in  Florida.  During  his  administration^ 
several  Irish  clergymen  were  sent  to  Bishop  Sieni 
by  Charles  III  of  Spain,  to  minister  to  the  religious 
needs  of  the  English-speaking  Catholics;  to  each  of 
them  the  king  assigned  an  annual  salary  of  350  dollars, 
besides  paying  tlunr  passage. 

In  1786  Sieni  issued  a  pastoral  letter  concerning 
the  proper  observance  of  Sunday  as  a  day  of  rest 
and  prayer.  In  1788  New  Orleans  was  swept  by  a 
great  conflagration,  on  which  occasion  the  brick 
church  of  the  city  perished  (it  was  rebuilt  in  1794). 
In  spite  of  his  zeal,  religion  made  little  progress: 
on  the  one  hand  he  failed  to  restore  eccl(>siastical 
discipline,  and  on  the  other  dis})leased.both  Charles 
III  and  Bishop  Trespalacios  of  Havana,  to  whose 
care  the  mission  was  committed  since  1787.  Finally 
a  royal  order  (1793)  banished  him  to  his  native 
province.  In  1799  he  was  still  in  Havana  on  his 
way  to  Spain.  Irreligious  writers  of  his  own  day, 
followed  by  some  modern  historians,  depict  him  m 
harsh  colours.  He  probably  committed  more  than 
one  administrative  error,  but  he  was  esteemed  a  holy 
and  simple-minded  ecclesiastic. 

Bachili-kk  yMoiiai.eh,  Apunte.1  (Havana,  18.59);  Gayarre,  A 
History  of  Louisiana  (.New  Orleans,  1H90) ;  Shea,  Life  and  Timet 
of  the  Most  Rev.  John  Carroll  (New  York,  1888);  Kortikb,  A 
History  of  Louisiana  (New  Orleans,  a.  d.). 

A.   FRANgON. 


SIERRA 


783 


SIGEBERT 


Sierra  Leone,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Sierra 
Leonis,  Sierra-Leonensis),  comprises  the  English 
colony  of  that  name  and  the  surrounding  territory 
from  Fi'ench  Guinea  on  the  north  and  east  to  Liberia 
on  the  south.  The  capital,  Freetown  (population, 
90,000)  is  in  lat.  8°  30'  N.  and  long.  13°  14'  W.  of 
Greenwich.  Its  area  is  30,000  square  miles;  popula- 
tion, 3,000,000.  Its  cUmate  is  most  deadly  and  has 
merited  for  the  colony  the  name  "White  man's 
grave".  Yellow  fever  is  endemic.  Malaria  and  he- 
moglobinuria are  prevalent. 

After  the  American  Revolution  the  English  Gov- 
ernment purchased  from  native  chiefs  a  tract  of  land 
some  twenty  miles  square,  and  established  a  colony 
for  negroes  disciiarged  from  the  army  and  navy,  and 
for  liberated  or  runaway  slaves  who  had  sought  refuge 
in  England.  In  1787  about  400  negroes  settled  there 
and  founded  P'reetown.  In  1808  it  became  a  crown 
colony,  and  is  so  still.  It  has  a  completely-developed 
system  of  government. 

Protestantism  had  exclusive  control  in  the  colony 
until  Cathohcism  appeared  in  1864.  Amongst  many 
sects  Wesleyans  predominate,  though  Anglicans  are 
numerous.  All  are  strongly  organized.  In  the  sur- 
rounding territory  the  aborigines  are  pagans.  Mo- 
hammedanism is  spreading  and  becoming  a  danger- 
ous enemy  to  Catholicism. 

The  history  of  West-African  Catholic  missions  be- 
gins in  1843  with  the  foundation  of  the  Vicariate  Apos- 
tolic of  the  Two  Guineas  by  Bishop  Barron  of  Phila- 
delphia with  the  Holy  Ghost  Fathers.  This  vicariate, 
which  after  Bishop  Barron's  departure  in  1845  was 
completely  entrusted  to  these  fathers,  was  divided  in 
1858,  and  a  special  vicariate  comprising  Sierra  Leone, 
Liberia,  and  PVench  Guinea  was  confided  to  Bishop 
Bresillac,  founder  of  the  African  Fathers  of  Lyons. 
He  with  his  companions  died  two  months  after  reach- 
ing Freetown,  and  the  vicariate  was  given  back  to  the 
Holy  Ghost  Fathers.  At  the  earnest  request  of  the 
Propaganda  Fathers  Blanchet  and  Koeberle,  C.  S.  Sp., 
began  work  in  1864.  The  French  Guinea  mission 
was  begun  in  1876  from  Freetown,  and  fostered  until 
its  erection  into  a  prefecture  in  1897.  The  Liberian 
mission  was  undertaken  by  Fathers  Lorber  and 
Bourzeix,  C.  S.  Sp.,  in  1884,  but  because  of  opposition 
they  withdrew  in  1888  and  confined  their  efforts  to 
Sierra  Leone.  Liberia  was  erected  into  a  prefecture 
in  1903  and  given  to  the  leathers  of  Mary.  The  pres- 
ent Vicariate  of  Sierra  Leone  was  administered  by  the 
Holy  Ghost  Congregation  since  1864,  Fathers  Blan- 
chet and  Brown  having  the  title  of  pro-vicar  Apos- 
tolic. After  Father  Brown's  death  in  1903,  Rt.  Rev. 
John  A.  O'Gorman  of  the  American  province  of  the 
congregation  was  named  vicar  Apostolic,  and  conse- 
crated at  Philadelphia.  Despite  the  difficulty  of  cli- 
mate and  religious  opposition  the  vicariate  has  pros- 
pered. At  Father  Brown's  death  there  were  five  mis- 
sions; since  Bishop  O'Gorman's  consecration  six  new 
ones  have  been  added,  making  eleven  in  all.  There 
are  twenty-eight  missionaries,  six  from  the  American 
province.  Connected  with  each  mission  is  a  school, 
and  with  it  a  workshop,  farm,  or  plantation.  Thus 
with  reUgious  and  secular  instruction  the  boys  receive 
a  practical  training.  A  high  school  for  boys  was 
built  at  Freetown  in  1911. 

There  are  four  schools,  one  high  school,  and  one 
orphanage  for  girls,  in  care  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Jo- 
seph of  Cluny.  The  Venerable  Mother  Javouhey, 
their  foundress,  laboured  here  herself  in  1822.  Since 
1866  her  daughters  have  been  in  continuous  charge. 
With  religious  and  secular  education  they  teach  cook- 
ing, sewing,  and  laundering. 

Mockler-Ferryman,  British  West  Africa,  its  Rise  and  Pro- 
gress (London,  1900);  Stanley  and  Others,  Africa,  Its  Parti- 
tion and  Its  Future  (New  York,  1898) ;  Blanchet,  Histoire  de  la 
mission  de  Sierra  Leone,  1864-1892  (op.  inedit.);  Bulletin 
officiel  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Paris,  1863- 
1911);  Ceookb,  a  Short  History  of  Sierra  Leone  (Dublin,  1900). 
JogBPH  ByKNE. 


Sigebert,  Saint,  king  and  martyr,  date  of  birth  un- 
known; d.  about  637,  was  the  stepbrother  of  Earp- 
wald,  king  of  the  East  Angles.  During  the  reign  of 
Redwald  he  Uved  an  exile  in  Gaul  where  he  received 
baptism  and  became  an  ardent  Christian.  Earpwald 
died  about  627,  and  East  AngUa  seems  to  have  re- 
lapsed into  anarchy  and  heathenism  for  some  three 
years  until  Sigebert  returned  thither,  about  631,  and 
became  king.  He  at  once  set  about  the  conversion  of 
his  people,  being  greatly  assisted  by  St.  Felix,  who 
seems  to  have  come  over  from  Gaul  with  him,  and  for 
whom  a  see  was  estabUshed  at  Dunwich  in  Suffolk. 
Another  prominent  figure  in  Sigebert's  revival  was  the 
Irish  monk,  St.  Fursey,  or  Fursa,  for  whom  he  built  a 
monastery  at  Burghcastle  in  Suffolk.  With  the  aid 
of  St.  Felix,  Sigebert  also  established  a  school  for  boys 
on  the  model  of  the  monastic  schools  in  Gaul,  the  mas- 
ters for  it  are  said  to  have  been  supplied  from  Canter- 
bury. The  prospects  of  Christianity  now  seemed  so 
bright  that  Sigebert  felt  justified  in  carrying  out  his 
long-cherished  design  of  retiring  to  a  monastery.  He 
therefore  resigned  the  kingdom  to  his  kinsman,  Egric, 
received  the  tonsure,  and  entered  a  monastery,  said  to 
have  been  Bedrichsworth,  which  later  became  Bury 
St.  Edmunds.  Not  long  after  this,  however,  Penda, 
the  pagan  King  of  Mercia,  invaded  East  Anglia,  and 
Egric,  finding  himself  unable  to  repel  the  invasion, 
joined  with  his  subjects  in  begging  Sigebert  to  lead 
them,  as  he  had  formerly  been  a  most  brave  warrior. 
In  spite  of  his  great  unwillingness,  Sigebert  was 
dragged  from  his  cloister  and  compelled  to  march  at 
the  head  of  the  army;  but,  to  indicate  his  profession 
as  a  monk,  he  refused  absolutely  to  carry  any  weapons 
of  war  and  instead  bore  only  a  rod.  In  the  ensuing 
battle  his  army  was  totally  defeated,  he  and  Egric 
both  perishing  in  the  fight.  In  the  "Acta  Sancto- 
rum" his  life  is  given  under  date  of  29  October,  but 
the  feast  is  not  now  observed  even  in  England. 

Bede,  Hist,  eccles.,  ed.  Giles  (London,  1843),  II,  xx.  III,  xviii, 
also  in  P.  L.;  Acta  SS.,  Oct.,  XII,  892-904;  William  or  Malmes- 
BVRY,  Gesta  regum,  I,  xcvii;  Idem,  Gesta  pontificum,  147,  both  in 
Rolls  Series  (London,  1870-1887);  Liber  Eliensis,  ed.  Stewart. 
I  (London,  1848),  i;  Ddgdale,  Monasticon  anglicanum.  III 
(London.  1840),  98;  Pits,  De  illustribus  Angliae  script.  (Paris, 
1619),  108;  Stanton,  Menology  of  England  and  Wales  (London, 
1887),  35. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Sigebert  of  Gembloux,  Benedictine  historian, 
b.  near  Gembloux  which  is  now  in  the  Province  of 
Namur,  Belgium,  about  1035;  d.  at  the  same  place, 
5  November,  1112.  He  was  apparently  not  a  Ger- 
man, but  seems  to  have  been  of  Latin  descent.  He 
received  his  education  at  the  Abbey  of  Gembloux 
and  at  an  early  age  became  a  monk  in  this  abbey; 
after  this  he  taught  for  a  long  time  at  the  Abbey  of 
St.  Vincent  at  Metz.  About  1070  he  returned  to 
Gembloux,  where  he  was  universally  admired  and 
venerated,  and  had  charge  there  of  the  abbey  school 
until  his  death.  While  at  Metz  he  wrote  the  biog- 
raphies of  Bishop  Theodoric  I  of  Metz  (964-85),  of 
King  Sigebert  III,  founder  of  the  monastery  of  St. 
Martin  at  Metz,  and  also  a  long  poem  on  the  martyr- 
dom of  St.  Lucia,  whose  reUcs  were  venerated  at  the 
Abbey  of  St.  Vincent.  After  his  return  to  Gembloux 
he  also  wrote  similar  works  for  this  abbey,  namely: 
a  long  poem  on  the  martyrdom  of  the  Theban  Legion, 
as  Gembloux  had  rehcs  of  its  reputed  leader  Exuper- 
ius;  a  biography  of  the  founder  of  the  abbey,  Wicbert 
(d.  962);  a  history  of  the  abbots  of  Gembloux,  and 
revisions  of  the  biographies  of  St.  Maclovius  and  the 
two  early  bishops  of  Liege,  Theodard  and  Larnbert. 

Later  he  became  a  violent  imperial  partisan  in  the 
great  struggle  between  the  empire  and  the  papacy. 
Of  the  three  treatises  which  he  contributed  to  the 
contest,  one  is  lost;  this  was  an  answer  to  the  letter 
of  Gregory  VII,  written  in  1081  to  Bishop  Hermann  of 
Metz,  in  which  Gregorj/'  asserted  that  the  popes  have 
the  rigl;t  to  excoaununicate  kings  and  to  release 


SIGER 


784 


SIGISMUND 


subjects  from  the  oath  of  loyalty.  In  the  second 
treatise  Sigebert  defended  the  masses  of  married 
priests,  the  hearing  of  which  had  been  forbidden  bj' 
the  pope  m  1074.  When  Paschal  II  in  1103  ordered 
the  Count  of  Flanders  to  punish  the  citizens  of 
Liege  for  their  adherence  to  the  emperor  and  to 
take  up  arms  against  him,  Sigebert  attacked  the  pro- 
ceeding of  the  pope  as  unchristian  and  contrary  to 
the  Scriptures.  His  most  celebrated  work,  "Chroni- 
con  sive  Chronographia",  is  a  chronicle  of  the  world; 
it  must  be  confessed  that  in  this  work  he  has  not 
written  history;  he  desired  probably  merely  to  give  a 
chronological  survey,  consequently  there  is  only  a  bare 
list  of  events  even  for  the  era  in  which  he  hved,  though 
the  last  years,  including  1105-11,  are  treated  more 
in  detail.  The  chronicle  gained  a  very  high  reputa- 
tion, was  circulated  in  numberless  copies,  and  was 
the  basis  of  many  later  works  of  history.  Notwith- 
standing various  oversights  and  mistakes  the  indus- 
try and  wide  reading  of  Sigebert  deserve  honourable 
mention.  He  also  made  a  catalogue  of  one  hundred 
and  seventy-one  ecclesiastical  writers  and  their  works 
from  Germadius  to  his  o\\ti  time,  "De  scriptoribus 
ecclesiasticis".  In  this  list  he  mentions  his  own 
work. 

P.  L.,  CLX;  HrascH,  De  vita  et  scriptis  Sigeberti  monachi 
Gemblacerisis  (Berlin,  1841). 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Siger  of  Brabant,  indisputably  the  leader  of 
Latin  Averroism  during  the  sixth  and  seventh  decades 
of  the  thirteenth  century'.  Many  influential  masters 
of  art  espoused  his  principles,  and  Pierre  du  Bois 
praised  his  oral  teachings ;  finally  Dante  immortalized 
his  name  in  these  flattering  verses  of  the  "Divina 
Ck)mmedia:   ParadLso",  X,  136: 

Essa  e  la  luce  etema  di  Sigieri 
Che,  leggendo  nel  vico  degh  strami, 
Sillogizzo  invidiosi  veri. 
His  illustrious  colleague,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  ex- 
pressly refuted  his  teachings.  There  are  few  authentic 
details  of  tha  life  of  Siger  of  Brabant.  He  was  a 
master  of  arts  at  Paris,  and  for  ten  years  the  guiding 
spirit  of  the  agitations  that  troubled  the  university. 
From  1266  he  was  with  the  legate,  Simon  de  Brie,  in 
dLsciplinarj'  affairs.  From  1272  to  1275  he  held  in 
check  the  rector  of  the  university,  Alberic  of  Reims, 
placing  himself  at  the  head  of  the  opposition,  which 
he  recruited  from  the  Garlande  Quarter  (scholares 
golardie).  Though  condemned  in  1270  Siger  still 
continued  the  propagation  of  his  ideas,  and  his 
opposition  to  his  Scholastic  masters.  A  second  con- 
demnation, in  1277,  put  an  end  to  his  teaching.  He 
was  brought  before  the  tribunal  of  the  Grand  In- 
quisitor of  France,  was  condemned,  and  took  an 
appeal  to  the  Roman  Court.  He  died  at  Orvieto, 
between  1281  and  1284,  having  been  assassinated  by 
his  secretary. 

Of  the  works  of  Siger  there  are  still  extant:  "De 
anima  intellectiva",  "De  a^ternitatemundi",  "Quajs- 
tionf«  naturales",  "Quajstiones  logicales",  "Quais- 
tio  utrum  ha;c  sit  vera:  Homo  est  animal,  nullo 
homine  existente",  and  a  collection  of  six  "Irapo.s- 
sibiiia".  Another  unpublished  "Quaestio"  has  just 
been  discovered  by  Polzcr  of  Rome.  Siger  was  the 
adversary  of  Albertus  Magnus  and  of  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas,  "contra  pra?cipuos  viros  Albertum  et 
Thomam".  HLs  principal  work  (De  anima  intellec- 
tiva) called  forth  St.  Thomas's  treatise  on  the  unity 
of  the  int(rllect  (De  unitate  intellcctus  contra  Averro- 
istas).  Siger  in  fact  supported  all  the  belicifs  of  the 
Averroist  philosfjphy, — the  monism  of  the  human 
intellect;  one  intellectual  spirit  for  all  men,  w^parate 
from  the  body,  is  temporarily  united  with  each  human 
organism  to  a<'compli.sh  the.  process  of  thought.  Man 
is  mortal,  but  the  race  is  iminortal.  Hence  the  ques- 
tion of  a  future  life  is  without  meaning;  immortality 
cannot  be  personal.     The  world  is  produced  by  jst. 


Beries  of  intermediary  agencies;  hence  there  is  no 
providence  in  the  government  of  men  and  of  earthly 
things.  All  these  productions  are  necessary,  co- 
eternal  with  God.  All  is  ruled  by  cosmic  and  psychi- 
cal determinism.  Celestial  phenomena  and  the  con- 
junction of  the  planets  control  the  succession  of  events 
on  our  globe,  and  the  destinies  of  the  human  race. 
Man  is  not  a  free  agent.  There  is  an  eternal  reversa- 
bility  of  civilizations  and  religions,  the  Christian 
rehgion  included,  which  is  governed  by  the  reversabil- 
ity  of  the  stellar  cycles.  Siger  wished  to  remain  a 
professing  Catholic,  and  to  safeguard  his  faith  he 
had  recourse  to  the  celebrated  theory  of  the  two 
truths:  what  is  true  in  philosophy  may  be  false  in 
rehgion,  and  vice  versa.  It  is  hard  to  tell  whether 
such  a  mental  attitude  indicates  buffoonery  or  sin- 
cerity. One  is  lost  in  conjecture  as  to  the  motive 
which  impelled  Dante,  the  admirer  of  Thomism,  to 
place  in  the  mouth  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  the  eulogy 
of  Siger  of  Brabant,  the  apostle  of  Averroism. 

Mandonnet,  Siger  de  Brabant  et  Vaverroisme  latin  in  Philos- 
ophes  beiges,  VI,  VII,  part  i:  Etude  critique  {Louva.m,  \910) ,  part 
ii,  Textes  (Louvain,  1909),  contains  all  the  works  of  Siger; 
Baumker,  Die  Impossibilia  d.  Siger  von  Brabant,  eine  philosoph 
Streitschr.  a^ls.  d.  XIII  Jahrh.  in  Beitr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  Philos.  Mitt., 
II  (1888),  6;  Idem,  Zur  Beurleilung  Sigers  von  Brabant  in 
Philosophisches  Jahrbuch  (1911);  Mandonnet,  Autour  de  Siger 
de  Brabant  in  Rev.  thomiste,  XIX,  1911.  For  the  relations 
between  Siger  and  Dante,  see  the  studies  published  by  Langlois, 
Gaston  Paris,  and  Cipolla. 

M.  De  Wtjlf. 

Sigismund,  King  of  Germany  and  Emperor  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  b.  15  February,  1361,  at  Nu- 
remberg; d.  at  Znaim,  Bohemia,  9  December,  1437. 
He  was  the  second  son  of  the  Emperor  Charles  IV, 
who  betrothed  him  to  Maria,  the  oldest  daughter  of 
King  Louis  of  Hungary  and  Poland,  and  thus  pre- 
pared the  way  for  a  great  extension  of  the  power  of  the 
House  of  Luxemburg.  During  the  reign  of  his  elder 
brother.  King  Wenceslaus,  Sigismund  was  able,  upon 
the  death  of  the  King  of  Hungary,  to  maintain  his 
claims  to  Hungary  though  only  after  a  hard  struggle, 
and  on  31  March,  1387,  he  was  crowned  King  of  Hun- 
gary. In  1389  he  was  obUged  to  defend  the  bound- 
aries of  his  new  kingdom  against  the  Turks.  In  this 
year  Sultan  Amurath  I  had  overthrown  the  Servian 
kingdom  in  the  battle  on  the  Plain  of  Kossovo  (Plain 
of  the  Blackbirds).  Amurath's  son,  Bajazet,  defeated 
a  Christian  army  under  Sigismund  at  Nicopolis,  and 
the  lands  along  the  Danube  were  only  saved  by  the  re- 
newed advance  of  the  Osmanli.  In  1389  the  clergy 
and  nobility  of  Bohemia  rebelled  against  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Government  by  the  favourites  of  King 
Wenceslaus;  they  were  supported  both  by  Jost  of  Mo- 
ravia and  Sigismund.  After  this  the  intrigues  in  the 
royal  family  of  Luxemburg  were  incessant.  When, 
therefore.  King  Wenceslaus  was  deposed  as  emperor  in 
1400  at  Oberlahn  stein  by  the  electors,  and  Rupert  was 
elected  emperor  in  his  stead,  Wenceslaus  appointed 
his  brother  imperial  vicar  for  Germany  and  governor 
and  administrator  of  Bohemia.  However,  the  ac- 
cord between  the  brothers  was  not  of  long  duration, 
because  Wenceslaus  was  not  willing  to  confer  the  suc- 
cession in  Bohemia  upon  Sigismund.  P^or  a  time  Sig- 
ismund was  held  prisoner  by  rebellious  Hungarian 
subjects.  The  Emperor  Rupert  died  on  IS  May, 
1410,  at  a  time  of  intense  excitement  when  the  ec- 
clesiastical confusion  of  the  Great  Schism  had  reached 
its  height.  There  was  a  double  election  of  a  king  of 
the  Romans.  On  20  Sejjteinber,  1410,  Sigismund  was 
chosen,  and  on  1  October  of  the  same  year  his  cousin, 
Jost  of  Bohemia,  was  also  chosen.  Th(>  emi)ire,  like 
the  Church,  had  now  three  rulers.  Tlie  death  of  Jost 
of  Moravia  made  it  easier  for  Sigismund  to  gain  recog- 
nition, for  th(!  fdectors  who  had  chosen  Jost  agreed  to 
the  election  of  Sigismund  on  21  July,  1411.  The  new 
emperor  was  King  of  Hungary  and  Margrave  of 
Brandenburg,  and  thus  had  a  dynastic  power  which 


SIGNATURA 


785 


SIGN 


might  have  restored  real  power  to  the  German  Em- 
pire. He  had  large  ambitions,  his  aim  was  to  lead  a 
united  Christendom  against  the  power  of  Islam,  but  he 
lacked  steadiness  and  perseverance.  Although  highly 
talented  he  was  too  easily  carried  away  by  Utopian 
schemes.  He  also  neglected  to  protect  the  base  of  his 
power,  his  hereditary  possessions,  which  were  disor- 
ganized by  bad  administration  and  civil  disorder. 
The  first  matter  of  importance  during  his  reign  was 
the  Great  Schism. 

To  Sigismund,  undoubtedly,  belongs  the  credit  of 
bringing  about  the  great  reform  Councils  of  Con- 
stance and  Basle.  In  1414  he  went  to  Italy  on  an  ex- 
pedition against  Venice;  while  there  he  forced  Pope 
John  XXIII,  who  was  hard-pressed  by  King  Ladis- 
laus  of  Naples,  to  call  a  council  which  met  at  Con- 
stance on  1  November,  1414.  For  a  time  Sigismund 
was  the  soul  of  the  council,  and  this  no  doubt  served 
once  more  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  Germany 
However,  the  interest  of  the  emperor  in  the  council 
diminished  in  proportion  as  its  proceedings  failed  to 
meet  his  views.  The  sole  result  of  the  council  so  far 
as  Sigismund  was  concerned  was  that  he  brought  upon 
himself  the  hatred  of  his  Bohemian  subjects  by  his 
sacrifice  of  John  Hus.  During  the  course  of  the 
council  Sigismund  turned  his  efforts  at  reform  to  in- 
ternal pohcies,  especially  to  the  establishment  of  a 
general  peace  in  the  empire.  He  failed,  however,  in 
these  efforts.  Important  consequences  resulted  from 
his  granting  to  Frederick  Hohenzollorn,  Burgrave  of 
Nuremberg,  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg  in  fief,  lo 
which  he  added  on  30  April,  141.5,  the  electoral  dig- 
nity and  the  office  of  lord  high  chancellor.  In  this 
way  Sigismund  gained  su{)port  for  himself  against  the 
independent  policy  of  the  electors.  On  the  death  of 
Wenceslaus  (16  August,  1419),  Sigismund  became 
King  of  Bohemia;  where,  directly  after  the  close  of  the 
Council  of  Constance,  Hussite  disorders  had  begun. 
The  king  sought  to  re-establish  order  by  severe  meas- 
ures, but,  as  this  method  failed,  Martin  V  at  Sigis- 
mund's  request  proclaimed  a  crusade.  Religious  and 
national  fanaticism  brought  a  bloody  victory  to  Zis- 
ka's  hordes  on  1  November,  1420,  at  Wyschehrad,  and 
also  on  8  January,  1422,  at  Deutschbrod.  The  posi- 
tion of  Sigismund,  who  was  now  also  threatened  by 
the  Turks,  was  an  exceedingly  precarious  one.  The 
only  effective  aid  offered  him  was  that  of  Duke  Al- 
bert V  of  Austria  to  whom  Sigismund  had  married  his 
only  daughter  Elizabeth  and  whom  he  had  made  the 
presumptive  heir  of  the  Hungarian  and  Bohemian 
crowns.  The  Hussite  armies  now  threatened  the 
neighbouring  German  territories.  Forthwith  it  be- 
came apparent  how  wretched  was  the  military  organi- 
zation of  the  empire  and  how  desperate  were  the  di- 
visions among  the  German  princes.  Attempts  at  re- 
form began,  but  the  emperor  lacked  the  vigour  to 
carry  out  these  attempts.  Sigismund's  failure  to  ef- 
fect the  needed  imperial  reforms  was  not  wholly  due 
to  weakness  of  character;  the  selfish  policy  of  the  es- 
tates opposed  insuperable  obstacles  to  his  good  inten- 
tions. In  1424  the  electors  attempted  to  take  the  de- 
fence of  the  empire  in  their  own  hands.  Though  the 
coalition  soon  broke  up,  it  had  proclaimed  the  pohti- 
cal  programme  of  the  following  decades:  reform  of  the 
empire  with  the  controlling  assistance  of  the  estates. 
As  Sigismund  was  unable  to  enforce  these  reforms  he 
could  bring  about  the  reconciliation  of  Bohemia  by 
way  of  negotiations  only;  these  were  entrusted  to  the 
Council  of  Basle.  Probably  to  emphasize  before  the 
councils  his  European  position,  Sigismund  had  him- 
self crowned  King  of  Lombardy  on  25  November, 
14.31,  and  German  emperor  at  Rome,  31  May,  1433. 
Quarrels  between  the  moderate  Calixtines  and  the 
radical  Taborites  helped  along  the  negotiations.  By 
the  so-called  Compact  of  Prague  the  council  brought 
tack  the  Hussite  movement,  at  least  so  far  as  essen- 
tials were  concerned,  to  lines  compatible  with  the  au- ' 
XIII.— 50 


thority  of  the  Church.  The  only  concession  was  the 
granting  of  the  cup  to  the  laity.  At  the  Diet  of  Iglau 
in  1436  after  Sigismund  had  recognized  the  Compact 
of  Prague  he  was  acknowledged  as  regent  of  Bohemia. 
After  this  Sigismund  took  no  further  interest  in  large 
undertakings  and  retired  to  Bohemia.  When,  how- 
ever, his  reactionary  measiu-es  led  to  a  fresh  outbreak, 
in  wnich  his  wife,  Barbara  of  Citti,  joined,  he  retired  to 
Znaim  where  he  died. 

Regesta  imperii,  ed.  Altmann,  XI  (Innsbruck,  1896-1900); 
WiNDECKER,  DenkwUrdigkeiten  zur  Geschichte  des  Zeitalters  Kaiser 
Sigmunds,  ed.  Altmann  (Berlin,  1893) ;  Deutsche  Reichstagsakten 
unter  Konig  Sigmund,  ed.  Kerler,  Hesse,  and  Beckmann, 
II-XII  (Gotha,  1878-86);  Aschbach,  Geschichte^  Kaiser  Sig- 
munds  (Hamburg,  1838—15) ;  Beckmann,  Der  Kampf  Kaiser 
Sigmunds  gegen  die  werdende  Weltmacht  der  Osmanen,  1902); 
Berger,  Johannes  Hus  u.  Konig  Sigmund  (Augsburg,  1871) ; 
VON   Kr.\U8,   Deutsche   Geschichte    im   Ausgang   des    Mittelalters 

(1888).  Franz  Kampers. 

Signatura  Gratiae,  Justitise.    See  Roman  Curia. 

Sign  of  the  Cross,  a  term  applied  to  various  man- 
ual acts,  liturgical  or  devotional  in  character,  which 
have  this  at  least  in  common  that  by  the  gesture  of 
tracing  two  lines  intersecting  at  right  angles  they  in- 
dicate symbolically  the  figure  of  Christ's  cross.  Most 
commonly  and  properly  the  words  "sign  of  the  cross" 
are  used  of  the  large  cross  traced  from  forehead  to 
breast  and  from  shoulder  to  shoulder,  such  as  Catho- 
lics are  taught  to  make  upon  themselves  when  they  be- 
gin their  prayers,  and  such  also  as  the  priest  makes  at 
the  foot  of  the  altar  when  he  commences  Mass  with 
the  words:  "In  nomine  Patris  et  Filii  et  Spiritus 
Sancti".  (At  the  beginning  of  Mass  the  celebrant 
makes  the  sign  of  the  cross  by  placing  his  left  hand 
extended  under  liis  breast;  then  raising  his  right  to  his 
forehead,  which  he  touches  with  the  extremities  of  his 
fingers,  he  says:  In  nomine  Patris;  then,  touching  his 
breast  with  the  same  hand,  he  says :  et  Filii;  touching 
his  left  and  right  shoulders,  he  says:  et  Spiritus  Sancti; 
and  as  he  joins  his  hands  again  adds:  Amen.)  The 
same  sign  recurs  frequently  during  Mass,  e.  g.  at  the 
words  "Adjutorium  nostrum  in  nomine  Domini",  at 
the  "Indulgentiam"  after  the  Confiteor,  etc.,  as  also  in 
the  Divine  Office,  for  example  at  the  invocation  "  Deus 
in  adjutorium  nostrum  intende",  at  the  beginning  of 
the  "Magnificat",  the  "Benedictus",  the  "Nunc 
Dimittis",  and  on  many  other  occasions.  Another 
kind  of  sign  of  the  cross  is  that  made  in  the  air  by 
bishops,  priests,  and  others  in  blessing  persons  or 
material  objects.  This  cross  recurs  also  many  times 
in  the  liturgy  of  the  Mass  and  in  nearly  all  the  ritual 
offices  connected  with  the  sacraments  and  sacra- 
mentals.  A  third  variety  is  represented  by  the  httle 
cross,  generally  made  with  the  thumb,  which  the 
priest  or  deacon  traces  for  example  upon  the  book  of 
the  Gospels  and  then  upon  his  own  forehead,  lips,  and 
breast  at  Mass,  as  also  that  made  upon  the  lips  in  the 
"Domine  labia  mea  aperies"  of  the  Office,  or  again 
upon  the  forehead  of  the  infant  in  Baptism,  and  upon 
the  various  organs  of  sense  in  Extreme  Unction,  etc. 
Still  another  variant  of  the  same  holy  sign  may  be 
recognized  in  the  direction  of  the  "Lay  P'olks  Mass 
Book"  (thirteenth  century)  that  the  people  at  the  end 
of  the  Gospel  should  trace  a  cross  upon  the  bench  or 
wall  or  a  book  and  then  kiss  it.  It  was  pre.scribed  in 
some  early  uses  that  the  priest  ascending  to  the  altar 
before  the  Introit  should  first  mark  a  cross  upon  the 
altar-cloth  and  then  should  kiss  the  cross  so  traced. 
Moreover  it  would  seem  that  the  custom,  prevalent  in 
Spain  and  some  other  countries,  according  to  which  a 
man,  after  making  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  the  ordinary 
way,  apparently  kisses  his  thumb,  has  a  similar  origin. 
The  thumb  laid  across  the  forefinger  forms  an  image 
of  the  cross  to  which  the  lips  are  devoutly  i)r('ssed. 

Of  all  the  above  methods  of  venerating  this  lif(>-giv- 
ing  symbol  and  adopting  it  as  an  emblem,  tlie  marking 
of  a  little,  cross  seems  to  be  most  ancient.  We  have 
positive  evidence  in  the  early  Fathers  that  such  a  prao- 


SIGN 


786 


SIGN 


tice  was  familiar  to  Christians  in  the  second  century. 
"In  all  our  travels  and  movements",  says  Tertullian 
(De  cor.  mil.,  iii),  "in  all  our  coming;  in  and  going  out, 
in  putting  on  our  shoes,  at  the  bath,  at  the  table,  in 
hghting  our  candles,  in  lying  down,  in  sitting  down, 
whatever  employment  occupieth  us,  we  mark  our  fore- 
heads with  the  sign  of  the  cro.ss".  On  the  other  hand 
this  must  soon  have  passed  into  a  gesture  of  benedic- 
tion, as  many  quotations  from  the  Fathers  in  the 
fourth  century  would  show.  Tims  St.  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem in  his  "Catecheses"  (xiii,  36)  remarks:  "Let  us 
then  not  be  ashamed  to  confess  the  Crucified.  Be 
the  cross  our  seal,  made  with  boldness  bj'^  our  fingers 
on  our  brow  and  in  everything;  over  the  bread  we  eat 
and  the  cups  we  drink,  in  our  comings  and  in  goings 
out;  before  our  sleep,  when  we  lie  down  and  when  we 
awake;  when  we  arc  travelling,  and  when  we  are  at 
rest".  The  course  of  development  seems  to  have 
been  the  following.  The  cro.ss  was  originally  traced 
by  Christians  with  the  thumb  or  finger  on  their  own 
foreheads.  This  practice  is  attested  by  numberless 
allusions  in  Patristic  literature,  and  it  was  clearly  as- 
sociated in  idea  with  certain  references  in  Scripture, 
notably  Ezech.,  ix,  4  (of  the  mark  of  the  letter  Tau); 
Ex.,  xvii,  9-14;  and  especially  Apoc,  vii,  3;  ix,  4;  .\iv, 
1.  Hardly  less  early  in  date  is  the  custom  of  marking 
a  cross  on  objects — already  Tertullian  speaks  of  the 
Christian  woman  "signing"  her  bed  (cum  lectulum 
tuum  signas,  "Ad  uxor.",  ii,  5)  before  retiring  to  rest 
— and  we  soon  hear  also  of  the  sign  of  the  cross  being 
traced  on  the  lips  (Jerome,  "Epitaph.  Paulaj")  and  on 
the  heart  (Prudentius,  "Cathem.",  vi,  129).  Not 
unnaturally  if  the  object  were  more  remote,  the  cross 
which  was  directed  towards  it  had  to  be  made  in  the 
air.  Thus  Epiphanius  tells  us  (Adv.  haer.,  xxx,  12)  of 
a  certain  holy  man  Josephus,  who  imparted  to  a  ves- 
sel of  water  the  power  of  overthrowing  magical  incan- 
tations by  "making  over  the  vessel  with  his  finger  the 
seal  of  the  cross"  pronouncing  the  wliile  a  form  of 
prayer.  Again  half  a  century  later  Sozomen,  the 
church  historian  (VII,  xxvi),  describes  how  Bishop  Do- 
natus  when  attacked  by  a  dragon  "made  the  sign  of 
the  cross  with  his  finger  in  the  air  and  spat  upon  the 
monster".  All  this  obviously  leads  up  to  the  sugges- 
tion of  a  larger  cross  made  over  the  whole  body,  and 
perhaps  the  earUest  example  which  can  be  quoted 
comes  to  us  from  a  Georgian  source,  possibly  of  the 
fourth  or  fifth  century.  In  the  life  of  St.  Nino,  a 
woman  saint,  honoured  as  the  Apostle  of  Georgia,  we 
are  told  in  these  terms  of  a  miracle  worked  by  her: 
"St.  Nino  began  to  pray  and  entreat  God  for  a  long 
time.  Then  she  took  her  (wooden)  cross  and  with  it 
touched  the  Queen's  head,  her  feet  and  her  shoulders, 
making  the  sign  of  the  cross  and  straightway  she  was 
cured"  (Studia  Bibhca,  V,  32). 

It  appears  on  the  whole  probable  that  the  general 
introduction  of  our  present  larger  cross  (from  brow  to 
breast  and  from  shoulder  to  shoulder)  was  an  indirect 
result  of  the  Monophysite  controversy.  The  use  of 
the  thumb  alone  or  the  single  forefinger,  which  so  long 
as  only  a  small  cross  was  traced  upon  the  forehead 
was  almost  inevitable,  seems  to  have  given  way  for 
symboUc  reasons  to  the  use  of  two  fingers  (the  fore- 
finger and  middle  finger,  or  thumb  and  forefinger)  as 
typifying  the  two  natures  and  two  wills  in  Jesus 
Christ.  But  if  two  fingers  were  to  be  employed,  the 
large  cross,  in  which  forehead,  breast,  etc.  were  merely 
touched,  suggested  itself  as  the  only  natural  gesture. 
Indeed  some  large  movement  of  the  sort  was  required  to 
make  it  perceptible  that  a  man  was  using  two  fingers 
rather  than  one.  At  a  somewhat  later  date,  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  East,  three  fingers,  or  rather 
the  thumb  and  two  fingers  were  displayed,  while  the 
ring  and  little  finger  were  folded  back  upon  the  palm. 
These  two  were  held  to  symbolize  the  two  natures  or 
wills  in  Christ,  while  the  extended  three  denoted  the 
three  Persons  of  the  Blessed  Trinity.    At  tbee&me 


time  these  fingers  were  so  held  as  to  indicate  the  com- 
mon abbreviation  IXC  ('l77<roi/s  Xpiarbi  SwttJp),  the 
forefinger  representing  the  I,  tlie  middle  finger  crossed 
with  the  thumb  standing  for  the  X  and  the  bent  mid- 
dle finger  serving  to  suggest  the  C.  In  Armenia,  how- 
ever, the  sign  of  the  cross  made  with  two  fingers  is  still 
retained  to  the  present  day.  Much  of  this  symbolism 
passed  to  the  West,  though  at  a  later  date. 

On  the  whole  it  seems  probable  that  the  ultimate 
prevalence  of  the  larger  cross  is  due  to  an  instruc- 
tion of  Leo  IV  in  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century. 
"Sign  the  chahce  and  the  host",  he  wrote,  "with  a 
right  cross  and  not  with  circles  or  with  a  varying  of  the 
fingers,  but  with  two  fingers  stretched  out  and  the 
thumb  hidden  within  them,  by  which  the  Trinity  is 
symbolized.  Take  heed  to  make  this  sign  rightly,  for 
otherwise  you  can  bless  nothing"  (see  Georgi,"Liturg. 
rom.  pont.".  Ill,  37).  Although  this,  of  course, 
primarily  applies  to  the  position  of  the  hand  in  bless- 
ing with  the  sign  of  the  cross;  it  seems  to  have  been 
adapted  pojiularly  to  the  making  of  the  sign  of  the 
cross  upon  oneself.  Aelf ric  (about  1 000)  probably  had 
it  in  mind  when  he  tells  his  hearers  in  one  of  his  ser- 
mons: "A  man  may  wave  about  wonderfully  with  his 
hands  without  creating  any  blessing  unless  he  make 
the  sign  of  the  cross.  But  if  he  do  the  fiend  will  soon 
be  frightened  on  account  of  the  victorious  token. 
With  three  fingers  one  must  bless  himself  for  the  Holy 
Trinity"  (Thorpe,  "The  Homilies  of  the  AnglorSaxon 
Church",  I,  462).  Fifty  years  earlier  than  this  Anglo- 
Saxon  Christians  were  exhorted  to  "bless  all  their 
bodies  seven  times  with  Christ's  rood  token"  (Blick- 
ling  Hom.,  47),  which  seems  to  assume  this  large 
cross.  Bede  in  his  letter  to  Bishop  Egbert  advises 
him  to  remind  his  flock  "with  what  frequent  diligence 
to  employ  upon  themselves  the  sign  of  our  Lord's 
cross",  though  here  we  can  draw  no  inferences  as  to 
the  kind  of  cross  made.  On  the  other  hand  when  we 
meet  in  the  so-called  "Prayer  Book  ot  King  Henry" 
(eleventh  century)  a  direction  in  the  morning  prayers 
to  mark  with  the  holy  Cross  "the  four  sides  of  the 
body",  there  is  good  reason  to  suppose  that  the  large 
sign  with  which  we  are  now  familiar  is  meant. 

At  this  period  the  manner  of  making  it  in  the  West 
seems  to  have  been  identical  with  that  followed  at 
present  in  the  East,  i.  e.  only  three  fingers  were  used, 
and  the  hand  travelled  from  the  right  shoulder  to  the 
left.  The  point,  it  must  be  confessed,  is  not  entirely 
clear  and  Thalhofer  (Liturgik,  I,  633)  inclines  to  the 
opinion  that  in  the  passages  of  Belethus  (xxxix),  Si- 
cardus  (III,  iv).  Innocent  III  (De  myst.  alt.,  II,  xlvi), 
and  Durandus  (V,  ii,  13),  which  are  usually  appealed 
to  in  proof  of  this,  these  authors  have  in  mind  the 
small  cross  made  upon  the  forehead  or  external  ob- 
jects, in  which  the  hand  moves  naturally  from  right  to 
left,  and  not  the  big  cross  made  from  shoulder  to  shoul- 
der. Still  a  rubric  in  a  manuscript  copy  of  the  York 
Missal  clearly  requires  tlie  priest  when  signing  him- 
self with  the  paten  to  touch  the  left  shoulder  after  the 
right.  Moreover  it  is  at  least  clear  from  many  i)ic- 
tures  and  sculptures  that  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  the  Greek  practice  of  extending  only  three 
fingers  was  adhered  to  by  many  Latin  Christians. 
Thus  the  compiler  of  the  Ancren  Riwle  (about  1200)  di- 
rects his  nuns  at  "Deus  in  adjutorium"  to  make  a 
little  cross  first  with  the  thumb  and  then  "a  large 
cross  from  above  the  fon^head  down  to  the  brea.st 
with  three  fingers".  However  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  long  before  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages 
the  large  sign  of  the  cross  was  more  commonly  made 
in  the  West  with  the  open  hand  and  that  the  bar  of 
the  cross  was  traced  from  left  to  right.  In  the  "  Myr- 
oure  of  our  Ladye"  (p.  80)  the  Bridgettine  Nuns  (if 
Sion  have  a  mystical  reason  given  to  them  for  the 
practice:  "And  then  ye  bless  you  with  the  sygne  of 
the  holy  crosse,  to  chase  away  the  fiend  with  all  his 
deceytes.     For,  as  Cbrysostome  saytb,  wherever  the 


SIGNORELLI 


787 


SIGNORELLI 


fiends  see  the  signe  of  the  crosse,  they  flye  away, 
dreading  it  as  a  staffe  that  they  are  beaten  withall. 
And  in  thys  blessinge  ye  beginne  with  youre  hande  at 
the  hedde  downwarde,  and  then  to  the  lefte  side  and 
byleve  that  our  Lord  Jesu  Christe  came  down  from 
the  head,  that  is  from  the  Father  into  erthe  by  his 
holy  Incarnation,  and  from  the  erthe  into  the  left 
syde,  that  is  hell,  by  his  bitter  Passion,  and  from 
thence  into  his  Father's  righte  syde  by  his  glorious 
Ascension". 

The  manual  act  of  tracing  the  cross  with  the  hand 
or  the  thumb  has  at  all  periods  been  quite  commonly, 
though  not  indispensably,  accompanied  by  a  form  of 
words.  The  formula,  however,  has  varied  greatly. 
In  the  earlier  ages  we  have  evidence  for  such  invoca- 
tion as  "The  sign  of  Christ",  "The  seal  of  the  living 
God",  "In  the  name  of  Jesus";  etc.  Later  we  meet 
"In  the  name  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth",  "In  the  name  of 
the  Holy  Trinity",  "  In  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of 
the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost",  "Our  help  is  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord",  "O  God  come  to  my  assistance". 
Members  of  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church  when  bless- 
ing themselves  with  three  fingers,  as  above  explained, 
commonly  use  the  invocation:  "Holy  God,  Holy 
Strong  One,  Holy  Immortal  One,  Have  mercy  on  us", 
which  words,  as  is  well  known,  have  been  retained  in 
their  Greek  form  by  the  Western  Church  in  the  Office 
for  Good  Friday. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  insist  upon  the  effects  of  grace 
and  power  attributed  by  the  Church  at  all  times  to  the 
use  of  the  holy  sign  of  the  cross.  PVom  the  earliest 
period  it  has  been  employed  in  all  exorcisms  and  con- 
jurations as  a  weapon  against  the  spirits  of  darkness, 
and  it  takes  its  place  not  less  consistently  in  the  ritual 
of  the  sacramcjnts  and  in  every  form  of  blessing  and 
consecration.  A  famous  difficulty  is  that  suggested 
by  the  making  of  the  sign  of  the  cross  repeatedly  oyer 
the  Host  and  Chalice  after  the  words  of  institution 
have  been  spoken  in  the  Mass.  The  true  explana- 
tion is  probably  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  at  the 
time  these  crosses  were  introduced  (they  vary  too 
much  in  the  early  copies  of  the  Canon  to  be  of  primi- 
tive institution),  the  clergy  and  faithful  did  not 
clearly  ask  themselves  at  what  precise  moment  the 
transubstantiation  of  the  elements  was  effected.  They 
were  satisfied  to  believe  that  it  was  the  result  of  the 
whole  of  the  consecratory  prayer  which  we  call  the 
Canon,  without  determining  the  exact  words  which 
were  operative;  just  as  we  are  now  content  to  know 
that  the  Precious  Blood  is  consecrated  by  the  whole 
form  spoken  over  the  chalice,  without  pausing  to  re- 
flect whether  all  the  words  are  necessary.  Hence  the 
signs  of  the  cross  continue  till  the  end  of  the  Canon 
and  they  may  be  regarded  as  mentally  referred  back 
to  a  consecration  which  is  still  conceived  of  as  incom- 
plete. The  process  is  the  reverse  of  that  by  which  in 
the  Greek  Church  at  the  "Great  Entrance"  the  high- 
est marks  of  honour  are  paid  to  the  simple  elements 
of  breatl  and  wine  in  anticipation  of  the  consecration 
which  they  are  to  receive  shortly  afterwards. 

Thalhofer,  Lilurgik.  I  (Freiburg.  1883),  029-43;  Warren  in 
Diet.  Christ.  Antiq.a.v.;ChurchQuart.  Rev., XXX\  (1893), 315-Al; 
Beresford-Cooke,  The  Sign  of  the  Cross  in  the  Western  Litur- 
gies (London,  1907);  Gretser,  De  Cruce  Christi  (Ingolstadt, 
1598) ;  Stevens,  The  Cross  in  the  Life  and  Literature  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  (New  York,  1904). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Signorelli,  Luca,  Italian  painter,  b.  at  Cortona, 
about  1441;  d.  there  in  1523.  He  was  a  son  of 
Egidio  Signorelli,  and  his  mother  was  a  sister  of  the 
great-grandfather  of  Vasari,  from  whom  we  obtain 
almost  all  the  important  facts  of  his  career.  A  pupil 
of  Piero  dolla  Francesca,  he  was  largely  influenced  in 
his  early  days  by  Pollaiuolo,  by  whom  it  seems  possible 
that  he  may  have  been  instructed.  His  early  youth 
was  probably  spent  in  Florence,  and  his  style  of 
painting  is  essentially  Florentine.  In  1479  we  hear 
of  him  in  residence  at  Cortona,  taking  high  office  in 


the  government  of  the  town,  and  held  in  great  con- 
sideration. In  1488,  he  was  elected  a  burgher  of 
Citta  di  Castello,  and  three  years  later  he  was  one 
of  the  judges  of  the  designs  for  the  fagade  of  the 
cathedral  at  Florence.  In  1497,  he  commenced  his 
first  great  work  at  Monte  Oliveto  near  Siena,  where 
he  painted  eight  frescoes;  from  thence  he  went  to 
Orvieto,  where  he  remained  for  five  years,  devoting 
himself  to  painting  his  magnificent  frescoes  of  the 
Last  Judgment,  which  are  perhaps  his  most  charac- 
teristic works.  There  he  also  painted  his  own  por- 
trait, with  a  few  bold,  clever  strokes  revealing  a  great 
deal  of  character.  In  1508  he  went  as  delegate  from 
Cortona  to  Florence,  and  the  same  year  passed  on  to 
Rome,  where  he  executed  work  for  Julius  II  in  the 
Vatican,  now  unfortunately  no  longer  in  existence, 


The  Painter  Himself  with  Nicol6  Franceschi 

Painting  by  Luca  Signorelli  on  a  Tile  preserved  in  the  Opera  del 

Duomo,  Orvieto 

having  been  swept  away  to  make  room  for  the 
paintings  of  Raphael  and  his  scholars.  Again  in 
1512  he  left  Cortona  as  a  representative,  bearing 
an  address  of  congratulation,  and  went  again  to  Rome, 
but  obtained  no  new  commissions,  as  other  men  had 
taken  his  place.  He  returned  to  Cortona,  and  there 
lived  to  the  age  of  eighty-two,  working  almost  up 
to  the  day  of  his  death;  he  received  the  honour  of  a 
public  funeral.  Few  men  left  a  greater  mark  upon 
the  art  of  the  period  than  Signorelli.  He  is  spoken  of 
by  Berenson  as  the  "grandest  illustrator  of  modern 
times",  although  "by  no  means  the  pleasantest". 
In  another  place  the  same  critic  speaks  of  his  mastery 
over  the  nude  and  action,  the  depth  of  refinement  of 
his  emotions,  and  the  splendour  of  his  conception, 
remarking  on  the  extreme  power  that  Signorelli 
possessed  of  creating  emotion  and  triumphing  when 
representing  movement.  Art  critics  regard  his 
"Pan"  at  Berlin  as  being  one  of  the  most  wonderful 
works  of  the  Renaissance  and  one  of  the  most  fas- 
cinating works  of  art  that  has  come  down  to  us  in 
modern  times ;  while  his  frescoes  at  Orvieto  can  only 
be  described  as  magnificent,  austere  and  strange  no 
doubt,  but  marked  by  almost  perfect  genius,  with 
full  knowledge  of  the  sense  of  form,  and  an  awe- 
inspiring  majesty.  Signorelli  stands  out  as  a  master 
of  anatomy  and  almost  the  only  person  who  could 
render  complicated  movement  and  crowded  action, 
and  in  this  special  department  he  has  rarely  been 
equalled  and  never  excelled.  He  cannot  be  properly 
appreciated  without  a  journey  to  Cortona,  and  a 
visit  to  Orvieto.  His  works  are  scattered  through  all 
the  little  townships  of  Umbria,  and  can  especially 
be  studied  in  Loretto,  Arezzo,  Volterra,  Foiano, 
Arcevia,  Monte  Oliveto,  and  Borgo  San  Sepolcro, 
while  other  pictures  by  him  are  in  the  galleries  of 


SIGUENZA 


788 


SIGUENZA 


Florence,   London,   Liverpool,   Berlin,   Milan,   Paris, 
Perugia,  and  Rome. 

Vasari',   Vile  dei  PiUori  (Florence,  1878). 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Sigiienza,  Diocese  of  (Seguntina,  Segonti.e),  in 
Spain,  suffragan  of  Toledo,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Soria,  on  the  eavSt  by  Saragossa  and  Teruel,  on  the 
south  by  Cuenca,  and  on  the  west  by  Guadalajara 
and  Sego^•ia.  It  lies  in  the  civil  provinces  of  Guadala- 
jara, Segovia,  Soria,  and  Saragossa.  Its  episcopal 
city  has  a  population  of  5000.  The  site  of  the  ancient 
Segoncia,  now  called  Villavieja,  is  at  half  a  league 
distant  from  the  present  Sigiienza;  Livy  speaks  of  the 
to'n-n  in  treating  of  the  wars  of  Cato  with  the  Celti- 
bcrians.  The  diocese  is  very  ancient:  the  fictitious 
chronicles  pretended  that  St.  Sacerdos  of  Limoges 
had  been  its  bishop;  but,  apart  from  these  fables,  we 
find  Protogenes  as  Bishop  of  Sigiienza  at  the  Third 
Council  of  Toledo,  and  again  the  same  Protogenes  at 
Gundemar's  council  in  610;  Ilsidclus  assisted  at  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  councils;  Wideric,  at  the 
seventh  to  the  tenth;  Egica,  at  the  eleventh;  Ela,  at 
the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  and  fourteenth;  Gunderic,  at 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth.  The  succession  of 
bishops  continued  under  the  Arab  domination:  after 
St.  Eulogius,  in  851,  we  find  there  Sisemund,  a  man  of 
great  sagacity.  But  later  on  Sigiienza  was  so  com- 
pletely depopulated  that  it  does  not  appear  among 
the  cities  conquered  by  Alfonso  VI  when  he  subdued 
all  this  region.  The  first  bishop  of  Sigiienza,  after  it 
had  been  repeopled,  was  Bernardo,  a  native  of  Agen, 
who  had  been  "  capiscol "  (caput  scholcc — schoolmaster) 
of  Toledo;  he  rebuilt  the  church  and  consecrated  it 
on  the  Feast  of  St.  Stephen,  1123,  and  placed  in  it  a 
chapter  of  canons  regular.  He  died  Bishop-elect  of 
Santiago.  On  14  March,  1140,  Alfonso  VII  granted 
the  bLshop  the  lordship  of  Sigiienza,  which  his  suc- 
cessors retained  until  the  fourteenth  century. 

After  the  long  episcopate  of  Bernardo,  Pedro  suc- 
ceeded, and  was  succeeded  by  Cerebruno,  who  began 
the  building  of  the  new  cathedral.  Jocelin,  an  Eng- 
lishman, was  present  with  the  king  at  the  conquest  of 
Cuenca;  he  was  succeeded  by  Arderico,  who  was 
transferred  to  Palencia;  Martin  de  Hinojosa,  the  holy 
Abbot  of  Huerta,  abdicated  the  see  in  1192,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Rodrigo. 

Sigiienza  took  a  large  part  in  the  civil  wars  of  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The  fortress- 
palace  of  the  bishops  was  captured  in  1297  by  the 
partisans  of  the  Infantes  de  la  Cerda,  and  in  1355  it 
was  the  prLson  of  the  unhappy  Blanche  of  Bourbon, 
consort  of  Pedro  the  Cruel.  In  1465  Diego  L6pez  of 
RIadrid,  having  usurped  the  mitre,  fortified  himself 
there.  Pedro  Gonzdlez  de  Mendoza,  the  Cardinal  of 
Spain,  held  this  diocese  together  with  that  of  Toledo, 
and  enriched  his  relations  by  providing  establishments 
for  them  at  Sigiienza.  His  successor.  Cardinal  Ber- 
nardino de  Carvajal,  was  dispossessed,  as  a  schismatic 
by  Julius  II,  for  his  share  in  the  Conciiiabulum  of  Pisa. 
After  that  Garcia  de  Loaisa,  Fernando  Vald6s,  Pedro 
Pacheco,  and  others  held  this  wealthy  see.  The 
castle-palace,  modifi(!d  in  various  ways,  suffered  much 
from  the  stornLs  of  civil  war,  and  was  restored  by 
Joaquin  Fernandez  Ojrtina,  who  was  bishop  from 
1H4H,  and  the  restoration  was  continued  by  Bishop 
G6mez  Salazar  (1870-79). 

The  cathedral  is  a  very  massive  Gothic  edifice  of 
ashlar  stone.  Its  f:i^-a/le  has  three  doors,  with  a  railed 
court  in  front.  At  the  sides  rise  two  square  towers, 
164  feet  high,  with  merlons  topped  with  large  balls; 
these  towers  are  c^jnnected  by  a  balustrade  which 
crowns  the  fa^a^^le,  the  work  of  Bishop  Herrera  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  interior  is  divided  into  three 
Gothic  naves.  The  main  choir  begins  in  the  transept 
with  a  Renaissance  altar  built  by  order  of  Bishop 
Matff)  de  Burgos.  In  the  transept  is  the  Chapel  of 
St.  Librada,  patronesa  of  the  city,  with  a  Hplcndid 


reredos  and  the  relics  of  the  saint,  all  constructed  at 
the  expense  of  Bishop  Fadrique  de  Portugal,  who  is 
buried  there.  What  is  now  the  Chapel  of  St.  Cath- 
erine was  dedicated  to  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury  by 
the  English  Bishop  Jocelin,  who  came  with  Queen 
Leonora.  Cardinal  Mendoza  is  interred  in  the  main 
choir.  Beyond  the  choir  projjer,  which  is  situated  in 
the  centre,  there  is  the  sumptuous  altar  of  Nuestra 
Senora  la  Mayor.  Connected  with  the  chiu-ch  is  a 
beautiful  Florid  Gothic  cloister,  the  work  of  Bernar- 
dino de  Carvajal.  The  rich  tabernacle,  with  its 
golden  monstrance,  was  given  by  Cardinal  Mendoza. 
The  chapter  house  contains  many  excellent  paintings. 
It  is  not  known  with  any  certainty  at  what  period  this 
church  was  begun,  though  it  appears  to  date  from  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  image  of  Nuestra 
Senora  la  Mayor,  to  whom  the  church  is  dedicated, 
dates  from  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century;  it  was  taken 
to  the  retro-choir  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  Assump- 
tion being  substituted  for  it  on  the  high  altar. 

The  Conciliar  Seminary  of  San  Bartolome  is  due  to 
Bishop  Bartolome  Santos  de  Risoba  (1651).  There 
is  a  smaller  seminary,  that  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, and  a  college.  The  College  of  San  Antonio 
el  Grande  is  a  beautiful  building.  It  was  formerly  a 
university,  founded  in  1476  by  the  wealthy  Juan 
L6pez  de  Medina,  archdeacon  of  Almdzan,  but  its 
pro.sperity  was  hindered  by  the  foundation  of  the 
University  of  Alcald;  in  1770  it  was  reduced  to  a  few 
chairs  of  philosophy  and  theology,  and  was  suppressed 
in  1837.  Worthy  of  mention  are  the  ancient  hermit- 
age of  Nuestra  Senora,  which,  according  to  tradition, 
had  been  originally  the  pro -cathedral;  the  Humil- 
ladero,  a  small  Gothic  hermitage;  the  Churrigueresque 
convent  of  the  Franciscans;  the  modern  convent  of 
the  Ursuhnes,  which  was  formerly  the  home  of  the 
choir  boys;  the  hospital  of  the  military  barracks;  and 
the  Hieronymite  college. 

Fl6rez,  Espana  Sagrada,  VIII  (3rd  ed.,  Madrid);  Cuadrado, 
Castilla  la  Nueva  in  Espana,  sus  monumejitos  y  arles,  II  (Bar- 
celona, 1886);  DE  LA  FuENTE,  Hist.  de  las  universidades  de 
Espana,  II  (Madrid,  1885) ;  O'Reilly,  Heroic  Spain  (New  York, 
1910);    Rudy,  The  Cathedrals  of  Northern  Spain  (Boston,  1906). 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Amado. 

University  of  SigIjenza. — The  building  of  the 
College  of  San  Antonio  Portaccli  of  Sigiienza,  Spain, 
which  was  later  transformed  into  a  university,  was  be- 
gun in  1476.  Its  founder  was  Don  Juan  L6pez  de 
Medina,  archdeacon  of  Almazan,  canon  of  Toledo,  and 
vicar-general  of  Sigiienza.  The  Bull  ratifying  the 
foundation,  approving  the  benefices,  etc.,  was  granted 
by  Sixtus  IV  in  1483,  and  courses  were  opened  in  the- 
ology, canon  law,  and  arts.  By  a  Bull  of  Innocent 
VIII  in  1489,  the  university  was  created,  with  powers 
to  confer  the  degrees  of  bachelor,  licentiate,  and  doc- 
tor; the  college  was  thus  transformed  into  a  university. 
A  Bull  issued  by  Paul  III  extended  the  course  in 
theology,  and,  during  the  rectorate  of  Maestro  Velo- 
sillo,  the  chains  of  physics  were  created,  while  a  Bull  of 
Julius  11  establisiicd  tlie  facullics  of  law  and  of  medi- 
cine. Among  tlic  professors  were  Pedro  Ciruelo,  who 
enhanced  the  prestige  of  tlic  university  as  a  (U'litre  of 
learning;  Don  Francisco  Delgado,  Hisliopof  Lugo,  who 
was  rector,  and  under  whom  the  university  reached  its 
period  of  greatest  sjjlendour;  Don  Fernando  Velosillo, 
rector  and  professor,  was  .sent  by  Pliilip  II  to  the 
Council  of  Trent.  There  wen;  also  present  at  that 
council,  as  theologians,  Don  Antonio  Torres,  first 
Bishop  of  tlie  Canary  Islands,  and  Senor  Torro,  both 
professors  of  this  university;  Don  Pedro  Guerrero, 
Archbi.shop  of  Granada;  the  famous  Cuesta;  Tricio 
and  Francisco  Alvarez,  Bishoj)  of  Sigiienza.  It  is 
thus  evident  that  the  influence  of  the  Univer.sity  of 
Sigiienza  in  Church  and  State  was  considerable  in  the 
last  years  of  the  fifteentli  (;entury  and  the  first  years  of 
th(!  sixteenth;  thereafter  it  fell  into  decay.  It  was 
8uppre.s.sed  in  1837. 

Archivo  del  Inalilulo  de  Guadalajara;  Ltgajoa  1°  y  if,  etc.,  de  lot 


THE  CATHEDRAL,  SIGtJENZA 


SIHNAH 


789 


SILANDUS 


papeles  pertenecientes  a  la  Universidad  de  Sigiienza;  JosiS  Julie  de 
La  Fuente,  Resefia  historica  de  la  Universidad  de  Sigiienza;  Vi- 
cente DE  La  Fuente,  Historia  de  las  universidades  espafiolas 
(Madrid,  1887) ;  SAnchez  de  la  Campa,  Historia  filosdfica  de  la 
instruccion  publica  en  EspaHa  (1872) ;  Rashdall,  Universities  of 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  II  (Oxford,  1895),  97. 

TeODORO   RoDRtcUEZ. 

Sihnah.    See  Sehna,  Diocese  of. 

Sikhism,  the  religion  of  a  warlike  sect  of  India,  hav- 
ing its  origin  in  the  Punjab  and  its  centre  in  the  holy- 
City  of  Amritsar,  where  their  sacred  books  are  pre- 
served and  worshipped.  The  name  Sikh  signifies 
"disciple",  and  in  later  times  the  strict  observants  or 
elect  were  called  the  Khalsa.  The  founder  of  the  sect, 
Nanak  (now  called  Sri  Guru  Nanak  Deva),  a  Hindu 
belonging  to  the  Kshastrya  caste,  was  born  near  La- 
hore in  1469  and  died  in  1539.  Being  from  childhood 
of  a  religious  turn  of  mind,  he  began  to  wander 
through  various  parts  of  India,  and  perhaps  beyond 
it,  and  gradually  matured  a  religious  system  which, 
revolting  from  the  prevailing  polytheism,  ceremonial- 
ism, and  caste-exclusiveness,  took  for  its  chief  doc- 
trines the  oneness  of  God,  salvation  by  faith  and  good 
works,  and  the  equality  and  brotherhood  of  man. 
The  new  religion  spread  rapidly  and,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  nine  successive  gurus  or  teachers,  soon  became 
an  active  rival  not  only  to  the  older  Hinduism,  but 
also  to  the  newer  Mohammedanism  of  the  reigning  dy- 
nasties. The  "disciples "  were  therefore  somewhat  ill- 
treated  by  the  governing  powers.  This  persecution 
only  gave  fresh  determination  to  the  sect,  which 
gradually  assumed  a  military  characiter  and  took 
the  name  of  Singhs  or  "champion  warriors";  under 
Govind  Sing,  their  tenth  and  last  guru  (b.  16G0;  d. 
170S),  who  had  been  provoked  by  some  severe  ill-treat- 
ment of  his  family  by  the  Moslem  rulers,  they  began 
to  wage  active  war  on  the  Emperor  of  Delhi.  But  the 
struggle  was  unequal.  The  Sikhs  were  defeated  and 
gradually  driven  back  into  the  hills.  The  profession 
■  of  their  faith  became  a  capital  offence,  and  it  was  only 

I  the  decline  of  the  Mogul  power,  after  the  death  of 

Aurungzeb  in  1707,  which  enabled  them  to  survive. 
Then  seizing  their  opportunity  they  emerged  from 
their  hiding  places,  organized  their  forces,  and  estab- 
lished a  warlike  supremacy  over  a  portion  of  the  Pun- 
jab round  about  Lahore. 

A  reversal  took  place  in  1762,  when  Ahmed  Shah 
badly  defeated  them  and  defiled  their  sacred  temple  at 
Amritsar.  In  spite  of  this  rev(>rse  they  managed  still 
to  extend  their  dominion  along  the  banks  of  the  Sutlej 
and  the  Jumna  Rivers,  northwards  as  far  as  Peshawar 
and  Rawalpindi,  and  southwards  over  the  borders  of 
Rajputana.  In  17S.S  the  Mahrattas  overran  the  Pun- 
jab and  brought  the  Siklis  under  tribute.  Upon  the 
Mahrattas  sui)crvene<l  the  British,  who  received  the 
allegiance  of  a  portion  of  tlie  Sikhs  in  1803,  and  later 
on,  in  1809,  undt^rtook  a  treaty  of  protection  against 
their  enemy,  Runjeet  Singh,  who,  although  himself  a 
prominent  Sikh  leader,  had  proved  overbearing  and 
intolerable  to  other  portions  of  the  sect.  Various 
other  treaties  between  the  British  and  the  Sikhs,  with 
a  view  of  opening  the  Indus  and  the  Sutlej  Rivers  to 
trade  and  navigation,  were  entered  into;  but  as  these 
agreements  were  not  kept,  the  British  declared  war  on 
the  Sikhs  in  1845.  By  1848,  partly  through  actual 
defeat,  partly  through  internal  disorganization  and 
want  of  leaders,  the  Sikh  power  was  broken;  they 
gradually  settled  down  among  the  rest  of  the  popula- 
tion, preserving  only  their  religious  distinctiveness  in- 
tact. According  to  the  census  of  1881  the  number  of 
the  Sikhs  was  reckoned  at  1,853.426,  which  in  the  cen- 
sus of  1901  rose  to  2,195,339.  At  the  time  of  writing 
the  census  of  1911  is  not  yet  published. 

Their  sacred  books,  called  the  "Granth"  (the  orig- 
inal of  which  is  preserved  and  venerated  in  the  great 
temple  of  Amritsar)  consists  of  two  parts:  "Adi 
Granth",  the  first  book  or  book  of  Nanak,  with  later 


additions  compiled  by  the  fifth  guru,  Arjoon,  and  with 
subsequent  additions  from  later  gurus  down  to  the 
ninth,  and  contributions  by  various  disciples  and 
devotees;  secondly,  "The  Book  of  the  Tenth  King", 
written  by  Guru  Govind  Sing,  the  tenth  and  last  guru, 
chiefly  with  a  view  of  instilling  the  warlike  spirit  into 
the  sect.  The  theology  contained  in  these  books  is 
distinctly  monotheistic.  Great  and  holy  men,  even 
if  divinely  inspired,  are  not  to  be  worshipped — not 
even  the  Sikh  gurus  themselves.  The  use  of  images  is 
tabooed;  ceremonial  worship,  asceticism,  and  caste- 
restrictions  are  explicitly  rejected.  Their  dead  lead- 
ers are  to  be  saluted  simply  by  the  watchword  "Hail 
Guru"  and  the  only  material  object  to  be  outwardly 
reverenced  is  the  "Granth",  or  sacred  book.  In 
practice,  however,  this  reverence  seems  to  have  de- 
generated into  a  superstitious  worship  of  the 
"Granth";  and  even  a  certain  vague  divinity  is  at- 
tributed to  the  ten  gurus,  each  of  whom  is  supposed  to 
be  a  reincarnation  of  the  first  of  the  line,  their  orig- 
inal founder — for  the  Hindu  doctrine  of  transmigra- 
tion of  souls  was  retained  even  by  Nanak  himself,  and 
a  certain  amount  of  pantheistic  language  occurs  in 
parts  of  the  sacred  hymns.  Salvation  is  to  be  ob- 
tained only  by  knowledge  of  the  One  True  God 
through  the  Sat  Guru  (or  true  spiritual  guide),  rever- 
ential fear,  faith  and  purity  of  mind  and  morals — the 
main  principles  of  which  are  strictly  inculcated  as 
marks  of  the  true  Sikh;  while  such  prevailing  crimes 
as  infanticide  and  suttee  are  forbidden.  They  place 
some  restriction  on  the  killing  of  animals  without 
necessity,  but  short  of  an  absolute  prohibition.  Pe- 
culiar to  the  sect  is  the  abstention  from  tobacco,  and 
in  part  from  other  drugs  such  as  opium — a  restriction 
introduced  by  Guru  Govind  Sing  under  the  persuasion 
that  smoking  was  conducive  to  idleness  and  injurious 
to  the  militant  spirit.  At  the  present  time  an  active 
religious  revival  is  manifesting  itself  among  the  Sikhs, 
having  for  its  object  to  purge  away  certain  supersti- 
tions and  social  restrictions  which  have  gradually  fil- 
tered in  from  the  surrounding  Hinduism. 

Cunningham,  A  History  of  the  Sikhs  (Calcutta,  1904); 
Macoregor,  History  of  the  Sikhs  (2  vols.,  London,  1846); 
Court,  History  of  the  Sikhs;  Gough,  The  Sikhs  and  the  Sikh 
Wars  (London,  1897) ;  Saved  Mahomed  Latif,  History  of  the 
Punjab  (Calcutta,  1891);  Sewaram  Singh  Thapar,  Sri  Guru 
Nanak  Deva  (Rawalpindi,  1904);  Bhaoat  Lakshman  Singh, 
A  Short  Sketch  of  the  Life  and  Work  of  Guru  Govind  Singh 
(Lahore,  1909);  Macauliffb,  The  Sikh  Religion  (G  vols.,  Ox- 
ford, 1909);  Trumpp,  The  Adi  Granth,  the  Holy  Scriptures  of 
the  Sikhs  (London,  1877),  stigmatised  by  Macauliffe  as  an  un- 
reliable translation. 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 
Silandus,  a  titular  see  in  Lydia,  suffragan  of 
Sardis.  It  is  not  mentioned  by  any  ancient  geo- 
grapher or  historian.  We  possess  some  of  its  coins 
representing  the  Hermus.  It  is  the  present  village 
of  Selendi,  chief  town  of  a  nahia  in  the  caza  of  Koula, 
in  the  vilayet  of  Smyrna,  situated  on  the  banks  of 
the  Selendi  Tchai  or  Aine  Tchai,  an  affluent  of  the 
Hernus  (now  Ghediz  Tchai).  Some  inscriptions  but 
no  ruins  are  found  there.  The  list  of  bishops  of 
Silandus  given  by  Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christianus", 
I,  881,  needs  correction:  Markus,  present  at  the 
Council  of  Nicaea,  325  (less  probably  bishop  of 
Blaundus,  as  suggested  by  Ramsay,  "Asia  Minor", 
134);  Alcimedes  at  Chalcedon,  451  (Anatolius,  who 
signed  the  letter  of  the  bishops  of  the  province  to 
Emperor  Leo,  458,  belongs  rather  to  Sala,  Ramsay, 
ibid.,  122) ;  Andreas,  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople, 
680;  Stephanus,  at  Constantinople,  787;  Eustathius, 
at  Constantinople,  879  (perhaps  Bishop  of  Blaundus). 
The  bishop  mentioned  as  having  taken  part  in  the 
Council  of  Constantinople,  1351,  belongs  to  the  See 
of  Synaus  (Wachter,  ' '  Der  Verf all  des  Griechen turns 
in  Kleinasien  im  XIV  Jahrhundert",  Leipzig,  1903, 
63,  n.  1).  The  See  of  Silandus  is  mentioned  in  the 
Greek  "Notitiae  episcopatuum "  until  the  thirteenth 
century. 


SILENCE 


790 


SILESIA 


R.*.MSAr,  Asia  Minor  (London,  1890),  122;  Texier,  Asie 
mineure  (Paris,  1862),  276. 

S.  PetridJjs. 

Silence. — All  writers  on  the  spiritual  life  uni- 
formly recommend,  nay,  command  under  penalty 
of  total  failure,  the  practice  of  silence.  And  yet, 
despite  this  there  is  perhaps  no  rule  for  spiritual 
advancement  more  inveighed  against,  by  those  who 
have  not  even  mastered  its  rudiments,  than  that  of 
silence.  Even  under  the  old  Dispensation  its  value 
was  known,  taught,  and  practised.  Holy  Scripture 
warns  us  of  the  perils  of  the  tongue,  as  "Death  and 
life  are  in  the  power  of  the  tongue"  (Prov.,  xviii, 
21).  Nor  is  this  ad\'ice  less  insisted  on  in  the  New 
Testament;  witness:  "If  any  man  offend  not  in 
word,  the  same  is  a  perfect  man"  (St.  James,  iii,  2 
sq.).  The  same  doctrine  is  inculcated  in  innumerable 
other  places  of  the  inspired  writings.  The  pagans 
themselves  understood  the  dangers  arising  from  un- 
guarded speech.  Pythagoras  imposed  a  strict  rule 
of  silence  on  his  disciples;  the  vestal  virgins  also  were 
bound  to  severe  silence  for  long  years.  Many  similar 
examples  could  be  quoted. 

Silence  may  be  viewed  from  a  threefold  standpoint : 
(1)  As  an  aid  to  the  practice  of  good,  for  we  keep 
silence  with  man,  in  order  the  better  to  speak  with 
God,  because  an  unguarded  tongue  dissipates  the 
soul,  rendering  the  mind  almost,  if  not  quite,  in- 
capable of  praj^er.  The  mere  abstaining  from  speech, 
without  this  purpose,  would  be  that  "idle  silence" 
which  St.  Ambrose  so  strongly  condemns.  (2)  As 
a  preventative  of  evil.  Seneca,  quoted  by  Thomas 
a  Kempis  complains  that  "As  often  as  I  have  been 
amongst  men,  I  have  returned  less  a  man"  (Imita- 
tion, Book  I,  c.  20).  (3)  The  practice  of  silence  in- 
volves much  self-denial  and  restraint,  and  is  there- 
fore a  wholesome  penance,  and  as  such  is  needed  by 
all.  From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  readily  under- 
stood why  all  founders  of  religious  orders  and  con- 
gregations, even  those  devoted  to  the  service  of  the 
poor,  the  infirm,  the  ignorant,  and  other  external 
works,  have  insisted  on  this,  more  or  less  severely 
according  to  the  nature  of  their  occupations,  as  one 
of  the  essential  rules  of  their  institutes.  It  was  St. 
Benedict  who  first  laid  down  the  clearest  and  most 
strict  laws  regarding  the  observance  of  silence.  In 
all  monasteries,  of  everj'  order,  there  are  special 
places,  called  the  "Regular  Places"  (church,  re- 
fectory, dormitory  etc.)  and  particular  times,  es- 
pecially the  night  hours,  termed  the  "Great  Silence", 
wherein  speaking  is  more  strictly  prohibited.  Out- 
side these  places  and  times  there  are  usually  accorded 
"recreations"  during  which  conversation  is  per- 
mitted, governed  by  rules  of  charity  and  moderation, 
though  useless  and  idle  words  are  universally  for- 
bidden in  all  times  and  places.  Of  course  in  the 
active  orders  the  members  speak  according  to  the 
needs  of  their  various  duties.  It  was  perhaps  the 
Cistercian  Order  alone  that  admitted  no  relaxation 
from  the  strict  rule  of  silence,  which  severity  is  still 
maintained  amongst  the  Reformed  Cistercians 
(Trappists)  though  all  other  contemplative  Orders 
(Carthusians,  Carmelitej?,  Camaldolese  etc.)  are  much 
more  strict  on  this  point  than  those  engaged  in  active 
works.  In  order  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  speaking, 
many  orders  (Cistercians,  Dominicans,  Discalced 
Carmelit<«  etc.)  have  a  certain  number  of  signs,  by 
means  of  which  the  religious  may  have  a  limited 
communication  with  each  other  for  the  necessities 
that  are  unavoidable. 

Holy  liihU,  especially  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Eeclesiasticus,  and 
Catholic  Epistle  of  St.  James;  Thomas  X  Kempis.  Imilalion 
of  ChriHt:  HOLBTEINILH,  Codex  Re^ularum  quag  S.  Patrea 
Moruirhin  et  Virginibun  prwucripere  (Paris.  100.'});  St.  Benedict. 
Hull/  RuU,  in  particular  chaps,  vi  and  vii;  Schott,  Fundament 
der  GTuntlrinne  dfr  Vollkommenheit  (Constance,  lOSO);  Hodri- 
OOEZ,  Chritlian  Perfection  (I>ondon,  1801). 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 


Silesia. — I.  Prussian  Silesia. — Prussian  Silesia, 
the  largest  province  of  Prussia,  has  an  area  of  15,557 
square  miles,  and  is  traversed  in  its  entire  length  by 
the  River  Oder.  In  1905  the  province  had  4,942,612 
inhabitants,  of  whom  2,765,394  were  Catholics, 
2,120,361  Lutherans,  and  46,845  Jews;  72-3  per 
cent  were  Germans,  and  nearly  25  per  cent  Poles. 
Agriculture  is  in  a  flourishing  condition,  66  per  cent 
of  the  area  being  under  cultivation;  the  mining  of 
iron,  lead,  and  coal  is  largely  carried  on,  and  the 
manufacturing  industry  is  considerable;  among  the 
articles  manufactured  are  hardware,  glass,  china, 
linen,  cotton,  and  woollen  goods. 

In  the  earliest  period  Silesia  was  inhabited  by  Ger- 
mans, the  tribes  being  the  Lj'gii  and  the  Silingii. 
When  during  the  migrations  these  peoples  emigrated 
about  the  year  400  towards  the  West,  the  territory 
was  lost  to  the  Germanic  races,  and  for  about  eight 
hundred  years  the  region  was  Slavonic.  The  sole 
memorial  of  the  Silingii  is  the  retention  of  the  name 
Silesia;  the  Slavs  called  Mount  Zobten  near  Breslau 
"Slenz"  {SilingU) ,  M\d.  the  Gau  surrounding  Mount 
Zobten  they  called  Pagus  Silensi  or  Slenzane,  Slcnza, 
Silesia.  The  region  belonged  politically  at  times  to 
Poland  and  at  times  to  Bohemia.  Christianity  came  to 
it  from  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  The  apostles  of  these 
two  countries,  Cyril  and  Methodius  (from  863),  are 
indirectly  also  the  apostles  of  Silesia.  Until  nearly 
the  year  1000  Silesia  had  no  bishop  of  its  own.  The 
right  bank  of  the  Oder  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of 
Posen  which  was  established  in  968  and  was  suffragan 
of  Magdeburg;  the  left  bank  belonged  to  the  Diocese 
of  Prague,  that  was  established  in  973  and  was  suf- 
fragan of  Mainz.  The  Emperor  Otto  III  transferred 
the  part  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oder  to  the  Diocese 
of  Meissen  in  995.  In  999  Silesia  was  conquered  by 
the  Poles.  Duke  Boleslaw  Chrobry  (the  Brave)  of 
Poland  now  founded  the  Diocese  of  Breslau;  in  the 
year  1000  this  diocese  was  made  suffragan  of  the  new 
Archdiocese  of  Gnesen  that  was  established  by  Otto 
III.  In  1163,  at  the  command  of  the  German  Em- 
peror Frederick  Barbarossa,  Silesia  was  given  dukes 
of  its  own  who  belonged  to  the  family  of  the  Piasts. 
With  these  rulers  began  the  connexion  with  Germany 
and  German  civilization.  Lower  Silesia  was  governed 
by  Boleslaw  the  Long,  the  companion-in-arms  of  the 
emperor.  His  successor  was  Henry  the  Bearded 
(1201-38),  the  husband  of  St.  Hedwig.  From  about 
1210  Henry  began  to  bring  German  colonists  into 
his  territory  and  to  permit  them  to  found  German 
villages  and  cities.  Bishop  Laurence  of  Breslau 
followed  his  example  in  the  district  under  the  control 
of  his  see,  the  castellany  of  Ottmachau.  The  monas- 
teries did  much  to  aid  the  colonization  and  the  Ger- 
manic tendencies,  especially  the  Cistercians  of  the 
monastery  of  Leubus.  These  established  no  less  than 
sixty-five  new  German  villages  and  materially 
promoted  agriculture  and  gardening,  mechanical 
arts,  mining,  and  navigation  of  the  Oder.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  II  (1238-41),  the  son  of  St.  Hedwig, 
Silesia  and  its  western  civilization  were  threatened 
by  the  Tatars.  Henry  met  them  in  battle  at  Wahl- 
statt  near  Liegnitz  and  there  died  the  death  of  a  hero; 
his  courageous  resistance  forced  the  barbarians  to 
withdraw.  Consequently  9  April,  1241,  is  one  of  the 
great  days  of  Silesian  history. 

The  German  colonization  was  vigorou.sIy  carried 
on  and  towards  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century 
Lower  Silesia  was  mainly  German,  while  in  Upper 
Silesia  the  Slavs  were  in  the  majority.  Among  the 
contcmi)orari('s  of  St.  Hedwig  (d.  1243)  were  the 
Blessed  Ccshuis  and  St.  Hyacinth,  both  natives  of 
Upper  Silesia.  They  entered  the  Dominican  Order 
in  Italy  and  then  became  missionaries.  Ceslaus 
laboured  in  Breslau,  where  his  order  in  1226  obtained 
th(!  Church  of  St.  Adalbert;  he  died  in  1242.  Hya- 
cinth,  who  among  other  labours  also  preached  in 


SILESinS 


791 


SILETZ 


Upper  Silesia,  died  in  1257  at  Cracow.  A  third 
native  saint  of  Silesia  was  a  relative  of  Hyacinth, 
Bronislawa,  who  became  a  Premonstratensian  in 
1217  and  passed  forty  years  in  the  practice  of  severe 
penances.  Besides  the  monastery  of  Leubus  the 
Cistercians  had  monasteries  also  at  Kamenz  (1248), 
Heinrichau  (1228),  Rauden  (1252),  Himmelwitz 
(1280),  and  Griissau  (1292).  The  wealthiest  convent 
was  the  Abbey  of  Trebnitz  for  Cistercian  nuns  founded 
by  St.  Hedwig  who  was  buried  there.  Celebrated 
monasteries  of  the  Augustinians  were  the  one  on  the 
Sande  at  Breslau,  which  was  founded  at  Gorkau  about 
1146  and  was  transferred  to  Breslau  about  1148, 
and  that  at  Sagan,  established  in  1217  at  Naumburg 
on  the  Bober  and  transferred  to  Sagan  in  1284.  There 
were  also  a  large  number  of  houses  belonging  to  the 
Premonstratensians,  Franciscans,  and  orders  of 
knights,  as  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem, 
Knights  of  the  Cross,  Knights  Templar.  Up  to  the 
mifldle  of  the  fourteenth  century  forty-five  monas- 
teries for  men  anrl  fourteen  for  women  had  been  es- 
tablished. The  ruling  family,  the  Piasts,  repeatedly 
divided  their  inheritance  so  that  in  the  fourteenth 
century  Silesia  contained  no  less  than  eighteen  prin- 
cipalities. This  made  it  all  the  easier  for  the  Bishop 
of  Breslau  as  Prince  of  Neisse  and  Duke  of  Grottkau 
to  become  the  most  important  of  the  ruling  princes. 
Silesia  came  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  kings  of 
Bohemia  in  1327-29.  As  Bohemia  was  controlled  by 
Germany  the  change  was  more  favourable  for  coloniza- 
tion than  if  it  had  fallen  to  Poland.  Silesia  suffered 
terribly  during  the  Hussite  Wars  (1420-37).  The 
Hussites  repeatedly  undertook  marauding  expedi- 
tions, and  hardly  any  city  except  Breslau  escaped  the 
havoc  they  wrought.  About  forty  cities  were  laid 
in  ashes.  The  clergy  were  burnt  or  put  to  death  in 
other  ways;  the  nobility  grew  poor;  the  peasants 
became  serfs;  the  fields  lay  uncultivated;  the 
"golden"  Diocese  of  Breslau  became  a  diocese  of 
"filth".  In  1409  Silesia  came  under  the  suzerainty 
of  Hungary.  However,  as  in  1526  Hungary,  with 
Silesia,  and  Bohemia  became  at  the  same  time  posses- 
sions of  the  Habsburgs,  from  this  time  the  province 
was  once  more  regarded  as  a  dependency  of  Bohemia. 
The  Reformation  made  rapid  progress  in  Silesia. 
For  the  causes  of  this  see  Breslau,  The  Prince- 
Bishopric  OF.  In  the  same  article  also  the  course  of 
the  Reformation  and  that  of  the  counter-Reformation 
are  fully  treated.  A  large  share  of  the  credit  for  the 
restoration  and  firm  establishment  of  Catholicism 
is  due  to  the  Jesuits,  who  during  the  years  1622-98 
established  in  Silesia  nine  large  colleges,  each  with  a 
gymnasium,  four  residences,  and  two  missions,  and 
brought  under  their  control  all  the  higher  schools  of 
the  country.  This  control  endured,  as  Frederick 
the  Great  continued  his  protection  of  the  Jesuits, 
even  after  the  suppression  of  the  order,  up  to  1800. 
In  the  seventeenth  century  Silesia  obtained  great 
renown  through  the  two  Silesian  schools  of  poetry, 
the  chief  of  these  poets  being  Martin  Opitz,  Friedrich 
von  Logau,  and  Andreas  Gryphius.  In  1702  the 
Jesuit  college  at  Breslau  was  changed  into  the  Leo- 
poldine  University  (see  Breslau,  University  of). 
At  the  close  of  the  three  Silesian  wars  (1740-2, 
1744-5,  1756-63)  the  greater  part  of  Silesia  belonged 
to  Prussia.  By  this  change  Catholicism  lost  the 
privileged  position  which  it  had  regained  in  the  coun- 
ter-Reformation, even  though  Frederick  the  Great 
did  not  impair  the  possessions  of  the  Church,  as 
happened  later  (1810-40).  In  1815  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  enlarged  Silesia  by  the  addition  of  about  half 
of  Lausitz  (Lusatia).  During  the  decade  of  the 
forties  the  sect  of  "German  Catholics"  developed 
from  Silesia  as  the  starting-point;  this  sect  was 
founded  at  Laurahiitte  in  Upper  Silesia  by  the  ex- 
chaplain,  John  Ronge.  Finally  a  brief  mention 
should  here  be  made  of  the  enormous  economic  de- 


velopment of  the  province  in  the  last  fifty  years, 
especially  in  the  mining  of  coal,  the  mining  and  work- 
ing of  metals,  and  the  manufacture  of  chemicals  and 
machines.  In  Upper  Silesia  especially  manufac- 
tures have  advanced  with  American  rapidity.  Ec- 
clesiastically the  entire  province  belongs  to  the 
Prince  Bishopric  of  Breslau  with  the  following  ex- 
ceptions: the  commissariat  of  Katscher,  which  con- 
sists of  the  Archipresbyterates  of  Katscher,  Hult- 
schin,  and  Leobschutz  with  44  parishes  and  130,944 
Catholics,  and  belongs  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Olmiitz; 
the  county  of  Glatz,  which  has  51  parishes  and  146,673 
Catholics,  and  belongs  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Prague. 
II.  Austrian  Silesia. — Austrian  Silesia  is  that 
part  of  Silesia  which  remained  an  Austrian  possession 
after  1763.  It  is  a  crownland  with  an  area  of  1987 
square  miles  and  a  poi)ulation  of  727,000  persons. 
Of  its  population  84-73  per  cent  are  Catholics;  14 
per  cent  are  Protestants;  44-69  per  cent  are  Ger- 
mans; 33-31  per  cent  Poles;  22-05  per  cent  Czechs. 
As  in  Prussian  Silesia,  agriculture,  mining,  and  manu- 
factures are  in  a  very  flourishing  condition.  The 
districts  of  Teschen  and  Neisse  belong  to  the  Prince 
Bishopric  of  Breslau,  those  of  Troppau  and  Jagern- 
dorf  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Olmiitz. 

Scriptores  rerum  Silesiacarum,  I-XVI  (Breslau,  1835-97); 
Codex  diplomaticus  SilesirB,  I-XXV  (Breslau,  1857-1909); 
Grunhagbn,  Gesch.  Schlesiens,  I-II  (Gotha,  1884-86);  Mor- 
GENBES8ER,  Geschichte  von  Schlesien  (4th  ed.,  Breslau,  1908); 
Chrzaszcz,  Kirchengesch.  Schlesiens  (Breslau,  1908);  Peter, 
Das  Ilerzojjhim  Schlesien  (Vienna,  1884);  SlAma,  Oesterreichisch- 
Schlesien   (Prague,    1887). 

Klemens  Loffler. 
Silesius,  Angelus.    See  Angelus  Silesius. 

Siletz  Indians,  the  collective  designation  for  the 
rapidly  dwindling  remnant  of  some  thirty  small  tribes, 
representing  five  linguistic  stocks — Salishan,  Yakonan, 
Kusan,  Takelman,  and  Athapascan — formerly  holding 
the  whole  coast  country  of  Oregon  from  within  a  few 
miles  of  the  Columbia  southward  to  the  Cahfornia 
border,  extending  inland  to  the  main  divide  of  the 
coast  range,  together  with  all  the  waters  of  Rogue 
River.  Several  of  the  tribes  originally  within  the 
range  of  this  territory  are  now  entirely  extinct.  The 
others,  all  on  the  verge  of  extinction,  are  now  gathered 
upon  the  Siletz  Reservation,  Lincoln  County,  North- 
west Oregon,  with  the  exception  of  perhaps  seventy 
on  the  adjoining  Grande  Ronde  reservation  to  the 
east.  The  principal  tribes  from  north  to  south  were 
the  Tillamook  (Sal.),  Alsea,  Siuslaw  (Yak.),  Coos, 
Coquille  (Kus.),  Takelma  or  Upper  Rogue  River 
(Tak.),  Six,  Joshua,  Tututini,  Mackanotni,  Shasta- 
costa,  Chetco  (Ath.).  The  Athapascan  and  Takel- 
man tribes  were  commonly  designated  collectively  as 
Rogue  River  Indians. 

Before  the  beginning  of  the  era  of  disturbance  the 
Indians  of  the  territory  in  question  may  have  num- 
bered 15,000  souls.  In  1782-83  a  great  smallpox  epi- 
demic, which  swept  the  whole  Columbian  region,  re- 
duced the  population  by  more  than  one-third.  The 
advent  of  trading  vessels  in  the  Columbia,  dating  from 
1788,  introduced  disease  and  dissipation  which  poi- 
soned the  blood  of  all  the  tribes,  leading  to  their  rapid 
and  hopeless  decline.  A  visitation  of  fever  and 
measles  about  1823-25  wiped  out  whole  tribes,  and  by 
1850  probably  not  6000  survived.  In  that  year  gold 
was  discovered  in  the  Rogue  River  country,  resulting 
in  an  invasion  of  miners  and  the  consequent  "Rogue 
River  Wars",  lasting  almost  continuously  for  six 
years,  1850-56.  In  these  wars  the  southern  tribes  of 
the  Oregon  coast  probably  lost  over  1000  killed  out- 
right and  more  than  that  number  through  wounds,  ex- 
posure, and  starvation  due  to  the  destruction  of  their 
villages  and  food  stores.  On  their  final  subjugation 
they  were  removed  by  military  force  to  the  "Coast 
Reservation",  which  had  been  established  under  vari- 
ous treaties  within  the  same  period,  and  to  which  sev- 


SILOE 


792 


SILVEIRA 


eral  tribes  had  already  peaceably  removed.  The 
Coast  Reservation  originally  extended  some  ninety 
miles  along  the  coast,  but  by  the  throwing  open  of  the 
central  portion  in  1865  was  divided  into  two,  the  pres- 
ent Siletz  agency  in  the  north,  and  the  Alsea  sub- 
agency  in  the  south.  In  1876  the  latter  was  aban- 
doned, the  Indians  being  concentrated  upon  Siletz 
Reservation,  to  which  about  the  same  time  were 
gathered  also  several  vagrant  remnant  bands  farther 
up  the  coast. 

On  1  Sept.,  1857,  the  Coast  Tribe  Indians  were  offi- 
cially reported  to  number:  Siletz  Reservation,  2049; 
Alsea,  690;  refugee  hostiles  in  mountains,  about  250; 
remnant  bands  north  of  Siletz,  251;  total,  about  3240. 
Degraded,  impoverished,  and  diseased,  their  condi- 
tion could  not  easily  be  lower,  and  their  superinten- 
dent states  his  conviction  that  any  expectation  of  their 
ultimate  civilization  or  Christianization  was  hopeless. 
"They  have  acquired  all  the  vices  of  the  white  man, 
without  any  of  his  virtues;  and  while  the  last  fifteen 
years  have  witnessed  the  most  frightful  diminution  in 
their  numbers,  their  deterioration,  morally,  physi- 
cally, and  intellectually  has  been  equally  rapid.  Star- 
vation, disease,  and  bad  whiskey  combined  is  rapidly 
decimating  their  numbers,  and  will  soon  relieve  the 
government  of  their  charge." 

Up  to  1875  governmental  provisions  for  moral  or 
educational  betterment  was  either  lacking  or  entirely 
inadequate,  and  the  only  fight  in  the  darkness  was  af- 
forded by  the  visits  at  long  intervals  of  the  devoted 
pioneer  missionary.  Father  A.  J.  Croquette,  of  the 
neighbouring  Grande  Ronde  Reservation,  who  con- 
tinued his  ministry  to  both  reservations  for  a  period  of 
nearlv  forty  years.  Protestant  work  was  begun  un- 
der Methodist  auspices  about  1872,  but  no  building 
was  erected  until  about  twenty  years  later.  Each  is 
now  represented  by  a  regular  mission,  the  Catholic 
denomination  being  in  charge  of  the  Jesuits.  The  rna- 
jority  of  the  Indians  are  accounted  as  Christians,  having 
abandoned  the  old  Indian  dress  and  custom,  besides 
almost  universally  using  the  English  language.  There 
is  also  a  flourishing  government  school.  Notwith- 
standing that  the  Indians  are  reported  as  "above  the 
average"  in  civilization  and  comfortable  condition, 
there  is  a  steady  and  rapid  decrease,  due  to  the  old 
blood  taint  which  manifests  itself  chiefly  in  tubercu- 
losis, and  points  to  their  speedj'  extinction.  The  ap- 
proximate 3240  assigned  to  the  reservation  in  1857  had 
dwindled  to  approximately  1015  in  1880;  480  in  1900; 
and  430  in  1910,  including  mixed  bloods.  The  work 
of  assigning  them  to  individual  land  allotments,  begun 
in  18S7,  was  finaUy  concluded  in  1902. 

The  various  tribes  differed  but  little  in  habit  of 
life.  Their  houses  were  of  cedar  boards,  rectangular 
and  semi-subterranean  for  greater  warmth.  Rush 
mats  upon  the  earth  floor  served  for  beds.  Fish 
formed  their  chief  subsistence,  supplemented  by 
acorns,  camas  rwjt,  berries,  wild  game,  and  grass- 
hoppers; tobacco  was  the  only  plant  cultivated. 
They  had  dug-out  canoes,  and  were  expert  basket- 
makers.  Their  chief  weapon  was  the  bow,  and  pro- 
tective body  armour  of  raw  hide  was  sometimes 
worn.  The  ordinary  dress  of  the  man  was  of  deer 
skin,  and  the  woman,  a  short  skirt  of  cedar  bark 
fibre.  Hats  were  worn  by  both  sexes.  Head  flat- 
tening was  not  practised,  but  tattooing  was  frequent. 
The  dcntalium  shell  was  their  most  prized  ornament 
and  stanrlard  of  value.  Polygamy  was  common. 
The  dead  were  gencirally  buried  in  the  ground,  and 
the  property  distributed  among  the  relatives.  The 
government  was  sim[)le  anri  democratic,  but  captives 
and  their  children  were  held  as  slaves.  There  were 
no  clans,  and  rlescent  was  paternal.  Each  linguistic 
group  ha/l  its  own  myths  and  culture  h(!ro,  or  trans- 
former, who  prepared  the  worhl  for  human  habita- 
tion. Among  the  Alsea  these  sacred  myths  could 
be  told  during  only  one  month  of  the  year.     Among 


the  principal  ceremonies  were  the  acorn  festival  and 
the  girls'  puberty  dance. 

Bancroft,  Hist.  Oregon  (2  vols.,  San  Francisco,  1856-58); 
Boas,  Traditions  of  the  Tillamook  Indians  in  Jour.  .4  m.  Folklore, 
XI  (Boston,  1898) ;  Bur.  Cath.  Ind.  Missions,  annual  reports  of 
director  (Washington);  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs, 
annual  reports  (Washington) ;  Dorsev,  Indians  of  Siletz  Reserva- 
tion in  American  Anthropologist,  II  (Washington,  1888);  Idem, 
Gentile  System  of  the  Siletz  Tribes  in  Jour.  Am.  Folklore,  III 
(Boston,  1890);  Farrand,  Notes  on  the  Alsea  Indians  in  Am. 
Anthropologist,  new  series.  III  (New  York,  1901);  Hale,  Eth- 
nology and  Philology,  forming  vol.  VI  of  Wilkes  Kept.  U.  S. 
Exploring  Expedition  (Philadelphia,  1846);  Lewis  and  Clark 
Expedition,  original  journals,  ed.  Thwaites  (8  vols..  New  York, 
1904-05);  Sapir,  Notes  on  the  Takelma  Indians  in  Am.  Anth., 
IX  (Lancaster,  1907);  Idem,  Religious  Ideas  of  the  Takelma 
Indians  in  Jour.  Am.  Folklore  (Boston,  1907) ;  Idem,  Takelma 
Texts,  Univ.  of  Penn.  Mus.  Anthrop.  Pubs.  (Philadelphia,  1909); 
Idem,  The  Takelma  Language  in  Boas,  Handbook  Am.  Ind. 
Langs.,  Bull.  40,  part  2  (Bur.  Am.  Ethnology,  Washington,  1912). 

James  Mooney. 


Siloe  (SiLOAH,  Siloam; 


.U ..w 


•2  from 


to  conduct  or  send,  connected  with  nbt"  a  canal; 
hence  the  interpretation,  ttji/  KoXvixprjdpav  tov  rSiXaxi/i 
[8  ipfxriveveTai.' Air€(7Ta\fj-ei>os],  John,  ix,  7;  also  in  Sept., 
Josephus,  and  Tacitus  SiXwd/x,  n  being  changed  to  ji* 
for  euphony  sake  or  under  the  influence  of  '"n*.*), 
a  pool  in  the  TjTopocan  Valley,  just  outside  the  south 
wall  of  Jerusalem,  where  Jesus  Christ  gave  sight  to 
the  man  born  blind  (John,  ix,  1-7).  Thanks  to 
the  excavations  of  Mr.  Bliss  and  others,  the  identi- 
fication of  the  present  pool  with  the  Siloe  of  Isaias 
(viii,  6)  and  John  (ix,  7)  is  bej'ond  all  doubt.  Near 
the  traditional  pool  (birket  Silwan),  Mr.  Bliss  found 
in  1896  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  basin,  75  ft.  north  and 
south  by  78  ft.  east  and  west  and  18  ft.  deep,  on  the 
north  side  of  which  was  a  church  with  a  nave.  The 
pool  connects  with  "the  upper  source  of  the  waters 
of  Gihon"  (II  Par.,  xxxii,  30)  by  a  subterranean 
conduit  (IV  Kings,  xviii,  17),  called  "the  king's 
aqueduct"  (i"?"^"  ,"^-"1-,  II  Esd.,  ii,  14),  600 yards  long, 
the  fall  of  which  is  so  slight  that  the  water  runs  very 
gently;  hence  Isaias  (viii,  6)  compares  the  House 
of  David  to  "the  waters  of  Siloe,  that  go  with  silence". 
In  1880  the  excavations  of  the  German  Palestinian 
Society  uncovered  in  the  Siloe  pool  near  the  outflow 
of  the  canal  an  inscription,  which  is,  excepting  the 
Mesa  stone,  the  oldest  specimen  of  Hebrew  writing, 
probably  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.  The  tower 
"in  Siloe"  (Luke,  xiii,  4)  was  probably  a  part  of  the 
near-by  city  wall,  as  Mr.  Bliss's  excavations  show 
that  the  pool  had  given  its  name  to  the  whole  vicinity; 
hence  "the  gate  of  the  fountain"  (II  Esd.,  ii,  14). 

Bliss,  Excavations  of  Jerusalem,  1804-7  (London,  1898), 
1.32-210;  Zeitschr.  des  deulschen  Paldstina-vereins  (Leipzig), 
XXII,  61  sqq.;  IV,  102  sqq.,  250  sqq.;  V,  725;  Pal.  Exptor. 
Fund,  Quarterly  Statement  (London,  1S82),  122  sq.,  16  sq.,  178 
sq.;  (ibid.,  1883),  210  .sqq.;  Revue  biblique  (Paris,  1897),  299- 
306;  HEiDETinVioovnovx,  Did.  de  la  Bible,  a.  V.  Siloi:  MoM- 
mert,  Siloah,  etc.  (Leipzig,  1908);  Warren  and  Conder, 
Survey  of  Western  Palestine,  II  (London,  1884),  343-71. 

Nicholas  Reagan. 

Silveira,  GoNgALO  Da,  Venerable,  pioneer 
missionary  of  South  Africa,  b.  23  Feb.,  1526,  at 
Almeirim,  about  forty  miles  from  Lisbon;  martyred 
16  March,  1561.  He  was  the  tenth  child  of  Dom 
Luis  da  Silveira,  first  count  of  Sortelha,  and  Dona 
Beatrice  Coutinho,  daughter  of  Dom  Fernando 
Coutinho,  Marshal  of  the  Kingdom  of  Portugal. 
Losing  his  parents  in  infancy,  he  was  brought  up 
by  his  sister  Philippa  de  Vilheiia  and  her  husband  the 
Marquis  of  Tavora.  He  was  educated  by  the 
Franciscans  of  the  monastery  of  Santa  Margarida 
until  1542  when  he  went  to  finish  his  studies  in  the 
University  of  Coimbra,  but  he  had  been  there  little 
more  than  a  year  when  he  was  received  into  the 
Society  of  Jesus  by  Fr.  Miron,  rector  of  the  Jesuit 
college  at  Coimbra.  At  the  dawn  of  the  Christian 
Renaissance,  when  St.  Ignatiu.s,  St.  Philip,  and  St. 
Teresa  were  founding  their  institutes,  even  then 
Gongalo  was  recognize*!  jis  a  youth  of  more  than  or- 
dinajy  promise. .  Fr.   Gon9aJq.  was  appointed   pro- 


SILVERIUS 


793 


SILVESTER 


vincial  of  India  in  1555.  The  appointment  was  ap- 
proved by  St.  Ignatius  a  few  months  before  his  death. 
Fr.  Gongalo's  term  of  government  in  India  lasted 
three  years.  He  proved  a  worthy  successor  of  St. 
Francis  Xavier,  who  had  left  India  in  1549,  and  his 
apostolic  labours  and  those  of  the  hundred  Jesuits 
under  him,  were  crowTied  with  much  success,  yet 
he  was  not  considered  the  perfect  model  of  a  superior. 
He  used  to  say  that  God  had  given  him  the  great 
grace  of  unsuitabihty  for  government — apparently 
a  certain  want  of  tact  in  dealing  with  human  weakness. 
The  new  provincial  Fr.  Antonio  de  Quadros  sent 
him  to  the  unexplored  mission  field  of  south-east 
Africa.  Landing  at  Sofala  on  11  March,  1560,  Fr. 
Gongalo  proceeded  to  Otongwe  near  Cape  Corrientes. 
There,  during  his  stay  of  seven  weeks,  he  instructed 
and  baptized  the  Makaranga  chief,  Gamba  and 
about  450  natives  of  his  kraal.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  year  he  started  up  the  Zambesi  on  his  expedition 
to  the  capital  of  the  Monomotapa  (q.  v.)  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  N'Pande  kraal,  close  by  the 
M'Zingesi  river,  a  southern  tributary  of  the  Zambesi. 
He  arrived  there  on  26  December,  1560,  and  remained 
until  his  death.  During  this  interval  he  baptized 
the  chief  and  a  large  number  of  his  subjects.  Mean- 
while some  Arabs  from  Mozambique,  in.stigated  by 
one  of  their  priests,  began  to  spread  calumnies  against 
the  missionaries,  and  Fr.  Silveira  was  strangled  in 
his  hut  by  order  of  the  chief.  The  expedition  sent 
to  avenge  his  death  never  reached  its  destination, 
while  his  apostolate  came  to  an  abrupt  end  from  a 
want  of  missionaries  to  carry  on  his  work. 

Chadwick,  Life  nf  the  Ven.  Gon^alo  Da  Silveira  (Roehampton, 
1910);  Theal,  Records  of  S.  E.  Africa,  printed  for  the  Govern- 
ment of  Cape  Colony,  VII  (1901) ;  Wilmot,  Monomotapa  (Lon- 
don, 189G). 

James  Kendal. 

Silverius,  Saint,  Poi^e  (536-37),  dates  of  birth 
and  death  unknown.  He  was  the  son  of  Pope  Hor- 
misdas  who  had  been  married  before  becoming  one  of 
the  higher  clergy.  Silverius  entered  the  service  of 
the  Church  and  was  subdeacon  at  Rome  when  Pope 
Agapetus  died  at  Constantinople,  22  April,  536.  The 
Empress  Theodora,  who  favoured  the  Monophysites 
sought  to  bring  about  the  election  as  pope  of  the 
Roman  deacon  Vigilius  who  was  then  at  Constanti- 
nople and  had  given  her  the  desired  guarantees  as  to 
the  Monophysites.  However,  Theodatus,  King  of 
the  Ostrogoths,  who  wished  to  prevent  the  election 
of  a  pope  connected  with  Constantinople,  forestalled 
her,  and  by  his  influence  the  subdeacon  Silverius  was 
chosen.  The  election  of  a  subdeacon  as  Bishop  of 
Rome  was  unusual.  Consequently,  it  is  easy  to 
understand  that,  as  the  author  of  the  first  part  of  the 
life  of  Silverius  in  the  "Liber  pontificalis"  (ed. 
Duchesne,  I,  210)  relates,  a  strong  opposition  to  it 
appeared  among  the  clerg>'.  This,  however,  was  sup- 
pressed by  Theodatus  so  that,  finally,  after  Silverius 
had  been  consecrated  bishop  (probably  on  8  June,  536) 
all  the  Roman  presbyters  gave  their  consent  in  writing 
to  his  elevation.  The  assertion  made  by  the  author 
just  mentioned  that  Silverius  secured  the  inter\'ention 
of  Theodatus  by  payment  of  money  is  unwarranted, 
and  is  to  be  explained  by  the  writer's  hostile  opinion  of 
the  pope  and  the  Goths.  The  author  of  the  second 
part  of  the  life  in  the  "Liber  pontificalis"  is  favour- 
ably inclined  to  Silverius.  The  pontificate  of  this 
pope  belongs  to  an  unsettled,  disorderly  period  and 
he  himself  fell  a  victim  to  the  intrigues  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Court. 

After  Silverius  had  become  pope  the  Empress 
Theodora  sought  to  win  him  for  the  Monophy- 
sites. She  desired  especially  to  have  him  enter  into 
communion  with  the  Monophysite  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, Anthimus,  who  had  been  excommuni- 
cated and  deposed  by  Agapetus,  and  with  Severus  of 
Antioch.     However,  the  pope  committed  himself  to 


nothing  and  Theodora  now  resolved  to  overthrow 
him  and  to  gain  the  papal  see  for  Vigilius.  Troub- 
lous times  befell  Rome  during  the  struggle  that  broke 
out  in  Italy  between  the  Ostrogoths  and  the  Byzan- 
tines after  the  death  of  Amalasuntha,  daughter  of 
Theodoric  the  Great.  The  Ostrogothic  king,  Vitiges, 
who  ascended  the  throne  in  August,  536,  besieged  the 
city.  The  churches  over  the  catacombs  outside  of 
the  city  were  devastated,  the  graves  of  the  martyrs  in 
the  catacombs  themselves  were  broken  open  and 
desecrated.  In  December,  536,  the  Byzantine  general 
Belisarius  garrisoned  Rome  and  was  received  by  the 
pope  in  a  friendly  and  courteous  manner.  Theodora 
sought  to  use  Belisarius  for  the  carrying  out  of  her 
plan  to  depose  Silyerius  and  to  put  in  his  place  the 
Roman  deacon  Vigilius  (q.  v.),  formerly  apocrisary  at 
Constantinople,  who  had  now  gone  to  Italy.  Anton- 
ina,  wife  of  BeUsarius,  influenced  her  husband  to  act 
as  Theodora  desired.  By  means  of  a  forged  letter 
the  pope  was  accused  of  a  treasonable  agreement  with 
the  Gothic  king  who  was  besieging  Rome.  It  was 
asserted  that  Silverius  had  offered  the  king  to  leave 
one  of  the  city  gates  secretly  open  so  as  to  permit  the 
Goths  to  enter.  Silverius  was  consequently  arrested 
in  March,  537,  roughly  stripped  of  his  episcopal  dress, 
given  the  clothing  of  a  monk  and  carried  off  to  exile 
in  the  East.  Vigilius  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Rome  in  his  stead. 

Silverius  was  taken  to  Lycia  where  he  was  sent  to 
reside  at  Patara.  The  Bishop  of  Patara  very  soon 
dis(!Overed  that  the  exiled  pope  was  innocent.  He 
journeyed  to  Constantinople  and  was  able  to  lay  be- 
fore the  Emperor  Justinian  such  proofs  of  the  inno- 
cence of  thee.xile  that  the  emperor  wrote  to  Belisarius 
commanding  a  new  investigation  of  the  matter. 
Should  it  turn  out  that  the  letter  concerning  the  al- 
leged plot  in  favour  of  the  Goths  was  forged,  Silverius 
should  be  placed  once  more  in  possession  of  the  papal 
see.  At  the  same  time  the  emperor  allowed  Silverius 
to  return  to  Italy,  and  the  latter  soon  entered  the 
country',  apparently  at  Naples.  However,  Vigilius 
arranged  to  take  charge  of  his  unlawfully  deposed 
predecessor.  He  evidently  acted  in  agreement  with 
the  Empress  Theodora  and  was  aided  by  Antonina, 
the  wife  of  Behsarius.  Silverius  was  taken  to  the 
Island  of  Palmaria  in  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  and  kept 
there  in  close  confinement.  Here  he  died  in  con- 
sequence of  the  privations  and  harsh  treatment  he 
endured.  The  year  of  his  death  is  unknown,  but  he 
probably  did  not  live  long  after  reaching  Palmaria. 
He  was  buried  on  the  island,  according  to  the  testi- 
mony of  the  "Liber  pontificalis"  on  20  June;  his  re- 
mains were  never  taken  from  Palmaria.  According 
to  the  same  witness  he  was  invoked  after  death  by  the 
believers  who  visited  his  grave.  In  later  times  he  was 
venerated  as  a  saint.  The  earliest  proof  of  this  is 
given  by  a  list  of  saints  of  the  eleventh  century 
(Melanges  d'archeologie  et  d'histoire,  1893,  169). 
The  "^lartyrologium"  of  Peter  de  NataUbus  of  the 
fourteenth  century  also  contains  his  feast,  which  is 
recorded  in  the  present  Roman  Martyrology  on  20 
June. 

Liber  pontificalis,  ed.  Duchesne,  I,  290-95;  Liberatus, 
Breviarium  causce  Nestorianorum  et  Eutychianorum,  XXII,  in 
P.  L.,  LXVIII,  1039  sq.;  Procopius,  De  hello  gothico,  I,  xxv; 
Acta  SS.,  June,  IV,  13-18;  Jaff^,  Regesta  pont.  rom.,  I,  2nd 
ed.,  115  sq.;  Lan'gen-,  Gesch.  der  romischen  Kirche,  II,  341  sqq.; 
Grisar,  Gesch.  Roms  u.  der  Pdpste,  I,  502-04,  and  passim; 
Hefele,  Konziliengesch.,  II,  2nd  ed.,  571. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Silvester.    See  Sylvester. 

Silvester,  Francis  (Ferrariensis),  theologian, 
b.  at  Ferrara  about  1474;  d.  at  Rennes,  19  Sept., 
1526.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  joined  the  Do- 
minican Order.  In  1516  he  was  made  a  master 
in  theology.  He  was  prior  first  in  his  native  city 
and  then  at  Bologna,  and  in  the  provincial  chap- 
ter held  at   Milan  in   1519  he  was  chosen  Vicar- 


SILVIA 


794 


SIMEON 


Greneral  of  the  Lombard  congregation  of  his  order. 
Having  discharged  this  office  for  the  alloted  term  of 
two  3'ears,  he  became  regent  of  the  college  at  Bologna, 
where  he  remained  for  a  considerable  time.  Later 
he  was  appointed  by  Clement  VII  vicar-general  of 
his  entire  order,  and  on  3  June,  1525,  in  the  general 
chapter  held  at  Rome,  he  was  elected  master  gen- 
eral. As  general  of  his  order  he  visited  nearlj'-  all  the 
convents  of  Italy,  France,  and  Belgium,  restoring 
everj'where  primitive  fervour  and  discipline.  He  was 
planning  to  begin  a  visitation  of  the  Spanish  convents, 
when  a  fatal  illness  carried  him  away.  Albert 
Leander,  his  travelling  companion,  tells  us  that  he 
was  a  man  of  remarkable  mental  endowments,  that 
nature  seemed  to  have  enriched  him  with  all  her 
gifts.  Silvester  \\TOte  many  splendid  works,  prin- 
cipal among  which  is  his  monumental  "  Commentarj' 
on  the  Summa  contra  Gentiles  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas" 
(Paris,  1552).  Worthy  of  special  mention  are  also 
his  explanations  of  various  books  of  Aristotle.  In 
his  "Apologia  de  convenientia  institutorum  Romanse 
Ecclesite  cum  evangelica  libertate"  (Rome,  1525), 
written  in  a  style  clear,  forceful  and  elegant,  he  ably 
defended  the  primacy  and  the  organization  of  the 
church  against  Luther.  Some  have  erroneously  at- 
tributed this  work  to  Silvester  Prierias. 

QuETiP-EcHARD,  Script.  Ord.  Prcrd.,  II,  .59  sq.;  Hdrter, 
Nomenclator. 

Charles  J.  Callan. 

Silvia,  Saint,  mother  of  Pope  St.  Gregory  the 
Great,  b.  about  515  (525?);  d.  about  592.  There  is 
unfortunately  no  life  of  Silvia  and  a  few  scanty  no- 
tices are  all  that  is  extant  concerning  her.  Her  na- 
tive place  is  sometimes  given  as  Sicily,  sometimes  as 
Rome.  Apparently  she  was  of  as  distinguished  fam- 
ily as  her  husband,  the  Roman  regionarius,  Gordi- 
anus.  She  had,  besides  Gregory,  a  second  son.  Sil- 
via was  noted  for  her  great  piety,  and  she  gave  her 
sons  an  excellent  education.  After  the  death  of  her 
husband  she  devoted  herself  entirely  to  religion  in  the 
"new  cell  by  the  gate  of  blessed  Paul"  (cella  nova 
juxta  portam  beati  PauU).  Gregory  the  Great  had  a 
mosaic  portrait  of  his  parents  executed  at  the  monas- 
terj'  of  St.  Andrew;  it  is  minutely  decribed  by  Jo- 
hannes Diaconus  (P.  L.,  LXXV,  229-30).  Silvia  was 
portrayed  sitting  with  the  face,  in  which  the  wrinkles 
of  age  could  not  extinguish  the  beauty,  in  full  view; 
the  eyes  were  large  and  blue,  and  the  expression  was 
gracious  and  animated.  The  veneration  of  Silvia  is 
of  early  date.  In  the  ninth  centur>'  an  oratory  was 
erected  over  her  former  dwelling,  near  the  Basilica  of 
San  Saba.  Pope  Clement  VIII  (1592-1605)  inserted 
her  name  under  3  November  in  the  Roman  Martyr- 
ology.  She  is  entreated  by  pregnant  women  for  a 
safe  delivery. 

Ada  SS.,  Nov.,  I,  658-62;  Wuescheb-Becchi,  Sulla  ricostru- 
zione  di  tre  dipinti  descritli  da  Giovanni  Diacono  ed  esistenti  al 
suo  tempo  (sec.  IX)  nel  convento  di  S.  Andrea  ad  clivum  Scauri  in 
Nuovo  Bulletino  di  archeologia  cristiana.  VI  (Rome,  1900),  233-51. 

Klemens  Loffler. 
Silvius,  Franciscus.    See  Sylvius. 

Simeon  ("ir^r) ,  the  second  son  of  Jacob  by  Lia  and 
patronymic  ancestor  of  the  Jewish  tribe  bearing  that 
name.  The  original  signification  of  the  name  is  un- 
known, but  the  wTiter  of  Gen.,  xxix,  33-35,  according 
to  his  wont,  offers  an  explanation,  deriving  the  word 
from  Hhama,  "to  hear".  He  quotes  Lia  as  saying: 
"Because  the  Lord  heard  that  I  was  despised,  he  hath 
given  this  also  to  me;  and  she  called  his  name  Sim- 
eon" (Gen.,  xxix,  33).  Similar  etymologies  referring 
to  Levi  and  Juda  arc  found  in  the  two  following 
verses.  In  Gen.,  xxxiv,  Simeon  appears  with  his  full 
brother  lycvi  aa  the  avenger  of  their  sister  Dina  who 
had  been  humiliated  by  Hemor  a  prince  of  the  Sichem- 
itcs.  By  a  strange  subterfuge  all  the  men  of  th(!  lat- 
ter tribe  are  rendered  helpless  and  are  slaughtered  by 
the  two  irate  brothers  who  then,  together  with  the 


other  sons  of  the  patriarch,  plunder  the  city.  This 
act  of  violence  was  blamed  by  Jacob  (Gen.,  xxxiv,  30), 
though  for  a  rather  selfish  reason;  his  disapproval  on 
more  ethical  grounds  appears  in  the  prophetical  bless- 
ing of  his  twelve  sons  in  Gen.,  xlix,  5-7.  Regarding 
Simeon  and  Levi  Jacob  says:  "Cursed  be  their  fury, 
because  it  was  stubborn;  and  their  wrath  because  it 
was  cruel:  I  will  divide  them  in  Jacob,  and  will  scat- 
ter them  in  Israel. " 

There  is  a  striking  contrast  between  this  earlier  ap- 
preciation of  the  treacherous  and  bloody  deed  and 
that  of  the  writers  of  post-Exilic  Judaism,  who  have 
only  words  of  praise  for  the  action  of  the  two  brothers, 
and  even  consider  them  as  incited  to  it  by  Divine  in- 
spiration (see  Judith,  ix,  2,  3).  The  same  change  of 
ethical  sense  may  be  gathered  more  fully  from  the  un- 
canonical  Book  of  the  Jubilees  (xxx)  and  from  a  poem 
in  commemoration  of  the  massacre  of  the  Sichemites 
by  Theodotus,  a  Jewish  or  Samaritan  writer,  who 
lived  about  200  b.  c.  Simeon  figures  in  only  one  other 
incident  recorded  in  Genesis.  It  is  in  connexion  with 
the  visit  of  the  sons  of  Jacob  to  Egypt  to  buy  corn. 
Here  he  is  detained  by  Joseph  as  a  hostage  while  the 
others  return  to  Chanaan  promising  to  bring  back 
their  younger  brother  Benjamin  (Gen.,  xlii,  25).  Ac- 
cording to  some  commentators  he  was  selected  for  this 
purpose  because  he  had  been  a  principal  factor  in  the 
betrayal  of  Joseph  into  the  hands  of  the  Madianite 
merchants.  The  narrative,  however,  makes  no  men- 
tion of  this,  and  it  is  but  a  conjectural  inference  from 
what  is  otherwise  known  of  Simeon's  violent  and 
treacherous  character.     (See  Simeon,  Tribe  of.) 

Von  Hummelauer,  Comment,  in  Genesim  (Commentary  on 
chapters  xxix,  xxxiv,  xlii  and  xlix) ;  Vigourodx,  Diet,  de  la  Bible, 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Simeon,  Holy,  the  "just  and  devout"  man  of 
Jerusalem  who  according  to  the  narrative  of  St. 
Luke,  greeted  the  infant  Saviour  on  the  occasion  of 
His  presentation  in  the  Temple  (Luke  ii,  25-35).  He 
was  one  of  the  pious  Jews  who  were  waiting  for  the 
"consolation  of  Israel"  and,  though  advanced  in 
years,  he  had  received  a  premonition  from  the  Holy 
Ghost,  Who  was  in  him,  that  he  would  not  die  before 
he  had  seen  the  expected  Messias.  This  promise 
was  fulfilled  when  through  guidance  of  the  Spirit 
he  came  to  the  Temple  on  the  day  of  the  Presentation, 
and  taking  the  Child  Jesus  in  his  arms,  he  uttered  the 
Canticle  "Nunc  dimittis"  (q.  v.)  (Luke,  ii,  29-32), 
and  after  blessing  the  Holy  Family  he  proi)hesicd 
concerning  the  Child,  Who  "is  set  for  the  fall,  and  for 
the  resurrection  of  many  in  Israel",  and  regarding 
the  mother  whose  "soul  a  sword  shall  pierce,  that, 
out  of  many  hearts,  thoughts  may  be  revealed".  Aa 
in  the  case  of  other  personages  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  the  name  of  Simeon  has  been  connected 
with  untrustworthy  legends,  viz.,  that  he  was  a  rabbi, 
the  son  of  Hillel  and  the  father  of  Gamaliel  mentioned 
in  Acts,  v,  34.  These  distinguished  relationships  are 
hardly  compatible  with  the  simple  reference  of  St. 
Luke  to  Simeon  as  "a  man  in  .Jerusalem".  With  like 
reserve  may  we  look  upon  the  legend  of  the  two  sons 
of  Simeon,  Charinus,  and  Leucius,  as  set  forth  in  the 
apocryphal  gospel  of  Nicodemus. 

VioounoDX,  Dictionnaire  de  la  Rihlr,  s.  v. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Simeon  of  Durham  (Symeon),  chronicler,  d.  14 
Oct.,  between  1130  and  11.38.  As  a  youth  he  had 
entered  the  Ben(>dictine  monastery  at  Jarrow  which 
was  removed  to  Durham  in  1074,  and  he  was  pro- 
fessed in  10H5  or  lOSfi,  subsequently  attaining  the 
office  of  precentor.  His  chief  work  is  the  "Historia 
ecclesia;  Dunelmensis",  written  between  1104  and 
1108,  giving  the  history  of  the  bishopric  down  to 
1096.  He  also  wrote  "Historia  regum  Anglorum  et 
Dacorum"  (from  732  to  1129).     The  first  part  down 


SIMEON 


795 


SIMEON 


to  957  is  based  on  a  northern  annalist  who  made  large 
use  of  Asser;  the  next  part,  to  1119,  follows  Florence 
of  Worcester;  the  remainder  is  an  original  composi- 
tion. Simeon's  authorship  of  this  work  was  vin- 
dicated by  Rudd  (in  1732)  against  Bale  and  Selden. 
He  wrote  some  minor  works  including  "Epistola  ad 
Hugonem  de  archiepiscopis  Eboraci,"  written  about 
1130,  and  some  letters  now  lost. 

Symeonis  Dunelmensis  opera  omnia,  ed.  Arnold  with  valuable 
introduction  in  Rolls  Series  (2  vols.,  London,  1882-5) ;  Symeonis 
Dunelmensis  opera  et  collectanea,  containing  everything  ever  as- 
cribed to  him  except  the  Historia  ecclesias  Dunelmensis,  ed.  with 
introduction  by  Hinde  in  Surtees  Soc,  LI  (Durham,  1868); 
Historical  Works  of  Simeon  of  Durham,  tr.  with  preface  and  notes 
by  Stevenson  (London,  1855);  Hardy,  Descriptive  Catalogue 
of  British  History  (London,  1862-71);  Chevalier,  Repertoire 
des  sources  historiques  du  moyen  Age  (Paris,  1905),  with  list  of 
earlier  references,  s.  v.  Simon. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Simeon  Stylites  the  Elder,  Saint,  was  the  first 
and  probably  the  most  famous  of  the  long  succession 
of  stylitcp, or  "pillar-hermits",  who  during  more  than 
six  centuries  acquired  by  their  strange  form  of  ascetic- 
ism a  great  reputation  for  holiness  throughout  eastern 
Christendom.  If  it  were  not  that  our  information,  in 
the  case  of  the  first  St.  Simeon  and  some  of  his  imita- 
tors, is  based  upon  very  reliable  first-hand  evidence, 
we  should  be  disposed  to  relegate  much  of  what  his- 
tory records  to  the  domain  of  fable;  but  no  modern 
critic  now  ventures  to  dispute  the  reality  of  the  feats 
of  endurance  attributed  to  these  ascetics.  Simeon 
the  Elder,  was  born  about  388  at  Sisan,  near  the  north- 
ern border  of  Syria.  After  beginning  life  as  a  shep- 
herd boy,  he  entered  a  monastery  before  the  age  of 
sixteen,  and  from  the  first  gave  himself  up  to  the 
practice  of  an  austerity  so  extreme  and  to  all  appear- 
ance so  extravagant,  that  his  brethren  judged  him, 
perhaps  not  unwi.sely,  to  be  unsuited  to  any  form  of 
community  life.  Being  forced  to  quit  them  he  shut 
himself  up  for  three  years  in  a  hut  at  Tell-Neschin, 
where  for  the  first  time  he  passed  the  whole  of  Lent 
without  eating  or  drinking.  This  afterwards  became 
his  regular  practice,  and  he  combined  it  with  the  mor- 
tification of  standing  continually  upright  so  long  as  his 
limbs  would  sustain  him.  In  his  later  days  he  was 
able  to  stand  t  hus  on  his  column  without  support  for 
the  whole  period  of  the  fast.  After  three  years  in  his 
hut,  Simeon  sought  a  rocky  eminence  in  the  desert  and 
compelled  hiiiisclf  to  remain  a  ])ris()ner  within  a  nar- 
row space  l(>ss  tlian  twenty  yai'ds  in  diameter.  But 
crowds  of  ])ilgriiiis  invaded  tlic  desert  to  seek  him  out, 
asking  liis  counsel  or  his  prayers,  and  leaving  him  in- 
sufficient time  for  liisowii  devotions.  This  at  last  de- 
termined him  to  ado))!  a  new  way  of  life.  Simeon  had 
a  pillar  erected  with  a  small  ])latf()rm  at  the  top,  and 
upon  this  he  determined  lo  t;ike  u))  his  abode  until 
death  released  him.  At  first  the  ])illar  was  little  more 
than  nine  feet  high,  but  it  was  subsequently  replaced 
by  others,  the  last  in  the  series  being  apparently  over 
fifty  feet  from  the  ground.  However  extravagant 
this  way  of  life  may  seem,  it  undoubtedly  produced  a 
deep  impression  on  contemporaries,  and  the  fame  of 
the  ascetic  spread  through  Europe,  Rome  in  particular 
being  remarkable  for  the  large  number  of  pictures  of 
the  saint  which  were  there  to  be  seen,  a  fact  which  a 
modern  writer,  Holl,  represents  as  a  factor  of  great 
importance  in  the  development  of  image  worship  (see 
the  Philotesia  in  honour  of  P.  Kleinert,  p.  42-48). 
Even  on  the  highest  of  his  columns  Simeon  was  not 
withdrawn  from  intercourse  with  his  fellow  men.  By 
means  of  a  ladder  which  could  always  be  erected 
against  the  side,  visitors  were  able  to  ascend;  and  we 
know  that  he  wrote  letters,  the  text  of  some  of  which 
we  still  po.ssess,  that  he  instructed  disciples,  and  that 
he  also  delivered  addresses  to  those  assembled  be- 
neath. Around  tlie  tiny  platform  which  surmounted 
the  capital  of  the  pillar  there  was  probably  something 
in  the  nature  of  a  balustrade,  but  the  whole  was  ex- 
posed to  the  open  air,  and  Simeon  seems  never  to  have 


permitted  himself  any  sort  of  cabin  or  shelter.  During 
his  earlier  years  upon  the  column  there  was  on  the  sum- 
mit a  stake  to  which  he  bound  himself  in  order  to 
maintain  the  upright  position  throughout  Lent,  but 
this  was  an  alleviation  with  which  he  afterwards  dis- 
pensed. Great  personages,  such  as  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  and  the  Empress  Eudocia  manifested  the 
utmost  reverence  for  the  saint  and  listened  to  his 
courisels,  while  the  Emperor  Leo  paid  respectful  at- 
tention to  a  letter  Simeon  wrote  to  him  in  favour  of 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  Once  when  he  was  ill 
Theodosius  sent  three  bishops  to  beg  him  to  descend 
and  allow  himself  to  be  attended  by  physicians,  but  the 
sick  man  preferred  to  leave  his  cure  in  the  hands  of 
God,  and  before  long  he  recovered.  After  spending 
thirty-six  years  on  his  pillar,  Simeon  died  on  Friday, 
2  Sept.,  459  (Lietzmann,  p.  235).  A  contest  arose  be- 
tween Antioch  and  Constantinople  for  the  possession  of 
his  remains.  The  preference  was  given  to  Antioch,  and 
the  greater  part  of  his  relics  were  left  there  as  a  pro- 
tection to  the  unwalled  city.  The  ruins  of  the  vast 
edifice  erected  in  his  honour  and  known  as  Qal  'at 
Sim  'an  (the  mansion  of  Simeon)  remain  to  the  pres- 
ent day.  It  consists  of  four  basilicas  built  out  from  an 
octagonal  court  towards  the  four  points  of  the  compass. 
In  the  centre  of  the  court  stands  the  base  of  St.  Sim- 
eon's column.  This  edifice,  says  H.  C.  Butler,  "un- 
questionably influenced  contemporary  and  later 
church  building  to  a  marked  degree"  (Architecture 
and  other  Arts,  p.  184).  It  seems  to  have  been  a  su- 
preme effort  of  a  provincial  school  of  architecture 
which  had  borrowed  little  from  Constantinople. 

St.  Simeon's  life  is  principally  known  to  us  from  an  account  by 
Theodoret,  who  was  a  contemporary;  also  from  the  biography 
of  a  disciple  Antonius  and  from  a  more  or  less  independent  Syriac 
source.  All  these  materials  have  been  edited  by  Lietzmann  in 
Harnack  and  Gebhardt,  Texte  und  Untersuchungen,  XXXII 
(Berlin,  1906),  no.  4;  Acta  SS.,  Jan.,  I,  234-74.  See  also  De- 
lehaye  in  Revue  des  questions  historiques,  LVII  (1895),  52- 
103;  Stokes  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biog.,  s.  v.,  Simeon  (12)  Stylites; 
Holl  in  Philotesia  P.  Kleinert  zum  70.  Geburtstag  (Leipzig, 
1907).  Upon  the  architecture  of  Qal  'at  Sim  'An  see  Butler, 
Architecture  and  other  Arts  of  Syria  (New  York,  1904),  184-93; 
DE  VootJE,  Syrie  centrale,  I  (Paris,  1885),  141-54;  Jdllien, 
Sinai  et  Syrie  (Lille,  1893);  246-61;  Leclercq  in  Cabrol,  Diet, 
d'arch.  chret.  I,  2380-88. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Simeon  Stylites  the  Younger,  Saint,  b.  at  Anti- 
och in  521,  d.  at  the  same  place  24  May,  597.  His 
father  was  a  native  of  Edessa,  his  mother,  named 
Martha  was  afterwards  revered  as  a  saint  and  a  life  of 
her,  which  incorporates  a  letter  of  her  son  written  from 
his  pillar  to  Thomas,  the  guardian  of  the  true  cross  at 
Jerusalem,  has  been  printed.  Like  his  namesake,  the 
first  Stylites,  Simeon  seems  to  have  been  drawn  very 
young  to  a  life  of  austerity.  He  attached  himself  to  a 
community  of  ascetics  living  within  the  mandra  or 
enclosure  of  another  pillar-hermit,  named  John,  who 
acted  as  their  spiritual  director.  Simeon  while  still 
only  a  boy  had  a  pillar  erected  for  himself  close  to  that 
of  John.  It  is  Simeon  himself  who  in  the  above-men- 
tioned letter  to  Thomas  states  that  he  was  living  upon 
a  pillar  when  he  lost  his  first  teeth.  He  maintained 
this  kind  of  life  for  68  years.  In  the  course  of  this 
period,  however,  he  several  times  moved  to  a  new 
pillar,  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  first  of  these  ex- 
changes the  Patriarch  of  Antioch  and  the  Bishop  of 
Seleucia  ordained  him  deacon  during  the  short  space 
of  time  he  spent  upon  the  ground.  For  eight  years 
until  John  died,  Simeon  remained  near  his  master's 
column,  so  near  that  they  could  easily  converse. 
During  this  period  his  austerities  were  kept  in  some 
sort  of  check  by  the  older  hermit. 

After  John's  death  Simeon  gave  full  rein  to  his  as- 
cetical  practices  and  Evagrius  declares  that  he  lived 
only  upon  the  branches  of  a  shrub  that  grew  near 
Theopolis.  Simeon  the  younger  was  ordained  priest 
and  was  thus  able  to  offer  the  Holy  Sacrifice  in  mem- 
ory of  his  mother.  On  such  occasions  his  disciples 
one  after  another  climbed  up  the  ladder  to  receive 


SIMLA 


796 


SIMONE 


Communion  at  his  hands.  As  in  the  case  of  most  of 
the  other  pillar  saints  a  large  number  of  miracles  were 
beheved  to  have  been  worked  bj'  Simeon  the  Younger. 
In  several  instances  the  cure  was  effected  by  pictures 
representing  him  (Holl  in  "  Philotesia",  56).  Towards 
the  close  of  his  hfe  the  saint  occupied  a  column  upon  a 
mountain-side  near  Antioch  called  from  his  miracles 
the  "Hill  of  Wonders",  and  it  was  here  that  he  died. 
Besides  the  letter  mentioned,  several  wTitings  are  at- 
tributed to  the  younger  Simeon.  A  number  of  these 
small  spiritual  tractates  were  printed  by  Cozza-Luzi 
("Xova  PP.  Bib.",  VIII,  iii,  Rome,  1871,  pp.  4-156). 
There  is  also  an  "Apocah-pse"  and  letters  to  the  Em- 
perors Justinian  and  Justin  II  (see  fragments  in  P.  G., 
LXXXVI,  pt.  II,  3216-20).  More  especially  Si- 
meon was  the  reputed  author  of  a  certain  number  of 
liturgical  hvmns,  "Troparis",  etc.  (see  P6trides  in 
"Echos  d'Orient",  1901  and  1902). 

Simeon  Styhtes  III,  another  pillar  hermit,  who  also 
bore  the  name  Simeon,  is  honoured  by  both  the  Greeks 
and  the  Copts.  He  is  hence  believed  to  have  lived  in 
in  the  fifth  century  before  the  breach  which  occurred 
between  these  Churches.  But  it  must  be  confessed 
that  very  little  certain  is  known  of  him.  He  is  be- 
heved to  have  been  struck  by  lightning  upon  his  pil- 
lar, built  near  Hegca  in  Cicilia. 

There  is  a  long  and  drearj'  life  of  St.  Simeon  the  Younger  by 
Nicephonis  of  Antioch,  but  we  learn  more  from  the  Life  of  St. 
Martha,  his  mother,  and  from  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Eva- 
GRius.  All  these  have  been  printed  by  the  BoUandists,  Acta 
SS.,  May,  V,  29&-^.31;  fragments  of  a  Biography  by  Arca- 
DIC9  have  been  published  by  Papadopclos  Keramec8  in  Vivan- 
tisky  Vremennik  (1894),  141-150  and  601-604.  See  also  All.*^thj8, 
De  Simeonum  scriptis  {Paris,  1864),  17-22;  Krumbacher.  (?esc/i. 
der  ByzarU.  Lift.  (2nd  ed..  Munich,  1897).  144-145  and  671; 
Philotesia  P.  Kleinert  zum  70  Geburtslag  (Leipzig,  1907). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Simla,  Archdiocese  of,  in  India,  a  new  creation  of 
Pius  X  by  a  Decree  dated  13  September,  1910, 
formed  by  dividing  off  certain  portions  of  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Agra  and  of  the  Dioce.se  of  Lahore.  By 
this  arrangement  the  following  places  fall  within  the 
territory  of  the  new  archdiocese:  Simla,  the  metro- 
pohtan  city,  where  the  Church  of  Sts.  Michael  and 
Joseph  has  been  adopted  as  the  pro-cathedral,  Am- 
bala,  Higsar,  Karmal,  Patiala,  Nabha,  Sind,  Loharu, 
and  Maler  Kotla,  taken  from  the  Archdiocese  of  Agra; 
and  Mandi,  Suket,  Kulu,  Lahul  and  Spiti,  taken  from 
the  Dioce.se  of  Lahore.  As  yet  the  appointment  of 
suffragans  has  been  reserved  to  the  future  by  the  Holy 
See.  As  the  two  more  ancient  dioceses  are  confided 
respectively  to  the  Italian  and  Belgian  Franciscans  of 
the  Capuchin  Reform,  so  the  new  archdiocese  has 
been  given  to  the  care  of  the  same  Fathers  of  the  Eng- 
lish province.  The  fir.st  archbishop  appointed  is  the 
Most  Rev.  An.selm  E.  J.  Kenealy  who,  as  Father 
Anselm,  O.S.F.C,  was  well  known  in  England  as  a 
lector  in  logic  and  metaphysics,  guardian  of  Crawley 
monastery  in  Sussex,  a  momlxT  of  the  (Oxford  Union 
Society,  and  provincial  of  the  Enghsh  province,  before 
being  called  to  Rome  as  definitor  general  of  the  order. 
Consecrated  on  1  Jan.,  1911,  at  Rome  by  Cardinal 
Gotti,  a.ssistcd  by  the  Archbishop  of  Westminster  and 
Archbi.shop  Jacquet,  after  visit  lug  England  to  select 
some  Fathers  of  the  EnglisJi  i)r(>vince  to  accompany 
him,  he  sailed  for  India  on  18  April,  and  was  w(!l- 
comed  with  an  imposing  public  reception  on  his  arrival 
at  Simla  on  8  May. 

The  stations  with  resident  clergy  are:  Simla,  Am- 
balla,  Dagshai,  Casauli,  and  Subathu.  The  stations 
visitefl  are:  Jutogh,  Solon,  stations  on  the  Kalka- 
Simla  railway  and  Kalka,  Karnal,  Patiala,  Rajpura, 
Sirsa,  and  Gind.  The  principal  educational  estab- 
hshmenls  in  the  new  archdiocese  are  at  Simla  and 
Amballa.  At  Simla  the  Nuns  of  Jr^sus  and  Mary 
(eslablishefl  in  1804)  have  some  of  the  best  schools  in 
India  for  orphans,  boarders,  and  the  training  of 
teachers.  The  I>oreto  Nuns  at  Tara  Hall,  Simla 
(estabhshed  in  1895),  have  also  first-class  schools  for 


boarders  and  day-scholars.  There  is  a  private  school 
for  boys  under  the  care  of  the  Capuchin  Fathers  at 
Simla. 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 

Simon,  Saint  and  Apostle. — The  name  of  Simon 
occurs  in  all  the  passages  of  the  Gospel  and  Acts, 
in  which  a  hst  of  the  Apostles  is  given.  To  dis- 
tinguish him  from  St.  Peter  he  is  called  (Matt.,  x, 
4;  Mark,  iii,  18)  Kananaios  (Arava^/atos),  or  Kananites 
(Kavavlrrjs) ,  and  Zelotes  (fijXtoT-^j;  Luke,  vi,  15; 
Acts,  i,  13).  Both  surnames  have  the  same  significa- 
tion and  are  a  translation  of  the  Hebrew  qand  (the 
Zealous) .  The  name  does  not  signify  that  he  belonged 
to  the  party  of  Zealots,  but  that  he  had  zeal  for  the 
Jemsh  law,  which  practised  before  his  call.  Jerome 
and  others  wrongly  assume  that  Kana  was  his  native 
place;  were  this  so,  he  should  have  been  called 
Kanaios.  The  Greeks,  Copts,  and  Ethiopians 
identify  him  wdth  Nathanael  of  Cana;  the  first- 
mentioned  also  identify  him  with  the  bridegroom  at 
the  marriage  of  Cana,  while  in  the  "Chronicon 
paschale"  and  elsewhere  he  is  identified  with  Simon 
Clopas.  The  Abyssinians  accordingly  relate  that  he 
suffered  crucifixion  as  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  after 
he  had  preached  the  Gospel  in  Samaria.  Where  he 
actually  preached  the  Gospel  is  uncertain.  Almost 
all  the  lands  of  the  then  knowm  world,  even  as  far 
as  Britain,  have  been  mentioned;  according  to  the 
Greeks,  he  preached  on  the  Black  Sea,  in  Egypt, 
Northern  Africa,  and  Britain,  while,  according  to 
the  Latin  "Passio  Simonis  et  Juda?",  the  author  of 
which  was  (Lipsius  maintains)  sufficiently  familiar 
with  the  history  of  the  Parthian  Empire  in  the  firct 
century,  Simon  laboured  in  Persia,  and  was  there 
martyred  at  Suanir.  However,  Suanir  is  probably 
to  be  sought  in  Colchis.  According  to  Moses  of 
Chorene,  Simon  met  his  death  in  Weriosphora  in 
Iberia;  according  to  the  Georgians,  he  preached  in 
Colchis.  His  place  of  burial  is  unknown.  Con- 
cerning his  relics  our  information  is  as  uncertain  as 
concerning  his  preaching.  From  Babylon  to  Rome 
and  Toulouse  we  find  traces  of  them;  at  Rome  they 
are  venerated  under  the  Altar  of  the  Crucifixion  in 
the  Vatican.  His  usual  attribute  is  the  saw,  since 
his  body  is  said  to  have  been  sawed  to  pieces,  and 
more  rarely  the  lance.  He  is  regarded  as  the  patron 
of  tanners.  In  the  Western  Church  he  is  venerated 
together  with  Jude  (Thadda^us);  in  the  East  sep- 
arately. The  Western  Church  keeps  his  feast  on 
28  October;   the  Greeks  and  Copts  on  10  May. 

Acta  SS.,  Oct.,  XII,  421-.36;  Lipsius,  Die  apokryphen  Apoa- 
ielgeschichten  (Brunswick,  1883-90),  1, 117-8;  II,  2,  142-200;  Bibl. 
hagiogr.  latina  (Brussels,  1898-1900),  1122;  Bibl.  hag.  grwca  (2nd 
ed..  Brussels,  1909),  231. 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Simon.    See  Peter,  Saint. 

Simon,  Richard.  See  Criticism,  Biblical;  In- 
troduction, Biblical. 

Simone  da  Orsenigo,  a  Lombard  architect  and 
builder  of  the  fourteenth  century  whose  memory  is 
chiefly  connected  with  the  catlieihal  of  Milan  in  the 
cour.se  of  its  erection.  He  was  prohalily  a  native  of 
the  town  of  Onsenigo  in  the  district  of  Como.  His  name 
is  inscribed  in  1387  on  the  list  of  masters  of  work 
at  the  Duomo,  immediately  after  that  of  Marco  da 
Campione,  who  heatls  his  associates,  and  it  appears 
subsequently  alternately  with  that  of  Nicolas  Bona- 
venturc  of  Paris.  Orsenigo  is  styled  insegnerius. 
Another  master  of  the  same  name,  Paolino  Orsenigo, 
was  likewise  employed  upon  the  works  of  the  cathedral 
in  1400  under  the  tit  le  of  viaqi>iier  a  lignnnimc,  perhaps 
master  of  the  scaffolding. 

Naoi.f.k,  KilnxHir  Lexicon  (Munich,  1841);  Cicoonara, 
Sloria  <Mla  SruUura  (Venice.  1853);  Perkins,  Italian  Sculptors 
(London.  1868).  ,,     ^      ,^ 

M.  L.  Handley. 


SIMONIANS 


797 


SIMON 


Simonians,  a  Gnostic,  Antinomian  sect  of  the  second 
century  which  regarded  Simon  Magus  as  its  founder 
and  which  traced  its  doctrines  back  to  him.  The 
Simonians  are  mentioned  by  Hegesippus  (in  Euse- 
bius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  IV,  xxii);  their  doctrines  are 
quoted  and  opposed  in  connexion  with  Simon  Magus 
by  Irenaeus  ("Adv.  haer.",  I,  xxiii),  by  the  "Philo- 
sophumena"  (VI,  ix-xx;  X,  xii),  and  later  by  Epi- 
phanius  ("Haer.'',  xxii).  In  the  " Philosophumena " 
Simon's  doctrine  is  described  according  to  his  reputed 
work,  "The  Great  Declaration";  it  is  evident  that 
we  have  here  the  doctrinal  opinions  of  the  Simonians 
as  they  had  developed  in  the  second  century.  Ac- 
cording to  these  there  was  a  perfect,  eternal  ungener- 
ated  being  (fire),  that  contained  an  invisible,  hidden 
element  and  a  visible,  manifest  element;  the  hidden 
is  concealed  in  the  manifest;  the  action  of  both  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  intelligible  and  the  sensible 
in  Plato.  From  that  which  remains  concealed  of  the 
ungenerated  being  six  roots  (powers)  emanated  in 
pairs  and  these  pairs  correspond  at  the  same  time 
to  heaven  and  earth,  sun  and  moon,  air  and  water. 
In  their  potentiality  is  contained  the  entire  power. 
This  unlimited  power  is  the  "Standing  One"  (eo-rws), 
the  seventh  root  (power)  corresponding  to  the  seventh 
day  after  the  six  days  of  creation.  This  seventh 
power  existed  before  the  world,  it  is  the  Spirit  of  God 
that  moved  upon  the  face  of  the  waters  (Gen.,  i,  2). 
When  it  does  not  remain  in  the  six  roots  (in  poten- 
tiality), but  is  actually  developed  in  the  world,  it  is 
then  in  substance,  magnitude,  and  perfection  the  same 
as  the  unlimited  power  of  the  ungenerated  being 
(pantheistic  emanation).  As  the  female  side  of  the 
original  being  appears  the  "thought"  or  "conception" 
(evpoia),  which  is  the  mother  of  the  ajons.  The 
"Standing  One"  is  regarded  as  containing  both 
sexes.  The  first  six  "powers"  are  followed  by  other 
less  important  emanations:  archangels,  angels,  the 
demiurge  who  fashions  the  world,  who  is  also  the 
God  of  the  Jews.  The  jealousy  of  the  inferior 
spirits  seems  to  have  forced  the  "Ennoia"  to  take 
female  forms  and  to  migrate  from  one  body  into  an- 
other, until  Simon  Magus,  the  great  power  sent  forth 
by  the  original  being,  discovered  her  in  Helena  and 
released  her.  The  deliverance  was  wrought  by  his 
being  recognized  as  the  highest  power  of  God,  the 
"Standing  One".  Men  are  also  saved  by  accepting 
Simon's  doctrine,  by  recognizing  him  as  the  great 
power  of  God.  The  Old  Testament  and  its  law,  by 
which  mankind  was  only  brought  into  bondage,  was 
opposed  (antinomianism)  as  the  work  of  the  inferior 
god  of  the  Jews  (the  Demiurge).  The  Simonians 
used  magic  and  theurgy,  incantations,  and  love- 
potions;  they  declared  idolatry  a  matter  of  indiffer- 
ence that  was  neither  good  nor  bad,  proclaimed 
fornication  to  be  perfect  love,  and  led  very  disor- 
derly, immoral  lives.  In  general,  they  regarded  noth- 
ing in  itself  as  good  or  bad  by  nature.  It  was  not 
good  works  that  made  men  blessed,  in  the  next  world, 
but  the  grace  bestowed  by  Simon  and  Helena  on 
those  who  united  with  them.  The  Simonians 
venerated  and  worshipped  Simon  under  the  image  of 
Zeus,  and  Helena  under  that  of  Athene.  The  sect 
flourished  in  Syria,  in  various  districts  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  at  Rome.  In  the  third  century  remnants  of  it 
still  existed  (Origen,  "Contra  Gels.",  I,  57;  VI,  11), 
which  survived  until  the  fourth  century.  Eusebius 
("Hist,  eccl.",  II,  xiii)  calls  the  Simonians  the  most 
immoral  and  depraved  of  mankind.  Closely  con- 
nected with  them  were  the  Dositheans  and  Men- 
andrians,  who  should  be  regarded  probably  as 
branches  of  the  Simonians.  Their  names  came  from 
Dositheus  and  Meander,  of  whom  the  first,  a  Samari- 
tan, was  originally  the  teacher  and  then  the  pupil 
of  Simon  Magus,  while  Menander  was  a  pupil  and, 
after  Simon's  death,  his  most  important  successor. 
Dositheus  is  said  to  have  opposed  antinomianism, 


that  is,  the  rejection  of  Old  Testament  law.  As  late 
as  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  Eulogius  of 
Alexandria  (in  Photius,  "Bibliotheca  cod.",  230) 
opposed  Dositheans  who  regarded  Dositheus  as  the 
great  prophet  foretold  by  Moses.  Dositheus  died 
a  tragic  death  from  starvation  ("Pseudo-Clemen. 
Recognitions,"  I,  57,  72;  II,  11;  Origen,  "Contra 
Cels.",  I,  57;  VI,  11;  "De  principiis",  IV,  17;  "In 
Matth.  Comm.",  XXXII,  P.  L.,  XIII,  1643;  "In 
Luc.  Horn.",  XXV,  ibid.,  1866;  Epiphanius,  "Ha;r.", 
XX).  Like  Simon,  Menander  also  proclaimed  him- 
self to  be  the  one  sent  of  God,  the  Messias.  In 
the  same  way  he  taught  the  creation  of  the  world 
by  angels  who  were  sent  by  the  Ennoia.  He  asserted 
that  men  received  immortality  and  the  resurrection 
by  his  baptism  and  practised  magical  arts.  The 
sect  named  after  him,  the  Menandrians,  continued 
to  exist  for  a  considerable  length  of  time. 

See  the  bibliography  to  Simon  Magus. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Simon  Magus. — According  to  the  testimony  of  St. 
Justin  ("First  Apolog.",  xxvi),  whose  statement  as  to 
this  should  probably  be  beheved,  Simon  came  from 
Gitta  (in  the  Pseudo-Clementine  Homihes,  II,  xxii, 
called  (rfTdwv)  in  the  country  of  the  Samaritans.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  persecution  (c.  37  a.  d.)  of  the 
early  Christian  community  at  Jerusalem  that  began 
with  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen,  when  Philip  the 
Deacon  went  from  Jerusalem  to  Samaria,  Simon  lived 
in  the  latter  city.  By  his  magic  arts,  because  of 
which  he  was  called  "Magus",  and  by  his  teachings 
in  which  he  announced  himself  as  the  "gi'eat  power  of 
God",  he  had  made  a  name  for  himself  and  had  won 
adherents.  He  hstened  to  Philip's  sermons,  was  im- 
pressed by  them,  and  like  many  of  his  countrymen 
was  baptized  and  united  with  the  community  of  be- 
lievers in  Christ.  But,  as  was  evident  later,  his  con- 
version was  not  the  result  of  the  inner  conviction  of 
faith  in  Christ  as  the  Redeemer,  but  rather  from  sel- 
fish motives,  for  he  hoped  to  gain  greater  magical 
power  and  thus  to  increase  his  influence.  For  when 
the  Apostles  Peter  and  John  came  to  Samaria  to  be- 
stow on  the  believers  baptized  by  Philip  the  outpour- 
ing of  the  Spirit  which  was  accompanied  by  miracu- 
lous manifestations,  Simon  offered  them  money,  de- 
siring them  to  grant  him  what  he  regarded  as  magical 
power,  so  that  he  also  by  the  laying  on  of  hands  could 
bestow  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  thereby  produce  such 
miraculous  results.  Full  of  indignation  at  such  an 
offer  Peter  rebuked  him  sharply,  exhorted  him  to  pen- 
ance and  conversion  and  warned  him  of  the  wicked- 
ness of  his  conduct.  Under  the  influence  of  Peter's 
rebuke  Simon  begged  the  Apostles  to  pray  for  him 
(Acts,  viii,  9-29).  However,  according  to  the  unani- 
mous report  of  the  authorities  of  the  second  century, 
he  persisted  in  his  false  views.  The  ecclesiastical 
writers  of  the  early  Church  universallj'  represent  him 
as  the  first  heretic,  the  "Father  of  Heresies". 

Simon  is  not  mentioned  again  in  the  writings  of  the 
New  Testament.  The  account  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  is  the  sole  authoritative  report  that  we  have 
about  him.  The  statements  of  the  writers  of  the  sec- 
ond century  concerning  him  are  largely  legendary,  and 
it  is  difficult  or  rather  impossible  to  extract  from  them 
any  historical  fact  the  details  of  which  are  established 
with  certainty.  St.  Justin  of  Rome  ("First  Apolog. ", 
xxvi,  Ivi;  "Dialogus  c.  Tryphonem ",  cxx)  describes 
Simon  as  a  man  who,  at  the  instigation  of  demons, 
claimed  to  be  a  god.  Justin  says  further  that  Simon 
came  to  Rome  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Clau- 
dius and  by  his  magic  arts  won  many  followers  so 
that  these  erected  on  the  island  in  the  Tiber  a  statue 
to  him  as  a  divinity  with  the  inscription  "Simon  the 
Holy  God".  The  statue,  however,  that  Justin  took 
for  one  dedicated  to  Simon  was  undoubtedly  one 
of  the  old  Sabine  divinity  Semo  Sancus.    Statues  of 


SIMON 


798 


SIMON 


this  early  god  with  similar  inscriptions  have  been 
found  on  the  island  in  the  Tiber  and  elsewhere  in 
Rome.  It  is  plain  that  the  interchange  of  c  and  i  in 
the  Roman  characters  led  Justin,  or  the  Roman  Chris- 
tians before  him,  to  look  upon  tne  statue  of  the  early 
Sabine  deity,  of  whom  they  knew  nothing,  as  a 
statue  of  the  magician.  Whether  Justin's  opinion 
that  Simon  Magus  came  to  Rome  rests  only  on  the 
fact  t  liat  he  beheved  Roman  followers  had  erected  this 
statue  to  him,  or  whether  he  had  other  information  on 
this  point,  caimot  now  be  positively  determined.  His 
testimony  cannot,  therefore,  be  verified  and  so  re- 
mains doubtful.  The  later  anti-heretical  writers  who 
report  Simon's  residence  at  Rome,  take  Justin  and  the 
apocryphal  Acts  of  Peter  as  their  authority,  so  that 
their  "testimony  is  of  no  value.  Simon  brought  with 
with  him,  so  Justin  and  other  authorities  state,  a  par- 
amour from  Tj're  called  Helena.  He  claimed  that  she 
was  the  first  conception  {twoia.)  whom  he,  as  the 
"great  power  of  God",  had  freed  from  bondage. 

Simon  plays  an  important  part  in  the  "Pseudo- 
Clementines".  He  appears  here  as  the  chief  antag- 
onist of  the  Apostle  Peter,  by  whom  he  is  everywhere 
followed  and  opposed.  The  alleged  magical  arts  of  the 
magician  and  Peter's  efforts  against  him  are  described 
in  a  way  that  is  absolutelj^  imaginary.  The  entire  ac- 
count lacks  all  historical  basis.  In  the  "Philoso- 
phumena"  of  Hippolytus  of  Rome  (vi,  vii-xx),  the 
doctrine  of  Simon  and  his  followers  is  treated  in  de- 
tail. The  work  also  relates  circumstantially  how  Si- 
mon laboured  at  Rome  and  won  many  by  his  magic 
arts,  and  how  he  attacked  the  Apostles  Peter  and 
Paul  who  opposed  him.  According  to  this  account 
the  reputation  of  the  magician  was  greatly  injured  by 
the  efforts  of  the  two  Apostles  and  the  number  of  his 
followers  became  constantlj^  smaller.  He  conse- 
quently left  Rome  and  returned  to  his  home  at  Gitta. 
In  order  to  give  his  scholars  there  a  proof  of  his  higher 
nature  and  divine  mission  and  thus  regain  his  au- 
thority, he  had  a  grave  dug  and  permitted  himself  to 
be  buried  in  it,  after  previously  prophesying  that  after 
three  days  he  would  rise  alive  from  it.  But  the 
promised  resurrection  did  not  take  place ;  Simon  died 
in  the  grave.  The  apocryphal  Acts  of  St.  Peter  give 
an  entirely  different  account  of  Simon's  conduct  at 
Rome  and  of  his  death  (Lipsius,  "Die  apokryphen 
Apostelgeschichten  und  Apostellegenden",  II,  Pt.  I 
(Brunswick,  1S87).  In  this  work  also  great  stress  is 
laid  upon  the  struggle  between  Simon  and  the  two 
Apostles  Peter  and  Paul  at  Rome.  By  his  magic  arts 
Simon  harl  also  sought  to  win  the  Emperor  Nero  for 
himself,  an  attempt  in  which  he  had  been  thwarted  by 
the  Apostles.  As  proof  of  the  truth  of  his  doctrines 
Simon  offered  to  ascend  into  the  heavens  before  the 
eyes  of  Nero  and  the  Roman  populace;  by  magic  he 
did  rise  in  the  air  in  the  Roman  Forum,  but  the  pray- 
ers of  the  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul  caused  him  to  fall, 
so  that  he  was  severely  injured  and  shortly  afterwards 
died  miserably.  Amobius  reports  this  alleged  at- 
tempt to  fly  and  the  death  of  Simon  with  still  other 
particulars  ("Adv.  nationes",  ii,  xii;  cf.  "Constit. 
Apost.",  vi,  ix).  This  legend  led  later  to  the  erec^tion 
of  a  church  dedicated  to  the  Apostles  on  the  alleged 
fepot  of  Simon's  fall  near  the  Via  Sacra  above  the 
Forum.  The  stones  of  the  pavement  on  which  the 
Apostles  knelt  in  prayer  and  which  are  said  to  contain 
the  impression  of  their  knees,  arc  now  in  the  wall  of 
the  Church  of  Santa  Franc(!sca  Romana. 

All  these  narratives  belong  naturally  to  the  do- 
main of  legend.  It  is  evident  from  them,  however, 
that,  according  to  the  tradition  of  the  second  century, 
Simon  Magus  appeared  as  an  opponent  of  Christian 
doctrine  and  of  the  Apostles,  and  as  a  heretic  or  rather 
as  a  false  Messias  of  the  Apostolic  age.  This  view 
rests  on  the  sole  authoritative  historical  account  of 
him,  that  given  us  by  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  It 
cannot  be  determined  how  far  one  or  another  detail 


of  his  later  life,  as  given  in  essentially  legendary  form 
in  the  authorities  of  the  second  century  and  the  fol- 
lowing era,  may  be  traced  to  historical  tradition. 
Baur  ("Die  christl.  Gnosis",  310)  and  some  of  his  ad- 
herents have  denied  the  historical  existence  of  Simon 
and  his  sect.  This  view,  opposed  to  the  account  in 
the  Book  of  Acts,  and  to  the  tradition  of  the  second 
century,  is  now  abandoned  by  all  serious  historians. 
Further  this  "legendary"  Simon  was  made  an  essen- 
tial hnk  by  the  Tubingen  School  of  Baur  and  his  fol- 
lowers for  historical  evidence  of  the  alleged  "Pe- 
trine"  and  "PauUne"  factions  in  the  early  Church, 
which  had  fought  with  one  another  and  from  whose 
union  the  CathoUc  Church  arose.  For  the  same  rea- 
sons this  school,  especially  Lipsius,  assigns  the  labours 
of  St.  Peter  at  Rome,  which  it  claims  are  first  made 
known  by  these  apocryphal  writings,  to  the  domain 
of  legend.  All  these  theories,  however,  are  without 
basis  and  have  been  abandoned  by  serious  historical 
scholars,  even  among  non-Cathohcs  (cf.  Schmidt, 
"Petrus  in  Rom",  Lucerne,  1892).  A  developed  sys- 
tem of  doctrines  is  attributed  to  Simon  and  his  fol- 
lowers in  the  anti-heretical  writings  of  the  early 
Church,  especially  in  Irenaeus  ("Adv.  hair.",  I,  xxiii; 
IV;  VI,  xxxiii),  in  the  "  Philosophumena "  (VI,  VII 
sq.),  and  in  Epiphanius  ("Haer. ",  XXII).  The  work 
"The  Great  Declaration"  ('An-60acrij  fxeyaX-^)  was  also 
ascribed  to  Simon,  and  the  "Pseudo-Clementines" 
also  present  his  teaching  in  detail.  How  much  of  this 
system  actually  belonged  to  Simon  cannot  now  be  de- 
termined. Still  his  doctrine  seems  to  have  been  a 
heathen  Gnosticism,  in  which  he  proclaimed  himself 
as  the  Standing  One  (^o-rcos),  the  principal  emanation 
of  the  Deity  and  the  Redeemer.  According  to  Iren- 
aeus he  claimed  to  have  appeared  in  Samaria  as  the 
Father,  in  Judea  as  the  Son,  and  among  the  heathen 
as  the  Holy  Ghost,  a  manifestation  of  the  Eternal. 
He  asserted  that  Helena,  who  went  about  with  him, 
was  the  first  conception  of  the  Deity,  the  mother  of 
all,  by  whom  the  Deity  had  created  the  angels  and  the 
aeons.  The  cosmic  forces  had  cast  her  into  corporeal 
bonds,  from  which  she  was  released  by  Simon  as  the 
great  power.  In  morals  Simon  was  probably  Anti- 
nomian,  an  enemy  of  Old  Testament  law.  His  magi- 
cal arts  were  continued  by  his  disciples;  these  led 
unbridled,  hcentious  lives,  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  which  they  had  learned  from  their  master. 
At  any  rate  they  called  themselves  Simonians,  giving 
Simon  Magus  as  their  founder. 

EusEBiDS,  Church  Hist.,  II,  13;  HiLOENrELD,  Ketzergeschichte 
des  Urchrisfenlums  (LeipziK,  1884);  Hagemann,  Die  romische 
Kirche  (Freiburg,  1864),  655  sqq.;  Langen,  Die  Cletncnsromane; 
ihre  Entstehung  u.  ihre  Tendenzen  (Gotha,  1890);  Waitz,  Die 
Pneudo-Klemenlinen  (Leipzig,  1904);  Lugano,  Le  memorie 
leggendarie  di  Simone  Mago  e  della  sua  volata  in  "  Nuovo  Bull,  di 
arch,  crisl."  (1900),  29-66;  Savio,  S.  Giustino  martire  e  I'apo- 
teosi  del  Simone  Mago  in  Roma  in  Civiltd  cattolica  (1910),  IV, 
632  sq.,  673  sq.;  Prafcke,  Leben  u.  Lehre  Simons  des  Magiera 
nach  den  pseudo-klementinischen  Homilien  (Ratzeburg,  1895); 
Redlich,  Die  simonianische  Schrift  'Awoi^oo-is  /xeyaA^  in  Arch.  f. 
Gesch.  der  Philosophie  (1910),  374  sq.;  Weber,  Hist,  of  Simony  in 
the  Christian  Church  (Baltimore,  1909);  Salmon  in  Diet.  Christ. 
Biog.,  8.V.  Simon  (1)  Magus. 

J.   P.   KiRSCH. 

Simon  of  Cascia  (Stmeone  Fidati),  Blessed, 
Italian  preacher  and  ascetical  writer,  b.  at  Cascia,  Italy; 
d.  at  Florence,  2  l<\'bruary,  1348.  At  an  early  age  he 
entered  the  Order  of  Augusiinian  Hermits,  where  he 
became  distinguished  for  learning  and  as  a  model  of 
every  monastic  virtue,  lie  displayed  great  ability  as 
a  preacher,  and  his  sermons  at  Perugia,  liologna, 
Siena,  and  Florence  bore  muf^li  fruit.  He  was  esi)e- 
cially  successful  in  his  work  among  fallen  women, 
making  many  conversions  and  founding  for  them  a 
house  of  penance.  He  also  established  at  Florence  a 
convent  of  women  under  the  Augustinian  rule.  He 
was  beatified  by  Gregory  XVI  in  1833.  He  wrote 
"  De  gestis  Christi",  a  history  of  the  Gospels  in  fifteen 
books  wherein  the  mystical  sense  of  the  sacred  narra- 


SIMON 


799 


SIMON 


tive  is  simply  but  learnedly  set  forth.  The  work  was 
published  at  Basle  (1517),  Cologne  (1533,  1540),  and 
Ratisbon  (1733).  He  is  likewise  the  author  of  an 
"  Expositio  super  evangelia  "  (Venice,  1486;  Florence, 
1496),  of  a  work  in  Italian  on  the  evils  existing  among 
the  clergy  (Milan,  1521;  Turin,  1779),  and  a  treatise 
"De  beata  Virgine"  (Basle,  1517).  Unpublished 
works  of  his  are  "De  doctrina  Christiana";  "De  vita 
Christiana";  "De  cognitione  peccati";  "Expositio 
symboli";  "De  speculo  crucis";  "De  conflictu 
christiano". 

HURTER.  Nomenclalor.  BLANCHE    M.    KeLLY. 

Simon  of  Cramaud,  cardinal,  b.  near  Rochechou- 
art  in  the  Diocese  of  Limoges  before  1360;  d.  at  Poi- 
tiers 14  Dec,  1422.  He  studied  law  at  Orleans  and 
later  enjoyed  an  excellent  reputation  as  a  canonist. 
In  1382  he  became  Bishop  of  Agen,  was  transferred  to 
Beziers  in  1383,  and  to  Poitiers  in  1385.  He  never 
occupied  the  See  of  Sens  to  which  he  was  named  in 
1390;  but  the  following  year  he  became  titular  Patri- 
arch of  Alexandria  and  Administrator  of  the  Diocese 
of  Avignon.  His  appointment  to  the  archiepisco- 
pal  See  of  Reims  (1409)  was  followed  by  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  cardinalate  in  1413,  and  from  that  date 
until  his  d(!ath  he  was  Administrator  of  the  Diocese 
of  Poitiers.  A  very  prominent  figure  in  the  Great 
Schism,  he  resolutely  championed  the  cause  of  Clem- 
ent VII,  but  was  a  decided  opponent  of  his  successor, 
Benedict  XIII.  In  diplomatic  missions  and  at  na- 
tional synods  he  agitated  in  favour  of  the  withdrawal 
from  the  latter's  obedience.  As  a  president  of  the 
Council  of  Pisa  in  1409  he  proclaimed  the  deposition  of 
both  Gregory'  XII  and  Benedict  XIII,  and  secured  the 
election  of  Alexander  V.  At  the  Council  of  Constance 
an  extraordinary  form  of  papal  election,  which  granted 
a  vote  to  certain  national  delegates  along  with  the 
cardinals,  was  carried  largely  through  his  efforts. 
In  his  writings,  still  widely  scattered  and  to  a  great 
extent  unedited,  he  so  exaggerates  the  authority 
of  the  civil  power  to  the  detriment  of  the  spiritual 
rights  of  the  Ajiostolic  See  that  some  of  liis  \i('ws  are 
really  schismat  ical.  1  le  has  been  right  ly  culled  a  pre- 
cursor of  both  theological  and  pohtical  Gallicanism. 

Salembier  in  Diet.  Thiol.  Cath.,  Ill  (Paris,  1908),  s.  v. 
Cramaud  I  Idem,  The  Great  Schism  of  the  West  (New  York,  1907), 
157,  passim. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Simon  of  Cremona,  a  theological  writer  and  cele- 
brated preacher  belonging  to  the  Order  of  St.  Au- 
gustine, date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  at  Padua,  1390. 
He  flourished  in  the  second  half  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, and  the  field  of  his  labours  was  Northern  Italy, 
especially  the  Venetian  territory.  Excerjjts  from  his 
sermons  were  published  under  the  title  "Postilla 
super  Evangeliis  et  Epistolis  Omnium  Dominicarum" 
(Reutlingen,  1484).  He  left  several  works  in  manu- 
script, among  which  may  be  mentioned  "In  Quatuor 
Libros  Sententiarum",  "Qua^stiones  de  indulgentia 
Portiuncula;",  and  "Qua>stiones  de  sanguine  Christi". 

OasiNGER,  Bibl.  August.  (Ingolstadt,  1768),  27,'j  sqq. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Simon  of  Sudbury,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  b. 
at  Sudbury,  Suffolk,  England,  of  middle-class  parents, 
date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  at  London,  14  June,  1381. 
After  taking  a  degree  in  law  at  Paris,  he  proceeded 
to  Rome,  became  chaj)lain  to  Innocent  VI,  and  was 
sent  to  England  as  nun(;io  to  Edward  III  in  1356.  In 
1361  Sudbury  was  made  Bishop  of  London,  after 
being  chancellor  of  Sali-sbury.  He  was  busy  with 
John  of  Gaunt  over  negotiations  with  France  in 
1372-73,  and  while  complaints  were  made  that  his 
cathedral  in  London  was  neglected,  the  bishop  en- 
riched his  native  town  by  building  and  endowing  a 
collegiate  church  on  the  site  of  his  father's  old  house. 
Sudbury  succeeded  Langham  as  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  1375,  and  his  friendship  with  John  of  Gaunt 


and  the  Lancastrian  party  at  once  brought  him  into 
opposition  with  Courtenay,  Bishop  of  London,  and 
William  of  Wykeham,  Bishop  of  Winchester.  Sud- 
bury was  an  amiable  but  not  a  strong  man,  and  John 
of  Gaunt's  support  of  Wyclif  made  the  archbishop 
reluctant  to  proceed  against  the  latter.  Courte- 
nay's  pressure  forced  Wyclif  to  be  summoned  before 
the  bishops  in  1377,  but  Wyclif,  who  had  not  yet 
incurred  a  formal  charge  of  heresy,  had  Lancas- 
ter and  the  influence  of  the  court  at  his  back,  and 
escaped  condemnation.  Archbishop  Sudbury  be- 
came lord  chancellor  in  1380,  on  the  resignation 
of  Scrope,  and  this  acceptance  of  office  cost  him 
his  life  a  year  later  at  the  great  uprising  of  the 
peasants. 

On  11  June,  1381,  the  archbishop  was  with  Richard 
II  and  his  ministers  in  the  Tower  of  London,  when 
the  peasants  marched  on  the  capital.  On  14  June, 
while  Richard  was  holding  conference  with  Wat 
Tyler  at  Mile  End,  and  agreeing  to  the  demands  of 
the  peasants,  a  crowd  invaded  the  Tower  crying 
"Where  is  the  traitor  to  the  kingdom?  Where  is 
the  spoiler  of  the  commons?"  "Neither  a  traitor, 
nor  despoiler  am  I,  but  thy  archbishop",  came  the 
reply.  In  vain  the  archbishop  warned  the  mob  that 
heavy  punishment  would  follow  his  death;  the  hatred 
of  the  people  against  all  whom  they  judged  responsible 
for  the  poll-tax  left  no  room  in  their  hearts  for  mercy. 
The  archbishop  was  dragged  from  his  chamber  to 
Tower  Hill,  and  there  with  many  blows  his  head  was 
struck  off — to  be  placed  on  London  Bridge,  according 
to  the  savage  custom  of  the  time.  A  few  days  later, 
when  the  rising  was  over,  the  head  was  taken  down, 
and,  with  the  archbishop's  body,  removed  to  Canter- 
bury for  burial.  It  was  said  that  Sudbury,  when 
Bishop  of  London,  had  discouraged  pilgrimages  to 
the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas  at  Canterbury;  he  was 
known  to  be  the  friend  of  John  of  Lancaster,  and  he 
had  imprisoned  John  Ball,  the  peasant  leader,  as  his 
predecessors  had  done,  at  Maidstone.  But  the  fact 
that  he  was  chancellor  was  the  real  cause  of  Sudbury's 
violent  death.  Nevertheless,  there  were  many 
who  loved  the  mild  and  gentle  archbishop,  and  who 
counted  him  a  martyr. 

Rymkr,  Fcedera;  Knighton,  Chronicon  AnglicB.ed.  Thompson; 
WAL.SINGHAM,  IHst.  Anglicana;  Higden,  Polychronicon;  all  in 
Rolls  Series.     FroissaRT,  Stubbs'  Constitutional  History. 

Joseph  Clayton. 

Simon  of  Tournai,  professor  in  the  University  of 
Paris  at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
dates  of  birth  and  death  unknown.  He  was  teaching 
before  1184,  as  he  signed  a  document  at  the  same 
time  as  Gerard  de  Pucelle,  who  died  in  that  year 
Bi.shop  of  Coventry.  The  chroniclers  of  the  period, 
however  they  differ  on  other  points,  are  unanimous 
in  i)roclaiming  Simon's  brilliancy  in  philosophy, 
which  subject  he  taught  for  ten  years.  Later  he 
lectured  on  theology  with  equal  success.  In  his 
lectures  he  utilized  the  many  works,  including  Aris- 
totle's philosophical  writings,  which  were  being  made 
known  by  the  labours  of  the  Arab  translators. 
Simon's  teachings  aroused  suspicion  as  early  as  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century.  His  enemies  were, 
probably,  the  opponents  of  the  new  philosophy; 
the  accounts  given  by  Thomas  de  Cantimpr^,  Mat- 
thew Paris,  and  Giraldus  Cambrensis  before  them, 
though  differing  considerably  as  -"o  details,  agree  at 
least  in  saying  that  Simon  was  struck  dumb  as  a 
punishment  for  his  blasphemy  or  his  heretical  asser- 
tions regarding  the  truths  of  the  Christian  faith.  It 
would  be  difficult  now  to  determine  whether  in  pri- 
vate conversation  he  made  statements  that  are  not 
contained  in  his  works;  the  latter,  however,  of  which 
but  few  have  been  printed,  are  orthodox.  They 
consist  chiefly  of  a  "Summa  theologica"  or  "Senten- 
tiae",  various  "Quastiones",  "Sermons",  and  the 
"Expositio  in  symbolum  s.  Athanasii"  printed  in  the 


SIMON 


800 


SIMON 


"Bibliotheca  Casinensis",  IV  (Rome,  1880),  322-46. 
The  work  entitled  "De  tribua  impostoribus "  was  not 
written  by  Simon.  A  letter  of  Stephen  of  Tournai, 
earUer  than  1192,  speaks  in  verj'  flattering  terms  of  a 
Simon,  who  is  probably  to  be  identified  with  the 
subject  of  this  article. 

Hist.  Litter,  de  la  France,  XVI,  388-94;  Denifle  and  Chate- 
LAiN,  Chartularim  Unirers.  Paris,  I,  45,  71;  Haur^au,  Histoire  de 
la  philosophie  scolastique  (Paris,  1880),  58-62;  Notices  el  eilraits 
des  manuscrUs  de  la  Bibl.  Sal.,  XXXI,  pt.  II,  293-300;  Notices 
et  extrails  de  quelqueti  mamiscrits  (Paris,  1891),  III,  250-59; 
Ueberweg-Hein'ze,  Grundriss  der  Geschichle  der  Philosophie 
(Berlin,  1905),  II,  211,  277,  etc.;  de  Wulf,  Histoire  de  la  phil- 
osophie scolastique  .  .  .  dans  les  Pays  Bas  (Brussels,  1895),  39, 
etc.;  Histoire  de  la  Philosophie  en  Belgique  (Brxissels,  1910),  56-57. 
J.    DE    GhELLINCK. 

Simon  Stock,  Saint,  b.  in  the  County  of  Kent, 
England,  about  1165;  d.  in  the  Carmehte  monastery 
at  Bordeau.x,  France,  16  May,  1265.  On  account 
of  his  English  birth  he  is  also  called  Simon  Anglus. 
It  is  said  that  when  twelve  years  old  he  began  to 
live  as  a  hermit  in  the  hollow  trunk  of  an  oak,  and 
later  to  have  become  an  itinerant  preacher  until  he 
entered  the  Carmelite  Order  which  had  just  come  to 
England.  According  to  the  same  tradition  he  went 
as  a  Carmelite  to  Rome,  and  from  there  to  Mt. 
Carmel,  where  he  spent  several  years.  All  that  is 
historicallj'  certain  is  that  in  1247  he  was  elected 
the  si-xth  general  of  the  Carmelites,  as  successor  to 
Alan,  at  the  first  chapter  held  at  Aylesford,  England. 
Notwithstanding  his  great  age  he  showed  remarkable 
energy  as  general  and  did  much  for  the  benefit  of 
the  order,  so  that  he  is  justly  regarded  as  the  most 
celebrated  of  its  generals.  During  his  occupancy 
of  the  office  the  order  became  widely  spread  in  south- 
em  and  western  Europe,  especially  in  England; 
above  all,  he  was  able  to  found  houses  in  the  university 
cities  of  that  era,  as  in  1248  at  Cambridge,  in  1253 
at  Oxford,  in  1260  at  Paris  and  Bologna.  This  ac- 
tion was  of  the  greatest  importance  both  for  the 
growi:h  of  the  institution  and  for  the  training  of  its 
younger  members.  Simon  was  also  able  to  gain 
at  least  the  temporary  approbation  of  Innocent  IV, 
for  the  altered  rule  of  the  order  which  had  been 
adapted  to  European  conditions.  Nevertheless  the 
order  was  greatly  oppressed,  and  it  was  still  struggling 
everywhere  to  secure  admission,  either  to  obtain 
the  consent  of  the  secular  clergy,  or  the  toleration 
of  the  other  orders.  In  these  difficulties,  as  Guilelmus 
de  Sanvico  (shortly  after  1291)  relates,  the  monks 
prayed  to  their  patroness  the  Blessed  \'irgin.  "And 
the  Virgin  f  lary  revealed  to  their  prior  that  they  were 
to  apply  fearlessly  to  Pope  Innocent,  for  they  would 
receive  from  him  an  effective  remedy  for  these  dif- 
ficulties". (Cf.  "Speculum  Carmel.",  I,  101  sqq.; 
Zimmermann,  325;  "Biblioth.  Carmelit.",  I,  609). 
The  prior  followed  the  counsel  of  the  Virgin,  and  the 
order  received  a  Bull  or  letter  of  protection  from  In- 
nocent IV  against  these  molestations.  It  is  an  his- 
torical fact  that  Innocent  IV  issued  this  papal 
letter  for  the  Carmelites  under  date  of  13  January, 
12.52,  at  Perugia  ("Registr.  Innoc.  IV",  ed.  Berger, 
III,  24,  n.  5563). 

Later  Carmelite  writers  give  more  details  of  such 


a  vision  and  revelation.  Johannes  Grossi  wrote 
his  "  Viridarium"  about  1430,  and  he  relates  that  the 
Mother  of  God  aj^pearcd  to  Simon  Stock  with  the 
scapular  of  the  order  in  hor  hand.  This  scapular 
she  gave  him  with  the  words:  "Hoc  erit  tibi  ct 
cunctis  Carmelitis  privilegium,  in  hoc  habitu  morions 
salvabitur"  (This  siiall  be  the  privilege  for  you 
and  for  all  Carmelites,  that  anyone  dying  in  this 
habit  shall  be  saved).  On  account  of  this  great  priv- 
ilege many  distinguished  Englishmen,  such  as  King 
Edward  II,  Henry,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  and  many 
others  of  the  nobility  secretly  wore  {clajti  porlaverunt) 
the  Carmelite  scapular  under  their  clothing  and  died 
with  it  on  ("Specul.  Carmelit.",  I,  139;  Zimmermann, 
340).  In  Grossi's  narrative,  however,  the  scapular 
of  the  order  must  be  taken  to  mean  the  habit  of  the 
Carmehtes  and  not  as  the  small  Carmelite  scapular. 
As  was  the  custom  in  medieval  times  among  the  other 
orders,  the  Carmelites  gave  their  habit  or  at  least 
their  scapular  to  their  benefactors  and  friends  of 
high  rank,  that  these  might  have  a  share  in  the 
privilege  apparently  connected  with  their  habit  or 
scapular  by  the  Blessed  Virgin.  It  is  possible  that 
the  Carmelites  themselves  at  that  period  wore  their 
scapular  at  night  in  a  smaller  form  just  as  they  did 
at  a  later  date  and  at  the  present  time:  namely,  in 
about  the  form  of  the  scapular  for  the  present  third 
order.  If  this  is  so  they  could  give  laymen  their 
scapular  in  this  form.  At  a  later  date,  probably  not 
until  the  sixteenth  century,  instead  of  the  scapular 
of  the  order  the  small  scapular  was  given  as  token 
of  the  scapular  brotherhood  (cf.  Zimmermann,  351 
sq.;  Wessels,  "Analecta  Ord.  Carmel."  (1911),  119 
sqq.).  To-day  the  brotherhood  regards  this  as  its 
chief  privilege,  and  one  it  owes  to  St.  Simon  Stock, 
that  anyone  who  dies  wearing  the  scapular  is  not 
eternally  lost.  In  this  way  the  chief  privilege  and 
entire  history  of  the  little  Carmelite  scapular  is 
connected  with  the  name  of  St.  Simon  Stock.  There 
is  no  difficulty  in  granting  that  Gro.s.si's  narrar 
tive,  related  above,  and  the  Carmelite  tradition  are 
worthy  of  belief,  even  though  they  have  not  the 
full  value  of  historical  proof  (see  Scapular).  That 
Simon  himself  was  distinguished  by  special  venera- 
tion of  and  love  for  the  Virgin  is  shown  by  the  anti- 
phonies  "Flos  Carmeli"  and  "Ave  Stella  Matutina", 
which  he  wrote,  and  which  have  been  adojited  in  the 
breviary  of  the  Calccd  Carmelites.  Besides  these 
antiphonics  other  works  have  been  incorrecitly  at- 
tributed to  him.  The  first  biographical  accounts  of 
Simon  belong  to  the  year  1430,  but  these  are  not 
entirely  reliable.  However,  he  was  not  at  this  time 
publicly  venerated  as  a  saint;  it  was  not  until  1435 
that  his  feast  was  put  in  the  choral  books  of  tlic  monas- 
tery at  Bordeaux.  It  was  introduced  l)ci^<)re  1458 
into  Ireland  and,  probably  at  the  same  time,  into 
England;  by  a  decree  of  the  General  Chapter  of 
1564  its  celebration  was  commanded  for  the  entire 
order. 

Acta  SS.,  May,  III,  653  sq.;  Zimmermann.  Monument,  hist. 
Carmel.,  I  (I/rihs,  1907),  313-22;  Sainte- Marie,  L'Ordre  de 
N.  n.  du  Mont-Carmel  (Bruges,  1910);  see  also  Carmelite 
Order,  and  Scapulab. 

JOSEPU   HiLGERS. 


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